Lý thuyết và Công thức Vật lý 12 (Nâng cao) .14028 PDF

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Mc lc
Trang
Mc lc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chng 1 - NG LC HC VT RN 6
1.1 Chuyn ng tnh tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.1 Khi tm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.2 nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Gia tc ca chuyn ng tnh tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 ng nng ca vt rn chuyn ng tnh tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Chuyn ng quay ca vt rn quanh mt trc. Gia tc gc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 c im ca chuyn ng quay. Tc gc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Chuyn ng quay u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.3 Gia tc ca chuyn ng quay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.4 Chuyn ng quay bin i u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.5 Vn tc v gia tc ca cc im trn vt rn quay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Phng trnh c bn ca chuyn ng quay ca vt rn quanh mt trc. Momen qun tnh
ca vt rn hnh tr trn v hnh cu i vi trc ca n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Momen ca lc. Mc qun tnh trong chuyn ng quay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.2 Phng trnh c bn ca chuyn ng quay ca vt rn quanh mt trc . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.3 Momen qun tnh ca vt rn hnh tr trn v hnh cu i vi trc ca n . . . . . . 10
1.4 Momen ng lng. nh lut bo ton momen ng lng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.1 Momen ng lng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.2 nh lut bo ton momen ng lng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 ng nng ca vt rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5.1 ng nng ca vt rn quay quanh mt trc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5.2 ng nng ca vt rn chuyn ng phng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Chng 2 - DAO NG C HC 13
2.1 Dao ng tun hon v dao ng iu ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 Dao ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.2 Dao ng tun hon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.3 Dao ng iu ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.4 Vn tc v gia tc trong dao ng iu ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.5 Lin h gia dao ng iu ha vi chuyn ng trn u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.6 Dao ng t do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Dao ng ca con lc l xo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.1 M t dao ng ca con lc l xo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
L thuyt Vt L 12 Trng THPT - Phong in
2.2.2 Phng trnh ng lc hc ca con lc l xo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.3 Nng lng trong dao ng iu ha ca con lc l xo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 lch pha ca hai dao ng, phng php ging Frexnen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.1 lch pha ca hai dao ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.2 Phng php gin Frexnen, tng hp hai dao ng iu ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 Dao ng iu ha ca con lc n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.1 M t dao ng ca con lc n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.2 Phng trnh ng lc hc ca con lc n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.3 Nng lng trong dao ng iu ha ca con lc n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5 Con lc vt l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.1 nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.2 Phng trnh ng lc hc ca con lc vt l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6 Dao ng tt dn, dao ng cng bc, cng hng c hc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.6.1 Dao ng tt dn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.6.2 Dao ng cng bc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.6.3 Cng hng c hc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Chng 3 - SNG C HC. M HC 23
3.1 Hin tng sng trong c hc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1.1 nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1.2 Phn loi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1.3 Nhng i lng c trng ca sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1.4 Phng trnh truyn sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2 Hin tng giao thoa sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.1 Th nghim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.2 nh ngha lch pha. Gii thch hin tng giao thoa sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2.3 iu kin c hin tng giao thoa sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 Sng dng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3.1 Th nghim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3.2 Gii thch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3.3 iu kin c sng dng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4 Sng m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4.1 Dao ng m v sng m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4.2 Mi trng truyn m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4.3 Nhng c trng sinh l ca m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5 Hiu ng p-ple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.5.1 Th nghim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.5.2 Gii thch hin tng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Chng 4 - DNG IN XOAY CHIU 31
4.1 Nguyn tc to ra dng in xoay chiu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1.1 Cch to ra dng in xoay chiu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1.2 Hiu in th v cng dng in xoay chiu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1.3 Hiu in th v cng dng in hiu dng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.1.4 L do s dng gi tr hiu in th v cng dng in hiu dng . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2 nh lut Ohm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
ThS Trn AnhTrung 2 Luyn thi i hc
4.2.1 nh lut Ohm cho on mch cha in tr thun R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.2 nh lut Ohm cho on mch cha cun cm c t cm L . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.3 nh lut Ohm cho on mch cha t in c in dung C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2.4 nh lut Ohm cho on mch RLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.5 Hin tng cng hng in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3 Cng sut ca dng in xoay chiu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.3.1 Cng sut tc thi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.3.2 Cng sut trung bnh trong mt chu k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.3.3 Cng sut trung bnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.3.4 H s cng sut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.3.5 ngha ca h s cng sut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.3.6 L do tng h s cng sut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.4 My pht in xoay chiu. ng c khng ng b ba pha. My bin p . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.4.1 My pht in xoay chiu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.4.2 ng c khng ng b ba pha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4.3 My bin p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.4.4 Truyn ti in nng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Chng 5 - DAO NG. SNG IN T 47
5.1 Dao ng in t trong mch LC. S chuyn ha v bo ton nng lng trong mch dao
ng LC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.1.1 S bin thin in tch v dng in trong mch dao ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.1.2 Hiu in th v cng dng in trong mch dao ng LC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.1.3 S chuyn ha v bo ton nng lng trong mch dao ng LC . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.2 in trng. Sng in t. Cc tnh cht ca sng in t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2.1 in trng bin thin v t trng bin thin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2.2 Sng in t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.2.3 Cc tnh cht ca sng in t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.3 S truyn sng v tuyn in. Nguyn l pht v thu sng v tuyn in . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Chng 6 - SNG NH SNG 53
6.1 Tn sc nh sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.1.1 Th nghim Newton v hin tng tn sc nh sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.1.2 Th nghim v nh sng n sc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.1.3 Tng hp nh sng trng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.2 Nhiu x nh sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.2.1 Th nghim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.2.2 nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.3 Giao thoa nh sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.3.1 Th nghim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.3.2 Gii thch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.3.3 Bc sng nh sng v mu sc nh sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.3.4 o bc sng bng phng php giao thoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.4 My quang ph. Cc loi quang ph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.4.1 Chit sut ca mi trng v bc sng nh sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.4.2 My quang ph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.4.3 Quang ph lin tc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.4.4 Quang ph vch pht x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.4.5 Quang ph vch hp th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.4.6 Hin tng o sc cc vch quang ph: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.4.7 Php phn tch quang ph v tin li ca php phn tch quang ph . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.5 Tia hng ngoi. Tia t ngoi. Tia X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.5.1 Th nghim pht hin tia hng ngoi v tia t ngoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.5.2 Tia hng ngoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.5.3 Tia t ngoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.6 Tia Ronghen ( Tia X) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.6.1 ng Ronghen ( Tia X) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.6.2 Bn cht, tnh cht v ng dng ca tia Ronghen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.6.3 Gii thch c ch pht ra tia Ronghen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.6.4 Tc dng quang in ca tia Ronghen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.6.5 Cng thc v tia Ronghen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.7 Thuyt in t nh sng. Thang sng in t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.7.1 Thuyt in t nh sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.7.2 Thang sng in t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Chng 7 - LNG T NH SNG 68
7.1 Hin tng quang in ngoi. Cc nh lut quang in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.1.1 Th nghim Hecx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.1.2 Th nghim vi t bo quang in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.2 Thuyt lng t nh sng. Gii thch cc nh lut quang in. Lng tnh sng - ht ca
nh sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.2.1 Cc nh lut quang in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.2.2 Thuyt lng t nh sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.2.3 Gii thch cc nh lut quang in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.2.4 Lng tnh sng - ht ca nh sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.3 Hin tng quang in trong. Quang in tr. Pin quang in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.3.1 Hin tng quang dn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.3.2 Quang tr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.3.3 Pin quang in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.4 Quang ph vch ca nguyn t Hidro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.4.1 Mu nguyn t Bo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.4.2 Gii thch s hnh thnh quang ph vch ca nguyn t Hidro . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.5 Hp th nh sng. Phn x lc la. Mu sc ca cc vt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.5.1 Hp th nh sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.5.2 Phn x lc la. Mu sc ca cc vt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.5.3 S pht quang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.5.4 S lt v Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.5.5 ng dng ca tia laze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Chng 8 - S LT V THUYT TNG I HP 79
8.1 Hai tin ca thuyt tng i hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.1.1 Hn ch ca c hc c in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.1.2 Cc tin ca Einstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.2 H qu ca thuyt tng i hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.2.1 S ng thi hoc th t trc sau ca hai bin c l tng i . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.2.2 S co li chiu di . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.2.3 S tri chm ca thi gian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.2.4 Cng vn tc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.3 H thc Einstein gia nng lng v khi lng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Chng 9 - PHN NG HT NHN 81
9.1 Lc ht nhn. ht khi. Nng lng lin kt ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.1.1 Lc ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.1.2 ht khi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.1.3 Nng lng lin kt ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.2 Phn ng ht nhn. Nng lng ca phn ng ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2.1 Phn ng ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2.2 Cc nh lut bo ton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2.3 ht khi ca phn ng ht nhn. Nng lng ca phn ng ht nhn . . . . . . . 83
9.3 S phng x. nh lut phng x. ng v phng x. ng dng ca ng v phng x . . . . 84
9.3.1 S phng x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.3.2 nh lut phng x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.3.3 phng x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.3.4 Cc quy tc dch chuyn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.3.5 ng dng ca ng v phng x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.4 Phn ng phn hch. Phn ng dy chuyn. S lt v l phn ng v nh my pht in
ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.4.1 Phn ng phn hch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.4.2 Phn ng dy chuyn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.4.3 S lt v l phn ng v nh my pht in ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.5 Phn ng nhit hch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Chng 10 - T V CNG LN N V CNG B 92
10.1 Cc ht s cp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
10.1.1 Ht s cp l g? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
10.1.2 Cc c trng ca ht s cp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
10.1.3 Phn ht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
10.1.4 Phn loi ht s cp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
10.1.5 Tng tc ca cc ht s cp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
10.1.6 Ht quac ( quak) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10.2 Mt tri v h mt tri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10.2.1 H mt tri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10.2.2 Mt Tri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10.2.3 Tri t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
10.2.4 Mt Trng- v tinh ca Tri t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
10.3 Cc sao. Thin h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
10.3.1 Cc sao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
10.3.2 Thin h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Chng 1
NG LC HC VT RN
C hc cht im nghin cu chuyn ng ca vt m khng ch n cc phn
khc nhau ca vt, coi ton th vt nh mt in c khi lng ca vt ( cht im). C
th lm nh vy nu kch thc ca vt rt nh so vi qu o hoc nu vt chuyn ng
tnh tin, mi im ca vt chuyn ng ging ht nhau. Phn c hc nghin cu n hnh
dng, kch thc ca n, ngha l xt chuyn ng ca ton th vt rn gi l

ng lc hc
vt rn
.
1.1 Chuyn ng tnh tin
1.1.1 Khi tm
Ta khi tm c xc nh bi:
_
_
x
G
=
x
1
m
1
+x
2
m
2
+. . .
m
1
+m
2
+. . .
=
m
i
x
i
M
y
G
=
y
1
m
1
+y
2
m
2
+. . .
m
1
+m
2
+. . .
=
m
i
y
i
M
vi M =
m
i
(1.1)
1.1.2 nh ngha
Chuyn ng tnh tin ca mt vt rn l chuyn ng trong ng ni hai im bt k
ca vt lun lun song song vi chnh n.
1.1.3 Gia tc ca chuyn ng tnh tin
Trong chuyn ng tnh tin tt c cc im ca vt u chuyn ng nh nhau. Ngha l
n c cng mt gia tc.V vy ta c th coi vt nh mt cht im v p dng nh lut II
Newton tnh gia tc ca vt.
a =
F
m
hay

F = m
a (1.2)
Trong

F =

F
1
+
F
2
+ . . . l hp lc tc dng vo vt rn, cn m l khi lng ca
vt.Trong trng hp vt chuyn ng tnh tin thng, ta nn chn h trc ta Ox cng
hng vi chuyn ng, ri chiu phng trnh vect

F = m
a ln trc ta .
Ox: F
1x
+F
2x
+ = ma (1.3)
Trong nhiu trng hp phng trnh (1.3) khng tnh gia tc a . Khi y cn thm
mt phng trnh na bng cch chiu phng trnh vect

F = m
a ln trc Oy .
Oy: F
1y
+F
2y
+ = 0 (1.4)
1.1.4 ng nng ca vt rn chuyn ng tnh tin
Khi tm ca vt rn chuyn ng nh mt cht im mang khi lng ca c vt v chu
tc dng c tng vector cc ngoi lc tc dng vo n.
W
tt
=
Mv
2
G
2
(1.5)
1.2 Chuyn ng quay ca vt rn quanh mt trc. Gia tc gc
1.2.1 c im ca chuyn ng quay. Tc gc
Khi mt vt rn quay quanh mt trc c nh, th mi im ca vt u quay c cng
mt gc trong cng mt khong thi gian. Trong khong thi gian t nh nhau, th cc
im qut mt gc l nh nhau. Tc gc trung bnh:
tb
=

t
(1.6)
Tc gc tc thi:
=
d
dt

(1.7)
Vt quay u th = const, vt quanh nhanh dn th tng dn. Vt quay chm dn th
gim dn.
Kt lun: Vn tc gc tc thi ( vn tc gc) ca vt rn quay quanh mt trc
bng o hm bc nht theo thi gian ca ta gc ca vt rn.
1.2.2 Chuyn ng quay u
Khi vn tc gc ca vt rn khng i theo thi gian, ta bo chuyn ng quay ca vt vt
rn l u. Ta c phng trnh ca chuyn ng quay u:

0
= t vi
0
l ta gc lc t = 0 (1.8)
Trong h ta (, t) th phng trnh chuyn ng quay u l mt ng thng xin
gc vi h s gc l .
1.2.3 Gia tc ca chuyn ng quay
Gia tc trung bnh :
tb
=

2
1
t
2
t
1
=

t
(1.9)
Gia tc ca chuyn ng quay l i lng c trng cho s quay nhanh hay chm ca vt
rn. c xc nh l o hm bc nht theo thi gian ca vn tc gc.
=
d
dt
=
n v rad/s
2
(1.10)
Ly chiu quay ca vt lm chiu dng th:
+ nu > 0, tng: vt rn quay nhanh dn u;
+ nu < 0, gim: vt rn quay chm dn u;
1.2.4 Chuyn ng quay bin i u
T (1.9), ta c:
=
0
+t (1.11)
Phng trnh chuyn ng quay bin i u ca vt rn quanh mt trc c nh:
=
0
+
0
t +
1
2
t
2
(1.12)
Ch : chng ta cng c phng trnh:
2
0
= 2(
0
) (1.13)
1.2.5 Vn tc v gia tc ca cc im trn vt rn quay
Ta bit, vn tc ca mt im chuyn ng trn qu o trn c bn knh r:
v = r (1.14)
Nu vt rn quay u th mi im trn vt rn chuyn ng trn u. Khi vector vn
tc v ca mi im ch thay i v hng m khng thay i v ln, do mi im ca
vt c gia tc hng tm vi ln xc nh:
a
n
=
v
2
r
=
2
r (1.15)
Nu vt rn quay khng u th mi im ca vt rn cng chuyn ng trn khng u.
Khi v thay i c phng v ln, trong trng hp ny,a c chia thnh hai thnh
phn:
Thnh phn a
n
v: t trng cho s thay i v phng ca v:
a
n
=
v
2
r
=
2
r (1.16)
Thnh phn a
t
v: t trng cho s thay i ln ca v
a
t
=
dv
dt
= r
= (r)
= r. (1.17)
Ta c:
a =a
n
+a
t
(1.18)
ln:
a =
_
a
2
n
+a
2
t
tan =
a
t
a
n
=

2
(1.19)
1.3 Phng trnh c bn ca chuyn ng quay ca vt rn quanh
mt trc. Momen qun tnh ca vt rn hnh tr trn v hnh
cu i vi trc ca n
1.3.1 Momen ca lc. Mc qun tnh trong chuyn ng quay
a. Momen ca lc
Gi s tc dng vo vt rn mt lc

F ti mt im M nm trong mt phng cha
im M. Ta c th phn tch lc

F thnh hai thnh phn F
n
v F
t
. Thnh phn lc xuyn
tm F
n
khng c tc dng lm quay vt rn, n b kh bi phn lc ca trc. Thnh phn
tip tuyn F
t
c tc dng lm quay. Gi R l bn knh ca ng trn.
Momen ca lc F i vi trc quay l tch ca thnh phn tip tuyn vi
bn knh ca im t
M= F
t
R (1.20)
Du + nu F
t
c xu hng lm vt quay theo chiu dng; Du nu
F
t
c xu hng lm vt quay theo chiu m.
b. Mc qun tnh trong chuyn ng quay
Trong chuyn ng quay quanh mt trc, mi vt cng c mc qun tnh nh trong
chuyn ng tnh tin. Khi tc dng cng mt mmen lc nn cc vt khc nhau, tc
gc ca vt no tng chm hn th vt c mc qun tnh ln hn v ngc li.
Cc th nghim cho thy:
Mc qun tnh ca mt vt quay quanh mt trc ph thuc vo khi lng ca vt
v vo s phn b khi lng i vi trc quay, khi lng ca vt cng ln v c phn
b cng xa trc quay th mmen qun tnh cng ln v ngc li.
Th nghim cn cho thy khi mt vt ang quay l ch mt mmen cn th vt quay
chm li. Vt no c mc qun tnh ln hn th tc gc ca vt gim chm hn v
ngc li.
1.3.2 Phng trnh c bn ca chuyn ng quay ca vt rn quanh mt trc
iu kin cn bng ca vt rn c trc quay l:
M= 0 (1.21)
Nu tng momen ca vt rn bng 0 th vt rn ng yn hoc quay u. iu ny gi l
qun tnh quay ca vt rn. Gi I l momen qun tnh ca vt rn.
Gia tc gc ca vt rn quay quanh mt trc t l vi momen lc tc dng ln vt rn v t
l ngc vi momen qun tnh ca vt.
Phng trnh c bn ca chuyn ng quay ca vt rn quanh mt trc
=
M
I
hay M= I (1.22)
1.3.3 Momen qun tnh ca vt rn hnh tr trn v hnh cu i vi trc ca
n
a. nh ngha
Momen qun tnh ca mt cht im c khi lng m
i
chuyn ng trn ng trn
c bn knh R
i
l tch ca khi lng v bnh phng bn knh.
I
i
= m
i
R
2
i
(1.23)
Momen qun tnh I ca vt rn quay quanh mt trc l tng cc momen qun tnh ca cc
im ca n.
I =
i
m
i
R
2
i
(1.24)
Momen qun tnh l i lng v hng dng v c tnh cht cng c. n v ca momen
qun tnh l kg.m
2
.
Momen qun tnh ca vt rn ph thuc vo s phn b cc phn ca vt i vi
trc quay. Vt c nhiu phn cng nng v nht l cng xa trc quay th momen qun qun
tnh cng ln.
b. Momen qun tnh ca mt s vt ng cht
Nu vt l mt vnh trn c bn knh R, b dy nh, th c th chia vnh thnh cc
phn rt nh c khi lng m, tt c u khong cch R so vi trc z ca vnh.
*Momen qun tnh ca vnh:
I =
i
m
i
R
2
= R
2
i
m
i
= MR
2
M: Khi lng ca vnh (1.25)
Kt qu ny cng p dng cho thnh bn mng ca mt hnh tr rng.
* a trn bn knh R: Php tnh tch phn cho chng ta thy, momen qun tnh ca
a trn bn knh R, khi lng M c dng:
I =
1
2
MR
2
(1.26)
Kt qu ny cng p dng hnh tr c c bn knh R, khi lng M.
* Thanh c tit din nh, chiu di l, khi lng M: Momen qun tnh i vi ng
trung trc:
I =
1
12
Ml
2
(1.27)
* Thanh c tit din nh, chiu di l, khi lng M: Momen qun tnh i vi trc
i qua mt u thanh:
I =
1
3
Ml
2
(1.28)
* Hnh cu c c bn knh R, khi lng M: Momen qun tnh i vi ng knh:
I =
2
5
MR
2
(1.29)
Ch : Cc cng thc trn ch p dng cho vt ng cht.
1.4 Momen ng lng. nh lut bo ton momen ng lng
1.4.1 Momen ng lng
Phng trnh (1.22) c th vit li di dng khc nu bin i v phi:
I = I
d
dt
=
d(I)
dt
v: I l hng s
Ta i tm hiu ngha vt l ca i lng L = I =
m
i
v
2
i
.. i vi mi cht im i,
ta c: =
v
i
R
i
, v
i
l vn tc di ca cht im. Vy:
L =
m
i
v
2
i
v
i
R
i
=
R
i
m
i
v
i
vi

