02 Mountain-Risks Laloui Soil Mechanics Part02

lyesse.laloui@epfl.
ch
1. Saturated state
S
r
= V
w
/ V = 1
Liquid phase is
continuous
Possibility of negative
pore water pressure
u
w
<0
2. Quasi-saturated
state
0.85 < S
r
< 1
Liquid phase is
continuous, air phase
is discontinuous
The fluid phase (gaz +
liquid) becomes
compressible
3. Partially saturated
state
0.1 < S
r
< 0.85
Liquid and air phases are
both continuous
4. Residual state
S
r
< 0.1
Liquid phase is discontinuous,
air phase is continuous
Unsaturated soils: definitions and notations
Saturation states
lyesse.laloui@epfl.ch
When the soil pores are filled by more than one fluid, e.g. water and air,
the porous material is termed unsaturated with respect to the wetting
fluid:
Solid
grains
Gas, u
a
Water, u
w
Solid
grains
Saturated Unsaturated
Water, u
w
The matric suction s is defined as: ( )
a w
s u u =
Unsaturated soils: definitions and notations
Ln s
S
r
s
e
S
r(res)
1
Water retention curve
Funicular Pendular
Hydric
hysteresis
S
r(res)
:Residual
degree of saturation
s
e
: Air entry suction,
below which S
r
=1
1 2 3 4
1 2
3 4
The water retention curve plots the evolution of the degree of saturation,
S
r
, as a function of the matric suction.
Ln s
v
h
S
r
s
e
s
B
1 0
Idealized shape of the volumetric response(s):
Unsaturated
zone
Saturated
zone
d
r
y
i
n
g
w
e
t
t
i
n
g
1
2
A
A
B
B
C C
D D
C
C
E
E
OC
NC
1. Hydric loading path
Volumetric response
to drained isotropic consolidation
under three levels of applied
suction, p = exterior load
Ln(p)
v
Ln(p)
s
A
1
A
1
A
2
A
2
A
3
A
3
B
1
B
1
B
2
B
2
B
3
B
3
C
1
C
1
C
2
C
2
C
3
C
3
Points A
2
, B
2
and C
2
delimit the
elastic domain for each path
They define a yield locus
in (p-s) plane called
Loading Collapse (LC)
yield curve
(Alonso et al., 1990 BBM)
Isotropic mechanical loading path
s
p
v
s
Wetting collapse
For given soils, a decrease in suction
can induce a collapse.
A necessary condition to obtain plastic
compression on wetting is a preliminary
mechanical consolidation.
AB: drying (p=const.)
BC: mechanical consolidation
(s=const.)
CC: wetting elastic swelling
CD: wetting plastic collapse
A
A
B
B
C
C
C
C
D
D
Collapse Collapse
LC curve Elastic domain
Swelling Swelling
Variations in degree of saturation
The mechanical load may
have an influence on the
degree of saturation, provided
that mechanical solicitations
induce elasto-plastic changes
in the void ratio, and thus in
the fluid volume fractions
EEE Drying-wetting (p=0)
EF Mechanical consolidation
(S
r
=const.=1)
FGF Drying wetting (p=const.)
Ln(s)
p
Ln(s)
s
e
s
e
S
r
S
res
E E
E E
E E
E E
F
F
G
G
Effective stress for a multiphase material
Extending Terzaghis proposal to unsaturated soils:
Gas, u
a
Water, u
w
Solid
Continuum
solid
Multi-phase description
Single-phase
description
Effective stress
2
1
'
ij ij ij
d d u

=
=
Bishop (1959) thus proposed writing the effective stress as:

( ) ( )
ij ij a ij a w ij
u u u
= +
In Bishops equation, the effective stress parameter is
expressed as a function of S
r
(involving volume ratios)
r
S =
Effective stress for a multiphase material
A possible approximation is:
( )
r
f S =
Experimental
determination
The relation is
not unique for
all materials
(Schrefler 1984)
(adapted from
J ennings and
Burland 1962)
Advanced hydro-mechanical coupling
Both the Bishops effective stress concept and the
independent stress framework allow the description of
the effect of suction on the mechanical behaviour
For a complete description of the hydro-mechanical
coupling the Bishops effective stress is not sufficent.
Mechanical
behaviour
Mechanical Mechanical
behaviour behaviour
Hydraulic
behaviour
Hydraulic Hydraulic
behaviour behaviour
Advanced feature:
2-sided coupling
1
2
Mechanical behaviour
Stress and strain variables
stress strain rate
Modifications to the constitutive model:
( )
ij ij a ij r
p S s
= +
ij
&
Mechanical
behaviour
behaviour behaviour
Hydraulic
behaviour
Hydraulic Hydraulic
behaviour behaviour
- Use of a complete elasto-
plastic framework
-The influence of suction on the
mechanical behaviour must be
taken into account
(e.g suction-induced hardening)
1
1
3. Advanced hydro-mechanical coupling
Hydraulic behaviour
The mechanical model needs to be completed:
Evolution of S
r
and s need to be known to obtain the effective stress
A full description of the state of the material must include the hydric
behaviour :
( )
ij ij a ij r
u S s
= +
Mechanical
behaviour
behaviour behaviour
Hydraulic
behaviour
Hydraulic Hydraulic
behaviour behaviour
The hydraulic part undergoes
the influence of the mechanical
state (coupling )
2
2
The work input rate study leads to work conjugate stress
variables and strain rates:
stresses strain rates
( )
ij ij a ij r
p S s
= +
ij
&
a w
s p p =
r
S
&
In this combination, if Bishops generalised effective stress is
choosed for the mechanical part, the stress variable for the hydric part
is the matric suction
Mechanical
behaviour
behaviour behaviour
Hydraulic
behaviour
Hydraulic Hydraulic
behaviour behaviour
In this section, a constitutive model is presented, taking into
account the typical features of behaviour listed below:
A constitutive model for unsaturated soils
Mechanical
behaviour
behaviour behaviour
Hydraulic
behaviour
Hydraulic Hydraulic
behaviour behaviour
1
2
Effects of suction on mechanical response:
- Increase of preconsolidation pressure
- Decrease of compressibility
- Increase of shear strength
Effect of mechanical state on hydric response
- Shifting of the water retention curve
Coupled elasto-
plastic framework
ACMEG - S
Referring to previous discussion, the following stress framework is
adopted:
Stresses work conjugate strain rates
(Bishops generalised effective stress) (soil skeleton strain)
(matric suction) (degree of saturation)
The model is formulated within the framework of hardening plasticity
The strain rate is decomposed into an elastic and a plastic part:
( )
ij ij a ij r
u S s
= +
ij
&
s
r
S
&
e p
ij ij ij
= +
& & &
ACMEG - S
Isotropic stress paths
Under this type of loading, i.e. mechanical load at constant level of
suction, the strain rate is elastic-plastic:
The parallel representation of experimental results in
and planes lets appear the existence of a yield curve.
p'
A
1
v
m
s
e
Ln p'
s
A
2
A
3
C
1 C
2
C
3
D
3
D
1
D
2
E
p'
c0
(s)
LC yield curve
A
1
A
2
A
3
C
3
D
1
D
2
D
3
C
1
C
2
(a) (b)
m
/(1+e
0
)
m
/(1+e
0
)
( ln ')
v
p
( ') s p
m m e m p
v v v
= +
& & &
ACMEG - S
Isotropic stress paths : LC yield curve
Comparison between numerical and experimental results
0
0
( ) 0
( ) 1 log
c c e
c c s e
e
p s p s s
s
p s p s s
s

= < <

= + >

for
for
(Sharma 1998)
Bentoni te/kaol i n mi x
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0 100 200 300 400
P' (kPa)
s

(
k
P
a
)
EXP
model
(Kane 1973)
loess
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 50 100 150
P' (kPa)
s

(
k
P
a
)
EXP
model
ACMEG - S
p'

v
h
Ln s
p'
c0
s
e
s
e
Ln s
Path AB : ( 0<s<s
e
, S
r
=1 ) initially overconsolidated material.
Drying equivalent to mechanical load and provokes elastic deformations.
Path BC: (0<s<s
e
, S
r
=1 ) plasticity threshold reached, yielding on LC
Path CD: (0<s<s
e
, S
r
=1) - partial saturation state,
p
c
increases faster than , so the deformations are reversible.
Path DE : upon wetting, fully reversible behaviour
LC Curve: behaviour under hydric loading
A
A
B
B
C
C
D
D
C
C
E
E
LC curve
Elastic
zone
ACMEG - S
Ln(p')
s
s
e
v
Ln(p')
s
A
s
B
s
C
LC curve: swelling collapse mechanisms
Path AB : The stress state
remains inside the elastic domain.
.
if s , then , so .
net
s
= +
A
A
B
B
C
C
Path BC: The yield limit is reached
on point B. Further wetting provokes
a yielding on the LC curve. The only
possible straining is a plastic
compression to reach point C.
The path followed is a wetting on a
initially consolidated material.
LC curve Elastic zone
s
A
s
B
s
C
ACMEG - S
Deviatoric stress paths
The modified Cam-clay model (Schofield and Wroth, 1968; Roscoe
and Burland, 1968) is extended to unsaturated states by substituting
Terzaghis effective stress by Bishops generalised effective stress.
The deviatoric yield surface is simply expressed as follows:
which includes the effects of suction such as the increase p
c
with s
The critical state line is assumed unique in (p-q) plane and obeys
the relation:
The elastic part of the deviatoric strain increment is simply written:
with G being the elastic shear coefficient
(assumed independent on suction)
2 2
( ( ) ) 0
c
f q M p p s p

= =
q Mp
=
3
e
d
q
G
=
&
&
Graphical representation of the yield surface
Deviatoric stress paths
ACMEG - S
Modelling the hydraulic behaviour :
Mechanical
behaviour
behaviour behaviour
Hydraulic
behaviour
Hydraulic Hydraulic
behaviour behaviour
2
The aimof the second part of the model is the description of the evolution
of the hydraulic stress and strain variables, respectively s and S
r
.
Model for the soil water retention curve (SWRC)
The mechanical influence on the hydric state is introduced by the HM
coupling
( )
,
( )
,
r
s S
ACMEG - S
Modelling the soil water retention curve
Ln s
S
r
s
e
S
r(res)
1
Hydraulic behaviour Hydric hysteresis
Ln s
S
r
s
e
S
r(res)
MODEL
A
B
C
D
E
AB: Saturated part, 0<s<se, S
r
= constant = 1.
BC: (unsaturated state) Reversible slope
with the elastic modulus
( )
r
h
s
S
K s
=
&
&
0
( )
h h
ref
s
K s K
s

=

CD: Main drying curve
s
d
is called the drying yield suction, S
r
d
= S
r
at point C
( )
log
d
h r r
d
s
S S
s
=
s
d
DE: Reversible slope, K
h
( )
log
d
h r r
d
s
S S
s
=
s
w
EB: Main wetting curve
s
w
is the wetting yield suction, S
r
w
=S
r
at point E
( )
log
W
h r r
W
s
S S
s
=
ACMEG - S
B
C
D
E
Coupling with mechanical part
Ln s
S
r
s
e
S
r(res)
e
0
e
1
<e
0
The mechanical straining of the material may cause the water retention
curve to be shifted right.
Shifting of water retention curve piloted by the air entry value s
e
, which is
dependent on the volumetric strain:
Mechanical state
v
s
e
(
v
p
) (S
r
-s) relation
A
Ln s
S
r
S
r(res)
s
e
1 s
e
2
ACMEG - S
Mass and momentum balances
( ) 0 p
K k
v
t
p
s
S
S
n
t
p
p
n
s
S
S
n
w w
w
rw
s
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
=
+
+
g
g
( ) 0 p
K k
v
t
p
s
S
S 1
n
t
p
p
n
s
S
S 1
n
ra
s
w w
w
w
w
=
+
+
g
g g
g
g
g
g
g
Water/solid mass balance
Air/solid mass balance
[' - S
w
p
w
I - (1- S
w
) p
g
I] + g = 0
Momentum balance
of the three-phase
mixture
neglected for two-
phase modeling
Content
Introduction to Geomechanics
Introduction standard approach
Effective stress concept
Soil constitutive behaviour
Seepage
Advanced Geomechanics for Landslides
Hydro-Mechanical coupling
Unsaturated soils
Finite elements simulations
Predicting time-dependent
(Trisenberg) landslide
Location
4 km
Principality of Liechtenstein
Slope in the Rhine valley : 5 km
2
The infratructures of Triesen and
Triesenberg are subject to
significant damage induced by
the movements during critical
periods
The major difficulties in
modelling the Triesenberg
landslide are related to the huge
area of instability, the
unsaturated conditions of the
slope and the relatively low
velocity of the movements.
24
3 km
1.5 km
Location
Deeper-seated slope movement : 1.7 km
2
- 74 Mio m
3
Active slide : 3.1 km
2
37 Mio m
3
Mean inclination : 24
Mean depth : 10 to 20 m
Two main parts :
Inclinometric profile
Mean term velocity of the surface movements
Surface movement : Medium term (> 20 years) From 0,5 to 3 cm per year
Short term (+/- 1 year) From 0,1 to 4 cm per year
Exceptionally (< 1 month) Until 6 cm per year
Vertical distribution of movement : A well-defined slip surface
Sliding mass
Slip surface
Bedrock
Kinematic
-Three distinct active zones
-The general shape of the whole instability phenomena is curved while the directions
of the movement vectors are almost parallel
-Three bowl-shaped parts in the in-depth profile of the slide along a transversal
cross-section (this should correspond to the BC of each independent slide)
-The damages on infrastructures and buildings are mainly concentrated along the
region corresponding to the crests
Three quasi-independant landslides
Morphology
The upper part : Buntsandsteinsandstone, schists and limestones
The lower part : Austroalpine Triesen Flysh (clayey schists)
Toe : Rhine river alluvia
Hydraulic input fromValna
Valley
Direct infiltration
Double feeding system in
piezometric observations
Water table is about 20 m to 30 m below the soil surface at the top of
the landslide, whereas at the bottom, it almost reaches the surface
The landslide takes place in unsaturated conditions for a large part of its profile
Tacher et al.
Hydrogeology
2D modelling : [2000 crisis modelling] 2 main actives zones
0
2
4
6
8
N
o
v
/
1
5
/
1
9
9
9
J
a
n
/
1
5
/
2
0
0
0
M
a
r
/
1
5
/
2
0
0
0
M
a
y
/
1
5
/
2
0
0
0
J
u
l
/
1
5
/
2
0
0
0
S
e
p
/
1
5
/
2
0
0
0
Continuous inclinometer B5
Inclinometer KL1A
Inclinometer KL1A (Trend)
Numerical modelling
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
s

[
c
m
]
Date
Initial time
1st J anuary 2000
Zone clearly observable on the map of the
average annual displacements
Good agreement with the
general trend
The measured values are
higher than the simulated ones
3D modelling : [2000 crisis modelling]
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Displacements
P ore water pressure
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
s

[
m
m
]
P
o
r
e

w
a
t
e
r

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
k
P
a
]
Time [days]
0
3
6
9
12
15
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Displacements
Pore water pressure
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
s

[
m
m
]
P
o
r
e

w
a
t
e
r

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
k
P
a
]
Time [days]
0
10
20
30
40
50
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Displacements
Pore water pressure
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
s

[
m
m
]
P
o
r
e

w
a
t
e
r

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
k
P
a
]
Time [days]
Elastic reversible behaviour Elasto-plastic (irreversible) behaviour
April August Qualitatively, the simulated distribution of the movements is fairly similar to the
measured values (by survey and GPS) of annual displacement
The modelling results exhibit one main active zone within each slide, which is fairly
small in size
Stabilizing La Frasse landslide
Instabilities induced by :
Hydraulic pore pressures (crises)
Viscosity of the materials (between crises)
Characteristics of the landslide
Background

Evolution of the observed displacements of three points A, B, C on La
Frasse Landslide and of rainfall (monthly and 6-month running mean
values). The shaded triangular bands represent the range of long-term
average velocity characterizing the zones in which points A, B and C are
located.

