Chapter 6

Fe e d- wat e r c ont r ol and

i n s t r u me n t a t i o n
6.1 The p r i n c i p l e s o f f e e d- wa t e r c o nt r o l
The objective of a feed-wat er cont rol system ma y seem simple: it is to
supply enough wat er to t he boiler to mat ch t he evaporat i on rate. But as is
so oft en t he case wi t h boilers, this t urns out to be a surprisingly compl ex
mission to accomplish. Ther e are difficulties even in maki ng t he basic
drum-l evel measur ement on whi ch t he cont rol system depends. The design
of t he cont rol system is t hen f ur t her compl i cat ed by t he ma ny i nt eract i ons
t hat occur wi t hi n t he boiler system and by t he fact t hat t he effects of some
of these i nt eract i ons ar e great er or smaller at various points in the boiler' s
l oad range.
The control-system designer' s task is to devel op a scheme t hat provides
adequat e cont rol under t he widest pract i cabl e range of operat i onal condi-
tions, and to do so in a manner t hat is bot h safe and cost-effective. To do
this it is necessary to under st and t he det ai l ed mechani sms of t he feed-wat er
and st eam systems and to be fully aware of t he operat i onal requi rement s.
I n all but t he smallest and simplest boilers, each of t he i nt errel at ed
factors has to be t aken into account , and it is insufficient to rely on simple
responses to t he t hree par amet er s whi ch seem to be r el evant to t he supply
of feed water: st eam flow, feed-wat er flow and t he level of wat er in t he
dr um.
6.2 One , two and t hree- el ement cont rol
The level of wat er in t he dr um provides an i mmedi at e i ndi cat i on of t he
wat er cont ai ned by t he boiler. I f t he mass flow of wat er into t he system is
104 Power-plant control and instrumentation
great er t han the mass flow of st eam out of it, the level of wat er in the
dr um will rise. Conversely, if the st eam out put is great er t han the feed
inflow, the level will fall.
As stated in Chapt er 2, the purpose of the dr um is not onl y to separat e
the st eam from the wat er but also to provi de a st orage reservoir t hat allows
short -t erm i mbal ances bet ween feed-wat er suppl y and st eam pr oduct i on to
be handl ed wi t hout risk to the plant. As the level of wat er in the dr um
rises, the risk increases of wat er bei ng carri ed over into the st eam circuits.
The results of such ' carry-over' can be cat ast rophi c: cool wat er i mpi ngi ng
on hot pi pework will cause ext reme and localised stresses in the met al and,
conversely, i f the level of wat er falls there is a possibility of the boiler being
damaged, par t l y because of the loss of essential cooling of the furnace
water-walls.
Therefore, the t arget of the feed-wat er cont rol system is to keep the
level of wat er in the dr um at appr oxi mat el y the mi dpoi nt of the vessel.
Gi ven this objective, it woul d appear t hat the simplest solution woul d
appear to be to measure the level of wat er in the dr um and to adjust the
delivery of wat er to keep this at the desired va l ue - - f e e di ng more wat er
into the dr um i f the level is falling, and less i f the level is rising.
Unfort unat el y, the level of wat er is affected by transient changes of the
pressure wi t hi n the dr um and the sense in which the level varies is not
necessarily rel at ed to the sense in which the feed flow must be adjusted. In
ot her words, it is not sufficient to assume t hat simply because the level is
increasing the feed-wat er flow must be decreased, and vice versa.
This st range situation is due to effects known as ' swell' and ' shrinkage' .
Boiling wat er comprises a t urbul ent mass of fluid cont ai ni ng many st eam
bubbles, and as the boiling rat e increases the quant i t y of bubbl es t hat is
generat ed also increases. The mi xt ure of wat er and bubbl es resembles
foam, and t he vol ume it occupies is di ct at ed bot h by the quant i t y of wat er
and by the amount of the st eam bubbl es wi t hi n it. I f the pressure within
the system is decreased, the sat urat i on t emper at ur e is also l owered and the
boiling rat e t herefore increases (because the t emper at ur e of the mi xt ure is
now hi gher in relation to the sat urat i on t emper at ur e t han it was before the
pressure change occurred). As the boiling rat e increases, the densi t y of the
wat er decreases, but since the mass of st eam and wat er has not changed
the decrease in density must be accompani ed by an increase in the vol ume
of t he mixture.
By this mechani sm the level of wat er in the dr um appears to rise, a phe-
nomenon referred to as 'swell'. The rise of level is misleading: it is not
indicative of a real increase in the mass of wat er in the system, which
woul d requi re the suppl y of wat er to be cut back to mai nt ai n the status
quo. In fact, i f the dr op in pressure is the result of the st eam demand
Feed-water control and instrumentation 105
suddenl y increasing, the wat er suppl y will need to be i ncreased to mat ch
the i ncreased st eam flow.
' Shri nkage' is t he opposi t e of swell: it occurs when the pressure rises.
The mechani sm is exact l y the same as t hat for swell, but in the reverse
direction. Shri nkage causes the level of wat er in the dr um to fall when the
st eam flow decreases, and once agai n the del i very of wat er to the boi l er
must be rel at ed to the act ual need r at her t han to the possibly mi sl eadi ng
i ndi cat i on pr ovi ded by the drum-l evel transmitter.
I f a slow change of st eam flow occurs, all is well because the pressure
wi t hi n the system can be controlled. It is when rapi d st eam-fl ow changes
happen t hat probl ems occur since, due to swell or shrinkage, the dr um-
level i ndi cat i on provides a cont r ar y i ndi cat i on of the wat er demand.
Fol l owi ng a sudden increase in st eam demand, whi ch causes the
pressure to dr op (and t herefore t he dr um level to rise), a simple level con-
troller woul d respond by reduci ng the flow of feed water. Equally, a
sudden decrease in st eam flow, whi ch woul d be accompani ed by a rise in
pressure and an at t endant fall in the dr um level, woul d cause a level con-
troller to increase the flow of wat er. Bot h actions are, of course, in the
i ncorrect sense.
The effects of swell and shrinkage, in addi t i on to bei ng det er mi ned by
the rat e of change of pressure, also depend on the relative size of the dr um
and the pressure at which it operates. I f the vol ume of the dr um is l arge in
relation to the vol ume of the whol e system the effect will be smal l er t han
otherwise. I f the system pressure is low the effect will be l arger t han wi t h a
boiler operat i ng at a hi gher pressure, since the effect of a given pressure
change on the densi t y of the wat er will be great er in the low-pressure
boiler t han it woul d if t he same pressure change were to occur in a boi l er
operat i ng at a hi gher pressure.
Faced wi t h this situation, designers of cont rol systems have responded
by i mpl ement i ng a vari et y of solutions. The simplest of these is a ' t wo-
el ement ' system, since it is based on the use of t wo process measur ement s in
pl ace of the single drum-l evel measur ement used above.
6.2.1 Two-element f eed-wat er control
Remember i ng t hat the basic r equi r ement of a feed-wat er cont rol system
is to mai nt ai n a const ant quant i t y of wat er in the boiler, it is appar ent t hat
one way of addressing the pr obl em woul d be to mai nt ai n the flow of wat er
into the system at a val ue whi ch mat ches the flow of st eam out of it. One
version of this system is shown in Fi gure 6.1. Here, the flow is cont rol l ed by
an easily recognised device, a valve. We shall look at valves in mor e dept h
later, but for the moment assume t hat the version used in t he di agr am
106 Power-plant control and instrumentation
mai nt ai ns the rate of water flowing t hr ough the valve at a figure which is
directly proport i onal to t he demand signal from t he controller (i.e. if t he
demand signal varies linearly from 0 to 100%, t he flow rate also changes
linearly between 0 and 100%). Such a valve is said to have a ' linear charac-
teristic' and in t he system shown this is empl oyed in conjunction with a
t ransmi t t er t hat produces a signal proport i onal to steam flow. Used
together, these two devices keep t he paramet ers in step. I f t he t ransmi t t er
produces a signal which is equal to the steam flow at all loads and if t he
flow t hrough t he valve is mat ched with this signal at every poi nt in t he
flow range, a controller gai n of uni t y will ensure that, t hr oughout t he
dynami c range of t he system, t he flow of water will always be equal to the
flow of steam.