L
i
= m
i
v
i
l vector ng lng ca cht im. Vy:
L
i
= R
i
p
i
(1.30)
(1.30) l momen ng lng ca cht im i vi trc quay.
L =
L
i
(1.31)
l tng momen ng lng ca cc cht im ca vt rn, gi l momen ng lng ca vt
rn i vi trc quay.
Phng trnh (1.22) c vit li:
M=
dL
dt
(1.32)
v gi l phng trnh cc momen ca vt rn quay v n cha momen lc v momen ng
lng. Vy: o hm theo thi gian ca momen ng lng ca vt rn quay quanh mt trc
bng tng momen cc lc tc dng ln vt.
1.4.2 nh lut bo ton momen ng lng
Nu M= 0 th (1.32) cho chng ta :
L = const (1.33)
ngha l momen ng lng c bo ton. chnh l nh lut bo ton momen ng
lng.
* i vi vn rn: V L = I m (I = const) nn ta c = const d gia tc
gc = 0.
Vy nu tng momen cc lc tc dng ln vt rn th vt rn ng yn hoc quay
u.
* Vt rn bin dng: nh lut bo ton momen ng lng vn ng i vi vt
rn bin dng. Nu tng momen cc ngoi lc tc dng ln vt bng 0 thi momen ng
lng ca vt c bo ton. Tc l I = const. Nu vt rn bin dng th I tng hoc
gim th gim hoc tng.
1.5 ng nng ca vt rn
1.5.1 ng nng ca vt rn quay quanh mt trc
Chia vt rn thnh nhiu im c khi lng m
i
v cch trc r
i
. Vn tc di ca cht im
v
i
= r
i
v c ng nng:
W
i
=
1
2
m
i
v
2
i
=

2
2
m
i
r
2
i
(1.34)
ng nng ca vt rn quay l:
W
W
i
=

2
2
m
i
r
2
i
=

2
I
2
(1.35)
Nh vy, t (1.37) ta thy momen qun tnh I ng vai tr nh khi lng ca vt rn.
nh l v bin thin vt rn chuyn ng quay:
A = W
(sau) W
(trc) =
1
2
I
2
2
1
2
I
2
1
(1.36)
1.5.2 ng nng ca vt rn chuyn ng phng
Trong chuyn ng phng th tt c cc im nm trn cng mt mt phng. Chuyn ng
phng ca vt rn c th chia lm hai chuyn ng.
+ Chuyn ng tnh tin ( hoc cong) ca khi tm G. ng nng ca chuyn ng
tnh tin ca khi tm G:
W
tt
=
Mv
2
G
2
+ Chuyn ng quay ca vt rn qua trc quay Gz vung gc vi mt phng cha
G. ng nng ca chuyn ng quay ca vt rn cho bi (1.37).
Vy ng nng ca chuyn ng phng:
W
=
Mv
2
G
2
+

2
I
2
(1.37)
Chng 2
DAO NG C HC
2.1 Dao ng tun hon v dao ng iu ha
2.1.1 Dao ng
Dao ng l chuyn ng c gii hn trong khng gian, lp i lp li nhiu ln quanh mt
v tr cn bng ( VTCB).
V d: Chuyn ng ca mt bng hoa quanh VTCB khi c gi thi qua, chuyn
ng ca con lc n, con lc l xo . . .
2.1.2 Dao ng tun hon
Dao dng tun hon l dao ng m trng thi chuyn ng ca vt c lp i lp li nh
c sau nhng khong thi gian bng nhau.
a. Chu k(T): L khong thi gian ngn nht m vt thc hin c mt dao ng.
Ch : Nu vt thc hin c n dao ng trong thi gian t th chu k dao ng
l:
T =
t
n
(2.1)
b. Tn s(f): L s ln dao ng m vt thc hin c trong mt giy.
Cng thc:
f =
1
T
(2.2)
n v ca tn s: Hz
Ch : Nu vt thc hin c n dao ng trong thi gian t th tn s l :
f =
n
t
(2.3)
2.1.3 Dao ng iu ha
L dao ng m li ca n bin thin theo nh lut hm sin (hay cosin) theo thi gian.
Phng trnh li c dng:
x = Acos(t +) (2.4)
Hay:
x = Asin(t +)
Trong :
_
_
x : li dao ng ca vt: v tr ca vt ti thi im t
A : bin , hay li dao ng cc i ca vt
: tn s gc ( rad/s)
: Pha ban u: xc nh trng thi dao ng ti thi im ban u
t + : Pha dao ng: xc nh trng thi dao ng ti thi im t
Chu k trong dao ng iu ha: hm sin l hm tun hon vi chu k l 2, do
t (2.4) ta vit li:
x(t) = Acos(t +) = Acos(t + 2 +) = Acos
_
(
2
+t) +
x(t +
2
)
Vy: chu k dao ng iu ha:
T =
2
(2.5)
2.1.4 Vn tc v gia tc trong dao ng iu ha
a. Vn tc trong dao ng iu ha : L o hm bc nht ca li theo thi gian
v =
dx
dt
x
T (2.4), ta c:
v = Asin(t +) (2.6)
b. Gia tc trong dao ng iu ha : L o hm bc nht ca vn tc theo thi gian
hay l o hm bc hai ca ta theo thi gian.
a =
dv
dt
=
d
2
x
dt
2
x
T (2.4), ta c:
a =
2
Acos(t +) =
2
.x (2.7)
Ch : Biu thc lin h gia gia tc, li , vn tc khng ph thuc vo thi gian:
x
2
A
2
+
v
2
2
A
2
= 1
v
2
2
A
2
+
a
2
4
A
2
= 1
(2.8)
Vn tc ca vt nng khi VTCB: (x = 0), T (2.6), ta c v
0max
= A
Vn tc v = 0 khi x = A ( hai bin)
2.1.5 Lin h gia dao ng iu ha vi chuyn ng trn u
Xt mt cht im chuyn ng trn u trn mt ng trn (O, R = A)
vi vn tc gc khng i.
Ti thi im t = 0, cht im M M
0
, xc nh bi = (
OC,
OM
0
).
Ti thi im t = 0, cht im M, xc nh bi = t +.
Chiu im M ln trc ta Ox ta c: x = Acos(t +)
Kt lun:Mt dao ng iu ho c th coi nh hnh chiu ca mt chuyn ng
trn du ln mt trc ta nm trong mt phng qu o.
*Pha dao ng: Gc = t + xc nh v tr ca im P ti thi im t gi l
pha dao ng. Pha dao ng xc nh trng thi dao ng ca mt dao ng iu ha.
*Pha ban u: Gc xc nh v tr ca im P ti thi im t = 0 gi l pha ban
du. Pha ban u xc nh trng thi dao ng ca mt dao ng iu ha ti thi im ban
u.
2.1.6 Dao ng t do
Bin v pha ban u ph thuc vo nhng iu kin ban u, tc l cch kch thch dao
ng v cch chn h ta khng gian v thi gian.
Dao ng m chu k ch ph thuc cc c tnh ca h, khng ph thuc vo cc yu
t bn ngoi c gi l dao ng t do. Mt h c kh nng thc hin dao ng t do c
gi l h dao ng. Sau khi c kch thch, h dao ng s t n thc hin dao ng theo
chu k ring ca n.
2.2 Dao ng ca con lc l xo
2.2.1 M t dao ng ca con lc l xo
Xt mt con lc l xo nm ngang gm mt l xo c cng k, khi lng khng ng k.
Mt u ca l xo c gn vo im c nh, u kia gn vo vt nng c khi lng m c
th chuyn ng khng ma st trn trc nm ngang.
Chn trc ta Ox nm ngang, gc ta VTCB, chiu dng l chiu
chuyn ng. Ko qu nng ra khi VTCB mt on nh A ri th ra khng
vn tc u. Lc n hi lm qu nng chuyn ng nhanh dn v pha VTCB,
qu nng tip tc chuyn ng qua O do qun tnh. Sau lc n hi lm
qu nng chuyn ng chm dn t O n lc dng li. Chuyn ng c
lp i lp li nhiu ln, tc l hn bi dao ng tun hon quanh VTCB O.
2.2.2 Phng trnh ng lc hc ca con lc l xo
Ti VTCB:

P +
N = 0
Ti v tr bt k: OM = x, ngoi cc lc cn bng ni trn, con lc l xo cn chu tc
dng thm lc n hi F = kx. Theo nh lut II Newton:
F = ma kx = mx hay x +
2
x = 0 (2.9)
Nghim ca (2.9) c dng: x = Acos(t +).
Trong :
=
_
k
m
(2.10)
Chu k ca dao ng iu ha con lc l xo:
T = 2
_
m
k
(2.11)
Tn s ca dao ng iu ha con lc l xo:
f =
1
2
_
k
m
(2.12)
Kt lun: Vy con lc l xo dao ng ng iu ha
2.2.3 Nng lng trong dao ng iu ha ca con lc l xo
a. S bin i nng lng trong qu trnh dao ng
Khi ko hn bi ra khi VTCB t O n B. Lc ko sinh cng lm l xo gin
ra, cng truyn cho hn bi di dng th nng. Lc n hi lc ny c gi tr cc i
v th nng n hi cng c gi tr cc i.
Khi lc ko ngng tc dng, l xo co li, lc n hi ko l xo v VTCB O, ng
nng ca qu nng tng dn, th nng n hi gim dn.
Khi VTCB, lc n hi bng 0 th nng n hi bng 0, ng nng cc i. Hn
bi tip tc chuyn ng qua VTCB do qu tnh, lc n hi xut hin theo chiu ngc li
do qu nng chuyn ng chm dn nn ng nng gim dn v th nng tng. Khi hn
bi n B
, ng nng bng 0 v th nng tng n gi tr cc i.

Qu trnh c tip tc khi i t B
v O v v B. Vy, trong qu trnh dao ng iu

ha ca con lc l xo, c s chuyn ha gia ng nng, th nng v ngc li.
b. S bo ton c nng trong dao ng iu ha
* Th nng n hi: E
t
=
1
2
kx
2
Thay (2.4) ta c:
E
t
=
1
2
kA
2
cos
2
(t +) = E
0t
cos
2
(t +) (2.13)
vi:E
0t
=
1
2
kA
2
l th nng n hi cc i.
Vy: th nng n hi ca con lc l xo l mt dao ng iu ha.
* ng nng : E
=
1
2
mv
2
Thay (2.6) ta c:
E
=
1
2
m
2
A
2
sin
2
(t +) = E
0
sin
2
(t +) (2.14)
vi:E
0
=
1
2
m
2
A
2
=
1
2
kA
2
l ng nng cc i.
Vy: ng nng ca con lc l xo l mt dao ng iu ha.
* C nng: l tng ng nng cng th nng: E = E
+E
t
. Thay (2.13), (2.14) vo
ta c:
E = E
+E
t
= E
0t
= E
0
=
1
2
kA
2
=
1
2
m
2
A
2
(2.15)
Vy, trong qu trnh dao ng iu ha ca con lc l xo, ng nng v th nng ca con
lc l nhng dao ng iu ha cng tn s, nhng tng ca chng tc l c nng th khng
i, t l vi bnh phng bin dao ng.
Ch :
+ C nng ca con lc l xo ph thuc vo cch kch thch ban u.
+ ng nng v th nng l mt dao ng iu ha cng tn s f
= 2f, cng
chu k T
=
T
2
.
2.3 lch pha ca hai dao ng, phng php ging Frexnen
2.3.1 lch pha ca hai dao ng
Cho hai dao ng iu ha cng tn s:
x
1
= A
1
cos(t +
1
)
x
2
= A
2
cos(t +
2
)
lch pha ca x
2
so vi x
1
l:
= (t +
2
) (t +
1
) =
2
1
(2.16)
Nu: > 0 th x
2
nhanh pha hn so vi x
1
.
Nu: < 0 th x
2
chm pha hn so vi x
1
.
Nu: = 0 hay = 2k, k Z th x
1
, x
2
dao ng cng pha.
Nu: = hay = (2k + 1), k Z th x
1
, x
2
dao ng ngc pha.
H qu: Trong dao ng iu ha: li v vn tc lun lch pha

2
; li v gia tc
lun ngc pha nhau.
2.3.2 Phng php gin Frexnen, tng hp hai dao ng iu ha
a. Phng php vector quay
Cho dao ng iu ha: x = Acos(t +). Biu din dao ng iu ha
trn bng mt vector quay.
x
A
_
_
_
ln: A
A) =
(2.17)
Vi

A quay trong mt phng mt vn tc gc khng i. Nu > 0 th

A c
v trn trc . Nu < 0 th

A c v di trc .
b. Tng hp hai dao ng iu ha bng phng php ging vector quay
Cho hai dao ng iu ha cng tn s:
x
1
= A
1
cos(t +
1
)
x
2
= A
2
cos(t +
2
)
Dng phng php ging vector quay ta thy: tng hp hai dao ng iu ha cng tn
s l mt dao ng iu ha cng tn s.
Ta c:
x = x
1
+x
2

A =
A
1
+
A
2
(2.18)
Phng trnh dao ng tng hp c dng: x = Acos(t +).
Chiu (2.18) ln Ox v , chng ta c:
tan =
A
1
sin
1
+A
2
sin
2
A
1
cos
1
+A
2
cos
2
(2.19)
T gin , ta c:
A =
_
A
2
1
+A
2
2
+ 2A
1
A
2
cos (2.20)
H qu:
+ Nu = 2k th t (2.20): A
max
= A
1
+A
2
+ Nu = (2k + 1) th t (2.20): A
min
= |A
1
A
2
|
Kt lun:Khi hai dao ng cng pha, bin dao ng tng hp t gi tr cc i.
Khi hai dao ng ngc pha th bin dao ng tng hp t gi tr cc tiu.
Bin dao ng tng hp lun tha mn h thc:
|A
1
A
2
| A A
1
+A
2
(2.21)
2.4 Dao ng iu ha ca con lc n
2.4.1 M t dao ng ca con lc n
Xt mt con lc n gm mt si dy c chiu di l khng gin, mt u gn
vo mt im c nh, u kia treo vo vt nng c khi lng m t trong
trng trng. Ko vt ra kh VTCB ri th ra khng vn tc u. Thnh
phn tip tuyn ca trng lc lm qu nng chuyn ng nhanh dn t B v
VTCB O. Qu nng tip tc chuyn ng qua O do qun tnh, sau chuyn
ng chm dn t O v bin B
. Qu trnh c tip tc nh vy to nn dao

ng tun hon ca con lc n.
2.4.2 Phng trnh ng lc hc ca con lc n
Theo nh lut II Newton:

P +
T = m
a (). Chiu phng trnh () ln trc xx
ta
c:
a = g sin
Nu ta xem dao ng ca con lc n l dao ng b ( 10
0
), lc : sin =
s
l
, do
ta c phng trnh:
s =
g
l
s hay s +
2
s = 0 (2.22)
Vi
=
_
g
l
(2.23)
Nghim ca phng trnh (2.22) c dng: s = s
0
cos(t +) hay =
0
cos(t +).
Chu k ca dao ng iu ha con n:
T = 2
l
g
(2.24)
Tn s ca dao ng iu ha con lc n:
f =
1
2
_
g
l
(2.25)
Kt lun: Trong nhng dao ng b, con lc n dao ng iu ha.
2.4.3 Nng lng trong dao ng iu ha ca con lc n
a. Kho st nh tnh
Ko con lc t VTCB ra bin B, lc ko sinh cng lm qu nng ln n cao h
so vi VTCB ( mc th nng), cng c truyn cho qu nng di dng th nng trng
trng: E
t
= mgh.
Th hn bi dao ng, ta thy:
Ti B: h = h
max
nn E
t
= E
tmax
v lc hn bi dng li nn ng nng bng 0.
Xt hn bi chuyn ng t B v O: thnh phn tip tuyn ca trng lc

P ko hn
bi chuyn ng nhanh dn v O: h gim dn nn th nng gim dn trong khi vn tc
tc tng do ng nng tng.
Xt ti O: h = 0 nn th nng bng 0, ng nng t gi tr cc i.
Xt hn bi chuyn ng t O v B
: Do qun tnh nn hn bi chuyn ng qua O,

thnh phn tip tuyn ca trng lc

P lm hn bi chuyn ng chm dn t O v B
, do
vn tc gim dn nn ng nng gim dn, trong khi h tng nn th nng gim.
Ti B
: thnh phn tip tuyn ca trng lc

P t gi tr cc i nn vn tc v = 0
do ng nng bng 0, th nng t gi tr cc i.
Vy: qu trnh dao ng ca con lc n lun c s chuyn ha qua li gia ng
nng v th nng.
b. Kho st nh lng
C nng ca con lc n:
E = E
tmax
= mgh = mgl(1 cos
0
)
V dao ng ca con lc l dao ng b nn: cos
0
= 1

2
0
2
. Do :
E =
1
2
mgl
2
0
=
1
2
m
2
s
2
0
(2.26)
Vy, c nng ca con lc n bo ton, t l vi bnh phng bin dao ng.
2.5 Con lc vt l
2.5.1 nh ngha
Con lc vt l l mt vt rn quay c quanh mt trc nm ngang c nh ( khng i qua
trng tm G).
Ta gi:
_
_
G : Trng tm ca con lc
O : Giao im ca trc quay vi mt phng ng qua G
m : Khi lng ca con lc
d = OG: khong cch t trc quay n trng tm
I : Momen qun tnh ca con lc i vi trc quay
2.5.2 Phng trnh ng lc hc ca con lc vt l
V tr bt k ca con lc vt l c xc nh bi gc

(G
0
OG) = . Cc lc tc dng ln
con lc vt l gm: trng lc

P t G v phn lc

R ca trc quay t ti O.
Ta c momen cc lc i vi trc O ln lt l:
M
R/O
= 0 (V cnh tay n bng 0)
M
P /O
= P.OK = mg.HG = mg.d sin (2.27)
Du () v

P c xu hng lm vt quay theo chiu ngc vi .
Theo phng trnh c bn ca chuyn ng quay ca vt rn M = I, hay ta c phng
trnh:
I
= mgd. sin hay
+
mgd
I
sin (2.28)
Nu xt dao ng ca con lc vt l l dao ng b th sin ta c:
+
2
trong =
_
mgd
I
(2.29)
Nghim ca (2.29) c dng
=
0
cos(t +) (2.30)
Vy: trong nhng dao ng b, con lc vt l dao ng iu ha.
* Chu k:
T = 2
I
mgd
(2.31)
* Tn s:
f =
1
2
_
mgd
I
(2.32)
2.6 Dao ng tt dn, dao ng cng bc, cng hng c hc
2.6.1 Dao ng tt dn
a. nh ngha:Dao ng tt dn l dao ng c bin gim dn theo thi gian.
b. Nguyn nhn: Trong thc t, tt c cc vt u dao ng trong mt mi trng c ma
st. Do phi thng c cng ca lc ma st nn nng lng ca dao ng gim dn do
bin gim dn, cui cng dng li bng 0. Dao ng l dao ng tt dn.
Lc ma st cng ln th dao ng tt dn cng nhanh. Khi mt con lc l xo dao
ng trong khng kh, sc cn ca khng kh lm cho n dao ng tt dn. Nhng sc cn
l nh nn trong thi gian v cng b ta c th xem nh l dao ng iu ha.
c. Duy tr dao ng: dao ng khng tt dn th v nguyn tt ta phi cung cp cho
h mt nng lng b vo phn nng lng b tiu hao.
2.6.2 Dao ng cng bc
a. nh ngha: Dao ng cng bc l dao ng di tc dng ca ngoi lc bin thin
tun hon.
F
n
= cos(t +) (2.33)
b. c im:
Trong thi gian u ngn t dao ng ca h l mt dao ng phc tp: l s
tng hp ca dao ng ring vi tn s f
0
v dao ng do ngoi lc gy ra.
Khi dao ng n nh th h dao ng vi tn s ca ngoi lc. Bin ph thuc
vo s chnh lch gia tn s ca ngoi lc cng bc v tn s dao ng ring ca h.
2.6.3 Cng hng c hc
a. nh ngha: S cng hng l hin tng bin dao ng cng bc tng nhanh n
gi tr cc i khi tn s ca lc cng bc bng tn s ca h dao ng.
b. c im: Bin cc i ph thuc vo lc cn ca mi trng: lc cn ca mi
trng cng nh th bin dao ng cc i cng ln, ni cch khc s cng hng th
hin r nht khi lc cn ca mi trng l khng ng k.
Chng 3
SNG C HC. M HC
3.1 Hin tng sng trong c hc
3.1.1 nh ngha
Sng c hc l nhng dao ng n hi lan truyn trong mi trng vt cht theo thi gian.
l s truyn pha dao ng cn bn thn cc phn t vt cht ch dao ng quanh v tr
cn bng.
3.1.2 Phn loi
a. Sng ngang: L sng c phng dao ng vung gc vi phng truyn sng.
V d: sng ca si dy cao su, sng trn mt nc ( sng nc) . . .
b. Sng dc: L sng c phng dao ng trng vi phng truyn sng.
V d: sng m. . .
3.1.3 Nhng i lng c trng ca sng
a. Vn tc truyn sng
L vn tc truyn pha dao ng ca mi trng m ta xt. Vn tc truyn sng l
mt c trng quan trng ca sng, vn tc truyn ph thuc vo mi trng truyn sng.
V =
dx
dt
(3.1)
V d: Vn tc truyn m trong khng kh v = 331m/s; vn tc truyn m trong nc
v = 1435m/s.
b. Chu k ca sng (T), tn s (f)
Chu k sng l chu k dao ng ca cc phn t vt cht khi sng truyn qua, bng
chu k ca ngun sng.
Tn s ca sng l i lng nghch o ca chu k sng:
f =
1
T
(3.2)
c. Bc sng ()
Bc sng l on ng sng i c trong mt chu k
= V.T =
V
f
(3.3)
Hay: Bc sng l khong cch gia hai im dao ng cng pha lin tip trn cng mt
phng truyn sng.
d. Bin sng
Khi sng truyn qua mt im th lm cho phn t vt cht ti im cng dao
ng. Bin dao ng cng ln th sng cng mnh.
Bin l c trng sng ti im ta xt:
+ Khi sng lan truyn cng xa ngun, bin cng gim;
+ Khi sng truyn ti, mt phn t vt cht ti dao ng. Vy qu trnh
truyn sng l qu trnh truyn nng lng.
Ch : Qu trnh truyn sng cng chnh l qu trnh truyn pha.
Theo hnh v ta thy: pha ca dao ng truyn t ngun dao ng A ti B ti C
v ti D ri ti E. . . sau nhng khong thi gian
T
4
.
Sau mt thi gian l chu k dao ng, pha dao ng truyn t A n E, do , trn
hnh v ta thy A v E dao ng cng pha. Khong cch gia chng l mt bc sng .
3.1.4 Phng trnh truyn sng
a. Phng trnh truyn sng
Ta xt sng truyn theo mt ng thng, b qua mt mt nng lng.
Gi s dao ng sng ti O c dng: u
o
= a cos t.
Thi gian sng truyn t O n M (OM = x) l: t
0
=
x
v
.Vy: u
M
(t) = u
o
(t
x
v
)
Phng trnh sng ti M c dng:
u
M
(t) = a cos
_
(t
x
v
)
_
hay:
u
M
(t, x) = a cos
_
t
2x
_
(3.4)
Vy: sng ti M lun tr pha l
2
x so vi sng ti O. Biu thc (3.4) cho chng ta thy,