Hydro-Mechanical Modelling
1890 m
4
3
3

m
406.3 kN/m
600.0 kN/m
Main assumptions:
Hydro-mechanical coupled formulation
Darcys law for the fluid phase + saturated media + K = f(porosity)
Cyclic elasto-plastic + viscoplastic constitutive laws (Mohr-Coulomb,
Cap, Hujeux)
2D Mesh: 1694 nodes, 1530 elements
Six layers with different mechanical
characteristics
Horizontal displacement Vertical displacement
1
2
Crisis 94 300 days
Displacement point 1
Comparison between two constitutive laws: cyclic elasto-
plastic model (Hujeux) and elasto-perfectly plastic model
(Mohr-Coulomb)
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0
0.02
0.04
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time [Days] Time [Days]
Hujeux EP
M-C
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
[
m
]
H
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
[
m
]
Point 1 Point 1
Hujeux EP
M-C
-1.2
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
1
2
0
1
2
3
4
5
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time [Days]
Time [Days]
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
[
m
]
H
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
[
m
]
Without pumping
With pumping
With pumping
Without pumping
Point 1
Point 1
Crisis 94 300 days
Influence of drainage pumping
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
1
2
Influence of drainage pumping
Time [Days] Time [Days]
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
[
m
]
H
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
[
m
]
Without pumping
Without pumping
With pumping
With pumping
Point 2 Point 2
Crisis 94 300 days
Conclusion
Natural slopes represent complex phenomena
to model, both in space and time
Strong need for numerical analysis
Multiphase coupled formulation and
unsaturated soil mechanics may significantly
improve the modelling
Advanced 3D FEM analysis is confirmed to be
a useful tool for the design and selection of
risk mitigation strategies
Conclusions
Conclusion
Franois B., L. Tacher, C. Bonnard, L Laloui, V. Triguero. Numerical modelling of
the hydrogeological and geomechanical behaviour of a large slope movement: The
Triesenberg landslide (Liechtenstein) . Canadian Geotechnical Journal, vol. 44,
pp. 840-857, 2007.
Nuth M., Laloui L. Effective Stress Concept in Unsaturated Soils: Clarification and
Validation of a Unified Framework . International Journal of Numerical and
Analytical Methods in Geomechanics (in press), 2007.
Charlier R, L. Laloui, F. Collin Numerical modelling of coupled poromechanics
processes . REGC (European Journal of Civil Engineering), Volume 10, N6-7, pp.
669-702, 2006.
Laloui L., M. Nuth. An introduction to the constitutive modelling of unsaturated
soils . REGC (European Journal of Civil Engineering), Volume 9, N5-6, pp. 651-
670, 2005.
Tacher L., C. Bonnard, L. Laloui, A. Parriaux. " Modelling the behaviour of a large
landslide with respect to hydrogeological and geomechanical parameter
heterogeneity" . Landslides journal. Vol. 2, N1, pp. 3-14, 2005.
Recent publications
Conclusion
Laloui L. " Mechanics of Porous Media" . Course notes -
Doctoral programme of Mechanics - EPFL, 2006. 122
pages.
Laloui L. " Ecoulements souterrains" . Course notes for
students of the Civil Engineering Section of the EPFL,
2002 (new edition in 2007). 114 pages.
Laloui L. " Seepage and Consolidation in Tunnelling" .
Course notes Master of Advanced Studies in
Tunnelling - EPFL, 2007 (95 pages).
Laloui L. " Groundwater Flows Interacting with
Structures" . Course notes for the Advanced-level
courses in hydraulic schemes, EPFL 2001.
Course Notes
Could be obtained at : www.lelivre.ch

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Bishop (1959) thus proposed writing the effective stress as:

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