Classification of transmission lines

Transmission lines are classified as short, medium and long. When the length of the line
is less than about 80Km the effect of shunt capacitance and conductance is neglected
and the line is designated as a short transmission line. For these lines the operating
voltage is less than 20KV.
For medium transmission lines the length of the line is in between 80m ! 2"0m and the
operating line voltage wil be in between 2#KV!#00KV.$n this case the shunt capacitance
can be assumed to be lumped at the middle of the line or half of the shunt capacitance
ma% be considered to be lumped each end of the line.The two representations of medium
length lines are termed as nominal!T and nominal! & respectivel%.
'ines more than 2"0Km long and line voltage above #00KV re(uire calculations in terms
of distributed parameters.)uch lines are nown as long transmission lines.This
classification on the basis of length is more or less arbitrar% and the real criterion is the
degree of accurac% re(uired.
Standing wave
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n physics, a standing wave ! also kno"n as a stationary wave ! is a "ave that
remains in a constant position.
T"o opposing "aves combine to form a standing "ave.
This phenomenon can occur because the medium is moving in the opposite direction
to the "ave, or it can arise in a stationary medium as a result of interference bet"een
t"o "aves traveling in opposite directions. n the second case, for "aves of e#ual
amplitude traveling in opposing directions, there is on average no net propagation of
energy.
n a resonator, standing "aves occur during the phenomenon kno"n as resonance.
Contents
$hide%
& 'oving medium
( )pposing "aves
o (.& 'athematical description
* +,amples
o *.& -ound "aves
o *.( .ight
o *.* 'echanical "aves
/ -ee also
0 1eferences and notes
2 +,ternal links
Moving medium [edit]
3s an e,ample of the first type, under certain meteorological conditions standing
"aves form in the atmosphere in the lee of mountain ranges. -uch "aves are often
e,ploited by glider pilots.
-tanding "aves and hydraulic 4umps also form on fast flo"ing river rapids and tidal
currents such as the -altstraumen maelstrom. 'any standing river "aves are popular
river surfing breaks.
Opposing waves [edit]
3s an e,ample of the second type, a standing wave in a transmission line is a "ave in
"hich the distribution of current, voltage, or field strength is formed by the
superposition of t"o "aves of the same fre#uency propagating in opposite directions.
The effect is a series of nodes 56ero displacement7 and anti8nodes 5ma,imum
displacement7 at fi,ed points along the transmission line. -uch a standing "ave may
be formed "hen a "ave is transmitted into one end of a transmission line and is
reflected from the other end by an impedance mismatch, i.e., discontinuity, such as an
open circuit or a short.
$&%
The failure of the line to transfer po"er at the standing "ave
fre#uency "ill usually result in attenuation distortion.
-tanding "aves

-tanding "ave in stationary medium. The red dots represent the "ave nodes.

3 standing "ave 5black7 depicted as the sum of t"o propagating "aves

traveling in opposite directions 5red and blue7.

+lectric force vector 5+7 and magnetic force vector 597 of a standing "ave.

-tanding "aves in a string : the fundamental mode and the first 0 overtones.