S t e a m f l ow 0 - 2 0 k~/ s
,
I i i
4 m A = 0 k g / s
2 0 mA = 2 0 kgl s
FIC
Figure 6.1
4 m A
2 0 mA
F e e d f l ow 0 - 2 2 kg/ s
Feed-water control based on feed-flow measurement only
= 0 % open = O k g / s
= 1 0 0 % ope n = 2 2 kg/ s
Feed-water control and instrumentation 107
Nat ural l y, scaling factors of t he t r ansmi t t er and t he valve must be
t aken into account . I f t he r ange of t he flow t r ansmi t t er is di fferent f r om
t he valve' s flow-control range, t he cont rol l er gai n will need to be adj ust ed
accordi ngl y, and in pract i cal systems this is always necessary.
I n or der to provide an adequat e operat i onal mar gi n of confidence, t he
range of t he cont rol valve is always designed to be gr eat er t han t he flow
range of t he boiler. For exampl e, in a boiler pr oduci ng 20 kg/ s of steam,
t he valve may be sized to deliver 22 kg/ s of wat er when it is fully open. I n
this exampl e, wi t h a l i near valve characteristic, an openi ng of approxi-
mat el y 91% will be needed to pass a flow of 20 kg/s.
I n this case, i f t he steam-flow t r ansmi t t er produces an out put of 100%
at 20 kg/ s flow, t he cont rol l er gai n must be such t hat a measur ed val ue of
100% produces an out put of 91%. This is a proport i onal band of 110 (i.e. a
gai n of 20/22) and i f this gai n is assigned to t he cont rol l er t he feed flow will
mat ch t he st eam flow over t he ent i re r ange of boiler l oad (assuming t hat
t he valve charact eri st i c is linear, t hat t he flow t r ansmi t t er out put is 4 mA
at zero flow, and t hat zero flow of wat er occurs with a valve signal of
0%).
The pr obl em wi t h this system is t hat it onl y mat ches t he steam- and
feed-flow rates. If, at t he outset, t he dr um level is below t he desired value,
t hat is wher e it will stay, because i f everyt hi ng is set up correct l y t he feed
into t he boiler will always mat ch t he st eam flowing out of it, and t here is
no mechani sm for i nt roduci ng t he small surfeit of feed over steam, or t he
slight deficit, t hat is needed to correct the drum-l evel error.
It is i mpor t ant to consi der t he pract i cal real i t y of what woul d happen
i f things were not to be set up correctly. I n this situation, i f t here is a small
setting er r or in t he cont rol l er gain, or i f t he feed valve passes mor e or less
wat er t han it should at t he given opening, or i f t he st eam flow t r ansmi t t er
is slightly out of Calibration, t he dr um level will i nt egrat e up or down at a
rat e det er mi ned by t he scale of t he error, and not hi ng will correct for this
undesi rabl e state of affairs.
I n ot her words, t he system cannot correct t he dr um level i f this
par amet er deviates f r om t he desired val ue ei t her because of an initial er r or
or because of small errors in t he steam-flow measur ement or nonlinearities
bet ween t he valve demand and t he act ual flow t hr ough it. I n t he exampl e
given above, t he exact gai n r equi r ed is 0.909 09 . . . . Therefore, i f t he con-
troller gai n were to be set to 0.91 as suggested above, t he feed-wat er flow
woul d be slightly gr eat er t han t he st eam flow, and t he dr um level will
gr adual l y increase.
To count er these effects it is necessary to add a feedback el ement , con-
sisting of anot her cont rol l er whi ch will act to correct for any mi smat ch
108 Power-plant control and instrumentation
S t e a m f l ow Dr um l e v e l
LC
Fe e d- wa t e r r egul at i ng v a l v e
Figure 6.2 Basic two-element feed-water control system
bet ween the act ual and desired dr um levels. Fi gure 6.2 shows one vari et y
of such a ' t wo-el ement ' system.
In such a system, because the dr um vol ume and the st eam and feed
flows form an i nt egrat i ng system, wi t h the dr um level i nt egrat i ng any
st eam-fl ow/ feed-fl ow mi smat ch, it is unnecessary to empl oy an addi t i onal
i nt egrat i on function in the controller. Therefore the drum-l evel cont rol l er
shoul d be of the pr opor t i onal - onl y variety.
The correct gai n for this cont rol l er can be det er mi ned from a
knowl edge of the swell and shrinkage effects wi t hi n the boiler. I f these are
not known t hey can be det er mi ned by test. A suitable test woul d be to
change the st eam flow as rapi dl y as possible by, say, 10% of the maxi mum
evapor at i on rat e of the boiler, while keepi ng the feed flow in step wi t h the
st eam flow. (This can be achi eved by hooki ng a feed-flow signal into the
system while t empor ar i l y disabling the drum-l evel controller).
To see how the i nformat i on on the boiler' s swell charact eri st i c can be
used to help with cont rol l er tuning, let us exami ne a t wo-el ement system
Feed-water control and instrumentation 109
where t he range of t he steam-flow t ransmi t t er is r anged as above ( 0-
20 kg/s), and t he feed valve is agai n sized to deliver 22 kg/ s when it is
100% open. Assume t hat t he drum-l evel t r ansmi t t er is r anged to pr oduce
4 mA when t he wat er level has dr opped below t he setpoint by 250 mm,
and t hat it is 20 mA when t he level is 250 mm above t he setpoint (i.e. a
range of 500 mm) . Finally, assume t hat a test as described above has det er-
mi ned t hat t he swell resulting from a sudden 10% change of st eam flow
raises t he dr um level by 80 mm.
I f t he drum-l evel cont rol l er is to exact l y count er act t he effect of swell,
it must pr oduce an out put t hat cancels out t he step change in t he st eam
flow, whi ch was 10%. The cont rol l er out put must t herefore change by
10% when t he i nput error changes by 16%, whi ch means t hat t he gain
must be 0.625 ( 10 + 16).
When t he steam-flow and pressure changes have settled out and t he
wat er level has r et ur ned to t he setpoint, t he level-controller out put will
agai n become zero. The valve openi ng will t hen revert to t racki ng slow
changes in t he st eam flow, as described earlier.
This analysis depends on t he swell effect being const ant over t he boiler
load range, whi ch may or ma y not be true, but it provides a pract i cal
met hod of t uni ng this t ype of system, and will pr oduce a fairly good perfor-
mance over a wide range of conditions. Theoret i cal l y, bet t er results coul d
be obt ai ned by car r yi ng out tests to det er mi ne the swell effect at various
15oints in the load r ange and i nt roduci ng a nonl i near funct i on wi t hi n t he
level cont rol l er to compensat e for t he differences across the range. But this
is r at her compl i cat ed for what is essentially a simple system and in any
case per f or mance is likely to be limited by the ot her serious deficiencies
wi t hi n t he system, whi ch we shall exami ne in t he next section, whi ch
discusses a mor e comprehensi ve system, known as t hree-el ement control.
6.2.2 Three-element f eed-wat er control
Thr oughout t he above analysis, reference has been made to the feed-
wat er valve charact eri st i c being linear and t he valve being sized to
pr oduce a fixed flow when it is 100% open. However, the flow t hr ough a
valve depends bot h on its openi ng and on t he pressure dr op across it. I n a
feed-wat er system, the pressure dr op across t he valve varies from instant to
instant, and t he flow t hr ough it at any given openi ng will t herefore vary.
For reasons given earlier, in a simple t wo-el ement system based on dr um
level, the inclusion of an i nt egrat i on el ement in t he level cont rol l er is unde-
sirable. Ther ef or e t he varyi ng flow results in the level cont rol becomi ng
offset, to restore the steam-flow/feed-flow balance. This offset is undesir-
110 Power-plant control and instrumentation
abl e, si nce i t needl essl y er odes t he saf et y ma r g i n p r o v i d e d by t he pr es ence
of t he d r u m.
On e me t h o d of c o r r e c t i n g for t he e r r or p r o d u c e d by t he f eed val ve is
t he a d d i t i o n o f a t h i r d e l e me n t t o t he s y s t e m - - a me a s u r e me n t o f feed-
wa t e r flow.
Th e r e ar e var i ous ways o f i mp l e me n t i n g such a syst em, o n e o f wh i c h is
s hown i n Fi gur e 6.3. He r e , t he o u t p u t o f t he d r u m- l e v e l c ont r ol l e r is
t r i mme d by a si gnal r e pr e s e nt i ng t he di f f er ence b e t we e n t he f eed- f l ow a n d
s t eam- f l ow si gnal s. A ga i n bl ock (4) is i n t r o d u c e d t o c o mp e n s a t e f or a n y
di f f er ence b e t we e n t he r a nge s of t he t wo t r a ns mi t t e r s . I n mo s t cases t he
s t eam- f l ow a n d feed-fl ow si gnal s wi l l cancel out , a n d t he d r u m- l e v e l con-
t r ol l er wi l l be mo d u l a t i n g t he f eed fl ow t o keep t he l evel at t he s et poi nt . I n
t hi s case, i t is r e a s ona bl e t o a p p l y a n i nt e gr a l t e r m i n t hi s cont r ol l er , as
s hown.
