PERL on Unix/Linux

Practical Extraction and Reporting Language

Introduction
Scalar Variables and Lists
Arrays and Hashes
Operators and Precedence
Conditional statements and Loops
Regular Expressions
Subroutines
File and Directory Handling
Contents
History
DevelopedbyLarryWall in 1987
Derives from the ubiquitous C programming language
andtoa lesser extent fromsed, awk, theUnixShell.
PERL was originally designed under Unix, but now also
runsunder all OS(I ncludingWindows).
Introduction
What is PERL?
I nterpreted language that is optimized for string
manipulation, I /O and system tasks.
Why PERL?
Speed of development Don't have to compile create object
file and then execute.
Power of flexibility of a high programming language.
Easy to use, freely available and portable.
Makes easy jobs easy, without making hard jobs impossible.
Beginning with Perl
perldoc perl gives the list of manual pages as a part of
everyPerl installation.
perldoc h givesthebrief summaryof options available.
perl v gives theversionof thePerl theuser is using.
To create a Perl program, only a text editor and the perl
interpreter arerequired.
Perl fileendswith.pl (simple.pl)
Beginning with Perl (Contd..)
ExecutionCommand:
perl filename.pl, or
./filename.pl
When Unix has to execute Perl Script It first looks for
#!(Shebang) , it executes the remainder of the line and
passesthenameof thescript toit as an argument.
#! /usr/bin/perl or #!/usr/local/bin/perl is the command
usedtorunthePerl I nterpreter.
So to start a script we need to add abovelineas the first line
tomakePerl script executable.
Beginning with Perl (Contd..)
The core of Perl is Perl I nterpreter the engine that actually
interprets, compiles, andrunsPerl scripts.
All Perl programs gothroughtwophases:
a compile phase where the syntax is checked and the
source code, including any modules used, is converted
intobytecode.
a run-time phase where the bytecode is processed into
machineinstructionsandexecuted.
Man Pages
Man command used to read the documentation.
Command Description
perl Overview(top level)
perldelta Changes since last version
perlfaq Frequently asked questions
perltoc Table of contents for Perl documentation
perlsyn Perl Syntax
perlop Operators and precedence
perlre Perl Regular Expression
perlfunc Built in functions
perlsub Subroutines
perlvar Predefined Variables
Basic Syntax
#is usedfor commentingtheline.
All statementsshouldendwith;.
$_isthespecial variablecalleddefault variable.
Perl is casesensitive.
Perl programiscompiledandrunin a singleoperation.
Example
#! /usr/local/bin/perl
#Directs to perl interpreter on the system.
print Welcome to perl;
#Prints a message on the output.
This Program displays:
Welcome to perl
Example:
#! /usr/local/bin/perl c
Print welcome to perl;
This Program displays:
Syntax ok
Simple Programs
Basic Options
-c : Check syntaxandexit without executingthescript.
-v : Printstheversionof perl executable.
-w : Printswarnings
-e : Used to enter and execute a line of script on the
commandline
Standard Files
STDIN :I t is a normal input channel for thescript.
STDOUT :I t is an normal output channel.
STDERR :I t is thenormal output channel for errors.
Example
#! /usr/local/bin/perl w
print Enter the Text;
$input = <STDI N> ; #Reads the input and stores in the variable input
Chomp(); #will remove new line character.
Print entered text =$input ; #Prints the input on the command line\
This Program displays:
Enter the Text
Perl is awesome #Perl will read this Perl is awesome\ n, by
default it will add \ n character to your
entered text. So use chomp
entered text =Perl is awesome
Standard Files (Contd..)
Variables
Variables areusedtorefer datawhichis heldas value.
Perl defines three basic data types: scalars, arrays, and
hashes.
Scalars:
Holdsasinglevalueit may bea string,number or reference.
Begin with $, followed by a letter then by letters, digits or
underscores.
Example : $var =1 #integer
$var = Hello_world #string
$var=2.65 #Decimal number
$3var = 123 #Error, Shouldnt start with
#number
I nterpolation takes place only in double quotation marks.
Example
#! /usr/local/bin/perl w
$x = 12 ; #Assign the value to the variable
print Value of x is $x ; #Prints the output
This Program displays:
Value of x is $x #Single quotation will not interpolate
#(no processing is done) the values
Example
#! /usr/local/bin/perl w
$x = 12 ; #Assign the value to the variable
print Value of x is $x ; #Prints the output
This Program displays:
Value of x is 12 #Double quotation interpolates the values.
#(Variable is replaced by its content )
Variable Interpolation
Integers
I ntegers are usually expressed as decimal(10) but can be
specifiedinseveral different formats.
234 decimal integer
0765 octal integer
0b1101 binaryinteger
0xcae hexadecimal integer
Converting a number from one base to another base can be
doneusing sprintffunction.
Variables of different base can be displayed using printf
function
Example
#! /usr/local/bin/perl w
$bin = 0b1010;
$hex = sprint f %x, $bin;
$oct = sprint f %o ,45;
print binary =$bin \ n hexa =$hex \ n octal =$oct;
This Program displays:
binary= 1010
hexa = a
octal = 55
Integers (Contd..)
Example
#! /usr/local/bin/perl w
$x = 98 ;
print f ( Value in decimal =%d\ n, $x ) ;
print f ( Value in octal=%o\ n, $x ) ;
print f ( Value in binary =%b\ n, $x ) ;
print f ( Value in hexadecimal=%x\ n, $x ) ;
This Program displays:
Value in decimal =98
Value in octal =142
Value in binary =1100010
Value in hexadecimal =62
Integers (Contd..)
Escape Sequence Description
\b Backspace
\e escape
\f Form feed
\l Forces the next letter into lowercase
\L All following letters are lower case
\u Forces the next letter into upper case
\U All following letters are upper case
\r Carriage Return
\v Vertical Tab
Escaped Sequences
Character strings that are enclosed in double quotes accept
escapesequencesfor special characters.
The escape sequences consist of a backslash (\ ) followed by
oneor morecharacters
Built-in functions
Function Description
chomp( ) The chomp() function will remove (usually) any newline
character from the end of a string.
The reason we say usually is that it actually removes any
character that matches the current value of $/ (the input record
separator), and $/ defaults to a newline.
Ex :chomp($text);
Chop( ) The chop() function will remove the last character of a string
(or group of strings) regardless of what that character is.
