AStudyabout

Research&Research
Methods

Preparedby:
Eng.AhmadNouri

Arab British Academy for Higher Education.

www.abahe.co.uk
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 3
Meaningofthewordresearch
(5)
...................................................................................... 3
WhatisResearch? .......................................................................................................... 3
WhyResearch? ............................................................................................................... 4
ResearchApproaches ...................................................................................................... 5
Typesofbusinessresearch .............................................................................................. 5
Thehallmarkofscientificresearch ................................................................................... 5
Thebuildingblocksofscience .......................................................................................... 6
Theresearchprocess ...................................................................................................... 7
(1)TheBroadProblemArea ............................................................................................ 7
(2)PreliminaryDataCollection ........................................................................................ 7
(3)ProblemDefinition ..................................................................................................... 9
(4)TheoreticalFramework ............................................................................................ 10
(5)GenerationofHypotheses ........................................................................................ 12
(6)ScientificResearchDesign ........................................................................................ 13
(7)DataCollectionMethods ........................................................................................... 25
(8)ResearchReport ...................................................................................................... 30
References ................................................................................................................... 32

Arab British Academy for Higher Education.

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Introduction

ThisisastudytogoindeepanalysisofResearchandtheMethodsthatareusedto
completeandpublishtheResearch.
Researchisacommonlyusedtoolinscience,business,andsocietyandinthedayto
dayindividualprocess.Someoftheresearchesarewrittensuchasscience,business
andsocial,andsomearenotsuchastheindividualone,ex.Whenanindividual
wantstobuysomethinghesearchesforqualityandprice(It'satypeofunwritten
research)
Meaningofthewordresearch
(5)

Noun

Systematicinvestigationtoestablishfactsorcollectinformationonasubject

Verb

Tocarryoutinvestigationsinto(asubject)[OldFrenchresearchertosearchagain]

WhatisResearch?

Carefulstudyandinvestigation,especiallyinordertodiscovernewfactsor
information
(1)

Avoyageofdiscovery;Ajourney;Anattitude;Anexperience;Amethodofcritical
thinking;Acarefulcriticalenquiryinseekingfactsforprinciples.
(2)

Scientificresearchdiffersfromotherkindsofresearchinthatitisacontinuedsearch
forscientificknowledgeandunderstandingbyscientificmethods.
(3)

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DefinitionsofOriginality
(4)

Sayingsomethingnobodyhassaidbefore
Carryingoutempiricalworkthathasnotbeendonebefore
Synthesizingsomethingthathasnotbeenputtogetherbefore
Makinganewinterpretationofsomeoneelsesmaterialorideas
Takinganewtechniqueandapplyingittoanexistingarea
Takinganexistingtechniqueandapplyingittoanewarea
Continuingapreviouslyoriginalpieceofwork
Beingcrossdisciplinaryandusingdifferentmethodologies
Testingexistingknowledgeinanoriginalway"
"Anorganized,systematic,databased,critical,objective,scientific,inquiryor
investigationintoaspecificproblem,undertakenwiththepurposeoffinding
answersorsolutiontoit."
(6)

WhyResearch?

Researchisawayto:
1. Developtheindependentlearningabilityrequiredforcontinuingprofessional
development.
2. Facechallenges.
3. Findfacts.
4. Solveaproblem.
5. Investigateforabettersolution.
6. Servethesociety.
7. Earnadegree.

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ResearchApproaches

Therearetwoapproachesforresearch:
1. QualitativeResearch
a. Aimedatexploringandunderstandingmeaningsandexperience
b. Dataisoftenusedtoverifyanexistingtheory,andthehypothesisis
formulatedatthebeginningoftheresearch.
2. QualitativeResearch
a. Triestomeasurevariables
b. Aninitialhypothesismaybeformulatedatthebeginning
c. Thedatacollectedisoftenusedtoevolveanongoinghypothesis
Typesofbusinessresearch

1. Appliedresearch:Tosolveacurrentproblemfacedbythemanagerinthe
worksetting,demandingatimelysolution.Itisthetypeofresearchdone
withtheintensionofapplyingtheresultsofthefindingstosolvespecific
problemscurrentlybeingexperiencedintheorganization.
2. Basicresearch:Togenerateabodyofknowledgebytryingtocomprehend
howcertainproblemsthatoccurintheorganizationcanbesolved.Itisdone
chieflytoenhancetheunderstandingofcertainproblemsthatcommonly
occurinorganizationalsettings,andseekmethodstosolvethem.Itiscalled
basicorFundamental,orpureresearch.
Thehallmarkofscientificresearch