I n a n o t h e r i mp l e me n t a t i o n of t hi s f a mi l i a r s ys t em s hown i n Fi gur e 6.4,
a ' cas cade c ont r ol ' t e c h n i q u e is appl i ed. T h e dr um- l e ve l c ont r ol l e r ( i t em 5,
Feed flow Steam flow
I J 4
Drum level
LC
5
Figure 6.3 One type of three-element feed-water control system
Feed-water control and instrumentation 111
proport i onal only), compares t he measur ed level signal wi t h a set val ue
and produces a bi pol ar out put proport i onal to any error. This trims a
modi fi ed steam-flow signal, whi ch is act i ng as t he desired value for a
closed-loop feed-wat er cont rol l er (7). As previously, a gain block (4)
adjusts for any range difference bet ween t he steam-flow and feed-flow
transmitters.
These ar e not t he onl y ways of i mpl ement i ng t hree-el ement control.
Several vari ant s of t he system are in common use, each wi t h its own advan-
tages and disadvantages. However, each system has one fact or in common,
t he use of steam-flow, feed-flow and drum-l evel measurement s. The appli-
cat i on of t he feed-flow measur i ng el ement compensat es for any variations
in feed-flow, whet her these are due to t he pump characteristics or ot her
factors, and t he t hr ee- el ement system is t herefore r ecommended wher ever
accur acy of cont rol is requi red.
Feed flow Steam flow Drum level
~
3
LC
5
I
Figure 6.4 Alternative (cascade) three-element feed-water control system
112 Power-plant control and instrumentation
As mi ght be expect ed, a t hree-el ement system is mor e expensive t han a
single-element or t wo-el ement system, but it is al ways wort hwhi l e to
exami ne the real cost differences before deciding on whi ch system to use.
For exampl e, the use of a steam-flow signal may not, in fact, add any addi-
tional cost, because this measur ement may be needed elsewhere, e.g. in the
combust i on cont rol system.
However, the presence of a feed-flow measur ement in the system does
necessarily add a significant cost burden. The t ransmi t t er itself is a
compl ex and not inexpensive i t em and it may also requi re the provision of
a pr i mar y el ement (such as a Venturi, flow nozzle or orifice plate) whi ch
will add furt her cost and requi re the provision of adequat e lengths of
straight pi pewor k upst r eam and downst r eam of the device.
The capi t al cost of the system needs to be carefully considered against
t he backgr ound of a det ai l ed knowl edge of the operat i onal r+gime of the
plant. All too often, insufficient rational t hought is appl i ed to these factors.
The use of a small dr um in the boiler offers a not insignificant reduct i on in
the cost of a pl ant , but its use also reduces the operat i onal safety margi ns
and t herefore requires increased accur acy of feed-wat er control. Yet, t he
cost-cutting exercises t hat lead to the use of a small dr um are very often
ext ended to t he cont rol system as well, furt her reduci ng the margi n for
error. I f safety margi ns are not to be dangerousl y eroded, careful consid-
erat i on must be appl i ed to the det er mi nat i on of pract i cal design rules for
feed-wat er cont rol systems. The cont rol implications shoul d be given j ust
as much consi derat i on as the process or mechani cal aspects.
6.3 Me a s ur i ng and di s pl ayi ng t he d r u m l evel
From the above, it is appar ent t hat the pr i mar y obj ect i ve of the feed-
wat er cont rol system of a dr um- t ype boiler or HRS G is to mai nt ai n t he
dr um level at the correct value. We shall now look at how this par amet er is
measured. It is an area where the probl ems are unexpect edl y complex.
Figure 6.5 shows one met hod of measuri ng the dr um level. Thi s
connects the differential-pressure t ransmi t t er directly to the dr um, via
isolating valves. Not e the ' const ant -head' reservoir connect ed to the upper
t appi ng point. Because the impulse pi pework to the t ransmi t t er is outside
the heat ed zone of the boiler, any st eam wi t hi n it will t end to condense,
and the pressure appl i ed to the HP port of the t ransmi t t er will t herefore be
the st eam and wat er pressure plus the pressure due to the wei ght of this
condensate.
The l at t er will depend on the vol ume of condensat e t hat has collected,
and this will be t i me-dependent . The pi pe will be full of st eam after the
S t e a m
Densi ty o f
s t e a m = ps
H
J i i i ! i i i i Y - . . . . .
~ Densi ty o f
w a t e r = pw
Feed-water control and instrumentation 113
C o n s t a n t - h e a d
r e s e r v o i r
D e n s i t y o f h3
c o n d e n s a t e i n I
r e f e r e n c e l e g = Pr
L e v e l /
tra n s m itte r
Figure 6. 5 Measuri ng the drum level without a wat er column
t r ansmi t t er impulse lines have been ' bl own down' on start-up, but it will
aft erwards start to fill with condensate. The const ant -head vessel is left
del i berat el y unl agged, so t hat t he st eam in it condenses, mai nt ai ni ng t he
pipe to t he t r ansmi t t er full of condensate.
The differential-pressure appeari ng at the t ransmi t t er ports is a
funct i on of several variables: t he wat er level in t he dr um, t he densities of
this wat er and t he st eam above it and t he densi t y of the wat er in t he pipes
to t he t ransmi t t er. I n addition, the deri vat i on of a level signal needs to t ake
114 Power-plant control and instrumentation
into account the densi t y of t he fluid used dur i ng t he initial cal i brat i on of
t he t ransmi t t er. Finally, it is also necessary to recognise t he r equi r ement
t hat t he lowest dr um- wat er level at whi ch t he system will be allowed to
operat e will be at some poi nt above t he level of t he lower t appi ng point.
The differential pressure at the t r ansmi t t er is defined by*
DP = (I/ p, ) x [(H x p,) - [(L x Pw) + (H - L) x p,)]]
where
DP = the differential pressure at the t ransmi t t er (at 20 C)
H = t he distance bet ween the bottom and top tappings
L = the height of wat er in the dr um above the bot t om tapping
Pr = the density of wat er used for calibrating the t ransmi t t er (at 20 C)
P8 = the density of the wat er in the dr um at the operating pressure
Pw = the density of the steam in the dr um at the operating pressure
It should be not ed t hat the differential pressure at t he t ransmi t t er will
be highest when t he separat i on bet ween t he wat er level and t he top
t appi ng is the greatest i.e. at low levels. I n ot her words, a 4 - 2 0 mA trans-
mi t t er will pr oduce 4 mA at the highest level and 20 mA at t he lowest.
This appar ent l y reversed 'sense' must be cor r ect ed by t he DCS before t he
densi t y cal cul at i on is applied.
Since t he densities of t he st eam and wat er in t he dr um will bot h
depend on t he conditions t hat exist in t he dr um, t he pressure needs to be
t aken into account when cal cul at i ng t he act ual level based on the differen-
tial head pr oduced at t he t ransmi t t er. At one time, various pr opr i et ar y
devices were available for performi ng t he requi red calculation, but it is
most economi cal , these days, to perform t he cal cul at i on in t he DCS, based
on t he differential-pressure and pressure signals. I n this case t he above
equat i on will enable t he level to be cal cul at ed for any combi nat i on of
signals from t he two transmitters.
However, an i mpor t ant point to bear in mi nd when using t he DCS to
per f or m t he pressure compensat i on in this way is t hat t he correct ed signal
will be available to t he oper at or only while the D C S is operational. I f a maj or
failure should occur in t he comput er system, it is i mpor t ant t hat t he
oper at or can still be able to moni t or t he dr um level by ot her means, and
these must be compensat ed in a similar way to t he above, so t hat the indi-
cat i on is relatively unaffect ed by pressure.
Figure 6.6 shows a pr opr i et ar y system whi ch generat es a drum-l evel
signal for display locally and in t he cont rol room. This t echnol ogy is based
on t he fact t hat t he conduct i vi t y of wat er is different from t hat of steam,
* Courtesy of Bristol-Babcock Ltd, Kidderminster, Worcestershire, UK
Feed-water control and instrumentation l 15
(a)
Water column
electrodes
Hydrsstep electronics
ountad at drum level
Control room
di spl ay
t r i p signals 4-20mA
signal
(b)
Even i nput board:
power supply,
electrode inputs, Odd i nput board:
discrimination, power supply,
validation, electrode inputs,
fault detection discrimination,
validation
- ~ fauff detection
Power supply B " .