Ex:chop($text)
Chr () Returns the character represented by that number in the
character set
Ex: chr(65 ) gives A.
Ord() Returns the ASCII numeric value of the character specified by
expression.
Ex:ord(A) gives 65.
List isa groupof scalar usedtoinitializearrayor hash.
The elements of a list can be numbers, strings or any other
typesof scalar data.
Each element of thePerl lists can be accessed by a numerical
index.
The elements of a list are enclosed in a pair of round
parenthesis andaregenerallyseparatedbycommas.
Lists
Example:
$var = welcome #normal variable
$var2=(12,24,kacper, $var,36.48) #first list
#first list contains 5elements and two of are strings(kacper, welcome)
$var3 = (12,24,Kacper ,$var ,36.48) #secondlist
#secondlist contains 5 elements and two of are strings(kacper, $var)
Lists (Contd..)
Flexible way of defining list is qw (quote word) operator
which helps avoiding to too many quotation marks, but be
cautious if whitespacesarethere.
Example
#! /usr/local/bin/perl w
print (sachin ,dravid, ganguly, kumble , \ n);
print qw(sachin dravid ganguly kumble);
print \ n;
print (sachin, dravid , ganguly, anil kumble ,\ n);
print( k, a, qw(c p e r ),t , e, c , h );
print \ n;
print (sachin ,dravid, ganguly, kumble )[1];
This Program displays:
Sachindravidgangulykumble
Sachindravidgangulykumble
Sachindravidgangulyanil kumble
kacpertech
dravid
Lists (Contd..)
Lists (Contd..)
Difference between list and array(or hash) is, array is a
variablethat can beinitializedwithalist.
Range Operator
Defined by symbol ..
Used to create a list from a range of letters or numbers.
Example :
Print (2 .. 4 ** a .. d )
This program displays:
234**abcd
List functions
A list is joined into a string using join function.
Example:
Print join( ,(perl ,is ,a, scripting ,language));
This program displays:
Perl is a scripting language
A string is splited into a list using split function.
Example:
Print (split | , perl) ;
This program displays:
P| e| r| l
Lists (Contd..)
List functions (Cont..)
map evaluates expression or block for each element of list.
Example:
Print join(, ,(map lc, A, B, C));
This program displays
a, b, c
grep returns a sublist of a list for which a specific criterion
is true.
Example:
Print grep(!/x/ , a, b, x, d);
This program displays:
abd
Lists (Contd..)
Arrays
Anonedimensional orderedlist of scalar variables.
Array provides dynamic storage for a list ,and so can be
shrunk ,grown,andmanipulatedbyalteringvalues.
Representedusing@(at)symbol.
Arraywithout anameis calleda list.
Elements of an array are accessed using the index number
(first element has indexzero, next has one, andsoon)
Eachelement inan array is a scalar.
$#arrayholdsthelast indexvalueinthearray.
Arrays (Contd..)
( ) represents theemptylist.
Example:
@arr= (perl ,2 , 5.143 );
print @arr;
This program displays:
perl 2 5.143 #displays all the elements
Example:
@num = (1,2,3,4,5) ;
print \ @num has ($#num + 1) elements;
This program displays
@num has 5 elements #Displays (last index number i.e, 4 + 1) which is
#the length of array
Example
#! /usr/local/bin/perl w
@a =(a .. z) ;
@len1 =@a; #Assign the array to the variable
@len2 =scalar (@arr); #using scalar method
Print length of a =$len1 \ n ;
Print length of a =$len2;
This Program displays:
length of a = 26
length of a = 26
Example
#! /usr/local/bin/perl w
@arr = ( one ,2 ,three ,4.4);
$arr[2] = kacper; #second element(three) is replaced by
print @arr; new element(kacper)
This Program displays:
one 2 kacper 4.4
Arrays (Contd..)
Array Methods
push
Pushfunction addsavalueor valuestotheendof an array.
Example:
@num = (1,2,3,4,5) ;
Push (@num , 6) ; #pushes 6 at the end of array
Print @num ;
This program displays:
123456 #Displays all the elements of array.
pop
Pop function gets a value or values from an array.
Example:
@num = (1,2,3,4,5) ;
Pop (@num) ; #Removes the last element of an array
Print @num ;
This program displays:
1234 #Displays all the elements of array.
Array Methods (Contd..)
unshift
unshift function adds a value or values at the start of an
array.
Example:
@num = (1,2,3,4,5) ;
unshift (@num , 6) ; #Adds 6 at the beginning of array
Print @num ;
This program displays:
612345 #Displays all the elements of array.
Array Methods (Contd..)
shift
shift function shifts off the first value of the array.
Example:
@num = (1,2,3,4,5) ;
$x = shift(@num) ; #Shifts the first element of an array
Print $x ;
This program displays:
2,3,4,5 #Displays the value stored in x.
Array Methods (Contd..)
map
Array processingmethodconverts onearraytoanother.
Syntax: mapExpression(or Block) , list
Runsanexpression on eachelement of an array(likeloop)
Locallyassigns$_ as an alias tothecurrent arrayitem.
Example:
@small = qw( one ,two, three) ;
@caps = map (uc ,@small); #uc returns an upper case version
print ( @val) ;
This program displays:
ONE TWO THREE #Displays in upper case
Array Methods (Contd..)
map (Contd..)
Example:
@num = (65, 66,67 ,68) ;
@num2 = map(2*$_ , @num); #multiplies each element by 2
@char = map(chr $_ ,@num); #chr returns the character represented by
that number
print @num2 \ n @char\ n;
This program displays:
130 132 134 136
A B C D
Array Methods (Contd..)
ArraySlice
Array slice is a section of an array.
Example:
@num = (1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5) ;
@val = @num[0 ,1]; #Array slice of first two element of @num
print join (, , @val) ;
This program displays:
1 ,2 #Displays first two elements of @num.
Array Methods (Contd..)
ArraySplice
Array splicing means adding elements from a list to the
array.
Example:
@num = (1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5) ;
@val =(6 , 7);
splice(@num,4 ,0 , @val) ; #Adds the element of @val to @num
Print join( ,,@num);
This program displays:
1 ,2 ,3 ,4 , 5 , 6 , 7 #Displays all the elements of @num after
#splicing.
Array Methods (Contd..)
sort
Sorts the elements in the ASCI I order.
Defines the global variables $a and $b by default ,using
these we can specify our own sort.
