Plumbing Pipe Fitting and Sewerage 2

FM 3-34.
471(FM 5-420)
PLUMBING, PIPE FITTING,
AND SEWERAGE
HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
i
*FM 3-34.471 (FM 5-420)
Field Manual Headquarters
No. 3-34.471 Department of the Army
Washington, DC, 31 August 2001
Plumbing, Pipe Fitting, and Sewerage
Contents
Page
PREFACE................................................................................................................... vi
Chapter 1 PLUMBING SYSTEMS ............................................................................................1-1
Section I - Basic Water Supply and Water Distribution Systems ......................1-1
Plans ........................................................................................................................1-1
BOM .........................................................................................................................1-2
Water Supply Lines and Branches ...........................................................................1-2
Tapping the Water Main ...........................................................................................1-8
Installing Curb and Meter Stops .............................................................................1-10
Hot-Water Supply System ......................................................................................1-11
Fire-Protection Water Systems ..............................................................................1-12
Section II - Theater of Operations Water Supply and Distribution System ...1-13
Water Distribution Methods ....................................................................................1-14
Plans and Installation .............................................................................................1-14
Design Procedures .................................................................................................1-14
Section III - Sewerage System ............................................................................1-14
Plans ......................................................................................................................1-14
Sanitary Sewer and Drains ....................................................................................1-14
Storm Sewer and Drain ..........................................................................................1-15
Industrial Drain .......................................................................................................1-16
Pipes and Fittings ...................................................................................................1-16
House Sewer ..........................................................................................................1-18
Manholes ................................................................................................................1-20
Sewage Disposal Systems .....................................................................................1-20
Sewage Disposal Facilities ....................................................................................1-24
Distribution Restriction: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
*This publication supersedes Field Manual (FM) 5-420, 7 May 1993, and FM 5-163, 15 October 1973.
FM 3-34.471
ii
Page
Section IV - Wastewater ...................................................................................... 1-27
Policy ..................................................................................................................... 1-27
Responsibilities ...................................................................................................... 1-28
Consideration Factors ........................................................................................... 1-28
Collection ............................................................................................................... 1-28
Disposal ................................................................................................................. 1-29
Section V - Human Waste ................................................................................... 1-30
Policy ..................................................................................................................... 1-31
Field Expedient Facilities ....................................................................................... 1-31
Fixed and Installation Facilities .............................................................................. 1-31
Section VI - Solid Waste ...................................................................................... 1-32
Policy ..................................................................................................................... 1-32
Disposal ................................................................................................................. 1-32
Section VII - Human Waste Disposal in the Field ............................................. 1-34
Constructing and Closing Latrines ......................................................................... 1-34
Cathole Latrine ...................................................................................................... 1-35
Straddle-Trench Latrine ......................................................................................... 1-36
Deep-Pit Latrine ..................................................................................................... 1-36
Bored-Hole Latrine ................................................................................................. 1-37
Latrines in Areas With High Groundwater Tables .................................................. 1-38
Urine Disposal Facilities ........................................................................................ 1-41
Maintenance of Urine Disposal Facilities ............................................................... 1-43
Section VIII - Wastewater Disposal in the Field ................................................ 1-44
Kitchen Waste ....................................................................................................... 1-44
Grease Traps ......................................................................................................... 1-46
Evaporation Beds .................................................................................................. 1-47
Wastewater ............................................................................................................ 1-49
Design Considerations .......................................................................................... 1-49
Alternate Systems ................................................................................................. 1-53
Pipe Sizes .............................................................................................................. 1-57
Pipe Cover ............................................................................................................. 1-58
Chapter 2 HEATING SYSTEMS ............................................................................................... 2-1
Hot-Water Heating Systems .................................................................................... 2-1
Steam-Heating Systems .......................................................................................... 2-2
Forced-Air Heating Systems.................................................................................... 2-5
FM 3-34.471
iii
Page
Chapter 3 BASIC PLUMBING REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE ............................................3-1
Leaks ........................................................................................................................3-1
Frozen Pipes ............................................................................................................3-3
Scale ........................................................................................................................3-4
Waste System Stoppages ........................................................................................3-4
Chapter 4 PLUMBING FIXTURES ...........................................................................................4-1
Water Supply and Piping Requirement ....................................................................4-1
Water Closets ...........................................................................................................4-1
Lavatories ...............................................................................................................4-12
Sinks ......................................................................................................................4-16
Urinals ....................................................................................................................4-18
Showers .................................................................................................................4-20
Bathtubs .................................................................................................................4-23
Laundry Tubs ......................................................................................................... 4-24
Drinking Fountains .................................................................................................4-25
Chapter 5 WATER HEATERS...................................................................................................5-1
Types ....................................................................................................................... 5-1
Sizes ........................................................................................................................ 5-6
Operation Hazards ...................................................................................................5-6
Chapter 6 PIPES AND FITTINGS ............................................................................................ 6-1
Pipe Selection .......................................................................................................... 6-1
Pipe Assembly Materials ..........................................................................................6-2
Pipe Measurements .................................................................................................6-3
Cast-Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings. ...............................................................................6-7
Galvanized-Steel/Iron Pipe and Fittings................................................................. 6-19
Copper Tubing and Fittings.................................................................................... 6-27
Plastic Pipe and Fittings .........................................................................................6-36
Other Types of Pipes and Fittings ..........................................................................6-40
Chapter 7 VALVES AND FAUCETS.........................................................................................7-1
Section I - Valves.................................................................................................... 7-1
Types .......................................................................................................................7-1
Repair and Maintenance ..........................................................................................7-2
Section II - Faucets ................................................................................................ 7-7
Types ....................................................................................................................... 7-7
Installation ................................................................................................................7-9
Repairs .....................................................................................................................7-9
FM 3-34.471
iv
Page
Chapter 8 STACKS AND BRANCHES .................................................................................... 8-1
Pipe Selection .......................................................................................................... 8-1
Pipe Size ................................................................................................................. 8-1
Installation ............................................................................................................... 8-3
Stack and Branch Supports ..................................................................................... 8-5
Testing ..................................................................................................................... 8-5
Chapter 9 TRAPS AND VENTS ............................................................................................... 9-1
Section I - Traps ..................................................................................................... 9-1
Use .......................................................................................................................... 9-1
Types ....................................................................................................................... 9-1
Trap Seal Loss ........................................................................................................ 9-2
Section II - Vents .................................................................................................... 9-6
Installation ............................................................................................................... 9-6
Sizes ...................................................................................................................... 9-10
Chapter 10 STEAM, GAS, AND AIR PIPING .......................................................................... 10-1
Steam Piping ......................................................................................................... 10-1
Gas and Air Piping ................................................................................................. 10-3
Chapter 11 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS ....................................................................................... 11-1
Characteristics ....................................................................................................... 11-1
Types ..................................................................................................................... 11-2
Installation and Operation ...................................................................................... 11-3
Valves .................................................................................................................... 11-4
Priming .................................................................................................................. 11-4
Maintenance and Repair ....................................................................................... 11-5
Trouble Sources .................................................................................................... 11-5
Chapter 12 INSULATION ......................................................................................................... 12-1
Types ..................................................................................................................... 12-1
Installation ............................................................................................................. 12-3
Maintenance .......................................................................................................... 12-3
Appendix A METRIC CONVERSION CHART.............................................................................A-1
Appendix B CONSTRUCTION PLANS AND DRAWINGS .........................................................B-1
Section I - Plans and Drawings ............................................................................ B-1
Architects Design ....................................................................................................B-1
Typical Water Supply and Distribution System Plan ................................................B-1
Typical Utility and Building Waste System Plan .......................................................B-1
Unit Construction and Package Unit Prints ..............................................................B-4
Section II - Plumbing and Heating Symbols........................................................ B-8
Types of Symbols ....................................................................................................B-8
FM 3-34.471
v
Page
List of Symbols ...................................................................................................... B-10
Appendix C BOM ........................................................................................................................ C-1
Description .............................................................................................................. C-1
Preparation .............................................................................................................. C-1
Appendix D PIPE SIZES FOR WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DESIGN ............................. D-1
Appendix E DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS DESIGN PROCEDURES ........................................... E-1
Design Procedures.................................................................................................. E-1
Dynamic Water Distribution System Design ........................................................... E-3
vi
Preface
Thi s manual i s a gui de for engi neer per sonnel r esponsi bl e for conducti ng pl umbi ng and pi pe
fi tti ng oper ati ons. Thi s manual pr ovi des i nfor mati on on water , waste, and heati ng systems and
basi c pl umbi ng techni ques. Use thi s gui de to hel p r epai r fi xtur es, l eaky pi pes, and val ves; to
make pi pe joi nts; to i nstal l water , waste, and heati ng systems; and to test and ser vi ce these
systems.
Pl umber s i nstal l and repai r water systems, waste systems, and fi xtures; cut, r eam, thread, and
bend pi pes; and caul k, sol der, and test joi nts or systems for l eaks.
User s of thi s manual shoul d be fami l i ar wi th the tool s used by the constr ucti on mi l i tar y
occupati onal speci al ty (MOS) i n car eer management fi el d (CMF) 51. Thi s manual pr ovi des
i nfor mati on on uti l i ty pl ans and dr awi ngs to i ncl ude bi l l of mater i al s (BOM) and standar d
pl umbi ng and heati ng symbol s; pl umbi ng materi al s and procedures; sewerage, water suppl y, and
heati ng i nstal l ati on; i nsul ati on materi al ; and pumps. The enti re pattern for sol di ers i n CMF 51 i s
descri bed i n Department of the Army (DA) Pamphl et 611-21.
AppendixA contai ns an Engl i sh to metri c measurement conversi on chart.
The proponent of thi s publ i cati on i s Headquarters (HQ), Uni ted States (US) Army Trai ni ng and
Doctri ne Command (TRADOC). Send comments and recommendati ons on DA Form 2028 di rectl y
to Commandant, US Ar my Engi neer School , ATTN: ATZT-DOT-DD, For t Leonar d Wood,
Mi ssouri 65473-6650.
Unl ess thi s publ i cati on states otherwi se, mascul i ne nouns and pr onouns do not refer excl usi vel y
to men.
1-1
Chapter 1
Plumbing Systems
Pl u mbi ng i s a s y s tem of pi pi n g, appar atu s , an d fi x tu r es for water
di stri buti on and waste di sposal wi thi n a bui l di ng. Thi s chapter cover s the
bas i c water s u ppl y an d water di s tr i buti on s y s tems , the th eater of
oper ati ons (TO) water suppl y and water di str i buti on systems, and the
s ewer a ge s y s t em. Pl u mbi n g a l s o i n cl u des th e i n s ta l l a ti on a n d
mai ntenance of these systems. When ar chi tects desi gn a bui l di ng, they
pr epare a set of pri nts and a set of speci fi cati on sheets detai l i ng the types
an d qu al i ty of mater i al s to be u s ed. Pl u mber s u s e th e pr i n ts an d
speci fi cati ons to l ayout and pl an the project.
1-1. A water suppl y system r ecei ves, tr eats, and moves water to a water
di stri buti on system. Water may come from a stream or l ake, a deep or shal l ow
wel l , or a r eser voi r whi ch col l ects sur face water . The water suppl y system
puri fi es and pumps the water i nto a storage tank. After the water i s puri fi ed,
i t i s r el eased i nto the di str i buti on system. The di str i buti on system i s an
ar r angement of connected pi pes (cal l ed a run) that car r i es the water to i ts
desti nati on. Thi s system usual l y has a means of heati ng some of thi s water.
PLANS
1-2. See Appendix B for i nfor mati on on constructi on pl ans, pr i nts, dr awi ngs,
and pl umbi ng and heati ng symbol s.
WATER SUPPLY AND WATER DISTRIBUTION PLANS
1-3. A pl umber shoul d be abl e to i nstal l a compl ete water suppl y system by
usi ng a pl an together wi th standard and speci al detai l dr awi ngs and a BOM.
A standard detai l dr awi ng wi l l show the water heater and standard storage-
tank connecti ons. The pl an wi l l show the type of pi pi ng by si ze and fi tti ngs
(seeAppendix B).
UTILITY- AND BUILDING-WASTE SYSTEMPLANS
1-4. For more i nformati on on uti l i ty- and bui l di ng-waste system pl ans, see
AppendixB.
SECTION I - BASIC WATER SUPPLY AND WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
FM 3-34.471
1-2 Plumbing Systems
UNIT-CONSTRUCTION AND PACKAGE-UNIT PRINTS
1-5. Pri nts are used for structures and equi pment i n water suppl y and water
di str i buti on systems. The type of pr i nt depends on whether the uni t i s
constructed or i f i t i s a package uni t to be assembl ed i n the fi el d (see Appendix
B, paragraph B-8).
BOM
1-6. The desi gner (ar chi tect) or dr aftsman usual l y pr epar es a BOM (DA
For m 2702) when pr epar i ng the or i gi nal dr awi ngs. However , i f no BOM
accompani es the fi el d pr i nts, the pl umber must compi l e i t. Appendix C gi ves
i nstructi ons for prepari ng a BOM.
WATER SUPPLY LINES AND BRANCHES
1-7. The mai n water suppl y system provi des potabl e col d water at the mai n
at a pr essur e that meets Nati onal Pl umbi ng Code standar ds. The water
servi ce mai n for the pl umbi ng i nstal l ati on Ts i nto the mai n water suppl y. The
pl umbi ng system must provi de enough water for normal use at each outl et.
1-8. Fi xture suppl y ri sers take water from the mai n suppl y to the fi xtures on
each fl oor l evel . Each fi xture suppl y ri ser must have a di ameter l arge enough
to suppl y water to al l the fi xtur es i t connects. The si ze i s deter mi ned by the
desi gn l oad for the ri ser (refer to Appendix D, Tables D-3 or D-4).
PIPE SELECTION
1-9. Col d-water systems may use gal vani zed-i r on or gal vani zed-steel pi pe,
copper tubi ng, pl asti c pi pe, brass, cast i ron, gal vani zed, wrought i ron, or other
approved materi al . The materi al used depends on the
Amount of water to be suppl i ed.
Water pressure.
Corrosi on factor for di fferent types of pi pe i n di fferent temperatures.
Cost.
Avai l abi l i ty.
PIPE SIZE
1-10. The si ze of water suppl y pi pi ng depends on the
Water pressure and fri cti on l oss through the l ength of the pi pe.
Number and ki nds of fi xtures i nstal l ed (fi xture demand).
Number of fi xtures i n use at a gi ven ti me (factor of si mul taneous use).
Type of fl ushi ng devi ces (refer to Chapter 4).
Friction Loss
1-11. When a l i qui d fl ows thr ough a pi pe, l ayer s move at di ffer ent speeds,
wi th the center l ayer movi ng fastest. Thi s r esi stance to fl ow (cal l ed friction
loss) vari es wi th di fferent types of pi pe. Pi pe fri cti on, i n turn, causes a drop i n
water pressure. I n a smal l pi pe, thi s fri cti on l oss i s overcome by i ncreasi ng the
FM 3-34.471
Plumbing Systems 1-3
water pr essur e. I f hi gher water pr essur e i s not possi bl e, i ncr easi ng the pi pe
si ze can reduce fri cti on l oss. See Appendix D for fri cti on l oss i n di fferent types
of pi pe.
Water Hammer
1-12. I n a water suppl y system, water hammer occurs when fl owi ng water i s
stopped abruptl y or cannot be compressed, causi ng the fl owi ng water to sl am
agai nst the val ve wi th the same amount of pr essur e as appl i ed to the water
system (such as when you fl ush a water cl oset, the water cl oset's tan k
compl etes the fi l l i ng acti on, and the control val ve i n the tank cl oses).
1-13. The effects of water h ammer ar e n oi s e fr om r attl i n g pi pes an d
someti mes l eak y pi pe j oi nts, both of whi ch can be el i mi nated easi l y by
i nstal l i ng a devi ce cal l ed a expansi on chamber to sl ow the water i n the
pl umbi ng system. The expansi on chamber shown i n Figure1-1 i s capped at
the upper end causi ng i t to fi l l wi th ai r , not water . Ai r , unl i ke water , can be
compressed. Therefore, when the water fl ow i s stopped abruptl y, the ai r i n the
ai r chamber works l i ke an automoti ve shock absorber rel i evi ng the sl ammi ng
acti on agai nst the val ve. I nstal l expansi on chamber s i n the water suppl y
system on both hot and col d ser vi ce l i nes at each maj or fi xtur e wi thi n a
structure.
1-14. Expansi on chambers can be purchased or fabri cated. Figure1-1 shows
an exampl e of a constr ucted expansi on chamber . The type of pi pe and the
di mensi ons used ar e not cr i ti cal , but ensur e that the secti on i denti fi ed as the
ri ser i s at l east 6 i nches l ong.
Figure 1-1. Expansion Chamber Construction
From main supply
Water supply
Tee
To fixture
2 to 4 inches long
Elbow
Riser
Pipe cap
FM 3-34.471
Water Pressure
1-15. Pr essur e i n the mai n usual l y r anges fr om 45 to 60 pounds per square
i nch (psi ). I f the pr essur e i s over 60 psi , a pr essur e-r educi ng val ve must be
pl aced i n the water ser vi ce l i ne at i ts entr y to the bui l di ng. The si ze of the
water ser vi ce pi pel i ne, the r ate of use, the l ength of the l i ne, and the outl et
hei ght i n the system control the pressure avai l abl e at the outl et. I f the water
pressure i s l ess than 15 psi , use a tank and a pump or other means to provi de
pr essur e. I f the water pr essur e i s over 80 psi , use an appr oved pr essur e
regul ator.
Calculations for SizingPipe
1-16. The mi ni mum pr acti cal si ze for a water ser vi ce l i ne i s 3/4 i nch. Thi s
s i ze s h ou l d be u s ed ev en wh en cal cu l ati on s i n di cate a s mal l er on e.
Cal cul ati ons for factori ng l oss of pressure i n compl ex systems ar e beyond the
range of thi s manual . For si mpl e systems, use approxi mate fi gures to fi nd the
pi pe si ze. Tabl es D-1 and D-2, Appendi x D, gi ve capaci ti es and psi for
gal vani zed-steel /i r on pi pe, copper tubi ng, and pl asti c pi pe. Use these tabl es
combi ned wi th the maxi mum fi xture demand and si mul taneous use factor to
determi ne pi pe si zes.
1-17. Maximum Fixture Demand. The maxi mum fi xtur e demand i n
gal l ons per mi nute (GPM) i s the total amount of water needed to suppl y al l
the fi xtur es at the same ti me. Esti mate the maxi mum fi xtur e demand by
counti ng the number and types of fi xtures i n the pl umbi ng system. Table1-1
gi ves the maxi mum fi xture demand for di fferent fi xtures.
1-18. For exampl e, what i s the maxi mum fi xtur e demand for a pl umbi ng
sy stem whi ch con s i sts of th e fol l owi n g 14 fi xtur es: 2 water cl osets, 4
l avatori es, 2 showers, 3 uri nal s, 1 sl op si nk, 1 l aundry tub, and 1 fl oor drai n?
Use Table1-1 and the fol l owi ng steps:
Step 1. Mul ti pl y the number of each fi xture by the GPM of that type fi xture
(from Table1-1).
Step 2. Total these fi gur es.
Table 1-1. Fixture Demand (in GPM)
Fixture GPM
Water closet 45.0
Lavatory 7.5
Shower 15.0
Urinal 39.5
Slop sink 22.5
Laundry tub 15.0
Floor drain 7.5
FM 3-34.471
1-19. The resul t i s a maxi mum fi xture demand of 313.5 GPM.
NOTE: Use the fixture demand (313.5 GPM) with the simultaneous-
usefactor to select thepipesize.
1-20. Simultaneous-Use Factor. The si mul taneous-use factor i s the
per centage of fi xtur es potenti al l y i n use at a gi ven ti me (Table1-2). I t i s an
esti mate of the total demand on a water suppl y system, expr essed as water
suppl y fi xtur e uni ts. Si mul taneous-use factor s decr ease as the number of
fi xtur es i n a bui l di ng i ncr eases. Use the for mul as i n Table1-2 to deter mi ne
si mul taneous use factor.
1-21. I f a tabl e for the si mul taneous-use factor i s not avai l abl e, esti mate the
probabl e demand by computi ng 30 percent of the maxi mum fi xture demand i n
gal l ons.
1-22. Conti nui ng the exampl e i n paragraph 1-18, the 14 fi xtures woul d have
a si mul taneous use of 42.72 percent (round up to 43 percent). Si nce the fi xture
demand was 313.5 GPM, the water ser vi ce l i ne must have a capaci ty of 43
per cent of 313.5 (110 GPM). What si ze of pi pe woul d be needed for a 60-foot
l ong pi pel i ne wi th a pr essur e at the mai n of 45 psi (r efer to Appendix D,
Tables D-1 and D-2)?
Step 1. Read down the 60-foot col umn i n Tables D-1 or D-2, to 1 1/2 i nch
di ameter.
Step 2. Read across (l eft) to the psi col umn and establ i sh the gi ven as 45 psi .
Step 3. Read back to the 60-foot column. TableD-1shows 150 GPM (the quantity
that includes 110 GPM); TableD-2shows 155 GPM (round up to 160 GPM).
1-23. Ei ther 1 1/2-i nch gal vani zed, copper , or pl asti c pi pi ng woul d be l ar ge
enough for the water ser vi ce l i ne.
NOTE: Remember, the minimum practical size for a water service
line is 3/4 inch. This size should be used even when calculations
indicatea smaller size.
INSTALLATION
Main Water Supply Line
1-24. The mai n water suppl y i s a pi pe, usual l y hung fr om a cei l i ng, wi th
branches connected to serve the fi xture ri sers. Thi s suppl y pi pe has the same
di ameter as the water ser vi ce fr om the mai n and i s centr al l y l ocated to
Table 1-2. Simultaneous-Use Factor
Number of
Fixtures
Percent of
Simultaneous Use
1-5 100 minus (number of fixtures minus 1) x 12.75
6-50 50 minus (number of fixtures minus 1) x .56
51 or more Estimate at 30 percent
FM 3-34.471
provi de short takeoffs to the fi xture suppl y ri sers throughout the bui l di ng. To
r educe fr i cti on l oss, l ay the mai n suppl y pi pi ng as str ai ght as possi bl e. The
mai n suppl y pi pe must not sag or trap water. I t shoul d be graded sl i ghtl y, up
to 1/4 i nch per foot, dr oppi ng towar d the water meter . At the l ow end of the
gr ade, pl ace a dr i p cock or stop-and-waste val ve for dr ai ni ng the pi pe i n the
wi nter. A drai npi pe may be needed to carry the wastewater from the openi ng
i n the val ve to a fl oor drai n or sump. I f i t i s i mpossi bl e to grade al l the pi pi ng
to one poi nt, al l par ts that cannot be centr al l y drai ned shoul d have separate
dr i p cock s or stop-and-waste val ves. The mai n suppl y pi pe must be wel l
supported to take i ts wei ght off the fi tti ngs and to prevent l eaks.
FixtureSupply Risers
1-25. Use r educi ng Ts to connect fi xtur e suppl y r i ser s to the mai n suppl y.
Run the ri sers through the i nteri or wal l s of the bui l di ng. Ti ghten al l the joi nts
before the parti ti ons are fi ni shed. Use pi pe rests or cl amps to support verti cal -
fi xtur e suppl y r i ser s at each fl oor l evel . (Fi xtur e suppl y r i ser s must not
depend on the hor i zontal branches for suppor t.) Hor i zontal -fi xture br anches
shoul d be wel l suppor ted and gr aded upwar d towar d the ver ti cal -fi xtur e
suppl y ri sers.
Valves
1-26. I nstal l gate val ves i n each verti cal suppl y ri ser, so that a secti on can be
repai red wi thout shutti ng off the water to other secti ons. Smal l gate val ves on
the suppl y to each fi xture al l ows for shutti ng off the water for faucet repai rs.
TESTING FOR LEAKS
1-27. I nspecti ng for l eak s i s i mpor tant. A l eaky joi nt wastes water and
causes costl y damage to the bui l di ng. I n new constr ucti on, test the enti r e
s y s tem for l eak s befor e th e fl oor an d par ti ti on s ar e cl os ed u p. Wh en
per for mi ng thi s test, use the water pr essur e fr om the mai n that feeds the
system. Whi l e the system i s under pressure, i nspect each joi nt for moi sture. I f
a l eak i s detected i n a joi nt, ti ghten the joi nt or repl ace i t by cutti ng the pi pe
and connecti ng a new secti on wi th a uni on. When wor k i ng wi th copper
sol der ed j oi nts or pl asti c sol vent-cement j oi nts, dr ai n the pi pe and then
connect the joi nt. Copper compressi on joi nts can be ti ghtened or repl aced.
DISINFECTING THE PIPING SYSTEM
1-28. After i nstal l ati on or r epai r , cl ean and di si nfect pl umbi ng pi pes and
other par ts of a water suppl y system car r yi ng dr i nki ng water befor e use.
Fl ush the system to remove di rt, waste, and surface water. Di si nfect each uni t
wi th a chemi cal such as a sol uti on of hypochl ori te or chl ori ne.
Dosage
1-29. Under average condi ti ons, use the dosages (i n parts per mi l l i on [ppm])
i n Table1-3. The chl ori ne dosage requi red to di si nfect a uni t depends on the
Contact ti me.
Amount of organi c chl ori ne-consumi ng materi al present.
FM 3-34.471
Vol ume of water to be di si nfected. Table1-4 gi ves the vol ume of water
for di fferent si zes and l engths of pi pe.
Application
1-30. Use por tabl e gas chl or i nator s to appl y the l i qui d chl or i ne. Chl or i ne
cyl i nder s shoul d not be connected di r ectl y to the mai ns because water may
enter the cyl i nder and cause severe corrosi on, resul ti ng i n dangerous l eakage.
A sol uti on of hypochl or i te i s usual l y appl i ed by measur i ng pumps, gr avi ty-
feed mechani sms, or por tabl e pi pe-di si nfecti ng uni ts. Use the fol l owi ng steps
to appl y di si nfectant:
Step 1. Fl ush al l secti ons thoroughl y at a vel oci ty of at l east 3 feet per second
(fps) unti l al l the di rt and mud are removed.
Step 2. Pl ug al l branches and other openi ngs wi th pl ugs or heads properl y
braced to prevent bl owouts.
Step 3. I nsert the di si nfectant i nto the mai ns through taps or hydrants at
the ends of each secti on.
Step 4. Bl eed out any ai r trapped i n the l i ne.
Table 1-3. Chlorine Dosage
Unit
Minimum Dosage
(ppm)
Pipe 50
Storage 50
Filter 100
Well 150
Table 1-4. Volume of Water Disinfected (By Pipe Size)
Pipe
Diameter
(in Inches)
Volume Per Foot
of Pipe
(in Gallons)
2 0.16
4 0.65
6 1.47
8 2.61
10 4.08
12 5.88
16 10.45
20 16.32
FM 3-34.471
Step 5. Add the predetermi ned chl ori ne dosage as the mai n sl owl y fi l l s wi th
water.
Step 6. Conti nue feedi ng unti l the water comi ng from the suppl y end
contai ns the desi red amount of chl ori ne.
Step 7. Keep the chl ori nated water i n the uni t for 24 to 48 hours.
Step 8. Fl ush the mai n unti l the water contai ns onl y the amount of chl ori ne
normal l y i n the suppl y.
Step 9. Anal yze sampl es dai l y for bacteri a unti l the anal yses show no
further need for di si nfecti on. I f the sampl es are unsati sfactory, rechl ori nate.
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
Corrosion
1-31. Gal vani c corrosi on (resul ti ng from a di rect current of el ectri ci ty) occurs
i n a pl umbi ng system that i ncl udes two di fferent ki nds of metal pi pe, such as
gal vani zed pi pe and copper pi pe. See Chapter 3 for r educi ng and r epai r i ng
corrosi on.
Scale
1-32. Har d water contai ns a l ar ge amount of cal ci um and magnesi um
compounds, whi ch prevent soap from l atheri ng. Thi s forms a scum that sl ows
the fl ow of water. The scum deposi ts harden and form scal e. See Chapter 3 for
reduci ng and removi ng scal e.
Frozen Pipes
1-33. Water suppl y l i nes may freeze when exposed to temperatures bel ow 32
degr ees Fahr enhei t. Outsi de pi pes must be bur i ed bel ow the fr ost l i ne. I n
northern zones, thi s i s 4 feet or mor e. I f the bui l di ng temperature fal l s bel ow
fr eezi ng, i nsi de pi pes may al so fr eeze, causi ng the pi pe to br eak at the
weakest poi nt. Use the procedures i n Chapter 3 to thaw fr ozen pi pes.
TAPPING THE WATER MAIN
1-34. Water mai ns are usual l y cast i ron, 8 i nches or more i n di ameter. I f the
mai n i s l ess than 8 i nches i n di ameter, taps shoul d be 2 i nches or smal l er. Use
Figure1-2 and the fol l owi ng steps to tap the water mai n:
Step 1. Di g to expose the pi pe at the poi nt where the tap i s to be made. Di g
as cl ose to the top of the water mai n as possi bl e.
Step 2. Cl ean al l di rt and rust off the pi pe at that poi nt.
Step 3. Pl ace the gasket of the water-mai n sel f-tappi ng machi ne on the pi pe,
and set the saddl e of the machi ne on the gasket.
Step 4. Wrap the chai n around the pi pe, and ti ghten i t to cl amp the water
mai n sel f-tappi ng machi ne to the pi pe.
Step 5. Remove the cap from the cyl i nder of the machi ne, and pl ace the
combi nati on dri l l and tap i n the bori ng bar.
FM 3-34.471
Step 6. Reassembl e the machi ne by putti ng the bori ng bar through the
cyl i nder and ti ghteni ng the cap.
Step 7. Open the fl ap val ve between the compartments.
Step 8. Start dri l l i ng the hol e by appl yi ng pressure at the feed yoke and
turni ng the ratchet handl e unti l the dri l l enters the mai n.
Step 9. When the tap starts threadi ng the hol e, back off the feed yoke to
prevent stri ppi ng the threads.
Step 10. Conti nue to turn the bori ng bar unti l the ratchet handl e can no
l onger be turned wi thout extra force.
Step 11. Remove the tap from the hol e by reversi ng the ratchet. Then, back
the bori ng bar out by turni ng i t countercl ockwi se.
Step 12. Cl ose the fl ap val ve between the upper and l ower compartments.
Step 13. Drai n the water from the cyl i nder through the bypass.
Step 14. Remove the cap and dri l l tool . Pl ace a corporati on stop (Figure1-3,
page1-10) i n the bori ng bar, ensuri ng that the stop i s cl osed.
Step 15. Repeat steps 6 and 7.
Figure 1-2. Tapping the Water Main
Ratchet handle
Boring bar
Feed yoke
Cap
Cylinder
Flap-valve handle
Flap valve
Saddle
Gasket
Water main
Combination
drill and tap
Bypass
Friction collar
FM 3-34.471
Step 16. Turn the ratchet handl e to thread the corporati on stop i nto the pi pe.
Step 17. Repeat step 13.
Step 18. Remove the cap from the cyl i nder, and unbol t the bori ng bar from
the corporati on stop.
Step 19. Remove the l ower chamber from the pi pe.
Step 20. I nspect for l eaks.
Step 21. I f the corporati on stop l eaks, ti ghten i t wi th a sui tabl e wrench.
INSTALLING CURB AND METER STOPS
1-35. Cur b and meter stops contr ol the water enteri ng the bui l di ng. Figure
1-3 shows thi s i nstal l ati on.
CURB STOP
1-36. After tappi ng the water mai n and i nser ti ng the cor por ati on stop,
i nstal l the curb stop i n a sui tabl e posi ti on. I t i s usual l y set i n a cast-i ron stop
box to pr ovi de easy access i n the water ser vi ce between the cur b and the
bui l di ng.
1-37. The stop box has a var i abl e tel escopi c l ength for use on di ffer ent
gr ades. When the water ser vi ce i s copper , joi n the cur b stop to the ser vi ce
pi pi ng wi th a compr essi on joi nt. After i nstal l i ng the cur b stop, run the water
servi ce l i ne to the bui l di ng and thr ough the bui l di ng wal l to the i nsi de of the
Figure 1-3. Curb and Meter Stops
Road Grade Meter stop
Shutoff (gate valve)
Building foundation
Curb
stop
Corporation
stop
Water main
Stop
box
FM 3-34.471
basement. The water servi ce l i ne can be l ai d i n the same trench as the sewer.
The bottom of the water pi pe at al l poi nts shoul d be at l east 12 i nches above
the top of the sewer l i ne. The water pi pe shoul d be pl aced on a sol i d shel f
excavated at one si de of the common trench wi th a mi ni mum cl ear hori zontal
di stance of at l east 12 i nches fr om the sewer l i ne. I t must be pl aced i n the
ground at a l evel deeper than the maxi mum depth of frost penetrati on.
METER AND METER STOP
1-38. After runni ng the water ser vi ce l i nes through the si de of the bui l di ng
and cl osi ng the hol es around the servi ce pi pe wi th waterproof cement, i nstal l
the water meter and meter stop.
Meter Stop
1-39. The meter stop i s a ground-joi nt val ve, whi ch control s and shuts off the
fl ow of water i nto the bui l di ng. Pl ace the meter stop as cl ose to the ser vi ce
pi pe entry as possi bl e.
Water Meter
1-40. The water meter , i nstal l ed near the meter stop, measur es the amount
of water used i n the bui l di ng.
1-41. Often the meter and stop are pl aced i n a meter vaul t that repl aces the
stop box at the cur b. I n thi s case, pl ace a stop-and-waste val ve i n the l i ne
where the water servi ce enters the bui l di ng.
HOT-WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
1-42. The hot-water system consi sts of a water heater and a pi pi ng system.
Thi s system r uns par al l el to the col d-water pi pes r unni ng to the pl umbi ng
fi xtur es (faucets) wher e hot water i s desi red. A standar d detai l dr awi ng wi l l
show the water heater and standar d stor age-tank connecti ons. The water
heater i s fuel ed by gas, oi l , el ectri ci ty, or possi bl y sol ar energy.
WATER HEATERS
1-43. Water heaters are cl assi fi ed i nto four categori es: range-boi l er , gas, oi l -
burni ng, and el ectri c. See Chapter 5for water heaters.
PIPE SELECTION
1-44. The pi pes used i n hot-water systems are si mi l ar to those used i n col d-
water suppl y systems. Ol d hot-water systems used wrought-i ron or steel pi pe.
Newer systems use chl ori nated pol yvi nyl chl or i de (CPVC) pl asti c pi pe, si nce
CPVC r esi sts cor r os i on . Copper i s the most common l y u sed pi pi n g for
di stri buti on.
PIPE SIZE
1-45. To si ze the hot-water mai n suppl y l i nes and the ri sers, fol l ow the same
procedure as for basi c water suppl y, paragraph 1-10, page1-2.
FM 3-34.471
INSTALLATION
1-46. I nstal l ati on begi ns wi th a water -heati ng devi ce and the mai n suppl y
l i ne fr om that devi ce. Gr ade the hot-water suppl y to a centr al l y l ocated dri p
cock near the water heater. Water for the fi xtures at vari ous l evel s throughout
the bui l di ng i s taken from the mai n hot-water suppl y by fi xture suppl y ri sers.
Each of the ri sers shoul d have a val ve.
ONE-PIPE SYSTEM
1-47. Bui l di ngs wi th a l arge fl oor area or wi th several fl oors need the suppl y
of hot water to the fi xture as soon as possi bl e after the tap i s opened. I n a one-
pi pe system, such as that used for col d-water suppl y, a l ag occur s fr om the
ti me the hot-water tap i s opened unti l the water tr avel s fr om the water -
heati ng devi ce to the tap.
TWO-PIPE SYSTEM
1-48. To over come thi s ti me l ag, use a two-pi pe, ci r cul ati ng-water suppl y
system (Figure1-4). Hot water passes from the water heater through the mai n
fi xtur e suppl y r i ser s and r etur ns thr ough a l i ne to the water heater . Thi s
l ooped system ci rcul ates the hot water at al l ti mes. Warm water tends to ri se
and col d water tends to fal l , creati ng ci rcul ati on. The water wi thi n the l oop i s
kept at a hi gh temperatur e. When a tap i s opened, hot water fl ows fr om the
hot-water suppl y ri ser i nto the branch and out of the tap. The col d-water fi l l er
wi thi n the hot-water storage tank (water heater) has a si phon hol e near the
top of the tank. I f r educed pressur e occur s at poi nt A, the si phon hol e al l ows
ai r to enter the col d-water fi l l er . Thi s br eaks the vacuum and pr events back
si phonage of hot water i nto the col d-water di stri buti on system.
1-50. Thi s ci r cul ati ng suppl y system (Figure1-4) i s an over head-feed and
gravi ty-return system and i s l i kel y to become ai r-l ocked. An ai r l ock prevents
ci r cul ati on of the hot water . Si nce ai r col l ects at the hi ghest poi nt (B) of the
di stri buti on pi pi ng, the most practi cal way to rel i eve the ai r l ock i s to connect
an unci r cul ated r i ser to the l i ne at that poi nt. The ai r l ock i s rel i eved when a
fi xture on the unci rcul ated ri ser i s used.
1-51. Mai ntenance and r epai r of hot-water systems i s si mi l ar to what was
previ ousl y di scussed. Refer to paragraphs 1-31, 1-32, and 1-33, page1-8.
FIRE-PROTECTION WATER SYSTEMS
FIRE HYDRANTS
1-52. Fi r e pr otecti on for bui l di ngs of fi re-r esi stant constr ucti on i s pr ovi ded
by fi re hydrants. These are usual l y l ocated at l east 50 feet from each bui l di ng
or from the water di stri buti on system wi thi n the bui l di ng.
FM 3-34.471
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER SYSTEMS
1-53. Automati c spri nkl er systems are used for fi re-resi stant structures onl y
when the val ue, the i mportance of the contents or acti vi ty, or the possi bi l i ty of
a fi r e hazar d justi fi es a spr i nkl er system. Bui l di ngs of fr ame and or di nar y
constr ucti on that ar e mor e than two stor i es hi gh and house tops wi l l be
protected by automati c spri nkl er systems.
1-54. I n a TO, there i s al ways a chance the Army may have to take over the
repai r and operati on of a muni ci pal water system. Al though most systems wi l l
be si mi l ar to those used i n the US, pr obl ems can be expected i n obtai ni ng
r epl acement par ts and oper ati ng suppl i es. Si zes and di mensi ons of basi c
components can be expected to di ffer fr om those i n the US and even r equi r e
the use of metr i c tool s. Al so, cer tai n nati ons may use di ffer ent di si nfecti ng
methods than chl ori ne. Under these ci rcumstances, the Army shoul d consi der
hi ri ng former l ocal empl oyees who are fami l i ar wi th the equi pment to operate
and mai ntai n the system.
Figure 1-4. Circulating Hot-Water System (Two-Pipe)
SECTION II - THEATER OF OPERATIONS WATER SUPPLY AND
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
1 - 4 9 .
B
Uncirculated riser
Draw taps
Flow
Siphonhole
in the pipe
Storage
Drain valve
Heater
Return
A
FM 3-34.471
WATER DISTRIBUTION METHODS
1-55. After water i s puri fi ed, i t i s rel eased i nto the di stri buti on system. The
di str i buti on of l ar ge quanti ti es of water under tacti cal condi ti ons wi l l be by
pi pel i nes, tr ucks car r yi ng bl adder s, and 5,000-gal l on tanker tr ucks. Smal l
quanti ti es can be pi cked up from tank farms or storage and di stri buti on poi nts
i n 400-gal l on water tr ai l er s or i n r efi l l abl e dr ums , 5-gal l on can s, an d
i ndi vi dual contai ners.
PLANS AND INSTALLATION
1-56. Appendix B, FigureB-1, shows a water di stri buti on system pl an for a
hospi tal area. The general l ocati on and si ze of the pi pes are shown, together
wi th the val ves, sumps, water tank, and other fi xtures. General l y, the symbol s
used on di str i buti on-system pl ans ar e the same as those for water pl umbi ng.
(See Appendix B, Section I I , for standar d pl umbi ng symbol s.) The pl umber
who i nstal l s the system deter mi nes the l ocati on of the pi pes and other
equi pment to sui t the cl i mate and ter r ai n, and accor di ng to the Nati onal
Pl umbi ng Codes.
DESIGN PROCEDURES
1-57. See Appendix E for water di str i buti on system desi gn pr ocedur es used
i n the TO.
1-58. A sewer age system consi sts of the pi pes and appar atus that car r y
sewage fr om bui l di ngs to the poi nt of di schar ge or di sposal . The system
i ncl udes sewer pi pe and condui ts, manhol es, fl ush tanks, and someti mes
stor m-dr ai n i nl ets. I f i t i s not ser ved by a pr ocessi ng pl ant, the system may
i ncl ude faci l i ti es for pumpi ng, treati ng, and di sposi ng of sewage. Roofs, i nner
cour ts, vents, shafts, l i ght wel l s, or si mi l ar ar eas havi ng r ai nwater dr ai ns
s h ou l d di s ch ar ge to th e ou ts i de of th e bu i l di n g or to th e gu tter . Get
admi ni strati ve approval before connecti ng to the drai nage system.
PLANS
1-59. Figure1-5shows a typi cal sewerage system and a drai n system.
SANITARY SEWER AND DRAINS
BUILDING DRAIN
1-60. The bui l di ng dr ai n r ecei ves the di schar ge of sani tar y and domesti c
wastes (or soi l and waste) from wi thi n the bui l di ng.
SECTION III - SEWERAGE SYSTEM
FM 3-34.471
HOUSE DRAIN
1-61. The house dr ai n i s l ocated between and i s connected to the bui l di ng
dr ai n and the house sewer . The house dr ai n, al so cal l ed the col l ecti on l i ne,
recei ves the di scharge of sani tary and domesti c wastes from the bui l di ng drai n
and carri es i t to the house sewer l i ne or pi pe, as shown i n Figure1-5. The house
drai n may be underground or suspended from the basement cei l i ng.
HOUSE SEWER
1-62. Th e h ou s e s ewer l i n e or pi pe begi n s j u s t ou ts i de th e bu i l di n g
foundati on wal l and ends at the mai n sewer l i ne or pi pe i n the str eet or at a
s epti c tan k (Fi gure 1-5). A h ou s e s ewer l i n e or pi pe car r i es l i qu i d or
water bor ne wastes fr om the house dr ai n to the mai n sewer l i nes. Sani tar y
sewers are not connected to the storm sewers, because the sani tary di scharge
must be treated before i t i s dumped i nto a stream or l ake.
STORMSEWER AND DRAIN
1-63. A stor m sewer l i ne or pi pe car r i es r ai n water and subsur face water .
Si nce the di scharge sewer i s runoff water, treatment i s not needed. The storm
Figure 1-5. Sewerage and Drain Systems
Roof drain
Roof drain
Sanitary sewer
Storm sewer
Sanitary and storm drains
Building drains
Cleanout
Grade
House drain House sewer
Main sewer
Adapter Sewer pipe
Elevation (profile) view
Sewerage system
Roof drain Roof drain
Waste pipe
Soil
pipes
FM 3-34.471
dr ai n r ecei ves stor m water , cl ear r ai n, or sur face-water waste onl y (Figure
1-5, page1-15).
INDUSTRIAL DRAIN
1-64. The i ndustri al dr ai n r ecei ves l i qui d waste fr om i ndustr i al operati ons.
However, thi s type of drai n i s of l i ttl e i mportance i n TO constructi on.
PIPES AND FITTINGS
1-65. The pi pes and fi tti ngs for sewer systems are standard to the Nati onal
Pl umbi ng Codes and general usage.
PIPE SELECTION
1-66. Cast-i ron soi l pi pe or pl asti c pi pe i s usual l y used for house sewers and
dr ai ns. Bi tumi nous-fi ber pi pe, when not pr ohi bi ted, may be substi tuted for
cast-i r on pi pe for the house sewer . Concr ete or vi tr i fi ed-cl ay pi pe i s found i n
ol der i nstal l ati ons.
Vitrified-Clay or ConcreteSewer Pipe
1-67. These pi pes ar e connected wi th r esi l i ent joi nts, usi ng a r ubber sl eeve
and/or ri gi d joi nts by compressi ng rubber or neoprene ri ngs. Vi tri fi ed-cl ay ti l e
i s hi ghl y resi stant to al l sewerage and i ndustr i al wastes. Concr ete pi pe may
be manufactur ed wi th steel r ei nforcement; i t comes i n di ameter s of 12 to 108
i nches.
Cast-Iron Soil Pipe
1-68. Cast-i ron soi l pi pe i s cl assi fi ed as fol l ows:
Hub-(or bel l -)and-spi got. Hub-and-spi got pi pe comes i n 5- and 10-foot
l engths (i n var i ous di ameter s). I t i s connected wi th l ead, oakum, or
mechani cal compressi on joi nts.
Hubl ess. Hubl ess pi pe comes i n 10-foot l engths (i n vari ous di ameters).
I t i s connected wi th a stai nl ess steel band over a neoprene sl eeve.
Plastic Pipe
1-69. Acryl oni tri l e butadi ene-styrene (ABS) i s gray or bl ack pl asti c pi pe used
for stor m or sani tar y dr ai nage, above and bel ow gr ound. I t i s connected wi th
sol vent-cement joi nts. Thi s pi pe comes i n 10- and 20-foot l engths i n var i ous
di ameters.
Cast-in-PlaceConcreteConduit (Tubeor Pipe)
1-70. Thi s condui t i s used when a pi pe l ar ger than 60 i nches i s needed to
i ncr ease the capaci ty i n a mai n, a tr unk, or an outfal l sewer. The dr ai ns ar e
arches or cul verts rei nforced wi th concrete.
FM 3-34.471
PIPE SIZE
1-71. Sewerage systems are usual l y constructed of pi pe rangi ng i n di ameter
fr om 2 to 36 i nches. Both the house sewer and the house dr ai n must be
l eakproof and l arge enough to carry off the di scharge of al l pl umbi ng fi xtures.
I f ei ther the sewer or the drai n i s too smal l , fi xtures may overfl ow. The house
sewer and house dr ai n ar e usual l y the same si ze. Waste matter i s for ced
thr ough the house dr ai npi pe by water . Ther efor e, the pi pe must be l ar ge
enough to carry out al l the water and waste di scharged through i t; but i t must
be smal l enough for the water to move r api dl y, forci ng the waste thr ough to
the sewer . A pi pe si zed to fl ow hal f ful l under nor mal use wi l l have good
scouri ng acti on and can carry peak l oads when requi red.
DrainageFixtureUnits (DFUs)
1-72. The di schar ge of a pl umbi ng fi xtur e i s fi gur ed i n DFUs. One DFU
r epr esents appr oxi matel y 7.5 gal l ons of water bei ng di schar ged per mi nute.
The DFUs for standard fi xtures are shown i n Table1-5.
1-73. For exampl e, assume that a pl umbi ng i nstal l ati on consi sts of 2 water
cl osets, 4 l avatori es, 2 shower heads, 3 uri nal s, 1 sl op si nk, 1 l aundry tub, and
1 fl oor drai n. Determi ne the di scharge i n DFUs from Table1-5. Assume that
the cast-i ron house drai n wi l l have a sl ope of 1/4 i nch per foot.
Step 1. Mul ti pl y the number of each fi xture by i ts DFU val ue from Table
1-5, for a total of 45 DFUs.
Step 2. Read down the 1/4 i nch col umn i n Table1-6, page1-18. The fi xture
uni t capaci ty next hi gher than 41 i s 96.
Step 3. Read hori zontal l y across to the l eft to 4 i nches.
1-74. As a resul t, the mi ni mum pi pe si ze requi red i s 4 i nches.
Table 1-5. DFU Values
Fixture Unit Value (DFUs)
Lavatory or washbasin 1
Floor drain 2
Kitchen sink 2
Bathtub 2
Laundry tub 2
Shower 2
Slop sink 3
Urinal 6
Water closet 6
FM 3-34.471
PipeCapacity
1-75. Tabl e 1-6 l i sts th e capaci ty (i n DFUs) of var i ou s pi pe s i zes for
hor i zontal dr ai ns. Thi s tabl e i s for cast-i r on soi l pi pe, gal vani zed-steel /i r on
pi pe, or pl asti c house dr ai ns, house sewer s, and soi l and waste br anches.
When usi ng copper tubi ng (dr ai n, waste, and vent (DWV) type) for above
ground onl y, i t may be one si ze smal l er than shown on the tabl e.
1-76. To fi nd the cor r ect si ze of the pi pe, pl an the sl ope of the pi pel i ne by
counti ng the total number of DFUs emptyi ng i nto a hori zontal drai n l i ne.
PIPE SUPPORT
1-77. A base of sol i d, undi sturbed ear th pr ovi des enough suppor t for house
sewer and drai n pi pi ng. Thi s prevents future settl i ng, whi ch mi ght cause the
wei ght of the pi pe secti ons to press too heavi l y on the joi nts. I f the soi l i s l oose,
each joi nt shoul d be supported on concrete, ci nder bl ock, or bri ck.
HOUSE SEWER
INSTALLATION
1-78. Usual l y the fi r st step i n i nstal l i ng the house sewer i s to connect the
sewer thi mbl e and then wor k back, gradi ng up to the house dr ai n. The hol e
cut i n the sewer must be no l arger than necessary to fi t the sewer thi mbl e. Al l
joi nts must be supported. The thi mbl e shoul d be tapped i n above the nor mal
Table 1-6. Horizontal Sanitary Drain Capacity (in DFUs)
Size of Pipe (in Inches)
Slope (Inches per Foot)
1/8 1/4
1 1/4
1 1/2
2
3
4
5
6
8
10
12
1
2
5
15**
84
162
300
990
1,800
3,084
1
2
6*
18*
96
216
450
1,392
2,520
4,320
*No water closet will discharge into a pipe smaller
than 3 inches (includes DWV-type copper tubing).
**No more than two water closets will discharge into
any 3-inch, horizontal-branch house drain or house
sewer.
FM 3-34.471
fl ow l evel . For exampl e, i f the str eet sewer i s 24 i nches i n di ameter and the
nor mal fl ow i s 50 per cent, the tap shoul d be at l east 12 i nches above the
bottom of the pi pe. I nstal l the thi mbl e wi th i ts di schar ge par al l el to the
di r ecti on of sewer fl ow. Thi s pr events backfl ow dur i ng per i ods of hi gh fl ow.
Use the fol l owi ng i nstal l ati on steps:
Step 1. Tap gentl y around the ci rcumference of the mai n sewer to fi nd the
depth of fl ow for pl aci ng the thi mbl e. A dul l sound resul ts from tappi ng bel ow
the sewer l evel , and a ri ngi ng sound resul ts from tappi ng above the sewer
l evel .
Step 2. Use the thi mbl e as a pattern for marki ng the si ze of the hol e wi th
chal k.
Step 3. Make the cut on thi s l i ne wi th a smal l , col d chi sel and an 8-ounce
bal l peen hammer, as shown i n Figure1-6. Use l i ght bl ows to prevent damage
to the mai n sewer.
Step 4. Work around the cut unti l a depth of 1/8 to 3/16 i nch i s reached.
Step 5. Make a smal l hol e i n the center of the area to be removed. Al ways
use l i ght bl ows.
Step 6. Enl arge the hol e i nto an oval shape as near the si ze of the sewer
thi mbl e as possi bl e. Try the thi mbl e i n the openi ng often to see i f i t wi l l fi t
wi thout enl argi ng the hol e.
Step 7. Pl ace the thi mbl e i n the proper posi ti on and pack oakum around the
edges of the fl ange.
Step 8. Compl ete the i nstal l ati on by packi ng a ri ch portl and cement mortar
(one part sand to one part cement) around the thi mbl e. Use enough mortar
under the thi mbl e, on the bottom of the tap, and on the top and si des. Support
the joi nt unti l the mortar sets.
NOTE: Thesystemmust betested after it is completed.
Figure 1-6. Cutting a Hole in the Main Sewer
FM 3-34.471
GRADING
1-79. When possi bl e, house sewers shoul d be graded to a sl ope of 1/4 i nch per
foot. Gr eater or l esser sl ope i s per mi tted when necessar y. Tr enches for house
sewers may be graded wi th surveyi ng i nstruments or wi th a carpenter's l evel
havi ng a ri si ng l eg or a board under one end. For exampl e, a 1/4-i nch-per-foot
sl ope woul d be 1/2 i nch for 2 feet usi ng a 2-foot car penter 's l evel wi th a 1/2-
i nch thi ck boar d under one end. I f the pi pe i s sl oped cor r ectl y, the l evel wi l l
r ead level anywher e on the pi pe except the hub. The dr ai n i s gr aded towar d
the mai n sewer wi th the hu b en d of the pi pe l yi n g u pgr ade. A si mi l ar
procedure uses an 8-foot board and a 4-foot l evel .
MANHOLES
1-80. Manh ol es ar e entr an ceway s to th e sewer sy stem (for cl ean i n g,
i nspecti on, and r epai r ). They ar e r ound and ar e constr ucted of cement wi th
br i ck-and-mor tar wal l s on a concr ete sl ab. A r emovabl e heavy l i d i n a cast-
i r on r i ng cl oses the top. Figure1-7, i s a secti on dr awi ng of a r ound manhol e.
The base sl ab sl opes fr om 10 to 9 i nches. The l i d i s 2 1/3 feet i n di ameter by
3 1/4 i nches thi ck. Ther e ar e thr ee shel ves ar ound the pi pes i n an openi ng
measur i ng 3 feet 6 i nches i n di ameter . (Pr ecast concr ete manhol es ar e
avai l abl e, but the mi l i tary pl umber rarel y i nstal l s thi s type.)
SEWAGE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS
GREASE TRAPS
1-81. Gr ease tr aps are pl aced i n the fl ow l i ne of the bui l di ngs sewer system
to catch grease and fats from ki tchen and scul l ery si nks. (Sol i d grease usual l y
cl ogs the waste pi pes.) The box-type tr aps ar e made of br i ck, concr ete, or
metal , i n vari ous shapes and si zes. The grease trap shoul d be set i n the waste
l i ne as cl ose as possi bl e to the fi xtur e. Figure1-8, shows baffl e wal l s, whi ch
control the fl ow. Baffl e wal l s ar e pl aced i n boxes to separ ate fl oati ng gr ease
parti cl es.
SEPTIC TANKS
1-82. A septi c tank speeds up the decay of r aw sewage (Figure 1-9, page
1-22). I t may be concrete, stone, or bri ck, i n box-secti on form. (Lumber i s used
when other mater i al s ar e not avai l abl e.) I t shoul d be waterti ght. The si phon
chamber makes cer tai n that l i qui d wi l l fl ow fr om the chamber ; however , the
si phon chamber i s not absol utel y necessary. The baffl e boards are usual l y 2-
DANGER
All underground plumbing must be laid at
least 12 inches from any underground
electrical cable. Failure to do so could
result in physical injury, death, and/or
destruction of equipment
FM 3-34.471
Figure 1-7. Round Manhole Construction
Figure 1-8. Grease Trap
Brick or concrete
Shelf
3 1/4"
2' X 4"
2'
10"
Variable
9"
3' 6"
diameter
Intercepted grease accumulating at surface
(entirely protected from turbulence)
Calm flow-through
intercepting chamber,
baffle
Turbulent incoming
liquids
Inlet
Sewer-clogging solids
Air-relief and siphon-preventing
bypass (optional) (baffle)
Outlet
Water flowing to
outlet
FM 3-34.471
i n ch oak pl an k s , wh i ch r u n en ti r el y acr os s th e tan k . Th e boar ds ar e
suspended fr om hanger s and extend sever al i nches bel ow the sur face of the
sewage. One boar d shoul d be l ocated 10 i nches fr om the inlet pi pe and the
other about 4 i nches from the outlet parti ti on. The septi c tank shoul d have a
manhol e and cover to gi ve access for cl eani ng and repai r. Septi c tanks must be
desi gned to hol d for 24 hour s and not l ess than 16 hour s, 70 per cent of the
peak water demand of that faci l i ty.
1-83. Figure1-10, shows a smal l sewerage system, whi ch i ncl udes the septi c
tank. The di str i buti on box, whi ch per mi ts equal fl ow to al l the l i nes of the
di sposal fi el d, can be ei ther wood, concr ete, or br i ck. The di ver si on gate i s
usual l y wood wi th a handl e sl ot, so i t can be moved to change the sewage fl ow.
Figure 1-9. Septic Tank
Screened vent
Manhole for
cleaning
Screened
vent
Inlet
Baffles
Scum
mat
Liquid
Overflow
pipe
Outlet
siphon
Dosing chamber (tank) Capacity is two-thirds of the
average daily flow
Detail of an adjustable board on the weir
NOTES:
1. Use the board cover only to retain heat in cold climates or to control fly nuisance.
2. When not required for dosing the tile drain system, the dosing chamber and siphon are
omitted.
4"
Sludge
FM 3-34.471
1-84. The system sh own i n Fi gure 1-10 uses both a septi c tan k and a
subsur face sand fi l ter to di spose of sewage. A pl umber needs both a pl an and a
profi l e (el evati on) vi ew of the system.
IMHOFF TANK
1-85. I f a septi c tank cannot handl e the l oad, an I mhoff tank may be used.
Figure1-11, page1-24, shows typi cal constr ucti on detai l s. When a treatment
pl ant i s r equi r ed, pl ans for a speci fi c si te shoul d be pr epar ed, taki ng i nto
account soi l condi ti ons and features of the l ands surface.