E v e n e l e c t r o d e s =- - ~ ~ L
Even relay board: ~ ~
f ai l safe output ~ ~ ~J~- Odd electrodes
[ L M~ I K,3CI-- Power supply A
Odd relay board:
Display board: I ~ f ai l safe output
display decode, To remote di spl ay
opto fault output,
display drivers
(c)
For opt i mum performance, and t o
minimize density error, Hydrastep
wat er columns should be installed
as shown here.
For columns longer than l m. (3' 3"),
i t may be necessary t o insulate the
column itself.
=nsity error
2 m ( 6 . 5 " ) max,
Figure 6.6 The 'Hydrastep' level-indicating system
$olotron Ltd. Reproduced by permission
116 Power-plant control and instrumentation
and a series of electrodes mount ed in a wat er col umn at t ached to the
dr um uses this fact to det ect the interface bet ween wat er and steam. (The
use of an ext ernal wat er col umn is necessary because of the number of
penet rat i ons t hat woul d ot herwi se be necessary in the boi l er drum. ) The
det ect i on circuit is di vi ded into two groups of ' even' and ' odd' electrodes,
so t hat failure of a single dri ve circuit cannot disable the entire system.
Al t hough such a system will be affected by the difference in the
densities of the wat er in the dr um and the col umn, careful design of the
installation will minimise any errors (Figure 6.6c).
At present, al t hough such devices provi de an excellent i ndi cat i on of
the dr um level, t hey are not suitable for control, because of the t ransi ent
di st urbance t hat occurs as the level moves from the position of one
el ect rode to another. These step changes can pr oduce unpredi ct abl e effects
in the cont rol loop.
6.3.1 Usi ng an external water column
Al t hough the met hod of connect i on shown in Fi gure 6.5 is viable, it has
the di sadvant age of bei ng sensitive to errors duri ng sudden reduct i ons in
the boiler pressure, caused by the condensat e ' flashing o f F- - b o i l i n g as the
t emper at ur e of the fluid suddenl y finds itself above the sat urat i on t empera-
ture.
An ar r angement t hat minimises this pr obl em is shown in Fi gure 6.7,
where an ext ernal wat er col umn is connect ed to the dr um, so t hat the level
of wat er in col umn is (theoretically) the same as the level wi t hi n the dr um.
The col umn uses a vol ume of st ored fluid which is l arger t han the vol ume
of condensat e in the smal l -bore HP leg of Fi gure 6.5, and the system is
t herefore less vul nerabl e to flashing off.
As wi t h the det ect i on col umn shown in Fi gure 6.6, great care must be
t aken to avoi d errors caused by the t emper at ur e of the fluid in the
measuri ng system being very different from t hat of the st eam and wat er in
the drum. Thi s leads to a densi t y error, since the wat er col umn at the
gauge will bal ance wi t h t he level in the dr um, al t hough its l engt h is less
t han the di st ance bet ween the l ower t appi ng and the level of t he wat er
within the dr um.
Consi deri ng the dr um and the col umn of wat er in the col umn to be a
' U' tube, it will be seen t hat bal ance will occur when the wei ght of fluid in
the l eft -hand leg equals the wei ght of fluid in the ri ght -hand leg.
By keepi ng the t emper at ur e condi t i ons wi t hi n the col umn as close as
possible to those in the dr um, the densi t y error will be minimised. This is
done by ar r angi ng the pi pework so t hat fluid flows t hrough the wat er
col umn. Unl i ke the dr um itself and all the ot her pi pework, the wat er
Feed-water control and instrumentation 117
. . . . . . . . . . .
\ ~ I ] Water /
i , / ,,w / |
( ,
Figure 6.7 Drum-level measurement with a column
col umn and the section of pipe connect i ng it to the t appi ng-poi nt
isolation valve (on t he right in Fi gure 6.6) ar e left unl agged so t hat t he
st eam condenses and t he impulse line remai ns full of condensate. A circula-
tion of fluid is t hen established t hr ough the col umn, with st eam leaving t he
dr um at t he upper t appi ng point, condensi ng in t he pipe and wat er
col umn, and r et ur ni ng to t he dr um via the lower t appi ng point. This flow
tends to mai nt ai n t he t emper at ur e wi t hi n t he wat er col umn at a val ue
whi ch is as close as possible to the condi t i on wi t hi n t he dr um. Nevertheless,
some t emper at ur e difference will still exist, and this will have t he effect of
increasing t he density of t he fluid in t he cooler parts of t he system.
118 Power-plant control and instrumentation
6. 3. 2 Statutory requirements
I n ma n y count r i es, t her e is a l egal r e q u i r e me n t to pr ovi de s e pa r a t e
s ys t ems t o ma k e t he boi l er o p e r a t o r a wa r e of t he l evel o f t he wa t e r i n t he
d r u m. I n t he UK, Bri t i sh St a n d a r d BS 1113 : 1998" refers t o t hi s subj ect i n
sect i on 7.3, as follows:
Each st eam boiler, in which a low level, or into which a low flow rate, of wat er
coul d l ead to unsafe condi t i ons shal l have at l east t wo i ndependent and
suitable means of i ndi cat i ng the wat er level or flow. Each i ndi cat i ng device
shall be capabl e of bei ng isolated from the boiler and each device shall be a
wat er level gauge in which the wat er level can be observed except in the follow-
ing cases:
(a) . . . (refers to once-t hrough boilers)
(b) For boilers wi t h any safety valve set at or above 60 bar g, the use of two
i ndependent manomet r i c r emot e wat er level i ndi cat i ons shall be per-
mi t t ed in place of one of the wat er level gauges. In such cases these remot e
wat er level indicators shall have their own i ndependent connections to the
boiler.
(c) For boi l ers of less t han 145 kg/ h evapor at i ve capaci t y, one wat er level
gauge is sufficient.
(d) The use of alternative devices in place of wat er level gauges in which the
wat er level can be observed shall be permi t t ed, subject to agreement be-
tween the manuf act ur er and the Inspect i ng Authority. The design of the
devi ces shall combi ne appr opr i at e desi gn pr i nci pl es such as fai l -safe
modes, r edundancy, di ver si t y and sel f-di agnosi s in or der to pr ovi de
suitable and reliable indication.
The wat er level gauge in whi ch t he wat er level can be obser ved shal l be
mount ed so t hat the lowest wat er level t hat can be observed is at least 50 mm
above the lowest wat er level at which there will be no danger of overheat i ng
any par t of the boiler, when in operat i on at t hat level. Wher e this is not practic-
able, the wat er level gauges shall be sited by agr eement wi t h the I nspect i ng
Aut hori t y in positions t hat have been found by experience to indicate satisfac-
torily t hat the wat er content is sufficient for safety under all service conditions.
At least one wat er level gauge with its isolating valves or cocks shall be con-
nected directly to the boiler, and other t han a drain, no device shall be fitted
to the gauge t hat coul d cause i ncorrect i ndi cat i on of the wat er level in the
gauge.
Fi gur e 6.8 is a n a t t e mp t t o i l l ust r at e s ome o f t he a bove r e qui r e me nt s
pi ct or i al l y. Not e t ha t t he a i m of t hi s d i a g r a m is onl y t o i l l ust r at e t he
r e qui r e me nt s a nd t o pr ovi de ge ne r a l gui dance. I t is i mp o r t a n t t ha t a
* Extracts from BS 1113 : 1998 are reproduced with the permission of BSI under licence no. PD\19981883.
Complete editions of the standards can be obtained from BSI Customer Services, 389 Chiswick High
Road, London,W4 4AL, UK.
A 'water level gauge in which the
level can be observed ...'.
Note that at least two such
gauges ere required on boilers of
145 kg/h (0.04 kg/s) or above.
Feed-water control and instrumentation 119
i
m . m . m , n , B , , ~ , m
i I i I
' For boi l er s wi th any s af et y v al v e set at or a b o v e 60 bar g, t he
use o f t wo i ndependent manomet r i c r emot e wat er l evel
i ndi cat i ons shal l be permi t t ed i n pl ace of one of the water l evel
gauges. In such c as es t hes e r emot e water level i ndi cat or s
shal l hav e t hei r own i ndependent connect i ons t o t he boi l er . '
' . . . . The use of al t emat i ve devi ces i n pl ace of wat er l evel gauges i n whi ch the water l evel can be
obser ved shal l be permi t t ed, subj ect t o agr eement bet ween t he manuf act ur er and t he I nspect i ng
Authori ty. The desi gn of the devices shal l combi ne appr opr i at e desi gn pr i nci pl es such as f ai l - sef e
modes, r edundancy, di ver si t y and sel f - di agnosi s i n or der t o pr ovi de sui t abl e and r el i abl e i ndi cat i on. '
Figure 6.8 Permitted alternatives f or water-level measurement on drum-type boilers and
HRSGs
Based on BS 1113 : 1998
specific installation is designed to meet the standards required at the
actual point of use, since the standards set by authorities in the relevant
country, or by the insurers, may differ substantially from those indicated
by this diagram.