Example:
@str = qw(sachin dravid ganguly kumble) ;
@val =( 56,13,45,11);
@str_sort 1 =sort ( @str);
@val_sort1 =sort (@val);
print @str_sort 1 \ n;
Print @val_sort1 ;
This program displays:
dravid ganguly kumble sachin
11 13 45 56
Array Methods (Contd..)
sort (Contd..)
Example:
#!usr /local/bin/perl
@str = qw(sachin dravid ganguly kumble) ;
@val =( 56,13,45,11);
@str_sort2 = sort($a cmp $b); #sorted in alphabetical order
@str_rev = sort($b cmp $a); #sorted in reverse order
@val_sort2 = sort($a <=> $b); #sorted in ascending order
@val_rev = sort($b , < = > $a); #sorted in descending order
print @str_sort2 \ t @str_rev\ n;
print @val_sort2 \ t val_rev \ n;
This program displays:
dravid ganguly kumble sachin sachin kumble ganguly dravid
11 13 45 56 56 45 13 11
Array Methods (Contd..)
join
Perl join function is used to concatenate the elements of an
array or a list into a string, using a separator given by a
scalar variable value.
Syntax : $string = join (EXPR, LI ST);
Example:
#!usr/local/bin/perl
@arr = ("mukesh ,"anil ,"prem ,"ratan");
$arr = join " \ t", @arr;
print "business Tycoons: $arr\ n";
print join "-CEO\ t", @arr, "\ n;
This program displays:
business Tycoons: mukesh anil prem ratan
mukesh-CEO anil-CEO prem-CEO ratan-CEO
Array Methods (Contd..)
ArrayReversal
Reverse function is used to reverse the elements of an array.
Example:
@num = (1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5) ;
@rev =reverse @num ; #Reversing the elements of @num
Print join( ,, @rev) ;
This program displays:
5 ,4 ,3 ,2 ,1 #Displays all the elements of @rev.
spilt
Split() function is the opposite of join function.
Syntax :LI ST = split(/PATTERN/, EXPR, LI MI T)
Array Methods (Contd..)
LI ST represents a list, array or hash that is returned by
thesplit function
PATTERN usually is a regular expression but could be a
singlecharacter or a string
EXPR is the string expression that will be split into an
arrayor a list.
LI MI T is the maximumnumber of fields the EXPR will be
split into
Example:
!usr/local/bin/perl
$string=gandhi-ind-nehru-ind-sastri-ind-kalam-ind;
@colors =split('ind', $string); print @colors,"\ n";
This programdisplays:
gandhi--nehru--sastri--kalam-
Hashes
Anassociativearrayideal for handlingattribute/valuepair.
Lists and arrays areordered and accessed by index ,hashes
areorderedandaccessed by specifiedkey.
Representedusing%symbol.
First element in each row is called a Key and the second
element isaValueassociatedwiththat key.
Example: %coins = (quarter,25, dime,5); or
%coins = ( quarter => 25 , dime => 5);
Key Value
Hashes (Contd..)
Hah values can be any scalar ,just like an array ,but hash
keyscan onlybestrings.
Example: Printing the hash.
#!usr/local/bin/perl
%hash1 = ( one => 1 ,two => 2 ,three =>3 ,four =>4);
print %hash1; #we cant use print %hash1;
print @{[hash1]}\ n;
@temp = %hash1;
Print @temp;
This program displays:
three3one1two2four4
three 3 one 1 two 2 four 4
three 3 one 1 two 2 four 4
The print order determined by howthe Perl chooses to store
internally.
Hashes (Contd..)
Hashcan haveonlyscalarsas values.
{}areusedtoaccessindividual elementsof thehash.
Example:
#!usr/local/bin/perl
%hash1 = ( one => 1 ,two => 2 ,three =>3 ,four =>4);
$ele = $hash1(three); #single key, use scalar
@mul_ele = @hash1(four ,one); #multiple key ,use array
print single element =$ele ;
print multiple elements =@mul_ele;
This program displays:
single element =3
multiple elements = 4 1
Hashes (Contd..)
keys function can beused to find the no. of keys and list of
entries inahash.
values function can beused to find the no. of values list of
values inahash.
Example:
#!usr/local/bin/perl
%hash1 = ( one => 1 ,two => 2 ,three =>3 ,four =>4);
$ele = $hash1(three); #single key, use scalar
@mul_ele = @hash1(four ,one); #multiple key ,use array
print single element =$ele ;
print multiple elements =@mul_ele;
This program displays:
single element =3
multiple elements = 4 1
Manipulating Hashes
Toaddor changethevalue keywecan dolikethis
$hash1{three} =PERL .
It will overwrite the previous value if already existing. Otherwise it is
added as a newkey.
undef function is used to remove the value of the key, but key will
still exists.
Example: undef $hash1{two};
delete function is used to remove the value as well as key fromthe
hash.
Example :delete$hash1{four };
Hash Sorting
Hashes are not ordered and we must not rely on the order in
which we added the hash items Perl uses internally its own
waytostoretheitems.
We can sort hashes either by key or value ,using sort
function.
Example: Sort by key
%data = ( sachin => 10,
dravid => 19,
dhoni => 7,
rohit => 45 );
foreach $key(sort (keys(%data))) {
print \ t$key \ t $data{$key};}
This program displays:
dhoni 7 dravid 19 rohit 45 sachin 10
Hash Sorting (contd..)
Sort function returns least (or greatest) element among all
elementsinthefirst iteration.
Example: Sort by value
%data = ( sachin => 10,
dravid => 19,
dhoni => 7,
rohit => 45 );
foreach $key (sort{$data {$a}<= >$data{$b}}keys %data) {
print \ t $key \ t\ t $data{$key}\ n; }
This program displays:
dhoni 7 sachin 10 dravid 19 rohit 45
I n the above example first values are compared(using
sort{$data {$a}<=>$data{$b}}), found least value and that
isassignedtokey(usingkeys%data) in everyiteration
Operators
Operators can bebroadlydividedinto4types.
Unaryoperator which takes one operand.
Example: not operator i.e. !
Binaryoperator which take two operands
Example: addition operator i.e. +
Ternaryoperator which take three operands.
Example: conditional operator i.e. ?:
List operator which take list operands
Example: print operator
Arithmetic Operators
Operator Description
+ Adds two numbers
- Subtracts two numbers
* Multiplies two numbers
/ Divides two numbers
++ Increments by one.(same like C)
-- Decrements by one
% Gives the remainder (10%2 gives five)
** Gives the power of the number.
Print 2**5 ; #prints 32.
