V11 December 2008

Based on similar Powepoint presentation elaborated by Prof. Derek Bay, Cranfield

Conventional Configurations
Variations regarding powerplant & intake location, vertical
wing position, tail unit layout and landing gear.
Unconventional Layouts
Biplanes, variable sweep, canard designs, twin booms,
multi-hulls, span-loaders, joined wing and blended wing
body designs.
Special Configuration Issues
Short Take-Off & Vertical Landing, stealth, waterborne
operations, engine installation.
Cases Studies
P-51 Mustang, Mitsubishi Zero, Chance-Vought Corsair.
3
Ugly is Most of Time not Good
Configuration Overview
Conventional Configuration
Cantilevered monoplane wing.
Separate horizontal and vertical tail
surfaces.
Control via ailerons, elevators and rudder.
Discrete fuselage to provide volume and
continuity to airframe.
Retractable tricycle landing gear.
Minimum number of powerplants needed to
meet power and operational requirements.
Examples
Boeing F-18
Boeing 747
Embraer Legacy
8
Lockheed Constellation
Some Successful Unusual Conventional
Configurations
Boeing 727
Convair B-36
Some Successful Unconventional Configurations
Avro Lancaster
Lockheed P-38
SAAB Draken
10
Within the category of conventional aircraft there are
many variations from the standard to be considered:
Powerplant Location nose, wing podded, rear fuselage
podded, internal.
Intake Location nose, side, ventral, dorsal.
Wing Vertical Location high, low, mid.
Tail Unit Arrangements variable incidence, all-moving, T-tail,
multi-finned, butterfly.
Tricycle Landing Gear Configuration numbers of legs,
bogeys and wheels.
Nose-Mounted
Most logical position for any single tractor propeller
engine aircraft.
Advantages include symmetry of layout, good
propeller clearance, access and maintainability.
Embraer T-27 Tucano
Piper Arrow
Nose-Mounted: Chance-Vought F4U Corsair
The F4U incorporated the largest engine available at the time, the 2,000 hp (1,490 kW) 18-
cylinder Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp radial. To extract as much power as possible, a
relatively large, 13 ft, 4 inch (4.06 m) Hamilton Standard Hydromatic three-blade propeller
was used. To accommodate a folding wing, the designers considered retracting the main
landing gear rearward, but for the chord of wing selected, it was difficult to fit undercarriage
struts long enough to provide sufficient clearance for the large propeller. Their solution was an
inverted gull wing, a similar layout to the one used by Germany's Stuka dive bomber,
considerably shortening the length of the main gear legs The anhedral of the wing's center-
section also permitted the wing and fuselage to meet at the optimum angle for minimizing
drag, without the need for wing root fairings. Offsetting these benefits, the bent wing was more
difficult to construct and would weigh more than a straight one.
Wing-Mounted (Outer Wing)
Many uses:
Large aircraft with propellers, turbojets or turbofans.
For jets/fans, these will be podded and mounted onto
under-wing pylons.
For props, these will be mounted directly onto the wing
structure.
Advantages include:
Versatility use of alternative engines.
Compact overall layout.
Inertial relief reducing required wing structural mass.
Ease of access for maintenance.
Wing-Mounted (not directly in wing) cont.
Also several drawbacks and necessary considerations:
Ground clearance may be a problem in which case
high wings may be used (with tall landing gear) or
possibly top-wing mounting (e.g. BAe 748) with
aerodynamic penalty.
Spanwise location should depend on propeller
diameter or statistical analysis of fan burst trajectory
and impact on neighbor.
Typical values are 30% and 55% semi-span for a 4-
engine design; large values give big engine-out yaw
problems and larger rudder sizes.
Over/Under-wing Mounted - Examples
VFW 614
Sukhoi Superjet 100
Lockheed Constellation
16
Integrated into Wing
Embraer EMB-120 Braslia
Grumman Tracker
Buried in wings
Some aircraft have housed the powerplants
in the wing root area with significant
structural disadvantages.
B-1 Lancer
DeHavilland Comet
Rear Fuselage-Podded
Used on many moderate sized transport
aircraft of the past and also many modern
small business jet aircraft.
Advantages
Reduced engine-out yaw smaller rudder size.
Disadvantages
Rearwards movement of CG stability
problems. Structural acoustic fatigue. Difficult to
inspect during turn around time.