The above Standard also refers to low-level alarms, stating t hat
Every steam boiler shall be provided with a low water level or low water flow
audible alarm device.
Water level alarms, whether of low water or high and low water type, shall be
so fitted that the alarm is actuated while the level is still visible or indicated in
the water level gauges.
With reference to the size of the connecting pipework BS 1113 : 1998
states that:
Where a water level gauge, safety control or alarm device is connected to the
boiler by pipes, the bore of such pipes shall not be less than 25 mm.
(The standard allows the ends of the pipes local to the fittings to be
reduced to not less t han 20 mm bore for water level gauges and to 25 mm
bore for separate safety control and alarm devices.)
In this respect the Standard differs from others, but on one point there
is agreement, there is a need to use comparatively large-bore pipework for
instrument connections. The use of such pipes increases the cost of the
120 Power-plant control and instrumentation
installation, but t hei r use is i mpor t ant from t he vi ewpoi nt of safety, since
small-bore pi pework can become obstructed (for exampl e by sludge) and
an obst ruct ed impulse pipe can lead to an i nst rument provi di ng seriously
i ncorrect i nformat i on on t he par amet er bei ng measured. (The use of ver y
small-bore pipes can also cause a readi ng to be sluggish because of t he t i me
t aken for pressure changes to affect the i nst rument , t hough this is less of a
probl em wi t h today' s i nst rument s whi ch displace very small volumes for
full-scale operation. )
6 . 3 . 3 Di s c r e p a n c i e s b e t we e n d r u m- l e v e l i n d i c a t i o n s
It sometimes happens t hat various i nst rument s connect ed to t he same
boiler dr um display level measurement s t hat are significantly di fferent
from each other. Since it is unlikely t hat t he act ual dr um is anyt hi ng but
hori zont al (except for installations on submari nes duri ng diving opera-
tions) such discrepancies must be due to some error or other. The following
list summari ses the factors t hat can cause errors:
Densi t y errors: Differences bet ween installations can cause one i nst rument
to be mor e affected by density factors t han anot her. (One possibility is
that, i nadvert ent l y, l aggi ng has been applied to one of the condensat i on
reservoirs).
Turbulence: The surface of t he boiling wat er inside t he dr um is anyt hi ng
but still. It has been known for ' st andi ng waves' to exist ar ound t he
downcomers, affecting some measur ement points mor e t han others.
Flashing-off'. Differences in t he geomet r y of t he measuri ng systems can
cause some measur ement s to be mor e affected t han others by flashing-
of f dur i ng pressure changes.
Calibration: It is vital t hat all t ransmi t t ers are carefully and accurat el y
cal i brat ed, and t hat any density compensat i on is correct l y set up.
Installation: As stated earlier, errors or sluggish response can be t he
result of part i al or compl et e plugging of impulse lines, or i mperfect
bl ow-down operations.
6 . 3 . 4 S t e a m e x t r a c t i o n
In bot h t he t wo-el ement and t hree-el ement systems, an assumpt i on made
in t he above examples is t hat the st eam out put by t he boiler event ual l y
ret urns to t he inlet in t he form of water. This is not t rue where significant
losses occur or i f any st eam is abst ract ed for applications such as soot-
blowing. Her e t he st eam is effectively lost, and i f a soot-blower abst ract i on
is made at t he dr um t he amount being used will not be i ncl uded in t he flow
measur ement . This will result in t he dr um level being offset from t he
desired val ue since the flow of feed wat er into t he system should be equal to
t he st eam t aken by the l oad (plant or turbine) plus t he st eam used for soot-
Feed-water control and instrumentation 121
blowing. The effects of such operat i onal factors will be part i cul arl y signifi-
cant where t he design of the cont rol system has been based on the use of a
proport i onal -onl y controller. In such cases it may be necessary to add a
small degree of i nt egral act i on to t he controller, al t hough this should be
rest rai ned since t he addi t i onal i nt egral act i on can affect t he stability of t he
system.
6.4 The me c h a n i s ms us e d f or f e e d- wat e r cont rol
I n this analysis we have looked at t he principles of control, and seen t hat
because of various problems, a vari et y of cont rol met hods has evolved, t he
selection of whi ch depends on a vari et y of engi neeri ng and economi c con-
siderations rel at i ng to each application. I n t he discussion some reference
had to be made to t he mechani sm for cont rol l i ng t he flow and for simpli-
city it was assumed t hat this was by means of a fami l i ar device, a valve.
Now we shall look at t he nat ur e of valves in great er dept h, and t hen we
shall exami ne ot her met hods of cont rol l i ng t he flow.
6.4.1 Valves
What follows is mer el y a pract i cal overvi ew of valve designs in general. It
is not i nt ended to be a deep analysis of what is in i t sel fa specialised subject.
I f mor e det ai l ed i nformat i on is needed, it can be obt ai ned from t he many
textbooks on valve design or from the publications pr oduced by various
valve manufact urers. (See f ur t her r eadi ng section of this book for i nforma-
tion on t hree such books.)
A cont rol valve consists of many component s whi ch may conveni ent l y
be considered as falling into one of two groups: t he valve body and t he
act uat or. The former is t he par t t hr ough whi ch the wat er flows and this
flow is controlled by adjusting the resistance offered to t he water. This is
done by movi ng t he position of a plug in rel at i on to its seat. The position of
the plug is cont rol l ed by an act uat or whi ch acts via t he stem.
Fi gure 6.9 shows a small-bore feed-wat er cont rol valve body wi t h a
cont our ed t ri m (the ' t ri m' being t he par t of t he valve whi ch is in flowing
cont act wi t h the water). The cont our det ermi nes the relationship bet ween
the position of t he plug and t he flow of wat er past it. The t ype of t r i m will
be di ct at ed by t he application, such as t he need to mi ni mi se acoustic noise
or cavitation, t he rangeabi l i t y needed etc. I n addi t i on t he t r i m design will
det er mi ne t he valve characteristic, whi ch is t he curve rel at i ng t he stem
position to t he rat e of flow of wat er t hr ough t he valve. This is an i mpor t ant
feature, since t he charact eri st i c det ermi nes t he gai n of t he valve system,
whi ch forms par t of t he overall loop gain.
122 Power-pl ant control and instrumentation
Stem
Seat
Figure 6.9
/
Valve body
A typical f eed- wat er control valve body
Hopkinsons Ltd. Reproduced by permission
For a given opening, t he flow t hrough the valve will be det ermi ned by
t he delivery pressure of t he feed pump and the resistance t hat t he boiler
pipework offers to the flow. To simplify the task of selecting the correct
valve size and characteristic, it is necessary to relate everything to a
definable set of conditions. This is achieved by det ermi ni ng what the flow
t hr ough the valve woul d be i f a fixed differential pressure were to be main-
t ai ned across it. This is t ermed t he inherent characteristic of t he valve.
Once the valve is operat i ng on the act ual plant, the position/flow rela-
tionship achieved in practice will not mat ch the i nherent characteristic,
because in the real world the inlet pressure and system resistance will vary,
produci ng a pressure dr op which is different from the value t hat was used
to define the i nherent characteristic. The pressure/flow relationship
achieved in actual operat i on is called the i ns t al l e d characteristic.
As stated earlier, the gain of t he valve is initially defined by the
i nherent characteristic, three types of which are commonl y available, as
shown in Figure 6.10. The operat i on of these different characteristics is
now examined.
Feed-water control and instrumentation 123
0
0
E
I o o i I I I I I I I I i
. . . . -~ . . . . . i--.-.-i . . . . . ~- . . . . i . . . . -i . . . . . i- . . . . i . . . . 4
/ i i i i i i ! ' . _ . . . . ~ . ~ .
I i ~ i i i i _ . , . - + ' ~ . i i ,
- r . . . . t . . . . . ~ - - - - ~ . . . . . i - . . . . i - ~ , - t - . . . . ! - - ~
i i i i i i i i i
. . . . . L . ,
! Q u i c k
! o p e n i n ( .
6 0 !
I
J
. . . . . . J . . . . . . . L . - - / -
i i
/
4 0 . . . . . . i . _ !
