1 Introduction to Automobile

Aerodynamics
Wolf-Heinrich Hucho
1.1 Scope
1.1.1 Basic Principles
1.1.2 Peculiarities of Vehicle Aerodynamics
1.1.3 Related Fields
1.2 History of Vehicle Aerodynamics
1.2.1 Survey
1.2.2 Borrowed Shapes
1.2.3 The Era of the Streamline
1.2.4 Parameter Studies
1.2.5 One-Volume Bodies
1.2.6 The Bathtub Body
1.2.7 Commercial Vehicles
1.2.8 Motorcycles
1.3 Present and Future Trends
1.3.1 State of the Art
1.3.2 Detail Optimization
1.3.3 Shape Optimization
1.3.4 Development Expenditure
1.4 Aerodynamics and Design
1.5 Notation
2 Some Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
Dietrich Hummel
2.1 Properties of Incompressible Fluids
2.1.1 Density
2.1.2 Viscosity
2.1.3 Thermal Conductivity
2.2 Flow Phenomena Related to Vehicles
2.2.1 External Flow
2.2.2 Internal Flow
2.3 External Flow Problems
2.3.1 Basic Equations for Inviscid
Incompressible Flow
2.3.2 Applications
2.3.3 Effects of Viscosity
2.3.3.1 Laminar and Turbulent
Boundary Layer
Development
2.3.3.2 Separation
2.3.3.3 Friction Drag
2.3.3.4 Pressure Drag
2.3.3.5 Overall Forces and
Moments
2.3.3.6 Thermal Boundary Layers
2.3.4 Special Problems
2.3.4.1 Aerodynamic Noise
2.3.4.2 Body to Body Interference
2.3.4.3 Transport of Solids
2.4 Internal Flow Problems
2.4.1 Basic Equations for Incompressible
Flow
2.4.2 Applications
2.4.2.1 Laminar and Turbulent
Pipe Flow
2.4.2.2 Curved Pipes
2.4.2.3 Inlets
2.4.2.4 Local Contractions
2.4.2.5 Cross-Section
Enlargement
2.5 Relations Between External and Internal Flow
2.6 Notation
3 Performance of Cars and Light Trucks
Hans-Joachim Emmelmann and
Wolf-Heinrich Hucho
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Resistances to Vehicle Motion
3.2.1 Equation of Motion
3.2.2 Analysis of Resistances to Motion
3.2.2.1 Aerodynamic Drag
3.2.2.2 Tire Rolling Resistance
3.2.2.3 Ratio of Aerodynamic
Drag to Tire Rolling
Resistance
Aerodynamics of
Road Vehicles
Fourth Edition
List of Chapters:
3.2.2.4 Climbing Resistance
3.2.2.5 Vehicle Mass
3.3 Performance
3.3.1 Traction Diagram
3.3.2 Maximum Speed
3.3.3 Acceleration Time and Elasticity
3.4 Fuel Consumption, Fuel Economy
3.4.1 Defnitions
3.4.2 Analysis of Fuel Consumption
3.4.3 Gear-Ratio Matching
3.4.4 Driving Schedules
3.4.4.1 EPA Urban and Highway
Cycle
3.4.4.2 Present European Driving
Cycle
3.4.4.3 New European Driving
Cycle, and Others
3.5 Strategy for Lowest Fuel Consumption
3.6 Fuel Consumption of Light Trucks
3.7 Outlook
3.8 Notation
4 Aerodynamic Drag of Passenger Cars
Wolf-Heinrich Hucho
4.1 The Passenger Car as a Bluff Body
4.2 Flow Field Around a Car
4.3 Analysis of Drag
4.3.1 Possible Approaches
4.3.2 Physical Mechanisms
4.3.3 Local Origins
4.3.4 Effect on the Environment
4.3.5 Drag and Lift
4.4 Drag Fractions and Their Local Origins
4.4.1 Method of Observation
4.4.2 Front End
4.4.3 Windshield and A-Pillar
4.4.4 Roof
4.4.5 Rear End
4.4.5.1 Geometry and Flow
Separation