3 three8dimensional standing "ave on a disk; this is the fundamental mode

3 higher harmonic standing "ave on a disk "ith t"o nodal lines crossing at the
center.
n practice, losses in the transmission line and other components mean that a perfect
reflection and a pure standing "ave are never achieved. The result is a partial
standing wave, "hich is a superposition of a standing "ave and a traveling "ave. The
degree to "hich the "ave resembles either a pure standing "ave or a pure traveling
"ave is measured by the standing "ave ratio 5-W17.
$(%
3nother e,ample is standing "aves in the open ocean formed by "aves "ith the same
"ave period moving in opposite directions. These may form near storm centres, or
from reflection of a s"ell at the shore, and are the source of microbaroms and
microseisms.
Mathematical description [edit]
n one dimension, t"o "aves "ith the same fre#uency, "avelength and amplitude
traveling in opposite directions "ill interfere and produce a standing "ave or
stationary "ave. For e,ample: a "ave traveling to the right along a taut string and
hitting the end "ill reflect back in the other direction along the string, and the t"o
"aves "ill superpose to produce a standing "ave. The reflective "ave has to have the
same amplitude and fre#uency as the incoming "ave.
f the string is held at both ends, forcing 6ero movement at the ends, the ends become
6eroes or nodes of the "ave. The length of the string then becomes a measure of
"hich "aves the string "ill entertain: the longest "avelength is called the
fundamental. 9alf a "avelength of the fundamental fits on the string. -horter
"avelengths also can be supported as long as multiples of half a "avelength fit on the
string. The fre#uencies of these "aves all are multiples of the fundamental, and are
called harmonics or overtones. For e,ample, a guitar player can select an overtone by
putting a finger on a string to force a node at the proper position bet"een the ends of
the string, suppressing all harmonics that do not share this node.
9armonic "aves travelling in opposite directions can be represented by the e#uations
belo":
and
"here:
y
0
is the amplitude of the "ave,
5called angular fre#uency, measured in radians per second7 is 2 times the
fre#uency 5in hert7,
! 5called the "ave number and measured in radians per metre7 is 2 divided
by the "avelength " 5in metres7, and
# and t are variables for longitudinal position and time, respectively.
-o the resultant "ave y e#uation "ill be the sum of y
1
and y
2
:
Using the trigonometric sum8to8product identity for <sin5u7 = sin5v7< to simplify:
This describes a "ave that oscillates in time, but has a spatial dependence that is
stationary: sin5!#7. 3t locations # > ?, "@(, ", *"@(, ... called the nodes the amplitude is
al"ays 6ero, "hereas at locations # > "@/, *"@/, 0"@/, ... called the anti8nodes, the
amplitude is ma,imum. The distance bet"een t"o con4ugative nodes or anti8nodes is
"@(.
-tanding "aves can also occur in t"o8 or three8dimensional resonators. With standing
"aves on t"o dimensional membranes such as drumheads, illustrated in the
animations above, the nodes become nodal lines, lines on the surface at "hich there is
no movement, that separate regions vibrating "ith opposite phase. These nodal line
patterns are called Ahladni figures. n three8dimensional resonators, such as musical
instrument sound bo,es and micro"ave cavity resonators, there are nodal surfaces.
Examples [edit]
What is an attenuator circuit?
3n attenuator circuit allo"s a kno"n source of po"er to be reduced by a
predetermined factor usually e,pressed as decibels. 3 po"erful advantage of an
attenuator is since it is made from non8inductive resistors, the attenuator is able to
change a source or load, "hich might be reactive, into one "hich is precisely kno"n
and resistive. This po"er reduction is achieved by the attenuator "ithout introducing
distortion.
-ho"n in figure & belo" is the most common attenuator circuit kno"n as the Bpi
attenuator net"orkB. ncluded in this figure are the formulae for calculating the
re#uired resistances 1& and 1(. 3n attenuator may be used in either audio or radio
signal circuits.
Figure &. 8 pi attenuator net"ork schematic and formula for e#ual impedances
Cote the above formulae are for equal source and load impedances of "hatever
value.
What is this "K" factor in the formula for a pi attenuator network
The factor D is called the ratio of current, voltage, or po"er corresponding to a given
value of attenuation B3B e,pressed in decibels. t is the more difficult calculation
"hich proceeds as follo"s:
BDB is the number &? raised to the po"er of the value of attenuation B3B in dE,
divided by (?.
D > &?
5B3B @ (?7

