Experimental Ethnography: The Work of Film in the Age of Video

(Durham NC: Duke University Press, 1999)

Catherine Russell
Experimental film an ethn!"raphi# film have l!n" $een #!nsiere separate, aut!n!m!us
pra#ti#es !n the mar"ins !f mainstream #inema% Ea#h has $een en!&e &ith its !&n set !f
#riti#al #ate"!ries, its !&n hist!ri#al linea"e an its !&n #!n#erns ra&n lar"ely fr!m the !mains
!f m!ernism an anthr!p!l!"y respe#tively% '!&ever, &ithin the #!ntemp!rary #riti#al #!ntext !f
p!stm!ernism an p!st#!l!nialism, $!th ethn!"raphy an experimental film have $e"un t! fill
ne& #ultural r!les% (he last ten !r fifteen years have seen a "reat eal !f film an vie!)makin"
that #hallen"es the neat #!mpartmentali*ati!n !f these m!es !f film pra#ti#e% +n li"ht !f these
evel!pments, a hist!ry !f experimental ethn!"raphy emer"es as a revisi!nin" !f films that have
fallen thr!u"h the is#iplinary "aps !f film hist!ry%
(he term ,experimental ethn!"raphy, has $e"un t! #ir#ulate in p!st#!l!nial anthr!p!l!"i#al the!ry
as a &ay !f referrin" t! is#!urse that #ir#umvents the empiri#ism an !$-e#tivity #!nventi!nally
linke t! ethn!"raphy% Examples !f its literary manifestati!ns a$!un, an an en!rm!us am!unt
!f #riti#al &!rk has $een pr!u#e !n experimental f!rms !f &ritten ethn!"raphy%(1) +mmeiately
apparent in the &!rk !f .ames Cliff!r, /e!r"e 0ar#us, 1tephen (yler, 0i#hael (aussi" an
!thers is that !n#e the terms ,experimental, an ,ethn!"raphy, are $r!u"ht t!"ether, $!th terms
uner"! a transf!rmati!n% +n any meium, experimental ethn!"raphy refers t! a rethinkin" $!th !f
aestheti#s an #ultural representati!n%
Experimental ethn!"raphy is n!t intene as a ne& #ate"!ry !f film pra#ti#e, $ut a meth!!l!"i#al
in#ursi!n !f aestheti#s !n #ultural representati!n, a #!llisi!n !f s!#ial the!ry an f!rmal
experimentati!n% +n the iss!luti!n !f is#iplinary $!unaries, ethn!"raphy is a means !f rene&in"
the avant)"arism !f ,experimental, film, !f m!$ili*in" its play &ith lan"ua"e an f!rm f!r
hist!ri#al ens% ,Ethn!"raphy, like&ise $e#!mes an expansive term in &hi#h ,#ulture, is
represente fr!m many ifferent, fra"mente an meiate perspe#tives% 2!r ifferent reas!ns,
$!th experimental an ethn!"raphi# film pra#ti#es have $een e#lare ea in p!stm!ern an
p!st#!l!nial #ulture, an yet in their "h!stly #!nver"en#e, they survive as a site !f rai#al praxis at
the en !f the 34th #entury%
(he effe#t !f $rin"in" experimental an ethn!"raphi# film t!"ether is !ne !f mutual illuminati!n%
5n the experimental sie, ethn!"raphy pr!vies a #riti#al frame&!rk f!r shiftin" the f!#us fr!m
f!rmal #!n#erns t! a re#!"niti!n !f avant)"are filmmakers6 #ultural investment an p!siti!nin"%
5n the ethn!"raphi# sie, the textual inn!vati!ns that have $een evel!pe $y experimental
filmmakers ini#ate the &ays that ,the #riti7ue !f authenti#ity, has $een playe !ut in the #inema%
Experimental film #an $e seen as a kin !f la$!rat!ry in &hi#h the p!liti#s !f representati!n an
the #!nventi!ns !f !$servati!nal #inema are $r!u"ht uner s#rutiny% (heref!re the meth! !f this
$!!k is iale#ti#al, m!vin" in t&! ire#ti!ns% (extual analyses !f 89 ifferent films an vie!s &ill
f!#us !n an ethn!"raphi# #inema free fr!m its s!#ial)s#ien#e !ri"ins, &hile #!l!nial an p!st)
#!l!nial f!rms !f l!!kin" an !#umentin" &ill $e ientifie &ithin the hist!ry !f experimental film%
