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Detailed Describing Function Calculations for Some

Common Nonlinearities
(I) First Nonlinearity: Saturation with Dead Band















Figure NL1: A Plot of the Saturation-with-Dead-Band Nonlinearity

We are to show that the describing function for the Saturation-with-Dead-Band nonlinearity,
with the input assumed to be
= (1)
is given by
, =

if < (2)

, =

if < < , (3)

, =

if >
(4)
where and are respectively given by
=

(5)
and
=

(6)

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and the gradient is given by
=

(7)
Solution

Situation 1: <
























Figure 1: The Sketch of vs for the Saturation-with-Deadband Nonlinearity <
Using Sketches of v (the nonlinearity) and v

It is clear from the sketches of Figure 1 that when < , the input operates entirely in
the dead-band, meaning that the output will always be zero.
For this, there is no need for any calculation of a describing function since it is clear that
it will always be zero.
Therefore,

=


If < for Saturation with Dead Band, then
, =

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Situation 2: < <

First Step: Drawing Out the Three Sketches
























Figure 2: The Sketch of vs for the Saturation-with-Deadband Nonlinearity < <
Using Sketches of v (the nonlinearity) and v

Second Step: Writing Out The Equations

From the graph of against of Figure 2, it is easy to write out the equations as
= , <

= ,

< <

= ,

< <

= +,

< <

= ,

< <
(8)
where

, and

are the values corresponding to the points A, B, C, and D in Figure

2.

B is the point =

< <
A is the point = < <

C is the point = < <

D is the point =

< < 2



=

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Third Step: Checking for Odd and Half-Wave Symmetries

By inspection, the nonlinearity displays odd symmetry and the output displays half-wave
symmetry with respect to time.
Fourth Step: Calculation of

Using Expression for Half-Wave-Symmetrical

Nonlinearities

, =

9
where

10

= , <

< <

11
Therefore,

12
We recall from our elementary trigonometry that

=

13

or

14

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Therefore, making appropriate substitutions in (12) gives us

[ ]

[ ] |

15

Now, we know that when

= , =

16

Thus, making substitutions into the input sinusoid equation

= 17
leads to

=

18

which eventually leads to

19
Also, from the well-known elementary identity

= 20

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we know that

=

21

which means that

22


Substituting for

in (15) gives

23

Using (23), the describing function is therefore given by

, =

i.e.

, =

, =

24

Now, we can re-write

as

25
and since we know from elementary trigonometry that

26
then

27
Therefore (24) can be re-written as

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, =

, =

28

For good measure, we can factor out

in (28) to get
, =

29
































, =

; =

If < < for Saturation with Dead Band, then

where

is given by

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Situation 3: >

First Step: Drawing Out the Three Sketches





























Figure 3: The Sketch of vs for the Saturation-with-Deadband Nonlinearity >
Using Sketches of v (the nonlinearity) and v

Please let me know if any bit of the sketching of this diagram is not clear to you.

Because of lack of space, I have left out the description of the points =

, =

, =

and =

from the x vs. plot. However, it should be easy to deduce

that these points correspond respectively to the points E, F, G, and H on the y vs plot.

A is the point = < <

B is the point = < <

C is the point =

< <
D is the point =

< <
E is the point = < <

F is the point = < <

G is the point =

< < 2
H is the point =

< < 2






=

corr. to pt. )
=

(corr. to pt. B)
=

(corr. to pt. C)
=

(corr. to pt. D)
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Second Step: Writing Out The Equations

From the graph of against of Figure 3, we can write out the equations as
= , <

= ,

< <

= ,

< <

= ,

< <

= ,

< <

= +,

< <

= ,

< <

= ,

< <

= ,

< <
(30)
where

, = , , . are the values corresponding to the points A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H

respectively in Figure 3.

Third Step: Checking for Odd and Half-Wave Symmetries

By inspection, the nonlinearity displays odd symmetry and the output displays half-wave
symmetry with respect to time.
Fourth Step: Calculation of

Using Expression for Half-Wave-Symmetrical

Nonlinearities

Again, we write
, =

31
where

32

= , <

= ,

< <

= ,

< <

33
Therefore,
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34
Let us make

= 35
(34) then becomes

36
Again, using the relation

37
in (36) gives us

+ |

[ ] |

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+ +
38

Let us expand (38).

39

Pulling out

from the RHS of (39) gives

40

Now, we know that when
= , = 41
= , = 42

Thus, as we did for the second case earlier,
= 43
leads to

= 44
and
= 45

So that
=

46
and
=

47
Again, using the identity

= 48
gives

=

49
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which means that

=

50
=

51

Let us take a part of (40) and re-write it in trigonometric form i.e. let
=

52
Then, we can write
=

+.

53
and since
=

54
we have (53) becoming
=

+.

+.

+.

+.