4.4.5.2 Boat-Tailing
4.4.5.3 Fastback
4.4.5.4 Notchback
4.4.6 Plan View and Side Panels
4.4.7 Underbody
4.4.8 Wheels and Wheel Housings
4.4.9 Front Spoiler
4.4.10 Rear Spoiler
4.4.11 Attachments
4.4.12 Drag from Flow Through a Car
4.4.13 Car with Trailer
4.4.14 Convoy Driving
4.5 Strategies for Body Shape Development
4.5.1 Objectives
4.5.2 Detail Optimization
4.5.3 Shape Optimization
4.5.4 Facelift
4.5.5 Adaptation of Attachments
4.5.6 Forecasting Systems and Expert
Systems
4.6 Drag of Passenger Cars in Production
4.6.1 Evaluation of Test Results
4.6.2 Vehicle Features
4.6.3 Vehicle Position, Side Wind
4.6.4 Drag Coeffcients of Production Cars
4.7 Research
4.7.1 Objectives
4.7.2 Basic Bodies
4.7.3 Unconventional Measures
4.7.4 Concept Vehicles
4.7.5 Record Vehicles
4.8 Notation
5 Directional Stability
Alfons Gilhaus and Ralf Hoffmann
5.1 Introduction
5.2 History of Directional Stability
5.3 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments
5.3.1 Development
5.3.2 Aerodynamic Stability
5.3.3 Non-Stationary Forces and Moments
5.4 Aerodynamics and Driving Behavior
5.4.1 Lift Force in Straight-Ahead Driving
5.4.2 Cornering
5.4.3 Power On/Off Reaction
5.4.4 Infuence of the Aerodynamic Forces
on Braking Performance
5.4.5 Driving Behavior in Crosswinds
5.4.5.1 Natural Wind and
Crosswind
5.4.5.2 Side Wind Reactions
5.4.6 Pass-By Maneuvers
5.4.7 Driving with Trailer
5.5 Infuence of Vehicle Shape on Aerodynamic
Forces and Moments
5.5.1 Aerodynamic Properties of the Basic
Shapes
5.5.1.1 Lift and Pitching Moment
5.5.1.2 Side Force and Yawing
Moment
Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles
5.5.1.3 Rolling Moment
5.5.1.4 Comparison of the Key
Basic Shapes
5.5.2 Aerodynamic Effects of the Features
of Actual Vehicles
5.5.2.1 Cooling Airfow
5.5.2.2 Gaps and Openings
5.5.2.3 Exterior Rearview Mirrors
5.5.2.4 Wheels, Tires, and
Underbody
5.5.3 Roof Loads
5.6 Test and Evaluation Methods
5.6.1 Wind Tunnel Tests
5.6.2 Road Tests
5.6.3 Computation of Vehicle Dynamics
5.6.4 Driving Simulator
5.7 Notation
6 Function, Safety and Comfort
Raimund Piatek and Johannes Schmitt
6.1 Differentiated View
6.2 The Flow Field Around a Vehicle
6.3 Inlets and Outlets
6.3.1 Cooling Ducts
6.3.2 Air Inlets and Outlets to the Cabin
6.4 Forces on Bodywork Components
6.4.1 Components with Attached Flow
6.4.2 Components with Separated Flow
6.4.3 Components with Periodic Flow
6.5 Function of Individual Components
6.5.1 External Mirrors
6.5.2 Windshield Wipers
6.5.3 Sunroofs
6.5.4 Convertibles
6.6 Water and Dirt Accumulation on Vehicles
6.6.1 Safety and Aesthetics
6.6.2 Water Flow
6.6.3 Dirt Deposits
6.7 Reducing Splash and Spray
6.7.1 Obstruction to Visibility
6.7.2 Measuring Impaired Visibility
6.7.3 Measures to Reduce Spray
Formation
6.8 Notation
7 Wind Noise
John R. Callister and Albert R. George
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Mechanisms of Noise Generation and