Figure 1-10. Small Sewerage System Plan
Main sewer line
Distribution box
Septic tank
Sand field
Tile pipe
FM 3-34.471
SEWAGE DISPOSAL FACILITIES
DRAINAGE BED
1-86. The subsur face system i s the most common type of dr ai nage bed. A
subsur face system i s used wher e space and soi l per mi t or wher e ther e i s no
str eam or pond near by. When l ayi ng the pi pi ng for a dr ai nage bed consi der
the
Lay of the l and (topography).
Depth of the potabl e water suppl y.
Locati on of surface l akes and streams.
Type of soi l .
Figure 1-11. Cross Sections of an Imhoff Tank
Wall ties
Upper
setting
chamber
Wood baffle
Effluent
chamber
Upper
setting
tank
Gate-
valve
box
Sludge
outlet,
4" pipe
4" sludge
pipe
Sloped bottom
Footing
Lower sludge
digestion
chamber
Pilaster
Longitudinal
slot
Sludge
FM 3-34.471
1-87. For exampl e, a subsurface i rri gati on system must handl e 2,000 gal l ons
per day (GPD), and the aver age ti me noted i n the soi l absor pti on test i s 10
mi nutes. From Table1-7, page1-26, thi s corresponds to 1.7 GPD per square
foot.
1-88. The l ength of pi pi ng i n a subsurface drai nage bed depends on the type
of soi l and the vol ume of l i qui d to be tr eated. Thi s i s deter mi ned by a soi l
per col ati on test (paragraph 1-91). To compute the l ength of the dr ai nage
l i nes, an aver age per col ati on r ate i s used. Table1-7, gi ves soi l absor pti on
rates of the drai nage l i nes.
1-89. The sol uti on woul d be (round up to the nearest 10 feet)--
1-90. I f tr enches ar e 18 i nches wi de (1.5 feet) (r ound up to the near est 10
feet)--
1-91. Another factor of l ayi ng pi pi ng for a drai nage bed i ncl udes performi ng
a soi l per col ati on test. Use the fol l owi ng steps to per for m thi s test (Figure
1-12, page1-26):
Step 1. Di g at l east si x test hol es, 1 foot squar e, to a depth equal of that of
the pl anned drai nage bed.
Step 2. Pl ace a 2-i nch l ayer of gravel i n the bottom of the hol es and fi l l the
hol es wi th water.
Step 3. Let the test hol es stand overni ght i f the soi l i s ti ght or has a heavy
cl ay content. I f the soi l i s sandy and the water di sappears rapi dl y, no soaki ng
peri od i s needed. Pour water i nto the hol es to a depth of 6 i nches above the
gravel . The batter board acts as a reference l i ne, and a rul er shoul d be used to
record the l evel of water i n the hol e bel ow the batter board.
Step 4. Measure the water every 10 mi nutes over a 30-mi nute peri od. The
drop i n water l evel duri ng the fi nal 10 mi nutes i s used to fi nd the percol ati on
r ate of the soi l .
Soi l that takes 30 mi nutes to absorb 1 i nch of water needs 4 feet of
drai nage for each gal l on of l i qui d.
I f a test hol e needs more than 30 mi nutes to absorb 1 i nch of water,
the soi l i s not sui tabl e for a subsurface-drai nage system.
LEACHING TANKS
1-92. Leachi ng tank s and cesspool s r ecei ve r aw sewage or septi c tank
overfl ow. They can be made of 4- by 4-i nch l umber or 5-i nch round ti mber. Dry
masonr y may be used for wal l constr ucti on when ti me and materi al s per mi t.
Figure1-13, page1-27, shows the desi gn for a smal l l eachi ng tank.
SAND-FILTER FIELDS
1-93. Pi pi ng of surface i rri gati on and subsurface sand fi l ter di sposal systems
i s i nstal l ed usi ng pl ans and pr ofi l es. The pl ans and pr ofi l es are based on the
2,000 GPD
1.7 GPD/sq ft
--------------------------------- 1,180 sq ft =
1,180 sq ft
1.5 sq ft
------------------------- 790 ft of trench and pipe =
FM 3-34.471
Figure 1-12. Soil Percolation Test
Table 1-7. Soil Absorption Rates of Drainage Lines
Absorption (GPD)
Time Required for Water
Level to Fall 1 Inch
(in minutes)
Per Square Foot of
Trench Bottom
in the Field
Per Square Foot of
Percolating Area in a
Leaching Tank
1 4.0 5.3
2 3.2 4.3
5 2.4 3.2
10 1.7 2.3
30 0.8 1.1
60 0.6 0.8
Measuring stick
Mark the lines here at
10-minute intervals
1'
2" layer of gravel
Batter board
Guideline
Water
surface
FM 3-34.471
area topography and a soi l percol ati on test. The smal l sewerage system shown
i n Figure1-10, page1-23, shows a sand fi l ter fi el d.
1-94. Water usage gener al l y r esul ts i n wastewater that r equi r es di sposal .
Dependi ng on the sour ce, wastewater may contai n suspended sol i ds and
par ti cu l ate matter , or gan i c mater i al , di s s ol v ed s al ts , bi ol ogi cal an d
pathogeni c or gani sms, and toxi c chemi cal s. The vol ume of wastewater al one
can cause si gni fi cant probl ems i n the fi el d.
POLICY
1-95. Ar my pol i cy di r ects that wastewater and water bor ne wastes be
col l ected and di sposed of i n a manner that pr otects water r esour ces and
pr eser ves publ i c heal th. These pr ocedur es must have a mi ni mal i mpact on
uni t r eadi ness. The Ar my i s requi r ed to compl y wi th feder al , state, and l ocal
envi r onmental pol l uti on and wastewater l aws on US ter r i tor y. (For mor e
i nfor mati on about US l aws and r egul ati ons, r efer to Training Circular (TC)
5-400.) Whi l e i n other countr i es, uni ts may have to compl y wi th the host
Figure 1-13. Design for a Leaching Tank
SECTION IV - WASTEWATER
Wood or concrete
Stone wall
Footing
Earth bottom
1' minimum
Crushed stone
or gravel
Water line
Intake
6" to 8"
Use at least 8" of soiled earth or 6"
of tightly compacted damp clay for
cover in hot climates.
Grade
Minimum depth, 5'
FM 3-34.471
nati on's l aws and procedur es as determi ned by the theater commander . I n a
tr ue conti ngency oper ati on, the theater commander deter mi nes i f l ocal
envi r onmental l aws appl y i n the ar ea of oper ati on. Regar dl ess of l aws and
r egul ati ons, pr oper wastewater di sposal i s essenti al to pr otect the heal th of
the for ce. Pr oper di sposal pr events the contami nati on of water suppl i es and
devel opment of rodent and i nsect breedi ng si tes. Large vol umes of wastewater
may i mpact on uni t oper ati ons and hel p the enemy l ocate and i denti fy the
uni t.
RESPONSIBILITIES
1-96. Uni ts i n the fi el d ar e r esponsi bl e for col l ecti ng and di sposi ng of the
wastewater they gener ate. Lar ge-vol ume wastewater pr oducer s, such as
hospi tal s, normal l y requi re engi neer support. I n the conti nental US (CONUS),
thi s suppor t usual l y comes fr om i nstal l ati on faci l i ty engi neer s. The pr efer r ed
method for wastes di sposal i s thr ough contr actor s when they ar e avai l abl e.
Theater combat engi neer s pr ovi de thi s suppor t dur i ng depl oyments and
con ti n gen cy oper ati on s ou ts i de th e con ti n en tal US (OCONUS) wh en
contr actor s ar e unavai l abl e or when the mi ssi on di ctates. I n any event, the
commander i s responsi bl e for coordi nati ng proper wastewater di sposal .
CONSIDERATION FACTORS
1-97. The method of wastewater col l ecti on, treatment, and ul ti mate di sposal
depends on a number of factors i ncl udi ng the fol l owi ng:
The vol ume and characteri sti cs of the wastewater.
Operati onal consi derati ons (l ength of stay at a gi ven si te, i ntensi ty of
combat and such).
Geol ogi cal condi ti ons (terrai n type, soi l characteri sti cs, and
groundwater-tabl e depth).
Cl i mati c condi ti ons.
Engi neer support avai l abl e.
The accessi bi l i ty of i nstal l ati on and fi xed sewage col l ecti on,
treatment, and di sposal systems.
The appl i cabi l i ty of envi ronmental regul ati ons.
COLLECTION
1-98. Base camps produce si gni fi cant vol umes of wastewater i n r el ati on to
the vol ume of water consumed. No defi ni ti ve studi es have been done to
quanti fy the vol ume of wastewater gener ated by the var i ous base camps. A
conser vati ve esti mate for pl anni ng pur poses i s that about 80 per cent of al l
water u s ed for pu r pos es oth er th an h u man con s u mpti on en ds u p as
wastewater. The l argest vol ume of fi el d wastewater i s generated by l aundri es,
showers, and ki tchens. Whi l e thi s wastewater i s not uni que to base camps, i t
contri butes to the total vol ume requi ri ng col l ecti on and di sposal .
FM 3-34.471
FIELD SHOWERS
1-99. Fi el d shower s ar e gener al l y col l ocated wi th a base camp to suppor t
both r esi dents and tr ansi ents. Quar ter master per sonnel oper ati ng the
showers are responsi bl e for col l ecti ng and di sposi ng of shower wastewater. I n
some cases, thi s di sposal may be i n conjuncti on wi th that of the base camp.
When possi bl e, uni ts shoul d consi der recycl i ng shower and l aundr y water to
reduce the vol ume requi ri ng di sposal .
FIELD LAUNDRIES
1-100. Fi el d l aundri es may al so be col l ocated wi thi n the base camp. They are
the l ar gest sour ce of wastewater . As wi th shower s, quar ter master per sonnel
oper ati ng the l aun dr i es ar e r esponsi bl e for wastewater col l ecti on and
di sposal . When possi bl e, uni ts shoul d r ecycl e l aundr y water to r educe the
vol ume requi ri ng di sposal .
FIELD KITCHENS
1-101. The base camp's di ni ng and food sani tati on center s are a si gni fi cant
sour ce of wastewater . I n addi ti on to vol ume, gr ease and par ti cul ate matter
pr esent a compl i cati ng factor . As such, gr ease tr aps must be constr ucted to
r emove food par ti cl es and gr ease befor e col l ecti ng and di sposi ng of the
wastewater . Desi gn cr i ter i a for gr ease traps ar e outl i ned i n Section VI I I , page
1-44, of thi s chapter.
DISPOSAL
1-102. The wastewater di sposal method depends on the factor s l i sted i n
paragraph 1-97, page1-28. The fol l owi ng opti ons shoul d be consi dered i n each
case:
Connecti on to an establ i shed i nstal l ati on sani tary sewer system.
Col l ecti on and retenti on of wastewater for engi neer/contractor
removal to a fi xed treatment faci l i ty.
Engi neer constructi on of semi permanent wastewater col l ecti on and
di sposal systems.
Use of a fi el d expedi ent wastewater di sposal system, i f avai l abl e.
FIXED FACILITIES
1-103. Exi sti ng i nstal l ati on di sposal faci l i ti es shoul d be used i n most
tr ai ni ng scenar i os i n the CONUS. Thi s al so hol ds tr ue for many noncombat
operati ons outsi de the OCONUS, especi al l y i n devel oped countri es. A poi nt of
contact (POC) shoul d be establ i shed wi th the host nati on, vi a joi nt task forces
(JTF) or ci vi l affai rs. I n some operati ons, prepl anned base camp si tes can take
advantage of l ocal sewer systems. Faci l i ty engi neer assi stance i s needed to
make the requi r ed connecti ons and access the system. Pr etr eatment wi l l not
be r equi red si nce the composi ti on of wastewater i s roughl y equi val ent to that
of a fi xed i nstal l ati on. Grease traps or fi l ters may be requi red i n areas, such as
the di ni ng-faci l i ty str eam, to r emove gr ease and parti cul ate matter because
they coul d affect the operati on of the wastewater pumps.
FM 3-34.471
1-104. I f the i nstal l ati on sewer system i s unavai l abl e, col l ect the wastewater
i n contai ners, such as expandabl e pi l l ow tanks or dr ums. The contai ners can
be moved to a sewage-treatment pl ant or a sani tary sewer access by engi neers
or contr actor s. Stor age contai ner s, wastewater tank tr ucks, and pumps ar e
not standard equi pment so thi s opti on requi r es extensi ve pr i or pl anni ng and
coordi nati on.
1-105. Semi per manent col l ecti on, tr eatment, and di sposal faci l i ti es may be
possi bl e i n permanent trai ni ng si tes and pr epl anned depl oyment si tes. Smal l
package pl ants are al so avai l abl e as l i sted i n the Army Faci l i ti es Components
System (AFCS). Extensi ve constructi on engi neer support i s requi red to bui l d
and mai ntai n such systems.
FIELD FACILITIES
1-106. Actual fi el d expedi ent di sposal methods may not be per mi tted i n
tr ai n i n g ar eas i n th e CONUS or mos t dev el oped cou n tr i es . Howev er ,
per sonnel must know how to constr uct and oper ate these fi el d expedi ent
methods wi th l i mi ted or nonexi stent engi neer suppor t. Obvi ousl y, some
engi neer suppor t i s al most al ways needed. Ear thmovi ng equi pment may be
necessar y due to the vol ume of wastewater gener ated. Thi s suppor t must be
i ncl uded i n si te- preparati on pl anni ng.
1-107. Tradi ti onal fi el d expedi ent di sposal methods consi st of soakage pi ts,
soakage trenches, and/or evaporati on beds. The effecti veness of these methods
depends on geol ogi cal condi ti ons, soi l composi ti on, and the cl i mate. These
devi ces, especi al l y soakage pi ts, are general l y constructed for smal l vol umes of
wastewater . Wi th pr oper desi gn and operati on, they can be effecti ve for l ar ger
vol umes of watewater . Si nce these methods r esul t i n fi nal di sposal , some
wastewater pr etr eatment may be necessar y to r emove gr ease, par ti cul ate
matter , and or gani c mater i al . Desi gn and constr ucti on cr i ter a for these
devi ces ar e outl i ned i n Section VI I I , page44. Gui dance i s al so avai l abl e from
supporti ng engi neers and preventi ve-medi ci ne personnel . These methods are
gener al l y appr opr i ate for shor t per i ods onl y, so consi der the al ter nati ves i n
paragraph 1-103, page1-29 when occupyi ng the same si te for more than two
weeks.
1-108. Soakage or evaporati on may be i mpossi bl e i n arcti c envi ronments, or
under certai n geol ogi cal or cl i mati c condi ti ons. The onl y al ternati ve may be to
col l ect wastewater i n tanks or drums for removal by engi neers or contractors.
As i n paragraph 1-103, thi s opti on r equi r es extensi ve pr i or pl anni ng and
coordi nati on.
1-109. Proper human waste di sposal (feces and uri ne) i s essenti al to prevent
the spr ead of di seases caused by di r ect contact, water contami nati on, or
di ssemi nati on by rodents and i nsects. Proper di sposal i s cri ti cal because many
di sease organi sms are transmi tted through feces.
SECTION V - HUMAN WASTE
FM 3-34.471
POLICY
1-110. Ar my pol i cy di r ects that human waste be di sposed of wi th good
sani tar y pr acti ces; and the Ar my must compl y wi th feder al , state, and l ocal
envi ronmental l aws for human waste. (For more i nformati on on US l aws and
regul ati ons, see TC 3-34.489 and FM 3-100.4.) Few l aws speci fi cal l y address
human waste di sposal i n the fi el d; neverthel ess, proper human waste di sposal
i s essenti al and requi res command emphasi s at al l l evel s.
RESPONSIBILITIES
1-111. At i n s tal l ati on l ev el , faci l i ty en gi n eer s a r e r es pon s i bl e f or
constructi ng, mai ntai ni ng, and operati ng fi xed sewage systems. Commanders
ar e r esponsi bl e for pr ovi di ng human waste di sposal faci l i ti es i n the fi el d.
Engi neer suppor t may be r equi r ed to constr uct some types of fi el d di sposal
devi ces.
FIELD EXPEDIENT FACILITIES
1-112. The type of fi el d l atr i ne sel ected for a gi ven si tuati on depends on a
number of factor sthe number of per sonnel , the dur ati on of the stay at the
si te, and geol ogi cal and cl i mati c condi ti ons. Pr eventi ve-medi ci ne per sonnel
and the uni t's fi el d sani tati on team can hel p deter mi ne the r i ght type,
l ocati on, number , and si ze of l atr i nes. Speci fi c gui dance on sel ecti ng and
constructi ng fi el d expedi ent faci l i ti es i s di scussed i n Section VI I , page1-34.
1-113. The l ocati ons of base camp l atr i nes ar e a compr omi se between the
r equi r ement for separ ati on fr om di ni ng faci l i ti es and water sour ces and
conveni ence for per sonnel . Mul ti pl e l atr i ne si tes ar e cl ear l y necessar y for
l arger base camps. Sani tati on and mai ntenance are cri ti cal to prevent di sease
tr ansmi ssi on to and fr om per sonnel . An i mpor tant factor i s the r equi rement
for hand-washi ng faci l i ti es adjacent to each l atri ne. Cl ose and mar k l atr i nes
accor di ng to the l ocal pol i cy and good fi el d sani tati on practi ces (paragraph 1-
132, page1-35).
FIXED AND INSTALLATION FACILITIES
1-114. As di scussed i n paragraph 1-102, page1-29, the constructi on and use
of fi el d expedi ent faci l i ti es may be prohi bi ted. I n such cases, the onl y opti on i s
to get support from the i nstal l ati on faci l i ty engi neer and/or contractor.
1-115. The pr efer r ed opti on i s to establ i sh the base camp i n an ar ea wi th
l atr i ne faci l i ti es al r eady i n pl ace and connected to a i nstal l ati on sewage
system. Thi s may be possi bl e i n per manent tr ai ni ng ar eas or pr edesi gnated
depl oyment si tes. An al ternate opti on i s the engi neer constructi on of a stand-
al one sewage system and fi xed l atr i nes. Agai n, thi s may be possi bl e i n
predesi gnated trai ni ng areas or depl oyment si tes.
1-116. An opti on commonl y used i s contr act-suppor ted l atr i ne faci l i ti es.
These i ncl ude chemi cal toi l ets or sel f-contai ned vaul t toi l ets. The contractor i s
FM 3-34.471
r esponsi bl e for emptyi ng the contents on a schedul ed basi s. Contr actor s may
be the onl y opti on avai l abl e due to l ocal regul ati ons and pol i ci es.
1-117. The accumul ati on and di sposal of sol i d waste i s a major pr obl em on
the moder n battl efi el d. Not onl y does the sol i d waste i mpact on mi l i tar y
operati ons, i t may al so contri bute to envi ronmental contami nati on and i t may
serve as breedi ng si tes for rodents and i nsects.
POLICY
1-118. Army pol i cy di rects that al l sol i d and hazardous waste be di sposed of
i n an envi r onmental l y acceptabl e manner . Di sposal must be consi stent wi th
good sani tary engi neeri ng pri nci pl es and mi ssi on accompl i shment. The Army
i s r equi r ed to compl y wi th feder al , state, and l ocal r equi r ements for the
col l ecti on and di sposal of sol i d waste. Most l egi sl ati on i s not speci fi cal l y
ori ented toward a fi el d envi ronment. The Ar my adopts federal l aws that deal
wi th sol i d and hazardous wastes as expl ai ned i n TC 3-34.489 and FM 3-100.4.
The theater commander deter mi nes the appl i cabi l i ty of both US and host-
nati on r egul ati ons and pol i ci es. Pr oper waste di sposal i s r equi r ed to pr otect
the heal th of the force.
RESPONSIBILITIES
1-119. Dependi ng on the natur e and vol ume of waste, gener ati ng uni ts are
gener al l y r esponsi bl e for i ts col l ecti on and di sposal . Cer tai n types of waste
requi re speci al handl i ng that may be beyond the uni t's capabi l i ty. Large waste
gener ator s, such as hospi tal s, may not have the r esour ces or equi pment to
pr oper l y di spose of al l the sol i d waste. I n these cases, i nstal l ati on faci l i ty
engi neer s or theater engi neer s ar e r esponsi bl e for sol i d-waste di sposal
support.
DISPOSAL
1-120. Sol i d waste i s not uni que to the base camp. The pr i mar y sour ces of
s ol i d was te ar e r ou ti n e tr oop-s u ppor t, mai n ten an ce, an d motor pool
oper ati ons; admi ni str ati ve functi ons; and medi cal and di ni ng faci l i ti es. A
major effort must be made to reduce the amount of waste generated. Thi s i n
turn wi l l reduce the burden on di sposal systems. Di sposal methods depend on
i nstal l ati on or host nati on requi rements. Most sol i d wastes can be transported
to a di sposal poi nt i n uni t or contr act vehi cl es. I n most cases, the vol ume of
waste al one i s an operati onal concern. Wi th pri or approval , smal l amounts of
some sol i d wastes may be burned usi ng fi el d expedi ent i nci nerators.
SECTION VI - SOLID WASTE
FM 3-34.471
GENERAL WASTE
1-121. Was tes th at ar e n ot s peci fi cal l y cl as s i fi ed as petr ol eu m,oi l s ,
l ubr i cants (POL), hazar dous, or medi cal waste ar e consi der ed gener al waste.
General wastes i ncl ude
Paper and pl asti c products (the most abundant sol i d waste generated
i n the fi el d).
Food and garbage generated by di ni ng faci l i ti es.
Scrap materi al (wood, metal ).
1-122. Speci al consi der ati on must be gi ven to r otti ng waste fr om di ni ng
faci l i ti es. I t may not be hazardous or i nfecti ous, but i t may pr esent a seri ous
aestheti c probl em and become a breedi ng si te for di sease-carryi ng rodents and
i nsects. Rotti ng waste must be removed and di sposed of as soon as possi bl e,
especi al l y i n warmer weather. Buri al , i f permi tted, must not be i n the vi ci ni ty
of the i mmedi ate base camp. General waste i s normal l y di sposed of thr ough
l andfi l l oper ati ons. I nstal l ati on faci l i ty engi neer s or theater engi neer s ar e
responsi bl e for constructi ng and operati ng these l andfi l l s.
POL WASTE
1-123. Thi s waste consi sts of al l used oi l and POL pr oducts (i ncl udi ng fuel
and petr ol eum der i vati ves and asphal t pr oducts). The pr oducts may be
cl assi fi ed as hazar dous waste i f they become mi xed wi th water or soi l .
Pr odu cts ar e s epar ated an d s tor ed i n appr opr i ate con tai n er s an d th e
contai ners are di sposed of through contractors or retrograde operati ons.
HAZARDOUS WASTE
1-124. Cer tai n types of sol i d waste (especi al l y chemi cal s) ar e cl assi fi ed as
hazar dous waste. Exampl es i ncl ude sol vents, pai nts, and cl eaner s. These
p r od u cts r equ i r e s p eci a l h a n d l i n g, t r a n s p or ta ti on , d i s p os a l , a n d
documentati on. Hazar dous wastes ar e stor ed i n appropr i ate contai ner s, and
the contai ner s are di sposed of thr ough contractor s or retr ogr ade operati ons.
Engi neer s and pr eventi ve-medi ci ne per sonnel can pr ovi de gui dance and
assi stance on hazardous-waste di sposal . (See TC 3-34.489 and FM 3-100.4 for
more i nformati on on hazardous waste.)
MEDICAL WASTE
1-125. Medi cal waste i s any waste that i s generated by a heal th-care faci l i ty
and that i s capabl e of produci ng i nfecti ous di seases. For waste to be i nfecti ous,
i t must contai n or potenti al l y contai n pathogens of suffi ci ent quanti ty/
vi r ul ence to r esul t i n an i nfecti ous di sease i n a ssql e host. Medi cal wastes
shoul d be di sposed of thr ough contr actor s, but they can be i nci ner ated i n
cer tai n cases. (See TC 3-34.489 and FM 3-100.4 for mor e i nfor mati on on
medi cal waste.)
FM 3-34.471
1-126. Du r i n g war ti me, comman der s mu st ex er ci s e a h i gh degr ee of
r esou r ceful ness. When adequ ate bui l di ngs and faci l i ti es ar e avai l abl e,
commanders must determi ne whether the added heal th benefi ts of usi ng such
faci l i ti es offsets tacti cal con si der ati on s. Wh en adequ ate faci l i ti es ar e
unavai l abl e or the commanders choose not to use them, i mprovi sed faci l i ti es
must be constructed to ensure the mai ntenance of proper sani tary standards.
The devi ces di scussed i n thi s secti on can be si mpl y constr ucted and they
provi de adequate sani tati on.
CONSTRUCTING AND CLOSING LATRINES
1-127. The fol l owi ng general rul es appl y to constructi ng al l types of l atri nes,
except cathol es (paragraph 1-133).
LOCATION
1-128. To ensur e that food and water ar e pr otected fr om contami nati on,
l atri nes shoul d be at l east 100 yards from the di ni ng faci l i ty and 100 feet from
the near est water sour ce. Latr i nes shoul d not be dug bel ow the groundwater
tabl e or wher e they may dr ai n i nto a water sour ce. (The gr oundwater tabl e
can be deter mi ned fr om i nfor mati on gi ven by l ocal i nhabi tants or excavati ng
to the gr oundwater tabl e.) Latr i nes ar e usual l y bui l t at l east 30 yar ds fr om
the end of the uni t area but wi thi n a reasonabl e di stance for easy access. They
shoul d be l i ghted at ni ght i f the mi l i tary si tuati on permi ts. I f l i ghts cannot be
used, ti e pi eces of cor d or tape to trees or stakes as gui des to the l atr i nes.
SCREENING
1-129. Pl ace a canvas or br ush scr een around each l atr i ne or encl ose i t i n a
tent. I f possi bl e, heat the shel ter i n col d cl i mates. Di g a drai nage di tch around
the scr een or tent to pr event water fr om fl owi ng over the gr ound i nto the
l atr i ne. For fl y contr ol , spray the shel ter wi th an i nsecti ci de twi ce a week. I f
fl y pr obl ems per si sts, spr ay the pi t contents and box i nter i or twi ce a week
wi th a resi dual i nsecti ci de.
HAND-WASHING DEVICE
1-130. I nstal l a si mpl e hand-washi ng devi ce outsi de each l atri ne. The devi ce
s h ou l d be eas y to oper ate an d h av e a con s tan t s u ppl y of water . Th e
i mpor tance of hand-washi ng devi ces must be gi ven aggr essi ve emphasi s.
Hands contami nated wi th fecal mater i al ar e a common means of di sease
transmi ssi on.
POLICING
1-131. Pol i ce th e l atr i n es dai l y . As s i gn s peci fi c u n i t per s on n el th e
responsi bi l i ty of ensuri ng that the l atri nes are properl y mai ntai ned.
SECTION VII - HUMAN WASTE DISPOSAL IN THE FIELD
FM 3-34.471
CLOSING
1-132. Cl ose a l atr i ne pi t when i t i s fi l l ed to wi thi n 1 foot of the sur face or
when i t i s bei ng abandoned. Remove the l atri ne box and cl ose as fol l ows:
Fi l l the pi t to the surface wi th successi ve, 3-i nch l ayers of earth. Pack
each l ayer down.
Pl ace a l -foot mound of di rt over the l ength of the pi t to prevent fl y
pupa from getti ng out of the cl osed l atri ne.
Pl ace a rectangul ar si gn on top of the mound. The si gn shoul d i ndi cate
the type of pi t and the date cl osed; i ncl ude the uni t desi gnati on i n
nonoperati onal areas.
CATHOLE LATRINE
1-133. The si mpl est of al l fi el d human waste di sposal devi ces i s the cathol e
l atr i ne (Figure1-14). Thi s l atr i ne i s used by i ndi vi dual s on the mar ch and
patr ol . I t i s al so used i n si mi l ar si tuati ons wher e l atr i ne faci l i ti es ar e not
avai l abl e. A cathol e l atri ne shoul d be dug at l east 1 foot wi de and 1 foot deep.
After use, repl ace and repack the soi l .
Figure 1-14. Cathole Latrine
The hole is 1' wide and 1' deep.
Entrenching tool
FM 3-34.471
STRADDLE-TRENCH LATRINE
1-134. The most common type of l atr i ne for tempor ar y (one to thr ee days)
bi vouacs i s the straddl e-trench l atri ne (Figure1-15). A straddl e-trench l atri ne
i s dug 1 foot wi de, 2 1/2 feet deep, and 4 feet l ong. I t wi l l accommodate two
peopl e at the same ti me. Provi de straddl e trenches to serve at l east 4 percent
of the uni t's mal e str ength and 6 per cent of the femal e strength. Thus, for a
uni t of 100 men and 100 women, at l east four l atri nes are needed for the men
and si x for the women. Pl ace the trenches at l east 2 feet apar t. Ther e ar e no
seats wi th thi s type of l atr i ne. Boar ds may be pl aced al ong both si des of the
tr ench to pr ovi de better footi ng. Pl ace toi l et paper on a sui tabl e hol der .
Pr otect i t fr om bad weather by cover i ng i t wi th a ti n can or other cover i ng.
Remove the earth and pi l e i t at the end of the trench so that each i ndi vi dual
can pr oper l y cover hi s excr eta and toi l et paper . Cl ose the saddl e-tr ench
l atri nes as descri bed i n paragraph 1-132, page1-35.
DEEP-PIT LATRINE
1-135. The deep-pi t l atr i ne i s used wi th a l atr i ne box (Figure 1-16). The
standar d l atri ne box has four seats, and i s 8 feet l ong and 2 1/2 feet wi de at
the base. A uni t of 100 men r equi r es two four -seat l atr i ne boxes. Cover the
Figure 1-15. Saddle-Trench Latrine with a Hand-Washing Device
Toilet paper holder
with paper
1" x 4" planks
optional could be
replaced by flat rocks
1
'
Excavated dirt
used for covering
2 1/2'
Protective can
for toilet paper
4
'
FM 3-34.471
hol es wi th fl yproof, sel f-cl osi ng l i ds. Fl yproof the cracks wi th stri ps of wood or
ti n. Pl ace a metal defl ector (can be made wi th a fl attened can) i nsi de the front
of the box to pr event ur i ne from soaki ng i nto the wood.
1-136. Di g the pi t about 2 feet wi de and 7 1/2 feet l ong. Thi s wi l l gi ve the
l atri ne box 3 i nches of support on al l si des. The depth of the pi t depends on the
esti mated l ength of ti me the l atr i ne i s to be used. As a r ough gui de, al l ow a
depth of 1 foot for each week of esti mated use, pl us 1 foot for the di r t cover
when cl osed. Rock or hi gh groundwater l evel s often l i mi t the depth of the pi t,
but i t shoul d be no deeper than 6 feet. Support may be needed i n some types of
soi l to pr event the si des fr om col l apsi ng. I f so, use pl anki ng or a si mi l ar
mater i al . Pack the ear th ti ghtl y ar ound the bottom edges of the box to seal
any openi ngs through whi ch fl i es mi ght enter.
1-137. To pr event fl i es from br eedi ng and to reduce odor s, keep the l atr i ne
box cl ean, the seat l i ds cl osed, and the cr acks seal ed. Mai ntai n a good fl y
contr ol pr ogr am i n the ar ea. Appl yi ng l i me to the pi t contents or bur ni ng i t
does not effecti vel y contr ol fl i es or odor . Scrub the box and l atr i ne seats wi th
soap and water dai l y. Cl ose deep-pi t l atri nes as descri bed i n paragraph 1-132,
page1-35.
BORED-HOLE LATRINE
1-138. A bor ed-hol e l atr i ne consi sts of a hol e that i s about 18 i nches i n
di ameter and 15 to 20 feet deep. I t i s cover ed by a one-hol e l atr i ne box
Figure 1-16. Deep-Pit Latrine
Should include toilet paper holders with covers
Demonstration urine
deflection strip: sheet metal,
or a flattened can
Hole approximately
9" x 12"
ellipse
Handle
improvised
hinge
Stopblock
2" x 4"
2 1/2'
2'
6"
Lid
7 1/2'
8'
6'
Slightly beveled
18"
FM 3-34.471
(Fi gure1-17). The actual di ameter i s not cr i ti cal , so mak e i t as l ar ge as
avai l abl e augers permi t. Si nk a covered metal drum i nto the ground for use as
a box. Remove both ends of the dr um. Make a fl yproof seat cover wi th a sel f-
cl osi ng l i d to fi t the top of the dr um. I f a dr um i s not avai l abl e, constr uct a
fl yproof, wooden box that i s 18 i nches hi gh. A bored-hol e l atri ne i s sati sfactory
for smal l uni ts.
LATRINES IN AREAS WITH HIGH GROUNDWATER TABLES
1-139. The fol l owi ng l atr i nes ar e l i mi ted to ar eas wher e the gr oundwater
tabl e i s deep enough to prevent groundwater contami nati on or water standi ng
i n the l atr i ne pi t. They ar e al so l i mi ted to ar eas that ar e fr ee of i mper vi ous
r ock for mati ons near the sur face. Sever al al ter nati ves ar e avai l abl e for
l ocati ons where a hi gh groundwater tabl e or a rock formati on near the surface
prevents di ggi ng a pi t of adequate depth.
MOUND LATRINE
1-140. A di rt mound makes i t possi bl e to bui l d a deep-pi t l atri ne wi thout the
pi t extendi ng i nto water or r ock (Figure1-18). Constr uct a mound of ear th
Figure 1-17. Bored-Hole Latrine
The drum is sunken to
allow an 18" extension
above the ground surface.
A wooden box may be
substituted for the barrel
Bottom
removed
Slope for urine and
feces deflection
Handle
Stop block
Hinge
Standard hole
12"
1 1/2"
Flyproof lid
15' - 20'
FM 3-34.471
that i s at l east 6 feet wi de and 12 feet l ong. I t must be abl e to support a four-
hol e l atr i ne box. The mound shoul d be hi gh enough to meet the pi t's depth
r equi rement. Al l ow 1 foot fr om the base of the pi t to the water or r ock l evel .
Break up or pl ow the area where i t i s to be pl aced to ai d i n seepage of l i qui ds
from the pi t. I f ti mber i s avai l abl e, bui l d a cri b of desi red hei ght to encl ose the
pi t and support the l atri ne box. Bui l d the mound and compact i t i n successi ve
l -foot l ayer s to the top of the cr i b as shown i n Fi gure 1-18. Roughen the
surface of each l ayer before addi ng the next. I f ti mber for a cri b i s unavai l abl e,
construct the mound to the desi red hei ght i n l -foot l ayers as descri bed and di g
the pi t i nto the mound. I t may be necessar y to br ace the wal l s wi th wood,
sandbags, or other mater i al to pr event them fr om col l apsi ng. Fl ypr oof and
encl ose a mound l atr i ne the same as a deep-pi t l atr i ne (paragraphs 1-135,
1-136, and 1-137, pages 1-36 and 1-37).
NOTE: The size of the mound base depends on the type of soil in the
area. Make the mound larger if the slope is steep. Also, it may be
necessary to build steps up a steep slope.
BURN-OUT LATRINE
1-141. A bur n-out l atri ne i s parti cul arl y sui tabl e for jungl e ar eas wi th hi gh
gr oundwater tabl es (Figure1-19, page1-40). I t has been extr emel y useful i n
the past. Ensure that the burni ng l ocati on i s downwi nd of the base camp. For
a uni t of 100 men and 100 women, at l east ei ght men's l atr i nes and ei ght
women's l atri nes are needed.
1-142. Pl ace a 55-gal l on dr um i n the gr ound. Leave enough of the dr um
above the gr ound for a comfor tabl e si tti ng hei ght. The dr um may be cut i n
hal f, maki ng two l atri nes of l ess capaci ty. Pl ace a wooden seat wi th a fl yproof,
sel f-cl osi ng l i d on top of the dr um. Wel d handl es to the si des of the dr um,
al l owi ng two men to car r y the dr um wi th ease, because i t must be moved
before the contents are burned out. Have two sets of drums, i f possi bl e, so one
set can be used whi l e the other set i s bei ng bur ned out. Encour age mal e
Figure 1-18. Mounded Latrine
Handle
Stop block
Height of mound
is dependent on
the depth of the
pit desired
May be lumber, logs, or any
other suitable material
2'
Box: Same as for the pit latrine
Length of mound
for a 4-seat latrine
Opening for
demonstration
purpose
G
ro
u
n
d
le
v
e
l
2 1/2'
5'
2'
Mound: Well-packed
soil in 1' layers
18"
1
2
'
FM 3-34.471
personnel to uri nate i n a uri ne di sposal faci l i ty (paragraph 1-145) rather than
a bur n-out l atr i ne because more fuel i s r equi red to bur n out a l atr i ne wi th a
l i qui d content.
1-143. Burn out the l atri ne dai l y by addi ng suffi ci ent fuel to i nci ner ate the
fecal matter. Do not use hi ghl y vol ati l e fuel because of i ts expl osi ve nature. A
mi xture of 1 quart of gasol i ne to 5 quarts of di esel oi l i s effecti ve; neverthel ess,
use i t wi th cauti on. Bur n the contents agai n i f they are not rendered dry and
odorl ess i n one burni ng. Bury the resi dual ash.
PAIL LATRINE
1-144. Bui l d a pai l l atr i ne when condi ti ons (popul ated ar eas, r ocky soi l ,
mar shes) ar e such that a l atr i ne cannot be dug (Figure 1-20). Constr uct a
standar d l atr i ne box accor di ng to paragraphs 1-135, 1-136, and 1-137, page
1-36 and 1-37. Pl ace hi nged doors on the rear of the box. Add a fl oor and pl ace
a pai l under each seat. Posi ti on the box to for m a par t of the outer wal l i f the
box i s l ocated i n a bui l di ng. Ensure that the rear of the box opens di r ectl y to
the outsi de of the bui l di ng. The box shoul d be fl yproof, and the seats and rear
doors shoul d be sel f-cl osi ng. Construct the fl oor of the box wi th an i mpervi ous
mater i al (concr ete, i f possi bl e), and al l ow enough sl ope towar d the r ear to
faci l i tate rapi d drai nage of washi ng water. I nstal l a uri nal i n the mal e l atri ne
wi th a dr ai npi pe l eadi ng to a pai l outsi de and encl ose the pai l i n a fl ypr oof
box. Cl ean pai l s at l east once dai l y. Bur y or bur n the contents or di spose of
them by another sani tary method. Pl asti c l i ners for the pai l s reduce the ri sk of
acci dental spi l l age. Ti e the fi l l ed bags at the top before di sposal .
Figure 1-19. Burn-Out Latrine
Self-closing lid
Flyproof wooden
seat
Protective cover
for toilet paper
Toilet paper
holder with
paper
FM 3-34.471
URINE DISPOSAL FACILITIES
1-145. I n permanent and semi permanent camps, uri ne di sposal faci l i ti es are
usual l y connected to the sewer system. I n the fi el d, separate devi ces for uri ne
di sposal may be necessar y. Col l ocate such faci l i ti es i n the mal e l atr i nes to
mi ni mi ze foul i ng of seats. At l east one ur i ne di sposal faci l i ty i s r equi r ed for
each mal e l atri ne or per 100 personnel .
URINE SOAKAGE PIT
1-146. The best devi ce for ur i ne di sposal i n the fi el d i s a ur i ne soakage pi t
(Figure1-21, page1-42). Di g the pi t 4 feet square and 4 feet deep. Fi l l i t wi th
an aggr egate mater i al . Lay a border al ong each edge so that each si de of the
soakage pi ts sur face i s 5 feet l ong. The bor der shoul d be 6 i nches wi de, 4
i nches deep, and composed of smal l stones. Dependi ng on avai l abl e materi al s,
use ei ther pi pe uri nal s or tr ough ur i nal s wi th thi s pi t. An opti onal featur e i s
the venti l ati ng shafts wi th screened openi ngs that extend from about 8 i nches
above the pi t to wi thi n 6 i nches of the bottom of the pi t.
Figure 1-20. Pail Latrine
Wall
Inside
Base slopes toward rear
Protective can
for toilet paper
Lid
Wood construction
Bottom sloped to
facilitate cleaning
Bottom should be concrete,
packed clay, or wood
Pail with at least 1" of water
Door for
emptying
18"
FM 3-34.471
NOTE: A soakage trench (par agr aph 1-156, page 1-45) may be used
when the groundwater table or a rock formation precludes digginga
standard urinesoakagepit.
1-147. Pi pe uri nal s shoul d be at l east 1 i nch i n di ameter . Pl ace them at an
angl e near each corner of the pi t and, i f needed, on the si des hal fway between
the corners (Figure1-21). The pi pes shoul d extend at l east 8 i nches bel ow the
sur face of the pi t. Pl ace a funnel made of tar paper , sheet metal , or si mi l ar
mater i al i n the top of each pi pe. The upper r i m of the funnel shoul d extend
about 30 i nches above the ground surface.
TROUGH URINALS
1-148. I f mater i al s are avai l abl e and more per manent faci l i ti es ar e desi r ed,
bui l d a trough uri nal (Figure1-22). The trough i s U- or V-shaped and made of
sheet metal or wood. I f the tr ough i s made of wood, l i ne i t wi th heavy tar
paper . The four tr oughs for mi ng the si des shoul d be no mor e than 4 1/2 feet
l ong when they are used wi th a soakage pi t and an apron. Each trough shoul d
sl ope sl i ghtl y toward one corner where a pi pe carri es the uri ne to the soakage
pi t.
URINAL
1-149. The ur i nal r epr esents a fur ther modi fi cati on for mor e per manent
i nstal l ati on (Figure1-23, page1-44). Si mpl y descri bed, i t i s a 55-gal l on drum
Figure 1-21. Urine Soakage Pit with Pipe Urinals
1" pipe
Small
stones
Screen
Ventilating
shaft
4" x 6"
Funnel (metal or tar paper)
funnel covered with screen wire
Large stones
4'
4'
28"
4'
FM 3-34.471
contai ni ng oi l that i s pl aced over a r ecessed soakage pi t, thus the name,
urinoil. Waste POL can be used; but vegetabl e oi l i s pr efer r ed. Uri ne voi ded
thr ough the scr een i mmedi atel y si nks thr ough the oi l to the bottom of the
drum. The acti on of the uri nal i s somewhat l i ke that of a barometer. As more
ur i ne i s added, the oi l l evel r i ses i n the 3-i nch pi pe. Thi s conti nues unti l i t
r eaches the 1 1/2-i nch notch on the over fl ow pi pe i n the center of the dr um.
Atmospher i c pressur e and the wei ght of the oi l causes the ur i ne to over fl ow
unti l equi l i bri um i s reestabl i shed i n the drum. The oi l acts as an effecti ve seal
agai nst odor s and fl i es. The scr een i s easi l y l i fted wi th attached hooks for
removal of debri s. The ur i nal wi l l operate i n pl ace as l ong as the soakage pi t
wi l l accept the uri ne.
MAINTENANCE OF URINE DISPOSAL FACILITIES
1-150. To ensure proper operati on of l atri ne faci l i ti es
Uri nate i n the trough or the pi pe, not di rectl y on the pi ts surface.
Wash funnel s and troughs wi th soap and water dai l y.
Repl ace funnel s when necessary.
Prevent oi l or grease from getti ng i nto the pi t because they may cl og
i t, an d oi l l eech i n g th r ou gh th e pi t may al s o con tami n ate th e
groundwater.
1-151. I f the l atr i ne i s l ocated some di stance fr om sl eepi ng ar eas, pl ace a
l arge can or pai l at a conveni ent l ocati on for use as a ur i nal at ni ght. Empty
the can i nto the soakage pi t ever y morni ng, and wash the pai l wi th soap and
water before reusi ng i t.
Figure 1-22. Trough Urinal
Trough slopes toward soakage pit
Screen
Soakage pit
Screened ventilators
Line with metal, plastic,
tar paper, or other
nonabsorbent material
1'
8" Gravel
thickness
10'
4' Pit depth
FM 3-34.471
1-152. When a ur i ne soakage pi t i s abandoned or becomes cl ogged, spray i t
wi th i nsecti ci de. Mound i t over wi th a l -foot cover i ng of compacted ear th.
Pl ace a rectangul ar si gn on the mound i ndi cati ng the type of pi t and the date
cl osed.
KITCHEN WASTE
1-153. Wastewater fr om food ser vi ce oper ati ons contai ns food par ti cl es,
gr ease, and soap. Consequentl y, ki tchen waste r equi r es tr eatment befor e
di sposal .
GREASE TRAPS
1-154. I n per manent or semi per manent camps, ki tchen waste i s passed
thr ough a gr ease tr ap. After war ds, i t i s dr ai ned i nto a wastewater col l ecti on
system. I n tempor ar y base camps, however , the soi l absor bs ki tchen waste.
I nstal l gr ease tr aps (paragraph 1-157, page1-46) to r emove the grease from
Figure 1-23. Urinal
SECTION VIII - WASTEWATER DISPOSAL IN THE FIELD
55-gallon drum with
top removed
Hooks for the screen
1" diameter pipe
3" cap rests on a 1 1/2"
diameter pipe
Screen
Bracing bar
Cut hole in drum for pipe,
weld pipe to drum or use
locknuts and gasket
Tar paper cover on pit
Soakage pit
4' square
Waste
oil
3" diameter pipe
Urine
1 1/2" diameter pipe
To initiate the operation of the urinoil,
place the completed drum in position on
the pit. Tamp the ground around the
drum to the level shown. Pour at least
one foot of water into the drum. Add
waste oil (about 32 gallons) until it
reaches the point shown.
1
'
5
"
1
'
6
"
2
'
6
"
2
'
3"
T
o
t
h
e
p
i
t
b
o
t
t
o
m
4
'
5
'
6
"
t
o
t
a
l
p
i
t
d
e
p
t
h
3"
4"
(
b
e
l
o
w
g
r
o
u
n
d
)
FM 3-34.471
the l i qui d to pr event cl oggi ng the soi l and stoppi ng absor pti on. Cl ean the
gr ease tr aps fr equentl y and, i f per mi tted by feder al and state r egul ati ons,
burn or bury the removed grease. I f not permi tted, fol l ow l ocal procedures and
uni t standi ng operati ng procedures (SOPs) for proper di sposal .
SOAKAGE PITS
1-155. I n temporary base camps, a ki tchen soakage pi t i s constructed l i ke a
ur i ne soakage pi t (paragraph 1-146, page1-41). I t wi l l nor mal l y di spose of
l i qui d ki tchen waste for a total of 200 persons. A grease trap i s substi tuted i n
the ki tchen waste soakage pi t for the pi pes or troughs i n the uri ne soakage pi t.
I f the camp i s to l ast for several weeks, constr uct two ki tchen waste soakage
pi ts and al ternate thei r usage on a dai l y basi s. A rest per i od hel ps to prevent
cl oggi ng. A cl ogged soakage pi t wi l l not accept l i qui d, and i t must be properl y
cl osed. To cl ose a ki tchen pi t, backfi l l and compact wi th soi l 1 foot above the
grade and mark the pi t accordi ng to paragraph 1-132, page1-35.
SOAKAGE TRENCHES
1-156. Use a soakage trench when the groundwater l evel or a rock formati on
pr ecl udes di ggi ng a pi t. The tr ench consi sts of a pi t, 2 feet square and l foot
deep. The pi t has a trench radi ati ng outward from each si de for a di stance of 6
or mor e feet (Figure1-24). Di g the tr enches 1 foot wi de, var yi ng the depth
fr om 1 foot at the center to 1 1/2 feet at the outer ends. Fi l l the pi t and
trenches wi th materi al si mi l ar to that used i n the soakage pi t. Bui l d two uni ts
for ever y 200 per sons fed and al ter nate thei r usage on a dai l y basi s. Use a
gr ease tr ap wi th the soakage tr ench, and cl ose i t accor di ng to paragraph
1-132.
Figure 1-24. Soakage Trench with Barrel-Filter Grease Trap
Liquid kitchen waste
2'
Burlap
Ashes or sand
Gravel
Pail with perforated bottom
1 1/2"
1'
Soakage trenches
2'
1'
6'
FM 3-34.471
GREASE TRAPS
1-157. A grease tr ap shoul d be l arge enough to pr event the addi ti on of hot,
gr easy water fr om heati ng the cool water al r eady i n the tr ap. Other wi se,
grease wi l l pass through the trap i nstead of congeal i ng and ri si ng to the top of
the water. A grease trap shoul d be provi ded for each soakage pi t except those
under showers.
BAFFLE GREASE TRAP
1-158. A baffl e gr ease tr ap i s constr ucted fr om a 55-gal l on dr um or box
(Figure1-25). The box or drum i s di vi ded verti cal l y i nto unequal chambers by
a wooden baffl e. Thi s baffl e shoul d extend to wi thi n 1 i nch of the bottom.
1-159. Waste i s pour ed thr ough a str ai ner i nto the l ar ge chamber . I t then
passes under the baffl e and fl ows out i nto the smal l chamber . I n the l ar ge
chamber , the tr ap shoul d have a r emovabl e l i d and a str ai ner . The str ai ner
may be a box wi th openi ngs i n the bottom. Fi l l the str ai ner wi th str aw or
burl ap to remove coarser sol i ds. Cl ean the strai ner frequentl y by scrubbi ng i t
wi th soap and water to pr event cl oggi ng. I nser t a 1-i nch pi pe, 3 to 6 i nches
bel ow the top of the smal l er chamber to car r y l i qui d fr om the tr ap to the
soakage pi t. Cl ean the trap frequentl y to ensure proper operati on. Remove the
gr ease, dr ai n the tr ap, and r emove the sedi ment fr om the bottom. Bur n or
bury the grease, sedi ment, and strai ned materi al .
Figure 1-25. Baffle Grease Trap
Outlet pipe
Baffle
Perforated
wooden box
with straw and
burlap for
straining
FM 3-34.471
BARREL-FILTER GREASE TRAP
1-160. The bar r el -fi l ter gr ease tr ap i s constr ucted fr om a 30- to 50-gal l on
bar r el or dr um (Figure1-26). Remove the bar r el top and bor e a number of
l ar ge hol es i nto the bottom. Pl ace 8 i nches of gr avel or smal l stones i n the
bottom of the bar r el and cover them wi th 12 to 18 i nches of wood ashes or
sand. Fasten a pi ece of bur l ap to the top of the bar r el to ser ve as a coar se
str ai ner . Pl ace the tr ap di r ectl y over the soakage pi t or on a pl atform wi th a
trough l eadi ng to the pi t. I f the trap i s pl aced over the pi t, remove the bottom
i nstead of bori ng hol es i nto i t. Empty the trap every two days. Wash the trap,
r emove and bur y the ashes or sand, and r efi l l the tr ap wi th fr esh ashes or
sand. Wash the burl ap strai ner every day or repl ace i t.
EVAPORATION BEDS
1-161. Evaporati on beds may be used i n hot, dry cl i mates (Figure1-27, page
1-48). They may al so be used wher e cl ay soi l pr events the use of standar d
soakage pi ts. Evapor ati on beds confi gur ed i n thr ee ti er s, can be used when
confi ned by avai l abl e acreage (Figure1-28, page1-48).
1-162. Evapor ati on beds measur e 8 by 10 feet. Constr uct suffi ci ent beds to
al l ow 3 squar e feet per per son per day for ki tchen waste and 2 square feet per
person per day for wash and bath waste. Space the beds so that the waste can
be di stri buted to any one of the beds. Scrape the top soi l to the edges, formi ng
a smal l di ke around the bed. Spade the earth i n the bed to a depth of 10 to 15
i nches. Rake i t i nto a ser i es of r ows wi th the r i dges appr oxi matel y 6 i nches
abov e th e depr es s i on . For m th e r ows ei th er l en gth wi s e or cr os s wi s e,
dependi ng on whi ch one al l ows for the best water di stri buti on.
Figure 1-26. Barrel-Filter Grease Trap
Burlap
Sand or
wood ashes
Gravel
Oil drum with the top
removed and the
bottom perforated
Liquid kitchen waste
FM 3-34.471
Figure 1-27. Evaporation Bed
Figure 1-28. Three-Tier Evaporation Beds
8
'
10'
Effluent
Pond number 1
P
o
n
d
n
u
m
b
e
r
3
To disposal
P
o
n
d
n
u
m
b
e
r
2
FM 3-34.471
1-163. Dur i ng the day, fl ood one bed wi th l i qui d waste to the top of the
r i dges. Thi s i s equi val ent to an aver age depth of 3 i nches over the bed. Al l ow
the l i qui d waste to evapor ate and per col ate. After thr ee or four days, the bed
i s usual l y suffi ci entl y dry for r espadi ng and r efor mi ng. Fl ood the other beds
on successi ve days and fol l ow the same sequence of events.
1-164. Gi ve careful attenti on to proper rotati on, mai ntenance, and dosage. I t
i s essenti al that k i tchen waste be r un thr ough an effi ci ent gr ease tr ap
(paragraph 1-157, page1-46) before putti ng i t i n an evapor ati on bed. I f used
pr oper l y, evapor ati on beds cr eate no i nsect hazar d and onl y a sl i ght odor .
Other waste di sposal methods ar e possi bl e i f they are mor e adaptabl e to the
parti cul ar si tuati on.
WASTEWATER
1-165. Ever y devi ce used for washi ng or dr i nki ng shoul d have a soakage
ar ea. Soakage ar eas pr event pool s and mud fr om for mi ng. Excavate the ar ea
under and a few i nches around hand-washi ng devi ces, wash racks, and l i ster
bags. Fi l l the areas wi th smal l , smooth stones to form a soakage pi t. Ensure
that wastewater fr om wash r acks i s passed thr ough a gr ease tr ap befor e i t
enter s a soakage pi t or tr ench. Each fi el d shower onl y r equi r es a soakage pi t
or trench.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
1-166. The general consi derati ons di scussed i n previ ous secti ons can be used
for desi gn pur poses of company-si zed or smal l er el ements. For l ar ger base
camps, the number of waste faci l i ti es woul d become excessi ve when usi ng
these gener al r ul es of thumb. Desi gn waste faci l i ti es to sui t the needs of the
base camp to be establ i shed.
1-167. The amounts of wastewater generated by l aundry, bath, and ki tchen
acti vi ti es ar e di r ectl y r el ated to the water -consumpti on pl anni ng factor s for
each faci l i ty. For bath and l aundry faci l i ti es, waste di sposal systems shoul d be
desi gned to handl e 100 per cent of the fl ow to that faci l i ty, si nce pr acti cal l y
ever ythi ng that fl ows i nto these faci l i ti es fl ows back out. Waste di sposal
systems for k i tchen faci l i ti es shoul d be si zed to handl e 70 per cent of the
desi gn fl ow to these faci l i ti es, si nce par t of the water i s consumed wi thi n the
faci l i ty.
1-168. Li qui d waste fr om al l these faci l i ti es shoul d be di schar ged i nto a
sewer pi pe. For most theater faci l i ti es, a 6- to 12-i nch pl asti c pi pe pl aced at a 2
per cen t sl ope wi l l su ffi ce. The pi pe sh ou l d be bur i ed, i f possi bl e, wi th
mi ni mum cover dependi ng on the tr affi c i n the ar ea. The sewer pi pe must
empty i ts con ten ts s omewh er e. I n dev el oped cou n tr i es , a compl ete
undergr ound, water bor ne sewerage system may be feasi bl e and can possi bl y
be connected to the host nati ons mai n sewer system. However , sever al
theater base camps are bei ng constructed i n undevel oped countri es where no
s ewage s y s tem cu r r en tl y ex i s ts . I n th i s cas e, bas e-camp des i gn an d
constructi on must i ncl ude waste treatment and di sposal faci l i ti es. Whi l e an
undergr ound septi c tank wi th a ti l e drai n fi el d i s normal l y i deal , the amount
of constructi on effort and materi al s requi red may make i t unfeasi bl e. I f there
FM 3-34.471
are no waterborne toi l ets i n the system, soakage pi ts or evaporati on beds wi l l
usual l y be suffi ci ent to handl e the effl uent fr om the l aundr y, bath, and
ki tchen faci l i ti es.
PERCOLATION TEST
1-169. Befor e desi gni ng a wastewater system, deter mi ne the absor pti on
capabi l i ty of the soi l at the si te. Thi s i s done by conducti ng a per col ati on test
as fol l ows:
Step 1. Di g one or more hol es 1 foot square by 1 foot deep.
Step 2. Fi l l the test hol e(s) wi th water and al l ow i t to seep i nto the
surroundi ng soi l .
Step 3. Refi l l the hol e(s) to a depth of at l east 6 i nches whi l e the bottom of
the hol e i s sti l l wet.
Step 4. Measure the depth of the water and record the ti me i t takes for al l of
i t to be absorbed i nto the soi l .
Step 5. Cal cul ate the ti me requi red for the water l evel to drop 1 i nch.
Step 6. Use the ti me from step 5 to determi ne the appl i cati on rate from
Table1-8 or Table1-9. Table1-8 i s used for surface evaporati on beds and
Table1-9 i s used for seepage or soakage trenches.
NOTE: I f the percolation rate exceeds 60 minutes, the soil is not
suited for a seepage pit. A percolation rate over 30minutes indicates
borderline suitability for soil absorption, and other methods of
wastewater disposal should beconsidered.