Shift Operators
shift operators manipulateinteger values as binary numbers,
shifting their bits one to the left and one to the right
respectively.
Operator Description
<< Left Shift
Print 2 >>3 ; left shift by three positions, prints 8
>> Right Shift
Print 42 >>2; #right shift by two positions, prints 10
x Repetition Operator.
Ex: print hi x 3;
Output : hihihi
Ex2: @array = (1, 2, 3) x 3; #array contains(1,2,3,1,2,3,1,2,3)
Ex3 :@arr =(2)x80 #80 element array of value 2
Logical Operators
Logical operators represented by either symbols or names.
These two sets are identical in operation, but have different
precedence.
The ! operator has a much higher precedence than even
&&and | | .
The not, and, or, and xor operators have the lowest
precedence of all Perl's operators, with not being the
highest of thefour
Operator Description
&& or AND Return True if operands are both True
|| or OR Return True if either operand is True
XOR Return True if only one operand is True
! or NOT (Unary) Return True of operand is False
Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operators treat their operands as binary values and
performa logical operation between the corresponding bits of
eachvalue.
Operator Description
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise XOR
~ Bitwise NOT
Comparison Operators
The comparison operators are binary, returning a value
basedona comparisonof theexpression
Operator Description
< Lessthan
> Greaterthan
== Equality
<= Lessthan or equal
>= Greaterthan or equal
<= > It does not return a Boolean value. It returns
-1 if left is less than right
0 if left is equal to right
1 if left is greater than right
!= Inequality operator
Comparison Operators on strings
String Description
eq Return True if operands are equal
le Return True if left operand is less than right
ge Return True if left operand is greater or equal to right
gt Return True if left operand is less than or equal to right
gt Return True if left operand is greater than right
cmp It does not return a Boolean value. It returns
-1 if left is less than right
0 if left is equal to right
1 if left is greater than right
ne Return True if operands are not equal
.(dot) Concatenation operator. It takes two strings and joins them
Ex: print System .Verilog
It prints SystemVerilog.
Binding operator
The binding operator ,=~,binds a scalar expression into a
patternmatch.
Stringoperations likes/// ,m//,tr///work with$_ by default.
By using these operators you can work on scalar variable
other than $_ .
The valuereturned from=~is the return valueof the regular
expression function, returns undef if matchfailed.
The !~operator performs a logical negation of the returned
valuefor conditional expressions, that is1for failureand
'' for successinbothscalar andlist contexts.
Conditional Statements
if Statement
if keyword to execute a statement block based on the evaluation of an
expression or to choose between executing one of two statement
blocks based on the evaluation of an expression
Example :-
$firstVar = 2;
if ($var == 1) { print we are in first if \ n; }
elsif( $var ==2) {print we are in second if \ n; }
else { print we are in third if\ n; }
This program displays:
we are in second if
Conditional Statements (Contd..)
until Loops
Until loops are used to repeat a block of statements while some
conditionis false.
Example :- do until loop
$firstVar = 10;
do {
print("inside: firstVar = $firstVar\ n");
$firstVar++;
}until ($firstVar < 2);
print("outside: firstVar = $firstVar\ n");
Conditional Statements (Contd..)
do-until Loops
Example :- until loop
$firstVar = 10;
until ($firstVar < 20) {
print("inside: firstVar = $firstVar\ n");
$firstVar++;
};
print("outside: firstVar = $firstVar\ n");
This programdisplays:
outside: firstVar = 10
Conditional Statements (Contd..)
for Loops
Example : - for loops
for ($firstVar = 0; $firstVar < 100; $firstVar++)
{
print("inside: firstVar = $firstVar\ n");
}
This programwill display:
inside: firstVar =0
inside: firstVar =1
...
inside: firstVar =98
inside: firstVar =99
Conditional Statements (Contd..)
foreachLoops
The foreach statement is used solely to iterate over the elements of an
array. It is very handy for finding the largest element, printing the
elements, or simply seeing if a given value is a member of an array.
Example :- foreach loop
@array = (1..5, 5..10);
print("@array\ n");
foreach (@array) { $_ = ** " if ($_ == 5); }
print("@array\ n");
This program displays:
1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 ** ** 6 7 8 9 10
J ump Keywords
The last Keyword
The last keyword is used to exit froma statement block.
Example :- last
@array = ("A".."Z");
for ($index = 0; $index < @array; $index++) {
if ($array[$index] eq "T") {
{ last } }
print("$index\ n");
This program displays:
19
J ump Keywords (Cont..)
The next Keyword
The next keyword use to skip the rest of the statement block and start
the next iteration.
Example : - next keyword
@array = (0..9);
print("@array\ n");
for ($index = 0; $index < @array; $index++) {
if ($index == 3 | | $index == 5) {
next; } $array[$index] = "*";
} print("@array\ n");
This program displays:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
* * * 3 * 5 * * * *
J ump Keywords (Cont..)
The redo Keyword
The redo keyword causes Perl to restart the current statement block.
Example :- redo
print("What is your name? ");
$name = <STDI N>;
chop($name);
if (! length($name)) {
print("Msg: Zero length input. Please try again\ n");
redo;
} print("Thank you, " . uc($name) . "\ n"); }
Regular Expressions
Regular expression(regexps) is simply a stringthat describes
the pattern (example for pattern ,to find files in a directory
whichendswith.svi.e. ls*.sv)
Usedfor findingand extracting patterns withinthetext.
The role of regexp engine is to take a search pattern and
applyit tothesuppliedtext.
Thefollowingoperatorsuseregular expressions.
MatchingOperator (m//)
SubstitutionOperator(s///)
Transliteration(Translation) Operator(tr///)
The Matching Operator (m//)
The matching operator (m//) is used to find patterns in
strings.
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
$_ = success is a progressive journey;
$var = success is not a destination;
I f( /success/) { #the initial m is optional
print String success Found; }
I f ( $var =~ /destination/) { print String destination Found; }
This program displays:
String success Found
String destination Found
When regular expression is enclosed in slashes(/success/), $_
is tested against theregular expression ,returning TRUE if
thereisa match, falseotherwise
Finding multiple matches
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
$txt =winn-ers see ga-in, lose-rs see pa-in
while ($txt =~ m/-/g) {
print Found another -\ n ;}
This program displays:
found another -
found another -
found another -
The Matching Operator (Contd..)