qu trnh truyn sng l qu trnh truyn theo khng gian (x) v thi gian (t).
b. Tnh tun hon ca sng theo khng gian v thi gian
* Tnh tun hon theo thi gian: OM = x
0
, cho chng ta thy s dao ng ca mt
im M nht nh, t (3.4)
u
M
(t, x
0
) = a cos
_
t
2x
0
_
iu kin t
d
v
(3.5)
Chu k truyn sng theo thi gian:
T =
2
(3.6)
* Tnh tun hon theo khng gian: t = t
0
= const, cho ta bit s dao ng ca ton
b si dy cao su thi im t
0
nht nh ( dng ca mi trng), t (3.4)
u
M
(t
0
, x) = a cos
_
t
0
2x
_
iu kin x v.t
0
(3.7)
Hnh nh sng nc
Ta c:
u
M
(t
0
, x) = a cos
_
t
0
2
2x
_
= a cos
_
t
0
_
x +
_
_
Vy: Chu k theo khng gian l bc sng .
c. lch pha gia hai im trn phng truyn sng
* lch pha ca hai sng ti mt im hai thi im khc nhau:
= (t
2
t
1
) = t (3.8)
* lch pha ca sng ti hai im cch nhau on d:
=
2
(x
2
x
1
) =
2
d (3.9)
3.2 Hin tng giao thoa sng
3.2.1 Th nghim
Gn hai qu cu nh S
1
v S
2
trn mt nhnh hnh ch U c cn gn vo mt m thoa ( c
tn s f) sau cho chm nh vo mt nc. Khi cho m thoa rung, hai qu cu S
1
v S
2
dao ng, kt qu trn mt nc xut hin:
+ C nhng im dao ng vi bin cc i, chng to thnh cc ng lin
tc c dng l Hypecbol.
+ C nhng im dao ng vi bin cc tiu, chng to thnh cc ng
lin tc c dng l Hypecbol xen k vi cc ng dao ng cc i.
3.2.2 nh ngha lch pha. Gii thch hin tng giao thoa sng
a. lch pha
L i lng c trng cho s khc nhau v trng thi gia hai dao ng cng chu
k v c xc nh bng hiu s:
=
2
1
b. Gii thch hin tng giao thoa
Xt mt im M trn min giao thoa (MS
1
= d
1
; MS
2
= d
2
). Gi s
phng trnh dao ng ti S
1
v S
2
u c dng u = a cos t. im M
ny cng mt lc nhn ng thi hai sng, sng t S
1
v M v sng t
S
2
v M.
Sng t S
1
v M: ti M sng tr pha l
2
d
1
so vi S
1
.
Sng t S
2
2
d
2
so vi S
2
.
lch pha ca hai sng l:
Xt mt im M trn min giao thoa (MS
1
= d
1
; MS
2
= d
2
). Gi s phng trnh
dao ng ti S
1
v S
2
u c dng u = a sin t. im M ny cng mt lc nhn ng thi
hai sng, sng t S
1
v M v sng t S
2
v M.
Sng t S
1
2
d
1
so vi S
1
.
Sng t S
2
2
d
2
so vi S
2
.
lch pha ca hai sng l:
=
2
(d
2
d
1
) =
2
vi hiu ng i ca sng = d
2
d
1
(3.10)
M dao ng vi bin cc i khi hai sng ti M phi dao ng cng pha:
= 2k. Vy, t (3.10) ta c:
= d
2
d
1
= k (3.11)
Vy: tp hp nhng im M dao ng vi bin cc i l h ng cong Hypebol,
nhn hai im S
1
v S
2
lm hai tiu im ( k c ng trung trc ca S
1
S
2
).
M dao ng vi bin cc tiu khi hai sng ti M phi dao ng ngc pha:
= (2k + 1). Vy, t (3.10) ta c:
= d
2
d
1
=
_
k +
1
2
_
(3.12)
Vy: tp hp nhng im M dao ng vi bin cc tiu l h ng cong Hypebol,
nhn hai im S
1
v S
2
lm hai tiu im xen k vi h ng cong cc i.
c. nh ngha giao thoa
Giao thoa l s gp nhau hai hay nhiu sng kt hp trong khng gian, trong c
nhng ch c nh m bin sng c tng cng hay gim bt.
3.2.3 iu kin c hin tng giao thoa sng
iu kin c hin tng giao thoa l hai sng gp nhau phi l sng kt hp, ngha l
pht ra t hai ngun kt hp.
Hai ngun kt hp l hai ngun c cng tn s v lch pha khng i theo thi gian.
3.3 Sng dng
3.3.1 Th nghim
Ta dng mt si dy n hi AC, u A cm tau, u C buc vo im c nh. Khi thay
i tn s rung u A cho ti khi si dy c hnh dng c nh:
C nhng im ca si dy khng dao ng, cc im ny cch u nhau gi l nt,
khong cch gia hai nt lin tip gi l mi sng, chiu di ca mi sng l

2
.
Cc im khc nhau u dao ng, im gia hai nt dao ng vi bin cc i
gi l bng.
Vy:Sng dng l sng c cc im nt v im bng c nh trong khng gian.
3.3.2 Gii thch
Dao ng t A truyn trn dy cao su n C, ti C c sng phn x sinh ra v truyn ngc
li. Mi im M trn si dy cao su s nhn c ng thi hai dao ng. Dao ng t im
A ti M v dao ng phn x t C n M. Hai dao ng ny l kt hp, chng giao thoa
vi nhau. Kt qu trn si dy c nhng im dao ng vi bin cc i gi l bng sng
v nhng im dao ng vi bin cc tiu gi l nt sng.
u C ng yn nn l mt nt.
u A dao ng nhng bin nh so vi bng, c th xem nh gn ng l nt.
Tm li: sng dng l s giao thoa ca hai sng c bin bng nhau, c phng
truyn ngc nhau. Kt qu, trn phng truyn xut hin nhng im bng v im nt.
3.3.3 iu kin c sng dng
a. i vi dy c hai u c nh
Hai u c nh c xem nh l hai nt sng, iu kin c sng dng l chiu
di ca si dy bng mt s nguyn ln mi sng.
l = k
2
vi k = 1, 2 . . . (3.13)
b. Mt u t do, mt u c nh
u c nh c xem nh l nt sng, u t do c xem nh l bng sng, iu
kin c sng dng l chiu di ca si dy bng mt s bn nguyn ln mi sng.
l =
_
k +
1
2
_
2
vi k = 0, 1, 2 . . . (3.14)
Hay:
l = m
4
vi m = 1, 3, 5 . . . (3.15)
Hin tng sng dng cho php chng ta o c bc sng v bng cch xc nh bc sng
v tn s f.
3.4 Sng m
3.4.1 Dao ng m v sng m
a. Dao ng m: Tai con ngi ch cm th c nhng dao ng c tn s trong khong
t 16Hz 20000Hz. Nhng dao ng trong min tn s c gi l dao ng m.
b. Sng m: Nhng sng dc truyn trong mi trng vt cht n hi c min tn s ni
trn gi l sng m.
Sng m c tn s ln hn 20000Hz gi l siu m; Sng m c tn s nh hn 16Hz
gi l h m.
m thanh c chia lm hai loi: nhc m v ting n; Nhc m c tn s xc nh.
Sng m truyn c trong mi mi trng vt cht tr mi trng chn khng.
3.4.2 Mi trng truyn m
Ta xt s truyn m trong khng kh:
Khi cha c m truyn qua, khng kh quanh im M c p sut l p
0
. Khi m truyn
qua th khng kh s b dao ng theo phng truyn gy ra bin thin p sut p quanh
im M, do p sut ti im M l p
0
+p. Tai con ngi c th cm nhn c bin
thin p sut nh p = 10
5
Pa ( ng vi tn s 3000Hz 4000Hz)
Vy: Sng m l s lan truyn bin thin p sut trong mi trng n hi.
i vi cht rn v cht lng, c th truyn m nh trong khng kh.
Vn tc m ph thuc vo tnh n hi v mt ca mi trng, nhit ca mi
trng . Ni chung vn tc m trong cht rn ln hn vn tc m trong cht lng ln hn
vn tc m trong khng kh.
3.4.3 Nhng c trng sinh l ca m
m to cho chng ta cc cm gic, nh ta nhn bit c cc c trng ca sng m:
Cc c trng sinh l ca m: cao, m sc v to ca m; Cc c trng vt l:
tn s, cng m v bin ca m.
a. cao ca m:
Nhng m c tn s khc nhau gy cho ta cm gic m khc nhau. m cao ( thanh)
c tn s ln; m thp ( trm) c tn s b.
cao ca m l c trng sinh l ca m n da vo c tnh vt l l tn s.
b. m sc:
Mi ngi, mi nhc c pht ra vi sc thi khc nhau, c tnh c gi l m
sc.
m sc l c trng sinh l ca m, n da vo c tnh vt l l tn s v bin .
Thc nghim chng t rng: mi nhc c hoc mt ngi pht ra
m c tn s f
1
th cng ng thi pht ra m c tn s f
2
=
2f
1
; f
3
= 3f
1
. . . . m c tn s f
1
gi l m c bn, m c tn s
f
2
, f
3
. . . gi l ha m. Ty theo cu trc ca thanh qung, ha
m c bin khc nhau.
Vy: m pht ra l s tng hp ca m c bn v cc ha m, n
c tn s f
1
ca m c bn, nhng ng biu din ca n khng
phi l ng sin m l mt ng phc tp c tnh tun hon.
Mt dng ng biu din ng vi mt m sc nht nh.
c. to ca m:
to ca m l c trng sinh l ca m. N ph thuc trc ht vo cng m.
Cng m: l lng nng lng c sng m truyn qua trong mt n v
thi gian qua mt n v din tch t vung gc vi phng truyn m.( n v W/m
2
)
I =
P
S
(3.16)
Mc cng m L l loga thp phn ca t s
I
I
0
gia cng m I ca m ang xt v
I
0
chn lm chun.
L = lg
I
I
0
n v l: B (3.17)
hay
L = 10 lg
I
I
0
n v l: dB (3.18)
S ph thuc to vo tn s ca m
Mun gy cm gic m, cng m phi ln hn mt gi tr cc tiu no gi
l ngng nghe. Tuy nhin do c tnh sinh l ca tai ngi m ngng nghe thay i ty
theo tn s ca m. Do , to ca m ph thuc vo tn s ca m.
Tai ngi thnh nht i vi cc m trong min 1000Hz 5000Hz v nghe m cao
thnh hn m trm.
Nu cng m ln ti I = 10W/m
2
th i vi mi tn s, sng m gy ra cm
gic nhc nhi. Gi tr gi l ngng au.
Min nm gia ngng nghe v ngng au gi l min nghe c.
3.5 Hiu ng p-ple
3.5.1 Th nghim
Mt ngi but mt ngun m nh vo u si dy mm, gi c nh u kia v cho ngun
m chuyn ng. Ngi th hai ng quan st th thy m c tn s thay i.
Kt lun: S thay i tn s m khi c s chuyn ng tng i ca ngun m v
my thu gi l hiu ng Dopple
3.5.2 Gii thch hin tng
a. Ngun m ng yn, ngi quan st chuyn ng
Gi v
M
l vn tc chuyn ng ca my thu so vi ngun m, v l tc truyn sng m
vi tn s f.
Khi my thu chuyn ng gn ngun m, th tn s m m my thu c l:
f
=
v +v
M
v
f (3.19)
Khi my thu chuyn ng ra xa ngun m, th tn s m m my thu c l:
f
=
v v
M
v
f (3.20)
b. Ngun m chuyn ng, ngi quan st ng yn
Gi v
S
l vn tc chuyn ng ca ngun m so vi my thu, v l tc truyn sng m
vi tn s f.
Khi ngun m chuyn ng li gn my thu, th tn s m m my thu c l:
f
=
v
v v
S
f (3.21)
Khi ngun m chuyn ng ra xa my thu, th tn s m m my thu c l:
f
=
v
v +v
S
f (3.22)
Chng 4
DNG IN XOAY CHIU
4.1 Nguyn tc to ra dng in xoay chiu
4.1.1 Cch to ra dng in xoay chiu
Cho mt khung dy kim loi din tch S, c N vng dy quay quanh trc i xng xx
vi
vn tc gc khng i trong t trng u

B.
Ti thi im t = 0, t thng qua khung dy:
0
= NBS
Ti thi im t = 0 t thng qua khung dy:
(t) = NBS cos = NBS cos t (4.1)
Sut in ng cm ng qua khung dy: e(t) =
d
dt
, t (4.36) ta c:
e(t) = NBS sin t = E
0
sin t vi E
0
= NBS : sut in ng cc i (4.2)
Kt lun:
Sut in ng trong khung dy l mt sut in ng bin thin
iu ha theo thi gian.
Nu ni hai u khung dy vi mt mch ngoi th trong mch c
dng in bin thin iu ha, gi l dng in xoay chiu. ( Dng
in i chiu hai ln trong mt chu k).
4.1.2 Hiu in th v cng dng in xoay chiu
a. Hiu in th xoay chiu
V sut in ng bin thin iu ha nn hiu in th hai u on mch cng
bin thin iu ha. Phng trnh hiu in th c dng:
u = U
0
cos(t)(V ) (4.3)
b. Cng dng in xoay chiu
Nu ta ni vo hai u mch ngoi mt ti tiu th in nng th cng dng
in qua ti c cng l mt dao ng iu ha. Phng trnh dng in c dng:
i = I
0
cos(t +)(A) (4.4)
V in trng truyn trong dy dn c vn tc gn bng vn tc nh sng, nn vi on
mch khng di lm v dng in c tn s khng ln lm th i coi nh c cng gi tr tc
thi ti mi im.
4.1.3 Hiu in th v cng dng in hiu dng
Cho dng in xoay chiu i = I
o
cos t chy qua in tr thun R trong thi gian t kh di
v o nhit lng Q ta ra trn in tr R, ngi ta thy:
Q = R
I
2
0
2
t (4.5)
Nu c mt dng in khng i I sao cho chy qua R trong khong thi gian t nh trn
n cng ta ra nhit lng nh trn th:
Q = RI
2
t (4.6)
So snh (4.5) v (4.6) ta c:
I =
I
0
2
(4.7)
Vy: Cng dng in hiu dng I ca cng dng in xoay chiu bng cng
ca dng in khng i m nu ta cho chng ln lt qua cng mt in tr thun R trong
khong thi gian nh nhau th ta ra nhit lng l bng nhau:
Tng t ta c hiu in th v sut in ng hiu dng:
U =
U
0
2
; E =
E
0
2
(4.8)
4.1.4 L do s dng gi tr hiu in th v cng dng in hiu dng
i vi dng in xoay chiu ta khng th dng ampe k hay vol k c khung dy o
c, v mi khi dng in i chiu th chiu quay ca kim quay cng thay i, do qun
tnh ln ca kim khng theo kp s i chiu nhanh ca dng in nn kim ng yn.
V vy: mun o nhng i lng c trng cho dng in xoay chiu ta phi da
trn tc dng no khng ph thuc vo chiu ca dng in m cng gy ra nhng kt qu
nh dng in khng i, l tc dng nhit ca dng in.
Da vo nguyn tc trn ngi ta ch to cc my o dng cho dng in xoay chiu
l ampe nhit, volke nhit. S o ca chng ch gi tr hiu dng ca cng v hiu
in th.
4.2 nh lut Ohm
4.2.1 nh lut Ohm cho on mch cha in tr thun R
a. Mi quan h gia u v i
Gi s hai u on mch c hiu in th:
u
R
= U
0R
cos t (4.9)
Xt trong khong thi gian v cng b, ta c th xem nh dng in l khng i,
p dng nh lut Ohm cho on mch cha in tr R: i =
u
R
R
, vy:
i = I
0
cos t (4.10)
Vy: Hiu in th tc thi hai u on mch cha in tr thun R lun cng pha vi
cng dng in tc thi.
b. Gin vector
c. nh lut Ohm
Trong :
I
0
=
U
0R
R
hay I =
U
R
R
(4.11)
4.2.2 nh lut Ohm cho on mch cha cun cm c t cm L
a. Th nghim Xt on mch nh hnh v, gia hai u on mch c mt hiu in th
xoay chiu. Khi ng K cht 1 ta thy bng n sng. ng K vo cht 2 ta thy bng
n cng sng nhng sng yu hn lc u.
Vy, i vi dng in xoay chiu, mi cun cm ng vai tr nh mt in tr gi
l cm khng Z
L
b. Mi quan h gia u v i
Gi s cng dng in chy qua on mch :
i = I
0
cos t (4.12)
Trong cun dy xut hin mt sut in ng t cm: e = L
di
dt
e = LI
0
sin t = LI
0
cos
_
t +

2
_
(4.13)
Nu cun cm c in tr khng ng k (r = 0) th hiu in th hai u cun dy chnh
l sut in ng cm ng:
u
L
= U
0L
cos
_
t +

2
_
(4.14)
Vy: Hiu in th tc thi hai u on mch cha cun cm thun L lun nhanh
pha

2
so vi cng dng in tc thi.
c. Gin vector
d. nh lut Ohm
Trong :
U
0L
= LI
0
hay U
0L
= I
0
.Z
L
Trong : Z
L
= L Cm khng (4.15)
nh lut Ohm:
I
0
=
U
0L
Z
L
hay I =
U
L
Z
L
(4.16)
4.2.3 nh lut Ohm cho on mch cha t in c in dung C
a. Th nghim Xt on mch nh hnh v, gia hai u on mch c mt hiu in th
xoay chiu. Khi ng K cht 1 ta thy bng n sng. ng K vo cht 2 ta thy bng
n cng sng nhng sng yu hn lc u. Lc ny thay ngun trn bng ngun in
mt chiu th n khng sng ln c.
Vy,T in khng cho dng in mt chiu i qua. i vi dng in xaoy chiu,
mi t in ng vai tr nh mt in tr gi l dung khng Z
C
b. Mi quan h gia u v i
Hiu in th hai u on mch:
u
C
= U
0C
cos t hay q = Cu
C
= CU
0C
cos t (4.17)
Xt trong khong thi gian v cng b, cng dng in qua t in l o hm bc
nht i vi in lng phng qua t in: i =
dq
dt
= q
.
i = CU
0C
sin t = I
0
cos
_
t +