Powerplant Location
Rear Fuselage Podded - Examples
Embraer ERJ 145
Vickers VC-10
A-10 Thunderbolt
Powerplant Location
Middle of Fuselage
Heinkel He 162
21
Example of Aircraft Engine Located Above the
Fuselage
Due to the PiperJets unique
engine installation in the tail,
ground personnel can walk
around the aircraft without
being exposed to its jet blast.
With the engine thrust line
well above the aircrafts
center of gravity, Piper
engineers are working on
developing a system that
automatically compensates
horizontal stabilizer position
for the changing pitching
moments introduced through
changes in engine power.
22
Example of Aircraft Engine Located Above the
Fuselage
McDonnell Douglas DC-10
23
Wing-Podded vs. Fuselage-Podded
Ground Clearance
Possible problem Good
Internal Noise
Fair Good
Acoustic Fatigue
Possible problem for
wing & flaps
Possible problem for
fuselage
Crash Safety
Good Possible problem
24
Wing-Podded vs. Fuselage-Podded
In/on/under the Wing At Rear Fuselage
Propulsive Efficiency
Good OK if well positioned
Longitudinal Stability
Good Problems due to aft CG &
short tail arm
Tip Stall
Good Possible problem
Asymmetric Thrust
Poor Good
25
Weight
Good Poor
Engine Maintenance
Good High off ground
Wing Aerodynamic Efficiency
Problems from cut-outs Very good
Fuel Feeds to Engines & Wing Anti-Icing
Good Ducts and lines through cabin
Wing-Podded vs. Fuselage-Podded
26
Internally Housed
Used on many single and twin turbojet/turbofan
engine aircraft such as military trainers and
fighters.
Advantages
Compact layout.
Reduced drag.
Disadvantages
Engine removal and maintenance problems.
Structural acoustic fatigue due to jet efflux.
Jet pipe length minimized by moving engine rearwards
but this affects CG, stability and control.
27
Internally Housed - Examples
McDonnell-Douglas A-4 Skyhawk Sepecat Jaguar
SAAB Gripen
Powerplant Location
28
Internally Housed - Installation
Powerplant Location
Nose Intake
Used on many early jet fighters with mid-fuselage
mounted engines.
Requires use of long inlet ducts and jet pipes gives
low flow distortion but high total pressure losses.
No need for boundary layer diverters.
Occupies large amount of internal volume.
Only small radome may be housed in shock cone
center-body.
30
Examples of Aircraft with Nose Intakes
English Electric Lightning
MiG-19 Farmer
MiG-21 Fishbed
31
Side Intake (Below Wing)
Used on the majority of modern high-wing strike
and combat aircraft designs.
Leaves the nose area free for radar equipment
installation.
The wing is often extended above the intakes to
improve high- performance.
Flow diverters are needed to accommodate
fuselage boundary layer growth.
32
Examples of Side Intakes (Below Wing)
Tornado ADV
Dassault Breguet F1 Mirage
33
Side Intake (Above Wing)
Used on many low-wing design trainer and combat
aircraft.
Wings may be used to shield the intakes and
reduce the maneuvering .
Any sharps bends have to be avoided to prevent
flow distortions.
Short intake lengths are possible with low overall
volume requirements.
34
Examples of Side Intakes (Above Wing)
BAe Hawk 100
F-4 Phantom
T45A Goshawk
35
Ventral Intake
Situated on underside of fuselage - an
increasingly common position for high
performance combat aircraft.
Gives very good high- maneuverability.
Prone to FOD and debris ingestion.
Complicates nose wheel positioning/stowage.
Restricts carriage of under-fuselage stores.
Low flow distortion and pressure losses into intake.
36
Examples of Aircraft with Ventral Intakes
Eurofighter 2000
F-16 Fighting Falcon
37
Dorsal Intake
Situated on top-side of fuselage.
Only tends to be used on 3-engine airliners
with 3
rd
engine buried in the rear
fuselage/fin area with a few exceptions.
Gives poor performance at high- due to
separated flow ahead of intake.
38
Examples of Aircraft with Dorsal Intakes
Cirrus Jet
Lockheed L1011 Tristar
North American YF-107
39
High Wing
Gives an efficient spanwise lift distribution leading to
low lift-induced drag.
Improves lateral static stability.