3s 4ust one practical e,ample, let<s look at * dE attenuation and calculate our BDB
factor.
D > &?
5* dE @ (?7
> &?
5?.&07
> &./&(0
)n my calculator entered &? and pressed F
G
then entered .&0
That<s really the hardest part of designing a pi attenuator net"ork.
Resistor values for a ! ohm pi attenuator network " equal source and
load
Perhaps the most common use of an attenuator is in 0? ohm radio circuits. To this end
have included a small table in figure ( belo" "hich depicts common po"er
reduction values of * db, 2 dE, &? dE and (? dE. suggest you revie" the topic
decibels if you have difficulty understanding the e,pression dE and the impact of the
numerical values.
Figure (. 8 1esistor values for a 0? ohm pi attenuator net"ork 8 e#ual source and load
Under the columns of BactualB have included resistors from the +(/ series of resistor
values. For most practical purposes these values "ill suffice.
f, as suggest you revie"ed the topic decibels you "ould kno" that decibel values
add together.
# practical e$ample of a pi attenuator at work
3ssume "e have a 0? ohm amateur transmitter "ith an output po"er of five "atts.
We "ant to reduce that po"er do"n to (0? milli8"atts. This means "e must reduce
the power by /.H0 "atts.
This po"er reduction 'U-T be dissipated in our pi net"ork attenuator. This is a very
important point to keep in the back of your mind, "ill tell you later as to "hy.
Ey simple calculation "e kno" that this is /.H0 @ 0.? > .I0 or a I0J reduction in
po"er.
.ooked at in another "ay all "e "ant is 0J of the original po"er or & @(?th. )n my
calculator 0J is e,pressed as .?0 and log .?0 > &.*?& "hich from our tutorial on
decibels "e kno" to multiply by &? because "e are dealing in po"er levels. This
means "e<re looking for a power reduction of &* dE.
Using the formula in figure & "e "ill no" construct a &* dE Bpi net"ork attenuatorB
designed for e#ual source and load impedances of 0? ohms.
%alculating a practical e$ample of a &' d( pi network attenuator
We start by determining our BDB factor for &* dE.
D > &?
5&* dE @ (?7
> &?
5?.207
> /./22K
Letermine 1& "here 5D = &7 > /./22K = & > 0./22K and 5D 8 &7 > /./22K 8 & > *./22K
and 5D = &7 @ 5D 8 &7 > 0./22K @ *./22K > &.0H2I
3s you can see these mathematics are BrealB hard. We multiply this ans"er &.0H2I by
our impedance BMB "hich is, &.0H2I G 0? > HK.K/ ohms for 1&. This is depicted in
figure ( belo".
Figure *. 8 3 practical e,ample of a pi attenuator at "ork
Co" "e calculate 1( and again our BDB value for a &* dE attenuator remains at
/./22K
First "e take the s#uare of BDB "hich of course is &I.I0, subtract & > &K.I0, then
divide by BDB. This becomes &K.I0 @ /./22K > /.(/
This figure is then multiplied by our impedance BMB "hich has been divided by t"o.
n our case "e get /.(/ G 50? @ (7 > &?2 ohms. Co" could make anything simpler to
follo"N
What a(out power dissipation in our pi network attenuator?
<m mighty glad you asked me that #uestion. )verlooked it BmeselfB once until
noticed smoke arising from my relatively e,pensive step attenuator bo,.
Fes..... don<t ever forget your po"er calculations. 3ll are based on ohms la" "hich of
course you should kno". Fou do kno" it don<t youN Thought so.
9okay, if "e started "ith 0W of po"er into 0? ohms "hat "as the initial 1'-
voltage at point & in our figure aboveN
We kno" that P > +
(
@ 1 so 0 > +
(
@ 0?
From simple high school algebra "e are looking for the s#uare root of 0? ohms G 0W
or the s#uare root of (0? "hich is &0.K&O 1'-.
Co" it tends to get a bit messy. <ll try the relatively simple "ay. f "e start "ith the
final 1'- voltage at point ( in our figure above and doing the e,act same
calculations "e kno" "e are looking for the s#uare root of 0? G ?.(0 "hich e#uals
*.0/O 1'- at point (.
f "e started out "ith &0.K&O and ended up "ith *.0/O then "e have lost &0.K& 8 *.0/
> &(.(HO across a &?2 ohm resistor. )hms la" again gives us $5&(.(H G &(.(H7 @ &?2%
> &./(W
Using the same principles, at point & "ith &0.K&O across 1& of HK.K/ ohms "e get,
yet again by ohms la", $5&0.K& G &0.K&7 @ HK.K/% > *.&HW
3lso using the same principles, at point ( "ith *.0/O across the right hand 1& of
HK.K/ ohms "e get, $5*.0/ G *.0/7 @ HK.K/% > ?.&2W
3dding these "attages together "e get *.&H = &./( = ?.&2 > /.H0W
The critical point here is, these non"inductive resistors 'U-T be able to safely
dissipate these amounts of po"er.
Eecause "e have odd resistor values find it more convenient to parallel higher
"attage 5non8inductive7 resistors together. .ook out for & and ( "att types. For
e,ample the left hand 1& might comprise 0 G *I? ohm ohm &W resistors in parallel.
This is the e#uivalent of a HK ohm 0W resistor.