2
_
(4.18)
Vy, cng dng in qua t in nhanh pha

2
so vi hiu in th hai u t in.
Nu i = I
0
cos t th u
C
= U
0C
sin
_
t

2
_
(4.19)
Hay, hiu in th hai u t in chm pha

2
so vi cng dng in.
c. Gin vector
d. nh lut Ohm
Trong :
I
0
= CU
0C
hay I
0
=
U
0C
Z
C
Trong : Z
C
=
1
C
Dung khng (4.20)
nh lut Ohm:
I
0
=
U
0C
Z
C
hay I =
U
C
Z
C
(4.21)
4.2.4 nh lut Ohm cho on mch RLC
a. Mi quan h gia u v i
Gi s cng dng in qua on mch RLC c dng:
i = I
0
cos t (4.22)
Hiu in th hai u on mch cha in tr R:
u
R
= U
0R
cos t; vi U
0R
= I
0
R (4.23)
Hiu in th hai u on mch cha cun cm L:
u
L
= U
0L
cos
_
t +

2
_
; vi U
0L
= I
0
Z
L
(4.24)
Hiu in th hai u on mch t in C:
u
C
= U
0C
cos
_
t

2
_
; vi U
0C
= I
0
Z
C
(4.25)
Hiu in th hai u on mch RLC thi im t:
u = u
R
+u
L
+u
C

U
0
=
U
0R
+
U
0L
+
U
0C
Trc pha

I
0
Tng cc dao ng iu ha l mt dao ng iu ha cng tn s, do hiu in
th tc thi hai u on mch c dng:
u = U
0
cos(t +) (4.26)
b. Gin vector
Da vo gin vector ta suy ra:
U
2
0
= U
2
0R
+ (U
0L
U
0C
)
2
hay:
U
0
=
_
U
2
0R
+ (U
0L
U
0C
)
2
; U
0
= I
0
_
R
2
+ (Z
L
Z
C
)
2
(4.27)
t Z =
_
R
2
+ (Z
L
Z
C
)
2
c gi l tng tr ca on mch, thay vo (4.27) ta
c U
0
= I
0
.Z.
Ta c:
tg =
U
0L
U
0C
U
0R
hay tg =
Z
L
Z
C
R
(4.28)
_
_
Z
L
> Z
C
: > 0 u nhanh pha hn so vi i
Z
L
< Z
C
: < 0 u chm pha hn so vi i
Z
L
= Z
C
: = 0 u cng pha so vi i
c. nh lut Ohm
nh lut Ohm:
I
0
=
U
0
Z
hay I =
U
Z
(4.29)
4.2.5 Hin tng cng hng in
T (4.29):
I =
U
_
R
2
+ (Z
L
Z
C
)
2
(4.30)
Ta thy rng, thay i tn s gc nhng vn gi nguyn gi tr hiu in th hiu
dng hai u on mch RLC, khi cng dng in hiu dng qua on mch t cc
i th tng tr ca on mch c gi tr cc tiu, tc l:
L =
1
C
hay LC
2
= 1 (4.31)
Kt lun, khi hin tng cng hng in xy ra th:
_
_
Z = R
I
max
=
U
R
tg =
Z
L
Z
C
R
= 0 u v i cng pha.
(4.32)
4.3 Cng sut ca dng in xoay chiu
4.3.1 Cng sut tc thi
Xt mt on mch xoay chiu c cng dng in i = I
0
cos t i qua vi hiu in th
hai u on mch u = U
0
cos(t +).
Cng sut tc thi ca on mch : p = ui = U
0
I
0
cos(t +). cos t
p = UI cos UI cos(2t +) (4.33)
4.3.2 Cng sut trung bnh trong mt chu k
Cng sut trung bnh trong mt chu k l:
p = UI cos UI cos(2t +) = UI cos UI cos(2t +)
s hng th nht: UI cos khng ph thuc vo i s t, sau khi ly trung bnh
n vn c gi tr UI cos .
s hng th hai: UI cos(2t +) c chu k l
T
2
v bin i i xng qua O, nn
gi tr trung bnh ca n bng 0.
Vy, cng sut trung bnh c dng:
p = UI cos (4.34)
4.3.3 Cng sut trung bnh
Nu xt trong khong thi gian t = nT hoc t T nhiu ln th c th b qua s sai lch
trong phn l ca chu k m coi cng sut trung bnh P cng chnh l gi tr trung bnh p.
Vy:
P = UI cos (4.35)
Cng sut ca mt dng in xoay chiu trn mt on mch t l vi cos vi l lch
pha ca u so vi i.
4.3.4 H s cng sut
H s k = cos =
R
Z
gi l h s cng sut (0 k 1).
Nu mch ch c in tr thun R th: cos = 1.
Nu mch ch c L, C th ni chung: cos < 1, tr trng hp cng hng (Z
L
= Z
C
)
th cos = 1.
Thng thng, i vi mch in RLC th cos > 0, 85. Nu h s cng sut nh v
on mch c t cm L ln th phi mc thm mt t in vo mch tng h s cng
sut.
4.3.5 ngha ca h s cng sut
a. Mch ch c in tr thun hoc mch RLC c hin tng cng hng in (
Z
L
= Z
C
)
= 0 cos = 1 P = UI.
P = UI: l cng sut ton phn, trng hp ny cng sut tiu th trn on mch
l ln nht v bng cng sut cung cp cho mch.
b. Mch ch c t in hoc thun cm :
=
2
hoc = +
2
hay 0 < cos < 1
Khi P < UI: y l trng hp thng thy; cng sut thiu th trn on mch
UI cos nh hn cng sut cung cp cho mch in.
tng hiu qu ca vic s dng in nng, phi tm cch nng cao h s cng sut
cos , ngoi ra chng ta cn gim tiu hao in nng do ta nhit trn ng dy ti in.
4.3.6 L do tng h s cng sut
C hai l do
* Ta c t (4.35), cng dng in qua mch:
I =
P
U cos
Vi cng sut P v hiu in th hiu dng U xc nh th I ph thuc vo cos nn phi
tm cch tng h s cng sut.
* Cng sut tiu th P = UI cos c chia thnh hai phn:
+ Phn ta nhit: P
t
= RI
2
: tiu hao trn cc dng c in.
+ Phn cng sut c ch P
2
: Sinh cng c hc, phn ny khng i do yu cu
ca my s dng. Vy: UI cos = RI
2
+P
2
.
Nhn xt: Vi U v P
2
khng i nu cos nh, ta phi tng I ngha l tng cng
sut ta nhit, v vy ngi ta phi tng h s cng sut my nng.
i vi ng c in ta c cos =
R
Z
. Mun h s cng sut tng th Z phi gim
nn ta thng mc thm mt t thch hp cm khng v dung khng ca cc dng c
gn bng nhau.
4.4 My pht in xoay chiu. ng c khng ng b ba pha.
My bin p
4.4.1 My pht in xoay chiu
a. My pht in xoay chiu mt pha
* Nguyn tt hot ng
My pht in xoay chiu kiu cm ng hot ng da trn hin tng cm ng
in t.
Dng in cm ng xut hin trong mch kn khi c s bin thin ca t thng qua
mch kn
Cho mt khung dy kim loi din tch S, c N vng dy quay quanh trc i xng
xx
vi vn tc gc khng i trong t trng u

B.
Ti thi im t = 0, t thng qua khung dy:
0
= NBS
Ti thi im t = 0 t thng qua khung dy:
(t) = NBS cos = NBS cos t (4.36)
Sut in ng cm ng qua khung dy: e(t) =
d
dt
, t (4.36) ta c:
e(t) = NBS sin t = E
0
sin t vi E
0
= NBS : sut in ng cc i (4.37)
Kt lun:
Sut in ng trong khung dy l mt sut in ng bin thin iu ha theo thi
gian.
Nu ni hai u khung dy vi mt mch ngoi th trong mch c dng in bin
thin iu ha, gi l dng in xoay chiu. ( Dng in i chiu hai ln trong mt chu k).
* Nguyn tc cu to: Gm c 3 b phn chnh
+ Phn cm: Nam chm sinh ra t trng.
+ Phn ng: Khung dy, ni xut hin sut in ng cm ng.
+ B gp in: hai vnh khuyn v hai chi qut. Mt vnh khuyn
gn vo hai u khung A, vnh khuyn kia gn vo u khung B,
hai vnh c gn ng trc ca khung. Hai chi qut l hai cc
ca my.
Trong my pht in, phn to ra t trng c gi l phn cm, phn to ra dng in
c gi l phn ng. Cc my pht nh, th d nh ca xe p, c th dng nam chm
vnh cu lm phn cm, nhng trong phn ln cc my pht ngi ta thng dng nam
chm in to ra nhng t trng mnh.
Cc cun dy ca phn cm v phn ng u c qun trn cc li lm bng mt
loi thp c bit (thp k thut in) gi l thp silic hoc tn silic tng cng t thng
qua cc cun dy. trnh dng in Phuc, cc li c ghp bng nhiu tm thp mng
cch in vi nhau.
Phn cm cng nh phn ng (bao gm cc cun dy v li thp) c th l b phn
n yn hoc b phn chuyn ng ca my. B phn ng yn gi l stato, v b phn
chuyn ng gi l rto.
Dng in xoay chiu thng dng c tn s 50Hz. Nu my pht c 1 cun dy v
1 nam chm (tc l 1 cp cc bc nam) th rto phi quay vi vn tc gc 50vng/giy, tc
l 3000vng/pht. gim s vng quay 2, 3, . . . n ln, ngi ta tng s cun dy v s cp
cc ln 2, 3, . . . n ln. (s cun dy lun lun bng s cp cc).
Gi p l s cp cc ca nam chm, n l tc quay ca roto, tn s ca dng in
xoay chiu:
f = np nu n tnh n v vng/s
f =
np
60
nu n tnh n v vng/pht
(4.38)
My pht in c cu to nh trn gi l my pht in xoay chiu mt pha, cng
gi l my dao in mt pha hay my pht mt pha. Dng in n pht ra gi l dng in
xoay chiu mt pha hay dng mt pha.
b. My pht in xoay chiu ba pha
* Nguyn tc hot ng
Nguyn tc ca my pht ba pha (cng gi l my dao in ba pha) ging nh ca
my pht mt pha. Ch khc nhau ch l cch b tr cc cun dy ca phn ng. Ba cun
dy ca phn ng c b tr lch nhau
1
3
vng trn trn stato.
Trn hnh v, t thng qua cun dy 1 c gi tr cc i. Khi rto
quay theo chiu mi tn vi chu k bng T, th sau mt thi gian
bng
T
3
, t thng qua cun dy 2 mi l cc i, v sau thi gian
T
3
na n lt t thng qua cun dy 3 l cc i. Nh vy t thng
qua cc cun dy lch nhau
1
3
chu k v thi gian, tc l lch nhau
2
3
v pha.Tng t nh vy, sut in ng hai u t cun dy
cng lch pha nhau
2
3
. Nu ni cc u dy ca 3 cun dy vi 3
mch ngoi ging nhau (th d 3mch c in tr thun nh nhau)
th ba dng in trong cc mch cng lch pha nhau
2
3
.
C th vit phng trnh ca 3 dng in nh sau:
i
1
= I
0
cos t
i
2
= I
0
cos
_
t +
2
3
_
i
1
= I
0
cos
_
t
2
3
_
(4.39)
* nh ngha dng in ba pha: Dng in ba pha l h thng ba dng in xoay
chiu c cng bin , cng tn s nhng lch pha nhau
2
3
. Nu xt v thi gian th dng
n lch thi gian vi dng kia l
1
3
chu k.
b. Cch mc mch in ba pha theo hnh sao:
Theo cch mc ny, ba im u A
1
, A
2
, A
3
ca cc cun dy 1, 2, 3 c ni vi ba
mch ngoi bng ba dy dn khc nhau, gi l dy pha. Ba im cui B
1
, B
2
, B
3
ca cc
cun dy c ni vi nhau trc, ri ni vi ba mch ngoi bng mt dy dn chung gi l
dy trung ho.
Ti tiu th cng c mc theo hnh sao, ba u dy ring r A
1
, A
2
, A
3
c ni
vi cc dy pha, u dy chung B
1
, B
2
, B
3
c ni vi dy trung ho.
Cng tc thi ca dng in y trung ho l:
i
0
= i
1
+i
2
+i
3
= 0 (4.40)
Dng in y trung ho lun lun bng 0. Ta cng c th thy
r iu trn th.
Nhng trong thc t bao gi cng c s chnh lch no gia cc
ti tiu th, v trong dy trung ho c mt dng in yu hn hn
dng in cc dy pha.V vy ch cn dng mt dy c tit din
nh lm dy trung ho, trong k thut n thng c ni t
v c tn gi l dy ngui, khc vi dy pha gi l dy nng hoc
dy la.
Mch in sinh hot trong gia nh s dng mt pha in ca mng in ba pha. V
vy n c mt dy nng v mt dy ngui.
Trong mt my pht in ba pha mc hnh sao hiu in th gia im u v im
cui ca mt cun dy (cng l hiu in th gia mt dy pha v dy trung ho) c gi
l hiu in th pha U
p
. Hiu in th gia im u ca mt cun dy vi im u ca
mt cun khc (cng l hiu in th gia hai dy pha) c gi l hiu in th dy U
d
.
Gia U
p
v U
d
c h thc:
U
d
=
3U
p
(4.41)
c. Cch mc mch in ba pha theo hnh tam gic:
Theo cch mc ny im cui ca cun 1(B
1
) c ni vi im u ca cun 2(A
2
), im
cui ca cun 2 (B
2
) ni vi im u ca cun 3 (A
3
) , v im cui ca cun 3 (B
3
)
ni vi im u ca cun 1 (A
1
). Ba im ni li c ni vi
cc mch ngoi bng ba dy pha. Ti tiu th cng c mc theo
hnh tam gic.
Trong cch mc hnh tam gic khng c ch no mc dy trung
ho, v vy so vi cch mc hnh sao, n i hi s i xng tt
hn ca cc ti tiu th.
Trong mt s trng hp c th, ngi ta cng c th mc mt ti hnh tam gic vo
mt my pht mc hnh sao, hoc ngc li.
4.4.2 ng c khng ng b ba pha
a. Nguyn tc hot ng
ng c khng ng b ba pha l thit b bin in nng thnh c
nng trn c s hin tng cm ng in t v s dng t trng
quay.
Cch to ra t trng quay bng nam chm vnh cu: Quay u mt nam chm ch
U quanh trc xx
th t trng
B hai nhnh quay u. Khi nam chm quay u vi vn tc

khng i ta thy khung dy cng quay nhanh dn cng chiu vi nam chm v khi t
vi vn tc
0
< th gi nguyn vn tc . Ta ni khung dy quay khng ng b vi t
trng quay.
* Gii thch:
C th gii thch hin tng nh sau: Khi nam chm bt u quay, t thng qua khung
dy bin thin, lm xut hin mt dng in cm ng. Tc dng ca dng in l chng
li s bin thin t thng. Lc in t tc dng ln khung dy lm cho n quay cng chiu
vi nam chm, chng li s thay i v tr tng i ca n vi nam chm. Nu khung
dy t ti vn tc gc th t thng qua n khng bin thin na, dng in cm ng mt
i, lc in t lm quay khung dy cng mt i. Nhng thc ra n ch t ti mt vn tc
gc n nh
0
nh hn vn tc gc ca nam chm, tc l ca t trng quay.
ng c hot ng theo nguyn tc trn gi l ng c khng ng b. Vn tc quay
0
ca
n c th bin i trong mt phm vi kh rng khi tc quay ca t trng khng i.
V vy khi ti ngoi thay i, n vn hot ng bnh thng c, v l mt u im
ca n.
b. Cch tao ra t trng quay bng dng in ba pha
T trng quay c to ra bng cch cho dng in ba pha chy vo ba nam chm in
t lch nhau 120
0
trn mt vng trn. Cch b tr cc cun dy tng t nh trong my
pht in ba pha, nhng trong ng c in ngi ta a dng in t ngoi vo cc cun
dy 1, 2, 3.
T trng trong cc cun dy ca ng c in cng dao ng iu ho ging nh
cng dng in. Trn hnh l cc ng biu din s bin thin ln cc t trng
B
1
, B
2
, B
3
ca ba cun dy 1, 2, 3.
Gi s vo mt thi im no (th d: t =
T
4
) t trng ca
cun dy 1 c gi tr cc i dng bng B
1
v hng t trong ra
ngoi cun dy. Nhn trn hnh v ta thy t trng ca cc cun
dy 2 v 3 c gi tr m B
2
= B
3
=
1
2
B
1
, ngha l hng t ngoi
vo trong cun dy. Nh vy t trng tng cng B ca c ba cun
dy c hng trng vi B
1
, ngha l hng t cun dy 1 ra ngoi.
Tip tc cch lp lun nh trn, ta thy rng sau 1/3 chu k, t
trng ca cun dy 2 s c gi tr cc i v t trng tng cng
hng t cun dy 2 ra ngoi. V sau 1/3 chu k na, t trng
tng cng li hng t cun dy 3 ra ngoi.
Tm li, t trng tng cng ca c 3 cun dy quay quanh tm O vi tn s bng
tn s ca dng in, c gi tr B = 1, 5B
0
.
c. Cu to ca ng c khng ng b ba pha:N gm c hai phn chnh l stato v
rto.
Stato gm cc cun dy ca ba pha in qun trn cc li st b tr trn mt vnh
trn to ra t trng quay. Rto hnh tr c tc dng nh mt cun dy qun trn li
thp.
Khi mc ng c vo mng in ba pha, t trng quay do stato gy ra lm cho rto
quay trn trc. Chuyn ng quay ca rto c trc my truyn ra ngoi v c s dng
vn hnh cc my cng c hoc cc c cu chuyn ng khc.
Da theo nguyn tc ca ng c khng ng b ba pha, ngi ta ch to c nhng
ng c khng ng b mt pha. Stato ca loi ng c ny gm hai cun dy t lch nhau
mt gc 90
0
, mt dy ni thng vi mng in, dy kia ni vi mng in qua mt t in.
Cch mc nh vy lm cho hai dng in trong hai cun dy lch pha nhau

2
v to ra t
trng quay. ng c khng ng b mt pha ch t c cng sut khong vi trm oat
tr li. N ch yu c dng trong cc dng c gia nh nh qut in, my ht bi, my
bm nc . . .
4.4.3 My bin p
a. Cu to ca my bin th
Mt u im ln ca dng in xoay chiu l c th nng cao hoc h thp hiu in th
mt cch d dng m hu nh khng b hao tn nng lng. Thit b cho php bin i hiu
in th ca dng in xoay chiu c gi l my bin th.
My bin th gm hai cun dy dn qun trn mt li chung bng thp k thut in.
Cc cun dy dn thng bng dy ng, c in tr nh. Li gm nhiu l thp mng hnh
khung ch nht rng hoc khung trn rng, xp cch in vi nhau.
b. Nguyn tc hot ng
Hot ng ca my bin th da trn hin tng cm ng in t. Mt trong hai cun dy
ca my bin th c ni vi mch in xoay chiu, v gi l cun s cp. Cun th hai
c ni vi ti tiu th v gi l cun th cp. Dng in trong cun s cp lm pht sinh
mt t trng bin thin trong li thp. T thng bin thin ca t trng qua cun th
cu (cng qun trn li thp) gy ra mt dng in cm ng chy trong cun th cp v
trong ti tiu th.
c. S bin i hiu in th v cng dng in
Xt mt my bin th c cun s cp gm N vng dy, v cun th cp gm N vng dy.
Khi ni cun s cp vi mch in xoay chiu c hiu in th U, dng in xoay chiu I
trong cun s cp lm pht sinh mt t trng dao ng iu ho tp trung trong li thp.
Ti mi thi im bt k, t thng qua mi tit din ca li thp c gi tr tc thi nh
nhau.
Trong khong thi gian t v cng nh, t thng bin thin gy ra trong mi vng
dy ca c hai cun mt sut in ng bng:
e
0
=
d
dt
Do , sut in ng tc thi trn cun s cp l:
e = Ne
0
(4.42)
Sut in ng tc thi trn cun th cp l:
e
= N
e
0
(4.43)
Lp t s (4.42), (4.43) ta c:
e
e
=
N
N
(4.44)
V t s
e
e
khng i theo thi gian, ta c th thay n bng t s cc gi tr hiu dng:

E
E
=
N
N
(4.45)
V in tr ca cun s cp l rt nh, hiu in th U hai u cun s cp xp x bng
E. Khi mch th cp h, hiu in th U
hai u cun th cp bng E
. Khi (4.45)
tr thnh:
U
U
=
N
N
(4.46)
Vy:T s hiu in th hai u cun th cp v s cp bng t s vng dy ca hai cun.
Nu cun th cp c s vng dy ln hn cun s cp (N
> N) th U
> U, my
bin th l my tng th. Ngc li, nu N
< N th U
< U, my bin th l my h th.

Khi mch th cp ni vi ti tiu th thnh mt mch kn th hiu in th U
c gi
tr nh hn E
. Tuy nhin, ngi ta vn c th dng (4.46) nh mt cng thc gn ng,

v coi nhng hao ph do cc dng Phuc trong li, do to nhit trn cc cun dy l nh
khng ng k. V vy c th coi l in nng qua my bin th c bo ton (c loi bin
th t ti hiu sut 99, 5%), cng sut hai mch s cp v th cp l nh nhau:
I
I
=
U
U
(4.47)
4.4.4 Truyn ti in nng
Ngi ta s dng in nng khp mi ni, nhng ch sn xut in nng trn quy m ln
mt s t a im gn cc m than cc sng h ln.
in nng phi c tiu th ngay sau khi sn xut ra. V vy lun lun c nhu cu
truyn ti in nng vi s lng ln, i xa ti hng trm, hng nghn kilmet.
My bin th c vai tr to ln trong vic truyn ti in nng. Khng c my bin
th th khng th c mng li in rng khp nh hin nay.
Gi s cn truyn ti mt cng sut in P trn mt qung ng di. Gia cng
sut P, hiu in th U cu cc dy dn v dng in I truyn qua dy dn, c h thc:
P = UI (4.48)
Do hiu ng Jun-Lenx, trn ng dy c mt cng sut hao ph P bin thnh nhit v
to vo kh quyn. Ta c:
P = RI
2
= P
2
R
U
2
(4.49)
Vn l phi gim P xung mc thp nht. Mun gim P 100 ln chng hn, ta c
th gim R 100 ln, hoc tng U 10 ln. Mun gim R 100 ln, ta phi tng tit din dy
100 ln, tc l tng khi lng 100 ln v tng sc chng ca cc ct in ln 100 ln.
Lm nh vy s ht sc tn km. Mun tng U 10 ln, c th dng my bin th mt cch
n gin, t tn km, m vn gi c cng sut P = UI hu nh khng i. l bin
php ang c s dng rt rng ri.
My pht in cc nh my in c th sn xut dng in xoay chiu vi hiu in
th ti 24kV . Trm bin th nh my in c th nng hiu in th ln ti 500kV . (
Dng in c hiu in th c nng ln nh vy gi l dng in cao th. Qung ng
truyn ti cng di th hiu in th cng phi cao. Khi gn ti ni tiu th, cc trm bin
th trung gian h th dng in xung 6 35kV . Ti ni tiu th, dng in c h th
xung 110V, 127V, 220V , c gi l dng h th. ti ni tiu th, trong mt s thit b
(my thu thanh, my thu hnh, my o in,...) cn c nhng my bin th nh h hiu in
th xung n 36V, 12V, 6V.
Chng 5
DAO NG. SNG IN T
5.1 Dao ng in t trong mch LC. S chuyn ha v bo ton
nng lng trong mch dao ng LC
5.1.1 S bin thin in tch v dng in trong mch dao ng
Cho mch in nh hnh v:
Khi kha K ni vi A: t C c tch in, in tch tng n Q
0
. Ngt K ni vi B: trong
mch c s phng in t in.
T in ng vai tr l ngun in: trong khong thi gian v cng b, cng
dng in qua cun cm l:
i =
dq
dt
= q
Sut in ng qua cun cm cng chnh l hiu in th hai u t in:

e = u = L
di
dt
= Lq
M ta c:
u =
q
C
T chng ta c biu thc tnh in tch ca t in trong mch dao ng bin thin
iu ho:
q
+q = 0 vi tn s gc: =
1
LC
(5.1)
Nghim ca phng trnh (5.1) c dng:
q = Q
0
cos(t +) (5.2)
Vy: in tch trong mch dao ng LC bin thin iu ha.
Tn s gc:
=
1
LC
(5.3)
Chu k:
T = 2
LC (5.4)
Tn s:
f =
1
2
LC
(5.5)
5.1.2 Hiu in th v cng dng in trong mch dao ng LC
Hiu in th gia hai u t in C:
u = qC = CQ
0
cos t = U
0
cos t vi: U
0
= CQ
0
(5.6)
Cng dng in qua cun cm:
i = q
= Q
0
sin t = I
0
sin t vi: I
0
= Q
0
(5.7)
5.1.3 S chuyn ha v bo ton nng lng trong mch dao ng LC
a. Nng lng in trng trong mch dao ng:L nng lng tp trung t in.
w
=
1
2
Cu
2
=
1
2
q
C
(5.8)
vi q = Q
0
cos t, thay vo ta c:
w
= W
0
cos
2
(t) vi: W
0
=
1
2
CU
2
0
=
1
2
Q
2
0
C
(5.9)
b. Nng lng t trng trong mch dao ng:L nng lng tp trung cun cm.
w
t
=
1
2
Li
2
(5.10)
vi i = I
0
sin t, thay vo ta c:
w
t
= W
0t
sin
2
(t) vi: W
0t
=
1
2
LI
2
0
=
1
2
CU
2
0
= W
0
(5.11)
Ch :
Nng lng in trng cc i bng nng lng t trng cc i.
c. Nng lng in t: L tng nng lng in trng v nng lng t trng
w = w
+w
t
Thay (5.9) v (5.10) vo ta c:
w = w
+w
t
=
1
2
Cu
2
+
1
2
Li
2
=
1
2
LI
2
0
=
1
2
CU
2
0
=
1
2
Q
2
0
C
(5.12)
Kt lun:
+ Nng lng in t trng ca mch dao ng gm c nng lng in trng tp
trung t in v nng lng t trng tp trung cun cm.
+ Nng lng in trng v nng lng t trng cng bin thin tun hon theo
mt tn s chung.
+ Ti mi thi im, tng ca nng lng in trng v nng lng t trng l
khng i, ni cch khc, nng lng ca mch dao ng c bo ton.
Dao ng ca mch dao ng c nhng tnh cht nh trn, nn c gi l dao ng
in t. Tn s dao ng ch ph thuc nhng c tnh ca mch, v vy dao ng in t
ca mch dao ng l mt dao ng t do, v tn s l tn s dao ng ring ca mch.
5.2 in trng. Sng in t. Cc tnh cht ca sng in t
5.2.1 in trng bin thin v t trng bin thin
a. Gi thuyt Macxoen
Gi thuyt 1: Bng phng php ton hc, Macxoen tm ra rng
khi mt t trng bin thin theo thi gian, n sinh ra mt in trng
xoy tc l mt in trng m cc ng sc bao quanh cc ng cm
ng t.
Nhng theo Macxoen in trng cm ng t n tn ti trong khng
gian, m khng cn c dy dn.
Khung dy dn khp kn t trong khng gian ch l mt phng tin gip ta pht hin
dng in, v do pht hin in trng xoy xut hin trong khng gian k c khi
khng c khung dy.
Gi thuyt 2:
Tin ln mt bc na, Macxoen ra cu hi: nu t trng bin thin
sinh ra in trng th c qu trnh ngc li khng ngha l in trng
bin thin c sinh ra t trng khng? Da trn tnh ton l thuyt, ng
cho rng c qu trnh nh vy:khi mt in trng bin thin theo thi
gian, n sinh ra mt t trng xoy m cc ng cm ng t bao quanh
cc ng sc ca in trng.
b. Dng in dn v dng in dch
Gi thuyt trn ca Macxoen c thc nghim khng nh l ng. Khi mt t
in c tch in qua mt dy dn, hoc phng in qua mt dy dn, gia hai bn ca
t in c mt in trng bin thin. in trng bin thin sinh ra mt t trng xoy
ht nh c mt dng in bng dng in trong dy dn chy qua t in. S bin thin
ca in trng gia cc bn ca t in (ni khng c dy dn), tng ng vi mt dng
in trong dy dn. N c gi l dng in dch, v dng in trong dy dn c gi l
dng in dn.
Vi khi nim dng in dch, ta c th ni rng dng in trong mch dao ng m
t bi trc l mt dng in khp kn, gm c dng in dn chy trong dy dn v dng
in dch chy qua t in.
c. in t trng
Pht minh ca Macxoen dn n kt lun l khng th c in trng hoc t trng
tn ti ring bit, c lp vi nhau. in trng bin thin no cng sinh ra t trng bin
thin, v ngc li t trng bin thin no cng sinh ra in trng bin thin.
in trng v t trng l hai mt th hin khc nhau ca mt loi trng duy
nht gi l in t trng. in t trng vn l mt dng vt cht tn ti khch quan
trong thc t.
Tng tc in t lan truyn trong khng gian vi vn tc hu hng, gn bng vn
tc nh sng c = 3.10
8
m/s.
Trng tnh in v t trng l trng hp ring ca trng in t .
d. S lan truyn tng tc in t:
Gi s ti mt im O trong khng gian c mt in trng
E
1
bin thin khng tt
dn. N sinh ra cc im ln cn n mt t trng xoy

B
1
. Nu in trng bin thin
khng u, ngha l tc bin thin ca n thay i (th d, khi

E
1
dao ng iu ho),
th
B
1
cng bin thin. Do , t trng bin thin
B
1
li gy ra cc im ln cn n mt
in trng bin thin

E
2
. Qu trnh c tip tc lp i lp li, in trng sinh ra t
trng ri t trng li sinh ra in trng,. . . in t trng lan truyn trong khng gian,
cng ngy cng xa im O, v phi sau mt khong thi gian no n mi lan truyn ti
mt im A cch xa O.
Nh vy: tng tc in t thc hin thng qua in t trng cn phi tn mt
thi gian no truyn c t im ny n im kia.
5.2.2 Sng in t
Bng phng php ton hc, Macxoen chng minh rng in t trng do mt in tch
im dao ng theo phng thng ng ti mt im sinh ra s lan truyn trong khng gian
di dng sng. Sng c gi l sng in t. Ngi ta ni rng in tch dao ng
bc x ra sng in t. Nu xt theo mt phng truyn Ox, sng in t l sng ngang c
thnh phn in dao ng theo phng thng ng v thnh phn t dao ng theo phng
nm ngang. Tn s sng in t bng tn s f ca in tch dao ng v vn tc ca n
trong chn khng bng vn tc nh sng trong chn khng c = 3.10
8
m/s.
Theo l thuyt ca Macxoen, nng lng ca sng in t t l vi lu tha bc 4 ca
tn s.
Kt lun: Sng in t l s truyn i trong khng gian ca in t trng bin
thin tun hon theo thi gian.
5.2.3 Cc tnh cht ca sng in t
Tn s ca sng in t bng tn s ca in tch dao ng.
Vn tc truyn sng in t trong chn khng bng vn tc nh
sng (c = 3.10
8
m/s).
Sng in t l sng ngang:
+ Thnh phn