Transmission
7.2.1 Source-Path-Receiver
7.2.2 Idealized Models of Acoustic
Sources
7.2.3 Physical Wind Noise Source Types
7.2.3.1 Leak Noise
7.2.3.2 Cavity Noise
7.2.3.3 Wind Rush Noise
7.2.4 Airfow Velocity Effect on Wind Noise
Levels
7.3 Design Features
7.3.1 A-Pillar
7.3.2 Outside Rearview Mirrors
7.3.3 Windshield Wipers
7.3.4 Radio Antenna
7.3.5 Roof Racks
7.3.6 Doors
7.3.7 Side Window Systems
7.3.8 Fixed Windows
7.3.9 Hatch Roofs
7.4 Wind Noise Measurement and Testing
Techniques
7.4.1 Wind Tunnel versus On-Road
Measurements
7.4.2 Wind Tunnel Considerations
7.4.2.1 Wind Tunnel Background
Noise
7.4.2.2 Simulation of Crosswinds
and Gusts in the Wind
Tunnel
7.4.3 On-Road Measurement Procedures
7.4.4 Importance of Narrow Band Spectra
for Wind Noise Measurements
7.4.5 Overview of Measurement of Interior
Wind Noise
7.4.5.1 Use of Artifcial Head
Device for Subjective
Evaluation
7.4.5.2 Source Identifcation and
Localization
7.4.6 Overview of Exterior Wind Noise
Measurements
7.4.6.1 Microphone Nose Cones
7.4.6.2 Sound Intensity and
Microphone Array
Methods
Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles
7.5 Buffeting of Open Windows, Open Sunroofs,
and Convertibles
7.5.1 Side Windows
7.5.2 Sunroofs
7.5.3 Convertibles
7.6 Manufacturing Concerns
7.6.1 Process
7.6.2 Inspection
7.6.2.1 Leak Detection Using a
Smoke Generator
7.6.2.2 Ultrasonic Leak Detector
7.6.2.3 Simple, Quick Inspection
Techniques
7.6.3 Feedback to the Design Organization
7.7 Notation
8 High-Performance Vehicles
Helmut Flegl and Norbert Singer
8.1 Defnitions
8.2 Some Historical Milestones
8.3 The Meaning of Aerodynamics for High-
Performance Cars
8.3.1 Drag and Lift
8.3.2 Handling
8.3.2.1 Driving Tests
8.3.2.2 Angle of Attack and
Yawed Airfow
8.3.2.3 Slipstreaming
8.3.2.4 Theoretical Investigations
8.3.3 Cooling and Ventilation
8.4 Design Alternatives
8.4.1 Drag and Lift
8.4.1.1 Infuence of the Basic
Vehicle Confguration
8.4.1.2 Wings
8.4.1.3 Ground Effect
8.4.1.4 Special Body
Confgurations,
Monoposti
8.4.2 Handling
8.4.3 Cooling and Ventilation
8.5 Special Problems
8.5.1 Lap Time and Fuel Economy
8.5.2 Near-Sonic Speeds
8.5.3 Uncovered Wheels
8.5.4 Rotating versus Stationary Wheels of
Monoposti
8.5.4.1 Road Version
8.5.4.2 High-Speed Version
8.5.5 Effect of Boundary Layer Variation on
Wind Tunnel Results
8.5.6 Development Methods and
Simulation Techniques
8.6 Trends in Future High-Performance Vehicle
Development
8.7 Notation
9 Commercial Vehicles
Hans Gtz and Gnter Mayr
9.1 Target Group
9.2 Tractive Resistance and Fuel Consumption
9.3 Drag Reduction and Fuel Consumption
9.4 Aerodynamic Drag Coeffcients of Various
Commercial Vehicles
9.4.1 Operation in Still Air
9.4.2 Drag as a Function of Yawing Angle
9.4.3 Wind InfuenceDefnition of Yawing
Angle
9.4.4 Characterization of Air Resistance in
Actual Operating Conditions
9.5 Reducing Aerodynamic Drag
9.5.1 Scope for Aerodynamic Changes on
Commercial Vehicles
9.5.2 Optimization in the Wind Tunnel
Problems with Reduced-Scale
Models
9.5.3 Drag Minimization on Trucks
9.5.3.1 Characteristic Flow and
Pressure Conditions
9.5.3.2 Partial Resistance
Interference Problem
9.5.3.3 Cab Shape
9.5.3.4 Drag-Reducing Add-On
Devices for Trucks
9.5.3.5 Full Trailer
9.5.3.6 Future Trends in Tractor-
Trailer Design
9.5.3.7 Reduction of