The Substitution Operator (s///)
Thesubstitutionoperator (s///) isusedtochangestrings.
Syntax:LVALUE =~s/PATTERN/REPLACEMENT/
The return value of an s/// operation (in scalar and list
contexts alike) is thenumber of times it succeeded (which can
bemorethan onceif usedwiththe/gmodifier).
On failure, since it substituted zero times, it returns false
(""), whichisnumericallyequivalent to0.
I f PATTERN is a null string, the last successfully executed
regular expressionisusedinstead
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
$text = winners see gain, losers see pain;
$test =~s/winners/WI NNERS/;
print $text;
This program displays:
WI NNERS see gain, losers see pain
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
@arr = qw(sachin dravid ganguly sachin);
foreach(@arr){ #for(@arr) and s/sachin/10/g for @arr
s/sachin/10/; } do same thing
print "\ n@arr;
This program displays:
10 dravid ganguly 10
The Substitution Operator (Contd..)
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
@old = qw(sachin-bharat dravid-bharat ganguly-bharat kumble-ind);
for (@new = @old) {s/bharat/india/ }
print "@olds\ n;
print "@new\ n";
This program displays:
sachin-bharat dravid-bharat ganguly-bharat kumble-ind
sachin-india dravid-india ganguly-india kumble-ind
The Substitution Operator (Contd..)
Using Modifiers with m// and s///
Modifier Description
g(m//g or s///g)
Works globally to perform all possible operations.
i
Ignores alphabetic case
x
Ignores white space in pattern and allows
comments.
gc
Doesnt reset the search position after a failed
match
s
Lets the . Character match newlines.
m
Lets ^ and $ match embedded \n characters
e
Evaluate right hand side as an expression
o
Compiles the pattern only once
The Translation Operator (tr///)
Syntax:
LVALUE =~tr/SEARCHLI ST/REPLACEMENTLI ST/
I t scans a string, character by character, and replaces each
occurrence of a character found in SEARCHLI ST (which is
not a regular expression)with the corresponding character
fromREPLACEMENTLI ST
I t returnsthenumber of charactersreplacedor deleted.
I f nostringis specified viathe =~or !~operator, the$_ string
isaltered.
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
$text = winners see gain, losers see pain;
$count = ($test =~tr/e/E/); print $text;
Print \ n no..of replacements =$count;
This program displays:
winnErs sEE gain,losErs sEE pain
no..of replacements =6
The Translation Operator (Contd..)
Modifier Description
c (tr///c) Complements the search list.
d Deletes unreplaced characters
s Deletes duplicate replaced characters
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
$text = winners see gain, losers see pain;
$count = ($test =~tr/e/E/c);
print $text; #except e all other characters
Print \ n no..of replacements =$count; #are replaced.
This program displays:
EEEEeEEEEeeEEEEEEEEEeEEEEeeEEEEE
no..of replacements =26
The Translation Operator (Contd..)
Different Pattern Delimiters
I f thepattern contains lots of slash characters(/) ,we can also
usedifferent pattern delimiter withthepattern.
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
$var = "winners / see / gain,losers / see pain";
I f( $var =~ m| see| ) { #match with pipes
print String see Found\ n; }
I f ( $var =~ m ?gain?) { #match with question marks.
print String gain Found; }
This program displays:
String see Found
String gain Found
Perl also allows paired characters like braces and
brackets.viz {},( ), <>,[ ].
Ex: $var =~s{gain}{GAI N};
The Parts of regular Expressions
I n general regular expression can be made up of following
parts.
Characters
Character Classes
Alternative MatchPatterns
Quantifiers
Assertions
Characters
I n regular expression any single character matches itself,
unless it isa metacharacterswithspecial meaning.
Beside normal characters, Perl defines special characters
that youcan usein regular expression.
These character must start with backslash.(Otherwise Perl
treatsit as a normal character).
Character Description
. (period) Used to match any single character except newline
character
Ex :$var1 = ~ /r.n/ # will match run , ran, ron
Characters (Contd..)
character Description
\d It is equivalent to [0 - 9]
Matches any digit.
Ex1 : $var =~ /\d/ # Will match any digit.
\D It is equivalent to [^0 - 9]
Matches any non-digit.
Ex1 : $var =~ /\D/ # Will match any non-digit.
Characters (Contd..)
character Description
\w It is equivalent to [0-9a-zA-Z_]
Matches a word character allowable in Perl variable
name.
i.e. Match any 'word' or alphanumeric character, which is
the set of all upper and lower case letters, the numbers
0..9 and the underscore character _
Ex :if ( $var =~ /\w/)
\W It is equivalent to [^0-9a-zA-Z_]
Matches any non-word characters. Inverse of \w
Ex :if ($var =~ /\W)
Characters (Contd..)
character Description
\s It is equivalent to [ \t\n\r]
Matches any white space character.
i.e. a space ,a tab ,a newline ,a return
Ex :if ($var =~ /\s/)
\S It is equivalent to [^ \t\n\r]
Matches any non-white space character.
Ex :if ($var =~ /\S/)
Characters (Contd..)
character Description
\Q Quote(disable) pattern metacharacters until \E found.
Ex:#usr/local/bin/perl
$var = success is not a *;
If($var =~/*/){ print found in 1st if ; }
If($var ~=/\Q*\E) { print found in 2nd if ; }
It will display :
found in 2nd if
\E End case modification.
Characters (Contd..)
character Description
\U Change the following characters to upper case until a \E
sequence is encountered.
Ex:$var = SUCCESS is not a * ;
If($var =~/success/){ print found in 1st if ; }
If($var ~=/\Usuccess\E) { print found in 2nd if ; }
It will display:
found in 2nd if
\L Change the following characters to lower case until a \E
sequence is encountered. Same like \U
Characters (Contd..)
character Description
\u Change the next character to uppercase.
Ex:#usr/local/bin/perl
$var = SUCCESS is not a *;
If($var =~/\us/){ print found only s ; }
If($var ~=/\usu/) { print found su ; }
It will display :
found only s
\l Change the next character to lower case.
Character Classes
A character class allows a set of possible characters, rather
than just a single character, to match at a particular point in
aregular expression.
Character classes are denoted by brackets [...], with theset of
characterstobepossiblymatchedinside.