! ,
il ~ i . . . .
' ' ~ i i i
I I
i . . . . 4 . - - - - ~ , ' . - . . . .
' ' i i
. . . . . ~ . . . . 1- . . . . i f - l - - r
.. . . . . .L . . . . . . . . .L . . . . . t
I I I
/ i ' ' i i i
L i n e a r . . . . . . . - t . . . . . t -
I _ . . , ~ E q u a l . . -
. . . . . - - ' ~ ' - ' 1 / I T ' " p e r c e n t a g e
J - . ~ , . . . . . , i - . . . . i . . . . - i . . . . .
i " ! ! J i i
i i i i i
~ - - - ~ . . . . . ~ . . . . i . . . . ~ . . . . . ~ -
i i ! ! !
i i i i i
2 0
~o
- . - I . . . . . 4 - . . . . ~ - .
- ' l - - ~ r . . . . i---
i
i
4 0
i i i i i
6 0 8 0 1 0 0
V a l v e o p e n i n g ( % o f r a t e d t r a v e l )
Figure 6.10 Inherent characteristics of valves
6. 4. 2 Qui ck- openi ng
Wi t h a qui ck- openi ng valve, t he fl ow r at e t hr ough t he val ve changes ver y
r api dl y at l ow openi ngs, wi t h a slope t hat is f ai r l y l i near. Once t he val ve
has opened about h a l f wa y t he r at e of change of fl ow di mi ni shes. Thi s t ype
of char act er i st i c is usual l y appl i ed onl y to shut - of f val ves.
6. 4. 3 Li near
Wh e n a val ve has t he l i near char act er i st i c, t he fl ow r at e t hr ough i t at a ny
gi ven openi ng (in t er ms of per cent age of ma x i mu m flow) is di r ect l y equal
to t he val ve st em posi t i on (as a per cent age of its full t ravel ). Wi t h t hi s t ype
of char act er i st i c, t he gai n of t he val ve syst em is cons t ant for all openi ngs.
However , t he fl ow t hr ough t he val ve at a ny gi ven openi ng depends on t he
pr essur e- dr op across it a nd t he l i near char act er i st i c appl i es only i f the
pressure drop across the valve is constant f or each opening, a condi t i on t hat ma y not
exist i n pr act i ce unless special at t ent i on is pai d t o achi evi ng it.
124 Power-plant control and instrumentation
As a general rule, a l i near charact eri st i c is preferred for feed-wat er
cont rol applications, since it simplifies t uni ng of t he loop and enables good
per f or mance to be achi eved over the widest possible range of flows.
Wher e opt i mum per f or mance and efficiency is requi red t he addi t i onal
cost of provi di ng a const ant pressure drop across the valve should be con-
sidered. Such a solution will add cost, but this will be offset by i mproved
cont rol per f or mance and pl ant life and by the savings achi eved by not
r unni ng t he feed pump or pumps at a hi gher speed t han necessary at
r educed loads.
6.4.4 Equal percentage
The t hi rd charact eri st i c is called equal percent age. Here, for all positions
of t he stem, t he flow change achieved by movi ng t he stem by a given
amount is a const ant proport i on of the previous flow. What this means is
t hat a given stem movement will change t he flow by t he same rat i o of the
previous flow, at any poi nt in the valve travel. Therefore, t he l arger the
opening, t he great er will be t he change of flow pr oduced by a given stem
movement .
This is shown by t he curve in Figure 6.10, where movi ng t he stem from
20% of full travel to 30% of full travel changes the flow from 5% to 7.5%,
while movi ng t he stem from 80% of full travel to 90% of full travel
increases t he flow from 50% to 75%. I n both cases, a stem movement of
10% of full travel results in a 50% increase of the previous flow.
Fr om this it is appar ent that, with this t ype of characteristic, the
change of flow for a given stem movement is smallest at low openings and
greatest at high openings. I n ot her words, the gai n is lower at low flows
t han it is at high flows. Equal -percent age valves are used where t he
mechani cal pl ant design is such t hat t here is onl y a small pressure dr op
available for t he valve, or where t he pressure dr op across the valve is likely
to fluctuate over a wide range.
6. 4. 5 The valve s i z i ng coefficient
Feed valves are designed to pass a flow t hat corresponds to t he ma xi mum
flow r equi r ement of the boiler plus a safety margi n, and t he capaci t y of the
valve is rel at ed to a fact or known as the valve sizing coefficient. The fact or
used widely across the world is based on US units and relates the capaci t y
of t he valve to t he pressure dr op by t he following formul a:
O. = C~v/(aP/a)
Feed-water control and instrumentation 125
where
Cv = sizing coefficient
Q = capacity of valve in US gallons per minute (1 US gallon = 3.785 litres)
Ap __-pressure di fferent i al across valve in pounds per square i nch (psi).
(1 psi = 0.069 bar)
G = specific gravity of the flowing fluid
The sizing coefficient is det er mi ned by exper i ment for each t ype and
size of valve using wat er as t he test fluid. It is equal to t he vol ume of wat er
(in US gallons) t hat will flow t hr ough the wi de-open valve in one mi nut e
when t he pressure dr op across t he valve is 1 psi. The Eur opean equi val ent
of t he sizing coefficient is known as Kv. To convert bet ween these units
mul t i pl y t he Kv figure by 1.66 to obt ai n t he Cv.
Gi ven t he pressure, t emper at ur e, flow and line-size characteristics for a
given feed-wat er application, valve manuf act ur er s will be able to provi de
det ai l ed gui dance on t he correct valve size for a given appl i cat i on and
from this will be able to predi ct t he pressure dr op across t he valve.
6.4.6 Fai l -s@ operation
In t he course of designing a feed-wat er cont rol system, anot her mat t er
t hat must be considered is t hat of selecting t he 'fail-safe' position of the
plug, t he state t hat will arise i f t he act uat or fails, or if t he c omma nd signal
to t he valve is lost. The act ual selection will depend on a range of factors,
but in det er mi ni ng t he safest opt i on it is i mpor t ant to consider t he effects
of t he flow on t he valve itself, since the applied pressure may t end to force
t he plug open or closed. Once again, valve manuf act ur er s will be able to
provide advice on this mat t er in relation to t he act ual installation bei ng
designed.
6.4.7 Selecting the valve size
The size of valve to use in a given appl i cat i on will be det er mi ned by
many factors, onl y one of whi ch is t he physical size of t he line in whi ch it is
fitted. Clearly, t he valve must be large enough to pass t he requi red flow
with ease. Oversi zed valves will be unnecessarily expensive and should be
avoided as unabl e to effectively control small flows.
For a valve to mai nt ai n any control over t he process t here must be
some pressure dr op across it, but i f the pressure dr op is too great a number
of undesirable events st art to occur.
Figure 6.11 shows in profile t he pressure al ong a short section of pipe
cont ai ni ng a restriction (such as a valve). Two curves ar e shown, one for a
valve where careful design produces st reaml i ned flow and mi ni mal
pressure loss, and anot her for a valve t hr ough whi ch t he flow is more,
126 P o we r - p l a n t control a n d i ns t r ument at i on
P 2 . -
I
i
,,, Ps
~
* " ' " " ~ ~ " " " ' ' " " - P4
s contracta
Fi gur e 6. 11 Pressure profile al ong a p i p e containing a restriction
produci ng a gr eat er pressure loss. I n each case, t he lowest pressure occurs
a short di st ance downst r eam from t he restriction (the Vena cont ract a) and
t he pressure rises past this poi nt al t hough it obviously never regains the
initial value. I f t he pressure at t he inlet (P~) is such t hat t he pressure along
this curve drops bel ow t he vapour pressure, t he fluid will st art to boil and
bubbles will form in it at t he poi nt where this occurs.
One of two things will occur as t he pressure rises agai n aft er t he restric-
tion. I f it rises above t he vapour pressure, t he bubbles will c ol l a ps e - - a
process known as cavitation, whi ch is accompani ed by acoustic noise, the
degree of whi ch depends on t he scale of t he cavitation. Apar t from being
undesi rabl e on envi r onment al grounds, this noise represents an expendi-
t ure of energy. Fur t her mor e, i f t he bubbles collapse close to met al surfaces,
t he localised ener gy release can damage t he metal. I n some cases this will
become appar ent as severe pitting of t he valve pl ug and cage, or it could
appear as pitting of t he pipe itself i f t he poi nt wher e the vapour pressure
t hreshol d is passed occurs some way down from t he valve. Hi gh recovery
Feed-water control and instrumentation 127
valves are mor e likely to experi ence cavitation, because t he downst r eam
pressure is mor e likely to exceed t he vapour pressure.
