Pedagogy of the Oppressed

Paulo Freire
A review and evalution of the relevance of this work to contemporary education and
youth work
Introduction
This seminal work was published in 1968 in Portuguese. The author, Paulo Freire, was an
educationalist working in Brazil, though or political reasons, !he was imprisoned b" a militar" #unta
in 196$% he spent time in other countries including a period in &ene'a where he worked as an
ad'iser on education or the (orld )ouncil o )hurches. This book itsel was written while he was
in )hile. *ter his return to Brazil in 19+9 he became in'ol'ed with a socialist political part" and
e'entuall" came to hold an administrati'e position as ,ecretar" o -ducation or ,.o Paulo cit".
Pedagog" o the /ppressed is Paulo Freire0s most well1known work. 2n it he presents a theor" o
education in the conte3t o the re'olutionar" struggle. (hile the re'olutionar" theor" is 4ar3ist the
conte3t is unmistakabl" ,outh *merican. There is more than a hint o 5iberation theolog". The
ocus o the educational programmes he describes seem to be aimed primaril" at rural peasants
rather than the urban poor.
This re'iew ollows the structure o the book. The our chapters deal with6 i% the re'olutionar"
conte3t, the oppressed and the oppressors, the historical 'ocation o the oppressed, ii% the method
o education a'oured b" the oppressors, which Paulo Freire calls the banking concept o
education, and which he counters with his theor" o a problem1posing education, iii% a description
o his theories in practice in educational programmes with the rural poor in 'arious ,outh *merican
countries and i'% two opposing theories o cultural action, 0antidialogical0 and 0dialogical0, the ormer
aiming to suppress critical apprehension o realit" the latter a'ouring the disco'er" o realit"
through critical thought and ree communication.
Freire0s theoretical model is that o dialectical materialism, the idea that the human destin" is to be
resol'ed in a struggle between the two economic classes o owners and labourers !people who sell
their labour to capital%. (e don0t accept the idea that this struggle is the onl" locus where man0s
destin" is to be resol'ed. ,o, in reading this book, our aim is to sit through it and see what remains
o 'alue ater the dialectical materialism is stripped awa". /ur second aim is to ask how rele'ant
that remaining theor" is to contemporar" (estern schooling !and "outh work%.
The conte3t or writing this paper came rom a comment in The Dangerous Rise in Therapeutic
Education b" -cclestone and 7a"es !1% that 8*nd nor do we adopt the sae orm o 'erbal
radicalism o liberals who cite the emancipator" rhetoric and belies o educators such as Paulo
Freire without an" recognition that the structural and material conditions that shaped it are starkl"
dierent rom current conditions8. (e wanted to see how rele'ant indeed Freire0s work is to our
present conditions.
Chapter 1. The revolutionary contet
Freire0s anal"sis o the social situation is based on the ideas o dialectical materialism6 an
oppressor class oppresses and an oppressed class is oppressed. 7is particular concern is with the
state o consciousness o the oppressed class. The oppressed class is submerged, ha'ing
accepted the thing status into which the" are oppressed. The historical 'ocation o the oppressed
class is to struggle against the oppressor and realise their humanit" which the oppressor denies
them. /nl" the oppressed class can realise humanit", but the" do it or all. That is the oppressed
class has the role o liberating the oppressors, as well as itsel, rom their role as oppressors, thus
resol'ing a contradiction in which the" neither are ull" human.
2n this chapter Freire outlines the relations which e3ist between oppressor and oppressed. For
e3ample9 8*n" situation in which 0*0 ob#ecti'el" e3ploits 0B0 or hinders his or her pursuit o sel1
airmation as a responsible person is one o oppression8. *nd also9 8/ne o the basic elements o
the relationship between oppressor and oppressed is prescription. -'er" prescription represents
the imposition o one indi'idual0s choice upon another, transorming the consciousness o the
person prescribed into one that conorms with the prescriber0s consciousness.8 7e states that the
oppressed ma" internalise the oppressor. The oppressed who emerge rom their submergence in
being1or1the1other or thingness are 0dual0 beings6 the" ha'e an attitude o adhesion to the
oppressor and cannot suicientl" 0ob#ecti"0 him. Freire writes9 8But almost alwa"s, during the initial
stage o the struggle, the oppressed, instead o stri'ing or liberation, tend themsel'es to become
oppressors, or 0sub1oppressors08. The peasant who #ust recei'es some education ma" e3press a
desire to be oreman on the ranch or e3ample. *s we will see later this theor" o the 0dual1nature0
o the peasants creates the possibilit" o a kind o authoritarian outlook. 2n theor" it creates the
possibilit" that peasants who disagree with the re'olutionar" ideas can be dismissed as ha'ing
0internalised the oppressor0.
The education that Freire is proposing in this book is one that makes 8oppression and its causes
ob#ects o relection b" the oppressed8, and he continues, 8rom that relection will come their
necessar" engagement in the struggle or liberation8. 2t is thus a pedagog" for the revolution. 2n
)hapter $ Freire discusses the attitude o the revolutionary leaders towards education. 7e lectures
them to a'oid communicating with the oppressed 'ia communi:u;s6 the re'olutionar" leaders must
dialog with the oppressed otherwise the relationship is one o domination and the re'olution is not
authentic.
* ke" theme throughout the book is that o 'praxis'. This theor" links the work o critical relection
on the situation o oppression with action which changes that situation in a concrete, ob#ecti'el"
'eriiable wa". Freire writes 8* mere perception o realit" not ollowed b" this critical inter'ention
will not lead to a transormation o ob#ecti'e realit" 1 precisel" because it is not a true perception8.
The in'ol'ement with actions !which are collecti'e, class1based and led b" the re'olutionar"
leaders% ensures the authenticit" o the perceptions. *ction without relection is 0acti'ism0.
<election without action is 0sub#ecti'ism0, which 4ar3 has 8scientiicall" destro"ed8 1a reerence to
the theor" that human destin" is realised in the class struggle and political action perhaps. 82t is
onl" when the oppressed ind the oppressor out and become in'ol'ed in the organized struggle or
liberation that the" begin to belie'e in themsel'es. This disco'er" cannot be purel" intellectual but
must in'ol'e action6 nor can it be limited to mere acti'ism, but must include serious relection9 onl"
then will it be a pra3is.8
2t is not entirel" clear whether this means all thinking or whether it is #ust relection on social
matters which cannot be authentic unless it is linked to action. &i'en that the historical 'ocation o
mankind is to be ound in the class struggle and in the re'olution it seems that all merel" academic
thinking is regarded as suspect. 7owe'er6 in a ootnote in )hapter = Freire writes concerning those
who 8retreat rom the world to consider it89 8But this t"pe o retreat is onl" authentic when the
meditator is 0bathed0 in realit"6 not when the retreat signiies contempt or the world and light rom
it, in a t"pe o 0historical schizophrenia08. The re'olution then is primar"6 philosoph" is allowed onl"
i the thinker is 0bathed0 in realit", this bathing presumabl" connecting him to the re'olution and
histor". 7eidegger, in an inter'iew or tele'ision :uoted rom 4ar3, in a Theses on Feurbach sa"ing
that 8The philosophers ha'e onl" interpreted the world, in 'arious wa"s6 the point is to change it.8.
7eidegger replies 8That means that 4ar3 relies on a certain interpretation o the world to demand
his change o the world. The statement b" 4ar3 is thus unounded.8 2t re:uires an interpretation.
For 7eidegger, thinking about the world, using the kind o thinking which is proper to Being, is an
interpretation o the world and must come beore an" thought o changing the world. For 4ar3ists
like Freire the discussion is o'er because it is 0scientiicall" pro'en0 that their theor" o re'olution is
right. 7a'ing been pro'en the thing now is to change the world. There is a certain interpretation o
the world but, because it is scientiicall" pro'en urther discussion is mere 0blah0, 0sub#ecti'ism0.
This is the heart o the matter. For 4ar3ists philosoph" is resol'ed and human destin" is to be
realised through the class struggle. *n" urther philosophising is 'aporising. But or 7eidegger and
others this is a oreclosure o the argument. ,o 1 we, too, maintain, that philosophical thinking
without political action is 'alid !i o course the philosoph" is authentic%. (e would allow that
thinking about e3istence can be authentic e'en when it is not political thinking. Freire seems to
allow this but onl" marginall". (e would wish to gi'e it greater priorit".