1. Purposiveness:e.g.Focusingonemployee'scommitmenttothe
organization,anincreaseinthecommitmentwilltranslateintoless
turnover,lessabsenteeismandprobablyincreaseinperformancelevels.
2. Rigor:connotescarefulness,scrupulousness,andthedegreeof
exactitudeinresearchinvestigation.
3. Testability.
4. Replicability.
5. PrecisionandConfidence:
a. Precision:referstotheclosenessofthefindingstoreality.
b. Confidence:referstotheprobabilitythatourestimationsare
correct.
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6. Objectivity:theconclusionsshouldbebasedonthefactsofthefindings
derivedfromactualdata,andnotonourownsubjectiveoremotional
values.
7. Generalizability:referstothescopeofapplicabilityoftheresearch
findingsinoneorganizationsettingtoothersettings.
8. Parsimony:Simplicityinexplainingthephenomenaorproblemsthat
occur,andingeneratingsolutionsfortheproblem,isalwayspreferredto
complexresearchframeworkthatconsidersanunmanagednumberof
factors.

Thebuildingblocksofscience

Observation
Identification of
Problem area
Theoretical
Framework
Research
Design
Data
Analysis
Hypotheses
Interpretation
Concepts
Pure and or Applied Research
Data
Collection

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Theresearchprocess

(1)TheBroadProblemArea
1. Thebroadproblemareareferstotheentiresituationwhereoneseesa
possibleneedforresearchandproblemsolving.
2. Thebroadproblemareamaycontain:
1. Currentexistingproblems
2. Asituationrequiringimprovement.
3. Conceptualissuethatneedstobetightened
(2)PreliminaryDataCollection
Therearetwotypesofdata:
1. Secondarydata:Datathatalreadyexistanddonothavetobe
collectedbytheresearcher(Statisticalbulletins,government
publications,informationpublishedorunpublishedandavailable
fromeitherwithinoroutsidetheorganization)
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2. Primarydata:Datagatheredforresearchfromtheactualsiteof
occurrenceofevents(Observation,questionnairestoindividuals).

1. Backgroundinformationoftheorganizationsuchas:
Theoriginandhistoryofthecompany.
Sizeintermsofemployees,assets,orboth.
Charter:purposeandideology.
Location.
Interdependentrelationshipswiththeexternalenvironment.
Financialpositions.
2. Structuralfactorsandmanagementphilosophysuchas:
Rolesandpositionsintheorganization.
Extentofspecialization.
Communicationchannels.
Controlsystems.
Coordinationandspanofcontrol.
Rewardsystems.
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Workflowsystems.
3. Perceptions, attitudes, andbehavioralresponsessuchas:
Natureofthework.
Workflowinterdependencies.
Participationindecisionmaking..
Clientssystems.
Opportunitiesforadvancementintheorganization.
Organizationsattitudestowardemployeesfamilyresponsibilities.
LiteratureSurvey
Literaturesurveyisthedocumentationofacomprehensivereviewofthe
publishedandunpublishedworkfromsecondarysourcesofdataintheareas
ofspecificinteresttotheresearcher.
Thepurposeoftheliteraturereviewistoensurethatnoimportantvariableis
ignoredthathasinthepastbeenfoundtohaveanimpactontheproblem.
Agoodliteraturereviewensuresthat:
1. Importantvariablesthatarelikelytoinfluencetheproblemsituationarenot
leftoutofthestudy.
2. Aclearerideaemergesastowhatvariableswouldbemostimportantto
consider(parsimony),whytheywouldbeconsideredimportant(Developing
theoreticalframework).
3. Testabilityandreplicabilityofthefindingsofthecurrentresearchare
enhanced.
4. Theproblemstatementcanbemadewithprecisionandclarity.
5. Onedoesnotruntheriskofreinventingthewheel.
6. Theprobleminvestigatedisperceivedbythescientificcommunityasrelevant
andsignificant.
(3)ProblemDefinition
1. Symptoms:areindicatorsoftheproblem(lowproductivity,declining
customerbase).
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2. Problem:anysituationwhereagapexistsbetweentheactualanddesired
idealstate.
3. Problemisaclearprecisestatementofthequestionorissuethatistobe
investigatedwiththegoaloffindingananswerorsolution.