E dao ng theo phng thng ng.
+ Thnh phn

B dao ng theo phng ngang.
Nng lng ca sng in t t l vi ly tha bc 4 ca tn s.
Bc sng in t xc nh bi cng thc:
=
c
f
= c.T (5.13)
Sng in t truyn c trong mi mi trng k c trong mi trng chn khng.
Sng in t cng tun theo cc nh lut phn x, khc x, v c th giao thoa vi
nhau.
5.3 S truyn sng v tuyn in. Nguyn l pht v thu sng v
tuyn in
a. S truyn sng v tuyn
Sng in t hin nay c s dng rt rng ri trong thng tin v tuyn truyn
thanh v truyn hnh, cng nh trong mt s lnh vc khc nh v tuyn nh v (raa),
thin vn v tuyn, iu khin bng v tuyn. . . Sng in t c c trng bng tn s
hoc bng bc sng. Gia bc sng (o bng mt) v tn s (o bng hec) ca sng in
t c h thc:
=
c
f
=
3.10
8
f
(5.14)
Nhng dao ng in t c tn s hng chc v hng trm hec bc x rt yu. Sng in
t ca chng khng c kh nng truyn i xa. Trong thng tin v tuyn, ngi ta s dng
nhng sng c tn s t hng nghn hec tr ln, gi l sng v tuyn. Cc sng v tuyn
c phn thnh cc loi nh sau:
Sng di v sng cc di l sng c tn s 3 300kHz v bc sng 100 1km
Sng trung l sng c tn s 0, 3 3MHz v bc sng 1000 100m
Sng ngn l sng c tn s 3 30MHz v bc sng 100 10m
Sng cc ngn l sng c tn s 30 30000MHz v bc sng 10 0, 01m
Nh ni trn, sng cng ngn (tc l tn s cng cao) th nng lng sng cng
ln. Cc sng di t b nc hp th. Chng c dng thng tin di nc, v t c
dng thng tin trn mt t, v nng lng ca chng thp, khng truyn c i xa.
Cc sng trung truyn c theo b mt ca tri t. Ban ngy chng b tng in
li hp th mnh, nn khng truyn c xa (tn in li l tng kh quyn cao t 50km
tr ln, cha rt nhiu ht tch in l cc electron v cc loi ion). Ban m, tng in
li phn x cc sng trung nn chng truyn c xa. V vy ban m nghe di bng sng
trung r hn ban ngy.
Cc sng ngn c nng lng ln hn sng trung. Chng c tng in li phn x
v mt t, mt t phn x li ln th hai tng in li phn x ln th ba v.v.. . V vy
mt i pht sng ngn vi cng sut ln c th truyn sng i mi a im trn mt t.
Cc sng cc ngn c nng lng ln nht, khng b tng in li hp th hoc phn
x, c kh nng truyn i rt xa theo ng thng, v c dng trong thng tin v tr.
V tuyn truyn hnh dng cc sng cc ngn, khng truyn c xa trn mt t. Mun
truyn hnh i xa, ngi ta phi lm cc i tip sng trung gian, hoc dng v tinh nhn
to thu sng ca i pht ri pht tr v Tri t theo mt phng nht nh.
b. Nguyn l pht v thu sng v tuyn in
pht sng in t, ngi ta mc phi hp mt my pht dao
ng iu ho vi mt ngten. Mch dao ng LC c dng in
dao ng duy tr vi tn s f .
Cun cm L ca mch dao ng truyn vo cun cm L
A
ca
ngten mt t trng dao ng vi tn s f . T trng lm
pht sinh mt in trng cm ng, v in trng cm ng lm
cc lectrn trong ngten dao ng theo phng ca ngten cng
vi tn s bng f , ngten pht ra mt sng in t c tn s bng
f .
thu sng in t, ngi ta phi hp mt ngten vi mt mch dao ng. ngten
nhn c rt nhiu sng c tn s khc nhau ca nhiu i pht truyn ti, cc lectroon
trong ngten dao ng theo tt c cc tn s . Nh hai cun cm L
A
v L, mch dao ng
LC cng dao ng vi tt c cc tn s .
Trong mch dao ng, t in C c in dung iu chnh c. Mun thu sng c
tn s f ca mt i pht nht nh, ngi ta iu chnh t in ca my thu dao ng
ring ca mch cng c tn s bng f. Khi hin tng tng cng hng, v trong mch
LC dao ng vi tn s f c bin ln hn hn cc dao ng khc. Ngi ta ni rng my
thu thc hin s chn sng.
Ta c:
f
0
= f
s
hay: = 2c
LC (5.15)
Chng 6
SNG NH SNG
6.1 Tn sc nh sng
6.1.1 Th nghim Newton v hin tng tn sc nh sng
a. Th nghim:
Dng mt mn chn trn c khot mt khe hp A tch ra mt chm sng trng
(hay chm nh sng trng l chm nh sng mt tri) c dng mt di hp. Cho di sng
trng ny chiu vo mt lng knh c cnh song song vi khe A.
Sau lng knh t mt mn nh B hng chm sng l ra. Trn
mn nh ta thy c mt di c mu nh cu vng t n tm.
Cc tia mu b lch t nht, cc tia mu tm b lch nhiu nht.
Nh vy, khi i qua lng knh, chm sng trng khng nhng b khc
x v pha y lng knh m cn b tch ra thnh nhiu chm sng
c mu sc khc nhau. Hin tng ny gi l hin tng tn sc
nh sng.
Di c mu nh cu vng ny gi l quang ph ca nh sng trng. Trong quang
ph ca nh sng trng, ta thy c 7 mu chnh l: , da cam, vng, lc, lm, chm, tm.
Thc ra, trong quang ph ny khng phi ch c 7 mu nh trn m c rt nhiu mu, bin
i dn dn t mu ny sang mu khc.
b. Nguyn nhn:
Chit sut ca mt mi trng trong sut nht nh i vi cc nh sng n sc
khc nhau l khc nhau, ph thuc vo bc sng ca nh sng .
Do chit sut n tng dn t tia n tia tm nn cc tia l c gc lch tng dn t
n tm.
Vy: Nguyn nhn ca s tn sc nh sng l s ph thuc ca chit sut ca lng
knh vo mu sc ca nh sng.
Ta c: n
n n
t
(
Nh nh hn nh tm
)
6.1.2 Th nghim v nh sng n sc
Th nghim ny cng do Niutn thc hin u tin. Trn mn nh B c khot mt khe hp
song song vi khe A v t sao cho khe ny nm v tr ca mt mu no trong quang
ph ni trn (mu lc chng hn). Chm sng mu lc s i qua khe B. ng sau mn chn
B li t mt mn chn C, song song vi mn B. Trn mn C cng c mt khe hp, song
song vi khe B. B tr sao cho khe C nm ng v tr mu lc. Chm sng l ra khi khe C
coi nh hon ton c mu lc. Cho chm sng ny i qua mt lng knh th hai, ri chn
chm tia l bng mt mn nh E.
Trn mn nh ta thy mt vch mu lc.
Nh vy, chm sng mu lc sau khi i qua lng knh vn l mt chm mu lc, tc
l n khng b tn sc. Ta gi chm sng l mt chm sng n sc.
Lm li th nghim ny vi cc chm sng c mu khc, ta cng c kt qu nh vy.
Vy, nh sng n sc l nh sng khng b tn sc khi i qua lng knh. Mi nh
sng n sc c mt mu nht nh gi l mt mu n sc.
6.1.3 Tng hp nh sng trng
trn, ta tch c nhng chm sng n sc khc nhau t mt chm sng trng. Tuy
nhin, liu c tng hp cc nh sng n sc li nh sng trng hay khng?
Niutn cng thc hin nhiu th nghim v tng hp nh sng trng. Di y l
mt trong cc th nghim .
Chiu mt chm sng trng qua mt l trn nh nm trn trc chnh ca mt thu
knh hi t L sao cho c mt nh tht, mu trng. Dng mt lng knh chn chm tia sng
trng trc im hi t (tc l trc nh tht ni trn).
Chm sng s b tn sc v cho mt di gm nhiu mu lin tc. t mt thu knh
O
2
sao cho di mu ny nm ngay trn mt thu knh v di chuyn mt mn nh E sau O
2
.
Ta s tm c mt v tr ca mn m ti ta thy c mt vt sng trng trn mn. Vt
sng trng ny nm v tr nh ca mt lng knh v l ch chng chp ca cc chm sng
n sc khc nhau.
Th nghim ny cho php ta kt lun l: Nu tng hp cc nh sng n sc khc
nhau, ta s c nh sng trng.
Vy,nh sng trng l tp hp ca v s cc nh sng n sc khc nhau c mu bin
thin lin tc t n tm.
6.2 Nhiu x nh sng
6.2.1 Th nghim
Dng n S chiu sng qau mt l trn O, ta thy nh sng b lch phng truyn sng.
6.2.2 nh ngha
Nhiu x nh sng l hin tng nh sng khng tun theo nh lut truyn thng, quan
st c khi nh sng truyn qua l nh hoc gn mp nhng vt trong sut hoc khng
trong sut.
6.3 Giao thoa nh sng
6.3.1 Th nghim
Mt n chiu sng mt khe hp S nm trn mt mn chn M
nh sng ca ngn n c lc qua mt knh lc sc F (knh chng hn). S tr
thnh mt khe sng n sc.Chm tia sng n sc lt qua khe S tip tc chiu sng hai
khe hp S
1
, S
2
nm song song v rt gn nhau trn mt mn chn M
12
. Hai khe S
1
, S
2
c
b tr song song vi khe S.
t mt sau mn chn M
12
sao cho c th hng c ng thi hai chm tia sng
lt qua cc khe S
1
v S
2
vo mt. Nu iu tit mt nhn vo khe S, ta s thy c mt
vng sng hp trong xut hin nhng vch sng () v nhng vch ti xen k nhau mt
cch u n.
Hin tng ny gi l hin tng giao thoa nh sng. Nu dng nh sng trng (b
knh lc sc F i) ta s thy c mt vch sng chnh gia, hai bn c nhng di mu nh
cu vng, tm trong, ngoi.
6.3.2 Gii thch
Hin tng c nhng vch sng v nhng vch ti nm xen k nhau v nht l s xut hin
ca nhng vch ti trong vng hai chm sng gp nhau ch c th gii thch c bng s
giao thoa ca hai sng: nhng vch sng ng vi nhng ch hai sng gp nhau tng cng
ln nhau; nhng vch ti ng vi nhng ch hai sng gp nhau trit tiu ln nhau. Ta gi
nhng vch sng, vch ti ny l nhng vn giao thoa.
Nu tha nhn nh sng c tnh cht sng, ta s gii thch hin tng xy ra trong
th nghim Ing nh sau:
nh sng t n chiu n khe S lm cho khe S tr thnh mt ngun pht sng
nh sng, lan to v pha hai khe S
1
v S
2
. Khi truyn n cc khe S
1
v S
2
, sng ny s
lm cho chng tr thnh hai ngun sng khc, pht ra hai sng nh sng, lan to tip v
pha sau. Hai chm sng ny c mt phn chng ln nhau v chng giao thoa vi nhau, cho
nhng vn sng, vn ti.
S d hai sng ny giao thoa c vi nhau v chng c pht ra t hai ngun S
1
,
S
2
tho mn cc iu kin ca hai ngun kt hp ( ngun sng kt hp):
+ Sng nh sng do hai ngun S
1
, S
2
pht ra c cng tn s vi sng nh sng do
ngun S pht ra.
+ Khong cch t S
1
, n S
2
n S hon ton xc nh nn dao ng ca S
1
v S
2
lch pha vi nhau mt lng khng i.
Nu dng nh sng trng th h thng vn giao thoa ca cc nh sng n sc khc
nhau s khng trng kht vi nhau.
chnh gia, vn sng ca cc nh sng n sc khc nhau nm cng vi nhau cho
mt vn sng gi l vn trng chnh gia. hai bn vn trng chnh gia, cc vn sng ca
cc sng nh sng n sc khc nhau khng trng vi nhau na. Chng nm k st bn
nhau v cho nhng quang ph c mu nh cu vng.
Ta s hiu r hn cch gii thch ny nu thay knh lc sc F trong th nghim
trn bng cch knh lc sc khc (vng, lc, tm v.v. . . ). Ta s thy khong cch gia cc
vn ln hn khong cch gia cc vn lc; khong cch gia cc vn lc ln hn khong
cch gia cc vn tm v.v. . .
Vy: Hin tng giao thoa nh sng l mt bng chng thc nghim quan trng
khng nh nh sng c tnh cht sng.
6.3.3 Bc sng nh sng v mu sc nh sng
Gi a = S
1
S
2
l khong cch gia hai khe; D = IO l khong cch gia hai khe n
mn E; M l mt im nm trn min giao thoa cch vn trung tm O mt on x. Vi
d
1
= MS
1
; d
2
= MS
2
.
MHS
1
: d
2
1
= D
2
_
x
a
2
_
2
MHS
2
: d
2
2
= D
2
_
x +
a
2
_
2
Vy: d
2
2
d
2
1
= 2ax. Ta c d
1
d
2
D do , hiu ng i ca sng nh sng (
hiu quang trnh)
= d
2
d
1
=
ax
D
(6.1)
a. Ta vn sng: M l vn sng th = k, t (6.1) ta c:
x = k
D
a
; k Z (6.2)
Vn trung tm khi k = 0; Vn sng bc n: th k = n
b. Ta vn ti: M l vn ti th =
_
k +
1
2
_
, t (6.1) ta c:
x =
_
k +
1
2
_
D
a
; k Z (6.3)
Vn ti th n: th k = n 1 hay k = n
c. Khong vn: L khong cch gia hai vn sng hoc hai vn ti lin tip
i =
D
a
(6.4)
Vy: ta vn sng:
x = ki k Z (6.5)
Ta vn ti
x =
_
k +
1
2
_
i; k Z (6.6)
6.3.4 o bc sng bng phng php giao thoa
Ngi ta c th o chnh xc khong cch D t hai khe S
1
S
2
n mn nh E vi chnh
xc hng m. Mt khc, c th s dng knh hin vi v knh lp xc nh khong cch
a gia hai khe S
1
S
2
v khong vn i.Bit a, D v i ta c th tnh c bc sng nh sng
theo cng thc (6.4). l nguyn tc ca vic o bc sng nh sng bng phng php
giao thoa.
o bc sng ca nhng nh sng n sc khc nhau bng phng php giao thoa,
ngi ta thy mi nh sng n sc c mt bc sng hon ton xc nh. Chng hn:
- nh sng mu u ca di mu lin tc c bc sng: 0, 76m.
- nh sng mu tm cui ca di mu lin tc c bc sng: 0, 40m.
- nh sng vng do n hi natri pht ra c bc sng: 0, 589m.
Nh vy, nh sng n sc l nh sng c mt bc sng xc nh. Mu ng vi nh
sng gi l mu n sc hay mu quang ph.
Thc ra, nhng nh sng n sc c bc sng ln cn nhau th gn nh c cng
mt mu. V vy, ngi ta phn nh ra trong quang ph lin tc nhng vng mu khc
nhau:
-Vng c bc sng t: 0, 760m n 0, 640m
-Vng da cam v vng c bc sng t: 0, 640m n 0, 580m (Vng da cam v
Vng vng)
-Vng lc c bc sng t: 0, 580m n 0, 495m
-Vng lam - chm c bc sng t: 0, 490m n 0, 440m (Vng lam-chm)
-Vng tm c bc sng t: 0, 440m n 0, 400m
Ngoi cc mu n sc, cn c cc mu khng n sc, l hn hp ca nhiu mu
n sc vi nhng t l khc nhau.
6.4 My quang ph. Cc loi quang ph
6.4.1 Chit sut ca mi trng v bc sng nh sng
Trong hin tng tn sc, ta thy chit sut ca cng mt mi trng trong sut i vi
nhng nh sng n sc khc nhau th khc nhau. Mt khc, ta li thy mi nh sng n
sc c mt bc sng xc nh. Nh vy: chit sut ca mt mi trng trong sut nht
nh i vi cc nh sng n sc khc nhau th ph thuc vo bc sng ca nh sng .
Khi o chit sut ca cc mi trng trong sut khc nhau (nc, thu tinh, thch
anh v.v.) i vi cc nh sng n sc khc nhau ngi ta thy: chit sut ca mt mi
trng trong sut nht nh i vi cc nh sng c bc sng di th nh hn chit sut
ca mi trng i vi cc nh sng c bc sng ngn.
6.4.2 My quang ph
Mt trong nhng ng dng quan trng ca hin tng tn sc nh sng trong cc lng knh
l phn tch nh sng trong cc my quang ph. My quang ph l dng c dng
phn tch chm sng c nhiu thnh phn thnh nhng thnh phn n sc khc nhau. Ni
khc i, n dng nhn bit cc thnh phn cu to ca mt chm sng phc tp do mt
ngun sng pht ra.
My quang ph c 3 b phn chnh:
+ - ng chun trc l b phn to ra chm tia sng song song. N c mt khe hp
S nm tiu din ca mt thu knh hi t L
1
. Chm nh sng pht ra t ngun J m ta
cn nghin cu c ri vo khe S. Chm tia sng l ra khi thu knh L
1
l mt chm tia
song song.
+ H tn sc (hay lng knh P )l b phn c tc dng lm tn sc chm tia song
song t L
1
chiu ti thnh nhiu chm tia n sc song song.
+ Bung nh gm mt thu knh hi t L
2
t chn chm tia sng b tn sc sau
khi qua lng knh P.
Chm tia sng l ra khi lng knh gm nhiu chm tia sng n sc song song lch
theo cc phng khc nhau. Mi chm tia sng n sc song song cho trn tiu din ca
thu knh L
2
mt vch mu. Mi vch mu l mt nh n sc ca khe S.
Ti tiu din ca thu knh L
2
c t mt tm knh nh F chp nh quang ph
(hoc mt tm knh m quan st quang ph).
Nu ngun sng J pht ra mt s nh sng n sc c bc sng
1
,
2
. . . th trn
tm knh nh F ta thu c mt s vch mu S
1
, S
2
. . . trn mt nn ti. Mi vch mu
ng vi mt thnh phn nh sng n sc do ngun S pht ra.
Tp hp cc vch mu to thnh quang ph ca ngun J.
6.4.3 Quang ph lin tc
a. nh ngha: Khi chiu chm sng trng vo khe ca my quang ph th trn bun nh
ta thy c mt di sng c mu bin i lin tc t n tm. l quang ph lin tc.
b. Ngun pht:
Cc vt rn, lng hoc kh c t khi ln khi b nung nng s phta quang ph lin
tc. Mt Tri l mt khi kh c t khi ln pht sng.
Quang ph ca nh sng mt tri l quang ph lin tc. Trong quang ph lin tc
cc vch mu cnh nhau nm st nhau n mc chng ni lin vi nhau to nn mt di
mu lin tc.
c. c im:
Mt c im quan trng ca quang ph lin tc l n khng ph thuc thnh phn
cu to ca ngun sng, m ch ph thuc vo nhit ca ngun sng.
Mt ming st v mt min s t trong l, nung n cng mt nhit s cho hai
quang ph lin tc rt ging nhau.
nhit 500
0
C, vt bt u pht sng , nhng rt yu, nn mt cha cm nhn
c v vt vn ti.
Nhit cng cao, min pht sng ca vt cng m rng v pha nh sng c bc
sng ngn ca quang ph lin tc.
Cc dy tc bng n c nhit khong t 2500K n 3000K pht sng kh mnh
vng nh sng nhn thy v cho mt quang ph lin tc c mu sc t n tm. nh
sng ca cc bng n ny l nh sng trng.
Nhit ca b mt Mt Tri khong 6000K. Vng sng mnh ca quang ph lin
tc ca Mt Tri nm ln cn bc sng 0, 47m , nh sng mt tri l nh sng trng.
Trn bu tri c cc ngi sao mu sng xanh. Nhit ca cc ngi sao ny cng
cao hn nhit ca Mt Tri rt nhiu.
d. ng dng:
Ngi ta li dng c im trn xc nh nhit ca cc vt pht sng do nung
nng nh nhit ca dy tc bng n, h quang, l cao, Mt Tri, cc sao v.v. . .
Mun o nhit ca mt vt b nung nng sng, ngi ta so snh sng ca vt
vi sng ca mt dy tc bng n mt vng bc sng no (thng l ).
Nhit ca dy tc bng n ng vi nhng sng khc nhau hon ton bit
trc.
6.4.4 Quang ph vch pht x
a. nh ngha:L quang ph bao gm mt h thng nhng vch mu ring r nm trn
mt nn ti v gi l quang ph vch.
b. Ngun pht:
Quang ph vch pht x do cc kh hay hi p sut thp b kch thch pht sng
ra. C th kch thch cho mt cht kh pht sng bng cch t nng hoc bng cch phng
mt tia la in qua m kh hay hi v.v. . .
c. c im:
Thc nghim cho thy quang ph vch pht x ca cc nguyn t khc nhau th rt
khc nhau v s lng cc vch quang ph, v tr cc vch, mu sc cc vch v sng t
i ca cc vch .
Nh vy, mi nguyn t ho hc trng thi kh hay hi nng sng di p sut
thp cho mt quang ph vch ring, c trng cho nguyn t .
d. ng dng:
Dng nhn bit s c mt ca cc nguyn t ha hc, nng v t l cc nguyn
t trong cng mt cht, mt mu em phn tch.
6.4.5 Quang ph vch hp th
a. nh ngha:
L quang ph c dng nhng vch ti nm trn nn ca quang ph lin tc
Chiu mt chm sng trng do mt n c dy tc nng sng pht ra vo khe ca
mt my quang ph ta thu c mt quang ph lin tc trn tm knh ca bung nh. Nu
trn ng i ca chm sng ta t mt ngn n c hi natri nung nng th trong quang
ph lin tc ni trn xut hin mt vch ti (thc ra l hai vch ti nm st cnh nhau)
ng v tr ca vch vng trong quang ph pht x ca natri. l quang ph hp th ca
natri.
Nu thay hi natri bng hi kali th trn quang ph lin tc xut hin nhng vch
ti ng ch nhng vch mu ca quang ph pht x ca kali. l quang ph hp th
ca kali.
Quang ph ca Mt Tri m ta thu c trn Tri t l quang ph hp th. B
mt ca Mt Tri (quang cu) pht ra mt quang ph lin tc. nh sng t quang cu i
qua lp kh quyn ca Mt Tri n Tri t cho ta mt quang ph hp th ca kh quyn
.
b. iu kin
iu kin thu c quang ph hp th l nhit ca m kh hay hi hp th
phi thp hn nhit ca ngun sng pht ra quang ph lin tc.
c. ng dung: Quang ph vch hp th ca mi nguyn t cng c tnh cht c trng
ring cho nguyn t . V vy, cng c th cn c vo quang ph vch hp th nhn
bit s c mt ca nguyn t trong cc hn hp hay hp cht. l ni dung ca php
phn tch quang ph hp th.
Nh c vic phn tch quang ph hp th ca Mt Tri m ngi ta pht hin ra
hli trn Mt Tri, trc khi tm thy n Tri t. Ngoi ra ngi ta cn thy c mt
ca rt nhiu nguyn t trong kh quyn Mt Tri nh hir, natri, canxi, st v.v. . .
6.4.6 Hin tng o sc cc vch quang ph:
C mt hin tng c bit lin h gia quang ph vch hp th v quang ph vch pht
x ca cng mt nguyn t: hin tng o sc. Hin tng ny xy ra nh sau:
Gi s m hi hp th trong th nghim trn c nung nng n nhit m
chng c th pht sng, tuy nhit ny vn cn thp hn nhit ca ngun sng trng.
Trn knh nh ca my quang ph, ta thu c quang ph hp th ca m hi .
By gi ta t nhin tt ngun sng trng i. Ta s thy bin mt nn quang ph
lin tc trn knh nh, ng thi nhng vch en ca quang ph hp th tr thnh nhng
vch mu ca quang ph vch pht x ca chnh nguyn t . l hin tng o sc
ca vch quang ph.
Th d: trong quang ph hp th ca hi natri c mt vch en kp nm ng v tr
ca hai vch vng (0, 589m; 0, 5896m) ca natri.
Vy, mt nhit nht nh, mt m hi c kh nng pht ra nhng nh sng
n sc no th n cng c kh nng hp th nhng nh sng n sc .
6.4.7 Php phn tch quang ph v tin li ca php phn tch quang ph
Php phn tch thnh phn cu to ca cc cht da vo vic nghin cu quang ph gi l
php phn tch quang ph.
Trong php phn tch quang ph nh tnh, ngi ta ch cn bit s c mt ca cc
thnh phn khc nhau trong mu m ngi ta cn nghin cu. Php phn tch quang ph
nh tnh th n gin v cho kt qu nhanh hn cc php phn tch ho hc.
Trong php phn tch quang ph nh lng, ngi ta cn bit c nng ca cc
thnh phn trong mu. Php phn tch quang ph ht sc nhy. Ngi ta c th pht hin
c mt nng rt nh ca cht trong mu (thng vo khong 0, 002%).
Nh php phn tch quang ph m ngi ta bit c thnh phn cu to v nhit
ca cc vt rt xa nh Mt Tri v cc sao.
6.5 Tia hng ngoi. Tia t ngoi. Tia X
6.5.1 Th nghim pht hin tia hng ngoi v tia t ngoi
Chiu nh sng ca mt h quang J vo khe ca mt my quang ph lng knh. Trn tiu
din ca thu knh L
2
bung nh ca my s c mt quang ph lin tc. t mt mn chn
c khot mt khe hp F ti tiu din , sao cho c th tch c mt thnh phn n sc
nht nh. Chm sng n sc ny c chiu vo mt mi hn ca mt pin nhit in ny.
Mi hn kia c gi mt nhit nht nh.
Ta thy din k G trong mch ca pin nhit in ch mt dng nhit in nht nh.
iu chng t chm sng n sc ni trn c tc dng nhit, lm nng mi hn ca
pin nhit in.
X dch mn chn sao cho khe F qut ht quang ph lin tc, t u n u tm; ta
thy kim in k lun lun b lch, tuy s ch ca in k c thay i.
Nh vy: tc dng nhit ca cc chm nh sng n sc khc nhau th khc nhau.
Nu di chuyn khe F v mi hn ca pin nhit in ra ngoi phm vi di mu lin tc, ngoi
vng nh sng nhn thy, ta vn thy kim in k b lch. iu chng t ngoi vng
di mu lin tc vn cn c nhng loi nh sng (hay cn gi l bc x) no , khng nhn
thy c.
6.5.2 Tia hng ngoi
a. nh ngha:
Tia hng ngoi l nhng bc x khng nhn thy dc c bc sng ln hn bc
sng ca nh sng ( > 0, 75m).
b. Ngun pht:
Tia hng ngoi do cc vt b nung nng pht ra. Vt c nhit thp ch pht ra
c cc tia hng ngoi. Chng hn nh thn th ngi nhit 37
0
C ch pht ra cc tia
hng ngoi trong mnh nht l cc tia c bc sng vng 9m .
Vy c nhit 500
0
C bt u pht ra nh sng mu ti nhng mnh nht vn
l cc tia hng ngoi vng bc sng 3, 7m.
Trong nh sng mt tri, c khong 50% nng lng ca chm sng l thuc v cc
tia hng ngoi. Ngun pht tia hng ngoi thng dng l cc bng n c dy tc bng
vonfram nng sng cng sut t 250W n 1000W. Nhit dy tc bng n vo khong
2000
C
.
c. Tnh cht v ng dng:
Tia hng ngoi c bn cht l sng in t.
Tc dng ni vt nht ca tia hng ngoi l tc dng nhit. Ngoi ra, tia hng ngoi
cng c tc dng ln mt loi knh nh c bit gi l knh nh hng ngoi. Nu chp nh
cc m my bng knh nh hng ngoi th nh cc m my s ni ln rt r rt. l cc
m my cha hi nc t hay nhiu s hp th cc tia hng ngoi yu hay mnh rt khc
nhau.
ng dng quan trng nht ca cc tia hng ngoi l dng sy hoc si. Trong
cng nghip, ngi ta dng tia hng ngoi xy kh cc sn phm sn (nh v t, v t
lnh v.v. . . ) hoc cc hoa qu nh chui, nho v.v. . . Trong y hc, ngi ta dng n hng
ngoi si m ngoi da cho mu lu thng c tt.
6.5.3 Tia t ngoi
a. nh ngha:
Tia t ngoi l nhng bc x khng nhn thy c, c bc sng ngn hn bc
sng ca nh sng tm ( < 0, 4m).
b. Ngun pht: Mt Tri l mt ngun pht tia t ngoi rt mnh. Khong 9% cng sut
ca chm nh sng mt tri l thuc v cc tia t ngoi. Cc h quang in cng l nhng
ngun pht tia t ngoi mnh. Trong cc bnh vin v phng th nghim, ngi ta dng cc
n thu ngn lm ngun pht cc tia t ngoi. Ngoi ra nhng vt nung nng trn 3000
0
C
cng pht ra tia t ngoi rt mnh.
c. Tnh cht v ng dng:
Tia t ngoi c bn cht l sng in t.
Tia t ngoi b thu tinh, nc v.v. . . hp th rt mnh. Thch anh th gn nh
trong sut i vi cc tia t ngoi c bc sng nm trong vng t 0, 18m n 0.4m (gi
l vng t ngoi gn).
Tia t ngoi c tc dng rt mnh ln knh nh. N c th lm cho mt s cht pht
quang. N c tc dng in ho khng kh. Ngoi ra, n cn c tc dng gy ra mt s phn
ng quang ho, phn ng quang hp v.v. . . Tia t ngoi cn c tc dng sinh hc.
Trong cng nghip, ngi ta s dng tia t ngoi pht hin cc vt nt nh, vt
xc trn b mt cc sn phm tin. Mun vy, ngi ta xoa trn b mt sn phm mt
lp bt pht quang rt mn. Bt s chui vo cc khe nt, vt xc. Khi a sn phm vo
chm t ngoi, cc vt s sng ln.
Trong y hc, ngi ta dng tia t ngoi cha bnh ci xng.
6.6 Tia Ronghen ( Tia X)
6.6.1 ng Ronghen ( Tia X)
Nm 1895, nh bc hc Rnghen (Roentgen), ngi c, nhn thy rng khi cho dng tia
catt trong ng tia catt p vo mt ming kim loi c nguyn t lng ln nh bch kim
hoc vonfram th t s pht ra mt bc x khng nhn thy c. Bc x ny i xuyn
qua thnh thu tinh ra ngoi v c th lm pht quang mt s cht hoc lm en phim nh.
Ngi ta gi bc x ny l tia Rnghen hay tia X
ng Rnghen n gin l nhng ng tia ca tt, trong lp thm mt in cc
bng kim loi c nguyn t lng ln v kh nng chy (nh platin, vonfram
v.v. . . ) chn dng tia catt. Cc kim loi ny gi l i m cc AK. i
m cc thng c ni vi ant. p sut trong ng vo khong 10
3
mmHg
. .
V khi ng Rnghen hot ng, i m cc b nng ln rt mnh, nn trong
cc ng Rnghen hin i, ngi ta phi lm ngui i m cc bng mt dng
nc chy trong lng ca n.
Ngoi ra, tng dng lectrn trong tia m cc, ngi ta dng catt l mt si dy
kim loi nung nng.
6.6.2 Bn cht, tnh cht v ng dng ca tia Ronghen
a. Bn cht:
Tia Rnghen i qua in trng v t trng mnh th n khng b lch ng. Nh
vy, tia Rnghen khng mang in.
V sau, ngi ta mi xc nhn c rng tia Rnghen l mt loi sng in t c
bc sng ngn hn c bc sng ca tia t ngoi. Ngi ta tm c cch o bc sng
ca tia Rnghen v thy n nm trong khong t 10
12
m (Tia Ronghen cng) n 10
8
m
(tia Rnghen mm).
b. Tnh cht v ng dng:
+ Tnh cht ni bt ca tia Rnghen l kh nng m xuyn. N truyn qua c
nhng vt chn sng thng thng nh giy, ba, g. N i qua kim loi kh khn hn. Kim
loi c khi lng ring cng ln th kh nng cn tia Rnghen ca n cng mnh. Chng
hn, tia Rnghen xuyn qua d dng mt tm nhm dy vi cm, nhng li b lp ch dy
vi mm cn li. V vy, ch c dng lm cc mn chn bo v trong k thut Rnghen.
+ Nh kh nng m xuyn mnh m tia Rnghen c dng trong y hc chiu
in, chp in, trong cng nghip d cc l hng khuyt tt nm bn trong cc sn
phm c.
+ Tia Rnghen c tc dng rt mnh ln knh nh, nn n c dng chp in.
+ Tia Rn ghen c tc dng lm pht quang mt s cht. Mn hunh quang dng
trong vic chiu in l mn c ph mt lp platinocyanua bary. Lp ny pht quang mu
xanh lc di tc dng ca tia Rnghen.
+ Tia Rnghen c kh nng in ho cc cht khi. Ngi ta li dng c im ny
lm cc my o liu lng tia Rnghen.
+ Tia Rnghen c tc dng sinh l. N c th hu hoi t bo, git vi khun. V th
tia Rnghen dng cha nhng ung th nng, gn ngoi da.
6.6.3 Gii thch c ch pht ra tia Ronghen
Cc electrn trong tia catt c tng tc trong in trng mch, nn thu c mt ng
nng rt ln. Khi n i m cc, chng gp cc nguyn t ca i m cc, xuyn su vo
nhng lp bn trong ca v nguyn t v tng t vi ht nhn nguyn t v mt sng in
t c bc sng rt ngn m ta gi l bc x hm. chnh l tia Rnghen.
Phn ln ng nng ca electrn b bin thnh ni nng lm nng i m cc. Phn
cn li bin thnh nng lng ca chm tia Rnghen.
6.6.4 Tc dng quang in ca tia Ronghen
Phonon ca tia Ronghen mang nng lng cc tiu:
=
hc
max
= 6, 625.10
34
.3.10
8
10
8
= 124eV
Nng lng ny qu ln nn n c th gy ra hin tng quang in i vi tt c cc kim
loi.
6.6.5 Cng thc v tia Ronghen
Gi s ta b qua ng nng ca electron khi bc ra khi Katot, ng nng ca electron khi
p vo i Katot chnh l cng ca lc in trng:
1
2
mv
2
= eU
AK
(6.7)
Nng lng trun cho i Katot (di dng ng nng) c chia thnh hai phn. Mt phn
lm i Katot ta nhit; mt phn cung cp cho phonon thot ra ngoi.
1
2
mv
2
= W
i
+
hc
(6.8)
6.7 Thuyt in t nh sng. Thang sng in t
6.7.1 Thuyt in t nh sng
Da vo s tng t gia cc tnh cht ca sng in t v nh sng v pht trin sng nh
sng ca Huyghen v Frexen, nm 1860, nh bc hc Macxeon nu gi thuyt mi v bn
cht ng sng: nh sng l sng in t c bc sng ngn lan truyn trong khng gian.
Mi lin h gia tnh cht in v t vi tnh cht quang ca mi trng:
c
v
=
= n (6.9)
Vi n =
chit sut tuyt i ca mi trng trong sut; l hng s in mi, l