Aerodynamic Drag on
Truckaway Units
Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles
9.5.4 Minimizing Drag of Buses and
Delivery Vans
9.5.4.1 Boundary Conditions
9.5.4.2 Characteristic Flow
Conditions on Simple
Geometric Bodies
9.5.4.3 Optimization of the Front
End
9.5.4.4 Optimization of the Rear
End
9.5.4.5 Add-On Devices on the
Rear End
9.5.4.6 Future Bus Design Trends
9.6 Taking Advantage of Aerodynamic
Interference Effects
9.6.1 Driving in Convoy
9.6.2 Driving Through Tunnels
9.7 Vehicle Soiling
9.7.1 Foreign Soiling
9.7.2 Self-Soiling
9.7.2.1 Reduction of Soiling of
Bus Sides
9.7.2.2 Reduction of Bus Rear-
End Soiling
9.7.3 Reduction of Truck Soiling
9.7.4 Impingement of Spray on Following
Vehicles
9.7.4.1 New Approach to Solution
of Spray Mist Reduction
9.7.4.2 The Measuring System
9.8 Notation
10 Motorcycles
Bernward E. Bayer
10.1 One Year Before the Automobile
10.2 Summary of the Development of Motorcycle
Aerodynamics
10.2.1 History
10.2.2 Todays State-of-the-Art Technology
10.3 Riding Dynamics and its Relationship with
Aerodynamics
10.3.1 Performance Specifcations
10.3.2 Directional Stability
10.3.3 Crosswind Behavior
10.3.4 Pitch Effects
10.3.5 Cornering
10.4 Methods of Measurement in Road Tests
10.5 Wind Tunnel Results
10.5.1 Measurements on Solo Motorcycles
10.5.2 Rider Infuences
10.5.2.1 Rider and Pillion Passenger
10.5.2.2 Clothing and Helmets
10.5.3 Sidecars
10.6 Outlook
10.7 Notation
11 Engine Cooling
Wulf Sebbee, Peter Steinberg,
Norbert Deuen, and Dieter Schlenz
11.1 Task of a Cooling System
11.1.1 Functional Requirements
11.1.2 Requirements to be Satisfed by
Passive Characteristics
11.1.3 Development Potential of Cooling
System
11.2 Cooling Systems
11.2.1 Water Cooling
11.2.2 Air Cooling
11.2.3 Cooling with Component-
Temperature Control
11.2.4 Dual-Circuit Cooling System and
Warm-Up Concept
11.2.5 High-Temperature Cooling
11.2.6 Oil Cooling
11.2.7 Phase-Change Cooling
11.3 Methods of Computation
11.3.1 Principles of Heat Exchange
11.3.1.1 Heat Transfer and
Radiation
11.3.1.1.1 Heat Transfer
from Combustion
Gas to Components
Adjacent to
Combustion
Chamber
11.3.1.1.2 Heat Transfer
from Cylinder to
Coolant
11.3.1.1.3 Heat Transfer
at the Engine-Block
Wall
11.3.1.2 Heat Conduction in
Components
11.3.1.3 Computing Model and
Results of Simulation
Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles
11.3.2 Modular Methods for Cooling-
System Dimensioning
11.3.2.1 Procedural Concept
11.3.2.2 Coolant Circuit
11.3.2.3 Fan and Fan Clutch
11.3.2.4 Cooling Air System
11.3.2.5 Heat Balance at Engine
and Surface of Engine
11.3.2.6 Heat Balance at Radiator
11.3.2.7 Heat Flux Measurement
on an Engine
11.4 Flow Within the Engine Compartment
11.4.1 Cooling-Air System
11.4.1.1 Effect of Internal Airfow
on Vehicle Aerodynamics
11.4.1.2 Aerodynamics of Internal
Flow
11.4.1.3 Air Velocity Distribution in
the Radiator Plane
11.4.2 Radiator
11.4.3 Radiator Fan
11.4.3.1 Tasks of the Radiator Fan
11.4.3.2 Fan and Drive
11.4.3.3 Design Criteria and
Characteristics
11.4.3.3.1 Volumetric
Flow
11.4.3.3.2 Power
Requirement and
Effciency
11.4.3.3.3 Noise
Generation
11.4.3.3.4 Mass and
Space Requirement
11.5 Notation
12 Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning
of Passenger Cars
Holger Gromann
12.1 Defnition of Objectives: Comfort and Safety