>onetheless the wa" Friere brings the political into ocus is important . * person who does not think
!and think criticall"% about social and political realit" but simpl" accepts it is thereb" participating in
the world in a wa" which has been organised or him b" others. 2 being human means e3ercising
reedom this is to be less than human. To relect 0the normal lie laid down or one in this societ" is
an unree one0 and then to change nothing does indeed render the relection supericial, mere
'aporising empt" thoughts. To act on the basis o this relection would indeed deepen the insight
and lead to urther insights. The argument can be e3tended6 one is not unree alone. 2 societ" is
organised in such a wa" that one is unree it is likel" that others will be unree too. * critical
response that simpl" de'eloped a personal liest"le on a solipsist basis would be meaningless
gi'en the interconnectedness o human beings !howe'er and at all le'els that interconnectedness
is anal"sed%. There is thus o course an argument about the nature o the collecti'e struggle. 2, as
we assert, the notion o class struggle and the materialist anal"sis is erroneous how do we escape
rom a purel" each man or himsel, solipsist, 'ision o liberation? (hat is the concrete basis or
solidarit" i not membership o the proletariat !those who sell their labour to capital%? !These
:uestions will be de'eloped in a subse:uent paper%. *nd, in thinking about social and political
realit" one must indeed, as Freire asserts, also act in line with this thinking.
Freire acknowledges some o the problems aced b" re'olutionar" mo'ements. For e3ample6
87owe'er, the moment the new regime hardens into a dominating 0bureaucrac"0 the humanist
dimension o the struggle is lost and it is no longer possible to speak o liberation8. 7e
acknowledges that the re'olutionar" leadership ma" disregard the peasants and simpl" tell them
about the re'olution rather than educate them so that the" participate in it as relecting@acting
human beings. 7e allows that 87owe'er, the restraints imposed b" the ormer oppressed on their
oppressors, so that the latter cannot reassume their ormer position, do not constitute oppression8.
2t is o course a ine line between repressing the ormer oppressors to preser'e the purit" o the
re'olution and oppressing them or personal gain. These problems relate to the real historical
ailures o socialism. &eorge /rwell described how the re'olutionar" leaders will be hard1pressed
to gi'e up their comort in the post1re'olutionar" phase in Animal Farm and indeed were in ,talin0s
<ussia. 2n The Rebel *lbert )amus discussed how re'olutions tend to turn nast" as the" impose
their 'ision o the end o histor" on those who are to be sa'ed. The problem with dialectical
materialism is that the economic struggle between classes is not the core determining actor in
histor". The mode o production and the orms o economic relationship anal"sed b" 4ar3 are one
orm o economic relations, not the total conte3t in which human destin" is worked out. 2t is simpl"
implausible that a simple blue1print o two opposing classes, with the latter guided b" the
0re'olutionar" leaders0, will ight to resol'e the contradiction between them and thereb" resol'e
human destin" once and or all. 2t is the stor"1line or a ilm. Ps"chologicall" such a method lea'es
aside the problem o human 'iolence. The oppressed are not saints. Freire again is aware o this
when he notes the dangers o 0re'anchism0 on the part o the peasants. But he oers no solutions
to the problems o e'il and 'iolence in human beings. The problem is that all the cautions and
warnings he eels bound to cite are needed because when the re'olution gets going this is e3actl"
what happens. )aught between #usti"ing the 'iolence o the oppressed as a 0lo'ing0 response to
the 'iolence o the oppressor and perhaps not wanting to present his heroes dripping with blood
Freire describes a scene, that actuall" occurred, where peasants ha'e 0kidnapped0 the owner o
ranch but no one can bring themsel'es to actuall" hold him so in ear o the power o the oppressor
are the". But, in act, re'olutionar" mo'ements in ,outh *merica are stained with blood. (hen the
genie is let out o the bottle it simpl" isn0t going to ollow the dialectical blueprint or a te3t1book
re'olution presented here b" Freire, which is re:uired or it to be authentic. There is no real
ps"cholog" in this and a alse and o'er simpliied grasp o histor".
(hat Friere does well in this chapter is discuss the 0sadism0 o the ruling class. (hile the dialectical
materialism o Freire is 4ar3ist in this he is borrowing rom -ric Fromm with his distinction
between 0being0 and 0ha'ing0 as two contrasting approaches to the problem o li'ing. For e3ample
8The" Athe oppressor classB cannot see that, in the egoistic pursuit o having as a possessing class,
the" suocate in their own possessions and no longer are; the" merel" have.8 (e would onl"
partiall" accept this6 the social conte3t o 0class membership0 is important and determining to some
e3tent but the phenomenon is also a ps"chological one. Freire has to manipulate this interesting
ps"chological phenomenon totall" into a class one to sustain his dialectical materialism. !The
problem with re'olutionar" 4ar3ism is that it attempts ultimatel" to coerce the world into a
theoretical ramework which doesn0t it%. >onetheless Freire0s e3ploration o this theme is proound.
7e notes that the possessi'e 'iew o the world to be ound in 0the oppressors0 is necrophilic. For
e3ample he writes9 8*nd the more the oppressors control the oppressed, the more the" change
them into apparentl" inanimate 0things08. we would argue though that this holds as a description o
an" orm o human oppression6 it is not limited to economic class oppression and when it is ound
in that conte3t it is still an indi'idual ps"chological phenomenon 1 though nonetheless class
determined.
>onetheless the anal"sis is proound. 0)lass membership0 is in man" wa"s determining or an
indi'idual. Freire anal"ses the relationship between oppressor and oppressed well. For e3ample9
8For the oppressed, at a certain point in their e3istential e3perience, to be is not to resemble the
oppressor, but to be under him, to depend on him. *ccordingl", the oppressed are emotionall"
dependent.8 *gain, though, once "ou dispense with the dialectical materialism then this
understanding o oppression can be e3tended to other oppressi'e relationships. /ur ca'eat
throughout this is not that the anal"sis is wrong but that it should not be limited to the struggle
between capitalists and workers. There are other orms o oppression. (hich o course is heres"
rom an orthodo3 4ar3ist 'iewpoint.
4uch o this chapter is taken up then with looking at the relationship between oppressor and
oppressed. The oppressed are 0submerged0, seeing themsel'es as things as the oppressor sees
them6 the" lack a critical take on their situation o oppression. The concern o pedagog" in this
book is with a re'olutionar" pedagog"6 essentiall" working with the peasants to help them de'elop
a consciousness o being oppressed so the" act to change this. Freire seems to be concerned with
the understanding o the situation o oppression and regards the re'olutionar" leaders as being
more responsible or stimulating action. Because it is this kind o pedagog" which is his concern in
this book and thus all the pedagogical discussions are conte3tualised in the re'olutionar" theor" it
is not entirel" clear to what e3tent he sees a liberating education e3isting which is based on
reedom but which is not e3plicitl" re'olutionar". The :uestion is important because the theor" o a
pedagog" or the re'olution seems in man" wa"s alien to us in the (est now. Freire with his
pedagog" o the oppressed is preparing the wa" or the re'olutionar" leadership. The working
class in the (est is ragmented and co1opted b" indi'idualisation into the bourgeois game. The
class struggle has ailed. The two1class anal"sis ails to ull" address the t"pes o alienation in this
societ". /ther anal"ses6 such as Foucault on power ha'e more descripti'e power. >onetheless
the ideas about a pedagog" which is liberating do not depend on a traditional re'olutionar"
conte3t. 2n the concluding section o this re'iew we attempt to appl" Freire0s anal"sis and
pedagog" to our contemporar" situation.
*ccording to some 'iewpoints the signal disease o late industrial capitalism is schizophrenia.
There is no simple conrontation o oppressed or oppressor which can be ound. /ne is alienated
but, what rom? 4odern (estern man can be both oppressor and oppressed at the same time and
in an" e'ent the nets o power in which he is caught and catches others are more social and more
subtle than simpl" being a worker without capital orced to sell his labour to the capitalist. This
relationship is howe'er still important but is not the sole ocus o how power operates. 2t seems that
the pro#ect to build an authentic consciousness through de'eloping a critical awareness o being
oppressed and taking action not to be and doing this collectively and under the guidance o the
revolutionary leaders as a unified class does not ha'e catch in our situation. (e would argue that it
was a mirage e'en in the ,outh *merican conte3t at the time Freire was writing, though that
situation with its polarisation between land1owners and peasants was more ob'iousl" a 0two1class
race0. 7owe'er, in the end, dialectical materialism is not 0scientiicall" pro'en0 , the re'olutionar"
leaders are not to be trusted, and indi'iduals will stubbornl" remain indi'iduals howe'er much "ou
designate this as their ha'ing imbibed too much oppressor consciousness. Freire0s pedagog" o
the re'olution re:uired that the peasant o his own ree will o course, sign up to the re'olutionar"
theor". ,hould he not this was regarded as e'idence that he still had 0oppressor consciousness0 in
him, a dangerous theor".
The pedagogical theor", which we will e3amine in detail ne3t, re:uires that teacher and student
work together to sol'e problems on an e:ual ooting, or at least without the teacher claiming
absolute knowledge and an authorit" superior to that o the peasant. /ne critical problem or Freire
is 1 what happens when ater participating in his programmes and engaging in an open and ree
dialog with the re'olutionar" teacher and leaders the peasant still insists he wants to open his own
ranch and emplo" hands? 2n the end Freire can onl" regard that as reractor". 8But the" Athe
leadersB must alwa"s mistrust the ambiguity o oppressed people, mistrust the oppressor 0housed0
in the latter.8 2n the end the organization !o the re'olution% we are told re:uires authorit".
2n )hapter 1 o the book Freire is keen to stress the re'olutionar" conte3t or his pedagog" based
on the theor" o dialectical materialism. (e ha'e been at pains to criticize this model with its
insistence on the absolute importance o two opposing economic classes, howe'er the criticisms o
oppression ha'e a general 'alue e'en outside this !limiting in our 'iew% theoretical conte3t. 2n
)hapter C Freire discusses his pedagogical theories. )an an"thing be sal'aged o Freire0s
approach to education once we ha'e shaken o the shackles o dialectical materialism?
Chapter ! " #anking $ducation v. Pro%lem"posing education
Freire opposes what he names the 8banking concept8 o education with his 8problem1posing8
education. The banking concept o education suits the oppressors. 2n this s"stem the students are
treated as empt" 'essels into which knowledge can be deposited !like deposits in a bank% b" the
teacher. Freire depicts what actuall" goes on in the world o banking education succinctl". 7e
writes 8This relationship Ateacher1studentB in'ol'es a narrating ,ub#ect !the teacher% and patient,
listening ob#ects !the students%. The contents, whether 'alues or empirical dimensions o realit",
tend in the process o being narrated to become lieless and petriiedD. 7is Athe teacher0sB task is
to 0ill0 the students with the contents o his narration1 contents which are detached rom realit",
disconnected rom the totalit" that engendered them and could gi'e them signiicance8.
2n banking education the teacher 0knows0, because he or she has recei'ed the oiciall" sanctioned
curriculum knowledge which is then imparted as a stale, static narrati'e to the students. This is
reminiscent o the notion in 2llich o the teacher as the deliverer o educational packages to the
students. Both 2llich and Freire notice that the student in modern education is e3cluded rom
participation in the getting o knowledge irst1hand and as it relates to them. 2t is someone else0s
0knowledge0 which the" are being gi'en about ob#ects which also belong to others. ,tudents are
e3cluded rom in:uir" and are in Freire0s words 8iled awa"8.
Freire makes his criti:ue o education in the 5atin *merican conte3t. The education proposed in
that conte3t, e'en b" humanitarians, is an education which e3cludes the peasant rom 8restless,
impatient, continuing, hopeul in:uir"8. Freire proposes that the themes o an education or the
rural poor in ,outh *merica be ones rom their own e3perience and that the" be trained in critical
relection on their own e3perience.
Freire sees clearl" how the teacher in a banking s"stem must assume that the students 8know
nothing8, indeed the teacher pro#ects an 8absolute ignorance8 onto others. 7e describes the
modern teacher thus9 8The teacher presents himsel to his students as their necessar" opposite6 b"
considering their ignorance absolute, he #ustiies his e3istence.8 Banking education is banking
education the world o'er, a theme echoed b" 2llich who points out that the institution o school is
uni'ersal, in all political and economic regimes.
Freire argues that banking education osters passi'it" in students b" negating the spirit o in:uir".
8The teacher0s task is to organize a process which alread" occurs spontaneousl", to 0ill0 the
students b" making deposits o inormation which he or she considers to constitute true
knowledge8. 2t is this taking o'er o a natural process which alienates. Freire understands that the
teacher is set up between the student and the world to oer a prescribed 'ersion o the world to the
student, and to adapt the student to the world. The teacher is, as 2llich pointed out, the custodian
and transmitter o societ"0s rituals. !2llich more than Freire anal"ses the role the e3am s"stem pla"s
in this process though both describe how in modern education knowledge has become an oicial
product not the result o in:uir".% 2n banking education the teacher owns the ob#ect o knowledge
and prepares a lesson on it. The lesson is deli'ered to the students as secondar" knowledge. The
students ne'er ind out an"thing or themsel'es and thus are rendered passi'e. The" are good
students in as much as the" can repeat the narrati'e about the world which the" ha'e been gi'en.
The ke" to banking education or Freire is the relationship between teacher and student. 2n
banking education there is an absolute dichotom" between the teacher and the student. The
teacher alays has knowledge. 7is knowledge is absolute. 5inked to his absolute knowledge is his
authorit", not #ust sub#ect authorit" but the authorit" o social control. The teacher chooses what is
learned. !(e would add that in curriculum s"stems the teacher ma" themsel'es ha'e 'er" little sa"
in what is taught6 it is determined as a matter o national polic"%. The students, in their serried rows,
learn b" absorbing what the" are told b" the teacher. The good student is the one who does this as
meekl" and passi'el" as possible. For Freire it is a 8read"1to1wear8 approach to education which
does e'er"thing to ob'iate the need or critical engagement with realit". The teacher imposes
himsel on the students. 7e is not ith them. 2n banking education realit" is made static. The
students learn about it and adapt to it. 2n problem1posing education, which Freire contrasts with
banking education, the present is not 8well1beha'ed8 and the uture is not pre1determined. 2n
problem1posing education the students are in'ol'ed in realit"6 the" in:uire into it criticall" and thus
are able to transorm it. Their humanit" is thus not denied. Banking education teaches atalism6 the
0world0 is a gi'en6 one can but submit to it.
Freire links these ideas to his idea o pra3is, the idea that thought is onl" authentic when it is
generated b" action upon the world. it ollows rom this that the 8thoughts6 imparted to the students,
de'oid o action, are sterile, empt" ones, which can onl" help to build an alienated consciousness8.
The point is that the student is given the thoughts of others. -ducational success is measured b"
her abilit" to regurgitate these thoughts.
Freire0s criti:ue o banking education is located in his class anal"sis. 8-ducation as the e3ercise o
domination stimulates the credulit" o students, with the ideological intent !oten not percei'ed b"
educators% o indoctrinating them to adapt to the world o oppression8. 8Banking education8,
though, is precisel" the method a'oured in the (est to teach almost e'er"one. -'en pri'ate
schools or the elites in the (est use an approach which is essentiall" banking education, though
perhaps with slightl" more pla" in it than is used in the state sector, suicient to instil a sense o
social superiorit" in the students. Banking education appears to ha'e a utilit" be"ond keeping the
rural poor sub#ect to the law o the hacienda owner. 2t appears to ha'e a utilit" be"ond keeping the
proletariat submerged in a alse consciousness as understood in 4ar3ism. 2ndeed banking
education appears to ha'e a 'er" wide utilit" as a general purpose s"stem or ensuring compliance
to an e3isting s"stem. 2t does this b" engendering passi'it", b" teaching that social conormism is
right and not to conorm is aberrant, b" stiling critical thinking about realit", b" teaching submission
to social authorit" as personiied b" the school1teacher, and b" training the student to accept
packages put together b" others rather than trusting his own instinct to learn. This last point is
touched on b" Freire but taken much urther b" 2llich in his criti:ue o education as being a training
in consumerism.
For Freire banking education alienates because it is outside the praxis. Banking education, b"
e3cluding the students rom a li'ing, critical engagement with the now !the present political and
social conditions% is, without doing an"thing urther, alread" indoctrinating students into
ac:uiescence in the status :uo. 7is ideas about 8banking education8 and what he proposes
instead, 8problem1posing education8, ha'e, in our 'iew though, an applicabilit" as a general
educational theor" outside o being the doctrine o the educational wing o the re'olutionar" part",
but this ield is not de'eloped speciicall" b" Freire in this book.
Freire, as we ha'e seen, counters banking education with 8problem1posing8 education. The ke" is
the relationship between student and teacher. 2n this approach to education the teacher1student
teaches the student1teachers. This indeed recognizes a truth6 it is ne'er the case in act that the
teacher alwa"s knows and the student ne'er does. -'en :uite 0con'entional0 academic authors
oten testi" to the contributions their students ha'e made6 this bears witness to the act that a
meaningul dialog has taken place between teacher and students. 2n a sub#ect, like histor", where
0knowledge0 is a matter o interpretation this is :uite ob'iousl" so. But also in a sub#ect such as
mathematics it is likel" that students will rom time to time surprise their teacher. 2t is ob'iousl" true
that where there is a great disparit" in e3perience the teacher will rarel" gain new sub#ect
knowledge rom the students6 or e3ample a maths teacher with a Phd is unlikel" to e3tend his own
knowledge o mathematics greatl" b" teaching basic arithmetic to a group o 1E "ear olds, howe'er
bright and capable. >onetheless two things remain true9 i% 2n no case will the teacher e'er be
guaranteed not to be able to learn rom his students and ii% e'en in those cases where this is
unlikel" there is no reason wh" a teacher cannot still work alongside the students, as an e:ual,
posing problems and working with them to sol'e them. The method, i "ou want to call it that, o
problem1posing education is applicable in all learning situations. 2t is ob'iousl" alse to set up a
situation where the teacher acts as i he has absolute !noledge relative to the students. ,uch a
s"stem can onl" be maintained b" 'iolence because it is untrue. This is wh" students in schools
become 0disaected06 the" ha'e been orcibl" disengaged rom the learning process b" being
denied their right to truth, to make a direct connection with it. 2t is an assault on their being.
*nother reason wh" problem1posing education is still rele'ant e'en with 0children0 is that we were
all a child once. That is 1 i someone cannot empatheticall" enter into the world o the child as an
e:ual in spirit !and needs to hide behind a spurious authorit" which is maintained onl" b" 'iolence
in the last anal"sis% then what is he or she doing in the classroom?
Problem1posing education is an approach to education where teacher and student approach a
problem together. ,tudent1teacher and teacher1students work together to sol'e the problem. There
is a real critical engagement with realit" and is part o the praxis. (e would argue that e'en when
the content o the educational programme is not speciicall" political a problem1posing approach is
still politicall" liberating because it treats people as persons who can take their place in societ" as
thinking beings while a banking approach is oppressi'e because it, as Freire sa"s 0iles them
awa"0. 2n problem1posing education the students and teacher discover truths. 2n banking education
the second1hand truths which ha'e recei'ed the sanction o the board o education are
disseminated to the passi'e students whose merit is the greater the more meekl" the" absorb
other people0s 'ersion o realit". Freire argues that in problem1posing education teacher and
students are both ,ub#ects. 2n banking education the teacher alone is the ,ub#ect6 the students, as
'essels to be illed are merel" ob#ects. 2n banking education the teacher ills the empt" 'essels with
0knowledge0 about the world 1 a stulti"ing process. 2n problem1posing education the teacher does
not claim to either own nor know the world6 teacher and student approach the problem together.
Freire writes9 8Problem1posing education bases itsel on creati'it" and stimulates true relection
and action upon realit", thereb" responding to the 'ocation o persons as beings who are authentic
onl" when engaged in in:uir" and creati'e transormation8.
2n )hapter $ Freire emphasises that problem1posing education is 0dialogical06 that is it in'ol'es a
dialog between student1teacher and teacher1students. Banking education progresses b" issuing a
series o communi:u;s, !or e3ample rom 'arious committees in (hitehall and elsewhere which
determine the national curriculum%. 2n )hapter $ he relates this especiall" to the classic
re'olutionar" conte3t and reminds the re'olutionar" leadership that the" must dialog with the
people and not #ust issue communi:u;s. *gain, while distancing oursel'es rom the re'olutionar"
anal"sis it is clear nonetheless this is still a pertinent criticism o educational methodolog" in
general. 4ost teaching is indeed about issuing communi:u;s. These communi:u;s ha'e been
prepared in ad'ance b" others about sub#ects which the" ha'e determined the students should
know. 2t is a one1wa" dialog. 7ence a situation is created where the concept 0back1chat0 is created.
0Back1chat0, a 0moral0 notion uni:ue to banking education, is the result o bright people dri'en into
an untenable position9 that o being asked to become an 0empt" 'essel0. 2n an educational situation
where communication takes place in the orm o two1wa" dialog there is no back1chat. The 'er"
phrase 0back1chat0 with its pe#orati'e intonation relects the one1wa" nature o the appro'ed
educational process and the wa" it makes bad normal human creati'it" and interaction.
Freire discusses banking education 'ersus problem1posing education in the conte3t o his
"edagogy of the #ppressed6 teaching literac" to the oppressed rural poor in 5atin *merica and
with it a social and political consciousness, in line with traditional 4ar3ist orthodo3". >onetheless
the basic concepts appl" in non1re'olutionar" conte3ts, the criticism is applicable as a general
criti:ue o education. )ertainl"6 in problem1posing education the teacher1student respects the
student1teachers because a realit" is recognized, that in act the teacher is not an absolute
authorit" on the sub#ect and the students are able to make a 'alid contribution. *s such the
humanit" o the students is 'alued6 in that their truth as in:uiring beings is engaged not stiled. This
approach to education re:uires a teacher who can empathise with the students, who can enter into
their acti'it" o in:uir", alongside them. 2t re:uires patience and lo'e as Freire sa"s. 2t probabl"
can0t be done 'er" eicientl" on a large1scale and its ruits cannot be measured in e3ams which
are #ust regurgitating the oicial words. !/ne o the dilemmas in contemporar" school s"stems is
that ine'itabl" teachers 0teach to the test0. This happens to such an e3tent that students b" the time
the" reach Fni'ersit" ma" reall" come to conuse 0knowing0 with placing the right words on paper
that will enable the e3aminer to gi'e them a mark. Because the" ne'er had to disco'er an"thing or
themsel'es the" know nothing%. 2t can be seen that an educational methodolog" which is
authoritarian and operates according to a one1wa" dialog e3cludes the students rom a critical
participation in social and political realit". The disaected are those who won0t gi'e up their political
and social consciousness, who won0t be turned into 0illed empt" 'essels0 but who reser'e the right
to in:uire or themsel'es. 2n tr"ing to preser'e their reedom the 0disaected0 are also tr"ing to
preser'e the reedom o their oppressors and to keep open the possibilit" o dialog. For Freire, who
belie'es that human destin" is to be realised in the inal triumph o the proletariat in histor" this
e3clusion rom social and political realit" and the enorced alienation concomitant on it is
speciicall" and onl" a class oppression. Thus banking education is linked to the 8oppressing class8
!owners o capital%. >onetheless e'en i we discard dialectical materialism, we still see that the
banking approach to education is, in its apoliticalness, dehumanising and alienating.

Chapter & " 'ialog is central to a pedagogy of the oppressed. Freire(s (system(
2n this chapter Freire outlines his educational programmes with the rural poor in 5atin *merica.
These programmes use political content gleaned rom the obser'ed e'er"da" lie o the peasants
to teach critical awareness. The chapter describes the programmes in some detail. 2nitiall" material
will be gathered partl" b" Freire0s assistants and partl" b" leaders rom amongst the peasants
using audio1'isual e:uipment. The preliminar" in'estigation will disco'er certain themes in the
political and social lie o the people. Freire reers to these as 0generati'e0 themes6 according to
Freire each epoch and each localit" has its own 0generati'e0 themes6 these are the ke" political
themes o the communit" !a subset o the societ" and in turn o the epoch%. / course6 the themes
are understood as ha'ing a dialectical binar" opposite. There is a dialectical struggle stri'ing or
plenitude. These dialectical struggles will necessaril" ocus on limit1situations6 points at which the
human potential o the people is being rustrated but which the" could go be"ond i the" could
o'ercome their atalism. The material is in'estigated and a selection is made rom which
codiications are made. This material is then discussed in groups with the peasants !0thematic
in'estigation circles0% and decoded. Their discussions are obser'ed and recorded b" a ps"chologist
and a sociologist. Then, using this material gleaned rom the meetings, and insights pro'ided b"
the ps"chologist and sociologist the team stud" their indings and identi" the themes which ha'e
emerged. The recordings made o these discussions together with the notes rom the ps"chologist
and sociologist are also presented b" the team to appropriate Fni'ersit" academics. The
proessors add some content o their own. These ma" be in the orm o recorded inter'iews. The
team ma" also add additional material which was not turned up in the in'estigations with the
people including ke" themes o a more academic nature such as the idea o 0culture0. This material
is now codiied !again% and the coded material, together with the contributions rom the proessors,
is now taken back to groups o the rural poor and orms the content or 8culture group8 discussions.
2n these the peasants decode the encoded representations o their own 0generati'e themes0, the
ke" social and political dilemmas the" ace. The" ma" also listen to and discuss the recordings
made b" 0specialists0. The decoding is the ke" process which leads to insight. ,o the encodings
must be done sensiti'el".
The process as described b" Freire clearl" co1in'ol'es the peasants in the production o their own
special course content. Friere emphasises that his approach is one o dialog. This dialogical nature
o the programmes distinguishes them rom the 0top1down0 approaches which e'en humanitarian
programmes are likel" to use. *n educational programme built around dialog is contrasted b"
Freire with one which seeks to impose its truth. /ne o the 'irtues o this dialogical approach is
humilit". 87ow can 2 dialog i 2 alwa"s pro#ect ignorance onto others and ne'er percei'e m" own?8.
*nd again6 87ow can 2 dialog i 2 regard m"sel as a case apart rom others1 mere 0its0 in whom 2
cannot recognize other 020s?8. (e can appl" this to contemporar" schooling6 while Friere here is
thinking o those would be teachers o the people and perhaps humanitarian academics who
approach the people as 0the great unwashed0, a collection o 0its0, this is precisel" the kind o
thinking pre'alent in contemporar" school education. The teacher, a member o an in1group b"
'irtue o their degree and teacher1training approaches the pupils, usuall" uniormed and in an"
case reduced to 0it0 status b" ha'ing to obe" the kind o rules which !as 2llich points out% no adult
would accept in a democrac". 7umilit" is not a :ualit" oten ound in teachers in these kind o
s"stems6 how could it be where their #ob is to stick some o their knowledge into the 0wholl"
ignorant0 empt" 'essels in ront o them? The reduction o people to it1status is a necessar" part o
an education which concei'es o its role as grinding acts into "oung minds. *ll children in these
contemporar" s"stems o education are treated in the same wa" that paternalistic programmes o
0education0 run b" the 5atin *merican dominant classes treat 5atin *merican peasants.
There can be no doubt that this method 1 o encoding and decoding representations o political
themes must be an eecti'e wa" to de'elop critical awareness. !/ne can imagine a similar method
o 0teaching0 "oung children about sa" a'oiding harmul eating habits using cartoons which encode
sa" the situation o being pressurised b" an ad'ert to drink coke but instead choosing to reresh
one0s thirst with water%. There are some anomalies in Freire0s approach6 perhaps sounding more
anachronistic toda" than the" might ha'e done in 19+1. -'en relati'el" illiterate (esterners would
probabl" eel patronised b" these eorts. 4ore serious, rom our point o 'iew is the promotion o
the idea o proessional sub#ect specialisms in the human sciences6 and the inliction o this on the
peasants. This, surel", is teaching them to 0respect0 academia 1 with its departments and sub#ect
specialisms? 2ndeed we can ask are the peasants being tricked into swapping their 0respect0 or
the landowner and his all" the humanitarian educator or 0respect0 or the let1wing academic? The
problem is that without this part o the programme there was no link between Freire00s intellectual
world and the dail" lie o the peasants. *nd that there is such a link is 'ital to his re'olutionar"
theor"6 as he sa"s himsel the 0re'olutionar" leaders0 are likel" to come rom the middle1classes.
The" go to the peasants in solidarit" and dialog with them, raising their re'olutionar" zeal and
directing it. 2 the peasants are not seen to be interested e'en i onl" as one part o the total
educational programme in the thoughts o the proessors then there is no connection between the
re'olutionar" theor" and those who, b" weight o numbers and their role in production, are to carr"
out the re'olution. 2n this case either re'olution would ha'e to be imposed on the people or there
simpl" would be no re'olution. The pra3is between the theor" and the practice o the re'olution
would break down. But we doubt that the peasants would ha'e been that interested in these
sub#ect e3perts, proessors o political science or ps"cholog" or sociolog"6 because the whole
ediice o academic disciplines is itsel something artiicial, linked to power and alien to them. 2t can
ne'er be o the people.
Thus, unortunatel"6 much o this chapter reads like Freire, the academic, tr"ing to #usti" the
academic world in the same wa" that a priest might seek to #usti" &od and the church b" attaching
them to the cause o the poor.
Chapter ) " A cultural revolution
This chapter e3amines the broader cultural conte3t in which the educational programmes
described in the pre'ious chapter take place. 2n the same wa" that banking education is contrasted
with problem1posing education so 0antidialogical action0 is contrasted with 0dialogical action0 in
social relations and cultural communication. The distinction is that dominant elites do not
communicate with the people, do not dialog with them, but rather issue communi:u;s. The
re'olutionar" leadership must dialog with the people and a'oid the temptation to issue
communi:u;s themsel'es. The need or dialog is linked back to the idea o the praxis. 2t is not
good enough or the re'olutionar" leadership to ha'e a theor" o the re'olution and to emplo" the
people simpl" as acti'ists6 this would be to manipulate the people and the leaders would thereb"
in'alidate their own praxis. The praxis must include the intellectuals and the people together. 2 the
leadership simpl" issues communi:u;s the" den" the people their praxis. The essential point is
that the relation between re'olutionar" leaders and the people must be dialogical i it is to a'oid
mirroring the relations between the oppressor and the oppressed.
The leadership must not 8belie'e in the m"th o the ignorance o the people8. (hile the leadership
must not accept the m"th o the ignorance o the people nonetheless Freire tells us the" ha'e a
greater understanding than the 0empirical0 understanding o the people. *nd, again, the leaders
must alwa"s 0mistrust0 the peasant who still ma" 8house the oppressor8 in him. The leadership
must show 0determination0. 8The act that the leaders who organize the people do not ha'e the right
to arbitraril" impose their word does not mean that the" must thereore take a liberalist position
which would encourage license among the people, who are accustomed to oppression8. 2 "ou take
this together with earlier warnings about how the leadership ma" ind it necessar" to impose
0restraints0 on the ormer oppressors it is possible to see glimmers here o an authoritarian attitude.
(hat will the re'olutionar" leaders do with the peasant who stubbornl" wants to own a ranch and
#ust doesn0t get the need or a class1based re'olution !which will put the re'olutionar" leadership
into power?%. Firstl"6 his obstinac" will be written o 1 it is because he 8houses the oppressor within
in8. (hether or not authoritarian measures will be taken against him isn0t clear. Perhaps he will be
treated as one o the oppressors rom the ormer regime who need to be 0restrained0. The problem
is that organizing a re'olution according to a blueprint does re:uire authoritarian measures.
Freire0s dialectic that authorit" is re:uired or reedom is somewhat uncon'incing. This authorit",
which he distinguishes rom authoritarianism, must be based !though he does not sa" so e3plicitl"%
in his belie in the scientiic truth o the re'olution which aims to seize power, which is precisel"
what we dispute.
For Freire his call to authentic praxis leads ine3orabl" to the re'olution, because he has alread"
accepted that the re'olution is the ultimate conclusion o philosoph". This is wh" in this chapter o
the book there is an authoritarian tone. The re'olutionar" leaders will, as well as engaging in dialog
with the people, lead and organize. The problem is that there is onl" one permissible outcome to
that dialog 1 scientiicall" pro'en dialectical materialism, the class struggle, under the wing o the
leadership. ,o 1 this isn0t reall" a dialog since there can onl" be one end and an" other conclusion
is alread" e3plained awa" as the oppressed housing the oppressor within themsel'es. * real dialog
does not ha'e a prescribed outcome. ,omething unknown ma" "et be disco'ered.
*nti1dialogical action proceeds b" con:uest which it achie'es b" depositing m"ths in the people,
di'ide and rule, manipulation, and cultural in'asion.
)on:uest operates on a scale rom repressi'e measures to 8the most solicitous !paternalism%8.
The con:ueror makes o people his possession. )on:uerors present the world to the people as a
gi'en to which the" must adapt rather than a problem to be sol'ed. Freire goes on to list some
m"ths which con:uerors deposit in the people9 the oppressi'e order is a 0ree societ"0, all persons
are ree to work where the" wish, that i the" don0t like their boss the" can lea'e him and look or
another #ob, the m"th that the street 'endor is as much an entrepreneur as the owner o a large
actor"6 education is the path or inclusion or all 1 when in act it is shaped like a p"ramid and onl"
a small raction actuall" get to the top and so on. !,ome o the other e3amples are more speciic
to the 5atin *merican conte3t%.
/ne tactic o di'ide and rule which Freire reers to is that o promoting a 0ocalised0 'iewpoint o
problems. -'en allowing or the ob'ious sense that this un'eiling o oppressor tactics makes to a
4ar3ist it still has orce. 5ocalization o problems pre'ents people seeing their problems as part o
larger picture. (e can see this in social polic" toda" !in our societ"%9 there are pro#ects to help this
estate and that estate but no pro#ect to address the po'ert" o the poor collecti'el". !Ta3 credits
indi'idualise and are an e3treme orm o ocalisation rom this point o 'iew%. There is an interesting
criti:ue o leadership courses9 while these appear to be emancipatator" but the" are not because
the" are based on a mistaken concept 81 as i it were the parts that promote the whole and not the
whole which in being promoted promotes its parts8.(e can see this in the FG. (hen people rom
working class communities go to Fni'ersit" this does not raise the le'el o the working class6 rather
those indi'iduals #oin the middle1class. Together with the act that !whate'er the incline% education
is a p"ramid with onl" a proportion making it to the top we can see how, in realit", 8education,
education, education8 does relati'el" little or the working class and nothing or the poor. Freire
also cites oppressor tactics o manipulation o trade unions and indi'iduals in the workplace.
2n the case o manipulation Freire writes 82n a situation o manipulation, the 5et is almost alwa"s
tempted b" a 8:uick return to power8, orgets the necessit" o #oining with the oppressed to orge
an organization, and stra"s into an impossible 0dialog0 with the dominant elites. /ne tactic under
the heading o manipulation is or the bourgeois to inculcate an appetite or 8personal success8
amongst the poor.
)ultural in'asion is the instrument o domination where the dominator imposes his 'alues and
outlook into the culture o the oppressed. Freire sees that this ma" not be o'ert9 8*ll domination
in'ol'es in'asion1 at times ph"sical and o'ert, at times camoulaged, with the in'ader assuming
the role o a helping riend8. The e3ample Freire gi'es is how the 'alues o the surrounding culture
can be relected in the conditions in the home. )ultural in'asion 8implies the 0superiorit"0 o the
in'ader and the 0ineriorit"0 o those who are in'aded, as well as the imposition o 'alues b" the
ormer, who possess the latter and are araid o losing them8. The cultural re'olution must alwa"s
be dialogical and resist tendencies to cultural in'asion e'en in the re'olution 1 or e3ample
bureaucratic tendencies in the new societ".
Hialogical action, on the other hand, proceeds b" cooperation, unit" or liberation, organization and
cultural s"nthesis.
)o1operation is an e3tension o the e:ualit" o Freire0s approach to education to the cultural
sphere. 2n both conte3ts the point is that the relation is one o ,ub#ect to ,ub#ect, not ,ub#ect to
thing. This speaks o a relationship o empath". )o1operation, as dialogical action, occurs amongst
sub#ects and can onl" be achie'ed though communication. The re'olution does not seek to
con:uer people but to gain their adherence.
Fnlike the antidialogical action o the oppressor which seeks to di'ide and rule the tendenc" in
dialogical action is to stri'e or unit", or liberation. >ecessaril" or Freire unit" means class
consciousness. * consciousness o unit" is linked to organisation amongst the oppressed.
/rganisation must be based on a solidarit" with the people as opposed to manipulation o the
oppressors who organise themsel'es so as to dominate them. Freire sees authorit" as part o this
organisation but argues that it must be built on reedom6 i not it is authoritarianism.
Freire contrasts cultural s"nthesis with cultural in'asion. 2n cultural in'asion the actors
superimpose themsel'es on the people. 2n cultural s"nthesis the actors 8become integrated with
the people8. Both act on the world together. For Freire the re'olution must ha'e this cultural aspect
1 it is the intellectual part o the praxis. Freire links this back to his educational programmes, which,
as we ha'e seen, in'ol'e the peasants in the in'estigation o their own realit". Thus no one, he
claims, is imposing on them. !(e discussed how, in our 'iew, what is still being imposed on the
peasants is the world o 0academia0%. 7owe'er6 or Freire, cultural s"nthesis is where the world1
'iews o the leadership !which will include academics% and o the peasants airm and support each
other.
In conclusion* the relevance of Freire(s case to our eperience of school
This book is a rich source or those concerned with education and social struggles. 2t is atall"
lawed b" its ull acceptance o dialectical materialism and the wa" this is used as the model or all
subse:uent arguments. Hialectical materialism is not 0true06 a scientiic theor" o histor" is not
possible. *nd while the :uestions o economic class conlict are important histor" is not resol'ed
simpl" in this one economic struggle. Furthermore, and perhaps or these 'er" reasons, class
re'olutions ha'e a tendenc" to end up #ust putting a new set o rulers in place. 2t is a :uestion then
o what can be sal'aged rom this great book.
The answer is a great deal. Freire0s concepts o problem1posing education and its cultural
concomitant, dialogical action, and his working out o these concepts as the dialectical opposites o
banking education and antidialogical cultural action is i not proound then signiicant. / course6 2
empath" is not in "our heart as a teacher or solidarit" as a cultural actor than this lesson ma" pass
"ou b". Freire0s words are most likel" to ser'e as a reminder to those who alread" approach lie in
this wa".
Possibl" the least useul part o the book or us toda" !in the FG% is the )hapter in which he
describes the educational programmes or rural poor in 5atin *merica !$E "ears ago%. That said,
and interestingl", the problem he describes has not gone awa". 2n contemporar" societ" there are
man" who are 0submerged0 in realit", who ha'e no political consciousness. 4odern schooling does
indeed, #ust like antidialogical cultural action o con:uest, render people passi'e and apolitical,
especiall" b" the relentless ocus on indi'idual 0achie'ement0 and 0success0, a classic case o di'ide
and rule. The culture o 0entertainment0 aimed at "oung people b" commercial pro'iders and
imitated b" the BB) :uite speciicall" drowns them in an apolitical m"th. (e li'e in a 0ree0 societ".
*ren0t we luck". Iou can change "our #ob i "ou don0t like it. *n"one can get rich6 the street 'endor
is as ree as the entrepreneur. The thing to do is to 0ha'e un0 as "ou dash rom one pleasure
e3perience to the ne3t. Politics is 0s:uare0. *nd so on. But this e3perience o being submerged, o
ha'ing no political consciousness, is diused. 2t is not a clear case o rounding up all the peasants
in a district and in'iting them to participate in a programme to raise their political awareness. The
submerged li'e amongst us, dotted about1 as indeed do those who are more acti'el" politicall"
aware. *part rom the problem o geographical dispersion there is another problem. (hile people
ma" be 0submerged0 nonetheless the" are sophisticated in terms o media. The methods which
Freire used with rural peasantr" would probabl" seem insulting to our contemporar" submerged,
e'en i the" could be somehow rounded up into a group. >onetheless i we did1 then what would
the generati'e themes be? *n interesting :uestion. !&uessing9 lack o mone", drugs, childcare
problems, diicult" in inding work, tra'el problems in some areas?% . 7owe'er6 the e3tent o the
ragmentation o societ", the sophistication1in1submergence, the lack o an" e3isting social groups
to which people belong, all mitigate against a pedagogical approach such as Freire0s being
applicable to those who are 0submerged0 in contemporar" societ", though the" undoubtedl" e3ist.
Though 1 has an"one tried? *nd, another problem, Freire perhaps would ha'e had no problem
conronting the peasants with the notion that their !and 0their0 would ha'e had an ob'ious meaning
as the peasants would ha'e had a consciousness o themsel'es as a group%, situation was in
some sense problematic. 2n contemporar" societ" the submerged ma" well !indeed are :uite likel"
to% ha'e a air amount o material wealth. The" ma" not eel there is an"thing so wrong that
something as radical as a re'olution was re:uired to change it. But 1 a programme o in'estigating
0generati'e themes0 could still work with a group o people with little political consciousness !i.e.
what school gi'es them%. 2 the actual methodolog" was somewhat ad#usted what would emerge
out o such an in'estigation?
2n terms o immediate recepti'it" to a radical pedagog" a more politicall" aware group might be
ound amongst those who ha'e encountered irst1hand in a raw wa" in#ustice. First thing6 we
should orget educating or a re'olution. * critical 'iew such as pro'ided b" Foucault with his
anal"sis o power, o strategies and tactics is more useul in the ragmented world in which we li'e
than 4ar3. Iouth work !as 0inormal education0% can engage with such "oung people. Potentiall",
work which enables "oung people to articulate their insights into the social and political realit"
which conronts them can lead to solidarit", increased adroitness in dealing with the world, and
clearer insight into what that world is. (e cannot hope or a re'olution and cannot unite people
simpl" around their membership o an economic class, though this is important. But somewhere
between the crass indi'idualism o consumerism which the "oung are trained in 'ia the m"th o
0educational achie'ement0 and the other indi'idualising and alienating mechanisms o modern
schooling and the impossible notion o 0unit" or liberation0 based purel" on economic class
membership, it must be possible to de'elop a sense o solidarit" such that amongst the crowd o
the 0dominators0 and the submerged people pockets o resistance can orm bearing in mind in this
multi1polarised societ" a 0dominator0 and a 0submerged0 are not i3ed6 most o us are probabl" both
at se'eral times during each da". (orkers in "outh work pro#ects must indeed be 0with0 the people
rather than tr"ing to teach them rom the top down, but again, i "ou ha'e to be told thatD.
Freire0s criti:ue owes something to ,artre with the emphasis on how people, as ,ub#ects can
relate to others as also ,ub#ects or attempt to treat them as ob#ects. ,atre0s phenomenological
model o sub#ecti'it" tends to accept a permanent 21sub#ect. Freire0s theor" is based around this
idea o a ,ub#ect6 this is part o its theoretical limitations. There is a mode o communalit" which is
not based around the 020 which, itsel is a construct. This re'iew is not the place to e3plore this.
Foucault0s critic o indi'idualit" is rele'ant, ollowing >ietzsche.
/ne o the !man"% rich seams which can be ound in Freire would be the transposition o his
educational criti:ue to contemporar" schooling. 2n attempting to translate Freire0s general criti:ue
o education to the school s"stem in the contemporar" (est howe'er one immediatel" encounters
a problem6 the argument might run like this91 while adults ma" be suitable partners in in:uir", or
0children0 it is dierent. 2t is acceptable to make 0children0 learn knowledge won b" e3perts and
e3clude them rom the process o in:uir". The argument goes on61 how could an"one contribute
an"thing meaningul to knowledge until the" ha'e mastered the e3isting corpus o knowledge in
an" one sub#ect domain, which, in act, takes them the ull course o a modern education rom
primar" school to doctorate? That is6 one might accept Freire0s basic theor" and programme o
problem1posing education, with its emphasis on dialog and ,ub#ect to ,ub#ect communication but
sa" that he was talking about teaching adults. 2n the case o children, one might sa", this is not
rele'ant. 7ow can education o children be an"thing other than banking education since they don't
!no anything and they have to be taught$ But in act such an argument would be no more than a
#ustiication or an unnecessar" authoritarianism and based on a ear o not taking such an
authoritarian attitude towards 0children0. * simple e3tension o the sel in imagination can o'ercome
the !alse% barrier that appears to e3ist between the teacher with their Fni'ersit" degree in a
sub#ect and "oung minds approaching it or the irst time. 2 the teacher can recall that at one point
the" did not 0know0 then e'en between those with ad'anced sub#ect knowledge and those without,
a problem1posing dialog can take place. 2t also re:uires the teacher to recognize that people orm
h"potheses about the world o their own accord as a result o their own in'estigations beore an"
contact with ormal education6 thus children in schools are ar rom being the 0empt" 'essels0 which
banking education would ha'e them be. True, in this case this does in'ol'e a certain amount o
acting on the part o the teacher, who can orget his knowledge and artiiciall" !b" artiice% 0reduce0
himsel to #ust one step ahead o his students. /nce he has done this then certainl" the lesson can
proceed on dialogical means in 0communalit"0. Teacher1student and student1teachers can work
together to sol'e problems e'en in this case. ,uch an approach does o course mean throwing out
the apparatus o authorit" 1 the curriculum, the te3t1books, all the arrangements which emphasize
the superiorit" o the teacher and which are there to breed a dull passi'it" in the students. But 1 this
does not mean throwing out the authorit" o real sub#ect knowledge6 simpl" the authorit" which is
transerred rom this to create a suocating en'ironment o social hierarch". Hespite all the
perpetual polic" changes education is still essentiall" Jictorian. ,erried ranks o 0pupils0 are lined
up. The" must not speak until spoken to. The teacher represents not simpl" a sub#ect e3pert but
the social authorit" o the state and the church !=%. (e ha'e banking education and a problem1
posing approach could certainl" be applied. 2t would be liberating as it would treat people as
,ub#ects, acing the world together, rather than as 0empt" 'essels0 to be illed. The education does
not ha'e to ha'e a speciicall" political content or this to be true.
2n 2llich0s anal"sis, which goes deeper into the nature o schools as a social institution than Friere0s
!possibl" because it is not limited to a class anal"sis%, schools train people to be consumers as
the" consume the obligator" educational packages and compete or pole position in societ". The"
engender passi'it", conormit", obedience and acceptance o the status :uo. The reason that
schools do not adopt eecti'e pedagogical methods which engage students ith reality is because
o their role as social incubators. Both Freire and 2llich are looking at the same process6 both
authors see that the banking approach to education is about inculcating submission to the status
:uo. Freire, gi'en his 4ar3ist orientation, ocuses on this as a process o class domination and
looks at how the recipients o education in a banking s"stem are alienated rom realit", while 2llich
with his criti:ue o manipulati'e institutions sees school more as a training in acceptance o these
kinds o institutions in general. 4odern schooling is certainl" 0banking education0. 2t still proceeds
as Jictorian schooling did with a teacher who represents social authorit" as well as sub#ect
authorit" pushing knowledge into the 0empt" 'essels0 lined up beore her. 0Pupils0 are marshalled
around as 0eicientl"0 as possible to as to absorb as much 0knowledge0 as possible, making as
much use o technolog" as possible to control them. !For e3ample biometric clocking1in s"stems%.
*s the go'ernment is ond o repeating 8-'er" lesson counts8. There is no :uestion here o
,ub#ects and ,ub#ects engaged in a respectul approach to realit" together 1 conronting realit"
together as ,ub#ects. <ather, #ust as Freire anal"ses, the teacher is the onl" ,ub#ect permitted in
the classroom. 7e writes 8banking education maintains and e'en stimulates the contradiction
A0pupils0 '. teachersB through the ollowing attitudes and practices, which mirror oppressi'e societ"
as a whole8. 7e goes on to list 1E attitudes and practices all o which appl" to contemporar"
schooling. The tenth is6 8the teacher is the ,ub#ect o the learning process, while the pupils are
mere ob#ects8. !The ull list is attached as *ppendi3 1%. (hat is interesting is how an educational
process anal"sed b" Freire as being that suited to a ruling elite intent on keeping the masses
0awa" rom realit"0 is used b" the go'ernment in our rich 0democratic0 nation or almost all students.
!*s we mentioned in the bod" o this re'iew, e'en pri'ate schools use essentiall" this method
though the" ma" allow a little more leewa", suicient to enable their products to en#o" a sense o
social superiorit"%. The only e3ception to this method o education in the FG is the home education
sector. *nd that sector is coming under attack with proposals in a current Bill !$%.
2t is diicult to argue then that banking education is used as a tool o class oppression in the (est
since it is applied to all classes 1 or something similar is. 7ow are we to e3plain this? Part o the
answer ma" be pro'ided b" 2llich0s more subtle anal"sis. /ne o the unctions o schooling !which
t"picall" means banking education% is or e'er"one to bu" into the s"stem. /nl" a ew can make it
to the top o the ladder and obtain all the beneits6 those who 0ail0 nonetheless measure their worth
b" what !little% the" achie'ed in school. ,chooling allocates people into roles in a stratiied societ".
Toda" the 5abour part" urge education on e'er"one, 8e'er" lesson counts8, but the" know ull well
that the school s"stem will not bring 0airness0 or income e:ualit" or the poor. The school s"stem
contributes to a manipulati'e economic s"stem b" sorting people into roles and managing their
e3pectations. 2t #ustiies subse:uent e3ploitation. The banking s"stem o education is pre'alent
because it is a tool or inducting the ne3t generation into a stratiied, consumerist, e3ploitati'e
societ". *s anal"sed b" Freire banking education has a m"thologizing aspect. 2t promotes certain
m"ths about how we 0li'e in a ree societ"0 and so on. 2t alienates b" teaching static 0knowledge0
which is thus alwa"s a second1hand apprehension o realit", rather than b" pro'iding a milieu
where teacher1students and student1teachers could address realit" together, as the" engage in an
open dialog. The alienating eect o banking education is to incapacitate people6 their capacit" or
critical thought and their capacit" to become transormers o their world is suppressed. 2nstead
their credulit" is stimulated. !(atch or e3ample how schools participate in the marketing
campaign or a certain well1known brand o margarine, with children bringing their tokens to school.
This is a training in how to be a consumer. 7ow man" schools encourage their students to criticall"
:uestion this business? 2nstead, the" collude with the manuacturers and thereb" stimulate
childrens0 credulit"%. Banking education alienates b" stopping children engaging criticall" with
realit" !as the" substitute the 0curriculum0 or critical thought and resh dialog%. 2ts products are
compliant cogs or the social and economic realities o the da", people who 0it in0 and accept the
status1:uo o the e3isting social and political arrangements rather than :uestion them. 2t is
necessar" that all classes in a societ" such as ours be educated and deused in this wa"9 rebellion
against consumerism, manipulati'e institutions and materialism can come as much rom an" class
or group. The threat to the middle1classes and the wealth1owning minorities in (estern societ"
toda" comes not so much rom a re'olution o the oppressed6 but rom non%acceptance of the
culture of alienation and materialism which allows the whole s"stem to unction. Banking education
which was used in 5atin *merica as a tool speciicall" to e3clude the peasants and keep them
rom thinking is used in the (est now to train people in the kind o passi'it" and alienation re:uired
or successul participation in this societ". The middle1classes who support the present regime are
themsel'es alienated and seek to make this kind o alienation the norm. The materialist and
consumerist outlook, the idea that sal'ation comes rom manipulati'e institutions, the a'oidance o
awareness, the escape rom reedom are all 0'alues0 which are embraced b" especiall" the ruling
class and the" wish to inculcate them into the ne3t generation 1 but b" man" others as well across
societ" who ha'e learned to take these things or granted. 2n the kind o polarised class societ"
which Freire deals with the dominant class has an interest in rendering the oppressed class
passi'e and uncritical 'ia education so as to en#o" their reedom6 in our societ", where being
unree and alienated is the norm, banking education is used to normalise e'er"one. Bizarrel", the
thing status which is the eect o banking education is or some !look at -d Balls% entirel" the
norm. 2t works in both, dierent, cases because o the eect o banking education to stile
creati'it", critical thought and the sense that we, as people, can transorm our world. 2t is this eect
o banking education which is appreciated b" both reactionaries in the )onser'ati'e part" and
bureaucrats in >ew 5abour.