t thm.
Lorentz chng t c rng, hng s in mi = F(f) , vi f l tn s ca nh
sng.
6.7.2 Thang sng in t
Tia Rnghen, tia t ngoi, nh sng nhn thy c, tia hng ngoi v cc sng v tuyn
u c chung bn cht l sng in t.
im khc nhau c bn gia chng l bc sng di, ngn khc nhau.
Tia Rnghen c bc sng: 10
12
m 10
9
m
Tia t ngoi c bc sng: 10
9
m 4.10
7
m
nh sng nhn thy c bc sng: 4.10
7
m 7, 5.10
7
m
Tia hng ngoi c bc sng: 7, 5.10
7
m 10
3
m
Cc sng v tuyn c bc sng: 10
3
m
Ngoi ra, trong s phn r ca ht nhn nguyn t ngi ta thng thy c pht ra
nhng sng in t c bc sng cc ngn (di ). Sng ny gi l tia gamma.
Thc ra, gia cc vng tia khng c ranh gii r rt. V bc sng khc nhau nn
tnh cht ca cc tia s rt khc nhau.
+ Cc tia c bc sng cng ngn (tia gamma, tia Rnghen) c tnh m xuyn cng
mnh, d tc dng ln knh nh, d lm pht quang cc cht v d in ho khng kh.
+ i vi cc tia c bc sng cng di, ta cng d quan st hin tng giao thoa
ca chng.
Chng 7
LNG T NH SNG
7.1 Hin tng quang in ngoi. Cc nh lut quang in
7.1.1 Th nghim Hecx
Nm 1887, nh bc hc Hecx ngi c lm th nghim sau: chiu mt chm nh sng
do mt h quang pht ra vo mt tm km tch in m, gn trn mt in nghim (c
th thay in nghim bng tnh in k). ng thy hai l ca in nghim cp li. iu
chng t tm km mt in tch m.
Nu tm km tch in dng th khng c hin tng g xy ra.
Hin tng cng xy ra tng t nu thay tm km bng cc tm ng,
nhm, bc, niken v.v. . .
Nu dng mt tm thu tinh khng mu chn chm tia h quang th
hin tng trn khng xy ra. Ta bit rng thu tinh hp th mnh cc
tia t ngoi.
Nhiu th nghim tng t a ta n kt lun: khi chiu mt chm sng thch
hp (c bc sng ngn) vo mt mt tm kim loi th n lm cho cc electrn mt kim
loi b bt ra. l hin tng quang in.
Thc ra, khi chiu nh sng t ngoi vo tm km tch in dng th vn c lectrn
b bt ra. Tuy nhin, chng lp tc b ht tr li, nn in tch ca tm km coi nh khng
thay i.
7.1.2 Th nghim vi t bo quang in
a. M t th nghim:
T bo quang in l mt bnh chn khng nh trong c hai in cc: ant A v
catt K. Ant( ant) l mt vng dy kim loi. Catt ( catt) c dng mt chm cu lm
bng kim loi (m ta cn nghin cu) ph thnh trong ca t bo.
- nh sng do mt h quang pht ra, c chiu qua mt knh lc
F lc ly mt thnh phn n sc nht nh, chiu vo catt K.
- Ta thit lp gia ant v catt mt in trng nh b acquy E.
Hiu in th Ugia A vK c th thay i (v ln v v du)
nh thay i v tr ca cht cm C trn b ngun.
Mt vn k V dng o hiu in th U v mt miliampe k nhy
G o cng dng in chy qua t bo quang in.
in tr trong ca cc acquy rt nh so vi in tr ca t bo quang in.
b.Nghin cu s ph thuc ca hin tng quang in vo bc sng ca nh sng
kch thch (nh sng chiu vo catt) ngi ta thy: i vi mi kim loi dng lm catt,
nh sng kch thch phi cso bc sng nh hn mt gii hn
0
no th mi gy ra c
hin tng quang in. Nu nh sng kch thch c bc sng ln hn th d chm nh sng
c mnh cng khng gy ra hin tng quang in.
c.Sau khi chiu nh sng vo catt gy ra hin tng quang in, ngi ta nghin
cu s ph thuc ca cng dng quang in I vo hiu in th U
AK
gia ant v catt.
Kt qu nghin cu c biu th bng ng cong nh trn. th ny gi l ng c
trng von-ampe ca t bo quang in.
Thot tin khi tng U
AK
th dng quang in I tng. Khi U
AK
t
n mt gi tr no th cng dng quang in t n gi tr
bo ho I
bh
.Sau gi tr ca cng dng quang in s khng
i d c tng U
AK
.
d.Nghin cu s ph thuc ca cng dng quang in bo ho
I
b
h vo cng ca chm nh sng kch thch, ta thy I
b
h t l
thun vi cng .
e.Mun cho dng quang in trit tiu hon ton th phi t gia ant v catt mt
hiu in th m U
h
no (U
h
= U
AK
< 0). U
h
c gi l hiu in th hm. Gi tr ca
U
h
ng vi giao im ca ng c trng vn- ampe ca t bo quang in vi trc honh.
Th nghim cho thy gi tr ca hiu in th hm U
h
ng vi mi kim loi dng lm
catt hon ton khng ph thuc vo cng ca chm sng kch thch m ch ph thuc
vo bc sng ca chm sng kch thch .
7.2 Thuyt lng t nh sng. Gii thch cc nh lut quang in.
Lng tnh sng - ht ca nh sng
7.2.1 Cc nh lut quang in
a. nh lut quang in th nht: i vi mi kim loi dng lm catt c mt bc
sng gii hn
0
nht nh gi l gii hn quang in. Hin tng quang in ch xy ra khi
bc sng ca nh sng kch thch nh hn gii hn quang in (
0
).
b. nh lut quang in th hai : Vi nh sng kch thch c bc sng tho mn nh
lut quang in th nht th cng dng quang in bo ho t l thun vi cng
ca chm sng kch thch.
c. nh lut quang in th ba: S tn ti ca hiu in th hm U
h
chng t rng khi
bt ra khi mt kim loi, cc lectron quang in c mt vn tc ban u v
0
. in trng
cn mnh n mc no th ngay c nhng lectron c vn tc ban u ln nht v
omax
cng khng bay n c ant. Lc dng quang din trit tiu hon ton v cng ca
in trng cn c gi tr ng bng ng nng ban u cc i ca lectron quang in.
e|U
h
| =
1
2
mv
2
omax
(7.1)
nh lut: ng nng ban u cc i ca cc lctron quang in khng ph thuc
vo cng ca chm sng kch thch, m ch ph thuc vo bc sng ca nh sng kch
thch v bn cht kim loi dng lm catt.
7.2.2 Thuyt lng t nh sng
a. Cc nh lut quang in hon ton mu thun vi tnh cht sng ca nh sng. Thc
vy, theo thuyt sng, khi nh sng chiu vo mt catt, in trng bin thin trong sng
nh sng slm cho cc lectrong trong kim loi dao ng. Cng ca chm sng kch
thch cng ln th in trng cng mnh v n lm cho electron dao ng cng mnh.
n mc no th elctron s b bt ra, to thnh dng quang in. Do , bt k chm
sng no cng c th gy ra hin tng quang in, min l n c cng ln v ng
nng ban u cc i ca lectron quang in phi ph thuc vo cng ca chm sng
kch thch.
b. Ta ch c th gii thch c cc nh lut quang in, nu tha nhn mt thuyt mi gi
l thuyt lng t do nh bc hc Plng ngi c xng nm 1900. Theo thuyt lng
t: Nhng nguyn t hay phn t vt cht khng hp th hay bc x nh sng mt cch
lin tc, m thnh tng phn ring bit , t qung. Mi phn mang mt nng lng
hon ton xc nh, c ln l = hf, trong , f l tn s ca nh sng m n pht ra,
cn h l mt hng s gi l hng s Plng h = 6, 625.10 34J.s
Mt phn gi l mt lng l nng lng. Ta thy mi lng t nh sng rt nh, mi
chm sng d yu, cng cha mt s rt ln lng t nh sng. Do , ta c cm gic chm
sng l lin tc. Khi nh sng truyn i, cc lng t nh sng khng b thay i , khng
ph thuc khong cch ti ngun sng, d ngun l mt ngi sao nm cch xa ta hng
triu nm nh sng.
7.2.3 Gii thch cc nh lut quang in
a. Vn dng ca Einstein
Nh bc hc Einstein , ngi c, l ngi u tin vn dng thuyt lng t
gii thch cc nh lut quang in. ng coi chm sng nh mt chm ht v gi mi ht l
mt phtn. Mi phtn ng vi mt lng t nh sng.
Theo Einstein, trong hin tng quang in c s hp th hon ton phtn chiu
ti. Mi phtn b hp th s truyn ton b nng lng ca n cho mt lectron. i vi
cc lectron nm ngay trn b mt kim loi th phn nng lng ny s c dng vo hai
vic:
- Cung cp cho electron mt cng A n thng c cc lc lin kt trong
tinh th v thot ra ngoi. Cng ny gi l cng thot.
- Cung cp cho lectron mt ng nng ban u. So vi ng nng ban u
m cc lectron nm cc lp su thu c khi b bt ra th ng nng ban u ny l cc
i:
= hf =
hc
= A +
1
2
mv
2
0max
(7.2)
y l cng thc Einstein v hin tng quang in.
i vi cc lectron nm cc lp su bn trong mt kim loi thi trc khi n b
mt kim loi, chng va chm vi cc in ca kim loi v mt mt phn nng lng. Do
ng nng ban u ca chng nh hn ng nng ban u cc i ni trn.
b. Gii thch cc nh lut quang in
+ Cng thc (7.2) cho thy ng nng ban u cc i ca cc electron quang
in ch ph thuc tn s f ( hay bc sng ca nh sng kch thch v bn cht ca kim
loi dng lm catt (K) m khng ph thuc vo cng ca chm sng kch thch.
chnh l ni dung ca nh lut quang in th ba.
+ Cng thc (7.2) cn cho thy: nu nng lng ca phtn nh hn cng thot
A th n khng th lm cho lectron bt ra khi catt v hin tng quang in s khng
xy ra. Ta c:
hc
A
hc
A
t:
0
=
hc
A
(7.3)
0
chnh l gii hn quang in ca kim loi. Bt ng thc trn biu th nh lut quang
in th nht.
+ Cui cng ta gii thch nh lut quang in th hai nh sau: Vi cc chm
sng c kh nng gy ra hin tng quang in th s lectron quang in b bt ra khi
catt trong n v thi gian t l thun vi s phtn n p vo mt catt trong thi gian
. Mt khc, s phtn ny li t l thun vi cng ca chm sng; cn cng dng
quang in bo ho li t l thun vi s lectron quang in b bt ra khi catt trong n
v thi gian. V vy, cng ca dng quang in bo ho s t l thun vi cng ca
chm sng kch thch.
7.2.4 Lng tnh sng - ht ca nh sng
nh sng nhn thy cng nh cc tia hng ngoi, tia t ngoi, tia Rnghen, u l cc sng
in t c bc sng khc nhau. Ngi ta ni chng c cng bn cht in t.
n y, ta li thy nh sng c tnh cht ht ( tnh cht lng t) . Vy, nh sng va c
tnh cht sng, va c tnh cht ht. Ngi ta n: nh sng c lng tnh sng - ht. Nhng
sng in t c bc sng cng ngn th phtn ng vi chng c nng lng cng ln. Thc
nghim cho thy tnh cht ht ca chng th hin cng m nt, tnh cht sng cng t th
hin.
Ta c th coi nhng tc dng sau y l nhng biu hin ca tnh cht ht: kh nng m
xuyn, tc dng quang in, tc dng in ho, tc dng pht quang.
Ngc li, nhng sng in t c bc sng cng di th phtn ng vi chng c nng lng
cng nh. Thc nghim cho thy: tnh cht ht ca chng cng kh th hin, tnh cht sng
ca chng cng d bc l. Ta d dng quan st thy hin tng giao thoa, hin tng tn
sc ca cc sng .
S tn ti ng thi ca hai tnh cht tri ngc nhau ( sng v ht) trong cng mt s vt
(nh sng) l mt minh ho rt r cho lun im trit hc v s thng nht bin chng ca
cc mt i lp.
7.3 Hin tng quang in trong. Quang in tr. Pin quang in
7.3.1 Hin tng quang dn
Mt s cht bn dn l cht cch in khi khng b chiu sng v tr thnh cht dn in
khi b chiu sng. Hin tng gim mch in tr ca cht bn dn khi b chiu sng gi l
hin tng quang in trong.
Trong hin tng quang in, khi c nh sng thch hp chiu vo catt ca t bo quang
in th lectron s b bt ra khi catt. V vy, hin tng ny cn gi l hin tng quang
in ngoi.
Trong hin tng quang dn, mi phtn ca nh sng kch thch khi b hp th s gii
phng mt lectron lin kt n tr thnh mt lectron t do chuyn ng trong khi cht
bn dn . Cc lectron ny tr thnh cc lectron dn. Ngoi ra, mi lectron lin kt khi
c gii phng, s li mt l trng mang in dng. Nhng l trng ny cng c th
chuyn ng t do t nt mng ny sang nt mng khc v cng tham gia vo qu trnh
dn in.
Hin tng gii phng cc lectron lin kt cho chng tr thnh cc lectron dn gi l
hin tng quang in bn trong.
V nng lng cn thit gii phng mt lectron lin kt chuyn n thnh lectron dn
khng ln lm, nn gy ra hin tng quang dn, khng i hi phtn phi c nng
lng ln. Rt nhiu cht quang dn hot ng c vi nh sng hng ngoi. Ta hiu gii
hn quang dn ca mt cht l bc sng di nht ca nh sng c kh nng gy ra hin
tng quang dn cht . y l mt li th ca hin tng quang dn so vi hin tng
quang in.
7.3.2 Quang tr
Cu to quang tr gm mt lp cht bn dn ( cadimi sunfua CdS chng
hn ) ph trn mt tm nha cch in. C hai in cc v gn vo lp
cht bn dn . Ni mt ngun khong vi vn vi quang tr thng qua
mt miliampe k.
Ta thy khi quang tr c t trong ti th trong mch khng c dng in. Khi
chiu quang tr bng nh sng c bc sng ngn hn gii hn quang dn ca quang tr th
s xut hin dng in trong mch.
in tr ca quang tr gim i rt mnh khi b chiu sng bi nh sng ni trn. o in
tr ca quang tr CdS, ngi ta thy: khi khng b chiu sng, in tr ca n vo khong
3.10
6
; khi b chiu sng, in tr ca n ch cn khong 20.
Ngy nay, quang tr c dng thay cho cc t bo quang in trong hu ht cc mch iu
khin t ng.
7.3.3 Pin quang in
a. nh ngha:
Pin quang in l mt ngun in trong quang nng c bin i trc tip thnh
in nng. Pin hot ng da vo hin tng quang in bn trong xy ra trong mt cht
bn dn.
b. Cu to:
Ta hy xt mt pin quang in n gin. Pin ng xit. Pin c mt
in cc bng ng. Trn bn ng ny c ph mt lp ng xit Cu
2
O.
Ngi ta phun mt lp vng rt mng trn mt lp Cu
2
O lm in
cc th hai. Lp vng ny mng n mc cho nh sng truyn qua c.
ch tip xc gia Cu
2
O v Cu hnh thnh mt lp c tc dng c bit : n ch
cho php lectron chy qua n theo chiu t Cu
2
O sang Cu.
c. Hot ng:
Khi chiu mt chm sng c bc sng thch hp vo mt lp Cu
2
O th nh sng
s gii phng cc lectron lin kt trong Cu
2
O thnh lectron dn. Mt phn cc lectron
ny khuych tn sang cc Cu. Cc Cu tha lectron nn nhim in m. Cu
2
O nhim in
dng. Gia hai in cc ca pin hnh thnh mt sut in ng.
Nu ta ni hai in cc vi nhau bng mt dy dn thng qua mt in k, ta s thy c
mt dng in chy trong mch theo chiu t Cu
2
O sang Cu.
Ngoi pin quang in ng oxit, cn c rt nhiu loi pin quang in khc, ph bin nht
l pin slen.
Ngy nay, cc pin quang in c rt nhiu ng dng. Cc pin mt tri lp cc my tnh
b ti, trn cc v tinh nhn to .. u l pin quang in.
7.4 Quang ph vch ca nguyn t Hidro
7.4.1 Mu nguyn t Bo
a. Tin 1:Tin v cc trng thi dng: Nguyn t ch tn ti trong nhng trng thi
c nng lng xc nh, gi l cc trng thi dng. Trong cc trng thi dng, nguyn t
khng bc x.
Nng lng ca nguyn t trng thi dng bao gm ng nng ca cc lectrn v
th nng ca chng i vi ht nhn. tnh ton nng lng ca cc lectrn. Bo vn s
dng m hnh hnh tinh nguyn t.
b. Tin 2:Tin v s bc x v hp th nng lng ca nguyn t: Trng thi dng
c nng lng cng thp th cng bn vng.
Trng thi dng c nng lng cng cao th cng km bn vng. Do , khi nguyn t
cc trng thi dng c nng lng ln bao gi n cng c xu hng chuyn sang trng thi
dng c nng lng nh.
Khi nguyn t chuyn t trng thi dng c nng lng E
m
sang trng
thi dng c nng lng E
n
( vi E
m
> E
n
) th nguyn t pht ra mt
phtn c nng lng ng bng hiu E
m
E
n
:
mn
= hf
mn
=
hc
mn
= E
m
E
n
(7.4)
Vi f
mn
l tn s ca sng nh sng ng vi phtn .
Ngc li, nu nguyn t ang trng thi dng c nng lng E
n
thp m hp th
c mt phtn c nng lng hf
mn
ng bng hiu E
m
E
n
th n chuyn ln trng thi
dng c nng lng E
m
ln hn.
H qu: Mt h qu rt quan trng suy ra c t hai tin trn l:
Trong cc trng thi dng ca nguyn t, lectron ch chuyn ng quanh ht nhn theo
nhng qu o c bn knh hon ton xc nh gi l cc qu o dng.
Bo thy rng: i vi nguyn t hir, bn knh cc qu o dng tng t l vi bnh phng
ca cc s nguyn lin tip: Bn knh: r
0
; 4r
0
; 9r
0
; 16r
0
; 25r
0
; 36r
0
. . . ng vi tn qu o:
K, L, M, N, O, P. Vi r
0
= 5, 3.10
11m
. r
0
gi l bn knh Bo.
Ta c:
r
n
= n
2
r
0
n = 0, 1, 2 . . . (7.5)
Qu o c bn knh ln ng vi nng lng ln, bn knh nh ng vi nng lng nh.
Nng lng ca nguyn t trng thi dng th n l:
E
n
=
13, 6MeV
n
2
; n = 0, 1, 2 . . . (7.6)
7.4.2 Gii thch s hnh thnh quang ph vch ca nguyn t Hidro
a. c im:
Mt trong nhng thnh cng quan trng ca mu nguyn t Bo l gii thch c
y s to thnh quang ph vch ca hir.
Ngi ta thy cc vch trong quang ph pht x ca hir sp xp thnh nhng dy xc
nh, tch ri hn nhau.
Trong vng t ngoi, c mt dy gi l Lyman
Th hai l dy gi l dy Banme (Balmer). Dy ny c mt phn nm trong vng t ngoi v
mt phn nm trong vng nh sng nhn thy. Phn ny c 4 vch l H
= 0, 6563m);
lam H
= 0, 4861m); chm H
= 0, 4340m) v tm H
= 0, 4102m).
Trong vng hng ngoi c dy gi l dy Pasen (Paschen)
b. Gii thch
trng thi bnh thng (trng thi c bn) nguyn t hirro c nng lng thp
nht, electron chuyn ng trn qu o K.
Khi nguyn t nhn nng lng kch thch, lectron chuyn ln cc qu o c mc nng
lng cao hn: L, M, N, O, P . . .
Nguyn t sng trong trng thi kch thch trong thi gian rt ngn (khong 10
8
s ). Sau
electrn chuyn v cc qu o bn trong v pht ra cc phtn.
Mi khi electron chuyn t mt qu o c mc nng lng cao xung mt qu o c mc
nng lng thp th n pht ra mt phtn c nng lng ng bng hiu mc nng lng
ng vi hai qu o .
hf = E
cao
E
thp
.
Mi phtn c tn s f li ng vi mt sng nh sng n sc c bc sng .
=
c
f
Mi sng nh sng n sc li cho mt vch quang ph c mt mu nht nh. V vy quang
ph l quang ph vch.
S to thnh cc dy c gii thch nh sau:
Cc vch trong dy Lyman c to thnh khi lectron chuyn t cc qu o bn ngoi v
qu o K: L v K; M v K; N v K; O v K v P v K.
Cc vch trong dy Banme c to thnh khi cc lectron chuyn t cc qu o bn ngoi
v qu o L.
+Vch H
ng vi s chuyn M v L
+Vch H
ng vi s chuyn N v L
+Vch H
ng vi s chuyn O v L
+Vch H
ng vi s chuyn P v L
Cc vch trong dy Pasen c to thnh khi cc lectron chuyn t cc qu o bn ngoi
v qu o M.
7.5 Hp th nh sng. Phn x lc la. Mu sc ca cc vt
7.5.1 Hp th nh sng
Hp th nh sng l hin tng mi trng vt cht lm gim cng ca chm sng
truyn qua n.
Cng I ca chm sng n sc khi truyn qua mi trng hp th, gim theo
hm s m ca di d ca ng i tia sng
I = I
0
e
d
(7.7)
Vi l h s hp th ca mi trng, I
0
l cng ca chm sng ti mi trng.
Cc nh sng khc nhau th bi mi trng hp th nhiu hay t khc nhau. Ni cch
khc, s hp th nh sng ca mi trng c tnh lc la, h s hp th ca mi trng ph
thuc vo bc sng nh sng
Mi cht u hp th c chn lc nh sng. Nhng cht hu nh khng hp th nh
sng trong min no ca quang ph c gi l gn nh trong sut vi min quang ph .
Nhng vt khng hp th nh sng trong min nhn thy ca quang ph c gi l
vt trong sut khng mu
Nhng vt hp th hon ton mi nh sng nhn thy th c mu en.
Nhng vt hp th lc la nh sng trong min nhn thy th c gi l vt trong
sut c mu
7.5.2 Phn x lc la. Mu sc ca cc vt
Cc vt c kh nng phn c ( tn x) i vi nh sng c bc sng khc nhau l khc
nhau, gi l phn x c lc la
Khi chiu nh sng trng vo mt vt, th vt c kh nng phn x mt s nh sng
c mu sc khc nhau, do vt c mu sc khc nhau.
7.5.3 S pht quang
Chiu mt chm tia t ngoi c bc sng vo mt bnh ng dung dch flurexin trong
ru. Dung dch ny s pht ra nh sng mu xanh lc nht c bc sng
> ). l
hin tng hunh quang.
i vi cc cht kh cng c hin tng tng t. nh sng hunh quang hu nh tt ngay
sau khi tt nh sng kch thch.
C ch ca hin tng hunh quang nh sau: Mi phn t flurexin khi hp th mt phtn
t ngoi c nng lng hf th chuyn sang trng thi b kch thch. Phn t ny trng
thi kch thch trong thi gian rt ngn. Trong thi gian ny, n va chm vi cc phn t
khc v mt bt mt phn nng lng. Cui cng, khi tr v trng thi bnh thng, n s
pht ra mt phtn khc c nng lng hf
nh hn: hf
< hf
Do : ta c nh l Xtoc
nh sng pht quang c bc sng
di hn bc ca nh sng knh thch .
> (7.8)
Dng nh sng t ngoi chiu vo cc tinh th km sunfua ZnSc pha mt lng rt nh
ng (Cu) v cban (Co) th km sunfua s pht ra nh sng mu xanh lc. S pht sng
ca cc tinh th khi b kch thch bng nh sng thch hp gi l s ln quang. nh sng
lnquang c th tn ti rt lu sau khi tt nh sng kch thch.
S hunh quang ca cht kh v cht lng v s ln quang ca cc cht rn gi chung l
s pht quang. Ngi ta thng gi s pht quang l s pht sng lnh phn bit vi
s pht sng ca vt khi b nung nng. C ch ca s ln quang cng khc c ch ca s
hunh quang.
Ngoi vic dng tia t ngoi, ngi ta cn dng cc tia c bc sng ngn hn kch thch
s pht quang. Chng hn, ngi ta c th dng tia Rnghen (trong vic chiu in), tia
v chm lectrn (trong cc bng hnh ca my thu v tuyn) v.v... kch thch s pht
quang ca mn nh.
Hin tng pht quang ca cc cht rn c ng dng trong cc n hunh quang. n
gm mt ng thu tinh hnh tr, trong cha hi thu ngn p sut thp. hai u ng c
hai in cc, c dng cc dy tc c nung . Thnh trong ca ng c ph mt lp bt
pht quang. Khi c ng in phng qua n th hi thu ngn s pht sng. nh sng do
hi thu ngn pht ra rt giu tia t ngoi. Cc tia t ngoi ny s kch thch lp bt pht
quang ph thnh trong ca n pht ra nh sng nhn thy c. Cc n hunh quang
sng hn nhiu so vi cc n c dy tc nng sng tiu th cng mt cng sut in.
7.5.4 S lt v Laser
Tia laze c tnh n sc rt cao. sai lch tng i
f
f
ca tn s do laze pht ra ch
10
15
.
Tia laze l chm sng kt hp ( cc photon trong chm sng c cng tn s, cng
pha)
Tia laze l chm song song ( c tnh nh hng cao).
Tia laze c cng ln.
Vy:Laze l mt ngun sng pht ra chm sng song song, kt hp, c tnh n sc
rt cao v c cng ln.
7.5.5 ng dng ca tia laze
Truyn thng tin v tuyn.
Lm dao m trong phu thut.
c cc a CD
Dng khoan, ct...
Chng 8
S LT V THUYT TNG I HP
8.1 Hai tin ca thuyt tng i hp
8.1.1 Hn ch ca c hc c in
Theo quan im c in, nh sng l sng in t lan truyn vi vn tc c trong mi trng
c bit, ng yn tuyt i gi l ete.
Tri t chuyn ng vi ete vi vn tc u 30km/s ( vn tc chuyn ng xung
quanh Mt Tri). T suy ra: Cng thc cng vn tc ca c hc c in, vn tc nh
sng m mt quan st vin o c khi nh sng truyn ngc chiu ca Tri t l c +u
ln hn khi truyn cng chiu Tri t c u.
Nm 1881, Maikenson dng phng php giao thoa nh sng th thy hai vn tc
l gn nhau
u
c
= 10
4
. iu ny l v l vi c hc c in.
Vn tc nh sng c cng mt gi tr i vi h quy chiu qun tnh khc nhau.
8.1.2 Cc tin ca Einstein
a. Tin 1: Cc hin tng vt l xy ra nh nhau i vi mi h quy chiu qun tnh.
Hay: Cc phng trnh din t cc hin tng vt l c cng mt dng trong h quy
chiu qun tnh. Cc h ny hon ton bnh ng, khng c ci no l tuyt i.
b. Tin 2: Vn tc nh sng trong chn khng c cng ln c trong mi h quy chiu
qun tnh, khng ph thuc vo phng truyn, vo vn tc ca ngun sng hay my thu;
c l hng s v tr, mt ci tuyt i trong thuyt tng i !
c = 3.10
8
m/s (8.1)
8.2 H qu ca thuyt tng i hp
8.2.1 S ng thi hoc th t trc sau ca hai bin c l tng i
Theo thuyt tng i, khi nim thi im t ch c ngha xc nh i vi mt h quy
chiu qun tnh H nht nh ( v cc h quy chiu khng chuyn ng i vi H).
Vi h quy chiu H
chuyn ng i vi H th ng thi im t l thi im t
(t
= t).
Vi h quy chiu khc t v t
ph thuc vo c ta m ta ang xt.