(4)TheoreticalFramework
Variables:
Avariableisanythingthatcantakeondifferingorvaryingvalues.
TypesofVariables:
1.Thedependentvariable:itisthevariableofprimaryinteresttothe
researcher.Example:Abasicresearcherisinterestedininvestigatingdebtto
equityratioofmanufacturingcompanies.
2.Theindependentvariable:Itisonethatinfluencesthedependentvariable
ineitherapositiveornegativeway.Thevarianceinthedependentvariableis
accountedforbyindependentvariable.

3.Themoderatingvariable:Itisonethathasastrongcontingenteffecton
theindependentvariabledependentvariablerelationship.

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4.TheInterveningVariable:Itisonethatsurfacesbetweenthetimethe
independentvariablesstartoperatingtoinfluencethedependentvariable
andthetimetheirimpactisfeltonit.

Thetheoreticalframeworkisthefoundationonwhichtheentireresearch
projectisbased.Itisalogicallydeveloped,described,andelaborated
networkofassociationsamongthevariablesdeemedrelevanttotheproblem
situationandidentifiedthroughsuchprocessesasinterviews,observations,
andliteraturesurvey.
Componentsoftheoreticalframework:
Agoodtheoreticalframeworkidentifiesandlabelstheimportantvariablesin
thesituationthatarerelevanttotheproblemdefined.Therearefivebasic
featuresthatshouldbeincorporatedinanytheoreticalframework:
1. Thevariablesconsideredrelevanttothestudyshouldbeclearly
identifiedandlabeledinthediscussions.
2. Thediscussionsshouldstathowtwoormorevariablesarerelatedto
oneanother.Thisshouldbedonefortheimportantrelationships
thataretheorizedtoexistamongthevariables.
3. Ifthenatureanddirectionoftherelationshipscanbetheorizedon
thebasisofthefindingsofpreviousresearch,thenthereshouldbe
anindicationinthediscussionastowhethertherelationshipswould
bepositiveornegative.
4. Thereshouldbeaclearexplanationofwhywewouldexpectthese
relationshipstoexist.Theargumentscouldbedrawnfromthe
previousresearchfindings.
5. Aschematicdiagramofthetheoreticalframeworkshouldbegivenso
thatthereadercanseeandeasilycomprehendthetheorized
relationships.
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(5)GenerationofHypotheses

Hypothesesdefinition:Itcanbedefinedasalogicallyconjecturedrelationship
betweentwoormorevariablesexpressedintheformoftestablestatement.
StatementofHypotheses:Format
I. PropositionsandIfThenStatements:
a. Proposition:Ex.Employeeswhoaremorehealthywilltakesick
leavelessfrequently
b. IfThen:Ex.Ifemployeesaremorehealthy,Thentheywilltakesick
leavelessfrequently.
II. DirectionalandNondirectional:
a. Directional:Ex.Thegreaterthestressexperiencedinthejob,
thelowerthejobsatisfactionofemployees.
b. Nondirectional:Ex.Thereisarelationshipbetweenageand
jobsatisfaction.
III. NullandAlternativeHypotheses:
a. NullHypotheses:isapropositionthatstatsadefinitive,exact
relationshipbetweentwovariables.Thenullstatementisexpressed
asnosignificantrelationshipbetweentwovariablesornosignificant
differencebetweentwogroups.
b. AlternateHypotheses:istheoppositeofnull,itisastatement
expressingarelationshipbetweentwovariablesorindicating
differencesbetweengroups.
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(6)ScientificResearchDesign

1)PurposeoftheStudy

1/1:Exploratorystudies
1. ExploratoryStudy:isundertakenwhennotmuchisknownaboutsituationat
hand,orwhennoinformationisavailableonhowsimilarproblemsor
researchissueshavebeensolvedinthepast.
2. Exploratorystudiesareundertakentobettercomprehendthenatureofthe
problem,sinceveryfewstudiesmighthavebeenconductedinthatarea.
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1/2:DescriptiveStudies
1. Adescriptivestudyinundertakeninordertoascertainandbeableto
describethecharacteristicsofthevariableofinterestinsituation.
2. Thegoalofthedescriptivestudyistoofferaprofileortodescriberelevant
aspectsofthephenomenaofinteresttotheresearcherfromanindividual,
organizational,industryoriented,orotherperspective.

1/3:HypothesisTesting
1. AHypothesistesting:Itexplainsthenatureofcertainrelationships,or
establishesthedifferencesamonggroupsortheindependenceoftwoor
morefactorsinasituation.

2)TheTypesofInvestigation
1. Acausalstudy:Whentheresearcherwantstodelineatethecauseofoneor
moreproblems.
2. Acorelationalstudy:Whentheresearchisinterestedindelineatingthe
importantvariablesthatareassociatedwiththeproblem.
3. Examples:
1. Acausalstudyquestion:Doessmokingcausescancer?
2. Acorelationalstudyquestion:Aresmokingandcancerrelated?

3)Extentofresearcherinfluence.
1. Theextenttowhichtheresearcherinterfereswiththenormalflowofworkat
theworkplacehasadirectbearingonwhetherthestudyundertakeniscausal
orcorelational.
2. Acorelationalstudyisconductedinthenaturalenvironmentofthe
organization.
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3. Inacausalstudy,theresearchertriestomanipulatecertainvariablessoasto
studytheeffectsofsuchmanipulationonthedependentvariables.
4)TheStudySetting

1. FieldStudies:arecorelationalstudiesdoneintheorganization.
2. FieldExperiments:studiesconductedtoestablishcauseandeffect
relationshipsusingthesamenaturalenvironmentinwhichemployees
normallyfunction.
3. Labexperiments:experimentsdonetoestablishcauseeffectrelationships
beyondthepossibilityoftheleastdoubtrequirethecreationofanartificial,
contrivedenvironmentinwhichalltheextraneousfactorsarestrictly
controlled.
5)UnitofAnalysis
1. Itreferstothelevelofaggregationofthedatacollectedduringthe
subsequentdataanalysisstage.
2. Examplesofthedifferentunitsofanalysisare:
1. Individual.
2. Dyads.
3. Groups.
4. Organizations.
5. Culture.
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6)Timehorizon
1. Crosssectionalstudies:dataaregatheredjustonce,perhapsoveraperiodof
daysorweeksormonths,inordertoansweraresearchquestion.
2. Longitudinalstudies:tostudypeopleorphenomenaatmorethanonepoint
oftimeinordertoanswertheresearchquestion.

MeasurementofVariables
HowVariablesaremeasured?
Datarepresentingseveraldemographiccharacteristicsareobtainedby
askingemployeessimplequestion:
Howlonghaveyoubeenworkingintheorganization?
Whatisyourjobtitle?
Otherinformationcouldbecheckedthroughcompanyrecordssuch
asabsenteeismoremployeeperformance.
Objectivevs.SubjectiveNature
Therearevariablesthatlenditselftoobjectiveandprecise
measurementandtheotherismorenebulousbecauseofitssubjective
nature.suchasmotivation,satisfaction,involvement,buyersbehavior.
Abstractnotionsarebrokentoobservablecharacteristicsbehaviorsso
thattheycanbemeasuredinatangibleway
`Operationalizingtheconcepts
OperationalDefinition
Operationalizing,oroperationallydefiningtheconcept,torenderit
measurable,isdonebylookingatthebehavioraldimensions,facets,or
propertiesdenotedbytheconcept.Thesearethentranslatedinto
observableandmeasurableelementssoastoformanindexof
measurementoftheconcept.Operationallydefiningaconceptinvolvesa
seriesofsteps.
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OperationalizingtheConceptofAchievementMotivation
WeexpectthatpeoplewithhighAchievementMotivationwouldhave
thefollowingcharacteristicswhichwewillcalldimensions
1.Drivenbyworkandconstantlyworkingtodrivethesatisfactionof
havingAchievedandaccomplished
2.Findithardtorelaxordevotetheirattentiontootherthanwork
relatedactivity.
3.Prefertoworkontheirownratherthanwithothers(becauseof
wantingtoachieve)
4.Engageinchallengingjobsratherthaneasyroutineonesbutatthe
sametimenotexcessivelychallengingjobsbecausetheirprobabilityof
theiraccomplishmentisnotveryhigh.
5.Theywouldliketogetfrequentfeedbackfromtheirsuperiorsand
colleaguesastheygoalongtoknowhowtheyareperforming.
ElementsofDimension1
Beconstantlyworking(countthenumberofworkinghours)
Reluctanttotaketimeofffromwork(countofdaysoffworked)
Preserveeveniftherearesomesetbacks(keeptrackforhow
frequentlypeoplecontinuetopreservedoingtheirjobsdespitefailures.
ElementsofDimension2

Howoftendoyouthinkofworkwhileyouareawayfromthe
workplace?
Whatareyourhobbies?
Howdoyouspendyourtimewhenyouarenotattheworkplace?
ElementsofDimension3

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Impatientwithineffectivenessandreluctanttoworkwithothers.

ElementsofDimension4
Ameasureofhoweagerpeoplearetoseekchallengingjobscanbe
foundbyaskingemployeeswhatkindsofjobstheyprefer.
Employeespreferencescouldvaryfromfairlyroutinejobstojobswith
progressiveincreaseinchallenge

ElementsofDimension5
Wanttoknowothersopiniononhowwelltheyareperformingboth
positiveandnegative.
Constantlyseekingfeedbackfromdifferentsources(trackinghow
oftenindividualsseekfeedback)
ScaleDefinition
Ascaleisatoolormechanismbywhichindividualsaredistinguishedon
howtheydifferfromoneanotheronthevariablesofinteresttoourstudy.
Thescalecouldbeagrossone(Broadlycategorizeindividualson
certainvariables),oritcouldbefinetunes(differentiateindividualsonthe
variablewithvaryingdegreeofsophistication).

Scales
Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale Interval Scale Ratio Scale

NominalScale
Anominalscaleisonethatallowstheresearchertoassignsubjectsto
certaincategoriesorgroups(suchasmale&femaleforexample).
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Nominalscalescategorizeindividualsorobjectsintomutually
exclusiveandcollectivelyexhaustivegroups.
Theinformationthatcanbegeneratedfromnominalscalingisto
calculatethepercentage(orfrequency).
ExampleofNominalScale:
Nationality:
American Japanese
Chinese Russian
Australian Polish
German Swiss
Indian Zambian
Others.
OrdinalScale
Anordinalscalerankordersthecategoriesinsomemeaningfulway(not
onlycategorizesthevariablestodenotedifferencesamongthevarious
categories).
InanordinalScale,thecategoriesaretobeorderedaccordingtosome
preference.
ExampleofOrdinalScale:
JobCharacteristic Rankingofimportance
Theopportunityprovidedbythejobto:
1Interactwithothers ____
2Useanumberofdifferentskills ____
3Completeawholetaskfrombeginningtoend ____
4Serveothers ____
5Workindependently ____
IntervalScale
Anintervalscaleallowsustoperformcertainarithmeticaloperations
onthedatacollectedfromtherespondents.
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Intervalscaleallowsustomeasurethedistancebetweenanytwo
pointsonthescale.Thishelpsustocomputethemeans&thestandard
deviationsoftheresponsesonthevariables.
Exampleofintervalscale:
Indicatetheextenttowhichyouagreewiththefollowingstatementsas
theyrelatetoyourjob,bycirclingtheappropriatenumberagainsteach,
usingthescalegivenbelow.

Strongly Disagree NeitherAgree Agree Strongly
Disagree NorDisagree Agree_
12345__

Thefollowingopportunitiesofferedbythejobareveryimportanttome:
aInteractingwithothers 1 2 3 4 5
bUsinganumberofdifferentskills 1 2 3 4 5
cCompletingataskfrombeginning 1 2 3 4 5
toend
dServingothers 1 2 3 4 5
eWorkingindependently 1 2 3 4 5
RatioScale
Theratioscaleovercomesthedeficiencyofthearbitraryoriginpoint
oftheintervalscale,inthatithasanabsolute(incontrasttoanarbitrary)
zeropointwhichisameaningfulmeasurementpoint.
Theratioscalenotonlymeasuresthemagnitudeofthedifferences
betweenpointsinthescalebutalsotapstheproportionsinthedifferences.
Itisthemostpowerfulofthefourscalesbecauseithasauniquezero
origin&subsumesallpropertiesoftheotherthreescalestocalculatethe
ratiooftheweightsoftwoindividuals.

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ExampleofRatioScale
Howmanyotherorganizationsdidyouworkforbeforejoiningthissystem?

Howmanystoresdoyouoperate?

Propertiesofthefourscales
Scale Differences Order Distance Unique
origin
Nominal Yes No No No
Ordinal Yes Yes No No
Interval Yes Yes Yes No
Ratio Yes Yes Yes Yes

RatingScale
Thefollowingratingscalesareoftenusedinorganizationalresearch:
Dichotomousscale:
Thedichotomousscaleisusedtoelicitayesornoanswer.Notethata
nominalscaleisusedtoelicittheresponse:
Doyouownacar?()Yes()No
Doyousmoke?()Yes()No
Doyouplayfootball?()Yes()No
Categoryscale:
Thecategoryscaleusesmultipleitemstoelicitasingleresponseasper
thefollowingexample.Thisalsousesthenominalscale.
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1.WhereinCairodoyoureside?
a)Maadi.
b)MisrElGadeda.
c)Helwan.
d)Shoubra
e)Others(specify..)

Likertscale:
Thelikertscaleisdesignedtoexaminehowstronglysubjectsagreeor
disagreewithstatementsona5pointscalewiththefollowinganchors:
Strongly
Agree
Agree Neither Agree Nor
Disagree
Disagree Strongly
Disagree
5 4 3 2 1

Numericalscales
Semanticdifferentialscale:
1. Severalbipolarattributesareidentifiedattheextremesofthescale,
andrespondentsareaskedtoindicatetheirattitudes,onwhatmaybe
calledasemanticspace,towardaparticularindividual,object,orevent
oneachoftheattributes.Thisistreatedasanintervalscale
2. Example:
Unresponsive ------------------------------------------------------------ Responsive
Ugly ------------------------------------------------------------ Beautiful
Timid ----------------------------------------------------------- Courageous

ItemizedRatingScale:
A5pointor7pointscalewithanchors,asneeded,isprovidedforeach
itemandtherespondentstatestheappropriatenumberonthesideof
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eachitem,orcirclestherelevantnumberagainsteachitem.The
responsestotheitemsaresummated.Thisusesanintervalscale.
Example:Respondtoeachitemusingthescalebelow,andindicateyour
responsenumberonthelinebyeachitem:
5
Very Likely
4
Likely
3
Neither Unlikely nor
Likely
2
Unlikely
1
Very Unlikely

Fixedorconstantsumscale:
Therespondentsareaskedtodistributeagivennumberofpointsacross
variousitems.Thisismoreinnatureofanordinalscale.
Example:Inchoosingtoiletsoap,indicatetheimportanceyouattachto
eachoffollowingfiveaspectsbydistributingatotalof100pointsamong
them.

Fragrance

Color

Shape

Size

Texture of lather
100 Total points

Graphicratingscale:
Agraphicrepresentationhelpstherespondentstoindicatetheiranswers
toaparticularquestionbyplacingamarkattheappropriatepointonthe
line.Thisisordinalscale.
_____________ 1. I will be changing my job within the next 12 months.
_____________ 2. I will take on new assignments in the near future.
_____________ 3. It is possible that I will be out of this organization with the next 12
months.
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Example:Onascaleof1to10,howwouldyourateyoursupervisor?
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Excellent

Verybad

Consensusscale:
Scalesarealsodevelopedbyconsensus,wherepanelofjudgesselect
certainitemtheyfeelmeasuretheconceptdesiredtobemeasured.The
itemsarechosenparticularlybasedontheirrelevancetotheconcept.
Suchaconsensusscaleisdevelopedaftertheselecteditemsare
examinedandtestedfortheirvalidityandreliability.

Goodnessofthemeasures

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(7)DataCollectionMethods
DataCollectiondefinedas:
Theyareanintegralpartofresearchdesignasthereareseveraldata
collectionmethodseachwithitsownadvantages&disadvantages.
Sourcesofdata:
PrimaryData:
Datagatheredforresearchfromactualsiteofoccurrence ofevents.
SecondaryData:
Dataalreadyexistsascompanyrecordsorarchives,government
publications,industryanalysisofferedbythemedia,websites.

Data Collection Methods

Includes :-
Interviews
1. Face To Face
2. Telephone
3. Computer Assisted
Questionnaires
1. Personally Administered
2. Through Mail
Observations
1. Individuals
2. Events
Without videotaping Or
Audio Recording
1. Interviews
Un Structured
Interviews
Structured
Interviews
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UnstructuredInterviews
Theyaresolabeledbecausetheinterviewerdoesntentertheinterview
withaplannedsequenceofquestionsthatwillbeaskedtothe
respondent.
ItsObjectiveistobringsomePreliminaryIssuestosurface&
understandthesituationinitstotallysothattheresearchercandecide
whatvariablesneedindepthinvestigations.
TheType&thenatureofthequestionsaskedtotheindividualsvary
accordingtotheirjoblevel&typeofworkdone,SoManagersattop&
middlelevelmightbeaskedmoredirectquestionsabouttheir
Perceptionsofproblems&situations,whileEmployeesatlowerlevel
maybeaskedbroad,openendquestions.
Example:
Tellmesomethingaboutyourunit&department&perhapseven
theorganizationasawhole,intermsofwork,employees&whateverelse
youthinkitsimportant.
Suchrequestmightelicitanelaborateresponsefromsome
respondentswhileothersmightjustgiveaonewordreplywhichisnot
informative.ex(good,boring,).
StructuredInterviews-:
Theinterviewerhasalistofpredeterminedquestionstobeposedto
therespondenteitherpersonallyorthroughthetelephoneormediumof
pc.
Thequestionsconsideredrelevanttotheproblemsthathassurfaced
duringtheunstructuredinterview&theresearcherwillnotethemdown.
Thesequestionswillbeaskedtoeverybodyinthesamemanner&the
interviewermustcomprehendthepurpose&thegoalofeachquestion.
VisualAids:
Aretoolsthatusedinconductinginterviewssuchas(Pictures,line
drawings,cards&othermaterials)&thesetechniquesareusefulin
marketingresearch,advertisinginordertocapturelikes&dislikesofthe
customertodifferenttypesofpackaging.

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Questioningtechniques:
Funneling:
Inthebeginningofanunstructuredinterview,itsadvisabletoask
openendquestiontogetageneralidea&formsomeimpressionsabout
thesituation.
Example:
Whataresomeofyourfeelingsaboutworkingforyour
organization?
Unbiasedquestions:
Questionaskedinawaythatwouldensuretheleastbiasinthe
response&mustnotbeloadedinordernottoinfluenceontheanswers
receivedfromtherespondent.
Example:
Tellmehowyouexperienceyourjob.
ClarifyingIssues:
TheResearchermustunderstandissuesasrespondentmeanstorepresent
themsoitsadvisabletorestateorrephraseimportantinformationgiven
byrespondent.
Example:
Thefacilitiesherearereallypoor.Weoftenhavetocontinueworking
evenwhenwearedyingofthirsty.
Helpingtherespondenttothinkthroughissues:
IftherespondentisnotabletoverbalizeherperceptionsorrepliesIdont
knowsotheresearchershouldaskthequestioninasimplewayor
rephraseit.
Takingnotes:
Theresearchermusttakenotesastheresearcheristakingplaceorassoon
astheinterviewisterminatedespeciallyifthereismorethanoneinterview
intheschedule&itwillbebettertorecordinterviewsontapesifthe
respondenthasnoobjection.

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FaceToFace&Telephoneinterviews
MostUnstructuredinterviewsinorganizationalresearchareconducted
facetoface.whileStructuredinterviewscouldbeeitherfacetofaceor
throughtelephone.
FaceToFaceAdvantages:
Researchercanadaptthequestionsasnecessary,clarifydoubts,&
ensurethattherespondentunderstandbyrepeatingorrephrasingthe
questions.
Researchercanalsopickuphowtherespondentisnervousorunder
pressurethroughhisbodylanguage&itsobviouslybeimpossibletodetect
thisinatelephoneinterview.
FaceToFacedisadvantages:
Geographicallimitation&Highcostoftraininginterviewers.
TelephoneInterviewadvantages:
Differentnumberofpeoplecanbereached(acrossthecountryoreven
internationally)inashortperiodoftime.
Peoplefeelmorecomfortablewhileintroducingthemselvesthrough
phonethanfacetoface.
TelephoneInterviewDisadvantages:
Therespondentscallcouldbeterminatedwithoutwarningbefore
finishingtheinterview.

ComputerAssistedinterviewing:
Thereare2typesofCAI:
ComputerAssistedtelephoneinterviewingCATI:
Usedinresearchorganizationassurveyscanbeobtainedfrom
peopleallovertheworldsincepcisnetworkedinthetelephonesystem.
ComputerAssistedPersonalInterviewingCAPI:
Respondentcanuseintheirowncomputerstorunprogramsby
themselvesoncetheyreceivethesoftware&entertheirresponse.
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Questionnaires
Aquestionnaireisapreformulatedwrittensetofquestionstowhich
respondentrecordtheiranswersusuallywithinrathercloselydefined
alternatives.
Questionnairesareanefficientdatacollectionmethodswhenthe
researcherknowsexactlywhatisrequiredandhowtomeasurethe
variablesofinterest
Questionnairescanbeadministeredpersonally,mailedtothe
respondentsorelectronicallydistributed.
Personallyadministeredquestionnaires
Whenthesurveyisconfinedtoalocalareaandtheorganizationis
willingandabletoassemblegroupsofemployeestorespondtothe
questionnairesattheworkplacepersonallyadministeringthequestionnaires
isagoodwaytocollectdata.
Mailquestionnaires
Themainadvantageofmailquestionnairesisthatawidegeographical
areacanbecoveredinthesurveytheyaremailedtotherespondentswho
cancompletethemattheirownconvenience,intheirhomes,andattheir
ownpace.
Thereturnratesofmailquestionnairearetypicallylow.
Guidelinesforquestionnairedesign
Questionnairedesignershouldfocusonthreeareas
1. Thewordingofthequestions.
2. Planningofcategorizingtheissues.
3. Thegeneralappearanceofthequestionnaire.
Othermethodsofdatacollection
Observationalsurveys
Ismadebygatheringdatawithoutaskingquestionsofrespondents.
Peoplecanbeobservedintheirnaturalworkenvironmentsorinthelab
setting,andtheiractivitiesandbehaviorsorotheritemscanberecorded
Theresearchercanplayoneoftworoles:
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1. Nonparticipantobserver
Hecancollecttheneededdatawithouttryingtobecomeanintegralpart
oftheorganizationalsystem.
2. participantobserver
Theresearcherenterstheorganizationortheresearchsettingactually
becomingapartoftheworkteam.
Structuredobservationalstudies
Wheretheobserverhasapredeterminedsetofcategoriesof
activatestobestudied
Unstructuredobservationalstudies
Iftheresearcherhasnodefiniteideasoftheparticularaspectsthat
needsfocustheobserverwillrecordalmosteverythingthatisobserved.

(8)ResearchReport

Researchproposal
Theresearchproposaldrawnupbytheinvestigatoristheresultofaplanned,
organized,andcarfuleffort,andbasicallycontainsthefollowing:
1. Thebroadgoalsofthestudy.
2. Thespecificproblemtobeinvestigated.
3. Detailsoftheprocedurestobefollowed.
4. Theresearchdesignofferingdetailson:
a. Thesamplingdesign.
b. Datacollectionmethods.
c. Dataanalysis.
5.Timeframeofthestudy,includinginformationonwhenthewritten
reportwillbehandedovertothesponsors.
6.Thebudget,detailingthecostswithreferencetospecificitemsof
expenditure.

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Thereport
Itisimportantthattheresultofthestudytherecommendationstosolvethe
problemareeffectivelycommunicatedtothesponsor,sothatthesuggestions
madeareacceptedandimplemented.

Thewrittenreport
Thewrittenreportenablesthemanagertoweightthefactsandarguments
presentedtherein,andimplementtheacceptablerecommendations.

Integralpartsofthereport
TheTitlePage:Thetitleofthereportshouldsuccinctlyindicatewhatthe
studyisallabout.
TableofContent:Thetableofcontentwithpagereferenceusuallyliststhe
importantheadingsandsubheadingsinthereport.
TheResearchProposalandtheAuthorizationLetter:Acopyofboth.
TheExecutiveSummaryorSynopsis:Theexecutivesummary(orsynopsis)isa
briefaccountoftheresearchstudythatprovidesanoverview.
TheIntroductorySection:theintroductorysectionstartswithastatementof
theproblemunderinvestigation.
TheBodyoftheReport:Inthispart,thedetailsoftheinterviewsconducted,
theliteraturesurvey,thetheoreticalframework,andthehypothesesare
furnished.
TheFinalPart:Thefinalpartofthereportwillcontaintheconclusionsdrawn
fromthefindings.Inmostcases,alistofrecommendationsfor
implementationwillfollow.
Acknowledgments:helpreceivedothersincludingthepeopleparticipatedin
thestudy.

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References

(1)Oxfordpaperbackdictionary,3rdedition
(2)ResearchMethodologybyDr.MSSridhar,Head,Library&Documentation,ISRO
SatelliteCentre,Bangalore560017

(3)THEPRINCIPLESOFSCIENTIFICRESEARCH,ByPAULFREEDMAN,B.Sc.,M.I.E.E.,
F.I.E.S.,HeadofLampResearch,Messrs.CromptonParkinson,Ltd.

(4)ApresentationbyDr.AdelM.Zayed,oneofmyinstructorsinmyMBA.
(5)Website:http://www.thefreedictionary.com/research
(6)ResearchmethodsforBusiness,ForthEdition,byUmaSekaran,SouthIllinois
UniversityatCarbondale.
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