If, on t he ot her hand, t he pressure does not rise above t he vapour
pressure t he bubbles will r emai n suspended in t he fluid, to be carri ed
downst r eam of t he restriction. This is known as ' flashing' , and it can result
in erosion damage to t he valve internals at t he poi nt of ma xi mum velocity
(usually at or near t he poi nt where t he pl ug seats against t he ring).
These bubbles reduce t he valve' s ability to pass fluid and event ual l y it
'chokes'. When this occurs no mor e flow can occur irrespective of how
much wat er pressure is applied at t he valve inlet. Fr om these considera-
tions it is appar ent t hat t he product i on of bubbles may cause noise and
damage to t he valve, and possibly t he pipework, and it will be correct l y
surmi sed t hat an opt i mum set of conditions will exist for a given design of
valve. I n ot her words, t he valve will wor k best at one pressure-drop
point.
To summari se, i f t he supply of wat er to a boiler is cont rol l ed by t hrot -
tling t he flow t hr ough a valve, this can cause erosion and noise and
al t hough cont rol can onl y be effected by mai nt ai ni ng some pressure dr op
across t he valve, this loss represents a loss of ener gy whi ch should be
r educed to t he mi ni mum.
6.5 Pumps
The wat er flowing t hr ough t he feed valve into t he boiler is delivered at
pressure by one or mor e feed pumps. These pr oduce a head of wat er whi ch
is rel at ed to t he flow t hr ough t he pump by a charact eri st i c t hat will be
similar to Figure 6.12, whi ch shows t hat al t hough the di scharge pressure
remai ns relatively const ant as t he flow rises from zero to (in this exampl e)
about 50%, beyond this value t he pressure tends to decay as t he flow
increases. From this it will be appar ent t hat t he feed valve has to pr oduce a
gr eat er pressure dr op at low loads t han at hi gh loads.
Fi gure 6.13 shows t he fl ow/ pressure charact eri st i c of a pump delivering
wat er into a fixed system. I n practice, as t he flow t hr ough t he system
increases t he resistance offered to it also increases, as shown by t he dot t ed
line in t he di agram.
At any flow, in or der to deliver wat er into t he boiler, t he pressure dr op
across t he control val ve will be t he difference bet ween t he pump del i very
pressure and t he system resistance. For much of t he flow range t he pressure
dr op will inevitably be great er or less t han t he opt i mum for t he valve
design. Thi s can be overcome by changi ng t he inlet pressure so t hat t he
| 28 Power-plant control and instrumentation
1 0 0
"6
o~
7 . ~
5 c _
Figure 6.12
! ! ~ - 1 - - ~ - - ! . . . . T . . . . . F
! ! ! ! ! ~ ! !
i i J I ! ! ! ~ , , L i
i i i i i m ' , , j
. . . . . . . . . . . . . , I - - ' - ] . . . . . . T . . . . ! . . . . G - i / - - - ! . . . . - r - - - - ~ - ,
i i I i i i i i
i i i i i i i i
i i i i i i i i
. . . . . . , . . . . . . r - - - - i . . . . . t . . . . i . . . . ! . . . . . . t . . . . i . . . . - t . . . . . r
I I I I
i i i i
k I I I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i -
J i i I
I I I I
. . . . . ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . j . . . . . L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L
I I
2 0 4 0 6 0
I I
I I
I I
i i
I I
8 0 1 O 0
% o f r a t e d f l o w
Typical speed curve f or a f eed pump
1 2 ~
= =
~ . 1 0 0
o~
7 5
5 o .
, , , " , ~ - ~ - - ! . . . . v . . . . . r
! P u m p c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i I P r e s s u r e ~ i
I , , , I I d r o p a c r o s s ! !
. . . . . i " . . . . . i - ' - ' - i . . . . . i - . . . . i . . . . - ] V a l v e ! - - ' % - ; ' - T
i i i i i ~ _ _ - L . . - . . . ~ " " - J
- - i - - i - - i - - i - - ~ i " - P " " i - i i
i i i i / ~ i i i i ; i
. . . . . . . . . h - - - - ; ~ - - i . . . . 1 . . . . . 1 - . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . l -
S y s t e m r e s i s t a n c e ' / " ! ! ! ! j !
i = i i i i i i
. . . . . r . . . . ! . . . . . . . . . . F - d . . . . . T . . . . . i . . . . d . . . . . . . . . . ! -
i ! ~ I I i I
i I i i I I I
. . . . . . . . . . L . . . . . . . . . L . . . . J . . . . J . . . . . L . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . L
I I I I I I I
I I I I I J I
I J i i i i I
I i I I I I i
I I I I I I I
2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 1 0 0
% f l o w
Figure 6.13 Pump delivery into a system resistance
Feed-water control and instrumentation 129
pressure dr op always remai ns at t he opt i mum value. This is achi eved by
t he use of variable-speed pumps.
6.5.1 Variable-speed pumps
Al t hough in many cases t he feed pumps operat e at a fixed speed, at t he
design stage consi derat i on should be given to t he option of using variable-
speed pumps (sometimes known as ' controllable-speed' pumps) because
these will enable t he feed valve to operat e at t he opt i mum pressure condi-
tions for all loads.
The characteristics of a variable-speed pump ar e shown in Figure 6.14.
The four curves show t he pressure/flow characteristics at four di fferent
operat i ng speeds ( A- D) , with A being t he slowest and D t he fastest speed.
From this set of curves it will be appreci at ed t hat by adjusting t he speed of
t he pump it will be possible to mai nt ai n a fixed differential pressure across
t he feed regul at i ng valve at all boiler loads. I n t he exampl e shown t he
pressure dr op across t he valve (6P) achieved by operat i ng t he pump at
speed A at 70% flow is mai nt ai ned at t he same value by operat i ng t he
pump at speed B at 80% flow, speed C at 90% flow etc., as i ndi cat ed by
t he lines wi t h arrows at each end.
Q .
25
. . . . . 1. . . . . ~ . . . . . T . . . . ! . . . . T . . . . . F . . . . ! . . . . 7 . . . . . . , r - - " 3 -
I I I I I I I I I I
! ! ! ! ! ! ~ ! !
. . . . T . . . . . F - n . . . . . . T . . . . 1 . . . . q . . . . T . . . . ! - " ~ . . . . F
I I I I I I ~ I I " ~ . I
I i ' , ; i i i ~ ' I " , , ~ i " ~ O
i i i i i i ~ m ' - - , - , , k ~ ' k , , , ~
. . . . . - r . . . . . ( - - - - - i . . . . . 1 - . . . . i . . . . ~ - ~ . . c
i i i i i i s P ~ ~ ~ i
- - i - - i - - i - - i . - - _ . - i - - - i - - - - ~ - i ~' I ' ~ ~i B
i J i i .,,'~ i i i i i ~ " , i A
. . . . . - ~ . . . . . ~ - - ~ . . . . , , T - - ! . . . . ~ . . . . . . i - . . . . ! . . . . - . i . . . . . . .
S y s t e m r e s i s t a n c e ! ! ! ! ! !
! I I I I I I
. . . . . . L . . . . . . . . . ! . . . . . L . _ . J . . . . . i . . . . J . . . . J . . . . . z . . . . . .
I I I I I I I I
I J I I I I I J
I I I I I 1 1 I
. . . . . z . . . . . . . . . J . . . . . i _ . . . . ! . . . . j . . . . . i . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . .
I I I I I I I I
i W i I I I I I
I I I I t i I t
I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I
2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0
% f l o w
lO0
Figure 6.14 Variable-speed pump operation
130 Power-plant control and instrumentation
The advant ages of using a variable-speed pump include:
I mpr ovement of efficiency because of reduced pressure loss.
Reduct i on of pumpi ng power.
Reduct i on of feed-valve wear due to erosion when operat i ng at low
~]OWS.
I mpr oved cont rol because t he valve operates at its designed pressure-
drop.
I mpr oved cont rol offered by the ability to operat e with const ant loop
gain.
Variable-speed pumps ar e mor e expensive t han fixed-speed ones, but t he
increase in capital cost is offset by t he revenue savings t hat will be gained,
part i cul arl y if t he boiler operat es at r educed t hroughput s for a significant
time over its life. Careful financial analysis will det er mi ne whet her the
savings do justify the addi t i onal capital cost, but these calculations must be
based on assumptions about t he operat i onal regime, and these may change
under t he influence of ext ernal factors whi ch are difficult to predi ct at t he
design stage.