12.2 Climate Physiology
12.2.1 Parameters Affecting the Occupants
12.2.2 Interior Temperature
12.2.3 Temperature Stratifcation
12.2.4 Air Speed
12.2.5 Inhomogeneous Airfow
12.2.6 Humidity
12.2.7 Solar Radiation
12.2.8 Comfort Model Devised by P.O.
Fanger
12.2.9 Climate Measuring Dummies
12.2.10 Heart Rates
12.3 Parameters Affecting the Climate Inside a Car
12.4 Airfow Through the Passenger Compartment
12.4.1 Intake and Outlet Vents
12.4.2 Airfow Defnition
12.4.3 Airfow Measuring Methods
12.4.4 Characteristic Curves
12.4.4.1 Fan Characteristics
12.4.4.2 Leakage Characteristics L
w
12.4.4.3 Outlet Characteristics A
w
12.4.4.4 Ventilation Characteristics
B
w
12.4.4.5 Ventilation Airfow
12.4.4.6 Ventilation Airfow with
Slide-Tilt Sunroof Open
12.4.5 Incoming Leakage Airfow
12.4.5.1 Signifcance of Incoming
Leakage Airfow
12.4.5.2 Determination of
Incoming Leakage Airfow
12.4.5.3 Examples
12.5 Heat Flow Through the Passenger
Compartment
12.5.1 Heat Transfer Through the Body
12.5.2 Interface Heater Core/Passenger
Compartment
12.5.2.1 Characteristics of the
Heater Core
12.5.2.2 Steady Interior
Temperature in Fresh-Air
Mode
12.5.2.3 Unsteady Interior
Temperature in Fresh-Air
Mode
12.5.2.4 Mean Interior Temperature
in Recirculating Mode
12.5.2.5 Engine with Low Fuel
Consumption
12.5.3 Interface Evaporator/Passenger
Compartment
12.5.3.1 Characteristics of
Evaporator
12.5.3.2 Mean Interior Temperature
in Fresh-Air Mode
12.5.3.3 Mean Interior Temperature
in Recirculating Mode
12.5.3.4 Interface Evaporator/
Refrigeration Cycle
12.5.3.5 Unsteady Cooling in
Recirculating Mode
Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles
12.5.4 Solar Radiation
12.5.4.1 Solar Radiation Through
the Windows
12.5.4.2 Heating Up a Parked Car
12.5.4.3 Solar-Cell Operated
Independent Ventilation
12.5.4.4 Heating Up While Vehicle
in Motion
12.6 Flow of Water Vapor and Dust
12.6.1 Water Vapor
12.6.2 Gas Concentration in the Passenger
Compartment
12.6.3 Defrosting and Defogging of
Windows
12.6.4 Filtering
12.7 Control Systems
12.7.1 Temperature Control of a Heating
System
12.7.2 Automatic Control of Evaporators
12.7.3 Automatic Control of Air Distribution
and Temperature
12.8 Heater and A/C Units in Production
12.8.1 Air-Side Controlled Heater
12.8.2 Water-Side Controlled Heater
12.8.3 Integrated AC Systems
12.9 Notation
13 Wind Tunnels
Wolf Heinrich Hucho
13.1 Scope
13.1.1 Requirements for a Vehicle Wind
Tunnel
13.1.2 Simulation of the Various Aspects of
On-Road Driving
13.2 Some Fundamentals of Wind Tunnel
Technique
13.2.1 Selection of References
13.2.2 Confguration Considerations
13.2.3 Properties of the Essential
Components
13.2.3.1 Planning a Test
13.2.3.2 Test Section
13.2.3.3 Nozzle
13.2.3.4 Determination of Wind
Speed
13.2.3.5 Plenum
13.2.3.6 Heat Exchanger and Sun
Load
13.2.4 Equipment
13.3 Limitations of Simulation
13.3.1 Systematic Errors
13.3.2 Representation of the Road
13.3.3 Wind Tunnel Corrections
13.3.3.1 Objectives
13.3.3.2 Closed Test Section
13.3.3.3 Open Test Section
13.3.3.4 Boundary Layer Effects
13.3.3.5 Yawed Model
13.3.3.6 Thermal Tests
13.4 Tests with Reduced-Scale Models
13.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages
13.4.2 Details of Model Construction and
Test Technique
13.4.3 Reynolds Number Effects
13.5 Existing Automobile Wind Tunnels