SEEPAGE PITS
1-170. Th e r equ i r ed s i ze of a s eepage pi t can be deter mi n ed fr om a
percol ati on test and the esti mated amount of effl uent from the faci l i ty. The pi t
shoul d be 4 to 6 feet deep and dug i n a squar e or r ectangul ar fashi on. The
bottom of the pi t shoul d be at l east 2 feet above the groundwater tabl e and 5
feet above rock or other i mpermeabl e soi l condi ti ons. The effecti ve absorpti on
Table 1-8. Application Rate for Evaporation Beds
Soil Percolation Rate
(1 inch)
Application Rate
(GPD)
1 minute 57,700
2 minutes 46,800
5 minutes 34,800
10 minutes 25,000
30 minutes 12,000
60 minutes 8,700
FM 3-34.471
area i s consi dered to be the total area of the wal l s i n the pi t; the bottom of the
pi t i s not consi der ed. Sever al smal l er pi ts for a faci l i ty may be mor e feasi bl e
than one l arge pi t. When more than one pi t i s used, ensure that there i s equal
di str i buti on of the wastewater to al l the pi ts. The di stance between seepage
pi ts shoul d be at l east twi ce the si ze of the pi ts. The pi ts shoul d be l ocated
outsi de the base camp and at l east 100 feet from the nearest water source.
1-171. Pi ts shoul d be no deeper than 6 feet because deeper excavati ons
mi ght r equi r e wal l shor i ng, whi ch i ncr eases the constr ucti on effor t. The
desi gn pr ocedur e i s based on al l absor pti on occur r i ng i n the wal l s onl y, and
the requi red absorpti on area i s obtai ned by i ncreasi ng the l ength of the wal l s.
Use the fol l owi ng steps to determi ne the requi red absorpti on area and pi t si ze:
Step 1. Perform a percol ati on test (paragraph 1-169). The test shoul d be
performed twi cei ni ti al l y and agai n at the ful l esti mated depth.
Step 2. Determi ne the appl i cati on rate from Table1-9.
Step 3. Fi nd the requi red absorpti on area by di vi di ng the total esti mated
effl uent from the faci l i ty by the appl i cati on rate.
Step 4. Di vi de the requi red absorpti on area (step 3) by 4 (the number of
wal l s).
Step 5. Di vi de the requi red absorpti on area per wal l (step 4) by the depth of
the pi t (normal l y 6 feet). Thi s wi l l be the l ength of each wal l . Remember, the
bottom of the pi t must be 2 feet above the groundwater tabl e and 5 feet above
any type of i mpermeabl e soi l condi ti ons.
Step 6. Construct a pi t by usi ng wal l s of thi s l ength determi ned from step 5.
NOTE: Using several small pits rather than one large pit reduces the
excavation effort required.
Table 1-9. Application Rate for Seepage Pits and Soakage Trenches
Soil Percolation Rate
(1 inch)
Application Rate
(GPD/sq ft)
1 minute 5.3
2 minutes 4.3
5 minutes 3.2
10 minutes 2.3
15 minutes 1.8
20 minutes 1.5
30 minutes 1.1
45 minutes 0.8
60 minutes 0.5
FM 3-34.471
Step 7. Fi l l the pi t wi th l arge stones or rubbl e. Wastewater shoul d be pi ped
i n near the center of the pi t. Tar paper, pl asti c, or some other materi al can be
used as a cover to prevent rai nwater from fi l l i ng the pi t.
SOAKAGE TRENCHES
1-172. I f a gr oundwater tabl e or a r ock str atum exi sts wi thi n 6 feet of the
sur face, a soakage tr ench may be substi tuted for a seepage pi t. A soakage
tr ench consi sts of a centr al pi t that i s 2 feet squar e and 1 foot deep. A tr ench
r adi ates outward for 6 feet or mor e fr om each si de of the pi t. The tr enches are
1 foot wi de and i ncr ease i n depth fr om 1 foot at the central pi t to 1 1/2 feet at
the outer end. The central pi t and the radi ati ng trenches are fi l l ed wi th gravel
or broken rock. The l ength of the trench may vary as needed.
1-173. The desi gn procedures for the soakage trench are si mi l ar to those for
a seepage pi t and are outl i ned bel ow:
Step 1. Perform a percol ati on test (paragraph 1-169, page1-50).
Step 2. Determi ne the appl i cati on rate from Table1-9, page1-51.
Step 3. Determi ne the requi red absorpti on area by di vi di ng the total
esti mated fl ow from the faci l i ty by the appl i cati on rate.
Step 4. Di vi de the absorpti on area (step 3) by 8 (four radi ati ng trenches;
each trench has two wal l s). The absorpti on i s consi dered to take pl ace i n the
si de wal l s of the trenches onl y, and thi s step yi el ds the area of each wal l .
Step 5. Di vi de the wal l area from step 4 by the average depth of 1 1/4 feet,
si nce each trench i s 1 foot deep at one end and 1 1/2 foot deep at the other end.
Thi s step determi nes the l ength of each trench.
Step 6. Construct the soakage trench wi th four trenches of the determi ned
l ength (step 5), each radi ati ng from the central pi t.
EVAPORATION BEDS
1-174. I n pl aces where a hi gh groundwater tabl e or cl ay soi l prevents the use
of standar d seepage pi ts, evapor ati on beds may be used. Constr uct enough
beds to handl e the enti r e wastewater fl ow fr om the base camp l aundr y,
ki tchen, and bath faci l i ti es. Locate the beds outsi de the base camp and i n an
open, sunny area. Gi ve careful attenti on to the proper rotati on, mai ntenance,
and dosage of the evaporati on beds. I f used properl y, the beds create no i nsect
probl ems and onl y a sl i ght odor. An evaporati on fi el d i s probabl y the si mpl est
method of di sposi ng of l arge amounts of wastewater from shower and l aundry
faci l i ti es. The desi gn procedure i s as fol l ows:
Step 1. Perform a percol ati on test (paragraph 1-169). The test shoul d be
performed i n at l east 3 or 4 l ocati ons over the area of the proposed fi el d.
Step 2. Determi ne the appl i cati on rate from Table1-8, page1-50. The rates
i n the tabl e i ncl ude al l owances for resti ng, recovery, mai ntenance, and
rai nfal l .
Step 3. Di vi de the total dai l y effl uent by the appl i cati on rate to determi ne
the requi red acreage.
Step 4. Construct enough beds to equal the acreage cal cul ated i n Step 3.
FM 3-34.471
ALTERNATE SYSTEMS
1-175. Al though r ar e i n theater constr ucti on, a water bor ne sewage system
for human waste may be desi r abl e. I f the sewer cannot be connected to an
exi sti ng mai n sewer , a treatment faci l i ty must be constr ucted to suppor t the
base camp. The thr ee types of tr eatment faci l i ti es that shoul d be consi der ed
for theater base camps wi th water bor ne human waste ar ecesspool s, sewage
l agoons, and septi c tank s wi th ti l e dr ai n fi el ds. Whi l e al l thr ee pr ovi de
feasi bl e sol uti ons for the base camp, a septi c tank wi th a ti l e dr ai n fi el d i s
preferred over the other two methods.
CESSPOOLS
1-176. Cesspool s are no l onger used i n devel oped countri es because they may
pol l ute the groundwater; however, they are common i n undevel oped countri es.
I f water sour ces ar e i n the ar ea wher e cesspool s ar e used, the water must
conti nual l y be checked to ver i fy i ts pur i ty. Cesspool s ar e the l east pr efer r ed
method and shoul d be used onl y as a l ast resort.
SEWAGE LAGOONS
1-177. Sewage l agoons or oxi dati on ponds are common throughout the worl d.
They can be used i n al l r egi ons except ar cti c ar eas. Sewage l agoons ar e
commonl y used by smal l communi ti es because they ar e l ess expensi ve to
construct than sewage treatment pl ants. Al though a sewage l agoon i s easy to
construct, i t i s not a recommended theater practi ce. Sewage l agoons must be
l ocated at l east one-hal f mi l e fr om the popul ati on center because of the odors
produced by anaerobi c di gesti on. The i ncreased l ength of the sewer col l ecti on
s y s tem, compou n ded by th e pos s i bl e n eed for au tomati c l i ft s tati on s ,
si gni fi cantl y i ncreases the materi al cost and constructi on effort requi red for a
compl ete system. Absorpti on from sewage l agoons i nto the surroundi ng soi l i s
a pr obl em and shoul d be mi ni mi zed. See Table1-10 for r el ati ve absor pti on
r ates i n sewage l agoons.
Table 1-10. Relative Absorption Rates in Sewage Lagoons
Time Required for Water
Level to Drop 1 Inch in a
Test Hole
Relative Absorption Rate Type of Soil
0-3 minutes Rapid Coarse sand and gravel
3-5 minutes Medium Fine sand or sandy loam
5-30 minutes Slow
Clay, loam, or clay with
sand
30-60 minutes Semi-impervious Dense clay
>60 minutes Impervious Hardpan or rock
NOTE: Thefirst two types of soil arenot suited for lagoons unless
water retention is assisted by theinstallation of a waterproofing
skin at thelagoon bottom.
FM 3-34.471
SEPTIC TANKS WITH TILE DRAIN FIELDS
1-178. Septi c tanks ar e the pr efer r ed method of pr ovi di ng for pr i mar y and
par ti al secondar y tr eatment of sewer age contai ni ng human waste. Septi c
tanks ar e ver y common thr oughout the wor l d. The pr efer r ed method of
i nstal l ati on i s to or der a pr ecast or fi ber gl ass uni t si zed for the anti ci pated
fl ow of wastewater ; i f avai l abl e, septi c tanks can be constr ucted i n pl ace. A
septi c tank separ ates and r etai ns most of the sol i ds i n the sewage fl ow. The
sol i ds settl e to the bottom of the tank and under go anaer obi c di gesti on. The
effl uent i s di spersed i nto the surroundi ng soi l by a ti l e drai n fi el d whi ch i s an
underground system of porous pi pes connected to the septi c tank.
1-179. Subsur face i rr i gati on i s a method of sewage di sposal commonl y used
i n conjuncti on wi th septi c tanks at smal l i nstal l ati ons. Thi s method al l ows
sewage to seep di rectl y i nto the soi l or uses ti l e dr ai n fi el ds wi th appl i cati on
rates as shown i n Table1-11.
TileDrain Fields
1-180. A ti l e drai n fi el d consi sts of l i nes of concrete or cl ay drai n ti l es l ai d i n
the ground wi th open joi nts. Recentl y, manufacturer s have begun to produce
concr ete pi pe wi th 1/4- to 3/8-i nch per for ati ons i n the bottom hal f. Al so, a
bi tumi ni zed fi ber pi pe wi th hol es bor ed i n the l ower por ti on of the pi pe to
al l ow dr ai nage can be used for these dr ai n l i nes. Thi s pi pe i s l i ght, can be
easi l y l ai d i n the tr ench, and i s made i n var i ous si zes (2 to 8 i nches i n
di ameter and 5 to 8 feet i n l ength). The l ong l engths of pi pe ar e parti cul arl y
val uabl e i n soi l wher e other types of dr ai n fi el ds may settl e unevenl y.
Per for ated pl as ti c pi pe offer s th e s ame adv an tages . Fi gure 1-29 an d
Figure1-30, page1-56, show typi cal fi el d l ayouts. The fol l owi ng condi ti ons are
i mportant for proper functi oni ng of the ti l e fi el ds:
The groundwater i s wel l bel ow the l evel of the ti l e fi el d.
Table 1-11. Subsurface Application Rates of Sewage in Tile Drain Fields
Time Required for the
Water Level to Drop 1
Inch in a Test Hole
Allowable Rate of
Sewage Application
(Gallons Per Square
Foot of Trench Bottom
Per Day)
1 mi nute 4.0
2 mi nutes 3.2
5 mi nutes 2.4
10 mi nutes 1.7
30 mi nutes 0.8
60 mi nutes 0.6
FM 3-34.471
The soi l has sati sfactory l eachi ng characteri sti cs wi thi n a few feet of
the sur face, extendi ng sever al feet bel ow the ti l e. Soi l l eachi ng tests
shoul d be made at the si te.
The subsurface drai ns away from the fi el d.
The area i s adequate.
There i s no possi bi l i ty of pol l uti ng dri nki ng-water suppl i es,
parti cul arl y from shal l ow or dri ven wel l s i n the vi ci ni ty.
1-181. The l ength of the ti l e and the detai l s of the fi l ter tr ench gener al l y
depend on the soi l char acter i sti cs. The mi ni mum wi dth of tr enches on the
basi s of soi l are as fol l ows:
Sand and sandy l oam, 1 foot.
Loam, 2 feet.
Sand and cl ay mi xture, 2 feet.
Cl ay wi th some gravel , 3 feet.
1-182. Pl aci ng ti l e bel ow the fr ost l i ne to pr event freezi ng i s not necessary.
Ti l e pl aced 18 i nches bel ow the gr ound surface oper ated successful l y i n New
En gl an d for man y y ear s . Su bs u r face ti l e s h ou l d n ev er be l ai d bel ow
groundwater l evel .
Figure 1-29. Typical Layout of a Subsurface Tile System
Plan
Not more than 75' long
5' to 10'
6" of topsoil if the situation
justifies a grassed surface
Earth backfill
3" layer of screened
gravel (1/4" to 1/2")
Tar paper over the joints
6" tile pipe with open joints (3/8"
clear space at the joints)
18" above the groundwater table
Varies
NOTE: No vehicle traffic is allowed over the tile drain field.
Coarse screened
gravel (1.2")
6"
15"
3"
9" to 20" or
as required
Typical section
Sewer from settling
tanks with tight joints
6" tile pipe with open joints
(or perforated pipe)
Main drain line
Laterals
(lateral lines)
FM 3-34.471
1-183. Desi gn and constr ucti on shoul d pr ovi de for handl i ng and stor i ng of
some sol i d mater i al to el i mi nate cl oggi ng of pi pe joi nts. Pi pe that i s 3 to 6
i n ches i n di ameter i s r ecommended. Lar ger pi pe gi ves gr eater stor age
capaci ty for sol i ds and a l arger ar ea at the joi nt for sol i ds to escape i nto the
surroundi ng gravel .
1-184. Lay pi pe wi th 3/8-i nch cl ear openi ngs to provi de for free di schar ge of
sol i ds fr om the l i ne to the fi l ter tr ench. Cover the top of the space wi th tar
paper or si mi l ar materi al to prevent the entry of gravel . Bel l and spi got pi pe i s
easi l y l ai d to tr ue l i ne and gr ade. Good pr acti ce cal l s for br eak i ng away
two-thi rds of the pi pe al ong the bottom of the bel l s at the joi nt and usi ng smal l
wood-bl ock spacers. The pi pe i s commonl y l ai d at a sl ope of about 0.5 feet per
100 feet when taki ng the di scharge di rectl y from the septi c tank, and 0.3 feet
per 100 feet when a dosi ng tank i s used ahead of the fi el d.
1-185. Lay ti l e on a 6-i nch bed of scr eened coar se gr avel , wi th 3 i nches of
coarse gravel around and over the pi pe. Gravel passi ng a 2 1/2-i nch mesh and
r etai n ed on a 3/4-i n ch mesh i s r ecommen ded. Thi s gr av el bed gi v es a
rel ati vel y l arge percentage of voi ds i nto whi ch the sol i ds may pass and col l ect
befor e the effecti ve l eachi ng ar ea becomes ser i ousl y cl ogged. Ensur e that the
soi l whi ch fi l l s the trench does not fi l l the voi ds i n the gravel around the pi pe.
A 3-i nch l ayer of medi um screened gravel over the coarse gravel and 3 i nches
of fi ne screened gravel over the medi um stone i s recommended.
1-186. Car eful l y desi gn the ti l e l ayout. Gener al l y, the l ength of the l ater al s
shoul d not exceed 75 feet. When ti l e i s l ai d i n sl opi ng gr ound, di str i bute the
Figure 1-30. Typical Layout of a Tile Field in Sloping Ground
Septic tank
6" vitrified-clay pipe
(VCP), tight joints
Inverted elevation
(Inv el)
94.7'
3 lines 6" VCP, open joints
Slope 0.005 percent, 60' long
Inv el
93.7'
Inv el
92.7'
Inv el
95.0'
Inv el
94.0'
Inv el
93.0'
96'
95'
94'
93'
92'
97'
Open joints
Water
surface
6" VCP
Inv el
94.7'
60'
Inv el
95.0'
FM 3-34.471
fl ow so that each l ater al gets a fai r por ti on, and pr event the fl ow fr om
di schargi ng down the sl ope to the l owest poi nt. Lay i ndi vi dual l i nes paral l el to
the l and contour s (Fi gure 1-30). Ti l e fi el ds ar e commonl y l ai d ou t i n a
h er r i n gbon e patter n or wi th th e l ater al s at r i gh t an gl es to th e mai n
di str i butor . Ensur e that the di stance between l ater al s i s tr i pl e the wi dth of
the tr ench. You may want to connect the l ater al s to di str i buti on boxes.
Tr enches 24 i nches wi de or mor e ar e the most economi cal . I f a tr enchi ng
machi ne i s avai l abl e, base the desi gn on the wi dth of the trench excavated by
the machi ne.
1-187. Fence or post the ti l e fi el d after i t i s constr ucted to pr event vehi cl e
tr affi c fr om crushi ng the ti l e. Pl anti ng shr ubs or tr ees over the fi el d i s not a
good i dea si nce the r oots tend to cl og the ti l e l i nes, but gr ass over the l i nes
hel ps r emove the moi stur e and keep the soi l open. A typi cal secti on of a ti l e
fi l ter trench i s shown i n Figure1-29, page1-55.
SubsurfaceDrain Fields
1-188. Subsurface fi l ter trenches or beds may be requi red where the soi l i s so
dense and i mper vi ous that a ti l e drai n fi el d i s i mpracti cal , and where l ack of
an i sol ated ar ea pr events the use of an open fi l ter . Dr ai ns that ar e under the
subsur face fi l ter tr enches or beds may be di schar ged fr eel y to the near est
sati sfactory poi nt of di sposal , such as a smal l stream or a dry streambed.
1-189. Desi gn fi l ter trenches or beds for a rate of fi l trati on not greater than 1
gal l on per squar e foot per day. For fi l ter i ng mater i al use cl ean, coar se sand
that passes a 1/4-i nch mesh wi th an uni formi ty coeffi cent not greater than 4.0.
Ensure that the fi l ter i ng sand i s at l east 30 i nches deep and coarse, scr eened
gravel passes a 3 1/2-i nch mesh and be retai ned on a 19/4-i nch mesh. A typi cal
secti on of an under -dr ai ned fi l ter tr ench i s shown i n Figure1-31, page1-58.
Gover ni ng condi ti ons for fi el d l ayout ar e si mi l ar to those for ti l e fi el ds
descri bed above.
1-190. A typi cal pl an and secti on for a subsur face fi l ter bed ar e shown i n
Figure1-32, page1-59. Ensur e that the sl ope of the di str i butors i s about 0.3
feet per 100 feet when a dosi ng tank i s used, and 0.5 feet per 100 feet when no
dosi ng tank i s r equi r ed. For i nstal l ati ons havi ng mor e than 800 feet of
di stri butor s, bui l d the fi l ter i n two or more secti ons wi th si phons to al ternate
the fl ow between the secti ons. Lay di str i buti on pi pel i nes i n beds on 6- to
10-foot centers; under-drai npi pes on 5- to 10-foot centers.
1-191. Pr ovi de dosi ng tank s wi th automati c sewage si phons for ti l e or
subsurface fi el ds when the l ength of di stri buti on ti l e exceeds 300 feet. Desi gn
dosi ng tanks to di scharge a vol ume equal to 70 to 80 percent of the vol umetri c
capaci ty of the di str i buti on pi pi ng i n the ti l e fi el d or fi l ter . The dosi ng tank
can usual l y be constructed as part of the septi c tank and i n the same wi dth as
the septi c tank (Figure1-33, page1-60).
PIPE SIZES
1-192. For most theater constructi on, a 6- to 12-i nch pl asti c pi pe i s suffi ci ent
to transport wastewater from the faci l i ty to a di sposal system. Pl ace the pi pe
at about a 2 percent sl ope to faci l i tate gravi ty feed. Use Table1-12, page1-58,
to determi ne the si ze of pi pe needed.
FM 3-34.471
PIPE COVER
1-193. The mi ni mum cover for wastewater pi pe i s as fol l ows. I n areas where
fr eezi ng temper atur es occur , the pi pes must be pl aced bel ow the fr ost l i ne
(except for subsurface ti l e systems).
Pedestri an areas: 6 i nches
Li ght vehi cl es: 24 i nches
Heavy vehi cl es (2 1/2-tons >): 48 i nches
Table 1-12. Pipe Sizes
Flow Rate (GPM) Pipe Size (in inches)
< 300 6
300-700 8
700-1,250 10
1,250-2,200 12
Figure 1-31. Typical Section of an Under-Drained Filter Trench
6" bell-and-spigot
distributor pipe with
open joints
Coarse-screened
gravel
Filter sand
3" fine-screened
gravel
6" bell-and-spigot
under-drain pipe,
open joints,
minimum slope
0.003
Graded level
2 1/2 to 4 '
Tar paper (3" wide
over the joints)
10"
30"
10"
Miscellaneous
fill
6" of topsoil
FM 3-34.471
Figure 1-32. Typical Plan and Section of a Subsurface Sand Filter
From settling tank
Dosing tank with
alternating siphon
The pipe with
open joints
Slope 0.35
percent
Discharge
disposal point
Under-drain collector
Under-drain
pipe
Distribution
pipe
Tile pipe with tight
joints
Slope to field, 0.5
percent
Plan
Typical Section
6' to 10',
center to center
6" of topsoil
3" bank-run
gravel
3" of fine
screened
gravel
10" of coarse
screened
gravel
2 1/2' of filter
sand
6" of vitrified under-
drain pipe, open joints
5' to 10',
center to center
Graded gravel
3" wide tar
paper over
joints
6" vitrified
distribution
pipe, open
joints
3" wide tar
paper over joints
3" of fine
screened
gravel
FM 3-34.471
Figure 1-33. A Septic Tank With a Dozing Siphon
Manhole Manhole
Baffle
Discharge line
Vent
To subsoil tile Siphon
2-1
Chapter 2
Heating Systems
Heati ng systems car r y heat fr om the poi nt of pr oducti on to the pl ace of
use. Heati ng-system desi gns ar e compl ex wi th many vari ati ons. They are
cl assi fi ed by the medi um used to car r y the heat fr om the sour ce to the
poi nt of use. Steam, hot-water , and for ced-ai r systems ar e the most
common. Hot-water heati ng i s used extensi vel y. Forced-ai r heati ng i s used
i n most semi per manent constr ucti ons and i n most bar r acks. Appendix B
pr ovi des pl umbi ng pl ans to i ncl ude a l i st of heati ng symbol s used on
heati ng-system pl ans.
HOT-WATER HEATING SYSTEMS
2-1. A hot-water heati ng system i s made up of a heati ng uni t, pi pes, and
r adi ator s or connector s. Water i s heated at a centr al sour ce, ci r cul ated
through the system, and returned to the heati ng uni t. Usual l y a pump (rather
than a gravi ty system) i s used to keep the water ci rcul ati ng. The two types of
hot-water systems are the one-pi pe and the two-pi pe.
PLANS
2-2. A hot-water heati ng system may have a separ ate pl an or may be
combi ned wi th the hot- and col d-water and sewer l i nes on the pl umbi ng pl an.
A hot-water -system pl an shows the l ayout of uni ts, pi pes, accessor i es, and
connecti ons. Figure2-1, page 2-2, shows a typi cal system. Thi s fi gur e al so
shows the l ocati on of the boi l er , ci r cul ati ng pump, and compr essi on tank. A
one-pi pe system i s shown; however , the hot water wi l l fl ow i n two di r ecti ons
(or l oops), each l oop contai ni ng two radi ators. The second radi ator i n each l oop
i s l arger than the fi rst. (AppendixB provi des heati ng symbol s that are used on
archi tect's pl ans.)
ONE-PIPE SYSTEM
2-3. A one-pi pe system i s the si mpl est type of hot-water system and i s
adequate for ver y smal l i nstal l ati ons (Fi gure 2-2, page 2-3). Hot water
ci r cul ates thr ough one set of pi pes thr ough each r adi ator . As a r esul t, the
water reachi ng the l ast radi ator i s cool er than the water i n the fi rst radi ator.
To obtai n the same amount of heat from al l the radi ators, each radi ator must
be l arger than the one before.
TWO-PIPE SYSTEM
2-4. I n a two-pi pe system the hot water goes fr om the heati ng uni t to each
r adi ator by way of the mai n, connected by Ts and el bows (Figure2-3, page
2-3). The cool er water l eavi ng the r adi ator s r etur ns to the heater thr ough
separate return pi pi ng.
FM 3-34.471
2-2 Heating Systems
STEAM-HEATING SYSTEMS
2-5. A steam-heati ng system consi sts of a boi l er that heats the water ,
pr oduci ng the steam; r adi ator s i n whi ch the steam tur ns back to water
(condenses), gi vi ng heat; and connecti ng pi pes that carry the steam from the
boi l er to the r adi ator s and r etur ns the water to the boi l er . Thi s system
i ncl udes ei ther an ai r val ve or other means of r emovi ng ai r fr om the system.
The two types of steam-heati ng systems ar e the one-pi pe and the two-pi pe,
whi ch are cl assi fi ed as
High-pressure. A hi gh-pr essur e system operates above 15-psi gauge.
Low-pressure. A l ow-pr essur e system operates from 0- to 15-psi gauge.
Vapor. A vapor system oper ates under both l ow-pressur e and vacuum
condi ti ons.
Vacuum. A vacuum system operates under l ow-pressure and vacuum
condi ti ons wi th a vacuum pump.
Figure 2-1. Hot-Water (One-Pipe) Heating-System Plan
Hot-water
supply
Water-heating boiler
1"
Hot-water supply
Circulating pump
H
o
t
-
w
a
t
e
r
s
u
p
p
l
y
Compression tank
1"
Supply and return
piping (in the
crawl space)
H
o
t
-
w
a
t
e
r
r
e
t
u
r
n
1"
1"
Cast-iron radiator
Hot-water return
FM 3-34.471
Heating Systems 2-3
ONE-PIPE SYSTEM
2-6. The one-pi pe system uses a si ngl e mai n and r i ser to car r y steam to
r adi ator s or other heati ng uni ts and to retur n condensed steam (condensate)
to the uni t. Thi s system i s best for smal l i nstal l ati ons where l ow cost and easy
operati on are i mportant. Each radi ator or other heati ng uni t i s equi pped wi th
an ai r val ve, control l ed by heat (thermostati c), as shown i n Figure2-4. Larger
ai r val ves are i nstal l ed at the end of steam mai ns. These val ves shoul d be the
Figure 2-2. One-Pipe Hot-Water Heating System
Figure 2-3. Two-Pipe Hot-Water Heating System
Heater
Feeder valve
M
F
Motor-operated valve
Feeder
valve
Motor-operated valve
Heater
M
F
FM 3-34.471
2-4 Heating Systems
vacuum-type wi th a smal l check val ve to keep ai r from fl owi ng back i nto the
system when heat i nput i s r educed. The connecti on to the uni t may have
shutoff (angl e) val ves. Si nce the restri cted openi ng causes a repeated bangi ng
sound (water hammer ), these val ves cannot be par tl y cl osed for heat i nput
control .
TWO-PIPE SYSTEM
2-7. Th e two-pi pe s y s tem h as two s ets of mai n s an d r i s er s : on e s et
di stri butes steam to the heati ng uni t and the other returns condensate to the
boi l er. Figure2-5 shows a two-pi pe steam system. Thi s system oper ates under
hi gh- or l ow-pressure, vapor, or vacuum condi ti ons, and wi th ei ther upfl ow or
downfl ow di str i buti on. Thi s system al l ows adj ustment of steam fl ow to
i ndi vi dual heati ng uni ts. I t uses smal l er pi pes than the one-pi pe system. A
two-pi pe upflowvapor system, whi ch can operate over a range of pressures, i s
shown i n Figure2-6, page2-6.
Figure 2-4. Radiator Connections for a One-Pipe Steam System
Riser
Angle
valve
Runout
(above floor)
Radiator
Air valve
Floor
Runout (below floor)
Riser
Runout
(above floor)
Wall
Radiator
Plan view
Elevation view
Runout
(below floor)
FM 3-34.471
Heating Systems 2-5
FORCED-AIR HEATING SYSTEMS
2-8. A for ced-ai r upflow heati ng system di str i butes heated ai r thr ough a
duct system (Figure2-7, page2-7). The ai r i s usual l y heated by a gas-fi r ed or
oi l -fi red furnace. Thi s system consi sts of a furnace, a bonnet, warm-ai r suppl y
ducts and r egi ster s, r etur n col d-ai r r egi ster s and ducts, and a fan or bl ower
for ced-ai r ci r cul ati on. Figure2-8, page2-7, shows a downflow furnace wi th a
crawl space duct system and a crawl space pl enum system.
PLANS
2-9. I n a forced-ai r heati ng-system pl an, sol i d l i nes i ndi cate warm-ai r ducts;
col d-ai r r etur n ducts ar e i ndi cated by dashed l i nes (Figure 2-9, page 2-8).
(Appendix B gi ves the most common heati ng symbol s used on pl ans.) Al l duct
si zes gi ve the hor i zon tal or wi dth di mensi ons fi r st. (Depth, the second
di mensi on, i s not shown on a pl an dr awi ng.) Use the pl an to deter mi ne the
l ocati on and si zes of war m-ai r r egi ster s needed. When cei l i ng r egi ster s
(di ffuser s) ar e used, the neck di mensi ons are gi ven. When wal l or baseboar d
r egi ster s ar e used, face di mensi ons ar e gi ven. Look i n the notes on a pl an for
the hei ght of the wal l regi sters above the fi ni shed fl oor l i ne. Return (col d-ai r)
Figure 2-5. Two-Pipe Steam Heating System (Upflow or Downflow)
Steam main
Trap
Radiator
Air vent
Float drip trap
Dry return main
Hartford return connection
Dirt pocket
Trap
Radiator Radiator Radiator
Radiator
Trap
Trap
Trap
Boiler
FM 3-34.471
2-6 Heating Systems
regi sters are shown recessed i nto the wal l . The face di mensi ons of the return
regi sters are noted adjacent to the regi ster symbol .
INSTALLATION AND OPERATION
2-10. The bonnet above the heat pl ant (fur nace) col l ects the heated ai r for
di str i buti on to var i ous r ooms. The war m ai r i s di str i buted fr om the bonnet
thr ough r ectangul ar -shaped suppl y ducts and r egi ster s (war m-ai r ) i nto the
r ooms. The war m-ai r r egi ster s ar e i nstal l ed i n the cei l i ng. The ai r , after
ci rcul ati ng through the rooms and l osi ng heat, i s r etur ned to the fur nace by
the return (col d-ai r) regi sters and ducts. The return regi sters are pl aced i n the
wal l , just bel ow the openi ng; the r etur n ai r ducts ar e i nstal l ed i n the cr awl
space. The warm-ai r di stri buti on by branch ducts i s the same as the exampl es
shown i n Figure2-9, page2-8.
2-11. Forced-ai r systems are l ai d out so that the warm ai r from the regi sters
i s di rected at the col d exteri or wal l s. I n some systems, the warm-ai r regi sters
are l ocated i n exteri or wal l s bel ow wi ndows. The regi sters for col d-ai r r eturn
are normal l y i nstal l ed at baseboard hei ght. Col d ai r moves to the fl oor where
i t i s col l ected by the col d-ai r r egi ster s and r etur ned thr ough ducts to the
fur nace for r eheati ng and r eci r cul ati on. Fur nace l ocati on i s i mpor tant for
Figure 2-6. Two-Pipe Upflow Vapor System
Trap
Trap
Trap
(Give good pitch.)
Trap
Dry
return
End of steam
main
Riser
dripped
Air-eliminating and
pressure-equalizing
device (See the note
below.)
Supply main
Hartford return connection
Boiler water line
Wet return
NOTE: Proper piping connections, with special appliances for pressure
equalizing and air elimination, are essential. Condensate may be dripped
from the end of stream main through the trap into the dry return.
FM 3-34.471
Heating Systems 2-7
Figure 2-7. Forced-Air Upflow System
Figure 2-8. Forced-Air Downflow System
High return registers
(at interior locations)
Return risers
(in interior wall)
Return
Smoke outlet
Furnace
Controlled fresh-
air supply
Flexible connection
Supply registers (in
floor at perimeter
below windows)
Bonnet
NOTE: The furnace and ducts are located in the basement of the
basement-and-one-story house. In two-story houses, supply and
return registers should be in the same relative positions in each story.
Return air
Floor diffuser
Plenum
Warm-air discharges into duct inside crawl space.
Return air from
crawl space
Furnace
FM 3-34.471
2-8 Heating Systems
pr oper for ced-ai r heati ng. Thi s desi gn equal i zes duct l engths by centr al l y
l ocati ng the furnace room (Figure2-9) .
Comfort ZoneDesign
2-12. The comfor t zone i s a hor i zontal ar ea between the top of the aver age
per son's head and knees. Ai r bl owi ng fr om the suppl y i s uncomfor tabl e. To
avoi d thi s, regi sters are pl aced ei ther above or bel ow the comfort zone-hi gh on
the wal l or i n the baseboard.
Duct Connections
2-13. The mai n trunk shoul d run above a central corri dor to equal i ze branch
duct l engths to i ndi vi dual rooms. Figure2-10shows common rectangul ar duct
connecti ons.
2-14. Fi gure 2-10 al so shows a typi cal war m-ai r bonnet wi th two mai n
suppl y ducts. I t shows two possi bl e el bow connecti ons and two duct Ts. The
Figure 2-9. Partial View of a Forced-Air Heating-System Plan
10" x 6"
18" x 8"
22" x 12" 26" x 12"
20" x 12"
22" x 14"
26" x 16"
10" x 6"
12" x 12"
10" x 6"
12" x 5"
26" x 16"
Pan
18" x 8"
12" x 12"
Flue pipe
28" x 16"
Heater
Cold-air register
Warm-air register
NOTE: All horizontal warm-air ducts are run belowthe
floor. All return ducts are run in the attic space. This
plan is a one-story building.
Legend:
FM 3-34.471
Heating Systems 2-9
spl i t T i s used to di r ect the ai r fl ow on the war m si de of the system. The
str ai ght T may be used on the col d-ai r r etur n. Tr unk takeoffs ar e shown. I n
the doubl e-br anch connecti on, l ess ai r i s pr esent i n the mai n duct after some
of i t has been channel ed i nto branch ducts. The si ze of the mai n duct can then
be r edu ced on th e far s i de of th e con n ecti on poi n t. Th e s i n gl e-br an ch
connecti on shows two methods of r educti on. Fi r st, r educti on i n the duct i s
made at the connecti on. Secondl y, a reducti on i n duct depth i s made on the far
si de of the connecti on. I n both doubl e- and si ngl e-branch takeoffs, the branch
connecti ons for m a natur al ai r scoop to encour age ai r fl ow i n the desi r ed
di recti on.
2-15. A boot i s one method to change the shape of a duct wi thout changi ng
the equi val ent cr oss secti on ar ea or constr i cti ng the ai r fl ow. A boot fi tti ng
fr om br anch to stack, wi th the stack ter mi nati ng at a war m-ai r r egi ster , i s
shown i n Figure2-11, page2-10. Table2-1, page2-10 gi ves the equi val ent
l engths of gravi ty duct fi tti ngs.
Figure 2-10. Rectangular Duct Connections
Trunk duct takeoffs Angles and elbows
for trunk ducts
Warm-air and return-air
bonnet (or plenum)
With turning
vanes
Floor register
Right-angle splitter duct
With conventional
turns
FM 3-34.471
2-10 Heating Systems
Figure 2-11. Duck (Boot) Fittings
Table 2-1. Equivalent Lengths of Gravity Duct Fittings
Warm-Air
Boot
Name of Combination
Equivalent
Number of 90-
Degree Elbows
A
45-degree angle boot
and 45-degree elbow
1
B 90-degree angle boot 1
C
Universal boot
and 90-degree elbow
1
D End boot 2
E Offset boot 2 1/2
F 45-degree angle boot 1/2
G Floor register, second story 3
H Offset 3
I Offset 2 1/2
A D E
I H G F
Stack Floor
register
S
Stack head
Stack
Stack head
C B
3-1
Chapter 3
Basic Plumbing Repairs and Maintenance
Thi s chapter cover s step-by-step r epai r pr ocedur es for l eaky pi pes, fr ozen
pi pes, and fi xtur e and dr ai n-l i ne stoppages. (Repai r i ng l eaky val ves and
faucets i s cover ed i n Chapter 7.) Pr eventi ve mai ntenance, cover ed i n thi s
chapter, can hel p r educe corrosi on and scal e, whi ch can cause l eaky pi pes
and a sharpl y r educed water fl ow, respecti vel y.
LEAKS
PIPE CORROSION
3-1. Pi pe cor r osi on i s the thi nni ng of the wal l of a metal pi pe, caused by
el ectr ol ysi s (chemi cal br eakdown by el ectr i c cur r ent), r ust, or aci di ty of the
water. Gal vani c corrosi on (resul ti ng from a di rect current of el ectri ci ty) occurs
i n a pl umbi ng i nstal l ati on system that i ncl udes two di fferent ki nds of metal
pi pe, such as gal vani zed pi pe and copper pi pe.
3-2. The fi rst si gn of corrosi on may be a l eak i n the system occurri ng wi thi n
the wal l s or fl oors of the bui l di ng. Water may show up several l evel s bel ow the
l eak. To hel p l ocate the l eak, use a str i p of wood as a resonator to detect and
magni fy the sound of the l eak. Pl ace one end of the wood agai nst your ear and
the other end agai nst the pi pe and trace the sound. Sound wi l l i ncrease when
getti ng cl oser to the l eak.
RepairingCorrosion
3-3. After l ocati ng the l eak, cut out and repl ace the corroded pi pe wi th
Galvanized pipe. Use the fol l owi ng steps to repl ace gal vani zed pi pe:
Step 1. Shut off the water at the nearest val ve bel ow the l eak, and
drai n the pi pe.
Step 2. Where the fi tti ngs on each si de of the l eak are not readi l y
avai l abl e, cut out the l eaki ng secti on. One pl umber shoul d hol d the
pi pe wi th a wrench to prevent i ts turni ng i n the adjoi ni ng fi tti ng,
whi l e another pl umber cuts a thread on i t.
Step 3. Repl ace the cutout secti on wi th a coupl i ng, a pi pe secti on of
the requi red l ength, and a uni on.
Copper pipe. Copper pi pe resi sts corrosi on, except when attacked by
aci ds. I f a l eak occurs i n copper pi pe
Step 1. Shut off the water at the nearest val ve bel ow the l eak, and
drai n the pi pe.
Step 2. Repl ace i t wi th ei ther sol dered or compressi on joi nts. (These
methods are descri bed i n Chapter 6.)
3-2 Basic Plumbing Repairs and Maintenance
FM 3-34.471
NOTE: Make sure to allow for the fittings required to install the
replacement pipe.
ReducingCorrosion
3-4. The two ways to reduce corrosi on i n pl umbi ng systems are wi th
Dielectric unions. Di el ectr i c uni ons pl aced i n the col d- and hot-water
takeoffs from the tank can control gal vani c corrosi on of water tanks. A
di el ectri c uni on has a fi ber washer, whi ch i nsul ates the tank from the
rest of the pl umbi ng i nstal l ati ons, preventi ng the fl ow of current from
the tank to the system.
Magnesium rods. Magnesi um rods are used i n some water heaters,
such as the gas-operated type, to pr otect agai nst r ust and cor r osi on.
They act as el ectrol yti c cel l s i n whi ch the magnesi um parti cl es go i nto
sol uti on, fl ow thr ough the water, and ar e deposi ted on the metal to be
pr otected. The el ectr ol yti c acti on (el ectr ol ysi s) di ssol ves the r ods.
Ei ghteen months i s consi der ed the maxi mum l i fe of the r ods; then
they must be repl aced.
VALVE REPAIR
3-5. Al l val ves shoul d be checked r egul ar l y for l eaks. Most l eaks ar e fr om
l eaky washers or bonnets. Refer to Chapter 7 for repai rs.
FAUCET REPAIR
3-6. Refer to Chapter 7, Section I I , for faucet repai rs.
TEMPORARY REPAIRS FOR SMALL LEAKS
3-7. Smal l l eaks i n a system requi re temporary or emergency repai rs. Before
maki ng any r epai r s, shut off the water and r el i eve the pr essur e fr om the
system. Pi pes can be temporari l y repai red wi th
Rubber hoseor plastic tubing. Cut the pi pe on ei ther si de of the l eak
wi th a hacksaw or pi pe cutter. Remove the damaged pi pe secti on and
r epl ace i t wi th a l ength of r ubber hose or pl asti c tubi ng. To do thi s,
sl i p the ends over the pi pe and fasten them wi th hose cl amps. The
i nsi de di ameter of the hose must fi t the outsi de di ameter of the pi pe.
Sheet rubber. Wrap the l eaki ng area wi th sheet rubber. Pl ace two
sheet-metal cl amps on the pi pe (one on each si de). Then, fasten the
cl amps wi th nuts and bol ts.
Electrician's friction tape. Wrap several l ayers of fri cti on tape around
the hol e or cr ack, extendi ng the tape about 2 i nches above and bel ow
the l eak.
Wood plugs. Smal l hol es can be fi l l ed wi th wood pl ugs. Dri ve a wooden
pl ug i nto the hol e after i t i s dri l l ed or reamed. The pl ug wi l l swel l as i t
absorbs water, preventi ng i t from bei ng bl own out by water pressure.
NOTE: A permanent repair should be made as soon as possible to
replace the weak or defective part. Replace it with a unit (and
insulation if used) that is the same size and quality as the original
installation.
Basic Plumbing Repairs and Maintenance 3-3
FM 3-34.471
FROZEN PIPES
3-8. Water suppl y l i nes may fr eeze when exposed to temper atures bel ow 32
degr ees Fahr enhei t. Outsi de pi pes must be bur i ed bel ow the fr ost l i ne. I n
norther n zones, thi s may be 4 feet or mor e. I f the bui l di ng temper atur e fal l s
bel ow fr eezi ng, i nsi de pi pes may al so fr eeze, causi ng the pi pe to br eak at the
weakest poi nt. Pr ocedur es for thawi ng above- and bel ow-gr ound pi pes ar e
di scussed i n the paragraphs bel ow.
ABOVEGROUND PIPES
3-9. A bl owtor ch i s the best method to thaw aboveground pi pes, but there i s
a ri sk of fi re. Use the fol l owi ng steps when usi ng a bl owtorch:
Step 1. Open the faucets i n the l i ne.
Step 2. Appl y heat from the bl owtorch at one end of the pi pe and work al ong
the enti re l ength of the pi pe.
Step 3. Conti nue to heat the pi pe unti l the water fl ows freel y.
3-10. Pi pes can be thawed by wrappi ng them wi th burl ap or other cl oth and
pour i ng boi l i ng water over the wr appi ngs, thus tr ansmi tti ng heat to the
frozen pi pe.
3-11. When i nter nal fr eezi ng i s due to fai l ur e i n the heati ng pl ant, the
heati ng pl ant must be repai red; a hi gh temperature shoul d be mai ntai ned i n
the bui l di ng unti l the pi pes thaw.
UNDERGROUND PIPES
3-12. Use the fol l owi ng steps to thaw frozen underground pi pe:
Step 1. Remove the pi pe fi tti ngs.
Step 2. Pl ace a smal l thaw pi pe or tube i nto the frozen pi pe as shown i n
Figure3-1, page3-4.
Step 3. Add an el bow and a pi ece of verti cal pi pe to the outer end of the thaw
pi pe.
Step 4. Pl ace a bucket under the openi ng to the frozen pi pe.
Step 5. I nsert a funnel i nto the open end of the verti cal pi pe.
Step 6. Pour boi l i ng water i nto the funnel and, as the i ce mel ts, push the
thaw pi pe forward.
Step 7. After the fl ow starts, wi thdraw the pi pe qui ckl y. Al l ow the fl ow to
conti nue unti l the thaw pi pe i s compl etel y wi thdrawn and cl eared of i ce.
NOTE: A small pump may be used to clear a piece of pipe. However,
excessi ve pump pressure can cause a backup; therefore, thi s
proceduremust becarefully monitored.
CAUTION
Do not overheat. Solder joints will break loose
when the solder melts.
FM 3-34.471
SCALE
3-13. Scal e can sharpl y reduce the fl ow of water to fi xtures. Scal e i s a resul t
of hard water. Hard water contai ns a l arge amount of cal ci um and magnesi um
compounds whi ch pr event soap fr om l ather i ng. Thi s for ms a scum, whi ch
sl ows down the fl ow of water. The scum deposi ts harden and form scal e.
REDUCING SCALE
3-14. I n l ocal i ti es wher e the water i s unusual l y har d, a water softener i s
used to r educe the har dness. The softener nor mal l y contai ns zeol i te, whi ch
must be r echar ged regul ar l y. Add sodi um chl or i de (tabl e sal t) to the water to
recharge. Water softeners are programmed to recharge at a set ti me each day.
The softened water i s then pi ped i nto the di stri buti on system.
REMOVING SCUM
3-15. To remove scum that has for med on the i nsi de of a pi pe, do one of the
fol l owi ng:
Fl ush wi th hot water.
Use l ye or l ye mi xed wi th a smal l quanti ty of al umi num shavi ngs.
Onl y col d water shoul d be used wi th l ye.
Repl ace the enti re pi pe when there i s a sharp reducti on of water fl ow.
NOTE: Chemical cleaners should not be used in pipes that are
completely stopped up because the cleaners must contact the
stoppagedirectly.
WASTE SYSTEMSTOPPAGES
3-16. A common pr obl em i n waste systems i s a stoppage. A stoppage can
occur i n a fi xtur e dr ai n, fl oor dr ai n, br anch l i ne, or mai n l i ne. The cause can
be hai r , gr ease, or other for ei gn matter that hol ds back the fl ow of waste
di sposal . Use the pr oper cl ear i ng tool to cl ear the stoppage. These tool s
Figure 3-1. Thawing A Frozen Pipe
Boiling water
Dotted lines show fittings
and the pipe removed
Frozen water pipe
Ice
Thaw pipe
Funnel
FM 3-34.471
(Figure3-2) ar e desi gned to cl ear stoppages i n di ffer ent ar eas of the waste
system. These ar eas i ncl ude water cl osets, l avator i es and si nks, ur i nal s,
bathtubs, shower drai ns, branch and mai n waste l i nes, and grease traps
3-17. Water cl oset stoppages (Figure3-3) can be cl eared wi th a
Force-cup plunger. Use the fol l owi ng steps to cl ear stoppages wi th a
force-cup pl unger:
Step 1. Pump the pl unger up and down unti l the water l evel drops.
Step 2. Pl ace toi l et paper i n the bowl and fl ush the water cl oset to
check i f the stoppage i s cl eared.
Water closet snake. Use the fol l owi ng steps to cl ear stoppages wi th a
water cl oset snake:
Step 1. Push the snake i nto the bowl and turn the handl e cl ockwi se
wi th a push-pul l acti on unti l the water l evel dr ops.
Step 2. Check to see i f the stoppage i s cl eared as i n step 2 above.
Figure 3-2. Stoppage Clearing Tools
Figure 3-3. Clearing Water Closet Stoppages
Vacuum
Plungers
Force-cup
Straight snake
Water closet snake
Clearing with a
force-cup plunger
Clearing with a
water closet snake
FM 3-34.471
LAVATORIES AND SINKS
3-18. Cl ear l avatory and si nk P-trap stoppages (Figure3-4) wi th a
Plunger. Use the procedures bel ow to cl ear stoppages.
Step 1. Pl ace a wet rag i n the bowl 's overfl ow openi ng. I f the l avatory
has a pop-up pl ug, remove the pl ug.
Step 2. Set a pl unger over the waste outl et and push i t up and down
unti l the water compl etel y drai ns out of the bowl .
Step 3. Remove the rag from the overfl ow openi ng and repl ace the
pop-up pl ug, i f necessary.
Step 4. Run water through the drai n to ensure that the stoppage i s
removed.
Snake(1/ 4- to1/ 2-inch). Use the steps bel ow to cl ear stoppages.
Step 1. Remove the pl ug i f the l avatory has a pop-up pl ug.
Step 2. Push the snake down i nto the waste outl et as far as i t wi l l go.
Step 3. Use a push-pul l and turni ng acti on unti l the water
compl etel y drai ns out of the bowl .
Step 4. Remove the snake and repl ace the pop-up pl ug, i f appl i cabl e.
NOTE: Stoppage in a P-trap can be removed by disassembling the
P-trap, then removing the stoppage. Reassemble the P-trap after the
stoppageis removed and flush with water to ensuregood drainageof
water.
3-19. Use the fol l owi ng steps to cl ear l avatory and si nk drai n l i ne stoppages
beyond the P-trap (Figure3-5):
Step 1. Pl ace a contai ner under the P-trap to catch the water spi l l age, then
di sassembl e the P-trap.
Step 2. Push the snake i nto the drai n l i ne, turni ng i t wi th a push-pul l acti on
unti l i t moves freel y.
Step 3. Remove the snake and repl ace the P-trap, then run water through
the dr ai n l i ne to ensur e that the water fl ows fr eel y.
Figure 3-4. Clearing Lavatory and Sink Stoppages
Snake Plunger
FM 3-34.471
URINALS
3-20. A stoppage i n a uri nal wi th a water seal or an exposed P-trap i s cl eared
the same as a l avatory (usi ng a pl unger and a 1/4- to 1/2-i nch snake).
BATHTUBS
3-21. Use the steps bel ow to cl ear bathtub P-trap stoppages (Figure3-6).
Step 1. Remove the stopper l i nkage and the overfl ow cover.
Step 2. Push a 1/4- to 1/2-i nch drai n snake i nto the overfl ow openi ng unti l i t
meets some resi stance.
Step 3. Turn the snake usi ng a push-pul l moti on unti l i t turns freel y.
Step 4. Remove the snake and run water through the drai n to check i f the
stoppage i s cl eared.
Step 5. Repl ace the overfl ow cover and l i nkage.
NOTE: Stoppage can often be removed with a vacuumplunger. Try a
plunger first; if theplunger does not work, usea snake.
Figure 3-5. Cleaning Lavatory and Sink Stoppages Beyond the P-Trap
Figure 3-6. Clearing Bathtub P-Trap Stoppages
Snake
Overflow cover and
stopper linkage
FM 3-34.471
3-22. Use the fol l owi ng steps to cl ear drum-trap stoppages (Figure3-7).
Step 1. Remove the drum-top cover and gasket and push a 1/4- to
1/2-i nch snake i nto the trap's l ower l i ne to search for the stoppage.
Step 2. I f a stoppage exi sts, cl ear i t.
Step 3. I f there i s no stoppage i n the l ower l i ne, remove the snake and push
i t i nto the upper l i ne.
Step 4. Turn the snake wi th a push-pul l acti on to remove the stoppage and
repl ace the gasket and cover.
Step 5. Run water through the drai n to see i f the stoppage i s cl eared.
SHOWER DRAINS
3-23. Shower drai ns (Figure3-8) can be cl eared by usi ng a
Hose. Use the steps bel ow to cl ear drai ns.
Step 1. Remove the strai ner from the drai n.
Step 2. Hook up the water hose to a source of water and pl ace the
other end of the hose i nto the drai n.
Step 3. Stuff rags around the hose to form a ti ght seal .
Step 4. Turn the water on ful l force, then off and on agai n. The surge
of water (pressure) wi l l cl ear the stoppage.
Step 5. Repl ace the strai ner.
Snake(1/ 4- to1/ 2-inch). Use the steps bel ow to cl ear drai ns.
Step 1. Remove the strai ner from the drai n.
Step 2. Push the snake i nto the drai n and turn the snake wi th a
push-pul l acti on unti l i t moves freel y.
Step 3. Remove the snake and repl ace the strai ner.
3-24. Fl oor Dr ai n Stoppage. Fl oor dr ai n stoppages ar e cl ear ed the same as
shower dr ai ns (Figure3-8). A fl oor dr ai n may have the str ai ner cemented to
Figure 3-7. Clearing Bathtub Drum-Trap Stoppages
FM 3-34.471
the fl oor; i f so, remove i t by chi ppi ng the cement around the strai ner. Once the
stoppage i s cl eared, cement the strai ner back i n pl ace.
BRANCH AND MAIN WASTE LINES
3-25. Stoppages (Figure3-9, page3-10) that occur i n a branch or mai n waste
l i ne i n a bui l di ng are cl eared through a cl eanout pl ug. Cl ear br anch l i nes by
usi ng the fol l owi ng steps:
Step 1. Remove the cl osest cl eanout pl ug.
Step 2. Cl ear the stoppage wi th a snake.
Step 3. Repl ace the cl eanout pl ug.
Step 4. Run water through the drai n to ensure that the stoppage i s cl eared.
3-26. Cl ear mai n l i nes by usi ng the fol l owi ng steps:
Step 1. Remove the cl osest cl eanout pl ug.
Step 2. Cl ear the stoppage wi th a 3/4- to 1-i nch heavy-duty snake.
Step 3. Repl ace the cl eanout pl ug.
GREASE TRAPS
3-27. Al l work i s done on the pri nci pl e that grease i s l i ghter than water and
wi l l ri se to the top of the water. Use the fol l owi ng steps to cl ear a grease-trap
stoppage:
Step 1. Remove the top cover and di p out the grease wi th a l adl e.
Step 2. Scrape the wal l s and bottom after the grease i s scooped out.
Step 3. Fl ush wi th cl ear water.
Figure 3-8. Clearing Shower-Drain Stoppages
Drain cover
(strainer)
Hose
Snake
FM 3-34.471
Figure 3-9. Clearing Waste-Line Stoppages
Main drain line
Cleanout plug
Cement
4-1
Chapter 4
Plumbing Fixtures
A pl umbi ng fi xture recei ves water and di scharges i ts waste i nto a sani tary
dr ai nage system. Pl umbi ng fi xtur es i ncl ude water cl osets, l avator i es,
si nks, ur i nal s, shower s, bathtubs, l aundr y tubs, and dr i nki ng fountai ns.
Thi s chapter cover s the i nstal l ati on and r epai r pr ocedur es for these
fi xtures.
WATER SUPPLY AND PIPING REQUIREMENT
4-1. A pl umbi ng fi xture must be suppl i ed wi th a water fl ow rate that wi l l fi l l
i t i n a reasonabl e ti me. The pi pe si ze requi red to suppl y each fi xture depends
on the psi pressure on the water mai n, the l ength of pi pi ng i n the bui l di ng, the
number of fi xtures and, for water cl osets, the types of fl ushi ng devi ces. Table
4-1 shows the pi pe di ameter for var i ous fi xtur es. (Refer Chapter 6 for pi pes
and fi tti ngs.)
WATER CLOSETS
4-2. A water cl oset i s a fi xture used to carry organi c body wastes to the sewer
system. Water cl osets are made of vi treous chi na. They can be i nstal l ed on a
Table 4-1. Pipe Diameters for Plumbing Fixtures
Fixture
Pipe Diameter
(in inches)
Lavatory 1/2
Shower 1/2
Bathtub 1/2
Kitchen sink 1/2
Slop sink 1/2
Scullery sink 3/4
Laundry tub 1/2
Drinking fountain 1/2
Water closet tank 1/2
Urinal with diaphragm-type
flushometer
3/4
Water closet flushometer 1
FM 3-34.471
4-2 Plumbing Fixtures
fl oor or suspended fr om a wal l . They ar e avai l abl e wi th var i ous types of
fl ushi ng acti on: washdown bowl , washdown bowl wi th jet, r ever se-tr ap bowl ,
and si phon-jet bowl (Figure4-1).
BOWLS
Types
4-3. Each type has a bui l t-i n trap contai ni ng a water seal , based on the same
atmospheri c pressure on both si des of the trap.
4-4. Common Washdown Bowl. Thi s bowl i s the l east expensi ve and the
si mpl est type of water cl oset. The tr ap i s at the fr ont of the bowl , and smal l
streams of water runni ng down from the ri m fl ush the bowl .
4-5. Washdown Bowl With J et. Thi s bowl i s si mi l ar to the washdown bowl
but i s fl ushed di ffer entl y. The uni t has a smal l hol e i n the bottom, whi ch
del i vers a di rect jet as the uni t i s fl ushed. The jet, di rected i nto the upper arm
of the trap, starts a si phoni ng acti on.
4-6. Reverse-Trap Bowl. Thi s bowl i s si mi l ar to the washdown bowl ,
except that the tr ap i s at the r ear of the bowl , maki ng the bowl l onger . Thi s
bowl hol ds more water than the washdown bowl and i s qui eter i n operati on.
4-7. Siphon-J et Bowl. Thi s bowl i s the most effi ci ent, the qui etest, and the
most expensi ve water cl oset. I t l ooks l i ke the rever se-tr ap bowl but hol ds more
water. I t i s al most compl etel y fi l l ed wi th water.
Installation
4-8. Water-cl oset bowl s are ei ther fl oor-mounted or wal l hung.
NOTE: The method of installing water closet bowls is the same
regardless of theflushingaction.