Of course, t he pumps, valves and boiler pi pework ar e onl y par t of t he
overall system. Wher e spray at t emper at or s are used (see Chapt er 7), the
feed pumps must also be capabl e of delivering cool wat er to t he nozzles.
The design of at t emper at or s requires t he wat er to be at del i vered at a
pressure whi ch exceeds t he st eam pressure by a mi ni mum value. Bypassing
the pressure dr op across t he system as shown in Figure 6.15 allows suffi-
cient differential pressure to be mai nt ai ned at t he spray nozzle. But, i f a
variable-speed pump is used and r un down to a low del i very pressure,
t here is a risk t hat the requi red differential may not be available. I n such
situations, t he decision to use fixed- or variable-speed pumps will be
affected by t he need to mai nt ai n an adequat e wat er pressure at t he at t em-
porators.
Boiler
feed
pump
I "
Figure 6.15
Steam
drum
$1x, ml
Maintaining adequate spray-water differential pressure
Feed-water control and instrumentation 131
6.6 De ae r at or cont rol
Strictly speaking, cont rol of t he deaer at or is not a funct i on of feed-wat er
cont rol whi ch is t he subject of this chapt er. However, as t he deaer at or is an
essential link in t he feed-wat er supply system it is appropri at e to consider
its cont rol systems here.
I n Fi gure 2.5 we saw how st eam admi t t ed to t he deaer at or rises
upwards past met al t rays over whi ch t he wat er is si mul t aneousl y cascadi ng
downwards. As t he wat er and st eam mix and become agitated, ent r ai ned
gases are released. The dissolved gases are vent ed to t he at mosphere
because t he vessel is pressurised by t he steam. The deaer at or is situated in
t he wat er circuit bet ween t he di scharge of t he condenser ext ract i on pump
and t he inlet of t he feed pumps, as shown in Figure 6.16.
It will be evi dent t hat t wo cont rol functions are requi red by t he
deaerat or: one to mai nt ai n t he st eam pressure at t he opt i mum value, t he
ot her to keep t he storage vessel r oughl y hal f full of wat er.
6.6.1 Steam pressure control
The pressure of t he st eam ent er i ng t he deaer at or is mai nt ai ned by a
simple cont rol l er whose measured-val ue signal is obt ai ned from a trans-
V
=
Feed-water
control valve
BoUer
pump
pump
Demrator
Condenser
p~q
- /
Make-up wider
control valve
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !
Figure 6.16 Principle of deaerator level control system
132 Power-plant control and instrumentation
mi t t er measuri ng the st eam pressure in the deaerat or. The set val ue of
the cont rol l er is nor mal l y fixed.
It has al r eady been expl ai ned t hat the steam suppl y may be obt ai ned
either from the boi l er or from an ext ract i on poi nt on the turbine. I f the
l at t er source is used, special consi derat i on has to be given to ensuring t hat
an event such as a t urbi ne trip does not depri ve the deaer at or of t he st eam
suppl y it needs for its operat i on. Thi s purpose is served by t aki ng a st eam
suppl y from the boi l er and passing it to the deaer at or via a pressure-
reduci ng and desuperheat i ng system ( PRDS) . Thi s st eam suppl y is
referred to as ' peggi ng steam' . Judi ci ous adj ust ment of the PRDS con-
troller setpoint will ensure t hat an adequat e st eam suppl y for the deaer at or
is obt ai ned at all times. However , to ensure rapi d response to a t ur bi ne
trip, a system of interlocks should be provi ded, so t hat the peggi ng st eam
suppl y is br ought into service i mmedi at el y on det ect i on of a trip.
6.6.2 Level control
The storage vessel provides a measure of reserve capaci t y for the plant.
To achieve this funct i on the level of wat er in it must be mai nt ai ned at
roughl y the mi dpoi nt . Thi s is achieved by means of a level cont rol l er
whose measured-val ue signal is obt ai ned from a differential-pressure trans-
mi t t er or from capaci t i ve probes whi ch woul d nor mal l y be connect ed to
tappings of an ext ernal wat er col umn which is in t urn connect ed to the t op
and bot t om of the deaer at or storage vessel. I f there were no losses in the
system, the amount of wat er woul d be const ant and the level in the
deaer at or st orage vessel woul d r emai n at the correct val ue set duri ng com-
missioning. However , losses are inevitable (for exampl e, due to leakages at
pump glands or duri ng soot -bl owi ng or bl owdown operations), and a
suppl y of t reat ed wat er must t herefore be made available. The deaer at or
level cont rol l er out put adjusts the openi ng of a valve t hat admi t s this
make- up wat er to t he condenser, as shown in Figure 6.16.
The make- up suppl y is convent i onal l y fed into the system at the
condenser. Fi gure 6.16 shows t hat i nt eract i on bet ween the level controllers
of the deaer at or and condenser is inevitable. The situation is made mor e
compl ex because the condenser ext ract i on pump has to be provi ded wi t h a
bypass ar r angement to mai nt ai n a mi ni mum flow t hr ough the pump at all
times.
In fact, t he conditions which cause the deaer at or level cont rol l er to call
for mor e wat er to be added to the system will also cause the condenser
level to fall, and so the t wo systems do not act in opposi t e senses.
Nevertheless t hey do interact, and care must be t aken to minimise the
instability t hat is likely to arise.
Feed-water control and instrumentation 133
6. 6. 2. 1 Spi l l control
I n addi t i on to the level control system described above, a system must be
provi ded to dr ai n excess wat er from t he deaer at or storage vessel in t he
event of an oversuppl y of wat er and steam. This funct i on is nor mal l y
achi eved on l arge power-station boilers by using the out put of the level
cont rol l er to operat e t he make- up and spill valves in split range. A typical
ar r angement is shown in Tabl e 6. 1. Smal l er boilers will be limited to
havi ng a spill valve whose openi ng is nor mal l y cont rol l ed on an on/ of f
basis from a high-level al arm.
6.6.3 Integrated level control
The long dead t i me and long t i me const ant of the deaer at or level system
complicates t he design and commissioning of this cont rol loop. This
situation has been worsened by t he commer ci al pressure to operat e power-
station boilers at part i al load and t he i ncreased need for two-shifting
operations. ( The t er m ' two-shifting' refers to operations wher e t he pl ant
runs for two ei ght -hour periods (or shifts) in a worki ng day, and is shut
down for t he r emai ni ng ei ght -hour shift.) Ther e is also a dri ve to reduce
the consumpt i on of cont rol l abl e make- up water, al t hough this necessarily
increases wi t h t he amount of load changi ng to whi ch t he boiler is
subjected. A typical scenari o is t hat if the boiler experiences a large load
reduct i on (say 50%) t he deaer at or level woul d t end to rise because as t he
st eam flow from t he boiler reduces so must t he feed flow. Dur i ng this time,
the condensat e flowing to t he deaer at or woul d not be requi red by the feed
pump, causing t he level in the storage vessel to rise. The level controls
woul d react by dumpi ng t he excess wat er t hat is filling the deaerat or. I f
t here is a l oad increase to the original load, t he deaer at or level woul d dr op
due to t he increased flow from t he feed pump, and t he level controls woul d
t end to add make- up wat er to the condenser. This cycle of maki ng- up and
spilling can occur every t i me t he load changes.
Table 6.1 Operation of deaerator level-control valves
( Scottish Power plc. (Reproduced by
permission)
Controller output Valve duty Valve position
0- 25% Spill valve 100-0%
25-75% Deadband n/ a
75-100% Make-up valve 0-100%
134 Power-plant control and instrumentation
The r equi r ement to reduce the wast ed make- up wat er has resulted in
t he use of advanced cont rol strategies for cont rol l i ng t he make- up and spill
on l arger boilers. For exampl e a fuzzy logic cont rol al gor i t hm embedded
in t he DCS software can be used. The inputs to t he cont rol l er are t he
st eam flow and t he deaer at or level, t he out put s are to t he make- up and
spill valves. The system uses rule-based logic to t ake decisions on maki ng-
up and spilling. The goal of t he scheme is to mi ni mi se make- up and spill
by ret ai ni ng wat er wi t hi n t he condensat e system until it is requi red.
6.7 Summary
Once t he combust i on process has occurred, t he feed wat er has boiled and
t he st eam has been generat ed, t he next r equi r ement is to ensure t hat t he
t emper at ur e of t he st eam t hat is delivered to t he t urbi ne or heat l oad is
mai nt ai ned at t he correct value. I n t he next chapt er we shall look at t he
cont rol and i nst r ument at i on systems t hat are empl oyed for this purpose.