Matchesoneoccurrenceof anycharacter insidethebracket
Ex 1: $var =~/w[aoi]nder/ #will match wander, wonder,
winder
Character Classes (Contd..)
I f you use ^as the first character in a(if you use ^outside
the character class[ ] it works as anchor) character class,
then that character class matches any character not in the
class.
Ex1:$var =~/w[^aoi]nder
#will look for wfollowedbysomething that is
#noneof aor oor i.
Alternative Match Patterns
Alternative Match Pattern means that you can specify a
seriesof alternatives for a patternusing| toseparatethem.
| (called alternation) is equivalent to an or in regular
expression. I t is usedtogiveachance.
Ex: $var2 =~/hope| trust/ #will match either hopeor trust
Alternatives are checked from left to right, so the first
alternativethat matchesistheonethatsused.
Grouping Alternatives
Grouping[ ( ) ] allows parts of a regular expression to be
treatedasa singleunit.
Parts of a regular expression are grouped by enclosing them
inparentheses.
Used togroup similar terms by their common characters and
onlyspecifiedthedifferences.
Example: $var2 =~/(while| for)loop/
#will matcheither while loopor for loop
Grouping Alternatives (Contd..)
The pairs of parentheses are numbered fromleft to right by
thepositionsof theleft parentheses.
Perl places thetext that is matched by theregular expression
in the first pair of parentheses into the variable $1, and the
text matched by the regular expression in the second pair of
parentheses into$2,andsoon.
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
my $text= "Testing";
if ($text =~ /((T| N)est(ing| er))/) {
print " \ $1 = $1 \ t \ $2 = $2 \ t \ $3 = $3 \ n ";
This program displays:
$1 = Testing $2 = T $3 = ing
Grouping Alternatives (Contd..)
Therearethreepairsof parenthesesintheaboveexample.
The first one is that which surrounds the whole regular
expression, hence $1 evaluates to the whole matched text,
whichisTesting.
The match caused by the second pair of parentheses (T| N),
whichisT, is assignedto$2.
The third pair of parentheses (ing| er) causes $3 to be
assignedthevalueing.
Quantifiers
Quantifiers says how many times something may match,
instead of thedefault of matchingjust once.
You can use quantifier tospecify that a pattern must match a
specificnumber of times.
Quantifiers in a regular expression are like loops in a
program.
Quantifiers (Contd..)
character Description
* It indicates that the string Immediately to the left should
be matched zero or more times in order to be evaluated
as a true.
Ex1 : $var =~ /st*/ # Will match for the strings like
st, sttr, sts , star, son .
The regexp a* will search for a followed by either a
or any other character. It matches all strings which
contain the character a.
+ It indicates that the string Immediately to the left should
be matched one or more times in order to be evaluated as
a true.
Ex:$var =~ /st*/ # Will match for the strings like st,
sttr, sts ,star , but not son.
Quantifiers (Contd..)
character Description
{ } It indicates that how many times the string immediately
to the left should be matched.
{n} should match exactly n times.
{n,} should match at least n times
{n, m} Should match at least n times but not more
than m times.
Ex : $var =~ /mn{2,4}p/ # will match mnnp,
mnnnp, mnnnnp .
? It indicates that the string Immediately to the left should
be matched zero or one times in order to be evaluated as
a true.
Ex : $var =~ /st?r/ # will match either star or sttr.
$var = ~/comm?a/ # will match either coma or
comma
Quantifiers (Contd..)
Quantifiers are greedy by default, which means they
will trytomatchas muchas theycan.
Ex:$str =theyareplayers, arent they?
$str =~s/.*are/were/;
print $str;
I t will print :werent they?
Perl will use the *. Preceding are to match all the
characters upto thelast areinthestr.
Making Quantifiers Less Greedy
To make Quantifiers less greedy that is ,to match the
minimumnumber of times possible you followthequantifier
witha?
*? Matches zero or more times.
+? Matchesoneor moretimes.
?? Matcheszeroor onetimes.
{n}? Matchesn times.
{n,}? Matchesat least n times
{m,n} Matchesat least n timesbut morethan m
times.
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
$text = They are players ,arent they?;
$text =~s/.*?are/were/;
print $text;
This program displays:
Were players ,arent they?
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
$txt = no, these are the documents, over there.;
$txt = ~ s/the(.*?)e/those/;
print $txt;
This program displays:
no, those are the documents, over there
Making Quantifiers Less Greedy (Contd.)
Assertions
Assertions (also called anchors) used to match conditions
withinastring, not actual data.
Assertions are zero width because they do not consume any
characterswhentheymatch.
Anchor Description
^(caret) Appears at the beginning of the pattern and finds for a match at
beginning of the line
Ex : $var =~ /^su/ # Will match the strings those are starting with
su i.e. . sun, success, super ..
Assertions (Contd..)
character Description
$ Appears at the end of the pattern and finds for a match
at end of the line
Ex : $var =~ /at$/ # Will match the strings those ends
with at i.e. . cat, rat , beat
\Z Matches only at the end of a string, or before a new line
at the end.
It matches at the end of the match text, before the
newline if any is present. Otherwise it is the same as \z.
\z Matches only at the end of string.
Assertions (Contd..)
The differencebetween ^ and \ Ais that when you usethe
m multiline-modifier, ^ matches the beginning of every
line, but \ A retains its original meaning and matches only at
theverybeginningof thewholestring.
Character Description
\A Matches only at the beginning of a string.(Similar to ^)
\G It applies when we use a regular expression to produce multiple
matches using the g pattern modifier.
It re-anchors the regular expression at the end of the previous
match, so that previously matched text takes no part in further
matches.
Works only with /g .
Assertions (Contd..)
WordBoundaries
\ bmatchesona wordboundary.
This occurs whenever a word character is adjacent to a non-
word character .
I t is equivalent to \ w\ W| \ W\ w.
Within character classes \ b represents backspace rather
than a word boundary, just as it normally does in any double-
quoted string.
Assertions (Contd..)
WordBoundaries
\ B matchesona non-wordboundary.
This occurs whenever two word characters or two non-word
charactersfall adjacent toeachother.
I t is equivalent to \ w\ w| \ W\ W.
WordBoundaries
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
$text = "one, ****, three, four"; #* is not a word
$text1 = "one,****,three, four"; #character
foreach ($text =~ /\ b\ w+\ b/g){
print $_, "\ t"; }
print "\ n using \ \ B\ n";
foreach ($text1 =~ /\ B\ w+\ B/g){
print $_, "\ t"; }
This program displays:
one three four
using \ B
n hre ou
Assertions (Contd..)