(e are more alienated than the more primiti'e s"stems o e3ploitation that Freire was conronting.
2n our situation alienation is a re:uirement or all participants. -ducation is the primar" means o
achie'ing this.
/ course, schools, and banking education with its s"stem o e3ams and certiicates indi'idualises.
2t also works 'er" well to promote the m"th that this is a classless societ" 1 b" mi3ing all the
classes in the same s"stem and indi'idualizing them all. Though the middle1classes alwa"s win at
this game. 2t is interesting how willing the middle1classes are to put their own children through what
is essentiall" a demeaning process, which treats them as ob#ects, with a 'iew to perpetuating their
class.
*nother interesting seam which can be mined in "edagogy of the #ppressed is the applicabilit" o
the theor" o anti1dialogical action to >ew 5abour. *ll o the anti1dialogical processes which Freire
anal"ses in )hapter $ can be seen at work in >ew 5abour0s approach. Fnder the heading o
con:uest >ew 5abour has simpl" inherited the ordinar" m"ths which support capitalism6 that a
worker is ree to change their #ob i the" wish, that the s"stem is or the beneit o all, that we li'e in
a ree societ" etc. >ew 5abour has specialised in the kind o 0ocalisation0 which Freire discusses
under the heading o 0Hi'ide and <ule0 1 whereb" 0help0 is directed to speciic groups who are seen
in isolation rom the wider social and political conte3ts. ,ure,tart would be an e3ample. Fnder the
heading o 04anipulation0 Freire0s comment that the populist leader while linked to the emergence
o the oppressed 8simpl" manipulates, instead o ighting or authentic popular organization8
sounds like it was written about >ew 5abour. Further6 >ew 5abour0s promotion o the m"th o
8educational success8, a central plank o its claim to be progressi'e is a classic case o
manipulation. 2 this beneits an"one it is the middle1classes who alread" speak at home the
language o school1teachers and who, an"wa", will be getting the middle1class #obs come what
ma" !as a recent parliamentar" report indicated% !C% . 4eanwhile >ew 5abour0s 0dialog0 with the
dominant elites is well1known. (ith >ew 5abour0s manipulati'e programmes o beha'iour control,
or e3ample parenting classes, we see the e'er increasing cultural in'asion, another eature o
anti1dialogical action, o the 'alues and thinking o social workers and other 0proessionals0 and
0e3perts0 into working1class lie. /ne o the e3amples o dialogical !as opposed to anti1dialogical
action% which Friere gi'es is o a 5atin *merican politician urging the people to organize and work
with him against the orces o reaction. (e sometimes hear this tone rom >ew 5abour6 &ordon
Brown in particular seems to a'our this tone. 7owe'er6 with >ew 5abour it is simpl" tone. >ew
5abour will speak as i on the side of the people but onl" on totall" tri'ial matters 1 Ton" Blair
inter'ening to get ootball tickets or disappointed "oungsters, &ordon Brown getting in'ol'ed in
the outcome o realit" TJ shows. /ten >ew 5abour sound as i the" were outside government like
the people and tr" to represent themsel'es as acing the same battles with the powers that be that
ordinar" people do. / course, this all theatre !TJ% and a purel" presentational kind o siding with
the people.
Fnder the heading o di'ide and rule we can possibl" see the *nti1,ocial Beha'iour campaign o
>ew 5abour as a tactic o di'ide and rule6 it separates o part o working class communities rom
another part, !in a wa" reminiscent o Jictorian ideas about the deser'ing and undeser'ing poor%,
rather than seeing problems o 0*nti1,ocial beha'iour0 !which are oten in act problems o pett"
crime being re1branded as 0*nti1,ocial beha'iour0% as being linked to social depri'ation and
communit" breakdown.
/ne tactic under the heading o manipulation is or the bourgeois to inculcate an appetite or
8personal success8 amongst the poor. (ith >ew 5abour we see this again with the m"th o
8education, education, education8. -ducation or what passes or it creates at best a better skilled
work orce6 it gi'es the capitalists a better choice to make, and it ma" increase producti'it" and
thus proits. /nl" i we assume @ hope that the proits are re1in'ested in creating #obs can this
approach e'en indirectl" actuall" beneit the working class !who indeed ha'e to work much harder
to beneit rom education in the irst place%. Fattening up the sla'es is not the same as abolishing
sla'er".
Freire0s criticisms o banking education and the opposite he proposes, problem1posing education,
pro'ides a rich anal"tic, critical, attack on contemporar" schooling. (hile the situation is more
ragmented than can be contained in two class model nonetheless banking education is ruitull"
e3posed b" Freire as the method o oppressi'e and alienating education. 2n our societ" oppression
is the norm in all relations and banking education is used across the board. Freedom as a wa" o
being has been more or less 0cultured out06 a banking s"stem o education is the irst point o
contact almost e'er"one has with this oppressi'e social realit".
Freire0s theor" o antigialogical action and the opposite he proposes, dialogical action, has a strong
resonance in terms o a contemporar" cultural and political criti:ue. The tactics o cultural in'asion,
di'ide and rule, manipulation and con:uest are part o the stu o dail" lie 1as the" emanate rom
politicians o all parties and are broadcast b" a compliant media. !2llich would almost certainl" note
how much o the media is dependent inanciall" on what he calls 0right1wing0 manipulati'e
institutions 1 and this necessaril" has a bias in a'our o this kind o outlook%.
The challenge is to think o how to appl" ideas about 8problem1posing education8 when working
with "oung people !di'ested o the ocus on ,artre0s 0,ub#ect0% and dialogical theories o cultural
action !di'ested o their ocal point o the re'olutionar" part"% in a situation which is diuse 1 where
power, oppression and alienation are e'er"where and are the norm, not simpl" the actions o one
class acting on another. 4a"be what will transorm societ" into a humane one where people can
realize their potential as human beings is not a single class1based re'olution but a whole series o
spear1heads all aimed at the same target and all tr"ing to de'elop a critical, humane world, in their
ield 1 but without tr"ing to establish a new, o'erall, structure. The 0unit" or liberation0 should be
one o solidarit" between dierent struggles or reedom rather than an attempt to bind e'er"thing
into one single point o struggle.
+otes
1. The Hangerous <ise o Therapeutic -ducation -ccelstone and 7a"es <outledge CEE8
C. The 4ilburn <eport Kul" CEE9
=. This aspect o teacherl" authorit" is undergoing a change at the moment. 2n place o the )hurch
teachers now teach children how to eel according to the latest pronouncements o therap". ,ee,
or e3ample, -cclestone and 7a"es, The Hangerous <ise o Therapeutic -ducation, <outledge
CEE9
$. )hildren, ,chools and Families Bill. &oing through parliament in earl" CE1E. The Bill implements
proposals rom a 0re'iew0 carried out b" &raham Badman into home education and seeks to
impose a regime whereb" parents must deine in ad'ance 0outcomes0 o their home education
programme. b" orcible entr" local authorit" inspectors can then test the children to see that these
outcomes ha'e been deli'ered. 2.e this is the imposition o a banking education t"pe outlook onto
the amil".
Appendi 1
the teacher teaches and the students are taught6
the teacher knows e'er"thing and the students know nothing6
the teacher thinks and the students are thought about6
the teacher talks and the students listen1 meekl"6
the teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined6
the teacher chooses and enorces his choice and the students compl"6
the teacher acts and the students ha'e the illusion o acting through the teacher,6
the teacher chooses the program content and the students, !who were not consulted% adapt
to it6
the teacher conuses the authorit" o knowledge with his own proessional authorit", which
he sets in opposition to the reedom o his students6
the teacher is the ,ub#ect o the learning process and the students are mere ob#ects.
Pedagog" o the /ppressed Paulo Freire Penguin 1996.
!First published in 19+E%.