Preferred for most freight and military transport aircraft:
Low floor line for easy loading & unloading.
Good all-round vehicular access when on ground.
Wing fuel load away from ground when landing with failed
landing gear.
Good ground clearance for powerplants, especially props.
40
Examples of High-Wing Aircraft
Grumman Mallard
Boeing C-17
Lockheed C-130 Hercules
Alenia G-222
41
Low Wing
Improves lateral maneuverability.
Preferred for most passenger transport aircraft:
Wing structure conveniently passes below floor.
Volume free fore and aft of wing structure for cargo
holds, luggage and landing gear stowage.
Minimizes landing gear length and mass.
Wing provides buoyancy when ditching into water
and also a platform for emergency evacuation.
Wing Location
Examples of Low Wing Aircraft
Boeing 777
Airbus A380
Boeing 737
Falcon 2000
43
Conventional Layout
Approximately 70% of aircraft in service
have a conventional arrangement
comprising separate fixed horizontal
stabilizer and vertical fin surfaces for stability
and moving elevator and rudder sections
attached to fixed surfaces for control.
This is the simplest solution & provides
optimum overall performance in the majority
of cases.
44
Examples of Aircraft with Conventional Tail Units
Boeing 777
Airbus A380
Boeing 737
45
Conventional Primary Control Surfaces
46
Variable Incidence Tailplane
Here the forward (main) section of the horizontal
surface is not fixed but is capable of rotation
through a small range of angles of attack.
As such, it is generally used to adjust pitch trim
rather than using the conventional elevators.
It is especially useful for countering the effects of
significant pitching moment increments caused by
deployment of powerful high lift devices.
Elevators are still used for pitch control.
47
Aircraft with Variable Incidence Tailplanes
Boeing 757-200
Vought F-8 Crusader
Sabre
Dassault Falcon 20
48
All-Moving (Slab) Tailplane
Whole of the horizontal tailplane surface is used for both
pitch control and trim (with no separate hinged elevator).
This offers significant advantages at transonic and
supersonic speeds when effectiveness of conventional
trailing edge surfaces is dramatically reduced.
Universally adopted for supersonic fighter designs.
Most also use differential movement of opposite sides to
improve roll rate (then known as tailerons).
Powered controls are necessary due to the large control
force requirements.
49
Examples of Aircraft with Slab Tailplanes
Tornado GR1
A5 Vigilante
F-5 Tiger
A7 Corsair
50
T-Tail
Horizontal tailplane mounted on top of fin.
Often used on large high-mounted swept-
wing designs and also smaller low-wing
aircraft.
Douglas DC-9
Beechcraft Duchess
Lockheed C-5A Galaxy
51
T-Tail - Advantages
Provides substantial end-plating effect to
fin, improving its effectiveness and reducing
the fin size requirement.
Lifts the horizontal tail clear of any propwash
& the wing wake during cruise flight,
therefore reducing buffet and fatigue.
Allows engines to be mounted on the aft-
fuselage, if required.
52
T-Tail - Disadvantages
Gives a large mass penalty to the empennage due
to the higher loading and aeroelastic effects.
Increased likelihood of deep stall puts tail in
wake of stalled wing, making recovery difficult or
even impossible.
C-9 Nightingale
Lockheed C-141 Starlifter
53
Multi-Finned
If fin-sizing exercise results in large single fin
dimensions then sometimes preferable to
use two (or more) smaller fins instead.
Allowed Constellation to operate from
existing hangars.
Also produces desirable end-plating effect
to horizontal tailplane, reducing its size
requirements.
54
Multi-Finned Further Comments
Fins have to be positioned far enough apart so
that undesirable mutual aerodynamic
interference effects are not too severe.
If fins are positioned in slipstream of propellers
rudder performance is improved at low speeds.
Difficult to avoid fin stall at high sideslip angles.
Not generally used nowadays for single-boom
layout transport aircraft.
55
Examples of Multi-Fin Transports/Bombers
Lockheed Constellation
Avro Lancaster
B-24 Liberator
Lockheed A-29
56
Twin Fin Fighter Aircraft
Twin fins nowadays more associated with supersonic
fighters.
More compatible with twin-engine aircraft
(F14/F15/F18) than single (F16) due to engine-out
sizing considerations.
Special benefit of supersonic application is that
interference effect disappears providing fin Mach
lines do not intersect.