Figure 4-1. Water Closets
Common washdown bowl Washdown bowl with jet
Siphon-jet bowl Reverse-trap bowl
FM 3-34.471
Plumbing Fixtures 4-3
4-9. Floor-Mounted. To i nstal l a fl oor -mounted water cl oset bowl , the
fol l owi ng i tems and materi al s are needed: a fl oor fl ange, a water cl oset bowl , a
l evel , a wr ench, and a wax or rubber gasket. When i nstal l i ng a water cl oset,
use the fol l owi ng steps and Figure4-2.
Step 1. Pl ace the fl oor fl ange over the cl oset bend unti l the fl ange rests on
the fi ni shed fl oor and then make a joi nt for the type of pi pi ng bei ng used.
Step 2. Put two bowl bol ts wi th thei r threaded ends up i nto the fl ange sl ots.
I f the bowl needs four bol ts, pl ace the bowl properl y on the fl ange and mark
the spots for the two addi ti onal bol ts. Set these bol ts i nto the posi ti ons
marked. For a wood fl oor, use bol ts wi th wood threads at one end and machi ne
threads at the other end. For ti l e or concrete fl oors, set the heads of the
machi ned bol ts i n the hol es and fi l l wi th cement to fl oor l evel .
Step 3. Turn the bowl upsi de down on protecti ve waste newspaper or wooden
stri ps to avoi d scratchi ng. Set a wax gasket over the horn.
Step 4. Tur n the bowl ri ght si de up and set i t on the fl ange wi th the bol ts
through the hol es of the bowl .
Step 5. Pl ace a washer and nut on each bol t, ti ghteni ng each al ternatel y
unti l the bowl i s set.
Step 6. Ensure that the bowl i s i n a l evel posi ti on. I f i t i s not l evel , use thi n
metal shi ms to make i t l evel .
Step 7. Pl ace a nut cap on each nut and ti ghten down. Do not over ti ghten.
Figure 4-2. Floor-Mounted Water Closet Bowl
Wax gasket
Horn
Closet bolts
Floor flange
Bowl
Closet bolt
Floor
Gasket
Closet
flange
4" closet
bend
Closet nut
FM 3-34.471
4-10. Wall Hung. I nstal l the bowl after the fi ni shed wal l i s up. A wal l -hung,
water cl oset bowl i s i nstal l ed on a car r i er mounted between the wal l studs.
Thi s type of water cl oset i s used mai nl y i n commerci al bui l di ngs, but may al so
be found i n r esi denti al bui l di ngs. Use the fol l owi ng steps and Figure4-3 to
hang a water cl oset bowl :
Step 1. I nstal l a carri er usi ng the manufacturer's i nstructi ons.
Step 2. Connect the carri er's outl et to the rough-i n waste pi pe.
Step 3. Pl ace a seal i ng gasket i n the rear openi ng of the bowl .
Step 4. Pl ace the bowl agai nst the wal l wi th the carri er's bol ts passi ng
through the bowl 's hol es.
Step 5. Pl ace a washer and nut on each bol t.
Step 6. Keep the bowl l evel and ti ghten the nuts al ternatel y.
Step 7. Pl ace beauty caps over the bol ts.
TANKS
4-11. Tanks ar e cl assi fi ed as cl ose-coupl ed (fl oor -mounted) or wal l hung. A
cl ose-coupl ed tank i s attached to a fl oor -mounted bowl . A wal l -hung tank i s
attached to the wal l above the bowl , usi ng fi tti ngs for the bowl connecti on. The
fl ushi ng mechani sm i s the same for both types.
Close-Coupled (Floor-Mounted)
4-12. To mount a fl oor-mounted tank, use the fol l owi ng steps and Figure4-4.
Step 1. Push the cone-shaped gasket over the tank's fl ush-val ve outl et. Pl ace
the cushi on gasket (i f i ncl uded) on the bowl and l i ne up the hol es.
Step 2. Pl ace the tank on the bowl wi th the bol t hol es l i ned up.
Step 3. Sl i de a rubber washer on each bol t and, from i nsi de the tank, push
the bol ts through the hol es.
Step 4. Sl i de a washer over each bol t under the back l i p of the bowl and
ti ghten the nuts hand ti ght.
Step 5. Ti ghten the nuts al ternatel y to seat the cone gasket and tank on the
bowl .
Figure 4-3. Wall-Hung Water Closet Bowl
FM 3-34.471
Wall Hung
4-13. To mount a wal l -hung tank, use the fol l owi ng steps and Figure4-5.
Step 1. I nstal l a 2- by 4-i nch mounti ng board by notchi ng the wal l studs at
the hei ght recommended by the manufacturer.
Figure 4-4. Floor-Mounted Tank
Figure 4-5. Wall-Hung Tank
Closet tank
Gasket
Washer
Nut
Closet
bowl
Bolts
Closet tank
Outlet
Rubber washer
Metal friction ring
Slip-joint nut
Water closet elbow
Slip-joint nut
Rubber-washer
Inlet
Spud
Closet
Spud flange
Metal friction ring
Supply pipe
Water closet elbow
Mounting board
Tank
Closet screw
Water closet elbow detail
FM 3-34.471
Step 2. I nstal l the el bow and spud connecti on (fl ange) to the rear of the bowl .
Step 3. Sl i de the sl i p nut, ri ng, and washer (i n that order) onto the other end
of the el bow.
Step 4. Attach the tank to the wal l 's mounti ng board wi th screw bol ts. Make
sure the el bow i s i n the tank's outl et and the tank i s l evel .
Step 5. Check the el bow al i gnment and ti ghten the sl i p-joi nt nuts.
FLUSHING MECHANISMS
4-14. Figure4-6shows tank mechani sms and fl ushometers.
Tank FlushingMechanisms
4-15. A tank's fl ushi ng mechani sm i s mechani cal l y oper ated to fl ush the
water cl oset. The two most common mechani sms ar e the bal l cock and fl oat
cup (Figure 4-6). Fol l ow manufactur er 's i nstr ucti ons to i nstal l a fl ushi ng
Figure 4-6. Flushing Mechanisms
Ball-cock mechanism Float-cup mechanism
Piston type
Tank flushing mechanisms
Flushometers
Diaphragm type
FM 3-34.471
mechani sm i n a tank. After i nstal l ati on, connect the water suppl y ser vi ce,
check the fl ushi ng mechani sms oper ati on, and adj ust i t to mai ntai n the
proper water l evel i n the tank.
Flushometers
4-16. The fl ushometer val ve del i ver s (under pr essur e) a pr eset amount of
water di rectl y i nto a water cl oset for fl ushi ng. The fl ushi ng acti on i s qui ck and
shuts off automati cal l y. Al ways fol l ow the manufactur er 's i nstr ucti ons to
i nstal l a fl ushometer. After i nstal l ati on, turn on the water suppl y and operate
the fl ushometer sever al ti mes, checki ng for l eaks and proper oper ati on. The
most common type of fl ushometer val ves ar e the di aphr agm and the pi ston
(Figure4-6).
TANK WATER SUPPLY CONNECTION
4-17. The water suppl y i s connected from the rough-i n pl umbi ng to a shutoff
val ve and from the val ve to the i nl et at the bottom of the tank. Use Figure4-7
and the fol l owi ng steps to connect the water suppl y:
Step 1. Sl i de the chrome cover on the pi pe projecti ng out from the wal l and
push i t agai nst the wal l .
Step 2. Coat the threads wi th joi nt compound or Tefl ontape and screw the
shutoff val ve onto the pi pe. Ti ghten the val ve so that i ts other openi ng i s
strai ght.
Step 3. Bend the fl exi bl e tube wi th a spri ng bender to get a proper fi t. (Steel -
coated fl exi bl e suppl y l i nes are commonl y used.)
Step 4. Sl i de the i nl et-coupl i ng nut on wi th the tubi ng threads up, and
attach i t to the tank's i nl et and ti ghten hand ti ght.
Step 5. Sl i de the coupl i ng nut threads and compressi on ri ng down onto the
tubi ng. Screw the coupl i ng nut onto the val ve hand ti ght.
Figure 4-7. Tank Water Supply Connection
Tank
Inlet-coupling nut
Flexiblecopper
or plastic tube
Compression coupling nut
Ferrul compression ring
Shutoff valve
Chrome
cover
FM 3-34.471
Step 6. Ti ghten the i nl et-coupl i ng nut and val ve-coupl i ng nut.
Step 7. Open the shutoff val ve for the water suppl y and check for l eaks.
Step 8. Adjust to get a proper water l evel of 1 i nch bel ow the top of the
overfl ow tube. I f an adjustment i s made, check the operati on.
Step 9. Pl ace the tank cover on the tank and i nstal l the water cl oset seat.
REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE
4-18. See Chapter 3 for water-cl oset stoppages.
Flushometers
4-19. When the val ve i s not fl ushi ng or wi l l not stop fl ushi ng, r epai r the
fl ushometer (Figure4-8). I f the fl ushometer i s a
Di aphragm-type,
Step 1. Turn off the water suppl y and remove the outer cover.
Step 2. Remove the i nner core. I f the cover wi l l not remove easi l y,
pry i t off wi th a screwdri ver.
Step 3. Remove the rel i ef val ve.
Step 4. Remove the val ve seat.
Step 5. Remove the cl ogged or worn di aphragm and cl ean.
Step 6. I nstal l the new di aphragm.
Step 7. Reassembl e the val ve.
Step 8. Turn the water suppl y on and check the val ves operati on.
Pi ston-type,
Step 1. Turn the water suppl y off and remove the outer cover and
gasket.
Step 2. Remove the i nner cover and the gasket.
Step 3. Remove the brass screws and retai ni ng pl ate.
Step 4. Remove the cl ogged or worn rubber cup.
Step 5. I nstal l the new rubber cup.
Step 7. Turn the water suppl y on and check the val ves operati on.
4-20. Use the steps bel ow to r epai r handl es (Figure 4-9, page4-10) when
there i s a
Water l eak at the handl e.
Step 1. Turn the water suppl y off at the angl e val ve and unscrew the
retai ni ng nut.
Step 2. Pul l out the handl e body contai ni ng al l the parts up to the
packi ng nut.
Step 3. Gri p the handl e body wi th a wrench and unscrew the packi ng
nut wi th another wrench.
Step 4. Remove the worn packi ng washer and i nstal l the new
packi ng washer.
Step 5. Reassembl e al l the parts.
FM 3-34.471
Step 6. Turn the water suppl y on and check the handl e for l eaks and
for proper operati on.
NOTE: ReplacetheMylarseal and tighten theretainingnut.
Loose or wobbl y handl e.
Step 1. Turn the water suppl y off at the angl e val ve and unscrew the
retai ni ng nut.
Step 2. Pul l out the handl e body contai ni ng al l the parts up to the
packi ng nut.
Step 3. Gri p the handl e body wi th a wrench and unscrew the packi ng
nut wi th another wrench.
Step 4. Gri p the handl e body wi th a wrench and unscrew the bushi ng
wi th l ock-gri p pl i ers.
Figure 4-8. Flushometer Repairs
Outer cover
Gasket
Inner cover
Gasket
Brass screws
Retaining plate
Rubber cup
Piston type Diaphragm type
Diaphragm
Valve seat
Relief valve
Inner cover
Outer cover
FM 3-34.471
Step 5. Remove the worn bushi ng spri ng or pl unger and repl ace
worn parts wi th new ones.
Step 6. Reassembl e al l the parts.
Step 7. Turn the water suppl y on and check the handl e for l eaks and
for proper operati on.
Tank FlushingMechanisms
4-21. Fi xtur e contr ol devi ces ar e used for fl ushi ng water cl osets, hol di ng
water i n a l avator y bowl , and dr ai ni ng waste. These devi ces get much usage
and wear (Figure4-10). Use the pr ocedur es bel ow for bal l -cock and fl oat-cup
repai rs.
4-22. Ball-Cock Repairs. Use the fol l owi ng steps to make r epai r s to the
bal l cock when
The water l evel i s so hi gh that i t i s runni ng i nto the top of the overfl ow
pi pe.
Step 1. Remove the tank top and unscrew the fl oat bal l from the fl oat
rod.
Step 2. Shake the fl oat bal l to fi nd out i f water i s i n the bal l . I f water
i s i nsi de the bal l , repl ace the bal l . I f no water i s i n the bal l , the fl oat
bal l i s functi onal .
Step 3. Screw the fl oat bal l back onto the rod.
Step 4. Pl ace both hands on the mi ddl e of the fl oat rod and careful l y
bend the bal l si de of the rod down about 1/2 i nch.
Step 5. Fl ush the water cl oset to see that the water l evel i s about one
i nch bel ow the top of the overfl ow pi pe and then repl ace the tank top.
There i s water runni ng i n a water cl oset.
Step 1. Remove the tank top and turn off the water suppl y at the
shutoff val ve.
Step 2. Fl ush the water cl oset to empty the tank.
Step 3. Unscrew the fl ush (tank) bal l from the l i ft wi re.
Step 4. Check the bottom of the fl ush bal l for damage or wear.
Step 5. I f the fl ush bal l i s damaged or worn, repl ace i t wi th a new
one.
Figure 4-9. Flushometer Handle Repair
Handle
Retaining nut
Handle body
Plunger
Bushing spring
(plunger)
Bushing
Packing
washer
Washer
Gasket
Packing nut
FM 3-34.471
Step 6. Cl ean the fl ush outl et val ve seat wi th emery cl oth or steel
wool .
Step 7. Operate the handl e to see that the fl ush bal l si ts evenl y i n
the fl ush-outl et val ve.
Step 8. Turn the water suppl y on and fl ush the water cl oset to check
the repai r. Repl ace the tank top.
There i s a faul ty bal l cock operati on.
Step 1. Remove the tank top and turn the water suppl y off.
Step 2. Fl ush the water cl oset to empty the tank.
Step 3. Remove the fl oat rod wi th the fl oat bal l attached.
Step 4. Remove the screws or pi ns at the top of the bal l cock
assembl y.
Step 5. Li ft the pl unger out of the assembl y.
Figure 4-10. Tank Mechanism Repairs
Plunger
Overflow pipe
Trip lever
Float rod
Float ball
Connecting
wire
Lift wire
Flush (tank) ball
Douglas (outlet) valve
Refill tube
Operating
handle
Ball cock
assembly
Overflow pipe
Flapper
Valve
Adjustment clip
Float-cup
mechanism
FM 3-34.471
Step 6. Remove the washer l ocated under the bottom of the pl unger
and O-ri ng from around the pl unger and repl ace them.
Step 7. Reassembl e the bal l cock assembl y fl oat rod wi th a fl oat bal l
attached.
Step 8. Turn the water suppl y on and check the bal l cock.
4-23. Float-Cup Repairs. Use the fol l owi ng steps to make r epai r s to the
fl oat cup when
The water l evel i s so hi gh that i t i s runni ng i nto the overfl ow pi pe.
Step 1. Remove the tank top. Squeeze the top and bottom of the
adjustment cl i p and move i t down on the pul l rod to l ower the fl oat
cup.
Step 2. Fl ush the tank and then check the i ncomi ng water l evel . The
l evel shoul d be about one i nch bel ow the top of the overfl ow pi pe.
Step 3. Repl ace the tank top i f the l evel i s correct. I f the l evel i s not
correct, repeat steps 1 and 2 unti l i t i s correct.
Step 4. Repl ace the tank top.
Water i s runni ng i n the water cl oset.
Step 1. Remove the tank top. Turn off the water suppl y at the shutoff
val ve and fl ush the water cl oset.
Step 2. Li ft up the fl apper and check the bottom for damage or wear.
I f the fl apper i s damaged or worn, repl ace i t.
Step 3. Cl ean the outl et val ve seat wi th emery cl oth or steel wool .
Step 4. Operate the handl e to ensure that the fl apper si ts evenl y i n
the outl et val ve.
Step 5. Turn the water suppl y on and fl ush the water cl oset to check
the repai r. Repl ace the tank top.
LAVATORIES
4-24. A l avator y i s desi gned for washi ng one's hands and face. Lavator i es
come i n a vari ety of shapes, si zes, and col ors. They are made of vi treous chi na,
enamel ed cast i ron, stai nl ess steel , and pl asti c. Hot and col d water i s suppl i ed
through the suppl y system and the waste drai ns i nto the sani tary sewer.
TYPES
4-25. Figure4-11 shows exampl es of wal l -hung, vani ty, pedestal , and trough
l avatori es.
Wall Hung
4-26. Thi s l avator y hangs on a bracket attached to the wal l . I t may or may
not have l egs for added support.
Vanity
4-27. Vani ti es are i nstal l ed on a cabi net or counter.
FM 3-34.471
Pedestal
4-28. Thi s l avatory's wei ght rests on the fl oor and does not requi re support.
Trough
4-29. Thi s l avatory i s mostl y used i n commerci al pl ants and certai n mi l i tary
faci l i ti es.
INSTALLATION
Wall Hung
4-30. Use the fol l owi ng steps, the manufactur er s i nstructi ons, and Figure
4-12, page4-14, to i nstal l a wal l -hung l avatory:
Step 1. I nstal l the mounti ng board between the studs at the proper hei ght,
usi ng the same method as for a wal l -hung fl ush tank (paragraph 4-10, page4-
4).
NOTE: Refer to the manufacturers specifications and plans for the
required height and elevation.
Step 2. Attach a hanger bracket on the fi ni shed wal l usi ng the proper l ength
of wood screws at the recommended hei ght. The metal bracket must be l evel .
Step 3. Pl ace the l avatory on the bracket and push down. Make sure the
l avatory i s l evel .
Figure 4-11. Lavatories
Wall hung Vanity
Trough Pedestal
FM 3-34.471
Faucets
4-31. See Chapter 7 for faucet i nstal l ati on and repai rs.
Drain Assembly
4-32. The waste fr om the l avator y may be r el eased by ei ther a chai n-type
pl ug or a pop-up pl ug (Figure4-13). I nstal l ati on of the fl ange i s the same for
both types. (Fol l ow manufactur er 's i nstr ucti ons to i nstal l the pop-up pl ug
mechani sm to attach the tai l pi ece.) To i nstal l a fl ange
Step 1. Appl y a ri ng of pl umber's putty around the drai n outl et and set the
fl ange fi rml y i nto the outl et.
Step 2. Connect the fl ange to the bowl wi th a washer and l ocknut.
Step 3. Coat the fl ange threads wi th pi pe-joi nt compound and screw on the
tai l pi ece.
Step 4. Connect the P-trap between the rough-i n waste outl et and the
tai l pi ece (Figure4-14). Al l connecti ons shoul d be made wi th washers and sl i p
nuts to form l eakproof joi nts.
Water Supply Connection
4-33. Figure4-15, page4-16, shows how to connect water servi ces (hot and
col d) for a l avatory. After i nstal l ati on, turn the water suppl y on and check for
l eaks.
Figure 4-12. Wall-Hung Lavatory Installation
Mounting board
Level
Hanger
Mounting board
Hanger
Lavatory (on hanger)
Water supply
Shutoff valve
P-trap
FM 3-34.471
POP-UP PLUG REPAIRS
4-34. Use the repai r steps bel ow when the pop-up pl ug (stopper) fai l s to keep
water i n the bowl (Figure4-16, page4-17).
Step 1. Loosen the cl evi s screw wi th pl i ers.
Step 2. Push the pop-up pl ug (stopper) down so that i t si ts snugl y on the
fl ange.
Step 3. Ti ghten the cl evi s screw. Ensure that i t fi ts snugl y on the fl ange.
Step 4. Squeeze the spri ng cl i p and pul l out the pi vot rod from the cl evi s
hol e. The stopper then shoul d operate easi l y. Pl ace the pi vot rod through the
next hi gher or l ower hol e i n the cl evi s.
Figure 4-13. Drain-Plug Assembly
Figure 4-14. P-Trap Connection
Chain
Rubber stopper
Flange
Strainer
Tailpiece
Rubber washer
Pull-out
plug drain
Locknut
Outlet
Nut
Chain stay
Strainer
Operating
(lift) rod
Stopper
Rubber washer
Stuffing box nut
Pivot rod
Tailpiece
Pop-up
plug drain
Tailpiece
Washer
Cleanout plug
Trap
Washer
Waste arm
Slip nuts
FM 3-34.471
Step 5. Cl ose the stopper and fi l l the bowl wi th water.
Step 6. Check the water l evel to ensure that the stopper hol ds water i n the
bowl .
NOTE: I f steps 1-6 do not fix the problem, continue by using the
followingsteps:
Step 7. Ti ghten the pi vot-bal l retai ni ng nut. I f the l eak conti nues, remove
the nut wi th pl i ers.
Step 8. Squeeze the spri ng cl i p, sl i di ng the pi vot rod out of the cl evi s hol e.
Step 9. Sl i de the pi vot-bal l retai ni ng nut and worn washers off the pi vot rod.
Step 10. Sl i de new washers (pl asti c or rubber) and the bal l nut onto the pi vot
rod and ti ghten the pi vot bal l .
Step 11. Reassembl e the pi vot rod i nto the cl evi s hol e.
Step 12. Run water i nto the l avatory and check the connecti on for l eaks.
NOTE: Check the pop-up stoppers ability to hold water after
repairingthepivot-ball connection.
SINKS
4-35. Si nks ar e avai l abl e for di ffer ent uses and come i n sever al si zes and
shapes (Figure4-17). They are made of enamel ed cast i ron, enamel ed pressed-
steel , gal vani zed steel , and stai nl ess steel . (Refer to Chapter 7 for faucet
i nstal l ati on.)
Figure 4-15. Water Supply Connection
Supply line
Compression
ring
Shutoff valve
Coupling nut
FM 3-34.471
Figure 4-16. Pop-Up Plug Repairs
Figure 4-17. Sinks
Pivot-ball retaining nut
Washers
Pop-up plug
Pivot rod
Slip-joint pliers
Spring clip
Clevis
Clevis screw
Lift rod
Kitchen sinks
Scullery sink Slop sink
FM 3-34.471
SCULLERY SINK
4-36. Scul l er y si nks ar e l ar ge, deep si nks used i n mess-hal l -type faci l i ti es.
Scul l er y si nks need onl y i nstal l ati on of faucets and connecti on to waste- and
water suppl y l i nes.
SLOP SINK
4-37. Sl op si nks are used for buckets and mops.
KITCHEN SINK
4-38. Ki tchen si nks can be ei ther si ngl e- or doubl e-compar tment and can be
wal l hung or set i n a counter top. Ki tchen si nks have a str ai ner to pr event
food waste fr om enter i ng the waste system (Figure4-18). Connect the water
servi ce the same as for a l avatory (refer toFigure4-15, page4-16).
URINALS
4-39. A uri nal i s a fi xture that carri es human l i qui d waste to the sewer. I t i s
made of vi treous chi na or enamel ed cast-i ron.
TYPES
4-40. Uri nal types are wal l hung, stal l , and trough (Figure4-19).
Figure 4-18. Kitchen Sink Drain Assembly
Gasket
Washer
Strainer
Body
Sink bottom
Metal ring
Locknut
Plastic insert
Coupling nut
Tailpiece
Retainer
FM 3-34.471
Wall Hung
4-41. Thi s ur i nal can have a bui l t-i n water -seal tr ap or a P-tr ap wi th a
washdown or si phon-jet fl ushi ng acti on. The fl ushi ng devi ce for a wal l -hung
uri nal i s a fl ushometer val ve.
Stall
4-42. The stal l ur i nal i s set i nto the fl oor . A beehi ve str ai ner cover s the
waste outl et, whi ch i s caul ked to a P-tr ap bel ow fl oor l evel . The fl ushi ng
acti on i s the washdown-type produced by a fl ushometer val ve.
Trough
4-43. A tr ou gh ur i n al i s wal l hun g wi th a fl us h tank . Th e ur i nal has
perforated pi pe across the r ear, whi ch al l ows water to fl ow down the back of
the trough when fl ushed.
INSTALLATION
Wall Hung
4-44. Use the fol l owi ng steps and the manufacturer's i nstructi ons to hang a
wal l -hung uri nal :
Figure 4-19. Urinals
Wall-hung
Trough
Stall
FM 3-34.471
Step 1. I nstal l the mounti ng board and bracket.
Step 2. I nstal l the uri nal on the bracket.
Step 3. Make the waste connecti on to the rough-i n pi pi ng.
Step 4. Make the water connecti on to the rough-i n pi pi ng to i ncl ude the
fl ushometer val ve.
Step 5. Turn on the mai n water suppl y and fl ush the uri nal several ti mes to
check for l eaks.
Trough
4-45. Use the fol l owi ng steps and the manufacturer's i nstructi ons or mi l i tary
constructi on drawi ng to hang a trough uri nal :
Step 1. I nstal l the mounti ng board for the trough and tank.
Step 2. Attach the tank to the wal l and i nstal l the fl ushi ng mechani sm.
Step 3. I nstal l the hanger for the trough bowl .
Step 4. Attach the bowl to the wal l .
Step 5. I nstal l the waste connecti on to the rough-i n pi pi ng.
Step 6. I nstal l the pi pi ng from the tank to the trough bowl .
Step 7. I nstal l a water l i ne between the tank and the rough-i n pi pi ng.
Step 8. Turn on the mai n water suppl y and fl ush the uri nal several ti mes to
check for l eaks.
Flushometers
4-46. Refer to paragraph 4-16, page4-7, for fl ushometers.
SHOWERS
4-47. A shower has many advantages over a bathtub whi ch i ncl udethe
smal l amount of space r equi r ed for i nstal l ati on, the smal l amount of water
used compared wi th bathtub use, and sani tati on. Figure4-20 shows the types
of shower heads. The two types of i ndi vi dual shower i nstal l ati ons ar e: ti l ed
and the steel -stal l . (Group showers are usual l y ti l e or concrete.)
TYPES
Tile
4-48. Th e ti l e s h ower h as ti l e or mar bl e wal l s on th r ee s i des wi th a
water pr oof shower cur tai n or door that can be cl osed whi l e the shower i s i n
use. The ti l ed fl oor sl opes to the center (or r ear ) wher e a dr ai n i s pl aced. The
wal l shoul d be waterproofed by setti ng the ti l e i n waterproof cement. The fl oor
i s gener al l y l ai d upon a l ead shower pan, whi ch for ms a water pr oof base on
whi ch to l ay the ti l e, as shown i n Figure4-21.
Stall
4-49. The stal l shower i s a pr efabr i cated uni t wi th thr ee si des and a base,
fi tted together. The si des ar e thi n sheets of gr ooved steel , fi tted together wi th
a water ti ght j oi nt. The base i s usual l y pr ecast concr ete. Spr ay fr om the
FM 3-34.471
shower head causes consi der abl e noi se as i t hi ts the thi n steel , and the metal
si des tend to rust rapi dl y.
INSTALLATION
4-50. Compl ete water pr oofi ng i s the most i mpor tant requi r ement of shower
i nstal l ati on. Ti l e i nstal l ed wi th good-qual i ty water pr oof cement pr ovi des a
water pr oofed wal l . For the fl oor , a water pr oof base (shower pan) under the
shower i s necessary, si nce water standi ng on the ti l e surface can seep through
and cause l eaks. (Refer to Chapter 7 for faucet assembl y and i nstal l ati on.)
Figure 4-20. Showerheads
Figure 4-21. Shower Pan Installation
Strainer
Tile
Moisture drain from pan
Seepage flange
Lead shower pan
Cement
Caulked joint
Upper flange
Trap
FM 3-34.471
Lead Shower Pan
4-51. Befor e i nstal l i ng the l ead shower pan, a car penter must r ough i n the
gener al outl i ne of the stal l and l ay a sol i d base of subfl oor i ng or pl ywood.
Wi thout a sol i d base, the shower pan i s soft and fl exi bl e. I f not suppor ted
pr oper l y, the pan wi l l sag and l eak under the wei ght of the ti l e. I nspect the
r ough i n of the tr ap under neath the fl oor i ng to ensur e that the outl et i s
correctl y pl aced.
4-52. Many types of shower dr ai ns ar e avai l abl e. The one i n Figure4-21,
page4-21, has the pr oper -l ength ni ppl e for pl aci ng the seepage fl ange at a
l evel wi th the l ead pan thr eaded i nto the ni ppl e. The l ead pan i s made by
usi ng a sol i d sheet of l ead 6 to 8 i nches l arger than the si ze of the shower fl oor
and bendi ng up the edges at ri ght angl es to the desi red hei ght. Use Figure4-21
and the fol l owi ng procedure to i nstal l a l ead shower pan:
Step 1. Cut a hol e where the drai n i s l ocated and l ower the l ead shower pan
i nto pl ace. The pan shoul d rest fi rml y on the seepage fl ange of the shower
drai n.
Step 2. Coat the i nsi de of the l ead shower pan wi th asphal t.
Step 3. Pl ace pi pe-joi nt compound or putty under the top of the fl ange.
Step 4. Pl ace the upper fl ange on top of the l ower fl ange and attach them
together to for m a water ti ght joi nt between the shower waste and the shower
pan.
Step 5. Thread the strai ner down i nto the fl anges to the desi red l evel of the
ti l e.
Step 6. Compl ete the i nstal l ati on by l ayi ng cement i n the shower pan and
ti l i ng the fl oor.
ConcreteShower Pan
4-53. Concrete shower pans wi th pr efabri cated, steel shower stal l s ar e easy
to i nstal l . They ar e often set up after the or i gi nal constr ucti on. I n thi s case,
the cement base i s l ai d di rectl y on top of the fl oor.
WATER SUPPLY CONNECTION
4-54. The water suppl y for a shower may be hi dden i n the wal l or exposed.
Figure4-22 shows exposed hot- and col d-water l i nes ti ed i nto a si ngl e water
l i ne endi ng i n a shower head. The col d-water l i ne i s br ought i n on the r i ght
si de whi l e the hot-water l i ne i s br ought i n on the l eft. A vari ety of faucet and
val ve combi nati ons i s avai l abl e on unexposed i nstal l ati ons (Figure4-23, page
4-24). The compr essi on val ve pr ovi des a temper ed water l i ne of chr omi um-
pl ated tubi ng, endi ng i n a gooseneck and shower head. I n the si ngl e-handl e
mi xi ng val ve, th e hot and col d water ar e mi xed i n a cast-br ass mi xi ng
chamber. The handl e control s a pi ston-l i ke val ve. By turni ng the val ve handl e
cl ockwi se, war mer water i s suppl i ed to the shower head. A gr eater var i ety of
showerheads than val ves i s avai l abl e (see Figure4-20, page4-21).
FM 3-34.471
BATHTUBS
TYPES
4-55. A var i ety of bui l t-i n bathtubs i s avai l abl e. They ar e desi gned to be
r ecessed for cor ner i nstal l ati on of squar e, r ectangul ar , and angl ed tubs and
tubs wi th one or mor e l edge seats. Tubs ar e made of enamel ed cast i r on or
steel and fi bergl ass.
INSTALLATION
4-56. Modern cast-i r on tubs are desi gned to rest on the fl oor and fi t agai nst
the wal l fr ami ng (studs). They need no wal l suppor t, except that steel tubs
have fl anges suppor ted by l - by 4-i nch boar ds, nai l ed to the studs. Use a
waterproofi ng cement to caul k the joi nt between the fi ni shed wal l surface and
the tub. Mount the over-ri m tub fi l l i ng, wi th or wi thout a shower di verter, on
the wal l at one end of the tub. The dr ai n may be the pul l -out or pop-up type.
Figure 4-22. Shower With Exposed Piping
Street elbow
Shower head
Hot water
Union
Valve
Cold water
Tempered water
FM 3-34.471
I nstal l removabl e servi ce panel i n the wal l behi nd the tub to provi de access to
the trap and the water suppl y val ve.
LAUNDRY TUBS
4-57. Laundry tubs are usual l y pl aced i n the basement or uti l i ty room.
TYPES
4-58. Th e mos t common ty pe i s con cr ete wi th a metal r i m, al th ou gh
enamel ed cast-i r on/steel and pl asti c uni ts ar e al so avai l abl e. They come i n
si ngl e- and doubl e-compartment styl es (Figure4-24).
INSTALLATION
4-59. Use the fol l owi ng steps and Fi gure 4-25, to i nstal l a tub (r efer to
Chapter 7 for faucet i nstal l ati on):
Step 1. Assembl e the metal stand by bol ti ng i ts secti ons together.
Step 2. Pl ace the stand i n a conveni ent pl ace i n front of the rough-i n pi pi ng
and careful l y set the tub on the stand.
Step 3. Connect the P-trap to the tub as shown i n Figure4-25.
Step 4. Connect a swi ng-combi nati on faucet to the hot- and col d-water
suppl y l i nes. Usual l y, the faucet i s furni shed wi th a hose bi b for attachi ng a
hose.
Figure 4-23. Showers With Unexposed Piping
Combination compression faucet
(with or without shower)
Single-knob noncompression faucet
(without shower)
FM 3-34.471
DRINKING FOUNTAINS
4-60. Dr i nki ng fountai ns (Figure 4-26, page 4-26) ar e made of por cel ai n
enamel ed steel , cast i ron, or stai nl ess steel .
TYPES
4-61. The three types of dri nki ng fountai ns are the pedestal , wal l -hung, and
el ectr i cal l y cool ed. The pedestal fountai n needs no wal l suppor t. The wal l -
hung fountai n i s bol ted to a mounti ng boar d on the wal l . The el ectr i cal l y
cool ed fountai n has a r efr i ger ati ng uni t i n whi ch the water suppl y tubi ng
Figure 4-24. Laundry Tubs
Figure 4-25. Laundry Tub Installation
Double Single
Twin fitting
Iron pipe, threaded
Slip-joint nut
Metal friction ring
Rubber washer
P-trap
Waste pipe (to sewer)
Waste run
Drainage T
Vent pipe
Tub
Tailpiece
FM 3-34.471
passes over the r efr i ger ati ng coi l s to be cool ed befor e bei ng suppl i ed to the
dri nki ng outl et.
INSTALLATION
4-62. Sani tati on i s an extr emel y i mpor tant consi der ati on when i nstal l i ng
dri nki ng fountai ns. Water from the dri nki ng outl et shoul d not fal l back on the
bubbl er head. The bubbl er head shoul d project at l east 3/4 i nch above the ri m
of the fountai n and be l ocated so that a per son's mouth cannot touch i t. The
fountai n dr ai n shoul d have a good str ai ner to keep chewi ng gum and other
objects from enteri ng the drai n l i ne.
4-63. I nstal l fountai ns wi th the bubbl er head at a hei ght desi gned for the
aver age user . Ensur e that the mounti ng i s stur dy to suppor t consi der abl e
wei ght i n addi ti on to that of the fi xture. I nstal l a 1 1/4-i nch P-trap bel ow the
waste pi pe. The el ectri cal l y cool ed fountai n requi res a nearby el ectri cal outl et.
Fol l ow the manufacturer's i nstructi ons when i nstal l i ng a water fountai n.
Figure 4-26. Water Fountains
Pedestal
Wall-hung
Electrically cooled
5-1
Chapter 5
Water Heaters
Water heaters are cl assi fi ed i nto four categori es: range boi l ers and gas, oi l -
burni ng, and el ectr i c water heaters. Each type shoul d have a temperature-
and pr essur e-r el i ef val ve and a sedi ment dr ai n at the l owest par t of the
tank. Rel i ef val ves are set to al l ow water to bl ow i nto a dr ai n l i ne when the
pr essur e exceeds 210 degr ees Fahr enhei t or when the pr essur e exceeds
125 psi .
TYPES
RANGE BOILERS
5-1. The range boi l er i s a hot-water storage tank, varyi ng from 1 to 5 feet i n
di ameter and fr om 6 to 15 feet i n l ength. I t has a fur nace coi l , an exter i or
devi ce to heat the water, or a combi nati on of the two.
RangeBoiler and FurnaceCoil
5-2. I n the r ange boi l er and fur nace-coi l arr angement shown i n Figure5-1,
page5-2, the r ange boi l er i s usual l y mounted upr i ght on a stand. A dr ai n i s
pl aced at the bottom to r emove sedi ment, and a temper atur e- and pr essur e-
r el i ef val ve i s pl aced at the top for safety. The fur nace coi l i s l ocated i n the
furnace fi r ebox, whi ch suppl i es heat to the bui l di ng. Thi s type of i nstal l ati on
i s of val ue onl y when the furnace i s heati ng the bui l di ng; i t i s i mpracti cal i n
the summer months.
RangeBoiler and Heater
5-3. I n the r ange boi l er and heater i nstal l ati on (Figure5-2, page5-2), the
boi l er i s usual l y i nstal l ed hori zontal l y on a stand. The heater may be fi red by
coal , gas, or oi l .
GAS WATER HEATERS
Side-ArmGas Heater
5-4. The si de-ar m gas water heater (Figure5-3, page5-3) (usual l y i n ol der
i nstal l ati ons) i s used mostl y duri ng the summer months to support furnace-oi l
water heaters.
Gas Water Heater
5-5. The gas water heater (Figure5-4, page5-3) i s a gal vani zed-i ron, copper,
or porcel ai n-l i ned (gas-l i ned) steel tank encl osed i n an i nsul ati ng jacket. A gas
bur ner pr ovi des the heat. The ther mostat contr ol s the temper atur e of the
FM 3-34.471
5-2 Water Heaters
water i n the i nsul ated tank. I ts operati on i s automati c and wi l l keep water at
any temperature from 110 degrees to 165 degrees Fahrenhei t, accordi ng to the
setti ng on the ther mostat. When gas i s avai l abl e, the gas water heater
provi des an effi ci ent and i nexpensi ve way to suppl y hot water at al l ti mes.
OIL-FIRED WATER HEATER
5-6. The oi l -fi red water heater i s si mi l ar to the gas water heater, except that
a vapori zi ng or pressure oi l burner suppl i es the heat.
Figure 5-1. Range Boiler and Furnace Coil
Figure 5-2. Range Boiler and Heater
Siphon hole
in the pipe
Cold-water inlet
Hot-water outlet
Temperature- and
pressure-relief valve
Furnace coil
Drain valve
Cold-water inlet
Siphon hole in the pipe
Temperature- and
Hot-water outlet
Heater (coal,
gas, or oil)
Drain valve
FM 3-34.471
Water Heaters 5-3
ELECTRIC WATER HEATER
5-7. The el ectr i c water heater (Fi gure 5-5, page 5-4) nor mal l y has two
i mmer si on-type heati ng el ements. The upper heater usual l y has hi gher
wattage than the l ower . Ther mostats contr ol these el ements to ensur e that
the oper ati on i s automati c. The heater does not need a fl ue or smoke pi pe,
Figure 5-3. Side-Arm Gas Heater
Figure 5-4. Gas Water Heater
Temperature- and
Hot-water outlet
Flue to chimney
Gas line
Gas heater
Furnace coil
Cold-water inlet
Drain valve
Cold-water inlet
Hot-water outlet
Temperature- and
Pressure relief line
Drain valve
Thermostat
6"
Gas burner
Gas line
Gas control valve
Flue to chimney
FM 3-34.471
5-4 Water Heaters
si nce there are no burni ng products. The el ectri c water heater may be l ocated
away from the chi mney, i n a cl oset, for exampl e.
FIELD WATER-HEATING DEVICES
5-8. Under fi el d condi ti ons, water -heati ng devi ces are desi rabl e to mai ntai n
the heal th, cl eanl i ness, and mor al e of the troops. I n some cl i mates, heat fr om
the sun wi l l take the chi l l fr om shower water . (Pai nti ng water contai ner s
bl ack can absor b mor e heat fr om the sun.) When a devi ce i s needed to heat
water, i t can be assembl ed by usi ng avai l abl e materi al s. Two devi ces for mess-
ki t washi ng and showers are the vapor burner and the oi l -water fl ash burner,
whi ch i s assembl ed from a ki t.
Vapor Burner
5-9. Fuel s such as di esel oi l , ker osene, gasol i ne, or a combi nati on ar e used.
I n col d cl i mates, gasol i ne may be added to thi n the oi l before use. To construct
the bur ner , sever al secti ons of pi pe, a val ve, pi pefi tti ngs, and a fuel r eser voi r
are needed. The burner operates by preheati ng the fuel to form a vapor before
bur ni ng. Figure5-6 shows a vapor bur ner for a mess-ki t washi ng setup, as
descri bed i n the fol l owi ng procedures:
Step 1. Assembl e the pi pe so that i t doubl es under i tsel f. The best pi pe si ze
to use i s 1/2- or 1/4-i nch.
Step 2. Dri l l smal l hol es (1/16 i nch or l ess) i n the top of the l ower pi pe, where
the water contai ners wi l l be pl aced.
Step 3. Cap the end of the pi pe so that fuel can onl y escape from the dri l l ed
hol es.
Figure 5-5. Electric Water Heater
Cold-water inlet
Hot-water outlet
Drain valve
Baffle
Lower heating
element
Thermostat
Upper heating
element
Thermostat
Insulation
Temperature- and
FM 3-34.471
Water Heaters 5-5
Step 4. Burn the fuel from the l ower pi pe to heat the fuel i n the upper pi pe,
causi ng the fuel to vapori ze. The vapor causes pressure i n the l ower pi pe and
forces the fuel out through the hol es as a spray, maki ng a better fl ame.
Step 5. Pl ace the pi pes i n a fi re trench for more effi ci ent operati on. The
trench shoul d be about 1 foot wi de and 15 i nches deep.
Step 6. Coi l i ron wi re around the l ower pi pe near the hol es and around the
upper pi pe just above the hol es to serve as an automati c rel i ghti ng devi ce. The
wi res become red hot after the burner has been operati ng for a few mi nutes. I f
the fl ame goes out, the heat from the wi res rel i ghts the fuel , preventi ng an
expl osi on from gas col l ected i n the trench.
Step 7. Before l i ghti ng the burner, open the control val ve to al l ow a smal l
amount of fuel to run through the l ower pi pe.
Step 8. I gni te the fuel by heati ng the upper pi pe and starti ng the fuel -heat-
gas pr essur e cycl e.
Oil-Water Flash Burner
5-10. Thi s bur ner can be assembl ed and i nstal l ed fr om a k i t, fol l owi ng
manufactur er 's i nstr ucti ons. A pr oper l y oper ated bur ner pr oduces a bl ue
fl ame. I f the bl ue fl ame bl ows i tsel f out, i nsuffi ci ent fuel i s getti ng through the
hol es. Open the val ve sl i ghtl y or enl arge the hol es to correct thi s si tuati on. A
yel l ow fl ame i ndi cates i ncompl ete bur ni ng caused by too much fuel escapi ng
fr om the hol es. Cl ose the val ve sl i ghtl y or decr ease the si ze of the hol es to
correct thi s condi ti on.
Figure 5-6. Vapor Burner
Fuel storage
55-gallon drums
with tops removed
Pipe arrangement at bottom of drum
Fire trench
Scrap-iron supports
FM 3-34.471
5-6 Water Heaters
SIZES
5-11. The maxi mum l oad and the worki ng l oad determi ne the amount of hot
water needed per hour . A heater wi th a stor age capaci ty and r ecover y r ate
suppl yi ng that amount shoul d be i nstal l ed.
MAXIMUM LOAD
5-12. The maxi mum l oad of a water heater i s the maxi mum amount of water
used dai l y per person per hour. (The amount of dai l y water used i s spread over
sever al hour s.) The amount of water var i es wi th the styl e of l i vi ng and the
type of bui l di ng. To deter mi ne the si ze of hot-water heater needed for a
bu i l di ng, con s i der th e maxi mu m h ou r l y u se an d th e n u mber of u ser s .
General l y, the maxi mum hourl y use of hot water per person woul d be
School s 2 or 3 gal l ons
Offi ces 4 or 5 gal l ons
Li vi ng quarters and barracks 8 to 10 gal l ons
WORKING LOAD
5-13. The worki ng l oad of a water heater i s the percentage of maxi mum l oad
expected under nor mal condi ti ons i n any gi ven hour . Appr oxi mate wor ki ng
l oads are
School or offi ce bui l di ngs 25 percent
Resi denti al bui l di ngs 35 percent
Barracks bui l di ngs 40 percent
5-14. For exampl e, the capaci ty of a water heater for a barracks that houses
50 sol di ers can be determi ned as fol l ows:
Step 1. 50 users x 8 gal l ons per hour (GPH) each = 400 gal l ons
Step 2. 400 gal l ons x 40 percent worki ng l oad = 160 gal l ons
5-15. A heater wi th a 100-gal l on stor age capaci ty and a 60-GPH r ecover y
rate (100 degrees Fahrenhei t ri se) coul d be i nstal l ed.
OPERATION HAZARDS
5-16. Operati on hazards and methods of reduci ng them are as fol l ows:
Carbon monoxidepoisoning. Carbon monoxi de i s a col orl ess, odorl ess
gas gi ven off when burni ng i s i ncompl ete. The hazard may be removed
by proper operati on and adequate venti l ati on.
Lead poisoning. Lead poi soni ng resul ts from usi ng l eaded fuel such as
ethyl gasol i ne. Br eathi ng the vapor s i s ver y danger ous. Adequate
venti l ati on i s absol utel y necessary.
Explosion. A seri ous expl osi on can occur when a burner i s not bui l t or
operated properl y. I f the fl ame of a burner goes out and the fuel i s not
tur ned off or r el i ghted i mmedi atel y, gas may bui l d up. An expl osi on
can r esul t i f the gas i s i gni ted. The vapor bur ner i s mor e danger ous
than the oi l -water fl ash bur ner , but the vapor bur ner 's automati c
rel i ghti ng devi ce reduces the chance of an expl osi on.
6-1
Chapter 6
Pipes and Fittings
Pi pes and fi tti ngs for pl umbi ng systems ar e cl assi fi ed i nto four basi c
gr oups: (1) cast-i r on soi l pi pe and fi tti ngs, (2) gal vani zed-steel /i r on pi pe
and fi tti ngs, (3) copper tubi ng and fi tti ngs, and (4) pl asti c pi pe. Other
pi pes are al so covered i n thi s chapter.
PIPE SELECTION
6-1. Table6-1 gi ves the char acter i sti cs and uses of pi pes and fi tti ngs i n a
pl umbi ng system. Appendix D cover s pi pe capaci ti es and the al l owance for
fri cti on l oss i n pi pes.
Table 6-1. Pipe Characteristics and Uses
System
Type of Pipe Rigid Flexible Water Waste
Cast-iron soil pipe:
Hub and spigot
Double hub
Hubless
*
*
*
*
*
*
Galvanized-steel/
iron pipe
* * *
Copper tubing:
K
1
L
2
M
3
DMV
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Plastic pipe:
PB
PE
PVC
CPVC
4
ABS
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
1
Thick wall
2
Medium wall
3
Thin wall
4
CPVC is used for cold- and hot-water systems.
FM 3-34.471
6-2 Pipes and Fittings
PIPE ASSEMBLY MATERIALS
J OINT MATERIALS
6-2. Al l joi nts must be waterti ght and gasti ght. To do thi s, a speci fi c materi al
i s used wi th each k i nd of pi pe. Refer to the par agr aph s bel ow an d the
defi ni ti ons i n the gl ossar y of thi s manual for addi ti onal i nfor mati on on joi nt
materi al s.
Oakum
6-3. Oakum i s hemp or jute fi bers soaked wi th a bi tumi nous compound. I t i s
l oosel y twi sted or spun i nto a r ope or yar n. I t i s used wi th l ead or other
mater i al s to make caul ked j oi nts i n hub-and-spi got cast-i r on pi pe and i n
vi tri fi ed-cl ay ti l e or concrete pi pe.
Lead
6-4. Lead i s mel ted and pour ed i nto the joi nt. Al ter nati vel y, l ead wood or
shredded l ead, packed col d, may be used on top of the oakum i n caul ked joi nts.
Pipe-J oint Compound
6-5. Thr ead and pi pe joi nts ar e made by usi ng one of sever al compounds,
referred to as dope, for protecti ng the threads and for easy mai ntenance.
Solder
6-6. Sol der i s used wi th sol der fi tti ngs to joi n copper tubi ng and br ass and
copper pi pe. A nonaci d fl ux (a substance, such as r osi n, appl i ed to pr omote
uni on of mater i al s) must be used. A 95 per cent ti n and 5 per cent al umi num
compound or substance i s used for copper tubi ng.
Solvent Cement
6-7. Sol vent cement i s used wi th pl asti c fi tti ngs to joi n r i gi d pl asti c pi pe.
Thi s cement comes i n several types for each di fferent pl asti c pi pe and fi tti ng.
Bitumen
6-8. Bi tumi nous compounds, such as asphal t and tar pi tch, are used to make
joi nts i n vi tri fi ed-cl ay ti l e and concrete pi pe.
Gaskets
6-9. Fl ange joi nts need gaskets of rubber , cor k, composi ti on, sheet metal , or
other materi al .
OTHER MATERIALS
6-10. I n addi ti on to the fol l owi ng, some mater i al s ar e di scussed under the
di fferent types of pi pes i n thi s chapter.
Sheet Metal, Aluminum, Lead Copper, and Galvanized-Iron
6-11. These mater i al s ar e used for fl ashi ng ar ound stacks and for shower
pans.
FM 3-34.471
Pipes and Fittings 6-3
PipeHangers
6-12. Many types of hanger s for suppor ti ng pi pe ar e avai l abl e (Figure6-l).
Among the most common are the perforated i ron str ap fur ni shed i n r ol l s and
cut to l ength, U-shaped wi re hangers, and i ron-ri ng hangers.
Oil
6-13. Cutti ng oi l or l ar d oi l i s used as a l ubr i cant when cutti ng thr eads on
pi pe.
Insulation
6-14. See Chapter 12 for pi pe i nsul ati on.
PIPE MEASUREMENTS
6-15. Fi tti ngs are par t of a pi pe-r un l ength. The total l ength measurement
must i ncl ude the di stance (engagement) a pi pe goes i nto a fi tti ng and the
fi tti ng's di mensi ons. Thi s secti on descr i bes deter mi nati ons and defi ni ti ons of
pi pe runs and pl umbi ng measurements.
Figure 6-1. Pipe Hangers
Pipe strap
Adjustable hanger
Wall hanger
Common hanger
Common hanger
FM 3-34.471
DEFINITIONS
PipeEngagement
6-16. A pi pe engagement i s the di stance the pi pe goes i nto a fi tti ng. Thi s
di stance i s determi ned by the pi pes nomi nal si ze di ameter (Figure6-2).
Type of Fitting Material
Nominal Size
Diameter (in Inches)
Approximate Pipe
Engagement (in
Inches)
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
3/4
1
1 1/4
1 1/2
2
3
1/4
3/8
3/8
1/2
9/16
11/16
11/16
11/16
3/4
1
1/4
3/8
1/2
3/4
1
1 1/4
1 1/2
5/16
3/8
1/2
3/4
15/16
1
1/18
1/2
3/4
1
1 1/4
1 1/2
2
3
4
1/2
5/8
3/4
11/16
11/16
3/4
1 1/2
1 3/4
2
3
4
5
6
2 1/2
2 3/4
3
3
3
Figure 6-2. Pipe Engagement in Fittings
Steel, threaded
(pipe-joint compound)
Copper
(solder)
Plastic
(solvent cement)
Cast-iron
(oakum and lead)
FM 3-34.471
FittingDimension
6-17. A fi tti ng's di mensi on i s the measurement from the center of a fi tti ng to
the end of the fi tti ng, as shown i n Figure6-3. Use thi s di mensi on when the
fi tti ng i s part of the pi pe-run l ength.
TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS
6-18. Of the sever al methods of measur i ng pi pe l engths, the ones most
commonl y used ar e the face-to-face and the center -to-center methods, as
shown i n Figure6-4.
Figure 6-3. Fitting Dimension
Figure 6-4. Types of Measurements
End-to-end
End-to-center
Face-to-end
Center-to-center
Face-to-face
FM 3-34.471
Face-to-Face
6-19. A face-to-face measure i s the di stance between the faces of each fi tti ng.
To deter mi ne the pi pe l ength needed, add the pi pe engagement di stance for
each fi tti ng to the face-to-face measurement.
Center-to-Center
6-20. A center-to-center measure i s used when pi pe fi tti ngs are on each end.
To deter mi ne th e pi pe l ength needed, su btr act th e sum of both fi tti ng
di mensi ons and then add the sum of both pi pe engagements.
End-to-End
6-21. End-to-end measure i s the ful l l ength of pi pe, i ncl udi ng both threads.
Offset
6-22. An offset measur ement i s used to i nstal l a pi pel i ne r un ar ound an
obstacl e (Figure6-5). The fol l owi ng steps expl ai n how to run an offset usi ng
3-i nch steel -threaded pi pe; 45-degree el bows wi th a fi tti ng di mensi on of 4 5/8
i nches; and a 1-i nch threaded-pi pe engagement:
Step 1. Determi ne the verti cal di stance "A"from the center of the pi pe to
center of the pi pe. I n thi s exampl e, the di stance i s 40 i nches.
Step 2. Refer to Table6-2 for the 45-degree offset constant, whi ch i s 1.4142.
Step 3. Mul ti pl y 1.4142 i nches by 40.
1.4142 by 40 = 56.5680 = 56.57 = 56 9/16 inches of pipe
Step 4. Si nce two el bows are needed, subtract the sum of both el bow-fi tti ng
di mensi ons from 56 9/16 i nches. A 3-i nch, 45-degree el bow-fi tti ng di mensi on i s
4 5/8 i nches.
4 5/8 + 4 5/8 = 8 10/8 = 9 2/8 = 9 1/4 (or 9 4/16)
56 9/16 9 4/16 = 47 5/16
Figure 6-5. Offset Measurement
End-to-center
C
End-to-center
C
e
n
t
e
r
-
t
o
-
c
e
n
t
e
r
B
A
Degree
of offset
FM 3-34.471
Step 5. Add the sum of the 1-i nch pi pe engagement for each fi tti ng to 47 5/16
i nches.
47 5/16 + 2 = Total pipe length needed for "C"
CAST-IRON SOIL PIPE AND FITTINGS
6-23. Cast i r on i s avai l abl e i n two di ffer ent wal l thi cknesses or wei ghts,
servi ce wei ght (SW) and extra-heavy wei ght (XH).
USE
6-24. Cast-i r on soi l pi pe i s used for sewer s, dr ai ns, stacks, and vents i n a
waste system. SW i s used i n househol ds and i s adequate for most mi l i tar y
constructi on; XH i s used where l i qui ds may corrode the pi pe or where greater
strength i s needed for tal l stacks or under roadways.
TYPES AND SIZES
6-25. Thi s pi pe i s manufactur ed i n thr ee di ffer ent types (Figure6-6, page
6-8):
Hub and Spigot
6-26. Hub-and-spi got pi pe comes i n 5-foot l engths r angi ng i n di ameter fr om
2 to 15 i nches.
DoubleHub
6-27. Doubl e-hub pi pe comes i n l engths r angi ng i n di ameter fr om 2 to 15
i nches.
Hubless
6-28. Hubl ess pi pe comes i n 10-foot l engths rangi ng i n di ameter from 1 1/2 to
8 i nches.
Table 6-2. Offset Degree Constants
Degree of
Offset
When A=1,
B=
When B=1,
A=
When A=1,
C=
60 0.5773 1.7320 1.1547
45 1.0000 1.0000 1.4142
30 1.7320 0.5773 2.0000
22 1/2 2.4140 0.4142 2.6131
11 1/4 5.0270 0.1989 5.1258
5 3/8 10.1680 0.0983 10.2170
FM 3-34.471
HANDLING AND STORAGE
6-29. Cast-i r on pi pe i s heavy and br i ttl e; ther efor e, i t must be stor ed and
handl ed wi th care to prevent cracks or breakage.
FITTINGS
6-30. The major types of fi tti ngs used for cast-i r on pi pe are Ts, Y-branches,
bends, and tr aps. (Less commonl y used fi tti ngs ar e l i sted i n paragraph 6-36,
page6-11.) These fi tti ngs ar e used for connecti ng hub-and-spi got or hubl ess
cast-i ron pi pes.
Ts
6-31. SanitaryTs are desi gned to carry drai nage and straight Ts are used for
vent l i nes (Figure6-7). Use a tapped T, ei ther sani tary or strai ght, to connect
thr eaded-pi pe br anch dr ai ns or vent l i nes. Use a test T for testi ng a newl y
i nstal l ed waste system for l eaks. A Ts si ze i s al ways gi ven fi rst by the through
secti on (run) and then by the takeoff (outl et).
Figure 6-6. Cast-Iron Pipes
Spigot Hub (or bell)
Hub and spigot
Double hub
Hubless
Laying length 60"
Size (diameter)
FM 3-34.471
Y-Branches
6-32. Y-branches are used to joi n one or more sani tary sewer branches or to
connect a branch to a mai n l i ne. Thi s desi gn al l ows a smoother change i n fl ow
di r ecti on. The most common Y-br anches ar e the 45- and 90-degr ee types
(Figure6-8).
Figure 6-7. Cast-Iron Ts
Figure 6-8. Cast-Iron 45- and 90-Degree Y-Branches
Straight T
(reducing)
Tapped
straight "I"
Sanitary T
(reducing)
Tapped
sanitary "I"
Test T
Regular 45 Reducing 45 Tapped inverted 45
Upright 90 Reducing 90 Regular 90
Double 90 Box 90
FM 3-34.471
45-Degree. A 45-degree Y-branch has a si de takeoff enteri ng the
thr ough secti on at a 75-degr ee angl e. The si de takeoff may be the
same di ameter or a smal l er di ameter. I f the takeoff i s smal l er , i t i s a
r educi ng Y-br anch. Other types of 45-degr ee br anches ar e i nver ted,
tapped, and tapped i nverted.
90-Degree. The 90-degree Y-branch, al so cal l ed a combi nati on Y and
1/8 bend or T-Y, i s made i n sever al shapes. The doubl e 90-degr ee
Y-br anch i s used extensi vel y i n a uni t vent i nstal l ati on. The box
90-degree Y-branch wi th a si de takeoff on each si de i s used to i nstal l a
stack i n a r oom cor ner . The 90-degr ee Y-br anches al so have tapped
si de takeoffs.
Bends
6-33. Bends ar e used to change the di r ecti on of a cast-i r on pi pel i ne. The
degr ee of di r ecti on change i s gi ven as a common math fr acti on. Bends ar e
desi gnated i n fr acti ons of 1/16, 1/8, 1/6, 1/5, 1/4, and 1/2 as they change the
di recti on of 22 1/2, 45, 60, 72, 90, and 180 degrees, respecti vel y. These bends
can be regul ar, short sweep, or l ong sweep (Figure6-9).
Figure 6-9. Cast-Iron Bends
1/16 bend
(regular)
1/8 bend
(regular)
1/4 bend
(regular)
1/2 or return
1/4 short bend
(or sweep) 1/4 long bend
(or sweep)
Reducing sweep
Soil-pipe closet bends
FM 3-34.471
Closet Bends
6-34. A cl oset bend i s a speci al fi tti ng to connect a soi l waste branch l i ne for a
water cl oset (toi l et). I t can be pl ai n or tapped for waste or venti ng. Cl oset
bends ar e made to fi t di ffer ent types of fl oor fl anges (r i ms for attachment).
One type may have a spi got end for caul ki ng, whi ch i s marked for cutti ng to a
desi r ed l ength. Another type has a hub end that connects to the fl oor fl ange
wi th a sl eeve as shown i n Figure6-9.
Traps
6-35. A trap provi des a water seal , whi ch keeps sewer gases from enteri ng a
bui l di ng thr ough a waste outl et. The most common type i s a P-tr ap. The P-
trap i s used i n a parti ti on to connect a drai n to a waste branch. A runni ng trap
i s used i n a bui l di ng's dr ai n l i ne when the l ocal pl umbi ng codes r equi r e that
the bui l di ng dr ai n be tr apped. Figure6-10 shows four gener al types of cast-
i r on soi l pi pe tr aps. (See Chapter 9 for fur ther i nformati on on traps and trap
seal l oss.)
Other Fittings
6-36. The fol l owi ng fi tti ngs (except the tucker coupl i ng) may be used on al l
types of pi pe.
Offset. An offset (Figure 6-11, page 6-12) carri es soi l or waste l i ne
past an obstr ucti on i n a bui l di ng. Offsets ar e ei ther r egul ar or 1/8-
degr ee bend. The 1/8-degree bend gi ves smoother tr ansi ti on than the
regul ar one.
Increaser. An i ncreaser (Figure 6-11, page 6-12) i ncreases the
di ameter of a strai ght-through pi pel i ne. I t i s usual l y used at the top of
a stack.
Figure 6-10. Cast-Iron Traps
P-Trap S-Trap
Running Trap
3/4 S-trap
FM 3-34.471
Cleanout. The cl eanout (Figure 6-11) i s a removabl e, threaded pl ug
pl aced i n drai nage l i nes for cl eani ng or removi ng stoppages.
Tucker coupling. The tucker-coupl i ng fi tti ng (Figure6-11) connects
a hub-and-spi got pi pe secti on to a threaded pi pe secti on. Thi s fi tti ng
has a hub on one end and femal e threads at the other end.
Sewer thimble. The sewer thi mbl e (Figure 6-11) i s a speci al fi tti ng
that connects the bui l di ng sewer l i ne to the mai n sewer l i ne.
MEASURING
6-37. Measur e cast-i r on soi l pi pe usi ng one of the methods i n paragraph
6-18, page6-5.
Figure 6-11. Cast-Iron Fittings
Hub
Regular offset
Increaser
Cleanout plug
Tucker-type
coupling
1/8-degree
bend offset
Female screw
thread
Oakum
Lead
Soil pipe
Sewer thimble
NOTE: All of these fittings except the tucker coupling can
be used on all types of pipes.
FM 3-34.471
CUTTING
6-38. Cast-i ron soi l pi pe can be cut by scori ng wi th a hammer and col d chi sel
or by cutti ng wi th a soi l -pi pe cutter (Figure6-12). Use the fol l owi ng steps:
Step 1. Make a chal k or crayon mark compl etel y around the pi pe where i t
wi l l be cut.
Step 2. Cut the pi pe wi th a soi l -pi pe cutter or by usi ng a hammer and col d
chi sel .
Soil-pipe cutter. Set the pi pe i n a vi se and posi ti on the cutti ng
wheel s on the mark by turni ng the adjusti ng knob. Appl y pressure on
the handl e unti l the pi pe i s cut. Use the adjusti ng knob to keep a good
bi te on the pi pe (Figure6-13).
Figure 6-12. Cast-Iron Soil-Pipe Cutting Tools
Figure 6-13. Cutting Cast-Iron Soil Pipe
Hammer and cold chisel
Soil-pipe cutter
Hammer-and-chisel method
Pipe-cutter method
NOTE: The pipe-cutter method is preferred.
FM 3-34.471
Hammer and cold chisel. Pl ace the pi pe on a board or mound of di rt
at the poi nt to be cut. Then pl ace the chi sel 's cutti ng edge on the mark
and hi t i t l i ghtl y wi th the hammer whi l e r otati ng compl etel y around
the pi pe. Conti nue scor i ng ar ound the pi pe usi ng har der bl ows unti l
the pi pe i s cut (Figure6-13, page6-13).
J OINING
6-39. Deter mi ne the amount of oakum and l ead for a l ead joi nt by the pi pe
si ze bei ng connected (Table6-3). Other types of joi nt mater i al scompr essi on
gaskets and neopr ene sl eeves wi th stai nl ess steel cl ampsare manufactur ed
for di fferent pi pe si zes.
Hub-and-Spigot J oint
6-40. A hub-and-spi got pi pe joi nt i s made wi th oakum and l ead and/or a
r ubber compr essi on gasket. A l ead joi nt can be ei ther verti cal or hor i zontal .
Figure6-14 shows the tool s and mater i al s r equi r ed. Figure6-15 shows one
type of l ead-mel ti ng furnace. Sever al types of mel ti ng furnaces are avai l abl e.
Fol l ow the manufacturer's i nstructi ons and safety precauti ons.
Table 6-3. Joint-Material Requirements
Pipe Size
(Inches)
Oakum
(Feet)
Lead
(Pounds)
2 3 1 1/2
3 4 1/2 2 1/4
4 5 3
5 6 1/2 3 3/4
6 7 1/2 4 1/2
Figure 6-14. Tools and Materials for Lead Joints
Lead
Oakum
Joint runner
Hammer
Pickout iron
Inside caulking iron
Outside caulking iron
Large-pattern packing iron
Regular packing iron
FM 3-34.471
6-41. Horizontal Lead J oint. Use Figure6-16, page6-16, and the fol l owi ng
steps to make a joi nt.
Step 1. Cl ean the pi pe end and/or the fi tti ng end.
Step 2. Center the spi got or cut end i n the hub of another pi pe or fi tti ng.
Step 3. Pack strands of oakum i nto the hub compl etel y around the pi pe or
fi tti ng wi th a packi ng i ron to wi thi n 1 i nch of the hub's end (Figure6-16).
Figure 6-15. Lead-Melting Furnace
WARNING
Always wear protective clothing, protective gloves, a
respirator, and goggles when working with molten lead.
Severe personal injury and permanent disability may
result from accidents.
Melting pot
Plumbers ladle
Hood
Gasoline valve
Air pump
Tank
Flame control
Filter plug
Carrying handle
FM 3-34.471
Step 4. Cl amp the joi nt runner around the pi pe or fi tti ng (Figure6-16).
Step 5. Pour the mol ten l ead i nto the hub i n one pour, usi ng a pl umber's
l adl e.
Step 6. Remove the joi nt runner when the l ead hardens.
Step 7. Caul k the l ead (Figure6-16).
6-42. Vertical Lead J oint. Use Figure6-17and the fol l owi ng steps to make
a joi nt.
Step 1. Wi pe the hub and spi got or the cut end to remove moi sture and
forei gn matter.
Step 2. Center the spi got or cut end i n the hub of the pi pe or fi tti ng.
Step 3. Pack strands of oakum i nto the hub compl etel y around the pi pe or
fi tti ng wi th a packi ng i ron to wi thi n 1 i nch of the hub's end (Figure6-17).
Figure 6-16. Horizontal Lead Joint
WARNING
respirator, and goggles when working with molten
lead. Severe personal injury and permanent disability
may result from accidents.
Oakum
Step 3
Joint runner
Steps 4 and 5
Step 7
FM 3-34.471
Step 4. Pour hot mol ten l ead careful l y i nto the hub i n one pour, usi ng a
pl umber's l adl e (Figure6-17).
Figure 6-17. Vertical Lead Joint
WARNING
respirator, and goggles when working with molten
lead. Severe personal injury and permanent disability
may result from accidents.
Oakum
Step 3
Step 4
Lead
Ensure that the cut end of the
pipe is centered in the hub.
Lead
Oakum
Elevation view
Lead
Equal spacing
all around
Plan view
Step 6
Caulking
Oakum
Lead
Hub
Oakum
FM 3-34.471
Step 5. Al l ow the l ead to cool one mi nute or more to harden.
Step 6. Caul k the l ead agai nst the pi pe wi th the i nsi de caul ki ng i ron and
then agai nst the hub wi th the outsi de caul ki ng i ron, as shown i n Figure6-17,
page6-18. The joi nt i s then compl ete and l eakproof.
NOTE: If hot molten lead cannot be used, make a cold caulk joint
usinglead wool or shredded lead. Roll thelead wool or shredded lead
into several strands about 1/2 inch in diameter and 1 to 2 feet long.
Force the strands into the hub and caulk. For best results, arrange
theends of thestrands alternately.
Hubless J oint
6-43. A hubl ess joi nt i s made wi th a neopr ene sl eeve and a stai nl ess steel
cl amp. To make a hubl ess joi nt use Figure6-18and the fol l owi ng steps:
Step 1. Remove the neoprene sl eeve from the stai nl ess-steel cl amp.
Step 2. Sl i de the sl eeve on the end of one pi pe or fi tti ng unti l i t i s fi rml y
agai nst the col l ar i nsi de the sl eeve.
Step 3. Sl i de the cl amp on the other pi pe.
Step 4. Sl i de the pi pe end i nto the sl eeve unti l i t i s fi rml y agai nst the col l ar
i nsi de the sl eeve.
Step 5. Center the cl amp over the sl eeve and ti ghten wi th a screwdri ver or
wrench.
SUPPORTING PIPE J OINTS
6-44. To pr event str ai n on the joi nts, cast-i r on pi pe shoul d be suppor ted at
var i ous poi nts al ong pi pe r uns and fi tti ngs. Thi s pi pe must be suppor ted
(ver ti cal l y and hor i zontal l y) to mai ntai n al i gnment and the pr oper dr ai nage
sl ope.
Figure 6-18. Hubless Joint
Stainless-steel
clamps
Neoprene sleeve Neoprene sleve
FM 3-34.471
GALVANIZED-STEEL/IRON PIPE AND FITTINGS
USE
6-45. Gal vani zed-steel /i ron pi pe can be used for hot- and col d-water suppl y
di stri buti on, certai n drai nage appl i cati ons, and vent i nstal l ati ons.
TYPES AND SIZES
6-46. Thi s pi pe comes i n three str engths: (1) standard, (2) extra strong, and
(3) doubl e extr a str ong. The defi ni ti ons Schedule40 and Schedule 80 al so
descr i be pi pe str engths. Schedul e 40 standar d i s most commonl y used i n
pl umbi ng. Pi pe di ameter si zes (nomi nal pi pe si zes) are 1/8 i nch to 12 i nches,
al so referred to as i ron-pi pe si ze. The pi pe comes i n 21-foot l engths, threaded
or unthreaded (Figure6-19).
HANDLING AND STORAGE
6-47. Gal vani zed pi pe shoul d be stor ed i n a dr y pl ace. I f the pi pe ends ar e
threaded, they must be protected from damage.
FITTINGS
6-48. Fi tti ngs (Figure 6-20) for thi s pi pe ar e cl assi fi ed as ei ther or di nar y
(standard) or drai nage (recessed).
Ordinary (standard). Ordi nary fi tti ngs are used for water servi ce
and venti ng. They range i n si ze from 3/8 i nch to 6 i nches.
Figure 6-19. Galvanized-Steel/Iron Pipe
Figure 6-20. Ordinary and Drainage Pipe Fittings
Threaded
Unthreaded
Ordinary fitting
1/4" slope per foot
No pocket
Drainage (recessed) fitting (ideal make-up)
90
FM 3-34.471
Drainage (recessed). Drai nage fi tti ngs are used i n waste systems.
They have thr eads at a sl i ght angl e so that hori zontal dr ai nage pi pe
wi l l sl ope about 1/4 i nch per foot (Figure6-20, page6-19). They range
i n si ze from 1 1/4 to 12 i nches.
Ts
6-49. Ts (Figure 6-21) ar e used when a pi pe r un br anches at a 90-degr ee
angl e. T si ze i s speci fi ed by the through secti on (run) and then the outl et.
Elbows (Ls)
6-50. El bows (Figure6-22) ar e used to change the di r ecti on of a pi pel i ne.
They come i n a vari ety of si zes and patterns. The most common el bow are 90-
and 45-degree angl e. Ei ther type can be a standard or a reduci ng L. The si ze of
an L i s gi ven fi rst by the l arger openi ng and then by the smal l er openi ng.
Couplings
6-51. Coupl i ngs (Figure6-23) are used to connect two l engths of pi pe.
Standard coupling. An ordi nary coupl i ng connects pi pes of the same
si ze.
Reducing coupling. A reduci ng coupl i ng connects pi pes of di fferent
si zes.
Eccentric coupling. An eccentri c reduci ng coupl i ng connects pi pes of
di fferent si zes.
Figure 6-21. Ts
Branch
Outlet
Standard T
Branch
Outlet
Reducing T (external)
Run
Branch
Run
Reducing T (internal)
Outlet
Side-outlet T
NOTE: Branch and run can be reversed.
Run
FM 3-34.471
Unions
6-52. Uni ons (Figure6-24, page6-22) ar e used to joi n the ends of two pi pes
that can be turned or di sconnected.
Ground. A ground uni on has three di sti nct parts: a shoul der pi ece
wi th femal e thr eads; a thr ead pi ece wi th femal e and mal e thr eads;
and a ri ng (or col l ar ) wi th an i nsi de fl ange that matches the shoul der
of the shoul der pi ece and a femal e thr ead that matches the mal e
thr ead of the thr ead pi ece. The pi pes ar e scr ewed to the thr ead and
shoul der pi eces. They ar e dr awn together by the col l ar , maki ng a
gasti ght and waterti ght joi nt.
Flange. The fl ange uni on has two parts, each wi th a femal e thread,
that ar e scr ewed to the pi pes to be j oi ned. Nuts and bol ts pul l the
fl anges together . A gasket between the fl anges makes a gasti ght and
Figure 6-22. Elbows
Figure 6-23. Couplings
Y-elbow (or
side-outlet elbow)
Reducing elbow Street elbow
90 elbow 45 elbow
Standard coupling Reducing coupling Eccentric reducing
coupling
Extension piece
FM 3-34.471
water ti ght joi nt. Pl ai n-faced fl anges ar e shown i n Figure6-24. They
may have mal e and femal e faces or tongue and groove faces.
Dielectric. Di el ectri c uni ons are used to connect di ssi mi l ar-metal ,
water suppl y pi pes to pr event el ectr ol ysi s (cor r osi on). Thi s uni on i s
used when connecti ng gal vani zed-steel /i ron pi pe to copper pi pe.
Nipples
6-53. A ni ppl e i s used to make an extensi on fr om a fi tti ng or to joi n two
fi tti ngs. Ni ppl es ar e pi eces of pi pe 12 i nches or l ess i n l ength, thr eaded on
each end. There are cl ose, shoul der, and l ong ni ppl es (Figure6-25).
Plugs and Caps
6-54. Pl ugs and caps ar e used to seal off openi ngs i n other fi tti ngs or pi pe
ends (Figure 6-25). These fi tti ngs seal off a water system for testi ng. Thi s
rough-i n system i s i n pl ace unti l the fi xtures are i nstal l ed.
Crosses
6-55. A cr oss joi ns two di ffer ent pi pel i nes i n the same pl ane, maki ng them
per pendi cul ar to each other (Figure6-25). Cr osses can al so be si de-outl et and
reduci ng.
Figure 6-24. Unions
Shoulder piece
Ground joint
Collar
Thread piece
Ground joint
Flange union
Gasket
Bolted ground-joint union
Ground-joint union
Dielectric union
FM 3-34.471
Bushings
6-56. A bushi ng i s used to r educe a fi tti ng outl et or to connect a pi pe to a
l ar ger outl et. A bushi ng can be a pi pe bushi ng and/or a face bushi ng (Figure
6-25).
CUTTING AND REAMING
6-57. Steel pi pe i s cut and r eamed usi ng a vi se, pi pe cutter , and r eamer
(Figure6-26). To avoi d pi pe waste, use Figure6-27, page24, and the fol l owi ng
steps:
Figure 6-25. Nipples, Plugs, Caps, Bushings, and Cross
Figure 6-26. Steel-Pipe Tools
Close nipple Shoulder (or short) nipple
Long nipple
Iron-pipe cross
Hexagon-socket
plug
Slotted-head
plug
Square-head
plug
Bushings
Cap
NOTE: See Figure 6-11 for additional fittings.
Pipe vise Pipe cutter Pipe reamer
FM 3-34.471
Step 1. Determi ne the l ength of pi pe and mark the spot for the cut.
Step 2. Lock the pi pe ti ghtl y i n the vi se wi th the cutti ng mark about 8 i nches
from the vi se.
Step 3. Open the jaws of the cutter, usi ng the si ngl e-wheel cutter, by turni ng
the handl e countercl ockwi se.
Step 4. Pl ace the cutter around the pi pe wi th the cutti ng wheel exactl y on
the mark. The rol l ers wi l l ensure a strai ght cut (Figure6-27, A). I f usi ng a
three-wheel cutter, pl ace the cutti ng wheel of the movabl e jaw on the mark;
ensure that al l three wheel s are at ri ght angl es to the centerl i ne of the pi pe.
Step 5. Cl ose the vi se jaws l i ghtl y agai nst the pi pe by turni ng the handl e
cl ockwi se.
Step 6. Gi ve the handl e a quarter turn cl ockwi se when the cutti ng wheel and
rol l ers have made contact wi th the pi pe.
Step 7. Appl y cutti ng oi l and rotate the cutter compl etel y around the pi pe,
maki ng a quarter turn on the handl e for each compl ete revol uti on around the
pi pe. Conti nue the acti on unti l the pi pe i s cut.
Step 8. Push the reamer i nto the pi pe. Turn the reamer cl ockwi se i n short,
even strokes, whi l e keepi ng steady pressure agai nst the pi pe (see Figure6-27,
B) unti l the i nsi de burrs are removed.
Step 9. Remove the outsi de burrs wi th a fi l e i f usi ng a three-wheel cutter.
THREADING
NOTE: There are several types of threads, such as automotive that
produces fine and course threads and plumbing and pipefitting
threads identified as NPT. Pipethreads arecut at a taper.
Figure 6-27. Cutting and Reaming Steel Pipe
A B
FM 3-34.471
6-58. Many types of pi pe-threadi ng sets are i n use. A common set contai ns a
r atchet, nonadjustabl e stock wi th sol i d di es, and i ndi vi dual gui des (Figure
6-28). A di e and gui de mu st be the same si ze to fi t th e pi pe si ze bei ng
thr eaded. When usi ng a thr eadi ng set, r efer to the manufactur er 's or the
accompanyi ng i nstructi ons wi th the fol l owi ng steps:
NOTE: Identify pipe dies as NPT to ensure that this is the type being
used for pipethreading.
Step 1. Lock the pi pe securel y i n the vi se wi th enough pi pe projecti ng for
threadi ng.
Step 2. Sl i de the di estock over the end of the pi pe wi th the gui de on the
i nsi de. Push the di e agai nst the pi pe wi th one hand (Figure6-29).
Step 3. Make three or four short, sl ow, cl ockwi se strokes unti l the di e i s
fi rml y started on the pi pe. Appl y a generous amount of cutti ng oi l on the di e.
Figure 6-28. Stock and Die Set
Figure 6-29. Threading Pipe
FM 3-34.471
Step 4. Gi ve the stock a compl ete cl ockwi se turn, and then turn i t
countercl ockwi se a quarter turn. Thi s wi l l cl ear cut metal from the di e and
burrs from the new threads. Conti nue to appl y oi l .
Step 5. Conti nue Step 4 unti l 1/2 to 1/4 i nch (or two threads) extends from
the di estock. Conti nued threadi ng wi l l cause the thread taper to be l ost.
Step 6. Careful l y turn the di estock countercl ockwi se unti l the di e i s free of
the cut threads.
Step 7. Use a heavy rag to wi pe away excess oi l and a wi re brush to remove
any chi ps. The pi pe i s now ready to be joi ned.
6-59. Too much pi pe thread i s as undesi r abl e as too l i ttl e. A good rul e i s to
cut thr eads unti l the pi pe extends about 1/4 i nch fr om the base of the di es.
Table6-4, gi ves i nformati on to determi ne thread l ength.
J OINING
6-60. Fi tti ngs are normal l y screwed to the pi pe after i t i s threaded, whi l e the
pi pe i s sti l l i n the vi se. Thi s ensur es a good fi t. The assembl ed pi pe and
fi tti ngs shoul d then be scr ewed i nto the pr oper pl ace i n the i nstal l ati on. Use
Figure6-30 and the fol l owi ng joi ni ng steps:
Table 6-4. Thread Length Data
Normal Pipe
Size (in Inches)
Threads
Per Inch
Approximate
Length of
Thread
(in Inches)
Approximate
Numbers of
Threads to be Cut
Approximate
Total Thread Makeup
Engagement (in
Inches)
1/4 18 5/8 11 3/8
3/8 18 5/8 11 3/8
1/2 14 3/4 10 7/16
3/4 14 3/4 10 1/2
1 11 1/2 7/8 10 9/16
1 1/4 11 1/2 1 11 9/16
1 1/2 11 1/2 1 11 9/16
2 11 1/2 1 11 5/8
2 1/2 8 1 1/2 12 7/8
3 8 1 1/2 12 1
3 1/2 8 1 5/8 13 11/16
4 8 1 5/8 13 11/16
5 8 1 3/4 14 13/16
6 8 1 3/4 14 13/16
FM 3-34.471
Step 1. Check the fi tti ng threads for cl eanl i ness and damage. I f necessary,
cl ean wi th a wi re brush or repl ace.
Step 2. Repeat Step 1 for the pi pe thr eads.
Step 3. Appl y pi pe-joi nt compound or Tefl on tape to the pipethreads onl y
(Figure6-30).
Step 4. Screw the fi tti ng on, hand ti ght (Figure6-30).
Step 5. Ti ghten the fi tti ng usi ng two pi pe wrenches, one on the fi tti ng
(backup wrench) and the other on the pi pe (Figure6-30), provi ded no vi se i s
avai l abl e. The backup wrench keeps the fi tti ng from turni ng.
COPPER TUBING AND FITTINGS
6-61. Copper tubi ng i s l i ghtwei ght, easi l y joi ned, and corrosi on-r esi stant. I t
can be ri gi d or fl exi bl e, and i t i s cl assi fi ed by i ts wal l thi ckness (Figure6-31,
page6-28).
USE
6-62. Copper tubi ng i s used for hot- and col d-water suppl y systems, cer tai n
drai nage appl i cati ons, and venti ng.
TYPES AND SIZES
6-63. Types and si zes of copper tubi ng i ncl ude the
K. K i s a thi ck-wal l ed, ri gi d or fl exi bl e copper tubi ng avai l abl e i n
20-foot l engths or 100-foot coi l s. Di ameter si zes range from 1/4 i nch to
12 i nches.
Figure 6-30. Joining Threaded Pipe
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
Backup wrench
Pipe
Joint
Compou
nd
FM 3-34.471
L. L i s a medi um-wal l ed, ri gi d or fl exi bl e copper tubi ng avai l abl e i n
20-foot l engths or 100-foot coi l s. Di ameter si zes are the same as K.
M. M i s a thi n-wal l ed, ri gi d copper tubi ng avai l abl e i n 20-foot l engths.
Di ameter si zes are the same as K and L.
Drain waste vent (DWV). DWV i s avai l abl e i n 20-foot l engths.
Di ameter si zes range from 1 1/4 to 8 i nches.
FITTINGS
6-64. Fi tti ngs for copper tubi ng can be sol der , fl ar ed, or compr essi on types
(Figure6-32).
Solder
6-65. Sol der fi tti ngs can be used wi th ei ther r i gi d or fl exi bl e copper tubi ng.
The fi tti ng si zes ar e si mi l ar to gal vani zed-steel /i r on fi tti ngs. Si zes ar e
i denti fi ed i n the same manner.
Flared
6-66. Fl ar ed fi tti ngs ar e used wi th fl exi bl e copper tubi ng that has fl ar ed
ends. Fi tti ng si zes range from 3/8 i nch to 3 i nches i n di ameter.
DWV
6-67. DWV fi tti ngs are si mi l ar to cast-i ron fi tti ngs of the sol der type.
Figure 6-31. Copper Tubing
K L M
Rigid
Flexible
M L
FM 3-34.471
MEASURING
6-68. Meas u r e copper tu bi n g u s i n g on e of th e meth ods des cr i bed i n
paragraph 6-18, page6-5.
CUTTING AND REAMING
6-69. Copper tubi ng can be cut wi th a tubi ng cutter or a fi ne-tooth hacksaw
(32 teeth per i nch), as shown i n Figure6-33, page6-30. Use the fol l owi ng steps
to make a cut:
Step 1. Determine the length of tubing required and mark the spot for the cut.
Step 2. Set the cutti ng wheel on the mark and turn the cutter knob cl ockwi se
to get a bi te on the tubi ng.
Figure 6-32. Copper-Tubing Fittings
T 90 elbow
45 elbow
Coupling Female adapter Male adapter
90 elbow 45 elbow
T
Coupling Female adapter Male adapter
Copper compression fittings
Solder fittings
FM 3-34.471
Step 3. Hol d the tubi ng fi rml y wi th one hand and use the other hand to turn
the cutter cl ockwi se around the tubi ng unti l the tubi ng i s cut. I f usi ng a
hacksaw, pl ace the tubi ng i n a mi ter box or a ji g made of l umber to make a
square cut.
Step 4. Ream the tubi ng's cut end wi th the reamer attached to the tubi ng
cutter. I f the cutter does not have a reamer, use a fi ne metal fi l e.
J OINING
Soldered J oint
6-70. Sol dered joi nts are used to connect r i gi d copper tubi ng. The fol l owi ng
tool s and mater i al s ar e needed: a heati ng tor ch, 95-5 (95 per cent ti n and 5
per cent al umi num) nonaci d sol der , sol der i ng fl ux, and emer y cl oth or steel
wool (Figure6-34). Use Figure6-35and the fol l owi ng steps to make a sol dered
joi nt:
Step 1. I nspect the end of the tubi ng to be sure i t i s round, free of burrs, and
cut square.
Step 2. Cl ean the end of the tubi ng and the i nsi de of the fi tti ng to a bri ght
shi ne wi th emery cl oth or fi ne steel wool .
Step 3. Appl y a thi n coat of fl ux to the shi ned end of the tubi ng and fi tti ng
(Figure6-35).
Step 4. Push the fi tti ng onto the tubi ng and gi ve i t a quarter turn to spread
the fl ux evenl y (Figure6-35).
Step 5. Heat the connecti on wi th a torch, appl yi ng the fl ame on the fi tti ng
(Figure6-35).
Step 6. When the fl ux i s bubbl i ng, appl y the sol der to the joi nt. The sol der
wi l l fl ow i nto and compl etel y around the joi nt.
Step 7. Cl ean the joi nt usi ng a cl ean rag.
Figure 6-33. Cutting Copper Tubing
Tubing cutter
Hacksaw
FM 3-34.471
Figure 6-34. Soldering Tools and Materials
Figure 6-35. Soldering a Joint
Wire brush
Propane torch
Solder wire
Flux and brush
Emery cloth
Steel wool
FLUX
STEEL
WOOL
Step 3
Step 4 Steps 5 and 6
FM 3-34.471
Flared J oint
6-71. A fl ar ed joi nt i s used wi th fl exi bl e copper tubi ng. The fl ar e on the end
of the tubi ng can be made wi th a fl ar i ng tool or a fl angi ng tool (Figure6-36).
Use the fol l owi ng pr ocedure and Figure6-37 for fl ari ng and fl angi ng fl exi bl e
copper tubi ng:
Step 1. I nspect the end of the tubi ng to ensure that i t i s free of burrs and i s
cut square.
Step 2. Remove the fl ange nut from the fi tti ng and sl i de i ts unthreaded end
onto the tubi ng fi rst.
Step 3. Fl are the end of the tubi ng wi th ei ther a fl ari ng tool or a fl angi ng
tool .
For the flaring tool method, l oosen the wi ng nuts on the fl ari ng tool ,
and pl ace the tubi ng i n the cor r ect si ze hol e. Make the tubi ng's end
even wi th the tool 's surface. Then ti ghten the wi ng nuts. Fi nal l y, turn
the yoke cone down i nto the tubi ng unti l the fl are fi l l s the bevel ed pad
of the hol e.
For the flanging tool method, hol d the fl angi ng tool on the end of the
tubi ng so that i t i s center ed and str ai ght. Then, usi ng a hammer, tap
the fl angi ng tool unti l the fl are fi l l s the recess i n the fl angi ng nut.
Step 4. Sl i de the fl are/compressi on nut up to the fl ared end and screw i t on
the fi tti ng hand ti ght, then ti ghten the fl are/compressi on nut (Figure6-38).
CAUTION
Precautions must be taken when soldering. When the joint
is close to wood or other combustible material, place an
insulation sheet or sheet metal between the fitting and the
combustible material before applying the torch flame. To
form a leakproof joint, you must keep the joint connection
motionless while the solder is cooling.
Figure 6-36. Flaring and Flanging Tools
Flaring tools
Flanging tool
FM 3-34.471
Mechanical-Compression J oint
6-72. A mechani cal -compr essi on joi nt i s used to connect a fi xtur e's water
suppl y tubi ng to the shutoff val ves (Figure6-39, page6-34). Use the fol l owi ng
procedures:.
Figure 6-37. Flaring and Flanging Flexible Copper Tubing
Figure 6-38. Flared Joint
Flaring method
Flanging method
Flared end Flared fitting
FM 3-34.471
Step 1. Cut or bend the tubi ng to the requi red l ength.
Step 2. Sl i de the compressi on nut onto the tubi ng.
Step 3. Sl i de the compressi on ri ng onto the tubi ng.
Step 4. Screw the compressi on nut onto the fi tti ng by hand.
Step 5. Ti ghten the nut. The ri ng compresses to form a seal ed l eakproof
joi nt.
Swaged J oint
6-73. Swagi ng i s used to j oi n two secti ons of thi n-wal l ed copper tubi ng
wi thout usi ng a fi tti ng. The connecti on i s sol der ed to for m a l eakpr oof joi nt.
The tool s r equi r ed are a swagi ng-tool set and a bal l peen hammer (Figure6-
40). Use Figure6-41 and the fol l owi ng procedure for swagi ng copper tubi ng:
Figure 6-39. Mechanical-Compression Joint
Figure 6-40. Swaging Tools
Compression nut
Compression ring
FM 3-34.471
Step 1. I nspect the tubi ng end to make sure i t i s free of burrs and i s cut
square.
Step 2. Pl ace the correct si ze swagi ng tool i nto the tubi ng (wi th one hand),
centered and strai ght.
Step 3. Tap the swagi ng tool fi rml y wi th the bal l peen hammer to enl arge
the tubi ng's end.
Step 4. Connect the two secti ons of tubi ng and sol der the joi nt.
BENDING
6-74. Spri ng benders are used to bend fl exi bl e copper tubi ng havi ng 1/4- to 7/8-
i nch outsi de di ameters. Sl i de the correct si ze spri ng bender over the tubi ng to
the area of the bend. Bend the spri ng and tubi ng together (Figure6-42).
Figure 6-41. Swaging Copper Tubing
Figure 6-42. Bending Flexible Copper Tubing
Spring bender
Copper tubing
FM 3-34.471
6-75. Copper tubi ng shoul d be suppor ted hor i zontal l y and ver ti cal l y at
appr opri ate poi nts. The method of suppor t depends on the si ze of the tubi ng
and the l ocati on of al l the fi tti ngs.
PLASTIC PIPE AND FITTINGS
6-76. Pl asti c pi pi ng i s l i ghtwei ght and r i gi d or fl exi bl e (si mi l ar to copper
tubi ng shown i n Figure6-31, page6-28). I t i s easi l y joi ned and i s cor r osi on-
r esi stant.
USE
6-77. Pl asti c pi pe can be used for water or waste systems. I t i s used for hot-
or col d-water pi pi ng and for drai n, waste, and vent pi pi ng.
TYPES AND SIZES
6-78. Pl asti c pi pe i s cl assi fi ed by the acronym for the type of mater i al fr om
whi ch i t i s made.
Polyvinyl Chloride(PVC)
6-79. PVC pi pe i s cr eam or whi te and used onl y for col d-water pi pel i nes,
sani tary drai nage, and venti ng. I t comes i n 10- and 20-foot l engths. Di ameter
si zes range from 1/2 i nch to 6 i nches.
CPVC
6-80. CPVC pi pe i s l i ght or cr eam and used for hot-water pi pel i nes. I t can
al so be used for col d-water l i nes. I t comes i n 10-foot l engths. Di ameter si zes
are 1/2 i nch and 3/4 i nch.
ABS
6-81. ABS pi pe i s bl ack or gr ay and used for above- and bel ow-gr ound
sani tary drai nage and venti ng. I t comes i n 10- and 20-foot l engths. Di ameter
si zes range from 1 1/4 to 6 i nches.
Polybutylene(PB)
6-82. PB pi pe i s bl ack or dar k gr ay and used for col d-water l i nes. I t i s
avai l abl e i n coi l s of 100 feet or mor e. Di ameter si zes range from 3/4 i nch to 2
i nches. I t i s costl y, requi res speci al fi tti ngs, and i s not wi del y used.
Polyetylene(PE)
6-83. PE pi pe i s bl ack and used for col d-water l i nes and spri nkl er systems. I t
comes i n coi l s of 100 feet. Di ameter si zes range from 3/4 i nch to 2 i nches.
FITTINGS
6-84. Fi tti ng si zes for PVC and CPVC pi pi ng are si mi l ar to steel and copper
fi tti ngs; however, joi ni ng i s usual l y done wi th epoxy or pl asti c seal ants, rather
FM 3-34.471
than thr eadi ng or sol der i ng. Checks shoul d be made befor e per for mi ng a
project. Pl asti c pi pe fi tti ngs are shown i n Figure6-43.
PVC
6-85. These fi tti ngs are used for water and waste pi pi ng.
CPVC
6-86. These fi tti ngs ar e used onl y for CPVC hot- and col d-water system
pi pi ng.
ABS
6-87. These fi tti ngs are used onl y for ABS pi pi ng i n waste and vent systems.
PE
6-88. Th es e fi tti n gs ar e th e i n s er tabl e ty pe u s ed for col d-water an d
spri nkl er-system pi pi ng.
Figure 6-43. Plastic Pipe Fittings
T
90 elbow 45 elbow
Coupling
Solvent weld
T
90 elbow
Coupling Male adapter
Slip
Sanitary T Vent T Y
Sanitary pipe
Long sweep T
FM 3-34.471
MEASURING
6-89. Measure pl asti c pi pe, ri gi d or fl exi bl e, as descri bed i n paragraph 6-18,
page6-5.
CUTTING
6-90. Use Figure6-44 and the fol l owi ng steps to cut pl asti c pi pe:
Step 1. Determi ne the l ength of pi pe requi red and mark the spot for the cut.
Step 2. Pl ace the pi pe i n a mi ter box or ji g and cut the pi pe wi th a hacksaw
or a fi ne-tooth handsaw. Use a mi ter box to get a square cut.
Step 3. Remove burrs from both the i nsi de and the outsi de of the pi pe wi th a
pocketkni fe. I f a pocketkni fe i s not avai l abl e, use sandpaper.
J OINING
Solvent-Cement Weld J oint
6-91. Thi s joi nt i s made by usi ng a cl eani ng pr i mer and sol vent cement on
the pi pe and fi tti ng. Sol vent cement consi sts of a pl asti c fi l l er (same materi al
for each type of pl asti c pi pe) di ssol ved i n a mi xtur e of sol vents. Use the
appr opr i ate sol vent cement for the type of pi pe bei ng used. The sol vent
cement mel ts the pl asti c of the pi pe and the fi tti ng to wel d them together .
Si nce sol vent cement sets fast, a pl asti c pi pe joi nt i s compl eted qui ckl y (Figure
6-45). Use the fol l owi ng steps to joi n pl asti c pi pe wi th sol vent cement:
Step 1. I nspect the pi pe end for burrs and the fi tti ng for cracks.
Step 2. Cl ean the pi pe and the i nsi de of the fi tti ng wi th an authori zed
cl eani ng pri mer, usi ng a cl ean rag.
Step 3. Coat the outsi de of the pi pe end and the i nsi de of the fi tti ng wi th
sol vent cement.
Step 4. Push the pi pe as qui ckl y as possi bl e i nto the fi tti ng as far as i t wi l l
go. A smal l bead of cement wi l l be vi si bl e.
Step 5. Gi ve the fi tti ng a quarter turn to spread the sol vent cement evenl y.
Figure 6-44. Cutting and Removing Burrs From Plastic Pipe
FM 3-34.471
Step 6. Hol d the joi nt connecti on for about 30 seconds to be sure i t i s sol i dl y
set.
Step 7. Wi pe off al l excess cement.
Insert FittingJ oint
6-92. Thi s joi nt i s made by sl i di ng and cl ampi ng fl exi bl e pl asti c pi pe onto an
i nsert fi tti ng (Figure6-46), as fol l ows:
Step 1. Sl i de a cl amp over the fl exi bl e pi pe.
Step 2. Push the pi pe onto the i nsert fi tti ng to the l ast serrati on.
Step 3. Sl i de the cl amp over the pi pe and ti ghten the cl amp wi th a
screwdri ver.
Figure 6-45. Rigid Plastic Pipe Joint
Figure 6-46. Flexible Plastic Pipe Joint
Step 3
Steps 4 and 5
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
FM 3-34.471
6-93. Pl asti c pi pe i s not as sti ff as metal pi pe; therefore, the pi pe runs (both
hor i zontal and ver ti cal ) shoul d be suppor ted mor e often. Su ppor t j oi n t
connecti ons i n the same manner as metal pi pe.
OTHER TYPES OF PIPES AND FITTINGS
BITUMINOUS-FIBER PIPE AND FITTINGS
Use
6-94. Bi tumi nous-fi ber pi pe, often cal l ed orange bur g, i s used under gr ound
to i nstal l house-to-sewer and house-to-septi c-tank waste l i nes and stor m
dr ai nage l i nes to dr y wel l s. Per for ated pi pe i s used for septi c-tank di sposal
fi el ds and for footi ng drai ns and other subsurface drai nage. I t i s l i ghtwei ght,
easi l y joi ned, and corrosi on-resi stant.
Types and Sizes
6-95. Thi s pi pe i s avai l abl e i n pl ai n and per for ated types. Both pl ai n and
perforated pi pe comes i n 5- and 8-foot l engths. The pl ai n pi pe ends are tapered
2 degrees from a 1/16-i nch shoul der (Figure6-47). Di ameter si zes range from
2 to 8 i nches.
Fittings
6-96. Fi tti ngs for bi tumi nous-fi ber pi pe ar e si mi l ar i n shape to cast-i r on
fi tti ngs. An adapter fi tti ng can be used to connect the pi pe to cast-i r on,
thr eaded-steel , or pl asti c pi pe (Figure6-48). Joi n pl ai n pi pi ng by dr i vi ng the
pi pe and fi tti ng together. Joi n perforated pi pe wi th a snap-col l ar fi tti ng.
Cutting
6-97. Fi ber pi pe i s easi l y cut wi th a cr osscut or r i p handsaw. The cr osscut
pr oduces l ess shr eddi ng and makes a cl eaner cut. A mi ter box ensur es the
requi red square cut.
Figure 6-47. Bituminous-Fiber Pipe
Tapered 2 from a 1/16" shoulder
Orange burg
FM 3-34.471
Tapering
6-98. Use the fol l owi ng steps to taper fi ber pi pe:
Step 1. Ensure that the end of the pi pe has been cut square.
Step 2. I nsert the center gui de of the taperi ng tool (Figure6-49, page6-42)
i nto the pi pe unti l the cutter bracket rests on the end of the pi pe.
Step 3. Expand the center gui de by turni ng the expander handl e cl ockwi se
unti l the gui de fi ts ti ghtl y i nsi de the pi pe.
Step 4. Set the cutter agai nst the pi pe and ti ghten the nut on the cutter
bracket.
Step 5. Turn the handl e one ful l turn.
Step 6. Loosen the cutter bracket nut, reset the cutter agai nst the pi pe, and
ti ghten the nut agai n.
Step 7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 unti l the shoul der at the end of the taper i s
about 1/16-i nch wi de.
Step 8. Turn the expander handl e countercl ockwi se to l oosen the center
gui de and wi thdr aw the tool .
NOTE: Do not take too biga cut on oneturn. Cuts should bethin and
yield small, flaky bits. If an ordinary vise is used to hold the pipe for
tapering, becareful not to crush thepipeby over tighteningthevise.
Figure 6-48. Bituminous-Fiber Pipe Fittings
Adapter to the
threaded iron
pipe
Coupling
Adapter to the
spigot end of the
cast-iron soil pipe
Adapter to the hub
end of the cast-
iron soil pipe
Street 90
elbow
Street 45 elbow
Long sweep 45 elbow
Long sweep 90 elbow
FM 3-34.471
J oining
6-99. Joi n fi ber pi pe and fi tti ngs wi th a fr i cti on j oi nt (Fi gure 6-50), as
fol l ows:
Step 1. I nspect the tapers on both the pi pe and fi tti ng to make sure they are
free from grease or burrs.
Step 2. Put the fi tti ng and pi pe together. The fi tti ng shoul d sl i de up easi l y to
wi thi n 1/4 to 1/3 i nch of the shoul der on the taper.
Figure 6-49. Fiber-Pipe Tapering Tool
Figure 6-50. Joining Fiber Pipe
Expander handle
Lathe handle
Cutter bracket
Cutter
Fiber pipe
Center guide
Block
Fiber pipe
Sledge
Fitting
FM 3-34.471
Step 3. Pl ace a wooden bl ock agai nst a fi tti ng to be joi ned to an i nstal l ed pi pe
or agai nst the pi pe end to be joi ned to an i nstal l ed fi tti ng. Hol d the bl ock
steady wi th one hand and have a hel per brace the l i ne duri ng the dri vi ng.
Step 4. Tap the bl ock l i ghtl y wi th a sl edge (Figure6-50) to dri ve the pi pe and
fi tti ng together unti l the fi tti ng butts agai nst the taper shoul der. The dri vi ng
produces enough heat to fuse a waterti ght joi nt of the pi pe and fi tti ng.
CONCRETE PIPE AND FITTINGS
Use
6-100. Concr ete pi pe i s used under gr ound for sani tar y and storm dr ai nage
pi pel i nes.
Types and Sizes
6-101. Thi s pi pe i s made wi th cement and sand. Cement pi pe i s suppl i ed i n
two gr ades: (1) nonr ei nfor ced and (2) rei nforced wi th wi re or steel bars. Thi s
pi pe comes i n vari ous l engths and di ameters.
Fittings
6-102. A coupl i ng i s used to joi n pi pe l engths. I t consi sts of a cement sl eeve
and two rubber ri ngs (Figure6-51). Other fi tti ngs are si mi l ar to cast-i ron soi l
pi pe fi tti ngs.
Figure 6-51. Cement-Pipe Coupling
Pipe Coupling
Rubber ring
NOTE: Special pulling tools are used to pull the sleeve coupling.
The tool is anchored to the second pipe and the coupling is pulled toward it.
FM 3-34.471
Measuring
6-103. Con cr ete p i pe comes i n ma n y s i zes a n d ty p es . I n gen er a l ,
measur ements may be made as for cast-i r on soi l pi pe, al l owi ng for the
di stance the spi got enters the hub or where the tongue enters the groove.
Cutting
6-104. Cu tti n g i s sel dom n eces sar y becau se of the v ar i ety of l en gths
avai l abl e. Nonrei nforced hub-and-spi got concrete pi pe may be cut the same as
vi tri fi ed-cl ay pi pe. Cutti ng tongue and groove pi pe creates joi ni ng di ffi cul ti es.
Methods of cutti ng rei nforced-concrete pi pe are not covered i n thi s manual .
J oining
6-105. Joi n ts i n con cr ete pi pe ar e gen er al l y made wi th h ot-pou r ed
bi t u mi n ou s comp ou n d a n d oa k u m j u s t a s f or v i t r i f i ed -cl a y p i p e .
Manufactur er 's i nstr ucti ons shoul d be fol l owed when usi ng these j oi ni ng
compounds.
VITRIFIED-CLAY PIPE AND FITTINGS
Use
6-106. Vi tr i fi ed-cl ay pi pe, al so cal l ed terra-cotta, i s used under gr ound for
sani tary and storm drai nage pi pel i nes outsi de of bui l di ngs.
Lengths and Sizes
6-107. Thi s pi pe has hub-and-spi got ends i n l engths of 2, 2 1/2, and 3 feet.
Di ameter si zes range from 4 to 42 i nches.
Fittings
6-108. Cl ay pi pe fi tti ngs are si mi l ar to cast-i ron soi l pi pe fi tti ngs.
Measuring
6-109. Measure vi tri fi ed-cl ay pi pe usi ng one of the methods i n paragraph 6-
18. The overal l l ength of a pi pe secti on i s i ts l ayi ng l ength pl us the l ength of
tel escopi ng. Tel escopi ng vari es from 1 1/2 i nches for 4-i nch pi pe to 4 i nches for
42-i nch pi pe.
Cutting
6-110. Si nce cl ay pi pe comes i n short l engths, i t sel dom has to be cut. When
i t must be cut, use a bri ck chi sel and hammer. Scor e the pi pe l i ghtl y ar ound
i ts ci r cumfer ence and then r epeat the pr ocess, deepeni ng the cut gr adual l y
unti l the pi pe breaks cl eanl y. Cl ay pi pe i s bri ttl e, so cut i t wi th care to avoi d
uneven breaks.
WARNING
Wear safety glasses when cutting clay pipe to avoid eye injury.
FM 3-34.471
J oining
6-111. Joi nts on vi tr i fi ed-cl ay pi pe ar e made wi th bi tumi nous compounds
wi th oakum or cement mortar joi nts mol ded on the hub-and-spi got ends of the
pi pe. However, the mechani cal -seal joi nt has repl aced the cement joi nt for thi s
type of pi pe.
6-112. Bituminous-Compound and Cement Mortar J oint. Use the
fol l owi ng steps when maki ng joi nts:
Step 1. I nsert the spi got end of one pi pe or fi tti ng i nto the hub end of another
and al i gn the two pi pes.
Step 2. Pack the hub wi th a 3/4-i nch l ayer of oakum.
Step 3. Fi l l the joi nt enti rel y wi th bi tumi nous compound and tamp i n
securel y.
Step 4. Fi ni sh the joi nt wi th a neatl y bevel ed edge around the pi pe.
Step 5. Remove surpl us mortar or bi tumi nous compound.
6-113. Mechani cal-Seal J oi nt. An i mpr ov ed ty pe of i n ter l ock i n g
mechani cal -compr essi on joi nt, seal ed at the factory, has r epl aced the cement
joi nt for use wi th vi tr i fi ed-cl ay pi pe. Thi s speed seal i s made of per manent
PVC and i s cal l ed a pl asti sol joi nt connecti on. Seal a j oi nt by usi ng the
fol l owi ng steps:
Step 1. Spread a sol uti on of l i qui d soap on the pl asti sol joi nt to hel p the joi nt
sl i p i nto pl ace.
Step 2. I nsert the spi got end i nto the bel l or hub.
Step 3. Gi ve the pi pe a strong push to make the spi got l ock i nto the hub seal .
6-114. Resilient and Rigid J oints. Resi l i ent and ri gi d joi nts avai l abl e for
thi s pi pe are the same as for fi ber pi pe (seeparagraph 6-99, page6-42).
CAST-IRON PRESSURE PIPE
6-115. Cast-i r on pr essur e pi pe, al so cal l ed corporation, i s used for water
suppl y mai ns. I t may be hub-and-spi got patter n or have fl anged ends for
bol ti ng connecti ons. Fi tti ngs si mi l ar to those for cast-i r on soi l pi pe ar e
avai l abl e.
NOTE: Cast-iron pressurepipeis seldomused today.
7-1
Chapter 7
Valves and Faucets
A val ve i s a devi ce (usual l y made of br onze) to start, stop, and regul ate the
fl ow of l i qui d, steam, or gas i nto, thr ough, or fr om pi pes. Faucets ar e
val ves that tur n on or tur n off hot and col d water i n l avator i es, si nks,
bathtubs, and shower s. Thi s chapter cover s i nstal l ati on and r epai r of
val ves and faucets.
TYPES
7-1. Many types of val ves ar e used. The most common types ar e shown i n
Figure 7-1. (Appendix B i ncl udes a l i st of val ves and the symbol s used for
those val ves on constructi on pl ans.)
GATE VALVE
7-2. A gate val ve i s used to start or stop l i qui d, steam, or gas fl ow. Thi s val ve
has a spl i t or sol i d wedge di sk, that fi ts i nto a machi ne surface cal l ed a seat.
Rai si ng the di sk to start the fl ow and seati ng the di sk to stop the fl ow operates
the val ve. Gate val ves come i n three model s: (1) ri si ng stem outsi de screw and
yoke, (2) ri si ng stem i nsi de the screw, and (3) nonri si ng stem i nsi de screw.
GLOBE VALVE
7-3. A gl obe val ve i s a compressi on-type val ve that control s the fl ow of l i qui d
by means of a ci r cul ar di sk, for ced (compr essed) onto or wi thdr awn fr om an
annul ar ri ng seat that surrounds the openi ng through whi ch l i qui d fl ows. Al l
gl obe val ves oper ate wi th a ri si ng stem.
ANGLE VALVE
7-4. An angl e val ve i s a gl obe val ve wi th the i nl et and outl et at a 90-degree
angl e to one another . These val ves are recommended for frequent oper ati on,
throttl i ng, and/or a posi ti ve shutoff when cl osed.
CHECK VALVE
7-5. A check val ve per mi ts the fl ow of l i qui d wi thi n the pi pel i ne i n one
di recti on onl y and cl oses automati cal l y to prevent backfl ow. A check val ve can
be a swi ng- or l i ft-type. Swi ng check val ves ar e used i n pi pel i nes wher e
pr essur e and vel oci ty of fl ow ar e l ow. Li ft check val ves ar e used wher e
pressure and vel oci ty of fl ow are hi gh.
SECTION I - VALVES
FM 3-34.471
7-2 Valves and Faucets
STOP-AND-WASTE VALVE
7-6. A stop-and-waste val ve, al so known as a bleeder val ve, has a pl ug on the
outl et si de that al l ows water to be drai ned from pi pel i nes.
OTHER VALVES
7-7. Other val ves i ncl ude
Reduci ng val ves, used to reduce water pressure goi ng i nto a bui l di ng.
Pr essur e- or temper ature-r el i ef val ves for water heaters.
Fl ushometer val ves i n uri nal s and water cl osets. (See Figure4-6, page
4-6.)
Foot, check, gate, and rel i ef val ves on centri fugal pumps. (See Chapter
11.)
NOTE: Gas and water valves are not interchangeable. (See Appendi x
B for a list of valves and their symbols.)
REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE
7-8. Val ves and fi xtur e contr ol (oper ati ng) devi ces ar e a vi tal par t of a
pl umbi ng system. Leakage and wear of val ves and control devi ces may requi re
si mpl e or extensi ve repai r. Check al l val ves regul arl y for l eaks. Most l eaks are
Figure 7-1. Valves
Gate valve Globe valve Angle valve
Straight stop
(for gas)
Check
valve
Stop-and-waste
valve (or
bleeder valve)
FM 3-34.471
Valves and Faucets 7-3
fr om l eaky washer s or bonnets that have been used for a l ong per i od of ti me.
The pl umber must determi ne the mal functi on and make the repai r.
GATE VALVE
7-9. Repai r of the gate val ve i s si mi l ar to that of the gl obe val ve (Figure7-2).
However, the part of the gate val ve that usual l y needs attenti on i s the bonnet
packi ng. Use the fol l owi ng to repai r a gate val ve:
NOTE: During disassembly, check all parts for wear and replace as
needed.
Leak at the stem and the packi ng nut.
Step 1. Ti ghten the packi ng nut. I f the l eak conti nues, turn the
water suppl y off.
Step 2. Remove the wheel handl e, packi ng nut, and ol d packi ng.
Step 3. Repl ace wi th new packi ng.
Step 4. Repl ace the packi ng nut and wheel handl e.
Step 5. Turn the water suppl y on and check for any l eaks.
Val ve wi l l not cl ose properl y to stop the water fl ow.
Figure 7-2. Gate Valve Repairs
Hex nut
Wheel handle
Stem
Packing nut
Packing
Bonnet
Wedge or gate
Inlet
Body
Outlet
FM 3-34.471
Step 1. Turn the water suppl y off, then di sassembl e the val ve from
the wheel handl e to the body.
Step 2. Resurface the di sk wi th a mi xture of oi l and l appi ng
compound.
Step 4. Turn the water suppl y on and check for l eaks and proper
operati on.
Unknown mal functi on i n val ve.
Step 1. Turn the water suppl y off, then di sassembl e the val ve unti l
the faul t i s found.
Step 2. Repl ace the faul ty parts and reassembl e the val ve.
operati on.
GLOBE VALVE
7-10. To repai r a gl obe val ve, use the fol l owi ng procedures and Figure7-3.
Leak at the stem and packi ng nut.
Step 1. Ti ghten the packi ng nut. I f the l eak conti nues, turn the
water suppl y off.
Step 2. Remove the wheel handl e, packi ng nut, and ol d packi ng.
Figure 7-3. Globe Valve Repairs
Angle valve
Screw
Wheel handle
Packing nut
Bonnet
Outlet
Washer
Inlet
Screw
Body
Stem
Packing
NOTE: Use globe-valve repairs for this valve.
Wheel nut
Wheel
Stem
Packing nut
Gland
Packing
Bonnet
Union
bonnet ring
Disk holder
Body
Disk
Seat
Disk retaining nut
FM 3-34.471
Step 3. Repl ace wi th new packi ng.
Step 4. Repl ace the packi ng nut and the wheel handl e.
Step 5. Turn the water suppl y on and check for l eaks.
Val ve wi l l not regul ate or control the amount of water fl ow.
Step 1. Turn the water suppl y off.
Step 2. Di sassembl e the val ve from the wheel handl e to the body.
Step 3. Composition disk: Remove the ol d di kc and repl ace i t wi th a
new one. Plugor conventional disk: Remove the di sk and i nsert a
washer; then l ay the di sk to the seat for a snug fi t.
operati on.
Unknown mal functi on i n the val ve.
Step 1. Turn the water suppl y off; then di sassembl e the val ve unti l
the faul t i s found.
Step 2. Repl ace the faul ty parts and reassembl e the val ve.
operati on.
ANGLE VALVE
7-11. Thi s val ve i s repai red the same as a gl obe val ve. (See paragraph 7-10
and Figure7-3.)
CHECK VALVE
7-12. Use the procedures bel ow to repai r the swi ng and l i ft check val ves.
needed.
SwingCheck Valve
7-13. Use the fol l owi ng pr ocedur es and Figure7-4 to r epai r a swi ng check
val ve:
Figure 7-4. Swing Check Valve Repairs
Locknut
Bonnet
Swing valve
Outlet Inlet
Body
FM 3-34.471
Loose di sk l ocknut that i s causi ng water backfl ow.
Step 1. Turn the water suppl y off and remove the cap.
Step 2. Ti ghten the l ocknut.
Step 3. Repl ace the cap.
operati on.
Hi nge not cl osi ng compl etel y.
Step 2. Repl ace the hi nge pi n and/or hi nge wi th a hi nge pi n.
operati on.
Worn di sk face that i s causi ng a l eak.
Step 2. Remove the l ocknut and then the di sk.
Step 3. Attach a new di sk to the hi nge and ti ghten the l ocknut.
operati on.
Lift Check Valve
7-14. Use the fol l owi ng procedures and Figure7-5to repai r a l i ft check val ve:
NOTE: To avoid repair or replacement of thelift check valve, inspect
it oncea year.
I nspect for wear, freedom of moti on, and al i gnment.
I nspect the cl apper and body seat ri ngs.
Remove any di rt or forei gn matter l odged i n the val ve.