55
Replacing

and

with and respectively gives

= +. .
= .
= 56
Therefore, (40) becomes

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The describing function is therefore given by

, =

i.e.
, =

, =

57











Let us now put our results together:





















, =

; =

; =

Therefore, if > for Saturation with Dead Band, then
where , and are given by

, =

, =

; =

; =

For a system with a Saturation-with-Dead-Band nonlinearity (of Figure
NL1) excited by a sinusoidal input
= ;
(A) If < , then
, =

;

(B) If < < , then

(C) If > , then

where , and are given by

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(II) Second Nonlinearity: Variable-Gain Nonlinearity















Figure NL2: A Plot of the Variable-Gain Nonlinearity

We are to show that the describing function for the Variable-Gain nonlinearity is given
by
, =

if <
58
, =

if >
59
where is given by
=

60

#

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Solution:
Situation 1: <

First Step: Drawing Out the Three Sketches































Figure 4: The Sketch of vs for the Variable-Gain Nonlinearity < Using Sketches
of v (the nonlinearity) and v

Since the input = sin stays within the first linear domain defined by the gain
=

, then the output is strictly a scaled version of the input sinusoid, as shown in the
graph of y against .








=

#


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Second Step: Writing Out The Equations

From the graph of against of Figure 2, it is easy to write out the equations as
=

, <
61
Which leads on to
=

; < <
62

Third Step: Checking for Odd and Half-Wave Symmetries

Again, by inspection, the nonlinearity displays odd symmetry and the output displays
half-wave symmetry with respect to time.

Fourth Step: Calculation of

Using Expression for Half-Wave-Symmetrical

Nonlinearities

, =

63
where

64

=

; < <

65
Therefore,

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[ ]

|
=
=

66
Therefore (63) can be re-written as

, =

, =

67













If < for the Variable-Gain Nonlinearity, then
, =

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Situation 2: >

First Step: Drawing Out the Three Sketches































Figure 5: The Sketch of vs for the Variable-Gain Nonlinearity > Using Sketches
of v (the nonlinearity) and v

Since the input = sin goes outside the first linear domain defined by the gain
=

, and into the region defined by the graphs with slope

#
, the output is going to
be a combination of two different sinusoids, scaled by the two gradients

and

#
, as
shown in the graph of y against .








=

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Second Step: Writing Out The Equations

Ill take some time to explain how the equations can be derived.
Let us first write out the input-output equations (i.e. y against x).
For convenience, I will redraw the graph of Figure NL2 as Figure 6 below:















Figure 6: A Repeated Plot of the Variable-Gain Nonlinearity

Let us split the graph into 3 domains i.e. the domains < , < < and >
Domain 1: <
We recall that, for a straight line
= + 68
Thus, for the line of gradient

#
in the domain < , we can replace with

#
in
(68) to get
=

#
+

69

#

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I have used

here to distinguish it from that of Domain 3 that we will get to shortly.

Our task now is to get the value of

.
If we look at Figure 6, we will see that at the point of intersection of domains 1 and 2 (i.e.
the point = ), the value of y is given by relating the gradient

with and i.e.

=
[ |

]
[ ]

|

70
Therefore, when = , then =

.
Replacing with

and with in (69) gives

#
+

71
Thus, for domain 1, the equation of the line segment is
=

#
+

72
Domain 2: < <
The equation here is very straightforward and is given by
=

73
Domain 3: >
We use the same method used for the calculation of the equation of the line segment of
domain 1 i.e. we have
=

#
+

74
Again, at the point of intersection of domains 2 and 3 (i.e. the point = ), the value of y
is given by relating the gradient

with and i.e.

=
[ |

]
[ ]

|

75
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Therefore, when = , then =

.
Replacing with

and with in (74) gives

#
+

#
76
Thus, for domain 3, the equation of the line segment is
=

#
+

#
77
Let us put our results together.








Now, back to our sketches of Figure 5, the relevant equations are found to be
=

, <

#
+

#

=

#
+

#
,

<

<

#
+

#
+

<

<
78



=

#
+

#
+

#

=

(A) If < then

(B) If < < then
(C) If > then
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Third Step: Checking for Odd and Half-Wave Symmetries

Again, by inspection, the nonlinearity displays odd symmetry and the output displays
half-wave symmetry with respect to time.

Fourth Step: Calculation of

Using Expression for Half-Wave-Symmetrical

Nonlinearities

, =

79
where

80

=

, <

#
+

#
,

<

81
Therefore,

+ [

#
+

#
]

+ [

#
]

+ [

#
]

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#
|

#
]

82
Let us expand (82)

#
+

83

Let us now pull X out of (83) i.e.

#
+

84
Let
=

85
We can re-write (85) as
=

86
and remembering that
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87
makes (86) to become
=

#
[

]
=

88
Therefore, (84) becomes

#
+

#
+

#
+

#
+

#
+

#
+

89
Therefore (79) can be re-written as

, =

, =

90
Let us put all our results for the Variable-Gain Nonlinearity together. The results are summarized
on the next page:








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N.B.

[1] These solutions are not really as long as you see them. I have only made them this
long for the sake of clarity. You need not be intimidated by the length.

[2] I will try to send the solutions of the others before your mid-semester test. However, I
cannot guarantee that Ill be able to do so. I have a lot to deal with now. Ill advise us to
try these things out on our own. However, if you have challenges, please feel free to let
me know.

[3] All the best, as you stretch your mathematical nerves a bit! Im sure you will be fine
in the end.

For a system with a Variable-Gain nonlinearity (of Figure NL2)
excited by a sinusoidal input
= ;

(A) If < , then
, =

(B) If > , then

where is given by