2r!m the interpenetrati!n !f the avant)"are an ethn!"raphi# #inemas emer"es a su$versive
f!rm !f ethn!"raphy in &hi#h #ultural #riti7ue is #!m$ine &ith experiments in textual f!rm% +f
ethn!"raphy #an $e unerst!! as an experimentati!n &ith #ultural ifferen#e an #r!ss)#ultural
experien#e, a su$versive ethn!"raphy is a m!e !f pra#ti#e that #hallen"es the vari!us stru#tures
!f ra#ism, sexism an imperialism that are ins#ri$e impli#itly an expli#itly in s! many f!rms !f
#ultural representati!n% (akin" $!th ethn!"raphy an the avant)"are in their $r!aest p!ssi$le
senses, their p!ints !f #!nta#t es#ri$e the parameters !f a #ultural pra#ti#e that may n!t $e
,ne&,, $ut is ne&ly visi$le%
(he #riti#al meth! !f this $!!k pr!#ees $y &ay !f hist!ri#al -uxtap!siti!n an "eneri#
is-un#ti!n% : sele#tive, interpretive "a*e $a#k at hist!ri#al texts, revie&in" them !n vie!, is n!t
!nly a pr!#ess !f re)visi!n, $ut als! a iale#ti#al meth! !f m!nta"e% + &ant t! pla#e ifferent films
an vie!s a"ainst !ne an!ther, n!t as instan#es !f an hist!ri#al tele!l!"y, $ut as hist!ri#al
interrupti!ns% ;e#ause experimental ethn!"raphy is a textual pra#ti#e that is in many #ases le"i$le
!nly retr!spe#tively, an exhaustive hist!ry !f it is n!t p!ssi$le% +t is n!t a f!rm, $ut a #riti#al meth!
pr!u#e in an thr!u"h film an vie!% Experimental ethn!"raphy is n!t simply a ne& tenen#y
in #!ntemp!rary film, $ut als! a means !f re)visi!nin" the l!n" hist!ry !f the interse#ti!n !f the
avant)"are an anthr!p!l!"y% (he filmmakers &ith &h!m this $!!k is #!n#erne are all
per#eive as ,!thers,, re"arless !f their ethni# ientity% (heir vari!us #ultural !rientati!ns are
eeply em$ee in their &!rk, an mu#h !f my analysis is ev!te t! an unravellin" !f the
su$-e#tive spa#es pr!u#e $y the #!ntrai#ti!ns an intenti!ns !f these texts% 5ne !f the key
effe#ts !f $rin"in" ethn!"raphy an the avant)"are t!"ether is a #!n-un#ti!n !f #ultural #riti7ue
an aestheti# appre#iati!n% +n !ther &!rs, n!t all the filmmakers !r their &!rks &ill emer"e
uns#athe%
(he $!!k is ivie int! five se#ti!ns% +n the first intr!u#t!ry se#ti!n, a the!reti#al frame&!rk &ill
$e sket#he in Chapter 5ne, f!ll!&e $y analyses !f t&! exemplary experimental ethn!"raphi#
films in Chapter (&!% 0y perspe#tive !n p!stm!ern ethn!"raphy &ill $e evel!pe in the first
#hapter $y &ay !f $rief hist!ries !f experimental an ethn!"raphi# #inemas, al!n" &ith its
p!tential as a #riti#al pra#ti#e% 5ne !f the key thinkers in this the!ri*ati!n !f experimental
ethn!"raphy is <alter ;en-amin% ;en-amin reali*e the p!liti#al p!tential !f the ne& meia !f the
t&entieth #entury, an his aestheti#s have $een "enerally re#!"ni*e as a the!ri*ati!n !f ,an
hist!ri#al avant)"are,, !ne #!mmitte t! s!#ial transf!rmati!n% 5n !ne level, this inv!lves the
immersi!n !f art in everyay life, an the la#k !f aut!n!my !f the art)&!rk, a p!siti!n ;en-amin
share &ith many !f the surrealists an aaists !f his time% +n Chapter (&! the terms !f a
surrealist ethn!"raphi# pr!-e#t &ill $e intr!u#e $y &ay !f t&! films that !#ument the h!rr!r !f
#!l!nial #ulture in extra!rinarily experimental &ays: =uis ;u>uel6s =as 'ures (1983) an (ra#ey
0!ffatt6s Ni"ht Cries (1994)% (he rai#al am$i"uity !f surrealism is a #ru#ial p!int !f referen#e f!r
!#umentary f!rms that resist the #l!sures !f realist representati!n, an these t&! films are "!!
examples !f texts that evae the ,#!rre#tness, !f a realist manate%
(he se#!n se#ti!n !f the $!!k, ,D!#umentary ;ef!re D!#umentary,, #!ntains three #hapters,
ea#h expl!rin" a ifferent aspe#t !f n!nfi#ti!n film in the silent peri!% Chapter (hree is a$!ut the
r!le !f the $!y in the #inema !f attra#ti!ns, in#luin" the pr!t!)#inemati# ph!t!"raphy !f
E&ear 0uy$ri"e% (he visi$ility !f the $!y, the sensati!ns !f the $!y, an the
#!mm!ifi#ati!n !f the $!y &ere all transf!rme in the ne& te#hni7ues !f representati!n,
transp!rtati!n an inustriali*ati!n that pr!liferate in the early 34th #entury% Cinema playe a
#ru#ial r!le in this pr!#ess, parti#ularly as it interse#te &ith s#ien#e, t!urism an ethn!l!"y% (he
affinities $et&een the avant)"are an ,primitive #inema,, expresse in 2r!m the P!le t! the
E7uat!r (?ervant /iankian an :n"ela Ri##i =u##hi, 19@A) an $y stru#tural filmmaker Davi
Rimmer (1eash!re 19A1), &ill $e expl!re as a m!ernist f!rm !f ethn!"raphy% N!ti!ns !f travel
an ut!pian s!#ial f!rmati!ns are intr!u#e in Chapter 2!ur in analyses !f early a#tualities sh!t
in Bue$e# in 1948, /e!r"es 0CliDs6 E!ya"e ans la lune (1948), an the 7u!tati!n !f the 0CliDs
film in a 19@3 ethn!"raphi# film $y ;ra*ilian filmmaker Paula /aitan (Uaka)% Chapter 2ive is a$!ut
E&ar Curtis6s film +n the =an !f the 'eahunters, its epl!yment !f '!lly&!! mel!rama in
191F, an its ,rest!rati!n, in 19A8% Rethinkin" early #inema as an ar#hival #inema #asts the myth
!f primitivism as a m!el f!r an alternative f!rm !f !#umentary pra#ti#e that pre#ee the
!#umentary m!e instituti!nali*e $y 2laherty in 1933% (hese films may have $een mae at the
hei"ht !f #!l!nial #ulture, an yet they isplay a textual !penness that lens itself mu#h m!re
reaily t! p!st#!l!nial misreain"s an appr!priati!ns than later !#umentary f!rms ten t! all!&%
1e#ti!n (hree #!nsists !f t&! #hapters a$!ut the "a*e as a is#iplinary stru#ture% +n the first
instan#e, Chapter 1ix, ethn!"raphy &ill $e mappe !nt! the share terrain !f p!rn!"raphy an
*!!l!"y% (he is#iplinary te#hni7ues !f #!ntainment an v!yeurism are te#hni7ues !f mastery that
#an an have $een ismantle $y texts that epl!y an ,unis#ipline, "a*e, as exemplifie $y five
very ifferent films: 0i#r!#ultural +n#ients at (en G!!s (Ray ;ir&histell, 19H9), Unsere
:frikareise (Peter Iu$elka, 19HH), 1im$a (0artin an 5sa .!hns!n, 193@) an 'ie an 1eek (1u
2rieri#h, 199H)% Chapter 1even is a$!ut stru#tural film as a representati!n !f the "a*e that
#reates a realism 7uite unlike the !$-e#tivity !f !#umentary realism, !r the ie"eti# realism !f
narrative film% Chantal :kerman, :ny <arh!l, Davi Rimmer, .!y#e <ielan, .ames ;ennin"
an ;ill Ei!la are filmmakers &h! have $r!u"ht a f!rmal minimalism t! $ear !n ,!#umentary,
material% (heir "a*e is a fixe stare that pr!u#es #ertain pan!pti#!ni# effe#ts, $ut their
,unis#ipline, aestheti#ism #reates a vis#eral tensi!n $et&een vie&er an vie&e, #learin" a
visual spa#e f!r inter#ultural experien#e an representati!n%
(he f!urth se#ti!n, entitle ,5ther Realities,, #!ntains t&! #hapters !n parti#ular interse#ti!ns !f
avant)"are an ethn!"raphi# pra#ti#es that #hallen"e the epistem!l!"i#al f!unati!ns !f visual
kn!&le"e an #ultural hist!ry% Chapter Ei"ht aresses the m!ernist fas#inati!n &ith
p!ssessi!n rituals% :nalyses !f (ran#e an Dan#e in ;ali (0ar"aret 0ea an /re"!ry ;ates!n,
1991), Divine '!rsemen (0aya Deren, 19FAJ@9), =es 0aitres f!us (.ean R!u#h, 199F), an + D!
N!t In!& <hat +t +s + :m =ike (;ill Ei!la, 19@H) ini#ate h!& tran#e films emar#ate the limits !f
visual kn!&le"e, an pr!u#e the su$-e#tivity !f the 5ther as a is#!urse !f ex#ess% 2!un
f!!ta"e filmmakin" &ill in turn $e is#usse, in Chapter Nine, as a is#!urse !f the $!y in
representati!n% (hr!u"h analyses !f : 0!vie (;ru#e C!nner, 199@), Pe""y an 2re in 'ell
(=eslie (h!rnt!n, 199F), (ri$ulati!n 99 (Crai" ;al&in, 1991) an 'ans&!rth 1!n"s (;la#k :ui!
2ilm C!lle#tive, 19@9), + &ill ar"ue that ar#hival film pra#ti#es arti#ulate an hist!ri!"raphy !f rai#al
mem!ry% (he ,!ther reality, !f these films is the ethn!"raphi# sphere !f the ima"e)$ank in &hi#h
the $!y is the inexi#al si"n !f hist!ri#al mem!ry in a #ulture !f amnesia%
(he #!n#luin" #hapter !n ,aut!ethn!"raphy,, aresses the #!nfluen#e !f pers!nal #inema an
#ultural representati!n in several examples !f iary filmmakin": Reminis#en#es !f a .!urney t!
=ithuania (.!nas 0ekas, 19A3), vie!s $y 1aie ;ennin" an /e!r"e Iu#har, Iilat (ahimik6s
<hy is ?ell!& the 0ile !f the Rain$!&K (1998) an Chris 0arker6s 1ans 1!leil (19@3)% +n the
intersti#es !f travel an aut!$i!"raphy, these filmmakers evel!p the theme !f pers!nal an
#ultural mem!ry as a fun#ti!n !f the film an vie! meiums% (hey als! expl!re the limits !f self)
representati!n in ifferent #ultural #!ntexts, an the #!ntrai#ti!ns impli#it in the aut!ethn!"raphi#
m!e% Diary filmmakin" an the use !f aut!$i!"raphi#al material are extremely effe#tive an
&iely use means !f ,p!liti#i*in" the pers!nal, an in many &ays the mi#r!p!liti#s !f everyay
life have $e#!me the terrain a#r!ss &hi#h su$-e#tivity is ins#ri$e% :n yet, aut!$i!"raphy in film
an vie! is rarely a s!ur#e !f truth an authenti#ity, $ut a ispersal !f representati!n, su$-e#tivity,
experien#e an #ultural hist!ry% + &ant t! su""est that the "aps $et&een these layers an
temp!ralities are f!re"r!une in iary filmmakin", an that their failure t! #!here in an !ri"inary
s!ur#e name ,the auth!r, fun#ti!ns as a f!rm !f rai#al ethn!"raphy%
;en-amin6s !&n the!reti#al meth! &as !ne !f m!nta"e, $rin"in" t!"ether iverse 7u!tati!ns,
aph!risms an !$-e#ts !f stuy% 'e als! av!#ate a rai#al sense !f hist!ri#al is#!ntinuity,
thr!u"h an em$ra#e !f ne& te#hn!l!"ies !f representati!n% (he su$title !f this $!!k refers t! his
lanmark essay !f 1989, ,(he <!rk !f :rt in the :"e !f 0e#hani#al Repr!u#ti!n,, in &hi#h he
ar"ue that film &as m!re than an!ther artf!rm, $ut ha "reatly #han"e the p!liti#al an s!#ial
r!le !f art in #ulture% (3) :t the en !f the 34th #entury, it is vie!, al!n" &ith an intimati!n !f !ther
f!rms !f ele#tr!ni# ima"in" in a rapily #han"in" te#hn!l!"i#al envir!nment, that has $r!u"ht
a$!ut an!ther shift, !f e7ual ma"nitue, in visual #ulture% 5ne !f the themes !f this $!!k is a
revisi!n !f ethn!"raphi# hist!ri!"raphy fr!m a parai"m !f l!st an ,vanishin", #ultures, t! !ne !f
#ultural transf!rmati!n% (he relati!n $et&een film an vie! serves as an anal!"y f!r ethn!"raphi#
hist!ri!"raphy an, at the same time, as a meth!!l!"i#al interventi!n int! film hist!ry%
(he a"e !f vie! refers t! a time &hen the #inema is en-!yin" a kin !f re$irth% Eie! $rin"s t! film
ne& an valua$le means !f isseminati!n, ena$lin" us t! see an expl!re film hist!ry, t! preserve
an rest!re it, an als! t! intervene thr!u"h pr!#esses !f fra"mentati!n, re#!m$inati!n an
#!l!uri*ati!n% Experimental an inepenent pra#titi!ners may $e ra&n t! vie! f!r its
e#!n!mi#s an flexi$ility, !ften expl!rin" its !&n prin#iples !f meium spe#ifi#ity, $ut they e7ually
!ften ra& !n the te#hni7ues an less!ns !f the #inema% +t #ann!t $e true that vie! is repla#in"
#inema, &hen i"ital te#hn!l!"ies are ena$lin" us t! see s! mu#h m!re #inema% + &!ul prefer t!
ar"ue that vie! is an extensi!n !f #inema, !ften fun#ti!nin" as an alle"!ry !f its vanishin" aura%
2ilm an vie! are in many respe#ts interepenent, intermin"le meia, in terms !f pr!u#ti!n
pra#ti#es, spe#tat!rship an aestheti#s%(8)
;y &ay !f vie!, film has emer"e fr!m the rarefie spa#e !f the theatre an penetrate the
h!me, the !ffi#e an the ethn!"raphi# fiel itself% Eie! is a meium that extens far $ey!n the
art &!rl t! a &ie ran"e !f #ultural pra#ti#es, fr!m $r!a#ast (E, t! surveillan#e, mei#ine an
!mesti# uses% Eie! has n!t !nly #han"e the #ultural r!le !f film, it has $e#!me a #ultural t!!l
that has ha an impa#t !n many aspe#ts !f everyay life in many parts !f the &!rl% +t is $etter
es#ri$e as a ,meia pra#ti#e, than a ,te#hni#al evi#e, $e#ause vie! is al&ays part !f #ulture,
em$ee in a net&!rk !f s!#ial relati!ns% (F) :lth!u"h a num$er !f vie!s &ill $e is#usse
(&!rks $y ;ill Ei!la, /e!r"e Iu#har an 1aie ;ennin"), this $!!k is n!t a$!ut vie!, $ut a$!ut
the &ays that vie! ena$les us t! see film ifferently, an the impli#ati!ns !f this perspe#tive t!
the #ultural r!les !f the avant)"are an ethn!"raphy%
Ethn!"raphy in its m!st expansive sense refers n!t t! the representati!n !f !ther #ultures, $ut t!
the is#!urse !f #ulture in representati!n% :ny an all films #!ul thus $e es#ri$e as
ethn!"raphi# in s! far as they #an $e rea as #ultural texts% 5ne ire#ti!n that this $!!k mi"ht
have taken is the !ne leain" fr!m +talian ne!realism t! the many examples !f ramati# narratives
set in a #ulturally spe#ifi# milieu, usin" pr!fessi!nal an n!n)pr!fessi!nal a#t!rs% 2ilms like 1hirley
Clarke6s (he C!!l <!rl (19HF) an (he C!nne#ti!n (19H1), Ni#k /!me*6s =a&s !f /ravity
(1993), Pe""y :h&esh an 0ar"ie 1tr!sser6s vie! 1tran"e <eather (1998), an !*ens !f !ther
texts mae in many ifferent #!untries mi"ht $e es#ri$e as experimental ethn!"raphies% +ranian
ire#t!rs Iiar!stami an 0akhmal$ar are extra!rinarily playful &ith the theatri#al an narrative
#!nventi!ns !f the ne!realist herita"e% Espe#ially in #r!ss)#ultural vie&in" situati!ns, many films
take !n ethn!"raphi# aspe#ts, as ,ethn!"raphy, $e#!mes less !f a s#ientifi# pra#ti#e an m!re
like a #riti#al meth!, a means !f ,reain", #ulture an n!t transparently representin" it% <hile this
pr!-e#t is restri#te t! ,n!n)narrative film, a term that en!tes the fiel !f !#umentary an the
avant)"are, it sh!ul $e $!rn in min that the ne!realist tenen#y has taken !n a num$er !f
p!stm!ern "uises, as filmmakers interrupt the illusi!nisti# humanism !f the ne!realist pr!-e#t%
: hist!ry !f anti)!#umentary, p!eti# !#umentary an su$-e#tive !#umentary that &!ul in#lue
the films !f .!ris +vens, 'umphrey .ennin"s, .!han van er Ieuken an the vari!us #inCma
ire#t, #inCma vCritC an free #inema m!vements !f the 1994s an H4s, &!ul aress many !f
the issues in this $!!k% (9) 0y f!#us !n the avant)"are takes a sli"htly ifferent path thr!u"h film
hist!ry, "uie $y ;en-amin6s #all f!r an a&akenin" fr!m the ream !f hist!ry, &hi#h has $een in
film hist!ry, lar"ely a ream !f humanism% Experimental ethn!"raphy inv!lves, a$!ve all, a
ismantlin" !f the universalist impulse !f realist aestheti#s int! a #lash !f v!i#es, #ultures, $!ies
an lan"ua"es% ,(he human #!niti!n, nees t! $e reth!u"ht as !ne !f !n"!in" #ultural
en#!unter, translati!n an transiti!n, an it is the avant)"are, + $elieve, m!re s! than
,!#umentary,, that pr!vies the t!!ls f!r this !perati!n%
: "r!&in" sense !f s!methin" ne& is evel!pin" as film an vie! pra#ti#es ev!lve int! an
,inter#ultural, expl!rati!n !f s!#ial representati!n%(H) <ithin the vari!us is#ussi!ns !f
ethn!"raphi# revisi!nism, spearheae $y the!rists su#h as .ames Cliff!r, ;ill Ni#h!ls an (rinh
0inh)ha, there is a surprisin" p!verty !f attenti!n t! f!rmal aspe#ts !f #!ntemp!rary film an
vie!% Certainly the emer"en#e !f ne& v!i#es, ne& te#hn!l!"ies an ne& s!#ial f!rmati!ns
(in#luin" iasp!ri#, "ay, feminist an p!st)#!l!nial) are key t! the ne& film an vie! f!rms that
are in #ir#ulati!n% 2r!m this #!ntemp!rary situati!n, a hist!ry !f experimental ethn!"raphy is
emer"in" in retr!spe#t, &hi#h it is the pr!-e#t !f this $!!k t! illuminate% +t is n!t meant t! $e in any
&ay exhaustive !r #!mplete% +t is intene as a #art!"raphy !f experimental ethn!"raphy, a
mappin", in &hi#h hist!ry is represente as a fantasti#, flexi$le an inauthenti# text%
5n#e ethn!"raphy is unerst!! as a is#ursive stru#ture, its affinities &ith filmi# !nt!l!"ies !f
mem!riali*ati!n, reempti!n an l!ss $e#!me a ri#h s!ur#e !f alle"!ri#al p!ssi$ility% +f the #inema
itself has taken !n s!me !f the aura !f a ,vanishin" #ulture, as it "raually ev!lves int! the
multiple f!rms !f i"ital an ele#tr!ni# meia, experimental ethn!"raphy refers t! a m!e !f
representati!n that unerstans itself as a pra#ti#e that is hist!ri#al, that takes pla#e in a m!ment,
!r a#r!ss several m!ments in time% :s a pra#ti#e "r!une in #!l!nial #ulture, ethn!"raphi# film
has expl!ite #inemati# realism as a f!rm !f preservati!n, $ut that realism is n!& in e#ay% :s
ar#hai# textual f!rms $e#!me le"i$le as is#!urses !f imperialism, as the "a*e !f p!&er is
ethr!ne, ne& hist!ries #an emer"e% Re&!rkin" mem!ry an traiti!n as fantasti# f!rms !f
#ultural esire))rather than sites !f authenti#ity))!nt!l!"ies !f l!ss #an $e#!me alle"!ries !f
esire%
Enn!tes
1) 0ar# 0an"anar!, 0!ernist :nthr!p!l!"y: 2r!m 2iel&!rk t! (ext, (Prin#et!n: Prin#et!n UP,
1994)%
3) <alter ;en-amin, ,(he <!rk !f :rt in the :"e !f 0e#hani#al Repr!u#ti!n,, +lluminati!ns, trans%
'arry G!hn (Ne& ?!rk: 1#h!#ken ;!!ks, 19H9) 31A)393%
8) 1ee (im!thy C!rri"an, : Cinema &ith!ut <alls: 0!vies an Culture after Eietnam, (Ne&
;runs&i#k N.: Rut"ers UP, 1991) f!r a is#ussi!n !f the effe#ts !f vie! !n mainstream #inema%
F) 0i#hael Ren!v an Erika 1uer$ur", ,Res!lvin" Eie!,, in Res!luti!ns: C!ntemp!rary Eie!
Pra#ti#es, 0i#hael Ren!v an Erika 1uer$ur", es%( 0inneap!lis: University !f 0innes!ta Press
199H) xv%
9) (he text that #!mes #l!sest t! this pr!-e#t is 0i#hael Ren!v e, (he!ri*in" D!#umentary, (Ne&
?!rk: R!utle"e, 1998)%
H) (he term ,inter#ultural, is =aura 0arks6s, (he 1kin !f 2ilm: Experimental Cinema an the
+nter#ultural Experien#e, PhD Diss, University !f R!#hester, 1999%