Can also provide infrared shielding of engine exhaust
to improve stealth, especially if canted (F22).
Resultant reduced fin height improves aeroelastic
behavior.
57
Tail Unit (Empennage)
Examples of Twin-Fin Fighters
MiG-29 Fulcrum
F-14 Tomcat
F-15 Eagle
F-18 Hornet
58
V-Tail
In this case the conventional tail surfaces are
combined into a pair of inclined surfaces.
The separate roles of the tailplane/elevator and
fin/rudder are combined.
Advantages include:
Less interference drag; smaller total surface area;
improved stealth characteristics.
Disadvantages include:
Cross-coupling of stability/control characteristics; handling
difficulties; need for fully automatic flight control system.
59
Examples of V-Tail Aircraft
Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk
Beech Bonanza
60
Horizontal Positioning
Surfaces should generally be positioned as
far aft as possible to maximize the tail
moment arm.
Restrictions on this may be caused by
engine-induced structural fatigue (e.g. F-5).
61
Tricycle Gear Configuration
The most conventional, comprising:
Pair of main legs behind aircraft CG.
Single nose leg ahead of CG.
Each leg incorporates:
Shock absorber to dissipate vertical landing
energy.
Single or two side-by-side wheels or multiple
bogie arrangement.
Only main wheels are generally fitted with
brakes.
62
Tricycle Gear Configuration Further Comments
Only the nose wheel is usually steered for ground
maneuvering.
For effective steering, nose leg should support between
6 and 10% of the aircraft mass.
Provision must be made for attachment and stowage of
landing gear units.
Lateral positioning (track) dictated by need to prevent
overturning during ground maneuvering mainly a
function of height of CG, track distance & shock absorber
characteristics.
63
Examples of Tricycle Landing Gear Aircraft
Douglas A4-F Skyhawk
BAe Hawk
Cessna 172N
Hawker Hunter
64
Tricycle Gear Configuration Number of Wheels
As the aircraft mass increases, operations
from runways of given strength dictate need for
more wheels to spread the load many
possible variants:
Two-axle bogie
Three-axle bogie
Three or four main legs
Multiple legs on single axes
65
Two-Axle Bogie
The main legs are split into two-axle bogies,
with usually two wheels per axle.
Such as arrangement is generally
necessary if the aircraft mass is between
about 90 and 200 tones.
It is common to many civil and military
transport aircraft types.
66
Examples of Aircraft with Two-Axle Bogies
Airbus A310
Boeing C-135
Airbus A330
67
Three-Axle Bogie
For very large aircraft (e.g. > 210 tones),
the load has to be spread even further
one option is to use a 3-axle bogie
arrangement.
On the Boeing 777, the extra axle is
put in the centre of the bogie.
On the C-5 the extra axle is put side-
by-side with the rear axle the
aircraft has 28 wheels in total!
Both have main bogie steering to
reduce turn radius & tyre scrubbing.
68
Landing Gear Layout
Three-Axle Bogie Aircraft
C-5 Galaxy
Boeing 777
69
Three Main Legs
Some large aircraft use an additional main leg to
spread the load, e.g. Airbus A-340: 2-wheel nose
gear and 3 main gear, each of double-wheel 2-
bogie 14 wheels in total.
70
Four Main Legs
This will generally be the case for very large
civil transports (> 300 tones) with low wing
designs (e.g. Boeing 747).
It poses significant problems for airframe
attachment & stowage.
71
Four Main Legs Boeing 747
72
Multiple Main Legs with Single Axles
Good option for heavy high wing military
transports with retraction into fuselage
blisters.
The Antonov An-124
Condor has 24 wheels:
two side-by-side, 2-wheel
nose legs, and ten main
legs (5 each side), each
with 2 wheels.
73
Tail Wheel Configuration
Here the two main wheels are located forward of the
CG and a tail wheel or skid provides the third support
point.
This is a simpler, lighter and cheaper design than a
tricycle layout but has significant disadvantages:
Difficult ground maneuvering and take-off/landing due to
inhibited visibility.
This was the norm for many early aircraft but its
application is nowadays limited to simple light aircraft
where emphasis is on simplicity and low cost often
with fixed (rather than retractable) legs.
74
Examples of Tail-Wheel Aircraft
Curtiss P-6 Hawk
Hawker Sea Fury
DHC-1 Chipmunk
75
Single Main Gear Leg
Sometimes advantageous to concentrate the main
load into a single main leg rather than two.