Figure 7-5. Lift Check Valve Repairs
Bonnet
Seat rings
Outlet
Body
Inlet
Lift valve
Clamp
FM 3-34.471
I f the di sk or body seat ri ng surfaces show si gns of wear or corrosi on,
resurface or repl ace them.
TYPES
7-15. Al l l avator i es, si nks, bathtubs, and shower s may have compr essi on or
noncompressi on faucets.
COMPRESSION FAUCET
7-16. A compressi on (or washer) faucet works by rai si ng the washer on a seat
for water fl ow and compr essi ng the washer onto the seat to stop the water
fl ow. A compressi on faucet can be a si ngl e faucet for hot and col d water or a
combi nati on faucet (Figure7-6).
SECTION II - FAUCETS
Figure 7-6. Compression Faucets
Plain bibb
Hose bibb
Typical lavatory faucet
Single compression faucets
Combination faucet with swing spout Combination faucet
Combination compression faucets
FM 3-34.471
NONCOMPRESSION FAUCET
7-17. A noncompr essi on faucet (commonl y cal l ed washerless) has a si ngl e
l ev er or k n ob th at open s an d cl os es por ts for water fl ow an d s h u toff.
Noncompressi on faucets come i n three basi c types: val ve, bal l , and car tri dge
(Figure7-7). A si ngl e handl e control s them.
BATHTUB FAUCETS
7-18. A bathtub faucet may be a combi nati on compressi on faucet or a si ngl e-
knob, noncompr essi on faucet (Figure7-8). These faucets are mounted i n the
wal l on the drai n end of a bathtub, wi th or wi thout a shower.
Figure 7-7. Noncompression Faucets
Figure 7-8. Bathtub Faucets
Valve type Cartridge type Ball type
(with or without shower)
Single-knob noncompression faucet
(without shower)
FM 3-34.471
INSTALLATION
7-19. Use the fol l owi ng steps to i nstal l faucets (Figure7-9):
Step 1. Appl y pl umber's putty on the bottom of the faucet (ei ther si ngl e or
combi nati on). I f a gasket comes wi th the combi nati on faucet, putty i s not
requi red.
Step 2. Pl ace the faucet on the top rear of the bowl , wi th the threaded end
through the hol es.
Step 3. Pl ace a washer and attach a l ocknut to each threaded end under the
bowl .
Step 4. Ti ghten each l ocknut wi th a basi n wrench.
Step 5. Wi pe off any excess putty, i f used, around the faucet.
REPAIRS
7-20. Befor e r epai r i ng any faucet, dr ai n i t by tur ni ng the water off at the
fi xture shutoff val ve.
COMPRESSION FAUCETS
7-21. When r epai r i ng compr essi on (or washer) faucets, al ways check the
val ve seat. I f i t i s chi pped or rough, reface i t wi th a refaci ng tool or repl ace i t.
Figure 7-9. Faucet Installation
Washer
Locknut
Basin wrench
Gasket
Washer
Locknut
FM 3-34.471
SingleCompression Faucets
7-22. Use the fol l owi n g pr ocedu r es an d Fi gure 7-10, to r epai r si ngl e
compressi on faucets.
Figure 7-10. Compression Faucet Repairs
Decorative cap
Packing washer
Stem
Washing screw
Single compression faucet
Body
Washers
Packing nut
Screw
Decorative cap
Screw
Handle
Packing nut
Packing washer
Washer
Stem
Washer screw
Body
Handle
Washer
FM 3-34.471
needed.
Leak at the stem and the packi ng.
Step 1. Turn the water suppl y off at the shutoff val ve, and remove
the cap, screw, and handl e.
Step 2. Remove the packi ng nut wi th a wrench, the ol d packi ng
materi al , and the washer.
Step 3. Pl ace a new washer onto the stems l ower end, and
reassembl e al l parts i n order.
operati on.
Leak at the spout.
Step 1. Turn the water suppl y off at the shutoff val ve. Remove the
cap, screw, and handl e.
Step 2. Remove the packi ng nut wi th a wrench; then remove the
stem from the body.
Step 3. Remove the screw and washer from the bottom of the stem.
Step 4. Pl ace a new washer onto the bottom of the stem.
Step 5. Check the val ve seat i nsi de the body. I f i t i s chi pped or rough,
reface the seat wi th a refaci ng tool . I f the seat i s even, pl ace the stem
i nto the body. Repl ace i f needed.
Step 6. Reassembl e al l the parts i n the proper order.
operati on.
Leak at the base of the body.
Step 1. Turn the water suppl y off at the shutoff val ve. Remove the
cap, screw, and handl e.
Step 2. Remove the packi ng nut wi th a wrench.
Step 3. Remove the worn washer from the packi ng nut.
Step 4. Sl i de a new washer i nto the packi ng nut for a snug fi t.
Step 5. Reassembl e parts i n the proper order.
operati on.
Combination Compression Faucets
7-23. Use the pr ocedur es i n paragraph 7-22 and Fi gure 7-10 to r epai r
combi nati on compressi on faucets.
NONCOMPRESSION FAUCETS
7-24. The compr essi on (or washerless) faucetsbal l , val ve, and cartri dge
have di fferent i nternal worki ng parts (Figure7-11, page7-12).
NOTE: Before repairinga faucet, drain it by turningthe water off at
the fixture shutoff valve. During disassembly, check all parts for
wear and replaceas needed.
FM 3-34.471
Ball Faucets
7-25. Leaks i n thi s type of faucet can be caused by a cor r oded or gouged
sel ector bal l or by worn rubber val ve seats (Figure7-11).
Step 1. Remove the handl e by l ooseni ng the set screw.
Step 2. Remove the cap and pul l out the bal l wi th the cam assembl y.
Step 3. Use needl e nose pl i ers to remove the two rubber val ve seats and
spri ngs.
Figure 7-11. Noncompression Faucet Repairs
Handle
Set screw
Spout housing
Cap
Cam
Selector ball
Seat
Spring
Ball faucet
Escutcheon
O-ring
Screw
Decorative
cap
Stem
Cartridge
Retaining clip
Cartridge faucet
Plug
Strainer
Valve
stem
Valve
seat
Handle
Spout
Aerator
Collar
O-ring
Plug
Escutcheon
Valve faucet
Spring
Gasket
FM 3-34.471
Step 4. Repl ace the rubber seats and/or the sel ector bal l .
Step 5. Reassembl e the faucet, ensuri ng that the sl ot i n the bal l al i gns wi th
the metal protecti on on the housi ng. Check for l eaks.
ValveFaucets
7-26. Leaks i n thi s type of faucet can be caused by a worn O-ri ng at the base
of the spout or by other worn i nternal parts (Figure7-11).
Step 1. Remove the spout and l i ft off the escutcheon. Remove the pl ugs on
each si de by turni ng them countercl ockwi se and pul l i ng out the
gasket, strai ner, spri ng, val ve stem, and val ve seat.
Step 2. Remove the seat wi th a seat-removal tool or al l en wrench.
Step 3. Reassembl e the faucet and check for l eaks.
Metal CartridgeFaucets
7-27. Leaks i n these faucets are usual l y caused by two O-ri ngs i n the faucet
body. Repl aci ng the O-ri ngs shoul d el i mi nate the l eaks (Figure7-11).
Step 1. Remove the screw and push a screwdri ver down the hol e to keep the
stem i n pl ace whi l e removi ng the handl e and cover.
Step 2. Unscrew the retai ni ng nut and remove the spout. The body of the
faucet i s exposed to get to the O-ri ngs.
Step 3. Repl ace the O-ri ngs.
Step 4. Reassembl e the faucet and check for l eaks.
Ceramic-Disk CartridgeFaucet
7-28. I n the cer ami c di sk , l eak s ar e caused by a wor n or cor r oded di sk
(Figure7-11).
Step 1. Press the ti l e handl e al l the way back to remove the set screw.
Step 2. Remove the handl e and the two set screws under the spout.
Step 3. Di sengage the stopper mechani sm under the l avatory and remove
the cerami c cartri dge, whi ch i s hel d by two brass screws.
Step 4. Repl ace the cartri dge.
Step 5. Reassembl e the stopper mechani sm and the faucet. Check for l eaks.
NOTE: If the faucet malfunctions due to corrosion or wear, use the
manufacturers instructions to makerepairs.
BATHTUB AND SHOWER FAUCETS
7-29. These faucets functi on the same as compr essi on and noncompressi on
faucets on si nks and l avator i es. Al though tub and shower faucets ar e styl ed
di fferentl y than si nk and l avatory faucets, repai r methods are si mi l ar. Figures
7-12, page7-14, and 7-13, page7-15, show br eakouts of the i nternal parts of
FM 3-34.471
bathtub and shower compressi on and noncompr essi on faucets. Bathub faucet
mal functi ons and repai rs are si mi l ar to l avatory faucets.
Figure 7-12. Bathtub and Shower Faucet Breakout
Cap
Screw
Handle
Escutcheson
Packing nut
O-ring
Stem
Packing nut
O-ring
Washer
Screw
O-ring
Diverter valve
Tub valve assembly
Compression
Noncompression
Shower
diverter
Body
O-ring
Spring
Seat
Selection ball
Cam
Cap
Mounting base
Handle
Screw
Decorative cap
FM 3-34.471
Figure 7-13. Bathtub Faucet Breakout
Tub valve assembly
Screw
Washer
Packing nut
Escutcheon
Handle
Stem
O-ring
Compression
Retaining clip
Cartridge
Stem
Handle
Screw
Decorative button
Noncompression
Mounting base
8-1
Chapter 8
Stacks and Branches
Stacks ar e the ver ti cal mai n pi pes i n a pl umbi ng system. They car r y
wastes to the house dr ai n. Branches are the pi pes that carr y the di scharge
fr om the fi xtures to the stacks. A soi l branch carri es water cl oset waste; a
waste branch carri es wastes from al l other fi xtures. Most bui l di ngs do not
have separ ate soi l and waste stacks, so a si ngl e stack, known as the soi l -
and-waste stack or si mpl y the soi l stack (or stack), car r i es both soi l and
waste.
PIPE SELECTION
8-1. Stacks and branches may be made of cast i r on, i r on (threaded), copper,
or pl asti c pi pe. Soi l stacks are usual l y made of hubl ess cast i ron wi th neoprene
sl eeve gaskets or pl asti c pi pe. Copper pi pe i s al so used for soi l stacks because
i t i s eas i l y i n s tal l ed. Br an ch es ar e u s u al l y made of ei th er th r eaded
gal vani zed-steel pi pe wi th r ecessed dr ai nage fi tti ngs, copper pi pe (DWV), or
pl asti c pi pe (ABS).
PIPE SIZE
STACK
8-2. The stack i s si zed i n the same way as the bui l di ng and house dr ai n.
Deter mi ne the total DFUs usi ng Tabl e 1-6, page 1-18. Then, appl y thi s
number to Table8-1 to fi nd the proper stack si ze. Referri ng to the exampl e i n
paragraph 1-73, page1-16, the 45 DFUs woul d requi re a 3-i nch stack for cast-
i ron, steel , or pl asti c pi pe and a 2-i nch stack for copper pi pe.
Table 8-1. Maximum Fixture Units Per Stack
Size of Pipe
(in inches)
Fixture Units Per
Stack
3 60
4 500
5 1,100
6 1,900
8 3,600
10 5,600
12 8,400
FM 3-34.471
8-2 Stacks and Branches
BRANCHES
Water Closets
8-3. A water cl oset has no i ndi vi dual waste pi pe. Usual l y, i t i s connected
di r ectl y i nto the stack wi th a shor t br anch attached to a cl oset bend. The
cl oset bend i s 3 or 4 i nches i n di ameter i f i t i s cast i ron, steel , or pl asti c and 3
i nches i f copper.
Lavatories
8-4. Because l avator i es ar e used for washi ng, stoppages can occur i n the
waste pi pe. I mprove drai nage by usi ng a mi ni mum number of fi tti ngs and no
l ong, hor i zontal r uns. The mi ni mum pi pe si ze for l avator y waste i s 1 1/4
i nches. I f other than copper pi pe i s used, 1 1/2 i nches i s more sati sfactory.
Urinals
8-5. Ur i nal s pr esent a par ti cul ar pr obl em because for ei gn matter i s often
thr own i nto them. Ther efor e, a ur i nal shoul d be equi pped wi th an effecti ve
strai ner. The si ze of the waste pi pe shoul d be 2 i nches i f i t i s cast i ron, steel , or
pl asti c and 1 1/2 i nches i f copper.
Showers
8-6. The di ameter of the waste pi pe for a si ngl e shower i s 2 i nches for cast
i r on, steel , or pl asti c and 1 1/2 i nches for copper . To handl e the fl ow dur i ng
peak use, a shower r oom r equi r es a waste pi pe of 3 or 4 i nches i n di ameter .
Stoppages sel dom occur i n shower waste pi pes.
Sinks
8-7. Kitchen Sink. A ki tchen si nk needs a 1 1/2-i nch waste pi pe because of
food wastes fl ushed i nto the si nk. The waste pi pe must be shor t and as fr ee
fr om offset as possi bl e.
8-8. Slop Sink. The two styl es of sl op (uti l i ty) si nks ar e tr ap-to-fl oor (stand
tr ap) and tr ap-to-wal l . Each i s used for di sposi ng of wash water, fi l l i ng mop
buckets, and washi ng out mops. The trap-to-fl oor si nk requi res a 3-i nch waste
pi pe. The trap-to-wal l si nk requi res a 2-i nch waste pi pe. I n both types, copper
pi pe may be a si ze smal l er.
8-9. Scullery Sink. Scul l er y si nks ar e for gener al ki tchen use. A 2-i nch
waste pi pe shoul d be used because a l arge amount of grease i s passed i nto the
pi pe through a grease trap.
DrinkingFountains
8-10. Si nce dri nki ng fountai ns carr y cl ear water waste, a 1 1/4-i nch pi pe i s
ampl e.
FM 3-34.471
Stacks and Branches 8-3
INSTALLATION
8-11. The stack i s one conti nuous pi pe run that goes from the house drai n up
thr ough the r oof. However , cer tai n secti ons of the r un ar e named for thei r
functi on, as shown i n Figure8-1.
Figure 8-1. Stack and Branches
VTR
Main soil-
and-
waste vent
Main soil-and-
waste stack
Sewer
House drain Stack support
(must be concrete
or masonry)
Main cleanout
Long sweep 1/4 bend
Test T
Basement
Soil pipe branch
Cleanout
Hanger
Soil pipe branch
Hanger
Main vent T
Hanger
Main vent
FM 3-34.471
STACK
8-12. I nstal l ati on of the stack requi res the fol l owi ng connecti ons:
From the house drai n to the fi rst branch takeoff
Step 1. Connect the stack to the house drai n usi ng a l ong sweep 1/4 bend
to keep pressure to a mi ni mum.
Step 2. Connect a test T to the bend wi th a pi ece of pi pe l ong enough to
rai se the si de openi ng of the test T 12 i nches above the fi ni shed fl oor.
Step 3. Add other pi pe unti l the desi red hei ght of the fi rst branch takeoff
i s reached.
Step 4. I nstal l a sani tary T or combi nati on Y and 1/8-i nch bend at thi s
poi nt.
To the mai n soi l -and-waste vent. The mai n soi l -and-waste vent
extends above the top br anch fi tti ng, whi ch r uns thr ough the r oof
(wi th ou t con n ecti n g i t to th e mai n v en t). Us u al l y th i s v en t i s
connected to the mai n vent.
Vent through the roof (VTR). After the mai n vent T i s i nstal l ed, run
the mai n soi l -and-waste vent thr ough the r oof to for m the VTR. The
VTR pi pe must be as l arge or l arger than the stack and must extend a
mi ni mum of 12 i nches above the r oof. I t can be ei ther str ai ght fr om
the stack or offset. To make the openi ng i n the r oof water ti ght, use
roof fl ashi ng. I n areas of bel ow-freezi ng temperatures, frost may cl ose
the vent at i ts roof outl et. To prevent thi s, you may use a pi pe that i s a
si ze or two l arger than the stack. Other methods ar e i nsul ati on, hi gh
fl ashi ng, and a frost-proof cover over the pi pe.
MAIN VENT T
8-13. The mai n vent T shoul d be pl aced i n the stack at l east 6 i nches above
the fl ood l evel of the hi ghest fi xture i n the i nstal l ati on. I t joi ns the mai n vent
to the mai n soi l -and-waste vent.
BRANCHES
Slope
8-14. Hor i zontal br anches ar e r un fr om the takeoffs on the soi l stack to the
var i ous fi xtur es. Br anches shoul d sl ope 1/4 i nch per foot fr om the fi xtur e to
the stack. A conveni ent tool for checki ng sl ope i s a carpenter's l evel .
Cleanouts
8-15. Was te l i n es s h ou l d h av e as man y cl ean ou ts as n eeded to cl ear
stoppages and si mpl i fy repai rs. I nstal l a cl eanout for every change of di recti on
and for each hori zontal l i ne 2 feet l ong or l onger. The cl eanouts shoul d be the
same di ameter as the waste l i ne.
Sizes
8-16. The number of drai nage fi xture uni ts determi nes the branch si zes. No
branch may be l arger than the soi l (waste) stack.
FM 3-34.471
Stacks and Branches 8-5
STACK AND BRANCH SUPPORTS
8-17. Stacks and branches shoul d be supported so that the wei ght of the pi pe
wi l l not bear on joi nts, si nce they are the weakest poi nts i n the l i ne. Cast-i ron
soi l pi pe stacks and br anches shoul d be suppor ted at al l joi nts. The bend at
the base of the stack shoul d rest on a concrete or masonr y support, as shown
i n Figure8-1, page8-3. The (ver ti cal ) stack may be suppor ted on each fl oor
wi th speci al hanger s, by pl aci ng wood str i ps under two si des of the hub or by
wrappi ng strap i ron around the pi pe at the hub and suspendi ng i t from joi sts.
Stur dy i r on-r i ng hanger s must suppor t hor i zontal cast-i r on r uns of pi pi ng.
The suppor t shoul d be as cl ose to the caul k ed j oi nt as possi bl e. Suppor t
thr eaded, gal vani zed-i r on/steel waste pi pe, pl asti c pi pe, and copper -tubi ng
drai n and vent l i nes at each fl oor l evel .
TESTING
8-18. After i nstal l i ng the waste system, test i t to see that al l j oi nts ar e
l eakproof.
GALVANIZED-IRON/STEEL, COPPER, AND PLASTIC PIPING
8-19. To test these types of pi pi ng, choose ei ther the water or the ai r test.
Water Test
8-20. Use the fol l owi ng steps to do a water test:
Step 1. Seal the branches and vent l i nes and pl ace a test pl ug i n the test T.
Step 2. Fi l l the system wi th water and check for a drop i n the water l evel .
Step 3. Check each joi nt for l eaks i f the water l evel drops noti ceabl y. The test
i s sati sfactory i f the water l evel does not fal l more than 4 i nches i n a 30-
mi nute peri od.
Step 4. Make l eaki ng joi nts waterti ght and repl ace any defecti ve materi al .
Air Test
8-21. A speci al pl ug, thr ough whi ch ai r i s pumped i nto the system, i s
requi red for thi s test. I n a cast-i r on soi l pi pe system, cl ose al l openi ngs after
you have drai ned the water. Use the fol l owi ng steps to do an ai r test:
Step 1. Appl y an ai r pressure of about 5 psi (measured by a gauge).
Step 2. A drop i n the mercury col umn on the gauge shows a l eaky joi nt. I n a
sati sfactory test, the l i ne shoul d hol d 5 psi for 15 mi nutes.
Step 3. Li sten for the sound of escapi ng ai r to hel p l ocate l eaks. I f no sound i s
heard and pressure i s fal l i ng, appl y a soap sol uti on to the joi nts i n the area of
the l eak. I f there i s a l eak, bubbl es wi l l form.
OTHER TYPES OF PIPING
8-22. Before doi ng a water or an ai r test do the fol l owi ng 12-hour test:
FM 3-34.471
Step 1. Seal al l branches and vent l i nes. Pl ace a ratchet test pl ug i n the test
T (Figure8-2) at the base of the stack.
Step 2. Fi l l the system wi th water from the top of the mai n soi l -and-waste
vent, and keep i t fi l l ed for at l east 12 hours to al l ow the oakum i n the joi nts to
swel l and form a waterti ght seal .
8-23. After compl eti ng thi s 12-hour test, perform ei ther a water test or an ai r
test.
Figure 8-2. Test T With Plug Inserted
Ratchet test plug
Ratchet
Rubber spreader
Stack
Lead
Oakum Test T
9-1
Chapter 9
Traps and Vents
A vent i s a pi pe or openi ng that br i ngs outsi de ai r i nto the pl umbi ng
system and equal i zes the pr essur e on both si des of a tr ap to pr event tr ap
seal l oss. A tr ap pr ovi des a water seal that k eeps sewer gases fr om
enteri ng a bui l di ng through a waste outl et.
9-1. A trap i s a fi tti ng or devi ce that, when properl y vented, provi des a water
seal to pr event the di schar ge of sewer gases wi thout affecti ng the fl ow of
sani tary drai nage through i t.
USE
9-2. Traps ar e used on some fi xtur es and fl oor dr ai ns i nsi de bui l di ngs. The
P-trap i s used i n a parti ti on to connect a dr ai n to a waste branch. A runni ng
trap i s used i n a bui l di ng's drai n l i ne when the l ocal pl umbi ng code requi res
that the bui l di ng drai n be trapped.
TYPES
9-3. The types of water-seal traps are a P-trap, an S-trap, a 3/4-degree S-trap,
and a drum trap (Figure9-1, page9-2). The most common type is a P-trap. (Refer
to cast-i ron traps shown i n Figure6-10, page6-11.)
P-TRAP
9-4. Thi s trap i s the most wi del y used for fi xtures. I t can be ei ther pl asti c or
chromed, tubul ar brass. The most common di ameter si zes are 1 1/4 and 1 1/2
i nches. Most P-tr aps have a cl eanout pl ug, si nce the tr aps ar e subj ect to
stoppage.
DRUM TRAP
9-5. Thi s trap i s used mostl y for bathtubs, but i t can al so be used i n ki tchen
s i n k s . Dr u m tr aps ar e des i gn ed i n s ev er al s ty l es , depen di n g on th e
man u factu r er an d th e mater i al u s ed. Th i s tr ap h as th e adv an tage of
contai ni ng a l ar ger vol ume of water and di schar gi ng a gr eater vol ume of
water than a P-tr ap. A dr um tr ap i s 3 or 4 i nches i n di ameter wi th the tr ap
screw one si ze smal l er than the di ameter.
SECTION I - TRAPS
FM 3-34.471
9-2 Traps and Vents
S-TRAP AND 3/4-INCH S-TRAP
9-6. The ful l S-trap and 3/4-degree S-trap are not used i n modern pl umbi ng. I f
an S-trap or 3/4-i nch S-trap i s i n pl ace, remove i t and repl ace i t wi th a P-trap.
TRAP SEAL LOSS
9-7. The trap seal (Figure9-2) i s a l i qui d content i n the U-shaped part of the
trap. The most common trap seal has a depth of 2 i nches between the wei r and
the top di p. The deep-seal trap has a depth of 4 i nches. I f the trap's water seal
i s l ost, dangerous sewer gases can enter the bui l di ng through the fi xture.
Figure 9-1. Traps
Figure 9-2. Trap Seal
Tubular P-trap
Swivel P-trap
S-trap
Drum trap
Inlet
Crown
Dip
Outlet
Overflow
Seal
Clean out
FM 3-34.471
Traps and Vents 9-3
INADEQUATE VENTING
9-8. Tr ap seal l oss usual l y r esul ts fr om i nadequate venti ng of the tr ap.
Venti ng a pl umbi ng system al l ows the atmosphere to enter the di scharge si de
of a trap, preventi ng l oss of water seal by si phonage. At sea l evel , atmospheri c
pr essur e i s about 14.7 psi . Thi s pr essur e var i es onl y sl i ghtl y on the fi xtur e
si de of the water seal i n a trap. Any di fference between thi s pressure and the
pr essur e on the di schar ge si de for ces the water seal i n the di r ecti on of l ess
pr essur e. Venti ng the di schar ge si de of the tr ap to the atmospher e tends to
equal i ze these pressures.
DIRECT SIPHONAGE
9-9. Di r ect si phonage, or sel f-si phonage, as shown i n Figure9-3, occur s i n
unvented tr aps that ser ve oval -bottom fi xtur es such as l avator i es. Such
fi xtur es di schar ge thei r contents r api dl y and do not have the fi nal smal l
tr i ckl e of water needed to r eseal the tr ap. When the pl ug i s wi thdr awn, the
water fl ows out fast and compl etel y fi l l s the waste pi pe. The water di spl aces
the ai r that nor mal l y fi l l s the waste pi pe, l oweri ng the atmospheri c pr essure
on the di schar ge si de of the tr ap. Atmospher i c pr essur e on the fi xtur e si de
forces the water through the trap, and the seal i s l ost.
9-10. I n a l avator y wi th a fl at bottom, the l ast few ounces of water fl owi ng
i nto the trap come i n a sl ow tri ckl e, reseal i ng the trap. Showers, l aundry tubs,
si nks, and bathtubs rarel y l ose trap seal by di rect si phonage.
9-11. Fi xture manufacturers have tri ed to combat si phonage by reduci ng the
di ameter of the l avator y outl et to 1 1/4 i nches and r ecommendi ng that i t be
connected to a 1 1/2-i nch waste pi pe. I n such a connecti on, the water vol ume
Figure 9-3. Direct Siphonage
Inlet or
fixture side
Trap seal
Outlet (discharge) side
Seal intact Fixture discharging Seal lost
FM 3-34.471
9-4 Traps and Vents
does not compl etel y fi l l the waste pi pe, and the ai r i n the pi pe mai ntai ns
atmospheri c pressure on the outl et si de of the trap.
INDIRECT OR MOMENTUMSIPHONAGE
9-12. I ndi rect si phonage (Figure9-4) i s caused by a l arge di scharge of water
fr om a fi xtur e i nstal l ed one or mor e fl oor s above the affected fi xtur e. Thi s
l ar ge di schar ge tends to for m a sl ug i n the stack. As thi s sl ug passes the
takeoff of the fi xture bel ow i t, ai r i s pul l ed out of the waste l i ne on the l ower
fi xture. Thi s r educes the pr essur e on the di schar ge si de of the trap. There i s
no reseal unti l there i s a di scharge from the l ower fi xture.
BACK PRESSURE
9-13. Back pr es su r e wi th i n a san i tar y dr ai n age sy s tem i s cau s ed by
si mul taneous fi xtur e use that over taxes the pl umbi ng system, causi ng a
posi ti ve pressure that affects a traps water seal . A l arge fl ow may compl etel y
fi l l the pi pe, causi ng the compr essed atmospher i c gases to offer r esi stance
because they cannot sl i p past the water fl ow and exhaust at a roof ter mi nal .
As the water fal l s, the pressure i ncreases and compresses the ai r, and the trap
seal bl ows out of the fi xture (Figure9-5).
CAPILLARY ACTION
9-14. A forei gn object l odged i n the trap causes l oss of trap seal by capi l l ary
acti on. The object acts as a wi ck and carri es the water from the trap over the
Figure 9-4. Indirect Siphonage
Sink
Waste pipe
Lavatory
FM 3-34.471
Traps and Vents 9-5
outl et si de i nto the waste pi pe unti l the seal i s i neffecti ve (Figure9-6). Rags,
stri ng, l i nt, and hai r commonl y cause thi s probl em.
EVAPORATION
9-15. Loss of tr ap seal fr om evapor ati on onl y occur s when a fi xtur e i s not
used for a l ong ti me. The r ate of evapor ati on i n a tr ap depends on the
atmospheres humi di ty and temperature. A trap i n a warm, dry pl ace wi l l l ose
water seal by evapor ati on mor e r api dl y than one i n a cool , damp pl ace.
Figure 9-5. Trap Seal Loss by Back Pressure
Figure 9-6. Trap Seal Loss by Capillary Action
FM 3-34.471
9-6 Traps and Vents
Venti l ati on does not sol ve the probl em. The use of a deep-seal trap i s the best
sol uti on. One di sadvantage i s that sol i d wastes col l ect i n the bottom of the
trap and cl og the pi pe.
9-16. The mai n vent i s a ver ti cal pi pe connecti ng fi xture vents to the mai n
soi l -and-waste vent or di r ectl y to the atmospher e. I n a bui l di ng of thr ee or
more stori es, the mai n vent shoul d be connected to the bottom of the soi l stack
to prevent pressure on the l ower branches.
INSTALLATION
9-17. A typi cal stack and vent i nstal l ati on i s shown i n Figure9-7. Usual l y
the mai n vent i s wi thi n sever al feet of (par al l el to) the mai n soi l -and-waste
stack, but i t may be offset where there are space probl ems. Branches from the
mai n vent are used i n i nstal l ati ons.
SINGLE-FIXTURE VENT
9-18. The i ndi vi dual vent (al so r efer r ed to as a back vent or conti nuous
vent) shown i n Figure9-8, page9-8, i s the most common. Thi s vent can be
adapted to al l fi xtur es. I t pr events both di r ect and i ndi r ect si phonage.
Assumi ng a dr op of 1/4 i nch per foot, the maxi mum di stances between the
fi xtur e tr ap and the vent ar e l i sted i n Table9-1, page9-8.
BATTERY OF FIXTURE VENTS
9-19. Batteri es of two or more fi xtures can be i ndi vi dual l y vented (Figure9-
9, page9-8). Each vent ti es i nto a vent pi pel i ne (branch) connected to the mai n
vent.
COMMON VENT
9-20. Fi xtur es mounted si de by si de or back to back on a wal l are common-
vented. I n the common vent, both fi xtures di scharge i nto a doubl e sani tar y T
wi th defl ectors (Figure9-10, page9-9). Thi s venti ng system usual l y i s found i n
bui l di ngs where two bathrooms have a common parti ti on.
CIRCUIT VENT
9-21. The ci rcui t vent (Figure9-11, page9-9) extends from the mai n vent to
connecti ons on the hor i zontal soi l or waste br anch pi pe between the fi xtur e
connecti ons. Thi s vent i s used i n bui l di ngs havi ng a batter y of two or mor e
fi xtures, such as l avatori es. A maxi mum of ei ght fi xtures are permi tted on any
one ci r cui t vent. The ci r cui t vent i s usual l y i nstal l ed between the next to the
l ast and the l ast fi xture on the l i ne. Si nce some fi xtures di scharge thei r waste
through a part of the pi pe that acts as a vent for other fi xtures, the vent may
become cl ogged. Reduce cl oggi ng by connecti ng the vent i nto the top of the
branch rather than i ts si de. Water and waste from the l ast fi xture scours the
vents of the other fi xtures.
SECTION II - VENTS
FM 3-34.471
Traps and Vents 9-7
Figure 9-7. Stack and Vent Installation
VTR
Main soil-and-
waste vent
Soil-and-
waste
connections
Main soil-
and-
waste
Soil-and-waste
connections
Test T
Basement
First floor
D
Second floor
C
Third floor
B
Fourth floor
A
Main
vent T
Main vent
Main cleanout
Stack support (must be
concrete or masonry)
NOTE: A, B, C, and D are branches (of the main vent)
that serve as fixture trap vent terminals.
FM 3-34.471
9-8 Traps and Vents
Figure 9-8. Single-Fixture Vent
Table 9-1. Determining the Pipe Size From the Fixture to the Vent
Maximum
Distance From the Fix-
ture Trap to the Vent
Size of the Fixture
Drain (in Inches)
2' 6" 1 1/4
3' 6" 1 1/2
5' 2
6' 3
10' 4
Figure 9-9. Row of Fixture Vents
Main vent
Vent pipe
Lavatory
Overflow line
Trap
Drainage T
Floor line
Waste pipe
Wall
Closet
Floor
Legend
A - Main vent
B - Branch of the main vent
C - Individual fixture vents
Waste stack
B
C
A
C
FM 3-34.471
Traps and Vents 9-9
WET VENT
9-22. A wet vent (Figure9-12, page9-10) i s part of a vent l i ne through whi ch
l i qui d wastes fl ow from another fi xture that has an i ndi vi dual vent. I t i s used
most commonl y on a smal l group of bathroom fi xtures. A di sadvantage i s that
the vent tends to become foul ed wi th waste mater i al , whi ch r educes i ts
Figure 9-10. Common-Vented Fixtures
Figure 9-11. Circuit Venting With Lavatories
Wall
Vent
Lavatory
Waste stack
Lavatory
Main vent
Circuit vent
Lavatory
FM 3-34.471
9-10 Traps and Vents
di ameter or causes a stoppage. The si ze of the pi pe for a wet vent must be
l arge enough to take care of the fi xtures based on the total DFUs.
SIZES
9-23. Never use a pi pe smal l er than 2 i nches i n di ameter for venti l ati on.
MAIN VENT
9-24. To deter mi ne the cor r ect pi pe si ze for the mai n vent, use Table 9-2
al ong wi th the number of DFUs, the l ength of the vent, and the di ameter of
the soi l -and-waste stack. The mai n vent must be at l east one-hal f the si ze of
the stack, and the mai n soi l -and-waste vent must be at l east as l arge as the
stack.
INDIVIDUAL FIXTURE VENT
9-25. Table 9-3 l i sts the r ecommended si zes (i n di ameter ) for i ndi vi dual ,
branch, ci rcui t, and stack vents.
9-26. Deter mi ne what si ze of mai n vent (di ameter ) you woul d need for the
fol l owi ng: a soi l -and-waste stack wi th a di ameter of 3 i nches, DFUs of 59, and
a 200-foot vent l ength. Use the fol l owi ng steps wi th Table9-2:
Step 1. Read down the fi rst col umn to 3.
Step 2. Fi nd 30 i n the second col umn.
Step 3. Go to the next hi gher number, 60 (si nce there are 59 DFUs).
Step 4. Read across to the fi gure that i s cl osest to 200, and sel ect 240.
Step 5. Read up from 240. The mai n vent woul d be 2 1/2 i nches i n di ameter.
Figure 9-12. Group of Wet-Vent Fixtures
Lavatory
Wet vent
Shower
Water closet
FM 3-34.471
Traps and Vents 9-11
Table 9-2. Size and Length of the Main Vents
Diameter of
Soil-and-
Waste Stack
(in Inches)
Number of
DFUs to be
Connected
Maximum Permissible Developed Length of Vent (in Feet)
Diameter of Vent (in inches)
1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 4 5 6 8
1 1/2 8
150
2 12
75 310
2 24
70 300
2 1/2 42
35 140 450
3 30
20 80 260 650
3 60
18 75 240 600
4 100
35 100 260 1,100
4 250
30 95 240 1,000
4 500
22 70 180 750
5 550
28 70 320 1,000
5 1,100
20 50 240 750
6 950
20 95 240 1,000
6 1,900
18 70 180 750
8 1,800
30 80 350 1,100
8 3,600
25 60 250 800
10 2,800
30 80 350
10 5,600
25 60 250
Table 9-3. Size of Individual, Branch, Circuit, and Stack Vents
Fixture
Minimum Size of Vent
(in inches)
Lavatory 1 1/4
Drinking fountain 1 1/4
Sink 1 1/2
Shower 1 1/2
Bathtub 1 1 /2
Laundry tub 1 1/2
Slop sink 1 1/2
Water closet 2
Urinal 1 1/2
10-1
Chapter 10
Steam, Gas, and Air Piping
Steam pi pi ng i s used mai nl y for heati ng systems. Gas and ai r pi pi ng i s
used for many pur poses, but mai nl y for boi l er r ooms and heati ng pl ants.
Steam pi pi ng i s not i nterchangeabl e wi th gas and ai r pi pi ng.
STEAMPIPING
10-1. Steam i s used mai nl y for space heati ng, cooki ng, and l aunder i ng.
Steam i s produced i n a boi l er and passes thr ough steam header s and branch
takeoffs to the steam appl i ances. Most steam pi pes ar e wr ought-i r on or steel
wi th thr eaded joi nts. Lar ge, hi gh-pr essur e, hi gh-temper atur e systems use
bol ted-fl ange joi nts (see Figure6-24, page6-22).
PIPE SIZE
10-2. Do not use a suppl y mai n that i s l ess than 2 i nches i n di ameter . The
di ameter of the far end of the suppl y mai n shoul d be no l ess than one hal f the
di ameter at the l argest part. Wher e suppl y mai ns ar e smal l er than one hal f,
use eccentri c coupl i ngs, l evel wi th the bottom of the pi pes.
INSTALLATION
Piping
10-3. Pipe Expansion. I nstal l steam pi pi ng systems wi th the atmospher i c
temper atur e var yi ng fr om 0 degr ees Fahr enhei t to 100 degr ees Fahr enhei t,
dependi ng on the l ocal i ty and the season of the year . When steam passes
through a pi pe, the temperature of the pi pe becomes the same temperature as
the steam. Thi s temperature change causes the pi pe to expand and i ncrease i n
l ength. For a temperature change of 900 degrees Fahrenhei t, steel pi pe woul d
expand about 8 1/2 i nches per 100 feet of l ength. To prevent undue str ess on
the pi pe and tr ansfer of thi s str ess to appl i ances, i nsert a fl exi bl e connecti on
that wi l l expand and contr act wi th the pi pe. I nstal l bends and l oops i n the
pi pe to absorb the forces set up by expansi on and contracti on.
10-4. Pitch of Pipes. As steam passes through the pi pi ng to the appl i ances
that i t serves, i t cool s and condenses to water. Thi s water must be returned to
the boi l er where i t i s changed back to steam. When i nstal l i ng steam systems,
ensur e that al l pi pes ar e pr oper l y pi tched (sl oped) to al l ow condensati on to
dr ai n. Sl ope pi pes towar d the boi l er to pr event water fr om col l ecti ng i n the
pockets i n the return condensate steam l i nes.
10-5. The pi tch of the mai n shoul d not be l ess than 1/4 i nch per 10 feet. The
pi tch of hori zontal run outs to ri sers and radi ators shoul d not be l ess than 1/2
FM 3-34.471
10-2 Steam, Gas, and Air Piping
i nch per foot. Where thi s pi tch i s not possi bl e, run outs over 8 feet l ong shoul d
be one si ze l arger than otherwi se needed.
NOTE: Faulty piping installation causes most snapping, cracking,
and rattling noises in steam-distribution systems or return systems.
Live steamin contact with water or moisture in the pockets causes
water hammer. This condition may occur in the distribution system
because of high water levels in the boilers. It occurs more often in
return-condensation steam lines when steamis leaking or blowing
directly through traps into theselines.
Valves
10-6. The gate val ve i s the most sati sfactory val ve to use for steam pi pi ng.
When open, i t al l ows ready passage of steam; when cl osed, i t forms a l eakproof
shutoff. Gl obe val ves shoul d not be used wi th fi ber di sk washers because fi ber
di s k wa s h er s wea r r a p i dl y u n d er con d i ti on s of h i gh pr es s u r e a n d
temperature.
Insulation
10-7. Qual i ty pi pe i nsul ati on shoul d be used for pi pi ng between the boi l er
and the appl i ance. I t may be a pr efor med type, that i s str apped ar ound the
pi pi ng or the cement type that i s mi xed wi th water and mol ded ar ound the
pi pe by hand.
SAFETY
10-8. Before attempti ng mai ntenance
Shut off al l the steam l i nes and remove the pressure.
Al l ow l i nes to cool before worki ng on them.
I nsul ate al l steam l i nes passi ng wi thi n 6 i nches of combusti bl e
materi al s.
I nsul ate exposed steam l i nes that are wi thi n easy reach of personnel .
Equi p al l steam boi l ers wi th proper pressure- and temperature-rel i ef
val ves.
Test all new installations before use. Steam lines are usually tested under an air pressure of
125 psi.
DANGER
Because of the high pressures and
temperatures, death or physical injury
can result from failure to use caution
and to follow procedures in steam, gas,
and ai r piping systems. (See safety
precautions for each system.)
FM 3-34.471
Steam, Gas, and Air Piping 10-3
GAS AND AIR PIPING
GAS SYSTEM
10-9. Gas pi pi ng i s used for heati ng. Fuel gas i s manufactured or natural . I n
i ts natur al state, i t i s col or l ess and odor l ess wi th a speci fi c gr avi ty of about
one-hal f that of or di nar y ai r . Chemi cal s ar e added so that user s can detect a
gas l eak by i ts odor . Natur al gas (methane) i s not poi sonous but can cause
suffocati on i n a cl osed space. Manufactured gas can be poi sonous, si nce i t may
contai n carbon monoxi de. I t i s expl osi ve under certai n condi ti ons. I nstal l ati on
stan dar ds mus t be met wh en gas i s di str i bu ted. Fu el gas i s gen er al l y
di stri buted by steel gas mai ns.
Installation
10-10. Pi pi ng used for water servi ces i s sui tabl e for use i n gas pi pi ng. I ron or
steel pi pe wi th threaded joi nts i s usual l y used for gas servi ces si nce fuel gas
does not corrode these metal s. Use gal vani zed pi pe from the meter mai n to the
bui l di ng; the branches can be copper. Do not use l ead pi pe or rubber tubi ng to
carry gas.
10-11. Pl asti c pi pe can al so be used for gas ser vi ces. When pl asti c pi pe i s
used, heat wel d the joi nts; do not use gl ue or cement. Do not i nstal l pl asti c
pi pe above ground i n di stri buti on systems wi th pressure greater than 50 psi of
gr ade, or wher e the oper ati ng temper atu r es wi l l be bel ow 20 degr ees
Fahrenhei t or above 100 degrees Fahrenhei t.
10-12. The i nstal l ati on and suppor t of gas pi pi ng i s the same as for water
pi pi ng. Si nce fuel gas contai ns moi stur e, al l gas pi pes shoul d sl ope. I nstal l
capped dr i p l egs to al l ow dr ai nage of moi stur e, that mi ght condense i n the
pi pe. Check these dri ps and empty them when necessary. Do not i nstal l dri ps
where moi sture may freeze. Avoi d traps i n the pi pes. Take al l branches off the
top of the ser vi ce pi pe to pr event water from col l ecti ng i n the br anches. Gas
pi pi ng shoul d be exposed, and uni ons and bel l s shoul d be vi si bl e to al l ow
frequent i nspecti ons.
Testing
10-13. After i nstal l ati on, ai r test the enti re gas mai n and servi ce l i ne system
under a pr essur e that i s at l east 50 per cent of the oper ati ng pr essur e. Test
pressure must be at l east 75 psi .
AIR SYSTEMS
10-14. Ai r pi pi ng i s not used for heati ng. I t i s used for speci al purposes such
as au tomoti ve ser v i ce s tati on s , mach i n e sh ops , or l au n dr i es , wh er e a
compressed-ai r system may be used.
Compressed-Air System
10-15. The ai r i s compr essed i n an el ectr i c, gasol i n e, or di esel -dr i ven
compr essor (Figure10-1, page10-4) and stor ed i n a tank unti l needed. Ai r i s
dr awn i nto the compr essor , r educed i n vol ume, and passed thr ough a check
val ve i nto the stor age tank . The pr essur e contr ol val ve and safety val ve
FM 3-34.471
10-4 Steam, Gas, and Air Piping
r egul ate the oper ati on of the compr essor . When the amount of ai r stor ed i n
the tank reaches the desi red pressure, the compressor shuts off automati cal l y.
I f the pressure control val ve fai l s, the safety val ve reduces the pressure on the
tank, whi ch pr events an expl osi on. Compr essed ai r i s dr awn fr om the tank
through a reduci ng val ve wi th a gauge on ei ther si de. The reduci ng val ve may
be set to fur ni sh any desi r ed pr essur e to the equi pment, regar dl ess of the ai r
pressure wi thi n the tank.
Installation
10-16. I nstal l ati on standar ds for ai r pi pi ng ar e the same as for gas pi pi ng.
However , to r educe fr i cti on l oss of pr essur e, avoi d pi pes that have shar p
bends.
UNDERGROUND INSTALLATIONS
10-17. Many gas and ai r pi pes ar e l ai d under gr ound. Thr eadi ng of pi pe
reduces the wal l thi ckness by about 40 percent, and the pi pe i s more l i kel y to
cor r ode or be damaged by vi br ati on. For thi s r eason, dr esser coupl i ngs ar e
used for under gr ound pi pi ng i nstead of thr eaded joi nts. Dr esser coupl i ngs
provi de l eakproof joi nts wi thout reduci ng the pi pe wal l thi ckness. Figure10-2
shows dresser coupl i ngs for l arge and smal l pi pes.
Large-si zed pi pe. A dresser coupl i ng i s sui tabl e for l arge-si zed pi pe. I t
has a seaml ess body wi th gaskets and fl anges bol ted together to for m
a fl exi bl e l eakproof joi nt. Si nce these coupl i ngs are used on l arge, steel
gas pi pes, gas compani es (rather than pl umbers) usual l y i nstal l them.
Figure 10-1. Air-Compressor Tank
Pressure control and safety valve
Pressure-reducing valve
To equipment
Gauges
Drain
Air tank
Check valve
Compressor
FM 3-34.471
Steam, Gas, and Air Piping 10-5
Smal l -si zed pi pe. The dresser coupl i ng for smal l -si zed pi pe i s made of
a seaml ess body wi th two gaskets, two r etai ner s, and two octagonal
end nuts. Dr esser coupl i ngs ar e avai l abl e i n si zes fr om 3/8 i nch to 2
i nches.
SAFETY
10-18. Both gas and ai r pi pi ng ar e expl osi ve under cer tai n condi ti ons.
Remember the fol l owi ng:
Never smoke i n an area where gas pi pi ng i s bei ng i nstal l ed or
repai red; i t i s not permi tted.
Never use matches to test for gas l eaks.
Locate the meter and the ri ser pi pes some di stance from el ectri c
meters, swi tches, fuses, and other equi pment.
I nstal l adequate pressure-rel i ef val ves on ai r compressors.
Test al l l i nes befor e use.
Remove the pressure from al l the l i nes before worki ng on them.
Provi de protecti on for the pi pes agai nst freezi ng of condensed water i n
unheated l ocati ons.
Figure 10-2. Dresser Couplings
Pipe
End nut
Retainer
Gasket
Coupling
body
Dresser coupling for small-sized pipe Dresser coupling for large-sized pipe
Middle ring
Follower
Bolt
Gasket
11-1
Chapter 11
Centrifugal Pumps
Many ki nds of pumps are i n general use such as centri fugal , sump, rotary,
and r eci pr ocal pumps. The type of pump chosen depends on i ts use, the
vol ume of l i qui d to be pumped, and the di stance or hei ght to whi ch the
l i qui d must be del i ver ed. Thi s chapter onl y cover s centr i fugal pumps.
Refer to the manufactur er 's manual for speci fi c oper ati on and r epai r of
di ffer ent model s of pumps.
Pumps del i ver water to a water di str i buti on or pl umbi ng system. They
i ncr ease water pr essur e wi thi n the system and/or pump water fr om i ts
sour ce i nto a stor age tank or r eser voi r , or they pump wastes i nto a sewer
or dr ai nage l i ne. They ar e used i n booster systems to mai ntai n adequate
pr essure wi thi n bui l di ngs or to i ncrease pressure for hi gh-ri se bui l di ngs.
CHARACTERISTICS
11-1. I n centr i fugal pumps (Figure11-1, page11-2), when a l i qui d whi r l s
ar ound a poi nt, a centr i fugal for ce i s cr eated for ci ng the fl ui d outwar d fr om
the center. The l arger centri fugal pumps can devel op a pressure great enough
to r ai se a col umn of l i qui d mor e than 100 feet. The capaci ty of centr i fugal
pumps ranges from 5,000 to 200,000 GPH.
IMPELLER
11-2. The centr i fugal pump i s si mpl e and effi ci ent. A set of vanes on a
r otati ng i mpel l er i s mounted i nsi de a volute(a snai l -shaped channel for the
water ). The di ameter of the vol ute i ncr eases towar d the outl et openi ng, or
di r ecti on of fl ow. As l i qui d passes i nto the gr adual l y wi deni ng channel , the
speed decr eases and the pr essur e i ncr eases. An i ntake passage l eads the
l i qui d to the i mpel l er , a di schar ge passage l eads i t away, and a seal on the
i mpel l er shaft keeps the l i qui d i nsi de the pump and the ai r outsi de the pump.
HEAD
11-3. Head i s the for ce exer ted by a col umn of fl ui d measur ed at i ts l owest
poi nt. The head capaci ty of a pump i s th e pr essur e i t mu st pr oduce to
over come the pr essur e of the fl ui d. I f the head i s i ncr eased and the speed i s
unchanged, the amount of water di schar ged wi l l decr ease, and vi ce ver sa. I f
the head i s i ncreased beyond the head capaci ty of the pump (shutoff head), no
water wi l l be pumped. The i mpel l er si mpl y churns the water i nsi de the case,
heati ng the water and the pump.
FM 3-34.471
11-2 Centrifugal Pumps
PRIMER
11-4. The centri fugal pumps i ssued for general use are sel f-pri mi ng (Figure
11-2). They are rated at 125 GPM at a 50-foot head. Each pump has a pri mi ng
chamber . Thi s el i mi nates r epr i mi ng when the pump i s stopped, unl ess the
pri mi ng chamber has been drai ned. The pump i s set on a frame and i s dri ven
by a 2-cyl i nder , 3-hor sepower , mi l i tar y standar d engi ne. The uni t i s cl ose-
coupl ed, and the i mpel l er i n the pump i s attached di r ectl y to the end of the
engi ne cr ankshaft. A sel f-adjusti ng mechani cal seal pr events water l eakage
between the pump and the engi ne. The onl y r equi r ed adjustment i s a sl i ght
tur n on the gr ease cup nut. Thi s pump wor ks best at a sucti on l i ft of 15 feet.
At greater sucti on l i fts, i ts capaci ty and effi ci ency rapi dl y decrease.
TYPES
11-5. Centri fugal pumps are ei ther submerged or submersi bl e.
SUBMERGED
11-6. When the pump motor i s pl aced above the water l evel wi th the pump
i tsel f i n the water , i t i s a submer ged pump. The motor i s usual l y mounted
near the wel l head and i s connected to the pump by a shaft. The submer ged
pump i s used mai nl y for shal l ow wel l s because l ong pump shafts vi brate.
Figure 11-1. Centrifugal Pump
Valve
Hanger strap
Seal
Impellers
Drain
Intake
Discharge
Shaft
Outlet
FM 3-34.471
Centrifugal Pumps 11-3
SUBMERSIBLE
11-7. A submer si bl e pump i s connected di r ectl y to an el ectr i c motor i n a
si ngl e casi ng. The uni t i s l ower ed i nto the wel l wi th the motor above the
pump. Both motor and pump may be bel ow the water l evel . A waterpr oof cabl e
connects the motor to the contr ol box at gr ound l evel . A sui tabl e di schar ge
hose or pi pe i s connected to the housi ng el bow. The submersi bl e pump shoul d
be used when the sucti on l i ft exceeds 25 feet.
INSTALLATION AND OPERATION
11-8. The pl umber must know the types of pumps to be i nstal l ed and how
they work. The fol l owi ng poi nts are i mpor tant when i nstal l i ng or operati ng a
centri fugal pump:
Set the pump on a fi rm foundati on to avoi d vi brati on.
Locate the pump as cl ose to the water suppl y as possi bl e.
Make sure the sucti on hose does not have a col l apsed l i ni ng or any
breaks, cuts, or pi nhol es.
Ti ghten hose connecti ons, and screw ni ppl es ti ghtl y to prevent ai r
l eaks. Use pi pe cement. Ri gi d hose i s preferred on the di scharge si de.
Support the pi pi ng so that the pump does not carry i ts wei ght.
Reduce fri cti on l oss by maki ng al l pi pi ng, especi al l y on the sucti on
si de, as short as possi bl e wi th few el bows.
Pl ace the sucti on pi pe so that i t ri ses gradual l y toward the pump.
(Thi s i s not necessary on a centri fugal pump that i s sel f-pri mi ng.)
Figure 11-2. Standard 125-GPM Centrifugal Pump
FM 3-34.471
NOTE: Install a strainer on the suction line to prevent clogging that
can reduce capacity and stop the pump. Ensure that the net on the
strainer is at least four times the size of the net on the suction pipe.
I nspect and clean the net often. To decrease friction loss in long
discharge lines, use a pipe that is one or more sizes larger than the
dischargefittingof thepump.
11-9. A pump uses a pr i me mover , such as an el ectr i c motor or gasol i ne
engi ne, to move l i qui d from one poi nt to another , r ai si ng i t to a hi gher l evel .
The pump produces a parti al vacuum wi thi n i tsel f by l oweri ng the pressure i n
the i ntake si de bel ow the pr essur e of the ai r outsi de (atmospher i c pressure).
Atmospher i c pr essur e outsi de the pump for ces the l i qui d up thr ough the
sucti on l i ne i nto the pump i tsel f. I f a per fect vacuum coul d be pr oduced,
atmospher i c pr essur e woul d l i ft water to a maxi mum of 34 feet. Si nce a
per fect vacuum i s i mpossi bl e because of pi ston sl i ppage, val ve l eaks, and
fr i cti on, the sucti on l i ft fr om the sour ce of water to the pump must never be
more than 22 to 25 feet at sea l evel and l ess at hi gher al ti tudes.
VALVES
11-10. A centr i fugal pump contai ns sever al val ves al l havi ng di ffer ent
functi ons. These i ncl ude
Check val ve. Thi s val ve (on the sucti on si de) prevents the l oss of
pri mi ng l i qui d i n the pump casi ng duri ng i dl e-pump peri ods. I t al l ows
l i qui d to fl ow i n on e di r ecti on onl y and u sual l y opens or cl oses
automati cal l y.
Foot val ve. Thi s val ve (on the end of the sucti on pi pe) i s not r equi red
but may be provi ded to fi l l the pi pe.
Gate val ve. Thi s val ve i s hand-operated by turni ng a wheel and i s
used on di scharge and sucti on l i nes to cut off fl ow. I t shoul d never be
used to thr ottl e or contr ol fl ow, si nce the fl ow of l i qui d cor r odes the
gate fence.
Rel i ef val ve. Thi s i s a safety val ve, desi gned to open when the l i qui d
pressure i n the pump becomes too hi gh.
PRIMING
11-11. After i nstal l ati on, pri me the pump by fi l l i ng i t wi th water . After the
fi r st pr i mi ng, a sel f-pr i mi ng centr i fugal pump does not need to be r epr i med
unl ess i t has been drai ned. To pri me a pump
Step 1. Remove the pri mi ng pl ug on top of the pump casi ng, and fi l l the case
to the top wi th water. Ensure that the val ve on the di scharge l i ne i s wi de
open.
Step 2. Repl ace the pl ug.
Step 3. Start the pump.
11-12. To decr ease the l oad and fuel consumpti on on shal l ow sucti on l i fts
wi th l i ttl e l i qui d suppl y to pump, r educe the engi ne speed by usi ng the
throttl e.
FM 3-34.471
Centrifugal Pumps 11-5
11-13. Pl umbers must know how to mai ntai n and repai r pumps.
SHAFT SEALS
11-14. Shaft seal s and packi ng pr event water and ai r l eakages. Two r i ngs
pr ovi de the shaft seal . One i s scal ed to the shaft, whi ch r otates; the other i s
seal ed to the pump casi ng, whi ch i s fi xed. These r i ngs pr ess agai nst each
other, and when the engi ne i s runni ng, one i s fi xed and the other rotates. Thi s
cl ose contact seal s the pump. The l ubri cant i s grease, oi l , or the l i qui d that i s
bei ng pumped. Careful l y fol l ow the servi ci ng and repl acement i nstructi ons on
the shaft seal .
PACKING
11-15. When a stuffi ng box i s used i nstead of a shaft seal , pack i ng i s
i mpor tant. Use onl y soft and fl exi bl e packi ng. A l ong, fi ber , tal l owed fl ax
packi ng i s sati sfactory for pumps handl i ng col d water. I f drawi ng down on the
stuffi ng box gl and cannot r educe l eakage, add one r i ng of packi ng to al l ow
further adjustment. I f thi s does not control l eakage, repl ace the ol d ri ng wi th
new ri ngs of packi ng.
BEARINGS
11-16. An over suppl y of gr ease pr oduces heat, whi ch causes the gr ease to
ooze out of the beari ng housi ng. When beari ngs are removed for cl eani ng, they
shoul d be thoroughl y dry before repl aci ng. Bal l beari ngs need l ubri cati on onl y
two or thr ee ti mes a year , dependi ng on use. Cl ear the bear i ng housi ng once
every year or year and a hal f wi th carbon tetrachl ori de, gasol i ne, or kerosene;
then rel ubri cate i t.
NOTE: If a pump is drained, allowit to run about a minuteto dry out
theimpeller chamber.
TROUBLE SOURCES
11-17. Cer tai n tr oubl es may ar i se when oper ati ng a centr i fugal pump.
Possi bl e causes are when
The pump does not pri me properl y.
I
The pump casi ng i s not fi l l ed wi th water.
I
The pri mi ng hol e i s pl ugged (cl ean i t out through the drai n pl ug).
I
The pump i s runni ng too sl owl y.
I
Ai r i s l eaki ng from the sucti on l i ne or around connecti ons.
I
The pump seal i s worn or damaged.
I
The l i ni ng of sucti on hose has col l apsed.
I
The sucti on l i ne or strai ner i s cl ogged.
I
The i mpel l er i s cl ogged, worn out, or broken.
I
The l i ft i s too hi gh for the capaci ty of the pump.
There i s not enough water del i vered or the water does not have
enough pressure.
FM 3-34.471
I
The engi ne i s not runni ng at the rated speed.
I
The seal i s l eaki ng.
I
Wear causes too much cl earance between the i mpel l er and the
pump casi ng.
I
The sucti on hose i s too l ong, causi ng excessi ve fri cti on l oss.
I
Factors i n bul l et 1 above, may appl y. Check them.
12-1
Chapter 12
Insulation
I nsul ati on prevents l oss of heat, fr eezi ng of hot- and col d-water pi pes, and
condensati on on col d-water pi pes, and protects agai nst fi re. I nsul ati on can
reduce noi se and vi brati on from heati ng or ai r-condi ti oni ng equi pment and
noi s e made by water fl owi ng i n si de the pi pes . I t al so r educes pi pe
expansi on and contracti on.
TYPES
12-1. I nsul ati on may be ei ther the unfor med bl ank et-type that al l ows
shapi ng and wr appi ng or ri gi d, preformed secti ons that fi t ar ound pi pe r uns
and other objects (Figure12-1).
Figure 12-1. Insulation
Sponge felt paper insulation
Wood felt pipe covering
Molded-cork pipe covering
Flex-rubber insulation
Antisweat insulation
Magnesia insulation
Fiberglass insulation Frost proof insulation
Pipe insulation showing metal straps
FM 3-34.471
12-2 Insulation
RIGID, PREFORMED INSULATION
Frost Proof
12-2. Fr ost pr oof i nsul ati on i s used on col d-water ser vi ce l i nes that pass
through unheated areas and those that are l ocated outsi de. A common suppl y
i s 3 feet l ong and 1 1/2 i nches thi ck, wi th a canvas cover.
Fiberglass
12-3. Fi bergl ass i nsul ati on i s shaped to fi t pi pes, tubi ng, smal l boi l ers, and
water heater s. I t has a l ong l i fe; wi l l not shr i nk, swel l , r ot, or burn; i s easi l y
appl i ed; i s l i ghtwei ght; and saves space. I t i s made of ver y fi ne gl ass fi ber s
bound together by an i nacti ve resi nous mi xture.
Antisweat
12-4. Anti sweat i nsul ati on i s used on col d-water l i nes. I t keeps water i n the
pi pes col der and, i f pr operl y i nstal l ed, pr events the pi pes from sweati ng. The
outer l ayer has a nap about 3 i nches l ong, whi ch extends beyond the joi nt to
hel p make a perfect seal . A canvas jacket i s pl aced around each 3-foot l ength
to protect the outer fel t coveri ng.
Cork PipeCovering
12-5. Thi s cover i ng i s a gr ai ny materi al made by gr i ndi ng the bar k of cor k
tr ees. No other pr oduct can match i ts advantages. Thi s pur e, cl ean cor k i s
pressed and mol ded to the exact si ze and shape and fi ni shed wi th a coati ng of
pl asti c asphal t. I t i s i deal for cover i ng br i ne, ammoni a, i ce water , and al l
ki nds of col d-water l i nes. I t has excel l ent i nsul ati ng qual i ti es over a wi de l ow-
temper atur e r ange. Cor k pi pe cover i ng wi l l not r ot or bur n and i s cl ean,
sani tar y, and odor fr ee. I t comes i n a var i ety of si zes and shapes that can be
used on var i ous si zes of pi pes and fi tti ngs. A water pr oof mater i al shoul d be
used to coat i t to keep moi sture out of the i nsul ati on.
Wool Felt
12-6. Wool fel t i s made of matted wool fi ber s or wool and fur or hai r ,
pr essure-r ol l ed i nto a compact mater i al . I t i s used on col d-water ser vi ce and
hot-water r etur n l i nes. I t i s often used wi th al ter nate l ayer s of tar paper to
provi de waterproof i nsul ati on.
Flex Rubber
12-7. Thi s i nsul ati on i s a tough, fl exi bl e r ubber mater i al . I t has good
i nsul ati ng qual i ti es, good cementi ng qual i ti es, excel l ent weather -agi ng
qual i ti es, and prevents sweati ng of col d-water l i nes.
Magnesia
12-8. Thi s i nsul ati on has maxi mum str ength and i s ver y sui tabl e for steam
and hot-water l i nes or other pi pes whose temper atur e does not exceed 600
degrees Fahrenhei t. I t has a canvas jacket and may be used on pi pes up to 30
i nches i n di ameter.
FM 3-34.471
Insulation 12-3
BLANKET INSULATION
12-9. Bl anket i nsul ati on i nsul ates agai nst heat l oss and pr otects agai nst
fi re. Thi s i nsul ati on i s used on boi l ers, furnaces, tanks, drums, dri ers, ovens,
fl anges, and val ves. The fi ber gl ass type i s used on smal l boi l er s and water
heater s. I t i s used to wr ap around objects that ar e i rr egul ar i n shape and for
l ar ge, fl at ar eas. I t i s made i n str i ps, sheets, r ol l s, and bl ocks. I t comes i n
di fferent wi dths and thi cknesses, dependi ng on the equi pment to be i nsul ated.
I t resi sts vermi n (i nsects, rats, mi ce) and aci d and i s fi reproof.
INSTALLATION
PIPE COVERING
Aboveground Piping
12-10. Each secti on of i nstal l ati on i s spl i t i n hal f and has a canvas cover wi th
a fl ap for qui ck seal i ng. Cheesecl oth can be used i n pl ace of canvas, but i t
must be gl ued i n pl ace. Use joi nt col l ars to cover joi nt seams on pi pi ng exposed
to outsi de condi ti ons. Use metal straps at l east 3/4-i nch wi de, pl aced 18 i nches
apart, to hol d the i nsul ati on fi rml y (See i nsert i n Figure12-1, page12-1).
Underground Piping
12-11. Some under gr ound pi pi ng must be i nsul ated. The i nsul ati on i s
si mi l ar to above gr ound i nsul ati on except that i t needs more protecti on fr om
the weather . I n most cases, a concr ete tr ench i s made for i nstal l ati on of the
pi pi ng. Mol ded pi pe cover i ng or l oose mi ner al wool or gl ass wool i s used. To
protect the pi pes fr om gr ound moi stur e, use coal tar as a seal er or wr ap the
pi pes wi th tar paper or al umi num foi l .
BOILER AND TANK COVERINGS
12-12. I nsul ate unjacketed boi l ers or storage tanks wi th approved i nsul ati on
mater i al . Some appr oved types are magnesi a, mi ner al wool , cal ci um si l i cate,
and cel l ul ar gl ass that i s at l east 2 i nches thi ck. Keep the i nsul ati on away
fr om the metal sur face by appl yi ng i t over 1 1/2-i nch wi r e mesh, l i fted by
metal spacers that provi de an ai r space of at l east 1 i nch. Fi l l the joi nts wi th
magnesi a, mi ner al wool , or other sui tabl e cement. Cover the sur face of the
i nsul ati on wi th a thi n l ayer of har d-fi ni shed cement, r ei nfor ced wi th 1 1/2-
i nch wi re mesh. Wi re the i nsul ati on fi rml y i n pl ace.
VALVE AND FITTING COVERINGS
12-13. Cover val ves and fi tti ngs wi th wool , fel t, magnesi a cement, or mi neral
wool cemen t th e s ame th i ck n es s as th e pi pe cov er i n g. Th es e ty pes of
i nsul ati on ar e mol ded i nto shape. For magnesi a or mi ner al wool cement
i nsul ati on, use cheesecl oth to bi nd and hol d i t i n pl ace.
MAINTENANCE
12-14. Pr operl y i nstal l ed i nsul ati on r equi r es l i ttl e mai ntenance. I nsul ati on
exposed to weather or possi bl e damage from sharp objects must be frequentl y
FM 3-34.471
12-4 Insulation
i ns pected. Pr oper i nstal l ati on an d fr equent i ns pecti ons wi l l mi n i mi ze
mai ntenance probl ems.
PIPE COVERING
12-15. I f the canvas cover gets tor n or punctur ed, patch i t wi th a pi ece of
canvas. Use onl y water pr oof paste when i nstal l i ng or r epai r i ng outsi de
i nsul ati on.
LEAKY PIPES
12-16. When r epai r i ng a l eak i n an insulated pi pe, r emove the i nsul ati on
back far enough to uncover the damaged pi pe. When rei nstal l i ng the pi pe, use
the same ki nd of i nsul ati on used for the rest of the system.
VALVES AND FITTINGS
12-17. An i nspecti on may r eveal l oose str aps or l oose i nsul ati on ar ound
val ves and fi tti ngs. Reti ghten the str aps and r epl ace or gl ue down the l oose
i nsul ati on.
A-1
Appendix A
Metric Conversion Chart
A-1. Use TableA-1 to convert from US measurement to metri c and metri c to
US measurement.
Table A-1. Metric Conversion Chart
US Units Multiplied By Equals Metric Units
Length
Feet 0.30480 Meters
Inches 2.54000 Centimeters
Inches 0.02540 Meters
Inches 25.40010 Millimeters
Area
Square inches 6.45160 Square centimeters
Square feet 0.09290 Square meters
Volume
Cubic feet 0.02830 Cubic meters
Gallons 3.78540 Liters
Temperature
Degrees Fahrenheit Subtract 32, multiply by 5/9 Degrees Celsius
Metric Units Multiplied By Equals US Units
Length
Centimeters 0.39370 Inches
Millimeters 0.03937 Inches
Meters 3.28080 Feet
Meters 39.37000 Inches
Area
Square centimeters 0.15500 Square inches
Square meters 10.76400 Square feet
Volume
Cubic meters 35.31440 Cubic feet
Liters 0.26420 Gallons
Temperature
Degrees Celsius Multiply by 9/5, add 32 Degrees Fahrenheit
B-1
Appendix B
Construction Plans and Drawings
ARCHITECT'S DESIGN
B-1. When archi tects desi gn a bui l di ng, they pr epare a set of pri nts (a pl an)
dr awn to scal e, wi th actual di mensi ons annotated. A pl an's l egend l i sts thr ee
sources of addi ti onal i nformati on: a standard detai l drawi ng, a special detai l
dr awi ng, and a BOM. Pl umbers use the pl an, the dr awi ngs, and the BOM to
l ay out and pl an a pr oject. Refer to Technical Manual (TM) 5-704 for further
i nfor mati on on constr ucti on pr i nts. (Heati ng and pl umbi ng systems ar e
someti mes shown on the same pl an.)
B-2. Both stan dar d an d speci al detai l dr awi n gs may s h ow ei th er an
el evati on vi ew or a pl an vi ew. For a smal l structure, use onl y a pl an vi ew wi th
some detai l drawi ngs, as descri bed bel ow:
Standard detai l drawi ngs are i ndi cated by a number and l etter i n a
ci rcl e; for exampl e 11G .
Speci al detai l drawi ngs are i ndi cated by a detai l number, such as
DETAI L #6.
B-3. The ar chi tect al so prepar es a set of speci fi cati on sheets cal l ed a BOM,
detai l i ng the types and qual i ty of materi al s to be used. (Refer to Appendix C.)
B-4. Pl umbi ng symbol s on constructi on dr awi ngs show the general l ocati on
of pi pes, val ves, pumps, water tanks, and other i tems. See Section I I of thi s
appendi x for a l i st of these symbol s.
TYPICAL WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMPLAN
B-5. Fi gure B-1, page B-2, shows a pl an for a hospi tal water suppl y and
di stri buti on system. Pl umbi ng symbol s on the constructi on drawi ng show the
gener al l ocati on of pi pes, val ves, pumps, water tanks, and other i tems. Pi pe
si zes ar e al so shown on the dr awi ng. Addi ti onal i nfor mati on i s gi ven i n the
notes and l egend on the constructi on drawi ng or bl uepri nt.
TYPICAL UTILITY AND BUILDING WASTE SYSTEMPLAN
B-6. Fi gure B-2, page B-3, i s a typi cal uti l i ty pl an for a bathhouse and
l atr i ne, showi ng the water system, waste system, and fi xtur es. Thi s pl an
shows the bui l di ng waste system, starti ng from the 4-i nch drai n i n the shower
r oom to the connecti on wi th the 4-i nch pi pe of the sewage system. The
pl umber deter mi nes the exact ar r angement and the cor r ect sl ope of the
pi pi ng. I n the pl an vi ew, the P-tr aps bel ow the dr ai ns ar e speci fi ed, but not
shown. When usi ng standar d detai l dr awi ngs, the pl umber must mak e
SECTION I - PLANS AND DRAWINGS
FM 3-34.471
B-2 Construction Plans and Drawings
Figure B-1. Water Supply and Distribution System Plan
Schedule of Facilities
Abbreviation/
Acronym
Item
Quan-
tity
Size or Unit
Buildings
Adm-A&D1 Aministration, admission, and disposition-1 1 30 x 110
Bks 2 Barracks-2 2 30 x 60
Dsp 3 Dispensary-3 1 30 x 70
EE-Ph2 Emergency entrance and Pharmacy-2 1 30 x 60
Lnx-Sup 2 Linen exchange and supply-2 1 30 x 90
Mess 4 Mess building 4 1 4,400 SF
FOQ 2 Officers quarters-female-2 1 30 x 60
MOQ 2 Officers quarters male-2 1 30 x 60
Rec 2 Recreation building-2 3 30 x 40
SPC A 3 Special services building-Spc-A3 1 40 x 70
Surg-Cms Surgery-centralized materiel 1 40 x 100
Utl 2 Utility building-2 1 90 x 60
Utl 3 Utility building-3 2 30 X 60
Utl 8 Utility building-8 1 30 x 60
Walks-covered 1 8 x 1435
Wrd 2 Ward building-2 acute 4 30 x 100
Xry-Lb-Dn X-ray-lab-dental 1 40 x 110
Other construction
Road-double lane-6" macadam, 1" asphalt 0.34 mile
Sump Sump-fire protection 2 10,000 gallons
Hardstands-4"macadam 7.1 1,000 square yards
Site area 10.1 acres
Wtk 1 Water tank 1 4,000 gallons
Lctr Load center 1 ----
Lctr "E" Emer Load center-emergency 1 ----
Assumed 1,000 feet to supply
Service
area
Vehicle
parking
Rec
2
Wrd 2
Wrd 2 Wrd 2
Wrd 2
Bks 2
Bks 2
Utl 2 Utl 3 Utl 3
Utl 8
FOQ 2
MOQ 2
Wtk 1 Sump
Lctr
"A"
Spc
A3
Mess
4
Surg
Cms
EE-
Ph
2
Xry-
Lb-
Dn
Dsp
3
Adm
A&D
1
Lctr
"E"
Emer
Rec
2
Lnx
Sup
2
2"
4"
4"
4"
4"
4"
4" 4" 4"
2"
2"
2"
2"
2"
2"
2"
2"
2"
2"
Sump
Road
4"
2"
Graphic scales
0 50 100
Utility layout
Assumed 3,000 feet to
point of disposal, minimum
gradient 0.6 percent
Rec
2
FM 3-34.471
Construction Plans and Drawings B-3
adjustments for a parti cul ar job. For a smal l structure of thi s type, onl y a pl an
vi ew, as shown, wi l l normal l y be provi ded together wi th detai l drawi ngs.
B-7. Accompanyi ng thi s pl an i s
A standard detai l drawi ng of a water cl oset i nstal l ati on (Figure B-3,
pageB-4).
Figure B-2. Typical Utility Plan (Bathhouse and Latrine)
General Notes Schedule of Drawings
1. Refer to Technical Manual (TM) 5-300 for building shell
requirements.
2. For national stock number (NSN) BOM, refer to TM 5-300
by facility number.
3. For detail number 1 "mixing control for group shower" and
detail number 2 "shower head and control valve," refer to
DWG Number 7237738W sheet 1 of 1.
4. "T" indicates tempered water.
5. Install 45 Y-branch with plug for CO above floor with rise
for VTR.
DWG
Number
Description
Sheet
Number
72323AW Plans 1 of 1
72323BW Plumbing diagram&details 1 of 1
99960AA Standard details
93222AA
Wood frame construction
barracks-type bldgs
1-7 of 7
93101AA
Steel frame construction
barracks-type bldgs
1-4 of 4
4"
3/4"
2"
Latrine
3/4"
2" P-trap
4" VTR
3/4"
2"
Washroom o
2" P-trap
3/4"
2"
2"
2" plugged cross
2"
2"
2"
Shower
room
4" SD
4"
4" VTR
3/4"
Removable duckboards over
the entire shower room floor
Plugged T
2" service
4" fiber pipe
4" fiber adapter
Steel
pipe
2"
2" P-trap
4"
4" P-trap
under
floor
3/4"
2" drain spill on grade
0 5" 10"
Number 2
FM 3-34.471
A speci al detai l drawi ng of the control -val ve and showerhead-fi tti ng
requi rements (FigureB-4).
UNIT CONSTRUCTION AND PACKAGE UNIT PRINTS
UNIT CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS
B-8. Fi gure B-5, pages B-6 and B-7 shows a uni t constr ucti on dr awi ng
(el evati on vi ew) of a water storage tank and tower. The drawi ng gi ves the si ze
of the tower , the steel beams and the dunnage beams, and the di mensi ons of
the footi ng that supports the beams. A pl an vi ew of the tower pl us a detai l ed
drawi ng of the fl oat val ve are shown i n FigureB-5.
Figure B-3. Standard Detail Drawings (Bathhouse and Latrine)
3/4"
3/8"
Flush
tank
Floor line
90 straight Y
Front elevation view End elevation view
Pack with cotton.
Caulk with lead wool.
Sill plate
1'
Tucker connection
2"
2" x 4" horizontal nailers between
the studs for flush-tank fastening
Water closet plumbing detail
11G
FM 3-34.471
Figure B-4. Special Detail Drawings (Bathhouse and Latrine)
2" pipe (tempered water to
fixtures)
2" pipe (hot water from storage
tank)
2" union
2" gate valve
2" T
T-plug
2" nipple
Thermostatic water-mixing
valve with union, angle and
check valves, and strainer
2" gate valve
2 1/2" x 2" reducer
Mixing control-valve piping hookup
Metal ring
Shower head
1/2" x 1 1/2" nipple
Shower head
Chain
3/4" x 1/2"
bushing
3/4" x 3/4" T
1/2" self-closing
shower valve
3/4" x 1/2" street elbow
3/4" pipe
Detail #6 shower head and control valve
FM 3-34.471
Figure B-5. Typical Water Storage Tank and Tower (Detail Drawing)
Water Tank and Tower Schedule
Facility
Number
Type
Tank Tower
Tank and
Tower
Barrels
Gal-
lons
Inlet Outlet Diameter Height
Dunnage
beam
Steel
beam
Height
I 100 4,200 4" 6" 9' - 2 3/4" 8' 4' x 6" at 1' - 4"
6B12
at 1' - 4"
30' 842103
II 230 10,300 4" 6" 15' - 6" 8' 4' x 6" at 1' - 4"
8B13
at 1' - 5"
30' 846102
III 500 21,000 4" 6" 21' - 7" 8' 4' x 6" at 1' - 8"
10WF21
at 1' - 8"
30' 842103
Ladder
Air intake
Water level
Water tank
6" flanged outlet with 6" x 4"
bushing (included in fitting set)
Dunnage beams
45 threaded elbow
Distribution pipe (size
varies as shown on
drawing)
Dresser coupling
Gate valve
Footing
90 elbow
Elevation view
(showing pipe connections)
Supply
Grade
Gate valve
Dresser coupling
Supply pipe
2" for type I and type II,
4" for type III
Pipe connector
(bolted to tower frame)
45 threaded elbow
Nipple, 1 long
45 threaded elbow
90 threaded elbow
Float valve and
connections
2' 2'
4'
2'
1' 4"
Footings
4' 6"
Beams
Tower frame
Type I and II Type III
FM 3-34.471
Figure B-5. Typical Water Storage Tank and Tower (Detail Drawing) (Continued)
Beams
Top of the tank
Pipe to the water
distribution (below grade)
6" pipe, outlet
Cleanout (not shown in
elevation below)
Ladder
Opening
(sealed)
Dunnage
beams
Pipe from the
water supply
(below grade)
4" pipe,
inlet
Air intake
Opening (sealed)
Plan view
(showing pipe connections)
Top of the water tank
Drill hole
Number 10 wire
Side of the water tank
90 elbow, threaded
4" flanges are part of the
tank assembly
90 elbow, threaded
Supply
pipe
Nipple
Nipple, 6" long
90 elbow,
threaded
Pipe threaded
Nipple, 6" long
Bottom of the
water tank
Water level
4" float valve
Rafter
NOTE: Pipes, valves, and fittings are 2 inches for Type I
and Type II tanks and 4 inches for Type III tanks.
Detail drawing of a float-valve connection (no scale)
FM 3-34.471
PACKAGE UNITS
B-9. Pa ck a ge u n i t s a r e a s s e mbl e d i n t h e f i el d a ccor d i n g t o t h e
manufacturer's i nstructi ons.
TYPES OF SYMBOLS
PIPING SYMBOLS
B-10. Pl ans use sol i d or dashed l i nes to show the pi pi ng (FigureB-6). The
si ze of the pi pi ng i s al so shown. Pi pi ng wi th up to 12 i nches i nsi de di ameter i s
r efer r ed to by i ts nomi nal si ze. The exact i nsi de di ameter depends on the
grade of pi pe; heavy grades of pi pe have smal l i nsi de di ameters because thei r
wal l s are thi cker. Pi pi ng over 12 i nches i n di ameter i s referred to by i ts actual
outsi de di ameter.
FITTING SYMBOLS
B-11. Fi tti ng symbol s ar e used wi th the pi pe symbol s to show the si ze, the
method of branchi ng, and the type of fi tti ng materi al to use (FigureB-7). The
most commonl y used fi tti ng symbol s are shown i n thi s appendi x.
VALVE SYMBOLS
B-12. A pl umbi ng system uses di ffer ent desi gns and types of val ves. Figure
B-8 gi ves a compl ete l i st of these val ves and thei r symbol s. Si nce drawi ngs do
not normal l y speci fy the ki nd of materi al and the si ze of val ves, use the same
si ze and mater i al as the connected pi pes. However , i f val ves are i ncl uded on
the BOM or pl umbi ng takeoff l i st, they are l i sted by si ze, type, materi al , and
SECTION II - PLUMBING AND HEATING SYMBOLS
Figure B-6. Piping
Figure B-7. Pipe Fitting Symbols
Leader, soil, or
waste piping
(above grade)
(below grade)
Other than 90 or 45
degrees, specify angle
True Y
Return bend
Sleeve
FM 3-34.471
worki ng pr essure. For exampl e: two-i nch check val ve, brass, and 175 pounds
of worki ng pressure.
FIXTURE SYMBOLS
B-13. These symbol s show water cl osets, si nks or l avator i es, ur i nal s, and
fl oor drai ns. FigureB-9, pageB-10, shows the most common types of pl umbi ng
Figure B-8. Valves
Control valves -
General symbol valve
Bottom blow boiler
Surface blow boiler
Butterfly
Chronometer
Deck-operated gate
Operated at place and
adjacent space gate
Sluice gate
Deck-operated globe
Piston-actuated valve
(suitable for addition of
control piping)
Needle
Micrometer
Stop-check,
hydraulically operated
angle
Dump
Back pressure
Check bail
Cross feed
Drain
Stop cock, plug, or
cylinder valve, 3-way,
2-port
Stop cock, plug, or
3-port
Stop cock, plug, or
4-port
General symbol
Stop-check,
air-operated, spring-
closing angle
Stop-check, deck-
operated angle
Boiler, feed, stop-and-
check-combined
FM 3-34.471
fi xture symbol s. I n most cases, the fi xtures wi l l be l i sted on the BOM or other
documents keyed to the pl umbi ng pl an.
LIST OF SYMBOLS
B-14. Addi tonal standar d pl umbi ng and heati ng symbol s ar e shown i n
subsequent fi gures i n thi s chapter as i ndi cated bel ow:
Heati ng Fi tti ngs (FigureB-10).
Heati ng Fi tti ngs and Fans (FigureB-11, pageB-12).
General Purpose Fi xture Symbol s (Figure B-12, pages B-13 through
B-17).
Pl umbi ng Symbol s (FigureB-13, pageB-18).
Figure B-9. Plumbing Fixtures
Cleanout
Gas outlet
Hose faucet
Lawn faucet
Hose bib
Wall hydrant
Floor drain with
backwater valve
Plan elevation
Gang shower
heads
Shower head
Plan
Elevation
FM 3-34.471
Figure B-10. Heating Fittings
Relief valve, remotely
controlled
Boiler feed
Orifice check valve
Fan blower
Filter
Air heater
(plate or tabular)
Closed tank
Open tank
Louver opening
Ceiling supply outlet
(indicate type)
Wall supply outlet
(indicate type)
Vanes
Volume damper
Capillary tube
(simplified symbol)
M-Motor
T-Turbine
Louver 20" x 12"
700 cfm
20" diameter
1,000 cfm
TR 12" x 8"
700 cfm
F
FM 3-34.471
Figure B-11. Heating Fittings and Fans
Floor radiator
Cowl ventilator:
round oval
Volume damper
Heat transfer
surface
Convection
heater
Centrifugal fan
heater unit
Propeller-type
heater unit
Centrifugal fan
Axial fan with
preheater free inlet
Standard roof
ventilator
Damper
Duct-type, heater
Ventilator unit
Wall radiator
H
H
Plan
Elevation
Plan
Elevation
Elevation
Plan
Plan
Plan
Elevation
Elevation
Side
End
FM 3-34.471
Figure B-12. General Purpose Fixure Symbols
Water closet (WC)
Floor outlet
Wall hung
Tank type
Integral tank
Bidet (BD)
Slab type
With back
Pedestal type
Stall
Urinal (U)
Lavatory (LAV)
Wall hung
Wall hung tank type
FM 3-34.471
Figure B-12. General Purpose Fixure Symbols (Continued)
Corner
In-counter
Handicapped
Sink ( S)
General
With drainboard
Circular wash type
With disposer (DR)
Slop-type
With laundry tray
With drainboards
Two-compartment type
FM 3-34.471
Semicircular wash type
Corner
Laundry tray (LT)
Single laundry tray
Double laundry trays
Shower (SH)
Stall type
Bathtub (B)
Recessed
Projecting type
Semirecessed
Recessed
Drinking fountain (DF)
FM 3-34.471
Electric water cooler (Fl Mtd)
Dish type
Special purpose fixture symbols
Flushing rim clinical sink
Bedpan washer
Perineal (sitz) bath
Institutional bath
Cabinet type
Can washer (CW)
Length may vary with capacity
Commercial dishwasher (DW)
Electric water cooler (wall
hung)
FM 3-34.471
Emergency bath
Leg bath
Hubbard bath
Autopsy table
Hydrotherapy baths
Arm bath
Infant bath
FM 3-34.471
Figure B-13. Plumbing Symbols
Autopsy table
Bath
Bed pan washer
Bidet
Can washer
Dish washer
Drinking fountain
Urinal
Wash fountain
half circular
Wash fountain
circular
Sink
Shower stall
Lavatories
Laundry tray
LT
L-1
L-2
L-1
L-2
S-1
S-2, etc.
WF
WF
U-1
U-2
DF-1
DF-2
DW
CW
B
BPW
B-1
B-2
AT
C-1
Appendix C
BOM
DESCRIPTION
C-1. A BOM i s a l i st of al l mater i al s r equi r ed to fi ni sh a str uctur e. I t i s a
tabul ated statement that l i sts the
I tem number (parts and materi al s).
Government stock si ze and number, i f requi red.
I tem name and descri pti on.
Uni t of i ssue.
Quanti ty.
Wei ght, as appl i cabl e.
C-2. Tabl e C-1 sh ows a por ti on of a BOM for pl umbi n g i n a company
bathhouse and l atri ne. For a compl ete BOM, refer to TM 5-303.
PREPARATION
C-3. The desi gner or draftsman usual l y prepares the BOM when he prepares
the ori gi nal dr awi ngs. However , i f no BOM accompani es the fi el d pri nts, the
pl umber must compi l e i t.
C-4. The takeoff l i st i s usual l y an actual count and checkoff of the i tems
shown or speci fi ed on the constr ucti on dr awi ngs and speci fi cati ons. The
esti mate l i st shows mater i al s, such as nai l s, cement, l umber , pi pe hanger s,
j oi n t con n ecti on mater i al s , and cutti n g oi l , th at ar e n ot pl aced on the
dr awi n gs . The mater i al n eeds for a pr oj ect mu st be cal cu l ated fr om a
knowl edge of the constructi on.
Table C-1. Sample BOM for Company Bathhouse and Latrine
Item
Number
National Stock
Number
Item Name
Unit of
Issue
Quantity
1 4410-00-999-5886 Heater, water, oil fired, 600 GPH each 1
2 4510-00-132-6376
Faucet, single, 3/4-inch normal pipe
thread/male (NPT/M), brass, with bib
each 1
3 4510-00-132-6377
Faucet, single, 3/4 inch NPT/M,
brass, without bib
each 8
4 4510-00-202-7703
Shower head, 1/2 inch, chrome, fins
brass
each 8
5 4510-00-244-9979
Urinal, stationary, 4-foot trough
with tank
each 2
6 4510-00-260-1367 Water closet without cover, separate each 8
7 4510-00-273-1591
Drain floor, cast iron, 6-inch square
2 inch out
each 1
FM 3-34.471
C-2 BOM
C-5. Ar chi tectur al and engi neer i ng pl ans ai d i n l i sti ng i tems on the BOM.
Use the i ndi cated or scal ed di mensi ons of the bui l di ng or the uti l i ty l ayouts to
deter mi ne the di mensi ons of the i tems of mater i al . Fi gure B-2, page B-4,
shows a pl an dr awi ng of a company bathhouse and l atr i ne. Each i tem on the
dr awi ng i s checked, l i sted, and r ecor ded by stock number and si ze. Defi ni te
star ti ng poi nts and pr ocedur es ar e used for each gr oup of mater i al s. For
exampl e, starti ng at the source
Trace the col d-water l i nes and check and record each i tem.
Trace the hot-water l i nes and check and record al l the i tems.
Determi ne quanti ti es by l i sti ng one materi al at a ti me.
Regroup materi al s by si ze, starti ng wi th the smal l est and progressi ng
to the l argest.
D-1
Appendix D
Pipe Sizes For Water Distribution System Design
D-1. Thi s appendi x contai ns i nfor mati on to hel p determi ne pi pe si zes when
desi gni ng a water di stri buti on system. Use TableD-1and Tables D-2through
D-4, pages D-3 through D-6 to determi ne pi pe si zes.
Table D-1. Capacities of Galvanized-Steel/Iron Pipe (in GPM)
Length of Pipe (in Feet)
Pressure at
Source (psi)
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
3/8 Inch
10 5 3 3 2 2 2
20 9 5 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2
30 10 6 5 4 4 3 3 3 3 2
40 8 6 5 4 4 4 3 3 3
50 9 7 6 5 4 4 3 3 3
60 9 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 4
70 10 8 7 6 6 5 5 4 4
80 8 7 7 6 5 5 5 4
1/2 Inch
10 10 8 5 5 4 3 3 3 3 3
20 14 10 8 6 6 5 5 4 4 4
30 18 12 10 8 8 7 6 6 5 5
40 20 14 11 10 10 8 7 7 6 6
50 16 13 11 11 9 8 7 7 7
60 18 14 12 12 10 9 9 8 7
70 15 13 12 11 10 9 8 8
80
3/4 Inch
10 22 14 12 10 8 8 7 6 6 6
20 30 22 18 14 12 12 11 10 10 8
30 38 26 22 18 16 14 13 12 12 10
40 30 24 21 19 17 16 16 15 13
50 34 28 24 21 19 18 17 16 15
60 38 31 26 23 21 20 19 18 17
70 34 29 25 23 22 21 19 18
80 36 30 27 24 23 22 21 20
FM 3-34.471
D-2 Pipe Sizes For Water Distribution System Design
Pressure at
Source (psi)
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
1 Inch
10 40 28 22 18 16 15 14 13 12 11
20 55 40 32 27 24 22 20 19 18 16
30 70 50 40 34 30 27 25 23 22 20
40 80 58 45 40 35 32 29 27 25 24
50 65 57 45 40 36 33 31 29 27
60 70 58 50 44 40 36 34 32 30
70 76 63 54 45 42 40 37 34 32
80 65 57 47 43 39 37 35 33
1 1/4 Inch
10 80 55 45 37 35 30 27 25 26 24
20 110 80 65 55 50 45 41 38 36 34
30 100 80 70 60 56 51 47 45 42
40 95 80 72 65 60 56 52 50
50 107 92 82 74 68 63 60 55
60 102 90 81 75 70 65 62
70 97 88 82 74 69 67
80 105 95 87 79 74 72
1 1/2 Inch
10 120 90 70 60 55 50 45 40 40 35
20 170 130 100 90 75 70 65 60 55 55
30 160 130 110 100 90 80 75 70 65
40 170 150 130 110 100 90 90 80 80
50 170 140 130 120 110 100 90 90
60 160 140 130 120 110 100 100
70 170 150 140 130 120 110 100
80 160 150 140 130 120 110
2 Inch
10 240 160 130 110 100 90 90 80 80 70
20 300 240 200 160 150 140 130 120 110 100
30 300 240 200 180 160 150 140 140 130
40 380 240 220 200 180 160 160 150
50 280 240 220 200 200 180 160
60 280 240 220 200 200 180
70 300 260 240 220 220 200
80 280 260 240 220 220
Table D-1. Capacities of Galvanized-Steel/Iron Pipe (in GPM) (Continued)
FM 3-34.471
Pipe Sizes For Water Distribution System Design D-3
Table D-2. Capacities of Copper Tubing and Plastic Pipe (in GPM)
Pressure at
Source (psi)
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
1/2 Inch
10 8 5 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 2
20 12 8 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 3
30 15 10 8 7 6 5 5 4 4 4
40 17 12 9 8 7 6 6 5 5 4
50 14 10 9 8 7 6 6 5 5
60 15 12 10 9 8 7 7 6 6
70 13 11 10 9 8 7 7 6
80 14 12 10 10 8 8 7 7
5/8 Inch
10 12 8 7 6 5 5 4 4 3 3
20 18 12 10 9 7 6 6 5 5 5
30 22 16 12 10 9 9 8 7 6 6
40 26 18 14 12 10 10 9 8 8 7
50 22 16 14 12 11 10 9 9 8
60 24 18 16 14 13 12 11 10 9
70 20 18 15 14 13 12 11 10
80 22 19 16 15 14 13 12 11
3/4 Inch
10 20 14 10 10 8 8 6 6 6 5
20 30 20 16 14 12 10 10 10 8 8
30 36 26 20 17 15 14 13 11 10 8
40 30 24 20 18 16 15 14 13 12
50 34 28 24 20 18 16 16 14 14
60 36 30 26 22 20 18 18 16 16
70 32 28 24 22 20 18 18 16
80 36 30 26 24 22 20 18 18
1 Inch
10 50 30 24 20 18 16 14 14 12 12
20 70 45 36 30 26 24 22 20 18 18
30 80 55 45 38 34 30 28 26 24 22
40 65 55 45 40 36 32 30 28 26
50 75 60 50 45 40 36 34 32 30
60 80 66 55 50 45 40 38 36 34
70 70 60 55 50 45 40 38 36
80 80 65 60 50 50 45 40 40
FM 3-34.471
Pressure at
Source (psi)
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
1 1/4 Inch
10 80 55 42 37 32 30 27 25 22 22
20 110 80 65 55 47 42 40 35 35 32
30 105 80 70 60 55 50 45 44 40
40 110 95 80 70 65 60 55 50 47
50 110 90 80 70 65 60 57 55
60 105 90 80 75 70 65 60
70 110 100 90 80 75 70 65
80 105 95 85 80 75 70
1 1/2 Inch
10 130 90 70 60 50 45 40 40 35 35
20 170 130 100 90 75 70 65 60 55 50
30 170 130 110 100 90 80 75 70 65
40 155 130 115 105 95 88 80 77
50 170 150 130 120 108 100 90 88
60 165 145 130 120 110 105 98
70 170 160 142 130 122 113 106
80 170 155 140 130 122 115
2 Inch
10 280 180 150 145 110 100 90 85 80 70
20 320 280 220 190 165 160 140 125 120 110
30 320 280 240 210 180 170 160 150 140
40 320 280 240 220 200 190 175 160
50 320 280 250 230 210 200 190
60 300 280 260 240 220 200
70 320 300 280 260 240 230
80 320 300 280 260 240
Table D-2. Capacities of Copper Tubing and Plastic Pipe (in GPM) (Continued)
FM 3-34.471
Table D-3. Allowance for Equivalent Length of Pipe for Friction Loss
(Valve and Threaded Fittings)
Diameter
of Fitting
(in Inches)
90
Standard
Elbow,
Foot
45
Standard
Elbow,
Foot
90 Side
T, Foot
Coupling
of Straight
Run of T,
Foot
Gate
Valve,
Foot
Globe
Valve,
Foot
Angle
Valve,
Foot
3/8 1.0 0.6 1.5 0.3 0.2 8 4
1/2 2.0 1.2 3.0 0.6 0.4 15 8
3/4 2.5 1.5 4.0 0.8 0.5 20 12
1 3.0 1.8 5.0 0.9 0.6 25 15
1 1/4 4.0 2.4 6.0 1.2 0.8 35 18
1 1/2 5.0 3.0 7.0 1.5 1.0 45 22
2 7.0 4.0 10.0 2.0 1.3 55 28
2 1/2 8.0 5.0 12.0 2.5 1.6 65 34
3 10.0 6.0 15.0 3.0 2.0 80 40
3 1/2 12.0 7.0 18.0 3.6 2.4 100 50
4 14.0 8.0 21.0 4.0 2.7 125 55
5 17.0 10.0 25.0 5.0 3.3 140 70
6 20.0 12.0 30.0 6.0 4.0 165 80

FM 3-34.471
D-2. Refer to Figures D-1 through D-5, pages D-7 through D-11, to desi gn
and dr aw a water ser vi ce l i ne. These fi gur es can al so be used to deter mi ne
pi pe si zes.
D-3. Use the fol l owi ng steps and FigureD-1to determi ne the si ze of the pi pe,
the vel oci ty, and the fri cti on l oss from Poi nt A to Poi nt B:
Step 1. Locate the number al ong the bottom of the chart.
Step 2. Locate the fl ow rate i n GPM demand al ong the l eft si de of the
chart, usi ng the GPM demand from Step 1.
Step 3. Proceed to the ri ght from the GPM scal e and up from the bottom.
Table D-4. Head Loss, Equivalent Length of Pipe (in Feet)
Ordinary
Entrance
Sudden Enlargement Sudden Contraction
d1
D4
d1
D2
d3
D4
d1
D4
d1
D2
d3
D4
Size of
Pipe
d
(in inches)
1/2 0.90 1.50 1.10 1.00 0.77 0.59 0.35
3/4 1.20 2.20 1.40 1.30 1.00 0.79 0.47
1 1.50 2.70 1.70 1.60 1.30 0.99 0.60
1 1/4 2.00 3.70 2.40 2.20 1.60 1.30 0.80
1 1/2 2.40 4.30 2.80 2.60 2.00 1.50 0.95
2 3.00 5.50 3.50 3.20 2.50 1.90 1.20
2 1/2 3.60 6.50 4.20 3.90 3.00 2.30 1.40
3 4.50 8.10 5.10 4.90 3.80 2.80 1.70
3 1/2 5.10 9.50 6.00 5.60 4.40 3.30 2.00
4 6.00 11.00 7.00 6.50 5.00 3.80 2.30
4 1/2 6.60 12.00 7.90 7.10 5.50 4.30 2.60
5 7.50 14.00 8.90 8.10 6.10 4.80 2.90
6 9.00 16.00 11.00 10.00 7.70 5.70 3.50
8 12.00 21.00 14.00 13.00 10.00 7.60 4.50
10 15.00 26.00 17.00 16.00 13.00 9.70 5.70
12 18.00 32.00 20.00 19.00 15.00 11.00 6.70
d
d D d D
FM 3-34.471
Step 4. Locate the poi nt at whi ch these two val ues i ntersect. From thi s
poi nt, read l eft and stop at the fi rst pi pe si ze sel ecti on l i ne. Thi s i s the si ze
of pi pe needed.
Figure D-1. Friction Loss Using a Fairly Smooth Pipe
200
100
80
60
50
40
30
20
10
8
6
5
3
2
0.1
3/8"
1/2"
3/4"
1"
1 1/4"
1 1/2"
2"
2 1/2"
8 fps
line
6 fps
line
psi
loss
PF allowable
6.32 psi
0.2
0.3
0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9
0.6 0.8 1.0
2 3 4 5
6
7
41.0
GPM demand
Pipe size
selected:
fps:
loss in
psi:
1
4
FM 3-34.471
Figure D-2. Friction Loss, Rough Pipe
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
3 5 7 9
0.1 0.2 0.4
0.6 0.8 1.0
2 4
6 8 10
30
50 70 90
20 40 60 80 100
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 3 5 7 9
30
50 70 90
0.1 0.2 0.4
0.6 0.8 1.0
2 4
6 8 10
20 40 60 80 100
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
600
800
1,000
200
300
400
500
5,000
20
30
40
2
3
4
6
8
10
1
60
80
100
50
5
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
200
300
400
600
800
1,000
500
20
30
40
60
80
100
50
5,000
Head (in psi per 100 feet)
F
l
o
w
(
i
n
G
P
M
)
Rough
P
ip
e
d
ia
m
e
te
r
(in
in
c
h
e
s
)
R
e
c
o
m
m
e
n
d
e
d
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
i
e
s
(
2
t
o
1
0
f
p
s
)
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
(
i
n
f
p
s
)
2
3
4
6
8
10
1
5
1
2
1
0
6
5
4
3
2
1
1
/2
1
3
/4
1
/2
3
/8
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
1
0
1
5
2
0
3
0
F
l
o
w
(
i
n
G
P
M
)
FM 3-34.471
Figure D-3. Friction Loss, Fairly Rough Pipe
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.1 0.2 0.4
1.0
Fairly rough
3 5 7 9 2 4
6 8 10
30
50 70 90
20 40
60 80 100
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
200
300
400
600
800
1,000
500
5,000
20
30
40
60
80
100
50
F
l
o
w
(
i
n
G
P
M
)
1
2
3
4
6
8
10
5
0.5 0.7 0.9
3 5
7 9 0.2 0.4
0.6 0.8 1.0
2 4
6 8 10
20 40
60 80
100
0.6 0.8
0.1 0.3
30
50 70 90
10,000
6,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
8,000
5,000
600
800
1,000
20
30
40
60
80
100
200
300
400
2
3
4
6
8
10
1
500
50
5
P
ip
e
d
ia
m
e
te
r
(in
in
c
h
e
s
)
R
e
c
o
m
m
e
n
d
e
d
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
i
e
s
(
2
t
o
1
0
f
p
s
)
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
(
i
n
f
p
s
)
1
2
1
0
8
6
5
4
3
1
1
/2
1
3
/4
1
/2
3
/
8
4
0
3
0
2
0
1
5
1
0
8
6
2
5
4
3
2
1
F
l
o
w
(
i
n
G
P
M
)
FM 3-34.471
Figure D-4. Friction Loss, Smooth Pipe
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6 0.8 1.0
0.7 0.9
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 3 5 7 9 30 50 70 90 0.1
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1
2
3
4
6
8
10
20
30
40
60
80
100
200
300
400
600
800
1,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
600
800
1,000
20
30
40
60
80
100
200
300
400
2
3
4
6
8
10
1
F
l
o
w
(
i
n
G
P
M
)
Copper tube, smooth
Type M
Type L
Type K
P
ip
e
d
ia
m
e
te
r
(
in
in
c
h
e
s
)
R
e
c
o
m
m
e
n
d
e
d
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
i
e
s
(
2
t
o
1
0
f
p
s
)
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
(
i
n
f
p
s
)
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
1
0
1
5
2
0
3
0
4
0
6
5
4
3
2
1
1
/
2
1
3
/4
1
/2
3
/8
F
l
o
w
(
i
n
G
P
M
)
FM 3-34.471
Figure D-5. Friction Loss, Fairly Smooth Pipe
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 3 5 7 9 30
50 70 90
0.1 0.2 0.4
0.6 0.8 1.0
2 4
6 8 10
20 40 60 80 100
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 3 5 7 9
30
50 70 90
0.1 0.2 0.4
0.6 0.8 1.0
2 4
6 8 10
20 40 60 80 100
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
200
300
400
600
800
1,000
500
1
2
3
4
6
8
10
20
30
40
60
80
100
50
5
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
600
800
1,000
Fairly smooth
20
30
40
2
3
4
6
8
10
1
60
80
100
200
300
400
50
5
Head (in psi per 100
F
l
o
w
(
i
n
G
P
M
)
P
ip
e
d
ia
m
e
te
r
(in
in
c
h
e
s
)
R
e
c
o
m
m
e
n
d
e
d
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
i
e
s
(
2
t
o
1
0
f
p
s
)
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
(
i
n
f
p
s
)
1
2
1
0
8
6
5
4
3
2
1
1
/
2
3
/
4
1
1
/2
3
/
8
4
0
4
0
3
0
2
0
1
5
1
0
8
5
6
4
3
1
2
F
l
o
w
(
i
n
G
P
M
)
E-1
Appendix E
Distribution Systems Design Procedures
DESIGN PROCEDURES
BASIC CONCEPTS
E-1. Water wei ghs 62.4 pounds per cubi c ft (l b/ft
3
)
Pressure
E-2. Pr essur e (P) i s an expr essi on, i n psi (l b/i n
2
), of the total gr avi tati onal
for ce (l b) exer ted at the base of an i magi nar y 1-i nch squar e (i n
2
) col umn of
waterthus psi of any col umn hei ght or head (H) i n feet (FigureE-1).
So, for exampl e, for a 10-foot col umn, or head of water (H) the pressure woul d be:
Figure E-1. Water Pressure
P(lbs/in
2
)
62.4lb/ft
3
144in
2
/ft
2
-------------------------- H(ft) P = 0.433H ; =
P(lbs/in
2
)
62.4lb/ft
3
144in
2
/ft
2
-------------------------- 10(ft) P = 0.433(10) = 4.33 psi ; =
1 cubic foot
One column of water weighs
approximately 0.433 pounds.
P = 0.433H
12
12
12
FM 3-34.471
E-2 Distribution Systems Design Procedures
Head
E-3. Conver sel y, "head" i s another way to expr ess the same total for ce
exerted by the same col umn of water, expressed i n feet.
From E-2:
so
(Note: for any other l i qui d, the constant of 0.443 woul d change wi th any
change i n densi ty).
So, for exampl e, for a pressure of 4.33 psi , the head woul d be:
H =2.31P or 2.31(4.33) = 10 foot head
Another way to expr ess thi s i s "a 10-foot head of pressur e" whi ch i s actual l y
4.33 psi .
E-4. Static Head. Stati c head i s the hei ght of a fl ui d at rest (no fl ow) (Figure
E-2).
E-5. Dynamic Head. Dynami c head i s stati c head mi nus the fri cti on l oss of
a fl owi ng l i qui d, expr essed i n feet (FigureE-3). I t i s al so known as fr ee-water
sur face (FWS) el evati on.
DEFINITIONS
E-6. Use the fol l owi ng defi ni ti ons to i denti fy equati ons:
Figure E-2. Static Head
P(psi)= 0.433H(ft)
H ft ( )
P psi ( )
0.443
---------------- or H 2.31P where P = pressure in psi = =
Static
liquid
level
Static
head
Dynamic head Static head - Friction loss =
FM 3-34.471
Distribution Systems Design Procedures E-3
Pf
allowable
The maxi mum pressure that can be l ost from al l sources of
fr i cti on wi th ou t fal l i n g bel ow th e r equ i r ed s er v i ce-con n ecti on
pressure. (Mi ni mum servi ce-connecti on pressure i n the TO i s 20 psi .)
Pf
actual
The pressure l oss from al l sources of fri cti on i n a pi pe segment.
PF
allowable
The al l owabl e pressure l oss i n a 100-foot secti on.
PF
actual
The actual pressure l oss i n a 100-foot secti on.
Equivalent Length (EL). The l ength of a fi tti ng or val ve expressed i n
feet of strai ght pi pe that produces the same amount of fri cti on l oss.
Pressureat ServiceConnection (PSC). The actual pressure that wi l l be
provi ded to the user (bui l di ng or faci l i ty).
DYNAMIC WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMDESIGN
E-7. Dynami c water di stri buti on systems are desi gned usi ng the procedures
bel ow. Wh en wor k i n g th e two ex ampl es th at fol l ow, r efer back to th e
procedures bel ow.
DESIGN PROCEDURES
E-8. Use the fol l owi ng steps to perform desi gn procedures:
Step 1. Determi ne the quanti ty (Q) of the fl ow rate, i n GPM.
Step 2. Determi ne Pf
allowable
for each l i ne.
H = hei ght (0.433)
Figure E-3. Relation of Static and Dynamic Heads
Static
liquid
level
Static
head
Friction
head
loss
Dynamic
head
Pf
all owabl e
H E
1
E
2
( ) required pressure =
where
Pf
al l owable
allowable pressure loss, in psi =
FM 3-34.471
E1 =higher elevation, in feet
E2 =lower elevation, in feet
Step 3. Determi ne the pi pe l ength (i n feet).
Step 4. Determi ne PF
allowable
i n a 100-foot secti on of pi pe.
=
=
=
The total system l ength i s i n feet.
Fi nd the fl ui d's actual vel oci ty, whi ch shoul d be between 2 and 10 fps, and
fi nd PF
actual
(from Figures D-1 toD-5, pages D-7 through D-11).
Step 5. Determi ne the si ze of the pi pe and the vel oci ty, and PF
actual
(from
Tables D-3 and D-4, pages D-5 through D-6).
actual
Pf
actual
= actual pressure l oss from al l sources, i n psi
PF
actual
= actual pressure l oss i n a 100-foot pi pe secti on, i n psi
System l ength i s i n feet.
Step 7. Determi ne the equi val ent pi pe l ength (EL) for fi tti ngs. Go back to
Step 4 and recal cul ate PF
allowable
. I f the pi pe si ze changes i n the appropri ate
fri cti on l oss tabl e (FigureD-1 through D-5, pages D-7 through D-11), then
fi nd the new vel oci ty and PFactual from Figures D-1 through D-4. EL i s
negl i gi bl e i f there i s 1,000 feet or more between fi tti ngs.
Step 8. Determi ne free-water surface(FWS) el evati on.
Step 9. Determi ne the pressure at the servi ce connecti on.
PF
all owabl e
Pf
al l owabl e
total system length
-------------------------------------------- - x 100
where
PF
all owabl e
allowable pressure loss in a 100-foot pipe section, in psi
Pf
all owabl e
allowable pressure loss, in psi
Pfactual
PFactual
100
-------------------- = x system length
where
FWS E
BT
H ( Pf
act ual
) =
where
FWS free water surface, in feet =
E
BT
elevation at bottom of the tank, in feet =
H height or head (constant 2.31) =
Pf
actual
actual pressure factor (from Step 6), in psi =
P
SC
H E
BT
( E
SC
) - Pf
actual
=
FM 3-34.471
EXAMPLE - WATER LINE DESIGN 1
E-9. Use the fol l owi ng steps as an exampl e to desi gn a water l i ne:
Step 1. Determi ne the requi red Q from the tank to A.
allowable
Step 3. Determi ne the pi pe l ength. Pi pe l ength gi ven i s 1,300 feet (Figure
E-4).
Figure E-4. Water Line, Design 1
where
P
SC
pressure at the servicice connection, in psi =
H height (0.433) =
E
BT
elevation at bottom of the tank, in feet =
E
SC
elevation at the service connection, in feet =
Q 230 GPM (Figure E-4) =
Pf
all owabl e
H E1 ( E2) - required pressure =
0.433 135 70 ) - 20 ( 8.14 psi =
+ 145
+ 135
Elevation = 70
Pressure = 20 psi
Q = 230 GPM
Legend:
Q = Quantity of flow rate
Total length of the pipe from the bottom
of the tank to the building is 1,300 feet.
A
FM 3-34.471
allowable
i n a 100-foot secti on.
Step 5. Sel ect a 6-i nch di ameter pi pe and a vel oci ty of 2.6 fps
(i ntersecti on of sel ected pi pe and Q). See FigureD-3, pageD-9.
actual
Step 7. Determi ne the EL. EL i s 230.5 feet (refer to pageE-4, Step 7).
Step 8. Not appl i cabl e.
Step 9. Determi ne the pressure at the servi ce connecti on.
EXAMPLE - WATER LINE DESIGN 2
E-10. Use the fol l owi ng steps as an exampl e to desi gn a water l i ne:
Step 1. Determi ne Q from Tank to A.
(Use TableE-1 to fi nd the fi xture uni t (FU) val ues and
TableE-2 to fi nd fl ow rate quanti ty (Q) demands.)
Table E-1. Fixture Unit Values
Type of Fixture Fixture Unit Value
Water closet (flush valve) 10.0
Water closet (flush valve) 5.0
Urinal (1-inch flush valve) 10.0
Urinal (3/4-inch flush valve) 5.0
Shower head 4.0
Kitchen sink 4.0
Lavatory (bathroom) sink 2.0
Service (stop) sink 3.0
Laundry tub (dishwasher) 3.0
Laundry (wash) machine, 8 pounds 3.0
Laundry (wash) machine, 16 pounds 4.0
Water fountain 0.25
NOTES:
1. If the type of water closet is not specified, the TO standard for water
closets is with a flush valve (fixture unit valve = 10.0).
2. If the type of urinal is not specified, the TO standard for urinals is
with a 3/4-inch flush valve (fixture unit valve = 5.0).
PF
all owabl e
Pf
all owabl e
total system length
-------------------------------------------- - 100 =
8.14
1 300 ,
---------------- 100 0.63 psi =
Pf
act ual
PF
act ual
100
------------------- - system length =
0.29
100
---------- 1 530.5 , 4.44 psi =
P
sc
H E
BT
E
SC
( ) Pf
act ual
=
0.433 135 ( 70 ) 4.44 23.7 psi =
Q Q
B
Q
C
+ =
FM 3-34.471
Table E-2. Flow Rate Quantity Demands
Supply System Predominantly for
Flush Tanks
Supply System Predominantly for
Flushometers
Load
(in Water Supply
Fixture Units)
Demand
(in GPM)
Load
(in Water Supply
Fixture Units)
Demand
(in GPM)
6 5.0
8 6.5
10 8.0 10 27.0
12 9.2 12 28.6
14 10.4 14 30.2
16 11.6 16 31.8
18 12.8 18 33.4
20 14.0 20 35.0
25 17.0 25 38.0
30 20.0 30 41.0
35 22.5 35 43.8
40 24.8 40 46.5
45 27.0 45 49.0
50 29.0 50 51.5
60 32.0 60 55.0
70 35.0 70 58.5
80 38.0 80 62.0
90 41.0 90 64.8
100 43.5 100 67.5
120 48.0 120 72.5
140 52.5 140 77.5
160 57.0 160 82.5
180 61.0 180 87.0
200 65.0 200 91.5
225 70.0 225 97.0
250 75.0 250 101.0
275 80.0 275 105.5
300 85.0 300 110.0
400 105.0 400 126.0
500 125.0 500 142.0
750 170.0 750 178.0
1,000 208.0 1,000 208.0
1,250 240.0 1,250 240.0
1,500 267.0 1,500 267.0
1,750 294.0 1,750 294.0
2,000 321.0 2,000 321.0
2,250 348.0 2,250 348.0
2,500 375.0 2,500 375.0
2,750 402.0 2,750 402.0
3,000 432.0 3,000 432.0
4,000 525.0 4,000 525.0
5,000 593.0 5,000 593.0
6,000 643.0 6,000 643.0
7,000 685.0 7,000 685.0
8,000 718.0 8,000 718.0
FM 3-34.471
NOTE: The el evati on at the bottom of the tank i s used. Thi s
corresponds to theminimum(worst-case) operatingpressure.
allowable
Step 3. Determi ne the pi pe l ength (FigureE-5).
Figure E-5. Water Line, Design 2
FU WC FU ( ) UR FU ( ) + =
FU
B
1 10 ( ) 2 10 ( ) = 30 FU; therefore, Q
B
41 GPM = + =
FU
C
10 10 ( ) 4 10 ( ) 140FU therefore Q
C
775 = GPM ; = + =
Q 41 77.5 118.5 GPM = + =
Pf
all owabl e
H E
1
E
2
) required pressure ( =
Tank to B: 0.433 145 ( 85 ) 20 psi 5.98 psi =
Tank to C: 0.433 145 ( 70) 20 psi 12.48 psi =
Tank
155
145
Cold-water system
Fairly smooth pipe
Required pressure (P) = 20 psi
A
Elevation 100'
Elevation = 85
P = 20 psi
Fixtures = 1 water closet, 2 urinals
Length of pipe = 190 (tank to B)
C
B
NOTE: The water closets and urinals use 1-inch flush valves.
Elevation = 70
P = 20 psi
Fixtures = 10 water closets, 4 urinals
Length of pipe = 180 (tank to C)
FM 3-34.471
allowable
Sel ect that por ti on of the water l i ne that al l ows for the l east amount of
pressure l oss (PF
allowable
). I n thi s exampl e, Tank to B i s the smal l est.