The &?2 ohm resistor could be ( G ((? ohm in parallel making a &&? ohm (W
resistor. n the real "orld, depending on the tolerance type you buy, say 0J ( G ((?
ohms could e#ual anything bet"een &?/.0 and &&0.0 ohms.
f you parallel odd resistor values e.g. ((? ohm and (?? ohm to get a nominal &?/.H2
ohm resistor 5and you can7 be a"are the po"er dissipation "ill obviously be different
across each resistor. Cothing "rong "ith the idea, 4ust be "ary.
Wire"ound types are )*+ acceptable for 1F because they are inductive, they have
reactances. n audio applications "ouldn<t "orry, but could be "rong.
"+" network attenuator
This attenuator net"ork is some"hat different obviously. Cotice the different but
some"hat similar calculations. <ve never used one of these and beyond that can
offer no other comment.
Figure /. 8 BTB net"ork attenuator
To me the calculations are no more difficult or easier than the pi net"ork attenuator.
,ummarising attenuators
&. Aomplete your calculations of resistor values in a methodical manner and double
check them.
(. Lo take po"er dissipation into account. 3llo" a good safety margin.
*. Use non8inductive resistors for 1F applications.
/. f sufficient demand e,ists "ill present a paper on designing attenuators for
une#ual terminations.
0. We discussed the BpiB and BTB type attenuators here. 3mong others, there are the
B9B, B.B, B)B and BUB, bridge types, balanced and unbalanced types, ladder types and
even attenuators using potentiometers 5audio7. 3gain if sufficient demand e,ists.........
ATTENUATORS:
The attenuators are designed to change the magnitude of the input signal as seen at input stage,
while introducing constant impedance on all ranges of the attenuator input
RC attenuator!compensated" :!
$t is re(uired to attenuate all fre(uencies e(ual without as this compensation and signal of *F
measurements would alwa%s have to tae the input circuit +, time constant into account of that.
The input attenuator must provide the correct # !2!- se(uence while maintaining constant
input impedance, as well as maintain both the input impedance a attenuation above the fre(uenc% range
for which the oscilloscope is designed.
Attenuators !Uncompensated " : ! as found in Fig. . circuit diagram /it gives a resistive divider
attenuator connected to an amplifier with a #0 pf input capacitance. $f the input impedance of the
amplifier is high, the input impedance of the attenuator is relativel% constant negligible of the switch
setting of the attenuator.
The input impedance, as found b% the amplifier, variations or changes greatl% depending on the setting
of the attenuator. 0ecause of this, the +, time constant and fre(uenc% response of the amplifier are
based mostl% on the setting of the attenuator, which an unfavorable feature.
#asic and Simple Compensated Attenuator 1!
The capacitive voltage dividers enhance the *F response of the attenuator. This combination of
capacitive and combination of resistive voltage dividers is nown as a compensated attenuator. For
oscilloscopes where the fre(uenc% range increases to #00 2*3 and above, more comple4 dividers are
used.
indicates an attenuator divider between the input and output of the vertical deflection preamplifier.
The input attenuator gives switching powers of #0, while attenuator at the output
of the vertical preamplifier provides #!2!- attenuation.
5lmost all oscilloscopes provide a switchable input coupling capacitor, as shown in Fig.
The input impedance of an oscilloscope is # 26 which is shunted with an input capacitance of #0!70 pf.
$f a probe were connected to the oscilloscope, the input impedance at the probe tip would have a
greater capacitance due to the fact of the included capacitance of the probe assembl% and of the
connecting shielded cable. $f it is desired for *F oscilloscopes to have an input capacitance of much
less than 20!70 pf, an attenuator Figure 8.# probe is used ,as shows in fig 8.#a #0 to # attenuator probe
connected to the input of the oscilloscope.
Within the probe tip is a 826 resistor and shunted across this resistor is a
capacitor .This capacitor is fine!tuned. ad9usted/ so that the ratio of the shunt capacitance to the series
capacitance is e4actl% #0 to #.
The attenuator probe generall% called a #0 to # probe provides an appro4imatel% #0 to
# reduction in the input capacitance. :n the other hand, it is also gives a #0 to # reduction in overall
oscilloscope sensitivit%.
The input capacitance is not constant from one oscilloscope to another as a result the
probe is provided with an ad9ustable compensating capacitor .$f the ratio of the series to shunt is not
ad9usted specificall%.precisel%/ to #0 to #,and the fre(uenc% response of the oscilloscope will be flat.