Ground roll stability obtained from pair of
lightweight , lightly-loaded outriggers, located near
to wing tips.
BAe Harrier
For Harrier, a tricycle main units would
be difficult to accommodate in he
fuselage (because of powerplant) or
wing (because of wing trailing edge
controls and underwing pylons).
76
Bicycle Configuration
This is a specialized form of the single main
leg configuration but with the rear leg
significantly further back.
This results in the nose leg carrying a
similar proportion of the mass as the rear
leg.
Advantage is an uncluttered wing and long
length of available fuselage space (e.g. for
a bomb bay).
77
Bicycle Configuration Further Comments
Disadvantages are:
Highly loaded nose leg makes ground maneuvering very
difficult.
Specialized landing technique needed, especially if in
cross-winds.
Outriggers needed for ground roll stability.
The configuration is not recommended unless
there is no viable alternative.
Aircraft with Bicycle Configurations
Boeing B47E Stratojet
B-52 Stratofortress
Landing Gear Layout
Design Constraints
80
Biplane
The norm for the first 30 years of aviation.
Early airfoils were very thin requiring external
bracing so that biplanes gave best structural
efficiency.
Many penalties of use, especially at higher speeds
increased total mass, drag and aerodynamic
interference.
Aerodynamics and materials advances have led to
increased wing loadings (W/S) so that biplanes are
mostly redundant nowadays main exception is
aerobatics aircraft where low W/S is an advantage
and specialized aircraft such as crop-sprayers.
81
Biplanes
Pitts S1-S
Antonov An-2
82
Variable Sweep (Swing-Wing)
Design Problem:
High sweep usually needed for
transonic/supersonic speed designs but this
affects low speed performance.
Possible solution is to use variable sweep wings.
This gives a better matched performance
over a wide speed range and offers an
aircraft multi-role capabilities over subsonic
and supersonic speed ranges.
83
Variable Sweep - Disadvantages
Increased mass over conventional design
due to heavy actuation system.
Increased system complexity and costs.
Increased drag due to interaction between
fixed and moving parts of the wing.
Trim and stability/control problems due to
movements of aerodynamic centre and
CG.
84
Variable Sweep Aircraft
General Dynamics F-111
F-14 Tomcat
MiG-23
85
Canard Layout
The conventional aft horizontal tailplane is
replaced by a foreplane (or canard) while
the main wing is then moved rearwards for
stability purposes.
Two main categories:
Lifting canard canard provides substantial lift
as well as longitudinal trim and control.
Control canard - longitudinal trim and control
only.
This is not a new idea the original Wright
Flyer was a control canard configuration.
86
Canard Layout Configuration Advantages
Negligible trim drag penalty, usually a
download on the rear tail surface on a
conventional layout.
More rapid pitching maneuver response as
initial change is in required direction.
Possible layout advantage (e.g. aft-located
wing passes behind the cabin).
Better provision for escape from pitch-up
(associated with tip-stall on highly swept
wings).
87
Canard Layout Configuration Disadvantages
Airflow interference from the canard over
the main wing surface.
Increased pitching moment effect with
wing flap deployment due to large moment
arm so sophisticated high lift devices
may not be used with consequent low-
speed performance penalty.
88
Long-Coupled Canard Layout
Small canard located far enough
forward so that interference effects are
small.
Particularly suited to long-range
supersonic aircraft designs (bombers,
transports, etc.).
Foreplane effect is beneficial for
cruise trim drag reduction and at low
speed, particularly for take-off rotation.
89
Long-Coupled Canard Layout Aircraft Examples
Rockwell B-70 Valkyrie
Tu-144 Concordski
90
Short-Coupled Canard Layout
Foreplane placed just ahead
of (& usually above) wing.
Careful location enables lift
effectiveness of pair to
exceed that of sum of
isolated lifting surfaces.
Most applicable to high
agility combat aircraft
designs.
Dassault Rafale
Saab Gripen
91
Canard with Forward Sweep
Rearward sweep usually preferable as it
gives better compromise of aerodynamic
characteristics especially stability/control.
Forward swept wings also more prone to
aeroleastic divergence overcome with
associated mass penalty.
Method could give overall layout
advantages, e.g. by allowing wing carry-
through structure to pass through rear of
aircraft and avoid main section.
92
Canard With Forward Sweep Aircraft Examples
Grumman X-29A
Su-47 Berkut
93
Employs both a foreplane and a tailplane.
Advantages
Stabilizing effect of tailplane.
Favorable trim & control functionality of
foreplane.
Disadvantages
Fuselage mass penalty.
Increased interference drag and also skin
friction due to increased total wetted
surface area.
94
Three Surface Aircraft
Piaggio Avanti
95
Twin-Boom Layout Aircraft
Several possible reasons for being
adopted:
Allows engine to be mounted close to CG
particularly pusher-prop types & early jets.
Over-riding requirement for aircraft to have
unrestricted access to rear of freight hold.
Visibility for rear gunner/bomber crew.
Results in use of twin fins.
Disadvantages include: increased wing
mass, increased interference drag and less
usable volume.
96
Twin-Boom Layout Aircraft
Northrop P-61 Black
Widow
Armstrong-Whitworth
Argosy
Cessna C337
Skymaster
97
Span-Loaders
Closely related to flying wing designs whereby the
payload held in main wing box structure.
Small central fuselage pod sometimes used to
house flight deck and central services.
Advantages
Spreads the payload across the wing, rather than the
fuselage.
This gives inertial relief to the wing structure.
Most of aircraft then comprises wing (with higher
lift/drag than conventional fuselage).
Gives typical 10% reduction in take-off mass.
98
Span-Loaders - Disadvantages
Difficult emergency passenger
evacuation procedures.
Structural layout problems.
Fuel location.
Pressurization of wing section.
Increased moments of inertia
leading to poor roll rates.
Complicated flight control
system.
Rockwell Delta
Spanloader
99
Flying Wing (Blended Wing-Body) Layout
Similar to spanloaders optimum aerodynamic
solution sought - wing is most efficient means of
lift generation so fuselage is dispensed with
altogether.
Advantages
As for spanloader inertial relief of wing gives lower
wing structure mass and lower costs.
Potential for increased passenger cabin volume and
improved comfort levels.
Major opportunity for using laminar flow technology
easier to apply to wing than a fuselage.
100
BWB Aircraft - Disadvantages
Passenger wariness of
unconventional (more
feasible to military & cargo
transports).
Unfamiliar structural layout
& design.
Complex aerodynamic
interference effects.
Boeing Concept for a
BWB Airliner
Northrop B-2 Spirit Bomber
101
Braced-Wing Airliner
102
Braced-Wing Airliner
The tight coupling between structures and
aerodynamics requires the extensive use of
MDO to make it work
The strut allows a thinner wing without a
weight penalty and also a higher aspect ratio,
and less induced drag
Reduced t/c allows less sweep without a
higher wave drag penalty
Reduced sweep leads to even lower wing
weight
Reduced sweep allows for some natural
laminar flow and thus reduced skin friction
drag
103
Braced-Wing Airliner Study
Source: AI AA Paper 2000-0420
Conventional reference airplane
104
Source: AI AA Paper 2000-0420
Braced-Wing Airliner Study
105
An aircrafts specifications and
requirements may include some special
provision which could then have a
dominant influence over the resultant
configuration.
These include:
Short Take-Off & Vertical Landing (STOVL).
Stealth.
Waterborne Operations.
106
STOL & STOVL Aircraft
Short Take-Off (& Vertical) Landing
Aircraft.
Two classes of military aircraft
sometimes have a need for STOL or
STOVL capabilities.
Freight.
Combat.
Military Freight STOL Airlifters
Often required to operate to and from airstrips of short
length and poor surface strength.
No major effect upon configuration selection (unless tilt-
rotor/wing technology adopted) but increased emphasis
on:
High installed thrust.
Complex high lift devices and wing technology.
Low tire pressures.
Several civil variants also developed with perceived need.
108
Examples of STOL Airlifters
Kawasaki NAL Asuka
Boeing YC-14
DHC Dash 7
Breguet 941
V/STOL Airlifters Tilt-Wing
Canadair CL-84 Dynavert
Vertol VZ-2A
110
V/STOL Airlifters Tilt-Rotor
Bell XV-15
Bell-Boeing V-22
Osprey
111
STOVL Combat Aircraft
For vertical landing the available vertical thrust
component must exceed the landing weight.