PF
actual
for Tank to C i s 1.7 psi (FigureD-4, pageD-6).
(i ntersecti on of sel ected pi pe and Q) (FigureD-4).
actual
Step 8. Determi ne the FWS el evati on for the tank to A.
DESIGN A TO C
E-11. Use the fol l owi ng steps when performi ng Desi gn A to C:
Step 1. Determi ne Q from A to C.
allowable
Step 3. Determi ne the l ength of the pi pe (FigureE-5).
allowable
PF
all owabl e
Pf
all owabl e
total system length
-------------------------------------------- - 100 =
Tank to B:
5.98
190
---------- 100 3.14 psi =
Tank to C:
12.48
180
------------- 100 6.93 psi =
Pf
act ual
PF
act ual
100
------------------- - system length =
Tank to A:
1.7
100
---------- 45 0.77 psi lost =
FWS
A
E
BT
H PF
actual
) ( =
145 2.31 ( 1.7 ) 141 = feet
Q
C
77.5 (from Step 1, Example Water Line Design 2) =
Pf
all owabl e
H E
1
E
2
) required pressure ( =
0.433 143 ( 70 ) 20 psi= 11.6 psi
Total length length T to C length T to A =
180 45 135 =
PF
all owabl e
Pf
all owabl e
total system length
-------------------------------------------- - 100 =
FM 3-34.471
(i ntersecti on of sel ected pi pe and Q).
Step 6. EL for A to C i s 28.4.
allowable
actual
Step 9. Deter mi ne FWS. FWS
A
= 143 feet.
Step 10. Determi ne pressure servi ce connecti on at C.
Al l system par ameter s ar e wi thi n acceptabl e l i mi ts. No r edesi gn i s
neccessary.
DESIGN A TO B
E-12. Use the fol l owi ng steps when performi ng Desi gn A to B:
Step 1. Determi ne Q from A to B.
allowable
Step 3. Determi ne the l ength of the pi pe (FigureE-5, pageE-8).
allowable
Step 5. Sel ect a 2-i nch pi pe di ameter wi th a vel oci ty of 4.2 fps
(i ntersecti on of sel ected pi pe and Q). See FigureD-4, pageD-6.
11.6
135
---------- 100 8.6 psi =
A to C:
11.6
135 28.4 +
----------------------------- 100 7.09 psi =
Pf
act ual
PF
act ual
100
------------------- - system length =
5.3
100
---------- 163.4 8.66 psi =
P
SC
H E
BT
( E
SC
) PF
act ual
=
0.433 143 ( 70 ) 8.92 22.7 psi =
Q
B
41 (from Step 1, Example Water Line Design 2) =
Pf
all owabl e
H E1 ( E2) required pressure =
0.433 143 ( 85 ) 20 psi 5.1 psi =
Total length length T to B length T to A =
190 45 145 =
PF
all owabl e
Pf
all owabl e
total system length
-------------------------------------------- - 100 =
5.1
145
-------- - 100 3.52 = psi
FM 3-34.471
Step 6. EL for A to B i s 28.4.
allowable
actual
Step 9. Determi ne the FWS. FWS
A
= 143 feet.
Step 10. Determi ne the pressure at servi ce connecti on B.
System parameters are wi thi n acceptabl e l i mi ts.
A to B:
5.1
145 28.4 +
----------------------------- 100 2.94 psi =
Pf
act ual
PF
act ual
100
------------------- - system length =
1.9
100
---------- 178.4 3.39 psi =
P
SC
H E
BT
( E
SC
) Pf
actual
=
0.433 143 ( 85 ) 3.39 psi 21.7 psi =
Glossary-1
Glossary
' foot, feet
" i nch, i nches
o
degree
ABS acryl oni tri l e butadi ene styrene
AdmA&D admi ni strati on, admi ssi on, and di sposi ti on
AFCS Army Faci l i ti es Components System
AFM Ai r Force manual
AFMAN Ai r Force manual
AGA Ameri can Gas Associ ati on
AL Al abama
anglevalve A gl obe val ve wi th the i nl et and outl et that are 90 degrees to one
another.
AR Army regul ati on
atmospheric pressure The pressure at the atmosphere at sea l evel (14.7 psi ).
attn attenti on
backflow Water fl owi ng i n a pi pe i n the reverse of the i ntended di recti on.
back pressure The pressure wi thi n a sani tary drai nage or vent pi pe system that
i s greater than the exi sti ng atmospheri c pressure.
ball cock A val ve that i s opened or cl osed by the fal l or ri se of a bal l fl oati ng
on water i n a water cl oset tank.
battery of fixtures A group of si mi l ar adjacent fi xtures that di scharge i nto a common
sani tary drai nage hori zontal branch l i ne. Al so cal l ed fixtures in a
row.
bell (or hub) That porti on of a pi pe whi ch, for a short di stance, i s suffi ci entl y
enl arged to recei ve the end of another pi pe of the same di ameter
for the purpose of maki ng a joi nt.
bell and spigot Seehub and spi got.
bibb cock A faucet havi ng a bent-down nozzl e. Al so cal l ed bibcock.
bibcock Seebi bb cock.
bill of materials A l i st of al l the materi al s necessary to compl ete a job.
bks barracks
boiler That part of a furnace i n whi ch steam i s generated for heati ng or
producti ng power.
FM 3-34.471
Glossary-2
BOM bi l l of materi al s
bonnet A cover for an open fi repl ace or a cowl or hood to i ncrease the draft
of a chi mney; metal coveri ng for val ve chambers, hydrants, or
venti l ati on.
branch Any part of a pl umbi ng pi pe system except ri sers, mai ns, or
stacks.
branch vent A vent pi pe connecti ng one or more i ndi vi dual vents to the mai n
vent (or vent stack).
buildingsanitary drain A drai n (wi thi n a bui l di ng) that di sposes of sewage onl y.
bushing A pl ug desi gned to be threaded i nto the end of a pi pe. One end i s
bored and tapped to recei ve a pi pe of smal l er di ameter than that of
the pi pe i nto whi ch i t i s screwed.
C Cel si us
cap A short, cl osed cyl i nder to screw on the end of a pi pe.
capillary action A for ei gn object l odged i n the tr ap causes l oss of tr ap seal . The
object acts as a wi ck and carri es the water from the trap over the
outl et si de i nto the waste pi pe unti l the seal i s i neffecti ve. Rags,
stri ng, l i nt, and hai r commonl y cause thi s probl em.
cfm cubi c feet per mi nute
chap chapter
check valve A val ve that al l ows water fl ow i n one di recti on onl y and
automati cal l y cl oses to stop backfl ow. Two types of check val ves
are swingand lift.
chlorination The pri nci pl e method of steri l i zati on for the destructi on of
pathogeni c organi sms i n sewage treatment. I t i s al so used to
remove certai n tastes and odors i n a water puri fi cati on system.
chp chapter
circuit vent A vent that extends from the mai n vent to connecti ons on the
hori zontal soi l or waste branch pi pe between the fi xture
connecti ons.
cleanout A pl ugged fi tti ng pl aced i n a sani tary drai nage system whi ch can
be removed to cl ean the i nsi de of pi pes. A main cleanout (or stack
cleanout) i s l ocated at the bottom of the stack; other cl eanouts are
l ocated near fi xtures.
CMF career management fi el d
CO cl eanout
combination sewer A sewer that di sposes both sewage and storm water.
common trap seal A P-trap wi th a 2-i nch deep water seal .
common vent A connecti on at the juncti on of two fi xture drai ns servi ng as a vent
for both fi xtures. Al so known as a unit vent.
FM 3-34.471
Glossary-3
compression faucet A faucet that shuts off the water fl ow by compressi ng a washer
down onto a seat.
condensate Dropl ets of water that form on the outsi de of a col d-water pi pe
when i t i s exposed to warm ai r. Al so cal l ed condensation.
condensation Seecondensate.
CONUS conti nental Uni ted States
corporation stop A val ve pl aced on the water mai n.
corrosion The thi nni ng of the wal l of a metal pi pe caused by el ectrol ysi s. See
alsoel ectrol ysi s and di el ectri c uni on.
coupling A fi tti ng wi th i nsi de threads onl y, used for connecti ng two pi eces
of pi pe.
CPVC chl ori nated pol yvi nyl chl ori de
curb stop A val ve pl aced outsi de a bui l di ng on the water servi ce l i ne near a
curb.
DA Department of the Army
deep-seal trap A P-trap wi th a 4-i nch deep water seal .
DFU Seedrai nage fi xture uni t.
diaphragmvalve A val ve cl osed by the pressi ng of a di aphragm agai nst an openi ng
or one i n whi ch the moti on of a di aphragm under pressure control s
i ts openi ng and cl osi ng.
direct siphonage Seesel f-si phonage.
dielectric union Used to connect di ssi mi l ar metal s, such as gal vani zed-steel /i ron
pi pe to copper pi pe, to prevent corrosi on.
dosingtank A fi l ter tank wi th an automati c si phon for di schargi ng sewage i nto
the di stri buti on pi pes when the tank i s ful l , cutti ng off when the
tank i s empty.
downflow(downfeed)system A steam-heati ng system i n whi ch the suppl y mai ns are above the
l evel of the heati ng uni ts that they serve.
drain A pi pe, channel , or trench through whi ch waste water or other
l i qui ds are carri ed off.
drainage A system of drai ns; the act or means of drai ni ng.
DFU drai nage fi xture uni t; a common measure i s that one DFU equal s
7.5 gal l ons per mi nute di scharge.
drip line The return pi pes through whi ch the condensati on from a radi ator
fl ows back to the boi l er.
dry return A return pi pe i n a steam-heati ng system that enters the boi l er
above the water l i ne carryi ng condensati on, water, ai r, and so
forth.
drumtrap A cyl i ndri cal trap wi th an i nl et and outl et pi pe smal l er than i ts
di ameter. Normal l y used i n bathtubs.
FM 3-34.471
Glossary-4
DSP di spensary
duct Pi pe, tube, or channel used to convey ai r, water, gases, or l i qui ds.
DWG drawi ng
DWV drai n, waste, and vent
dynamic head Stati c head mi nus the fri cti on l osses of a fl owi ng l i qui d, expressed
i n feet. Al so cal l ed freewater surface(FWS) el evati on.
eccentric fitting A fi tti ng i n whi ch one end i s offset from the center l i ne.
EE-Ph emergency entrance and pharmacy
effluent The l i qui d di scharged from a septi c tank or sewage di sposal pl ant.
EL equi val ent l ength
el el evati on
electrolysis Chemi cal breakdown by el ectri c current. Al so referred to as
electrolytic action.
EM el ectroni c medi a
emer emergency
factor of simultaneoususe The percentage of fi xtures potenti al l y i n use at a gi ven ti me. An
esti mate of the total demand on a water suppl y system.
fig fi gure
fixturedemand Seemaxi mum fi xture demand.
fixtures in a row Seebattery of fi xtures.
fixturesupply A water suppl y pi pe connecti ng the water servi ce.
fixturesupply riser A verti cal water suppl y pi pe that bri ngs water to fi xture branches.
fl mtd fl oor mounted
floor drain A fi xture used to drai n water from fl oors i nto the pl umbi ng
system.
flowpressure The pressure of a water suppl y l i ne near a faucet whi l e the faucet
i s wi de open wi th water fl ow.
flowrate The vol ume of water used by a pl umbi ng fi xture i n a gi ven ti me, i n
gal l ons per mi nute.
flush valve A val ve l ocated i n a water cl oset tank for fl ushi ng water cl osets.
flushometer valve The val ve i n a fl ushometer that di schar ges a pr edeter mi ned
amount of water for fl ushi ng uri nal s or water cl osets.
flux A substance (as rosi n) appl i ed to surfaces to be joi ned by sol deri ng,
brazi ng, or wel di ng to cl ean and free them from oxi de and promote
thei r uni on.
FM fi el d manual
FOQ femal e offi cers quarters
FM 3-34.471
Glossary-5
fps foot (feet) per second
FU fi xture uni t
FWS free-water surfaceSee dynamic head.
friction loss Seepi pe fri cti on.
ft foot, feet
furnace That part of a heati ng pl ant i n whi ch combusti on of fuel takes
pl ace.
FWS Seefree water surface.
gal gal l on, gal l ons
gatevalve A val ve that starts and stops the fl ow of l i qui d, steam, or gas by
means of a wedge di sk.
globevalve A val ve that control s the fl ow of l i qui d by means of a ci rcul ar di sk.
GPD gal l ons per day
GPH gal l ons per hour
GPM gal l ons per mi nute
GPW gal l ons per week
grade The fal l sl ope of a pi pel i ne i n reference to a hori zontal pl ane.
greasetrap A devi ce for sol i di fyi ng and separati ng grease from domesti c
wastes and retai ni ng i t so that i t may be removed, thus preventi ng
the stoppage of waste pi pes.
H hei ght
hangers Seepi pe supports.
head A measure of the pressure exerted by a l i qui d col umn, converted to
feet of hei ght.
horizontal pipe Any pi ece of pi pe whi ch makes an angl e of l ess than 45 degrees
from the hori zontal .
housedrain That par t of the l owest hor i zontal pi pi ng of a pl umbi ng system
that recei ves the di scharge from soi l , waste, and other drai nage
pi pes i nsi de of any bui l di ng and conveys the di scharge to the
house sewer.
housesewer The part of the sewerage system that begi ns just outsi de the
bui l di ng foundati on wal l and ends at the mai n sewer i n the street
or at a septi c tank.
HQ headquarters
hub A bel l -shaped end of cast i r on pi pe.
hub-and-spigot joint Each l ength of cast-i ron pi pe i s made wi th an enl arged (bel l or
hub) end and a pl ai n (spi got) end. The spi got end of one l ength fi ts
i nto the hub end of the next l ength and i s made ti ght by caul ki ng.
FM 3-34.471
Glossary-6
HWR hot-water return
HWS hot-water suppl y
IAPMO I nternati onal Associ ati on of Pl umbers and Mechani cal Offi ci al s
incl i ncl uded
Imhoff tank A ci rcul ar or rectangul ar two-story septi c tank havi ng a greater
effi ci ency than an ordi nary septi c tank.
in i nch, i nches
indirect siphonage Caused by a l arge di scharge of water whi ch tends to form a sl ug i n
the stack; as thi s sl ug passes the takeoff of the fi xture bel ow i t, ai r
i s pul l ed out of the waste l i ne on the l ower fi xture. Al so cal l ed
momentumsiphonage.
individual vent A pi pe that i s i nstal l ed to vent a si ngl e fi xture.
inlet An L connected wi th a pi pe di schargi ng i nto a combi ned or storm
sewer. The open end i s protected by a cast-i ron frame and grati ng
to al l ow the entrance of storm water.
incl encl osure
inv i nverted
J TF joi nt task forces
K thi ck-wal l ed copper tubi ng
L el bow; medi um-wal l ed copper tubi ng
Lav l avatory
lavatory A fi xture for washi ng hands and face, found i n a bathroom.
lb pound, pounds
LB-DN l ab-dental
Lctr-Emer l ead-center emergency
leachingtank A tank made of wood, concrete, or masonry used for di sposal of
raw sewage from short ti me i nstal l ati ons or septi c tank effl uent
from l ong ti me i nstal l ati ons.
lift check valve Seecheck val ve.
Lnx-Sup l i nen exchange and suppl y
M thi n-wal l ed copper tubi ng
main cleanout Seecl eanout.
mainsoil-and-wastestack Verti cal pi pi ng that extends one or more fl oors and recei ves the
di scharge of water cl osets. I t can al so recei ve di scharge from other
fi xtures. I t i s cal l ed a soil stack when recei vi ng di scharge from
water cl osets and a waste stack when recei vi ng di scharge from
other fi xtures.
main soil-and-wastevent The upper part of the stack, where i t connects to the mai n vent
FM 3-34.471
Glossary-7
and to the VTR. Al so cal l ed stack vent or vent stack i n thi s manual .
Seealsomai n vent.
main vent The mai n pi pe of the venti ng system to whi ch branch vents are
connected. The mai n vent runs paral l el to and i s then connected to
the upper secti on of the stack, whi ch runs through the roof (VTR)
to rel ease harmful sewer gases from a bui l di ng. Seealsomai n soi l -
and-waste vent.
main vent T The T that connects the mai n vent to the stack.
maximumfixturedemand The total amount of water needed to suppl y al l fi xtures at the
same ti me.
minus pressure A pressure wi thi n a pi pe of l ess than atmospheri c pressure. Al so
known as negativepressure.
MOS mi l i tary occupati onal speci al ty
MOQ mal e offi cers quarters
NAVFAC Naval faci l i ty
negativepressure See minus pressure.
nipple A short l ength of pi pe threaded at both ends and l ess than 12
i nches l ong.
No. number
noncompression faucet A faucet wi th a si ngl e l ever or knob that opens and cl oses ports for
water fl ow and shutoff. Al so cal l ed washerless faucet.
NPT nati onal pi pe thread
NPT/M normal pi pe thread/mal e
NSN nati onal stock number
oakam Hemp used for caul ki ng.
OCONSUS outsi de conti nental Uni ted States
offset The combi nati on of el bows or bends that bri ng one pi pe secti on out
of al i gnment but paral l el wi th the other secti on.
P pressure
PB pol ybutyl ene
PF Actual pr essur e l oss i n a 100-foot secti on.
PE pol yetyl ene
pipefriction Resi stance to fl ow. Al so cal l ed friction loss.
pipesupports Any devi ce used for supporti ng and securi ng pi pe and fi xtures.
Al so cal l ed pipehangers.
plenum An encl osed space where the pressure of the ai r i s greater than the
outsi de atmosphere.
plumbingfixture A receptacl e desi gned to recei ve water and di scharge the
FM 3-34.471
Glossary-8
wastewater i nto a sani tary waste system.
plus pressure The pressure wi thi n a sani tary drai nage or vent pi pe system that
i s greater than the atmospheri c pressure. Al so known as positive
pressure.
POC poi nt of contact
POL petrol eum, oi l s, l ubri cants
positivepressure Seepl us pressure.
ppm parts per mi l l i on
pressure-reducingvalve A val ve for reduci ng steam pressure i n heati ng systems where
boi l ers are operated for power purposes, at hi gh pressure.
P
SC
pressure at servi ce connecti on
psi pounds per square i nch
P-trap A P-shaped pi pe commonl y used on pl umbi ng fi xtures.
PVC pol yvi nyl chl ori de
Q quanti ty
UPC Uni form Pl umbi ng Code
rec recreati on
reducer Any one of the vari ous pi pe connecti ons so constructed as to
permi t the joi ni ng of pi pes of di fferent si zes, such as reduci ng L,
reduci ng sl eeve, reduci ng T, and so forth.
riser Seefi xture suppl y ri ser.
rough-in The i nstal l ati on of al l secti ons of a pl umbi ng system that can be
compl eted before the wal l or fi xture pl acement.
run That porti on of a pi pe or fi tti ng conti nui ng i n a strai ght l i ne i n the
di recti on of fl ow of the pi pe to whi ch i t i s connected.
S&I standardi zati on and i nteroperabi l i ty
sanitary drainagepipe I nstal l ed pi pes that remove waste water and waterborne waste.
sanitary sewer A sewer that carri es onl y sewage.
SD shower drai n
sedimentation The suspended sol i ds pul l ed down by gravi ty when the vel oci ty of
sewage i s reduced.
self-siphonage The l oss of the trap seal as a resul t of removi ng the water from the
trap caused by fi xture di scharge. Al so cal l ed direct siphonage.
serviceL An el bow havi ng an outsi de thread on one end.
serviceT A Thavi ng i nsi de thread on one end and on the branch but outsi de
threads on the other end of the run.
sewage Any refuse or waste matter carri ed off by a sewer.
FM 3-34.471
Glossary-9
seweragesystem A system of underground pi pes for carryi ng off waste water and
refuse.
sewagetreatment Any arti fi ci al process to whi ch sewage i s subjected i n order to
remove or al ter i ts objecti onabl e qual i ti es and render i t l ess
dangerous or offensi ve.
sewer Any underground pi pe that carri es out waste water and refuse.
SF square feet
siphonage The sucti on created by the fl ow of any l i qui d i n pi pes.
soil-and-wastestack Seemai n soi l -and-waste stack.
soil pipe A ter m gener al l y appl i ed to cast-i r on pi pe i n 5-foot l engths for
house drai nage. The pi pe carri es the di scharge of water cl osets
contai ni ng fecal matter.
soil stack Seemai n soi l and waste stack.
SOP standi ng operati ng procedures
spigot The ends of a pi pe that fi t i nto a bel l (seealsohub-and-spi got joi nt;
i t i s al so another name for a faucet.
SPC speci al servi ces
sq ft square feet
stack Any verti cal soi l , waste, or vent pi pi ng. See also mai n soi l -and-
waste stack and mai n soi l -and-waste-vent.
stack cleanout Seecl eanout.
stack vent Seemai n soi l -and-waste vent.
static head Hei ght of a fl ui d at rest (no fl ow).
stop-and-wastevalve A val ve that has a part that can be opened to al l ow water to drai n
from pi pi ng to the val ve.
stormdrain Recei ves storm water, cl ear rai n, or surface-water waste onl y.
Surg-Cms surgery-central i zed materi al
supports Seepi pe supports.
SW servi ce wei ght
SY square yard
swingcheck valve Seecheck val ve.
T tempered water; A fi tti ng for connecti ng pi pes of unequal si zes or
for changi ng di recti on of pi pe runs. A bul l head T has an outl et
l arger than the openi ng on the run; a strai ght Thas al l openi ngs of
the same si ze.
TC trai ni ng ci rcul ar
TM techni cal manual
TO theater of operati ons
FM 3-34.471
Glossary-10
TRADOC Uni ted States Army Trai ni ng and Doctri ne Command.
trap seal A col umn of water between a P-trap's crown wei r and the top di p.
The trap i s equal i zed by the atmospheri c pressure on one si de and
the di scharge pressure on the fi xture si de. See also common trap
seal and deep-seal trap. Any di fference between the two pressures
causes trap seal loss.
U urni nal
unit vent Seecommon vent.
UPC uni form pl umbi ng code
urinal A water-fl ushed fi xture desi gned to di rectl y recei ve uri ne.
US Uni ted States
USAEDH Uni ted States Army Engi neer Di vi si on, Huntsvi l l e
Utl uti l i ty
vacuum An ai r pressure l ess than that exerted by the atmosphere.
vapor heating A system for war mi ng bui l di ngs consi sti ng of a two-pi pe gr avi ty
return system of steam ci rcul ati on i n whi ch provi si on i s made to
retard or prevent the passage of steam from the radi ator i nto the
return mai n, and i n whi ch the ai r from the system, as wel l as
condensed water, i s carri ed back to a poi nt near the boi l er. Then
the ai r i s expel l ed from the mai ns and the water i s returned to the
boi l er.
VCP vi tri fi ed-cl ay pi pe
vent pipe Any smal l venti l ati ng pi pe runni ng from vari ous pl umbi ng
fi xtures to the vent stack.
vent stack Seemai n soi l -and-waste vent.
vol vol ume
VTR vent through the roofThe secti on of the stack that runs through
the roof, after the mai n vent T i s i nstal l ed.
vertical pipe Any pi pe that makes l ess than 45 degrees from a verti cal pl ane.
wall hung A pl umbi ng fi xture that i s supported from a wal l .
wastestack Seemai n soi l and waste stack.
water closet A water-fl ushed pl umbi ng fi xture desi gned to accept human
semi sol i d waste di rectl y.
water hammer A concussi on or sound of concussi on of movi ng water agai nst the
si des of a pi pe (as a steam pi pe).
water seal Seetrap seal .
weir Any type of bul khead or dam over whi ch a l i qui d fl ows.
wet vent A vent that al so serves as a drai n.
Wrd ward
FM 3-34.471
Glossary-11
Wtk water tank
XH extra heavy
Xry-Lb-Dn x-ray-l ab-dental
w/ wi th
WC water cl oset
Y A fi tti ng that has one si de outl et at any other angl e than 90
degrees. The angl e i s usual l y 45 degrees unl ess otherwi se
speci fi ed.
Bibliography-1
Bibliography
DA Form 2028. Recommended Changes toPublications and Blank Forms. 1
February 1974.
DA Form 2702. Bill of Materials. 1 Jul y 1963.
DA Pamphl et 611-21. Military Occupational Classification and Structure. 31
March 1999.
FM 3-100.4. Environmental Considerations in MilitaryOperations{MCRP 4-11B}.
15 June 2000.
FM 5-412. Project Management. 13 June 1994.
TC 3-34.489. TheSoldier and theEnvironment. 8 May 2001.
The Uni form Pl umbi ng Code (UPC), I nternati onal Associ ati on of Pl umbers and
Mechanical Officials (I APMO) (Copyright 1996). 1997.
TM 5-300. Real EstateOperations in Overseas Commands. 10 December 1958.
TM 5-302-3. Army Facilities Components System: Design (S&I USAEDH, ATTN:
HNDED-FD, Huntsville, AL 35807-4301). 28 September 1973.
TM 5-303. Army Facilities Components System- Logistic Data and Bills of
Materiel. 1 June 1986.
TM 5-654. Maintenanceand Operation of Gas Systems (NAVFAC MO-220; AFM
91-6). 3 November 1970.
TM 5-704. Construction Print Readingin theField {AFM 85-27}(Reprinted w/
Basic I ncl C1). 2 January 1969.
TM 5-810-5. Plumbing{AFMAN 32-1070, Chp 4}. 31 August 1993.
TM 5-813-5. Water Supply, Water Distribution (AFM 88-10, Vol 5). 3 November
1986.
TM 5-814-1. Sanitaryand I ndustrial Wastewater Collection-Gravity Sewers and
Appurtenances {AFM 88-11, Vol 1}. 4 March 1985.
TM 5-848-1. Gas Distribution {AFM 88-12, Chap 1}(Reprinted W/ Basic I ncl C1).
14 December 1990.
Index-1
Index
A
ABS. Seeacrylonitrile butadiene-
styrene, 6-36
absorption area, required, 1-51
accidental spillage, 1-40
acrylonitrile butadiene-styrene
(ABS), 1-16
administrative functions, 1-32
aesthetic, 1-33
AFCS. SeeArmy Facilities
Components System, 1-30
aggregate material, 1-41
air
lock, 1-12
piping, 10-1, 10-3
test, 8-5
aluminum shavings, 3-4
ammonia, 12-2
anaerobic digestion, 1-53
angle valve, 7-1, 7-2
antisweat, 12-2
insulation, 12-2
arches, 1-16
arctic environments, 1-30
Army Facilities Components
System (AFCS), 1-30
ashes, 1-47
asphalt, 6-2
products, 1-33
atmospheric pressure, 1-43, 9-3
B
back pressure, 9-4
back siphonage, 1-12
back vent, 9-6
baffle boards, 1-20
baffle grease trap, 1-46
baffle walls, 1-20
ball cock, 4-6
repairs, 4-10
ball noncompression faucet, 7-8,
7-11
ball peen hammer, 1-19
barometer, 1-43
barrel-filter grease trap, 1-47
base camp, 1-28
latrines, 1-31
locations, 1-31
preplanned sites, 1-29
basic concepts, E-1
basin wrench, 7-9
bathtubs, 3-5, 4-23
ledge seats, 4-23
batter board, 1-25
bearing housing, 11-5
beds, 1-57
bends, 6-8, 6-10
base of the stack, 8-5
long sweep, 6-10
short sweep, 6-10
bill of materials (BOM), V, 1-1, B-1,
C-1
bitumen, 6-2
bituminous compounds, 6-2
bituminous-fiber pipe, 1-16, 1-54,
6-40
orange burg, 6-40
bladders, 1-14
blowtorch, 3-3
boiler and tank coverings, 12-3
BOM. Seebill of materials
bonnet, 2-5
boot, 2-9
boot fitting, 2-9
bored-hole latrine, 1-37
covered metal drum, 1-38
box-type traps, 1-20
branch and main waste lines, 3-5
branch, 1-2, 8-1, 8-2
duct, 2-8
horizontal branches, 8-4
line, 3-4
Y, 6-8, 6-9, 6-10
trapped inverted, 6-9
brass, 1-2
brick, 1-18
brick-and-mortar wall, 1-20
brine, 12-2
bronze, 7-1
building-waste system plans, 1-1
burlap, 3-3
bushing, 6-23
face, 6-23
C
calcium, 1-8, 3-4
silicate, 12-3
canvas jacket, 12-2
capillary action, 9-4
carbon monoxide, 10-3
poisoning, 5-6
carbon tetrachloride, 11-5
casing, 11-3
cast iron, 1-2, 6-7
fittings, 6-12
pressure pipe, 6-45
corporation, 6-45
ring, 1-20
soil pipe, 1-16, 6-1
hub-(or bell-), 1-16
hubless, 1-16
spigot, 1-16
traps, 6-11
caulking iron, 6-14
ceiling registers (diffusers), 2-5
cellular glass, 12-3
cement pipe, 6-43
nonreinforced, 6-43
reinforced, 6-43
cement sleeve, 6-43
center-to-center, 6-5
measure, 6-6
cesspools, 1-25, 1-53
check valve, 7-1, 7-2, 7-5, 11-4
lift-type, 7-1
swing, 7-1
chemical toilets, 1-31
chlorinated polyvinyl chloride
(CPVC) plastic, 1-11
chlorine, 1-6
cylinders, 1-7
dosage, 1-6
cinder block, 1-18
circuit vent, 9-6, 9-9
circulating-water supply system,
1-12
civil affairs, 1-29
clay drain tiles, 1-54
heavy, 1-25
cleaners, 1-33
cleaning primer, 6-38
FM 3-34.471
Index-2
cleanout, 6-12
plug, 3-9
clevis, 4-15
close-coupled, 4-4
closet bend, 4-3, 6-11
cold chisel, 6-13
cold-water systems, 1-2
brass, 1-2
cast iron, 1-2
copper tubing, 1-2
galvanized, 1-2
galvanized-iron, 1-2
galvanized-steel pipe, 1-2
plastic pipe, 1-2
wrought iron, 1-2
collocated, 1-29
comfort zone, 2-8
common trench, 1-11
common-vented, 9-6
fixtures, 9-9
company-sized elements, 1-49
compressed-air system, 10-3
compression
faucet washer, 7-7
joints, 1-6
nut, 6-34
ring, 6-34
concrete, 1-16
cast in place, 1-16
drain tiles, 1-54
pipe, 6-2
shower pans, 4-22
condensed steam(condensate), 2-3
condense, 2-2
conduit, 1-16
contact time, 1-6
contingency operation, 1-28
control box, 11-3
copper tubing, 1-2, 6-1, 6-27
capacities, D-3
drain waste vent (DWV), 6-28
k, 6-27
L, 6-28
M, 6-28
cork pipe covering, 12-2
corporation, 6-45
cast-iron, 6-45
stop, 1-9
corridor, 2-8
corrosion, 1-8
direct current of electricity, 1-8
factor, 1-2
galvanic, 1-8
reducing, 3-2
repair
copper pipe, 3-1
galvanized pipe, 3-1
couplings, 6-20, 6-43
eccentric, 6-20
reducing, 6-20
standard, 6-20
cement sleeve, 6-43
rubber rings, 6-43
covered metal drum, 1-38
CPVC. Seechlorinated polyvinyl
chloride, 6-36
crawl space, 2-6
crib, 1-39
cross, 6-22
joins, 6-22
side-outlet, 6-22
curb, 1-10
cushion gasket, 4-4
cutting, 6-13
cold chisel, 6-13
oil, 6-3
soil-pipe, 6-13
soil-pipe cutter, 6-13
wheel, 6-24
D
degree of offset, 6-6
design considerations, 1-49
design, 1-2
dynamic head, E-2
load procedures, E-3
systems procedues, E-1
procedures, E-3
static head, E-2
detail drawings, B-1
special, 1-1, B-1
standard, 1-1
DFU. Seedrainage fixture units,
1-18
diaphragm, 4-7
dielectric, 6-22
unions, 3-2
dining facilities, 1-32
dining sanitation center, 1-29
direct current of electricity, 1-8
direct siphonage, 9-3
discharge hose, 11-3
disease
infectious, 1-33
insects, 1-33
rodents, 1-33
disinfect, 1-6
piping system, 1-6
chlorine, 1-6
hypochlorite, 1-6
disposal, 1-30
field, 1-22
systems, 1-29
dissolved salts, 1-27
distribution
box, 1-22
points, 1-14
system, 1-1
diversion gate, 1-22
domestic waste, 1-15
dosages, 1-6
dosing tank, 1-57
downflow, 2-4
distribution, 2-4
furnace, 2-5
drain assembly, 4-14
chain-type plug, 4-14
pipe-joint compound, 4-14
plumbers putty, 4-14
pop-up plug, 4-14
drains
floor, 3-4
footing, 6-40
shower, 3-5
stoppage, 3-8
storm inlet, 1-14
drain waste vent (DWV), 1-18, 6-28
fittings, 6-28
drainage
bed, 1-24
fittings, 6-20
fixture units (DFUs), 1-17
lines, 1-26
soil absorption rate, 1-26
washing water, 1-40
drain-plug assembly, 4-15
dresser couplings, 10-4
drinking fountains, 4-1, 4-25
drip cock, 1-6, 1-12
drip legs, 10-3
drum, 1-30
top cover, 3-8
trap, 3-8, 9-1
dunnage beams, B-4
DWV. Seedrain waste vent
dynamic head, E-2
dynamic water distribution, E-3
design procedures, E-3
E
earthmoving equipment, 1-30
effluent, 1-48
elbows, 6-20
reducing L, 6-20
street, 4-23
electricians friction tape, 3-2
FM 3-34.471
Index-3
electrolysis, 3-1
electrolytic
action, 3-2
cells, 3-2
emery cloth, 4-11, 6-30
enameled cast iron, 4-16
enameled pressed-steel, 4-16
end-to-center, 6-5
end-to-end, 6-5
environmental pollution, 1-27
equilibrium, 1-43
evaporation beds, 1-30, 1-47, 1-52
excreta, 1-36
expandable pillow tanks, 1-30
expansion chamber, 1-3
explosion, 5-6
F
face bushing, 6-23
face-to-end, 6-5
face-to-face, 6-5
measure, 6-6
facility engineers, 1-28
factoring loss
pressure, 1-4
faucets, 1-11
ball compression, 7-8, 7-11
cartridge, noncompression,
7-8, 7-11
single-knob, noncompression,
7-8
valve, 7-8, 7-11
noncompression, 7-8,
7-11
washerless, 7-8
federal, state, and local
environmental laws for human
waste, 1-31
fiberglass, 12-2
insulation, 12-2
field expedient
incinerators, 1-32
wastewater disposal system,
1-29
field laundries, 1-29
filter trenches, 1-57
fine-tooth hacksaw, 6-29
fire trench, 5-5
fire-resistant structures, 1-13
fittings, 6-3, 6-8, 6-28
bends, 6-8
cleanout, 6-12
dimension, 6-5
DWV, 6-28
flared, 6-28
increaser, 6-11
offset, 6-11
sewer thimble, 6-12
sizes, 6-36
solder, 6-28
symbols, B-8
Ts, 6-8
traps, 6-8
Y-branches, 6-8
fixed sewage systems, 1-31
fixture
control devices, 4-10
demand, 1-2, 1-5
drain, 3-4
in-use, 1-2
number and kinds, 1-2
simultaneous use, 1-2
supply risers, 1-2
symbols, B-9
unit capacity, 1-17
vents, 9-6
flange, 6-21
floor, 4-3
nut, 6-32
flanging tool, 6-32
flapper, 4-11
flare/compression nut, 6-32
flared fittings, 6-28
flaring tool, 6-32
flex rubber, 12-2
float cup, 4-6
float valve, B-4
floating grease particles, 1-20
flue, 5-3
flushing devices, 1-2
flushometer, 4-6
valve, 4-7
food sanitation center, 1-29
footing, B-4
force-cup plunger, 3-5
forced-air
circulation, 2-5
heating, 2-1
systems, 2-1
free-water surface, E-2
friction loss, 1-2
frost line, 1-8
depth, 1-11
penetration, 1-11
frost proof, 12-2
full S-trap, 9-2
funnel, 1-42
furnace
coil, 5-1
firebox, 5-1
gas-fired, 2-5
oil-fired, 2-5
G
galvanic corrosion, 1-8
galvanized, 1-2
pipe, 3-1
iron, 1-2
steel pipe, 1-2
steel/iron pipe, 6-1
capacities, D-3
steel/iron pipe and fittings,
6-19
double extra strong, 6-19
extra strong, 6-19
schedule 40, 6-19
schedule 80, 6-19
standard, 6-19
gas
chlorinators, 1-7
natural, 10-3
piping, 10-1, 10-3
system, 10-3
carbon monoxide, 10-3
gas piping, 10-3
methane, 10-3
natural, 10-3
water heater, 5-1
gaskets, 6-2
cone-shaped, 4-4
cushion, 4-4
rubber, 4-3
sealing, 4-4
wax, 4-3
gate valves, 1-6, 7-1, 7-2, 7-3,
11-4
nonrising stem inside screw,
7-1
rising stem inside the screw,
7-1
rising stem outside screw and
yoke, 7-1
general waste, 1-33
geological conditions, 1-28, 1-30
glass wool, 12-3
globe valve, 7-1, 7-2, 7-4
gravity
feed, 1-57
return system, 1-12
grease
cup, 11-2
traps, 1-20
trap stoppage, 3-9
ground, 6-21
groundwater
contamination, 1-38
table, 1-34
FM 3-34.471
Index-4
H
hair, grease, or other foreign
matter, 3-4
hand washing
device, 1-34
facilities, 1-31
hanger bracket, 4-13
hard water, 1-8
hazardous waste, 1-33
cleaners, 1-33
paints, 1-33
solvents, 1-33
special handling,
transportation, disposal,
and documentation, 1-33
head, 11-1
head loss, D-6
heat
elements, 5-3
forced-air, 2-1
hot-water system, 1-11, 2-1
plan, 2-1
one-pipe system, 2-1
plant, 2-6
steam system
condensed steam, 2-3
high-pressure, 2-2
low-pressure, 2-2
thermostatic, 2-3
vacuum, 2-2
vapor, 2-2
two-pipe system, 2-1
upflow, 2-5
weld, 10-3
hemp, 6-2
herringbone, 1-57
high-temperature systems, 10-1
horizontal
branches, 8-4
lead joint, 6-15
horn, 4-3
hose, 3-8
clamps, 3-2
hot-water system
boiler, 2-1
circulating pump, 2-1
compression tank, 2-1
hub (or bell), 1-16
hub-and-spigot
cast-iron pipe, 6-2
pipe, 6-7
pipe joint, 6-14
hubless, 1-16
pipe, 6-7
human waste disposal
feces and urine, 1-30
in the field, 1-34
improvised facilities, 1-34
hypochlorite, 1-6
I
Imhoff tank, 1-23
immersion-type heating elements,
5-3
impeller, 11-1
chamber, 11-5
impervious rock formations, 1-38
improvised facilities, 1-34
incinerate, 1-40
increaser, 6-11
indirect siphonage, 9-4
industrial drain, 1-16
inlet pipe, 1-22
inlet-coupling nut, 4-8
insects
breeding sites, 1-28
disease, 1-33
fly control, 1-34
installation level, 1-31
insulation, 12-1
blanket, 12-3
frost proof, 12-2
jacket, 5-1
iron
packing, 6-14
pickout, 6-14
ring hangers, 6-3
wrought, 1-11
J
joining, 6-14
joint, 6-2
cold caulk, 6-18
collars, 12-3
compound, 4-7
flared, 6-32
hub and spigot, 6-7
interlocking mechanical-
compression, 6-45
lead, 6-15
mechanical compression,
6-33
runner, 6-14
joint task forces (JTF), 1-29
jute fibers, 6-2
K
kerosene, 11-5
kitchen, 1-28
sinks, 4-18
soakage pit, 1-45
waste, 1-44
treatment before disposal,
1-44
L
ladle, 3-9
lard oil, 6-3
latrine
base camp, 1-31
bored hole, 1-37
box, 1-36
burn out, 1-39
cathole, 1-35
close a pit, 1-35
close, 1-31
deep pit, 1-36, 1-38
applying lime, 1-37
box, 1-36
four-seat boxes, 1-36
self-closing lids, 1-37
field, 1-31
fixed, 1-31
location, 1-31
mark, 1-31
mound, 1-38
crib, 1-39
sandbags, 1-39
straddle trench, 1-36
laundries, 1-28
laundry tubs, 4-24
lavatory, 3-5, 4-12
leaching, 1-55
tanks, 1-25
lead, 1-16, 6-2
pipe, 10-3
poisoning, 5-6
shower pan, 4-22
wool, 6-18, 6-2
leaky washers, 7-3
ledge seats, 4-23
legend, B-1
BOM, B-1
special detail drawing, B-1
standard detail drawing, B-1
lime, 1-37
list of all materials, C-1
long sweep, 6-10
looped system, 1-12
loose mineral wool, 12-3
lye, 3-4
M
magnesia, 12-2
magnesium, 1-8, 3-4
particles, 3-2
rods, 3-2
FM 3-34.471
Index-5
main
line, 3-4
supply ducts, 2-8
trunk, 2-8
vent, 9-6
vent T, 8-4
water supply, 1-5
maintenance, 12-3
manholes, 1-14
marshes, 1-40
materials list, C-1
matted wool fibers, 12-2
maximum fixture demand, 1-4
maximum load, 5-6
measure, 6-12
cast-iron soil pipe, 6-12
pipe lengths, 6-5
measurement type, 6-5
mechanism, 4-6
ball cock, 4-6
float cup, 4-6
medical
facilities, 1-32
waste, 1-33
infectious, 1-33
mess kit washing, 5-4
metal shims, 4-3
meter stops, 1-10, 1-11
methane, 10-3
metric tools, 1-13
minimum cover, 1-58
minimum practical size, 1-5
miter box, 6-30
molded pipe covering, 12-3
molten lead, 6-18
mortar, 1-19
motor pool operations, 1-32
mounting board, 4-13
municipal water system, 1-13
Mylar seal, 4-9
N
national plumbing code (NPC), 1-2
natural gas, 10-3
neck dimensions, 2-5
neoprene sleeve, 1-16, 6-14
net, 11-4
nipple, 4-22, 6-22
close, 6-22
long, 6-22
shoulder, 6-22
nominal size diameter, 6-4
nonacid flux, 6-2
noncombat operations, 1-29
nonreinforced, 6-43
normal flow level, 1-18
O
oakum, 1-16, 6-2
offset, 6-11
offset
degree constants, 6-7
measurement, 6-6
oil-fired water heater, 5-2
oil-water flash burner, 5-4, 5-5
oil weight, 1-43
one-pipe system, 2-1
operation hazards, 5-6
carbon monoxide poisoning,
5-6
explosion, 5-6
lead poisoning, 5-6
operational considerations, 1-28
orange burg, 6-40
organic chlorine-consuming
material, 1-6
organisms
biological, 1-27
pathogenic, 1-27
outlet partition, 1-22
overflow cover, 3-7
oxidation ponds, 1-53
P
pail latrine, 1-40
paints, 1-33
partial vacuum, 11-4
particulate matter, 1-27
pathogens, 1-33
percolation
rate, 1-25
test, 1-25, 1-50
perforated iron strap, 6-3
perforated plastic pipe, 1-54
perforations, 1-54
petroleum derivatives, 1-33
petroleum, oils, lubricants (POL),
1-33
pipe, 1-11, 10-1
air, 10-1
capacities and the allowance
for friction, 6-1
cast iron, 6-2
cast-iron soil, 6-12
characteristics and uses, 6-1
copper, 3-1
corrosion, 3-1
covering, 12-4
CPVC, 6-36
cutter, 3-2
double hub, 6-7
engagement, 6-4
expansion, 10-1
expansion and contraction,
12-1
fittings, 6-1
friction, 1-2
gas, 10-1
hangers, 6-3
hub-and-spigot, 6-7, 6-21
hubless, 6-7
joint compound, 4-14, 4-22,
6-2
insulation, 10-2
lead, 10-3
leaky, 12-4
length, 6-5
length for firction, D-5
nonreinforced hub-and-spigot
concrete, 6-44
PB, 6-36
PE, 6-36
pitch, 10-1
plastic, 1-2, 6-1, 6-36
ABS, 6-36
CPVC, 6-36
polybutylene (PB), 6-36
polyetylene (PE), 6-36
polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
6-36
rests or clamps, 1-6
run length, 6-5
sizes, D-1
smoke, 5-3
steam, 10-1
symbols, B-8
threading set, 6-25
urinals, 1-42
plans, 1-1, 2-5
symbols, 2-5, B-1
plastic
capabilities, D-3
filler, 6-38
pipe, 1-2, 6-1, 6-36
pipe and fittings, 6-36
ABS, 6-36
CPVC, 6-36
polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
6-36
tubing, 3-2
plastisol joint connection, 6-45
pliers
lock grip, 4-9
plugs, 4-14
assembly, 4-15
FM 3-34.471
Index-6
chain type, 4-14
pop up, 4-14, 4-15
repairs, 4-17
plugs and caps, 6-22
plumber's ladle, 6-16
plumber's putty, 4-14
plumbing fixture, 4-1
POL products, 1-33
asphalt products, 1-33
fuel, 1-33
petroleum derivatives, 1-33
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 6-36
portland cement, 1-19
potable water supply, 1-24
pressure
main, 1-4
minimum (worst-case)
operating regulator, 1-4
reducing valve, 1-4
relief valve, 5-1
pressure regulator, 1-4
operating regular, 1-4
preventive-medicine personnel, 1-30
prime mover, 11-4
priming, 11-4
chamber, 11-2
profile, 1-15
P-trap, 3-6, 3-7, 6-11, 9-1
connection, 4-15
pumping, treating, and disposing of
sewage, 1-14
pump, 11-1
casing, 11-5
centrifugal, 11-1, 11-2
impeller chamber, 11-5
maintain and repair, 11-5
submerged, 11-2
submersible, 11-3
vacuum, 2-2
Q
quartermaster personnel, 1-29
R
radiators, 2-1
range boiler and furnace-coil
arrangement, 5-1
range boiler and heater, 5-1
range boilers, 5-1
range-boiler, gas, oil-burning, and
electric, 1-11
ratchet test plug, 8-6
rate of filtration, 1-57
reamer, 6-23
rectangular sign, 1-44
recycle
laundry water,1-29
shower water, 1-29
reducing
friction loss, 1-3
corrosion, 3-2
dielectric unions, 3-2
magnesium rods, 3-2
coupling, 6-20
L, 6-20
Ts, 1-6
valve, 10-4
registers, 2-5
baseboard, 2-5
cold air, 2-5
return, 2-6
reinforced with wire or steel
bars, 6-43
relative absorption rates, 1-53
relieve the air lock, 1-12
residual insecticide, 1-34
resilient joints, 1-16
retrograde operations, 1-33
reverse-trap bowl, 4-2
rigid, preformed insulation, 12-2
rock stratum,1-52
rodent
breeding sites, 1-28
disease, 1-33
rotting waste from dining
facilities, 1-33
rough-in piping, 4-20
round manhole construction, 1-21
rubber
hose, 3-2
rings, 6-43
tubing, 10-3
washer, 4-4
running trap, 6-11
S
saddle, 1-8
salt, table, 3-4
sandbags, 1-39
sanitary drain capacity (in DFUs),
1-18
sanitary discharge, 1-15
sanitary drainage system, 4-1
sanitary sewer access, 1-30
sanitary T (reducing), 6-9
sanitary Ts, 6-8
sanitary waste, 1-15
scale, 1-8, 3-4
schedules
40, 6-19
80, 6-19
screening, 1-34
fly control, 1-34
scum, 1-8, 3-4
sea level, 9-3
sediment drain, 5-1
seepage flange, 4-22
self-adjusting mechanical seal, 11-2
self-closing, 1-40
lids, 1-37
self-contained vault toilets, 1-31
self-priming, 11-2
self-tapping machine, 1-8
semipermanent collection, 1-30
semipermanent wastewater
collection, 1-29
septic tanks, 1-20, 1-53, 1-54
baffle, 1-20
disposal field, 1-22
distribution box, 1-22
diversion gate, 1-22
inlet pipe, 1-22
siphon chamber ,1-20
subsurface sand filter, 1-23
service weight, 6-7
settling, 1-18
sewage
decay of, 1-20
lagoons, 1-53
plumbing, treating and
disposing of, 1-14
raw, 1-20
sewer
house, 1-15
sanitary discharge, 1-15
installation, 1-30
outfall, 1-16
pipe, 1-14
storm, 1-15
thimble, 1-18, 6-12
sewerage system, 1-14
disposing of sewage, 1-14
pumping, 1-14
stand alone, 1-31
treating, 1-14
shaft seals, 11-5
sheet metal, 1-42
sheet rubber, 3-2
short sweep, 6-10
shoulder, 6-22
shower, 1-28, 4-20
drains, 3-5
pan, 4-21
stall, 4-20
tile, 4-20
FM 3-34.471
Index-7
shredded lead, 6-2, 6-18
side-outlet, 6-22
simultaneous-use factor, 1-4, 1-5
single stack, 8-1
sinks, 3-5, 4-16
enameled cast iron, 4-16
enameled pressed-steel, 4-16
kitchen, 4-18
scullery, 1-20, 4-1, 4-18
slop, 4-1, 4-18
stand trap, 8-2
trap-to-wall, 8-2
siphon, 1-12
chamber, 1-20
jet bowl, 4-2
size
of an L, 6-20
flow half full, 1-17
slab slopes, 1-20
slip nut, 4-6
slug, 9-4
snap-collar fitting, 6-40
soakage pits, 1-30
soakage trench, 1-42, 1-45
sodium chloride, 3-4
soil
absorption rates of drainage
lines, 1-26
absorption test, 1-25
composition, 1-30
pipe cutter, 6-13
soil and waste stacks, 8-1
waste branch line, 6-11
solder, 6-2
solder fittings, 6-28
soldered joints, 6-30
soldering flux, 6-30
solid shelf, 1-11
solvent cement, 6-2, 6-38
joints, 1-16
special handling, transportation,
disposal, and documentation,
1-33
specific gravity, 10-3
spigot, 1-16
split T, 2-9
spring benders, 4-7, 6-35
sprinkler systems, 1-13
spud connection, 4-6
stacks, 8-1
bend at the base, 8-5
vent through the roof (VTR), 8-4
stacks and branches, 8-1
stainless steel band, 1-16
stall, 4-19, 4-20
stand trap, 8-2
standard coupling, 6-20
standard detail drawing, 1-11, B-1
static head, E-2
steam piping, 10-1
high-temperature systems,
10-1
steam-heating systems
condensed steam, 2-3
high-pressure, 2-2
low-pressure, 2-2
thermostatic, 2-3
vacuum, 2-2
vapor, 2-2
steel wool, 4-11, 6-30
steel-coated, 4-7
stop box, 1-10
stoppage, 3-4
stopper linkage, 3-7
storm sewers, 1-15
straddle-trench latrine, 1-36
straight stop (for gas), 7-2
straight T, 2-9, 6-9
S-trap, 6-11
stuffing box, 11-5
submerged pump, 11-2, 11-3
submersible pump, 11-3
subsurface
drainage, 6-40
filter trenches, 1-57
irrigation, 1-54
sand filter, 1-23
system, 1-24
suction side, 11-4
supply lines, 1-2
susceptible host, 1-33
suspended solids, 1-27
swaging, 6-34
copper tubing, 6-34
tool set, 6-34
symbols, B-1
fitting, B-8
fixture, B-9
piping, B-8
plan, 2-5
valve, B-8
T
Ts, 6-8
sanitary, 6-8
sanitary (reducing), 6-9
size, 6-20
split, 2-9
straight (reducing), 6-9
tapped, 6-8
test, 6-9
trapped sanitary "I", 6-9
trapped straight "I", 6-9
tactical conditions, 1-14
takeoffs, 1-6, 2-9, 6-8
trunk, 2-9
tallowed flax packing, 11-5
tank, 4-4
close-coupled, 4-4
expandable pillow, 1-30
farm, 1-14
flushing mechanism, 4-6
septic, 1-20, 1-53, 1-54
wall hung, 4-4
tapering tool, 6-41
tap, 1-8
inverted, 6-9
sanitary "I", 6-9
straight "I", 6-9
T, 6-8
water main, 1-8
tar
paper, 1-42
pitch, 6-2
Teflon tape, 4-7
terra-cotta, 6-44
vitrified-clay pipe, 6-44
test
holes, 1-25
plug, 8-6
T, 6-9
testing, 8-5, 10-3
air, 8-5
leaks, 1-6
ratchet test plug, 8-6
test plug, 8-6
water, 8-5
theater
combat engineers, 1-28
commander, 1-28
operations, 1-1
thermostatic, 2-3
water-mixing valve, B-5
tile, 4-20
clay drain, 1-54
drain fields, 1-53
shower, 4-20
time lag, 1-12
toxic chemicals, 1-27
traditional field expedient disposal
methods, 1-30
transients, 1-29
traps, 6-8, 6-11, 9-1
3/4 S-trap, 6-11
4-degree S-trap, 9-1
cast-iron, 6-11
FM 3-34.471
Index-8
deep seal, 9-6
full S-trap, 9-2
P, 3-6, 3-7, 6-11, 9-1
running, 6-11
S, 6-11
seal, 9-2
trap seal, 9-2
loss, 9-1
trap-to-wall, 8-2
treatment, 1-30
treatment before disposal, 1-44
trouble sources, 11-5
trough, 4-19, 4-20
urinal, 1-42
U-shaped, 1-42
V-shaped, 1-42
tubing cutter, 6-29
tucker coupling, 6-12
turning vanes, 2-9
two-pipe system, 1-12, 2-1
downflow distribution, 2-4
Ts and elbows, 2-1
upflow distribution, 2-4
typical utility plan, B-1
U
underground piping, 12-3
undisturbed earth, 1-18
unions, 3-1, 4-23, 6-21
dielectric, 6-22
flange, 6-21
ground, 6-21
unit construction drawing, B-4
upflow distribution, 2-4
urinals, 1-42, 3-5, 4-18
stall, 4-19
trough, 4-19
vitreous china, 4-18
wall hung, 4-19
urine disposal facility, 1-40, 1-41
urine soakage pit, 1-41
urinoil, 1-43
U-shaped, 1-42
wire hangers, 6-3
V
valve, 7-1, 11-4
angle, 7-1, 7-2
bleeder, 12-3
check, 7-1, 7-2, 7-5, 11-4
compression faucet, 7-8, 7-11
coupling nut, 4-8
Douglas (outlet), 4-11
flap, 1-9
foot, 7-2
gate, 7-1, 7-2
globe, 7-1, 7-2
ground joint, 1-11
lift check, 7-1
missing control, B-5
pressure- or temperature-
relief, 7-2
reducing, 7-2
relief, 5-1, 11-4
shutoff (angle), 2-4
single-handle mixing, 4-22
stop-and-waste, 1-6, 7-2
bleeder, 7-2
swing check, 7-1
symbols, B-8
vacuum, 11-4
valve and fitting coverings, 12-3
valves and fittings, 12-4
vanes, 11-1
vanities, 4-12
vapor burner, 5-4
vent, 9-1
continous, 9-6
DWV, 1-8, 6-28
fixture, 9-6
inadequate, 9-3
main, 9-6
pressure- or temperature-
relief valves, 7-2
single-fixture, 9-6
back, 9-6
continuous, 9-6
wet, 9-9
vent through the roof (VTR), 8-4
ventilating shafts, 1-41
vermin, 12-3
vertical lead joint, 6-16
vertical supply riser, 1-6
vitreous china, 4-18
vitrified-clay pipe, 1-16, 6-44
terra-cotta, 6-44
tile, 1-16, 6-2
volatile fuel, 1-40
volute, 11-1
V-shaped, 1-42
W
wall hung, 4-4, 4-19
flush tank, 4-13
warm-air supply ducts, 2-5
washdown bowl with jet, 4-2
waste
lines, 3-5
branch and main, 3-5
matter, 1-17
solid, 1-32
wastewater
laws, 1-27
pumps, 1-29
tank trucks, 1-30
water
closet, 3-5, 4-1
reverse-trap bowl, 4-2
siphon-jet bowl, 4-2
snake, 3-5
stoppages, 3-5
washdown bowl, 4-2
flow rate, 4-1
hammer, 1-3, 2-4
heaters, 1-11, 5-1
electric, 5-1
gas, side arm, 5-1
meter, 1-11
pressure, 1-2
seal, 3-7
service main, 1-2
softener, 3-4
supply system, 1-1
test, 8-5
waterborne
sewage system, 1-53
wastes, 1-15
waterproof
cable, 11-3
cement, 1-11
weir, 9-2
wellhead, 11-2
wet vent, 9-9
wick, 9-4
wire mesh, 12-3
wood, 1-42
wood plugs, 3-2
wooden baffle, 1-46
wool felt, 12-2
working load, 5-6
Z
zeolite, 3-4
FM 3-34.471(FM 5-420)
31 AUGUST 2001
By Order of the Secretary of the Army:
ERIC K. SHINSEKI
General, United States Army
Chief of Staff
Official:
JOEL B. HUDSON
Administrative Assistant to the
Secretary of the Army
0122624
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, Army National Guard, and US Army Reserve: To be distributed in accordance with
the initial distribution number 115860, requirements for FM 3-34.471.

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