13.5.1 Classifcation of Test Facilities
13.5.2 Full-Scale Wind Tunnels
13.5.3 Wind Tunnels for Reduced-Scale
Models
13.5.4 Climatic Tunnels
13.5.5 Dynamometers with Fan
13.6 Comparative Measurements
13.7 Final Comments and Future Prospects
13.8 Notation
14 Measurement and Test Techniques
Grgn A. Necati and
Wigbert R. Kohl
14.1 Scope
14.2 Measuring Equipment and Transducers
14.2.1 Measurement of Aerodynamic
Forces and Moments
14.2.1.1 Wind Tunnel Balances
14.2.1.2 Resolution of
Aerodynamic Forces
and Moments into Their
Components
14.2.1.3 Measurement of the
Projected Frontal Area
14.2.2 Pressure Measurements
14.2.2.1 Pressure Probes
14.2.2.2 Pressure Transducers
14.2.3 Measurement of the Airfow Velocity
14.2.3.1 Determination of the
Airfow Velocity Outside
and Inside a Vehicle
14.2.3.2 Determination of the Test
Speed in a Wind Tunnel
14.2.3.3 Measurement of Flow
Direction
Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles
14.2.4 Temperature Measurement
14.2.4.1 Temperature Sensors
14.2.4.2 Typical Temperature
Measurement Errors
14.2.5 Test Data Collection and Data
Management
14.3 Wind Tunnel Testing Methods
14.3.1 Measurement of the Aerodynamic
Coeffcients
14.3.2 Airfow Management Tests
14.3.3 Measurement of the Airfow
Rate Through the Passenger
Compartment
14.3.3.1 Airfow Rate
Measurement by Means
of Extraction Curves
14.3.3.2 Alternative Methods of
Measuring Airfow Rate
Through the Passenger
Compartment
14.3.4 Passenger-Compartment Heating
and Air Conditioning Tests
14.3.5 Defrosting and Demisting Tests
14.3.6 Engine Cooling Tests in a Wind
Tunnel
14.3.7 Flow Visualization Techniques
14.3.8 Wind-Noise Measurement in a Wind
Tunnel
14.3.9 Water Basin versus Wind Tunnel
14.4 Road Testing Methods
14.4.1 Measurement of the Aerodynamic
Drag Force in a Coast-Down Test
14.4.2 Crosswind Tests
14.4.3 Engine Cooling Road Tests
14.4.4 Soil Deposits on Glass Surfaces and
Vehicle Body Areas
14.4.5 Wind Noise Measurement on the
Road
14.5 Notation
15 Computational Fluid Dynamics
Syed R. Ahmed
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Some Salient Features of Road Vehicle Flow
15.3 Demands on a CFD Simulation
15.4 CFD Methods for Vehicle Aerodynamics
15.4.1 General Remarks
15.4.2 Approximations of the Navier-Stokes
Equations
15.4.3 Basic Steps of a CFD Computation
15.4.4 Three-Dimensional Grid Generation
15.5 Linear CFD Methods
15.5.1 The Panel Method
15.5.2 Some Applications of the Panel
Method
15.6 Nonlinear CFD Methods
15.6.1 Solution Schemes for Nonlinear
Methods
15.6.2 Euler Methods
15.6.3 Methods Based on Time-Averaged
NS Equations
15.6.3.1 Turbulence Modeling
15.6.3.1.1 Eddy
Viscosity
Concept
Turbulence
Models
15.6.3.1.1.1
Algebraic
Models
15.6.3.1.1.2
Transport
Equation
Models
15.6.3.1.2 Non-Eddy
Viscosity
Concept
Turbulence
Models
15.6.3.2 Some Applications of
RANS Methods
15.6.4 Methods Based on Unsteady NS
Equations
15.6.4.1 Large Eddy Simulation
(LES)
15.6.4.2 Direct Numerical
Simulation (DNS)
15.6.4.3 Some Applications of
DNS Methods
15.7 Zonal Methods
15.8 Future Computer Requirements and Trends of
Supercomputer Development
15.9 Evaluation and Perspective of CFD Methods
15.10 Notation
References
Author Index
Subject Index
Abbreviations
About the Authors
Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles