SURFACE RESIDUAL STRESSES IN DRY TURNING OF 0.

45% C STEEL

Tadeusz Leppert
1
, Ru Lin Peng
2

1
Department of Production Engineering, University of Technology and Life Sciences, Bydgoszcz,
Poland,
2
Department of Management and Engineering, Linkping University, SE-581 83 Linkping,
Sweden

ABSTRACT

Residual stresses in a surface layer determine many exploitation characteristics of machined
surface. Depending on their kind and the type of applied loading, the influence of residual
stresses can be negative or positive. Tensile residual stresses usually exert highly detrimental
impact on several functional aspects such as strength, fatigue life, corrosion, wear resistance, etc.,
whereas compressive residual stresses are considered to have a beneficial effect on these features.
The residual stresses found in mechanical parts are mainly generated in the final steps of
machining process and are highly dependent on the machining conditions used. The increasing
trend in industrial practice to eliminate cutting fluids from machining processes substantially
changes machining conditions and influences the relationship between factors causing residual
stresses. The main purpose of the presented investigations was to identify the relationship
between residual stresses in a surface layer and the method of cooling employed. Using the X-ray
diffraction method, residual stresses generated in both the cutting (circumferential) and feed
(axial) directions were analysed. On the basis of empirical results the influence of turning with
and without the application of emulsion on residual stresses was identified for a broad range of
cutting parameters. The results showed that the method of cooling and cutting parameters exert a
substantial influence on residual stresses. In the used range of cutting conditions, tensile residual
stresses were detected. The elimination of cutting fluid from a turning process of C45 steel
increased the magnitude of residual stresses in the surface layer. Residual stresses in the cutting
direction turned out to be higher than in the feed direction in most cases of cutting conditions.

INTRODUCTION

Residual stresses in a surface layer determine many exploitation characteristics of machined
parts. Depending on their kind and the type of applied loading, the influence of residual stresses
can be negative or positive. Tensile residual stresses usually exert highly detrimental impact on
several functional aspects such as strength, fatigue life, corrosion, wear resistance, etc., whereas
compressive residual stresses are considered to have a beneficial effect on these features.
Furthermore, the residual stresses in surface layer after machining may also cause dimensional
instability of components (distortion) [1,2,4]. Therefore, the knowledge of residual stresses in the
surface layer is important when critical structural components are machined, especially if the
objective is to reach high quality and reliability levels. The direct impacts of residual stresses on
the functional behaviour of a part are relatively well known [5,8,10]. Nevertheless, a number of
questions regarding the generation of residual stresses in machining, their type, values and
distribution persists [4,10,11].

304 Copyright JCPDS-International Centre for Diffraction Data 2009 ISSN 1097-0002
The residual stresses found in mechanical parts are mainly generated in the final steps of
machining processes and are highly dependent on the machining conditions used. The increasing
trend in industrial practice to eliminate cutting fluids from machining processes substantially
changes machining conditions and affects the relationship between factors causing residual
stresses. Therefore, considering the significance of residual stresses for reliability and longevity
of a part, a lot of attention is paid to the residual stresses issue in terms of machining zone
cooling and lubrication medium application together with the process parameters selection.
Unfortunately the mechanism of residual stresses generation is still not completely recognized,
particularly the influence of reduction or elimination of cutting liquids. For that reason the
understanding and proper control of residual stresses in machining are a prerequisite in order to
enhance components performance and minimize risk of failure or dimensional instability.

The main reasons of residual stresses initiation in machining operations are mechanical and
temperature impacts which change the subsurface physical and mechanical properties. Their
influence depends to a large extent on the machining conditions, mainly selected cutting
parameters and cooling and lubrication of cutting zone, which determine physical phenomena on
the tool - workpiece interface [10,12].

Therefore, considering the significance of residual stresses for mechanical parts durability the
main purpose of the presented investigations was to determine residual stresses in the surface
layer generated in turning C45 steel in dry and wet conditions, taking into account a large range
of cutting parameters.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Cylindrical turning tests were carried out on a lathe TUD 50 with 6.7 kW main motor. Medium
carbon C45 steel bars of 60 mm in diameter with separated segments of 15 mm length for each
cutting test were prepared (Fig. 1).

Before the machining, the test specimens were
annealed and then pre-machined with 1 mm cut to
remove any possible surface irregularity and to
ensure a similar surface condition for all the. The
specimens for the residual stresses measurement
were cut off from the machined bar. The chemical
composition and mechanical properties of C45
steel presents table 1.

Fig. 1. Specimen and the residual
stresses measuring directions

Sintered carbide inserts of SPUN 120308 covered by PVD method with (TiAlSi)N coating were
employed, fixed in a tool holder of CSSPR 20 x 20mm. The following cutting point geometry
was used: the orthogonal rake angle
0
=5
0
, clearance angle
0
=10
0
, cutting edge angle
r
=45
0
,
cutting inclination angle
s
=0
0
and corner radius r

=0.8mm. The quoted inserts were

recommended for machining of anticorrosive, austenitic or heat resistance steels as well as soft
steels machined with medium cutting speeds. In order to minimize the influence of cutting tool
305 Copyright JCPDS-International Centre for Diffraction Data 2009 ISSN 1097-0002
wear on investigated quantities, each set of turning experiments was conducted using a new
insert.

Table 1. Chemical composition and mechanical properties of C45 steel
Chemical composition, %
Designation
C Si Mn P S Cu Cr Mo Ni
0,42-0,50 0,17-0,37 0,5-0,8 0,04 0,04 0,30 0,30 0,10 0,30
Mechanical properties
R
e
, MPa R
m
, MPa A
5
, % HB
C45
340 620 16 207

The experiments were planned according to the design of experiments technique [6]. For dry
cutting the following cutting parameters were used: cutting speed v
c
= 25.5, 129.3, and 255
m/min; cutting feed rate f= 0.08, 0.27, and 0.47 mm/rev; and depth of cut a
p
= 1 and 2 mm. The
same feed rates were used for turning with emulsion. However, the cutting speed was restricted to
129.3 and 255 m/min while an additional cutting depth a
p
= 0,5 mm was also included.

The following designations for cutting cooling and lubrication conditions were used:
E refers to wet turning with a flood supply of 6% emulsion with a basis of emulsifying oil
ARTEsol Super EP and a flow volume of 4 l/min,
D denotes dry turning (turning without the application of any emulsion).
The emulsifying oil ARTEsol Super EP containing up to 46% concentration of mineral oil and
15% additives to increase lubricity is recommended for multi machining operations of steel, cast
iron and nonferrous metals. With water it constitutes a transparent emulsion.

For the residual stresses measurement,
specimens were fixed in the specimen holder
on a Seifert 4-axis X-ray diffractometer (Fig.
2). The Cr-K radiation was used, together
with a 2 mm pinhole collimator to limit the
measurement area on the specimen surface.
The residual stress components in the cutting
(hoop) and feed (axial) directions in the
surface layer were analysed by the sin
2

method [7]. For each stress component, the
Fe-211 peak from eleven sample directions,
spreading between = -55
o
and +55
o
, was
measured. By fitting a Pseudo-voigt function
to the experimental data, the diffraction peak
centre was determined and used for
calculating the residual stress. The X-ray
elastic constant is 5.8 x 10
-6
/MPa [3].



Fig. 2. Residual stresses measurement set up


306 Copyright JCPDS-International Centre for Diffraction Data 2009 ISSN 1097-0002
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The analysis of the results showed that tensile residual stresses prevail in the surface for all the
applied cutting conditions in both the cutting (hoop) and primary feed motion (axial) directions.
However their values varied in a wide range, from 20 to 550 MPa. The circumferential stresses
were generally greater than the axial stresses. The average standard error associated with the
measured data was 68 and 20 MPa for the former and the latter, respectively. Cutting parameters
as well as cooling and lubrication method exerted a strong influence on residual stresses in both
directions as analysed below.

In dry turning a substantial influence of cutting speed and feed rate on residual stresses in the
hoop and axial directions was identified. Increasing cutting speed or feed rate implies an increase
in hoop residual stress which was found to vary from 19 to 557.9 MPa (Fig. 3a), depending on
the cutting speed and feed rate. The impact of increased cutting speed was stronger at lower
cutting speed (from 25.5 to 129.3 m/min compared with from 129.3 to 255 m/min), while the
influence of increased feed rate was more significant for higher cutting speed.
(a) (b)

-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Cutting speed (m/min)
H
o
o
p

r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)





.
D 0,08
D 0,27
D 0,47(mm/rev )


0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0 100 200 300
Cutting speed (m/min)
A
x
i
a
l

r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
(
M
P
a
)





.
































D 0,08
D 0,27
D 0,47 (mm/rev )

Fig. 3. Influence of cutting speed and feed rate on hoop (a) and axial (b) components of residual
stresses in dry turning

In the axial direction, the residual stresses varied between 89.9 to 518.4 MPa (Fig. 3b) for the
studied range of cutting parameters. The increase of cutting speed in the range of 25.5 to 129.3
m/min produced larger values of axial residual stress but with further increase to 255 m/min its
influence was diminished and a significant reduction of axial residual stress was observed for the
feed rate of 0.27 mm/rev. The increase of feed rate enlarged the axial residual stress in all the
span of cutting speeds.

Comparing the hoop and axial components of residual stresses in dry turning it can be noticed
that the axial stresses were larger than the hoop stresses for the low cutting speed, 25.5 m/min
(Fig. 4). The difference decreased with increasing cutting speed and eventually the reverse
relationship between the hoop and axial stresses was observed. The values of hoop stresses
considerably exceeded the axial stresses at cutting speed 255 m/min. The results indicate changes
in the condition for chip generation and flow on the rake plane as well as in the relationship
between the cutting force and its components. With an increase of feed rate a growth of cutting
force follows in both the analysed directions [9]. Further explanation of this phenomenon needs
more comprehensive investigations. For practical reasons, the selection of cutting speed regime
307 Copyright JCPDS-International Centre for Diffraction Data 2009 ISSN 1097-0002
for dry turning ought to be restricted to lower cutting speed in order to reduce the magnitude of
residual stresses. The same remark is also valid for the choice of feed rate, where the increase of
feed rate from 0.08 to 0.47 mm/rev made a considerable increase of residual stresses (Fig. 4b).

0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0,08 0,27 0,47
Feed (mm/rev)
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)








.
D25,5hoop D25,5axial
D129,3hoop D129,3axial
D255hoop D255axial
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
D
2
5
,
5
h
o
o
p
D
2
5
,
5
a
x
i
a
l
D
1
2
9
,
3
h
o
o
p
D
1
2
9
a
x
i
a
l
D
2
5
5
h
o
o
p
D
2
5
5
a
x
i
a
l
Cutting speed/stress direction
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)






.0,08 0,27 0,47(mm/rev)

Fig. 4. Comparison of hoop and axial components of residual stresses in dry turning

Similar results are observed in the case of turning with a conventional emulation flood supply
(Fig. 5). In general, an increase in feed rate also contributes to the growth of hoop and axial
residual stresses. In the cutting speed range 129.3 to 255 m/min the largest impact on the hoop
component appeared at the lowest feed rate, 0.08 mm/rev. At the feed rate of 0.27 mm/rev,
increasing the cutting speed resulted in a reduction in both the hoop and axial stresses. The
results suggest that a small feed rate should be used to reduce residual stresses in both directions.
(a) (b) (c)

0
100
200
300
400
500
600
100 150 200 250 300
Cutting speed (m/min)
H
o
o
p

r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)







.
E0,08
E0,27
E0,47(mm/rev)


0
100
200
300
400
500
100 150 200 250 300
Cutting speed (m/min)
A
x
i
a
l

r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)








.
E0,08
E0,27
E0,47(mm/rev)

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5
Depth of cut (mm)
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)






.
E129,3/0,08 hoop
E129,3/0,08 axial

Fig. 5. Influence of cutting speed and feed rate on (a) hoop and (b) axial components of residual
stresses in turning with emulsion. (c) shows the surface residual stresses as a function of depth of
cut

Fig. 5c shows that the influence of depth of cut on residual stresses is substantial. The hoop stress
increased considerably from 131.4 to 232.6 MPa and axial stress from 102.3 to 165.1 MPa when
the depth of cut was increased from 0.5 to 2 mm. In the case of axial residual stresses, an increase
of depth of cut from 0.5 to 1 mm, at a feed rate 0.08 mm/rev, did not have a significant effect. For
finishing operations the reduction of residual stresses in a surface layer requires selection of
smaller values of depth of cut (less than 1 mm).
308 Copyright JCPDS-International Centre for Diffraction Data 2009 ISSN 1097-0002

The application of emulsion as a cooling and lubrication medium changed the relationship
between hoop and axial residual stresses. As a consequence, the circumferential residual stresses
can be considered as the most critical to a component.

0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0,08 0,27 0,47
Feed (mm/rev)
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)






.
E129,3hoop E129,3axial
E255hoop E255axial
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
E129,3hoop E129,3axial E255hoop E255axial
Cutting speed/stress direction
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)






.0,08 0,27 0,47(mm/rev)

Fig. 6. Comparison of hoop and axial components of residual stresses in turning with emulsion

The influence of emulsion can be derived from Fig. 7, in which the residual stresses are
compared for turning without and with emulsion. For the same cutting speed and feed rate, the
elimination of emulsion tends to increase the axial stress (Fig. 7b). On the other hand, dry turning
may lead to an increased or decreased hoop stress, depending on the feed rate and cutting speed.
At the feed rate 0.08 mm/rev and cutting speed interval from 129.3 m/min to 255 m/min the hoop
residual stress values in dry machining were bigger than those when emulsion was applied (Fig.
7a). With the increase of feed rate to 0.47 mm/rev at the cutting speed 129.3 m/min, the change
of relationship between dry and wet hoop residual stresses took place and the wet hoop stresses
were higher than dry.
(a) (b)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0,08 0,27 0,47
Feed (mm/rev)
H
o
o
p

r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)






.
E129,3hoop D129,3hoop
E255hoop D255hoop
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0,08 0,27 0,47
Feed (mm/rev)
A
x
i
a
l

r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
(
M
P
a
)





.
E129,3axial D129,3axial
E255axial D255axial

Fig. 7. Comparison of hoop (a) and axial (b) components of residual stresses in turning dry and
with emulsion

309 Copyright JCPDS-International Centre for Diffraction Data 2009 ISSN 1097-0002
Experiments aiming at the definition of the influence of depth of cut on residual stresses in dry
and wet machining were performed at the cutting speed 129.3 m/min and feed rate 0.08 mm/rev
(Fig. 8). Its impact on residual stresses in both directions depended to a
large extent on adapted values of depth of cut. At 1 mm depth of cut the removal of emulsion
from cutting led to larger hoop and axial residual stresses. However, at 2 mm depth of cut the
relationship was reversed and lower hoop and axial residual stresses were found in dry cutting. It
is also worth to notice that when the depth of cut was increased from 1 to 2 mm the magnitude of
residual stresses decreased for dry cutting but increased for wet cutting.

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1 2
Depth of cut (mm)
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)











.
E129,3/0,08hoop D129,3/0,08hoop
E129,3/0,08 axial D129,3/0,08axial

Fig. 8. Influence of depth of cut on hoop and axial components of residual stresses in turning dry
and with emulsion

CONCLUSIONS

An experimental study of residual stresses induced by cylindrical turning of C45 steel in dry and
wet cutting conditions were performed in the present investigations. Considering the obtained
results the following conclusions can be drawn:

The cutting zone cooling and lubrication method exert a substantial influence on the residual
stresses in the machined surface layer. The magnitude of hoop and axial stress components
depends to a large extent on the applied cutting parameters.

In both dry and wet cutting conditions tensile residual stresses appear in both the circumferential
and axial directions regardless of cutting parameters used in the experiments.

Residual stresses in circumferential direction exceed the axial residual stresses when emulsion is
supplied to the cutting zone as well as in dry turning, when lower cutting speed is used.
The increase of cutting speed and feed rate produce an increase of residual stresses values for
most cutting parameters. The influence of cutting speed on hoop and axial residual stresses is
more intense at lower cutting speeds (25.5 to 129.3) and is diminished with its increase leading to
the decrease of their values.

The values of residual stresses depend substantially on the applied feed rate.
The depth of cut in the applied range of cutting speed and feed exert a substantial influence on
residual stresses in circumferential and axial direction.
310 Copyright JCPDS-International Centre for Diffraction Data 2009 ISSN 1097-0002

The results of presented investigation can make up the guidelines for cutting parameters selection
taking into account the residual stresses constituted in the cutting process.

REFERENCES

1. Capello E., Residual stresses in turning Part I: Influence of process parameters, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 160 (2005), p 221228.
2. Capello E., Residual stresses in turning Part II. Influence of the machined material, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 172 (2006), p 319326.
3. Cullity, B.D., Stock, S.R., Elements of X-Ray Diffraction, Third Edition, 2001, Addison-
Wesley
4. Leskovar P. (1), Ferlan D., Kovac M. Residual stresses as essential criteria for the evaluation
of production processes CIRP 1987/36, 1, p 409 .
5. Mamalis A.G., Kundrak J., Gyani K., On the dry machining of steel surfaces using superhard tools,
International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 19 2002 (3), p 157-162.
6. Montgomery D.C. Design and Analysis of Experiments. John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2004.
7. Noyan I.C., Cohen J.B. (eds.) Residual Stress Measurement by Diffraction and Interpretation.
Springer-Verlag, 1987.
8. Outeiro J.C., Umbrello D., MSaoubi R., Experimental and numerical modelling of the
residual stresses induced in orthogonal cutting of AISI 316L steel, International Journal of
Machine Tools & Manufacture, 46 (2006), p 17861794.
9. Saglam H., Yaldiz S., Unsacar F., The effect of tool geometry and cutting speed on main
cutting force and tool tip temperature, Materials and Design, 28 (2007), p 101111.
10. Saoubi R.M., Outeiro J.C., Changeux B., Lebrun J.L., Morao D.A., Residual stress analysis in
orthogonal machining of standard and resulfurized AISI 316L steels, Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 96 (1999), p 225-233.
11. Sasahara H., The effect on fatigue life of residual stress and surface hardness resulting from
different cutting conditions of 0.45%C steel, International Journal of Machine Tools &
Manufacture, 45 (2005), p 131136.
12. Yang D.Y., Watkins T.R., Kozaczek K.J., Hubbard C.R., Cavin O.B., Surface residual
stresses in machined austenitic stainless steels, Wear, 194 (1996), p 168-173.
311 Copyright JCPDS-International Centre for Diffraction Data 2009 ISSN 1097-0002