Logical to also use this component for short take-off.
STOVL thrust component provided by downward
deflection of exhaust gases of forward flight
propulsion unit(s).
Impractical to locate this thrust component
immediately below CG at all times so additional thrust
provision needed for balance.
112
STOVL Combat Aircraft Further Comments
Three standard methods available for providing
vertical thrust component:
Vectored bypass flow.
Separate vertical lift engine.
Remotely driven lift engines (using main
powerplant as energy source).
All methods require separate low-speed control
capability, usually using reaction jets supplied with
bleed air from main engine compressor.
113
STOVL Fighter Vectored Bypass Flow
RR Pegasus engine has 4 nozzles, each rotating to
vector efflux as required rear two exhaust hot
gases and front two exhaust colder bypass air from
behind fan.
Results in compact system, though bulky and also
has to be located about aircraft CG.
Several thrust augmentation methods are available
(e.g. plenum chamber burning where fuel is burnt in
bypass air) but cause problems (e.g. hot gas
ingestion & ground erosion).
114
STOVL Fighter Vectored Bypass Flow
BAe Harrier
Rolls Royce Pegasus
115
STOVL Fighter Vertical Lift Engines
Uses one or more dedicated lift engines in
addition to deflected thrust from cruise
engine.
Allows engine to be located more
conveniently to aft of aircraft with lift
engines forwards, giving more design
flexibility.
Disadvantage is extra mass of lift engine
worthless in forward flight mode.
Yak-141 Freestyle
116
Lift fan driven remotely from main
cruise engine by either mechanical
shaft drive (as in X-35 JSF) or gas
drive.
Mechanical drive places restrictions
on fuselage layout.
Compressed gas drive is bulky and
relatively inefficient.
Total effective fuselage volume likely to
be more than for other two possible
methods.
Lockheed Martin
X-35 JSF
STOVL Fighter Remotely Driven Lift Fans
117
Stealth
Increasingly important for modern combat
aircraft designs.
Final configuration depends heavily on overall
priority of stealth against performance.
B-2: Stealth is primary
design driver
F-22: high performance
levels with stealth
B-2 Spirit
F-22 Raptor
118
Stealth General Observations
Foreplanes best avoided.
Internal powerplants & weapons.
Intakes with long curved ducts.
Exhausts must be shielded.
Avoid surfaces positioned at right angles to each other
(e.g. use inclined fins).
Minimize discontinuities in shape/surface.
Surface edges parallel to each other.
Difficulties with cockpit transparencies use of
unmanned vehicles advantageous.
119
Waterborne Aircraft
Very common in the early days of aviation.
Can operate from anywhere with a large stretch of
reasonably calm water.
Became less popular due to:
More airfields available after WW2.
Trend for using higher wing loadings -
Results in higher take-off & landing speeds and high water
resistance forces.
Use nowadays restricted to small aircraft operating in
coastal regions or in remote locations with many lakes
& rivers.
Two basic categories float planes & flying boats.
120
Seaplanes
Special Configuration Issues
Waterborne Aircraft Float Planes
Conventional landing gear replaced by
large floats.
Invariably propeller-driven.
Usually direct conversions from land-
based types.
Usually only applicable to small aircraft
(12 tones max).
Air drag of floats is high and gives large
tail download trim requirement.
DeHavilland Beaver
Cessna LC-126
122
Waterborne Aircraft Flying Boats
Usually larger than float planes.
Fuselage used as a hull for
waterborne operations.
Wing tip floats or fuselage
sponsons used to provide
waterborne roll stability.
Some types also have
conventional retractable landing
gear and are then amphibious.
Boeing 314 Clipper
Consolidated OA-10
Catalina
123
Torque Counteraction
Configuration Issues: Engine Installation
124
Flow pattern before and behind the wing, showing angle of
attack at intake of podded (dotted) and rear-mounted engines
Configuration Issues: Powerplant Installation
125
Airflow is strongly disturbed by the presence of the airplane.
Engine incidences must be properly adjusted to the local flow
to avoid inlet distortion and even separation in the intake.
Configuration Issues: Powerplant Installation
A
Left - Airflow laterally
disturbed due to the presence
of the fuselage
Below - Airflow
vertically disturbed
due to the presence of
the wing
Powerplant Installation
Powerplant Installation
Rotor Burst Containment
APU
Engine
Thank You!