Regular Expressions-Examples(1)
character Description
$var =~m/^\./ Will match for dot(.) at the beginning of the
statement.
^ Used to match at the beginning of the line ,dot is
a meta character so it has to preceded by \
$var =~ /\w+/ Will match a word, a nonempty sequence of
alphanumeric characters and underscores such as
trust , 12bar8 and kac_per.
$var
=~/start\s*end/
The strings start and end optionally separated by
any amount of white space (spaces, tabs, newlines).
Regular Expressions-Examples(2)
character Description
$var =~/o\.m/ It will match exactly o.m
$var =~
/blue(colo(ur|r))/
Will match either bluecolor or bluecolour
$var =~ s/\s+$// Removes(trims) the Trailing white space.
Regular Expressions-Examples(3)
character Description
$var =~ s/^\s+// Removes(trims) the leading white space.
Ex:$txt = trust in god;
$txt ==~ s/^\s+//
Print $txt;
It will print : trust in god
$var =~
m/(\d+)/
Will match complete first number.
Ex :$txt = "day = 86400s or 1440 mor 24 h";
if($txt =~ m/(\d+)/){
print "\n\nFirst Number is $1"; }
It will print :
First Number is 86400
Subroutines
Subroutine is a separate body of code designed to performa
particular task. I t is sameas functioninC language.
The I dea behind subroutines is that old programmingdictum
divideandconquer.
Subroutines allow you to divide your code into manageable
parts, whichmakesoverall programmingeasier tohandle.
Perl allows you to create subroutines using the sub control
structure
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
$v1 =36;
large_small(); #subroutine call before definition , parentheses must
sub large_small{
if($v1 >40) { print "value is bigger than 40\ n"; }
else{ print "value is smaller than 40\ n"; } }
$v1 =45;
large_small; #subroutine call after definition , parentheses are
#optional
This program displays:
value is smaller than 40
value is bigger than 40
Subroutines (Contd..)
Scope of variable
Perl variableshaveglobal packagescopebydefault.
When we change a variable value in subroutine, well be
changingit intherest of theprogramby mistakeas well.
Wecan create a variables that areentirelylocal tosubroutine
byusingkeywordlocalor my.
They can have same name as global variable and not affect
thoseglobal variablesat all.
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
$v1 =36;
incr();
print "value of v1 =$v1\ n";
sub incr {
my $var =$v1;
print "value before incrementing =$var\ n";
$var++;
print "value after incrementing =$var\ n";
}
This program displays:
value before incrementing =36
value after incrementing =37
value of v1 =36
Scope of variable (Contd..)
Parameters and Arguments
You can pass values to subroutine by placing in parentheses.
(ex: incr($v1);)
When you pass values to a subroutine ,those values are
storedina special arraynamed @_.
Beside accepting passed values, subroutines can also return
valuesusingreturnkeyword.
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
$sum =add(10,20);
print "sum =$sum\ n;
sub add {
($val1, $val2) = @_;
return $val1+$val2; }
This program displays:
sum =30
Perl returns the last value in a sub routine so you can omit
thereturnkeyword.
I ntheaboveexample$val1+$val2gives thesame.
Parameters and Arguments (Contd..)
Parameters and Arguments (Contd..)
Different waysof readingargumentspassedtosubroutine
Subadd
{
$val1=$_[0];
$val2=$_[1];
}
Subadd
{
$val1=shift@_ ; (or) shift ;
$val2=shift@_ ; (or) shift ;
}
I na subroutine,shift uses@_ by default soyoucan use
shift directly.
Recursion
Recursion happens when a subroutine calls itself, either
directly, or indirectly, viaanother subroutine
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl0
$fact = fact(6);
print "factorial of given number =$fact\ n;
sub fact {
local $val =shift(@_);
if($var ==0) { return 1; }
elsif($val==1) { return $val ; }
else{ return $val*fact($val-1); }}
This program displays:
factorial of given number =720
PassingLists
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
@small= qw(sachin dravid ganguly );
@big =case_convert(@small);
print "@big";
sub case_convert {
@low =@_;
@caps =map(uc ,@low); }
This program displays:
SACHI N DRAVI D GANGULY
Subroutines Examples(1)
Nestedsubroutines
Example:
#!usr/local/bin/perl
call();
sub call{
display();
sub display {
print "you are in inner subroutine\ n" ; }
print "you are in outer subroutine\ n" ; }
print "you are in main\ n" ;
This programdisplays:
you are in inner subroutine
you are in outer subroutine
you are in main
Subroutines Examples(2)
I n general passing arrays or hashes flattens their elements
into one long list, so its a problemif you want to send two or
moredistinct arraysor hashes.
To preserve integrity, you can pass references to arrays or
hashesinstead.
References can be created by using a backslash (\ ) operator
ona variable. I t is similar toaddress-of (&)operator in C.
\ $var Scalar Reference
\ @arr Array Reference
\ %hash Hash Reference
Pass by Reference
Pass by Reference (Contd..)
I f you pass \ $a (a reference to the $a scalar variable) to a
subroutine, then in the subroutine the variablethat receives
that parameter receives a reference (or a "pointer")
pointingtothe$ascalar
Dereferencingreferences(Usingprefixes$, @,% ,->)
$$ref_var Scalar Dereference
$$ref_arr Array Dereference #array is copied
into scalar( ref_arr)
$$ref_hash HashDereference
Example:
#!usr/local/bin/perl
@arr =qw(America England france);
print "before: arr =" . join(', ', @arr) . "\ n";
change(\ @arr);
print "after: arr =" . join(', ', @arr) . "\ n;
subchange {
my$ref_arr =shift;
$$ref_arr[0]="China";
@{$ref_arr}[1] ="I ndia"; # {} creates a block.
$ref_arr ->[2] ="J apan"; # ->called arrow operator.
}
This programdisplays:
before: arr =America, England, france
after: arr =China, I ndia, J apan
Pass by Reference (Contd..)
Returning by Reference
I f you return two arrays normally, their values are flattened
into one long list. I f you return references to arrays, you can
deferencethosearraysandreachtheoriginal arrays.
Example :
#!usr/local/bin/perl
sub get_strings{
@str1 = qw(Asia Austrelia Africa);
@str2 =qw(Brown White Black);
return \ @str1 ,\ @str2; }
($ref_str1 ,$ref_str2) =get_strings;
print "@$ref_str1 \ n"; print "@$ref_str2 \ n";
This program displays:
Asia Austrelia Africa
Brown White Black
You can get lot of material on references that comes with
Perl( perldoc perl)
File Handling
A filehandle is nothing more than a nickname for the files
youintendtousein your PERL scriptsandprograms.
Filehandles are a connection between our program and an
external datasource
Filehandles inPerl area distinct datatype.
STDI N or standard input represents the default input
filehandleandusuallyconnectedtothekeyboard.
STDOUT or Standard output represents the default output
filehandle and usually connected to the console
device(screen)
File Handling (Contd..)
STDERR or Standard error is the default output error
filehandle andusuallyconnectedtoscreen.
Openingafile
Toopena file,usetheopenfunction.
Syntax: openFI LEHANDLE ,MODE,LI ST
openFI LEHANDLE ,EXPR
openFI LEHANDLE
The open function takes a filename and creates thehandle
for it.
File Handling (Contd..)
Opening a file (Contd..)
The open function returns a true(nonzero) value if successful
otherwise it returns undefined value.
The filehandle will create in either case but if the call to
openfails, thefilehandlewill beunopenedandunassigned.
I f the open fails the reason is stored in special variable
$!,whichproducesamessageinstringcontext.
File handling is most error prone ,so use open and die
together.
Ex: open (HANDLE, $filename) or die "Can't open $filename:
$!\ n";
File Handling (Contd..)
Openingafile(Contd..)
openunderstandstotal sixmodes.
MODE Symbol Description
Read < Open file handle for read access only.
Ex :open FILHND <$file;
This is the default mode and so the < prefix is
usually optional
Write > Open the file for write access only.
Ex :open FILHND >$file;
If the file doesnt exist then it is created and
opened.
If the file does exist then it overwrite the existing
contents
File Handling (Contd..)
Openingafile(Contd..)
MODE Symbol Description
Append >> Open the file for write access only.
Ex :open FILHND >>$file;
If the file doesnt exist then it is created and
opened.
If the does exists then it appends that file.
Read-
update
+< Open the file for read and write access.
Ex :open FILHND +<$file;
If the file does not exist then the open fails.
If the file does exist then it overwrite(contents are
preserved for reading) the existing contents.
File Handling (Contd..)
Openingafile(Contd..)
MODE Symbol Description
Write-
update
>+ Open the file for read and write access.
Ex :open FILHND >+$file;
If the file doesnt exist then it is created.
If the file does exist then it is truncated and its
existing contents are lost.(usually used for opening
a new file)
Append-
update
>>+ Open the file for read and write access only.
Ex :open FILHND >>+$file;
If the file doesnt exist then it is created and
opened.
If the file does exist then both read and write
commence from the end of the file.
ReadingLines
Example:
exam.txt :: winners dont do different things.
winners do things differently..
success is not a destination.
Perl Script:
#!usr/local/bin/perl
open FI LE, "exam.txt" or die$!;
$lineno;
while(<FI LE>){ print $lineno++," \ t"; print "$_"; }
This programdisplays:
0 winners dont do different things.
1 winners do things differently.
2 success is not a destination.
File Handling (Contd..)
File Handling (Contd..)
<> iscalledreadlineor diamondoperator.
I n the above example while (<FI LE>) is equivalent to
while(defined($_=<FI LE>).
Above statement will reads a line fromfile and assigns it to
$_andchecks whether it isdefinedor not.
I f it is not defined ,probably at the end of the file so it will
comesout of theloop.
File Handling (Contd..)
Perl provides aspecial handlecalledARGV.
I t reads thefiles fromthe commandline and opens themall if
specified.
I t will read from Standard input(STDI N) if nothing is
specified on thecommandline.
I f you don't specify anything in the angle brackets,
whatever isin@ARGV is usedinstead.
Commandlinepassing
Example:
exam.txt :: winners dont do different things.
success is not a destination.
Perl Script:
#!usr/local/bin/perl
$match =do;
while(){
I f(/$match/) { print FOUND\ n; }
else { printNOT FOUND; } }
This programdisplays:
FOUND
NOT FOUND
File Handling Examples(1)
Commandlinepassing
Example:
#!/usr/local/bin/perl
print "Filename: "; my $infile=<>; chomp $infile;
print "New name: ";
my$outfile=<>; chomp $outfile;
open I N, $infile;
open OUT, ">$outfile";
print OUT <I N>;
closeI N; # syntax :: close<filehandle>
closeOUT;
This programdisplays:
perl filename.pl exam.txt
Filename: exam.txt
Newname:copy_exam.txt #it will create this file.
File Handling Examples(2)
Commandlinepassing
Example:-
if (open (LOGFI LE, ">>message.log"))
{
print LOGFI LE ("This is message number 3.\ n");
print LOGFI LE ("This is message number 4.\ n");
close(LOGFI LE); #! closefunction
}
This programdisplays:
This is message number 1.
This is message number 2
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File Handling Examples(3)
print, printf, and write Functions
print function writes to the filespecified, or to the current
default fileif nofileis specified.
Ex: print ("Hello, there!\ n");
print OUTFI LE ("Hello, there!\ n");
write function uses a print format tosend formatted output
tothefilethat is specifiedor tothecurrent default file.
Ex: write(CD_REPORT);
Directories Handling
print function writes to the filespecified, or to the current
default fileif nofileis specified.
Ex: print ("Hello, there!\ n");
print OUTFI LE ("Hello, there!\ n");
write function uses a print format tosend formatted output
tothefilethat is specifiedor tothecurrent default file.
Ex: write(CD_REPORT);
Directories Handling (Contd..)
Tocreatea newdirectory, call thefunction mkdir.
Syntax:mkdir (dirname, permissions);
Ex: mkdir ("/u/public /newdir ", 0777);
Toset a directory to bethe current workingdirectory, usethe
function chdir.
Syntax: chdir (dirname);
Ex:chdir ("/u/public/newdir");
Directories Handling (Contd..)
To open the directory (already existing) ,use the function
opendir
Syntax: opendir (dirvar, dirname);
Ex: opendir (DI R, "/u/kacper/mydir");
Toclosean openeddirectory, usetheclosedirfunction
Syntax: chdir (dirname);
Ex: closedir (mydir);
ThanQ