Kt lun:

Hai bin c ng thi i vi H c th l khng ng thi i vi H
, nu chng
xy ra hai ni cch xa nhau.

8.2.2 S co li chiu di
Nu vt chuyn ng vi vn tc v i vi quan st vin th quan st vin thy chiu di
ca vt ( kch thc theo phng ca v) co li theo t l xch xc nh ph thuc vo v.
Nu g l
0
l chiu da ca vt khi n ng yn i vi quan st vin ( chiu di ring
) th chiu di khi chuyn ng l:
l =
l
0
< l
0
v: > 1 (8.2)
Trong l h s ph thuc vo t s =
v
c
8.2.3 S tri chm ca thi gian
Gi s c mt bin c vt l xy ra trong h quy chiu chuyn ng K
trong khong thi

gian t
0
. Lc , trong h quy chiu K ng yn, thi gian xy ra bin c vt l l t.
Ta c:
t =
t
0
_
1
v
2
c
2
(8.3)
8.2.4 Cng vn tc
8.3 H thc Einstein gia nng lng v khi lng
Chng 9
PHN NG HT NHN
9.1 Lc ht nhn. ht khi. Nng lng lin kt ht nhn
9.1.1 Lc ht nhn
a. Cu to ht nhn:
Ht nhn chng t rng ht nhn c cu to t nhng ht nh hn gi l
nucln. C hai loi nucln:
+prtn, k hiu p, mang mt in tch nguyn t dng +e.
+ ntrn, k hiu n, khng mang in.
Ch :
Nu mt nguyn t c s t t Z trong bng tun hon Manleep (Z gi l nguyn
t s) th nguyn t ca n c Z lectron v ngoi, v ht nhn ca nguyn t y cha Z
prtn v N ntron. V electron c in tch Ze, ht nhn c in tch +Ze nn c nguyn
t bnh thng l trung ho v in. Tng s A = Z +N gi l khi lng s hoc s khi.
K hiu ht nhn nguyn t X:
A
Z
X
b. Lc ht nhn:
Cc prtn tronght nhnmang in dng nn y nhau. Nhng ht nhn vn bn
vng v cc nucln (k c prtn ln ntron) c lin kt vi nhau bi cc lc ht rt mnh
gi l lc ht nhn. Lc ht nhn l loi lc mnh nht trong cc lc bit, nhng ch tc
dng khi khong cch gia hai nucln bng hoc nh hn kch thc ca ht nhn, ngha l
lc ht nhn c bn knh tc dng khong 10
15
m.
c. ng v:
Cc nguyn t m ht nhn cha cng s prtn Z nhng c s ntron N khc nhau
(v do c s khi A = Z + N khc nhau) gi l ng v (c cng v tr trong bng tun
hon).
Hir c 3 ng v: hir thng (
1
1
H),hir nng hay tri (
2
1
H hoc D), hir siu
nng hay triti (
3
1
H hoc T).
tri kt hp vi xi thnh nc nng D
2
O l nguyn liu ca cng ngh nguyn t.
Hu ht cc nguyn t u l hn hp ca nhiu ng v
Th d: Ccbon c 4 ng v vi s ntron t 5 n 8 (A t 11 n 14) trong 2 ng v
12
6
C v
13
6
C l bn vng. ng v
12
6
C chim 99% ca cacbon thin nhin.
d. n v khi lng nguyn t:
Trong vt l nguyn t v ht nhn ngi ta thng dng mt n v khi lng
ring gi l n v khi lng nguyn t, k hiu l u, bng
1
12
khi lng ca ng v ph
bin ca nguyn t cacbon
12
6
C. V vy i khi n v ny cn gi l n v cacbon.
1u =
1
12
12
N
A
= 1, 66058.10
27
kg (9.1)
ngha:
Mt nguyn t c s khi A th c khi lng xp x bng A tnh theo n v u, v
ht nhn ca n cha A nucln. Mol l n v lng vt cht trong h SI (tn c l nguyn
t gam hoc phn t gam). Mt mol ca mt cht no l lng gm N
A
nguyn t, i
vi cht n nguyn t.
9.1.2 ht khi
Gi s Z prtn v N ntrn lc u cha lin kt vi nhau v ng yn.
Tng khi lng ca chng l: m
0
= Zm
p
+ Nm
n
. Vi m
p
v m
n
l khi lng ca prtn
v ntrn.
Nu lc ht nhn lin kt cc nucln vi nhau thnh mt ht nhn c khi lng m th iu
c sc l m b hn m
0
(khng c nh lut bo ton khi lng).
Hiu:
m = m
0
m (9.2)
gi l ht khi.
9.1.3 Nng lng lin kt ht nhn
Nng lng lin kt ht nhn l nng lng lin kt cc nuclon li vi nhau to thnh
ht nhn.
E = (m
0
m)c
2
(9.3)
gi l nng lng lin kt.
Ch :
Nng lng lin kt ht nhn l nng lng to ra di dng ng nng ca ht nhn
hoc nng lng tia .
Ngc li, nu mun ph ht nhn c khi lng m thnh cc nucln c tng khi lng
m
0
> m th ta phi tn nng lng E = (m
0
m)c
2
thng lc ht nhn.
Nng lng lin kt ring: L nng lng lin kt tnh cho mt nucln:
=
E
A
(9.4)
Ht nhn c nng lng lin kt ring cng ln, th cng bn vng.
Ch : 1u = 931, 5MeV/c
2
9.2 Phn ng ht nhn. Nng lng ca phn ng ht nhn
9.2.1 Phn ng ht nhn
Phn ng ht nhn l tng tc gia hai ht nhn dn in s bin i ca chng thnh
cc ht khc.
Th d: Hai ht nhn A v B tng tc vi nhau v bin thnh cc ht nhn C v
D. Phng trnh ca phng ng ny c vit nh sau:
A +B C +D (9.5)
Trong s cc ht ny c th c ht n gin hn ht nhn (ht s cp nh nucln, lec-
tron,phtn...)
Trong t nhin, th d trong kh quyn b bn ph bi cc tia v tr lun lun xy ra cc
phn ng ht nhn.
9.2.2 Cc nh lut bo ton
a. Bo ton s nucln (s khi A): Prtn c th bin thnh ntron v ngc li, nhng
cc s nucln v tri v v phi ca phng trnh (9.5) bao gi cng bng nhau. Bo ton
s nucln cng l bo ton s khi A.
A
1
+A
2
= A
3
+A
4
(9.6)
b. Bo ton in tch: Cc ht nhn trong phn ng ch tng tc vi nhau, khng tng
tc vi vt no khc nn hp thnh mt h kn, c lp v in. Ta bit rng in tch ca
mt h kn l khng i, ngha l tng i s cc in tch l mt hng s. Tng in tch
cc ht v tri v v phi ca phng trnh (9.5) bao gi cng bng nhau.
Z
1
+Z
2
= Z
3
+Z
4
(9.7)
c. Bo ton nng lng v bo ton ng lng ca h cc ht tham gia phn
ng: Khi nghin cu th gii v m, tc l cc vt rt ln so vi phn t, nguyn t (th
d cc vt m mt ta trng thy c) ta thy rng nng lng, v ng lng ca mt
h kn c bo ton. Vt l ht nhn i ti kt lun rng hai nh lut bo ton ny
vn ng i vi th gii vi m, ngha l ng i vi h kn gm cc nguyn t, ht nhn
v.v. . .
9.2.3 ht khi ca phn ng ht nhn. Nng lng ca phn ng ht nhn
a. ht khi ca phn ng ht nhn
L hiu khi lng ca cc ht nhn trc v sau phn ng:
m = m
0
m (9.8)
b. Phn ng ht nhn ta v thu nng lng
Gi s M < M
0
. H ban u c nng lng ngh E
0
= M
0
c
2
, v sau c nng lng
ngh E = Mc
2
. Nng lng ton phn c bo ton, vy phn ng phi to nng lng
E = (M
0
M)c
2
, di dng ng nng ca cc ht Cv D, hoc phtn . M < M
0
l
do cc ht sinh ra c ht khi ln hn cc ht ban u, ngha l bn vng hn.
Mt phn ng trong cc ht sinh ra c tng khi lng b hn cc ht ban u,
ngha l bn vng hn, l phn ng to nng lng.
E = (m
0
m)c
2
(9.9)
Tri li, nu M > M
0
, th E > E
0
phn ng khng th t n xy ra c m phi cung
cp cho cc ht A v B nng lng W, di dng ng nng ca A chng hn (bn A
vo B).
W ln hn E = E E
0
, v cc ht sinh ra c ng nng W
W = E +W
(9.10)
Vy mt phn ng ht nhn sinh ra cc ht c tng khi lng ln hn cc ht ban
u (km bn vng) l phn ng thu nng lng.
9.3 S phng x. nh lut phng x. ng v phng x. ng
dng ca ng v phng x
9.3.1 S phng x
a. nh ngha:
Phng x l hin tng mt ht nhn t ng phng ra nhng bc x gi l tia
phng x v bin i thnh ht nhn khc.
b. Bn cht v tnh cht ca tia phng x:
Tia phng x khng nhn thy c nhng c nhng tc dng l ha nh lm in
ho mi trng, lm en knh nh, gy ra cc phn ng ho hc v.v... Cho cc tia phng x
i qua in trng gia hai bn ca mt t in, ta c th xc nh c bn cht ca
cc tia phng x do cc cht phng x khc nhau phng ra. C 3 loi tia phng x.
Tia : Thc cht ca tia phng x l ht nhn nguyn t
4
2
He. C tnh cht:
+ b lch v pha bn m ca t in ( mang in tch l +2e).
+ Ht phng ra t ht nhn vi vn tc khong 10
7
m/s.
+ N lm in ho mi trng v mt dn nng lng.
+ Tia ch i c ti a 8cm trong khng kh v khng xuyn qua c
mt tm thu tinh mng.
Tia :C hai loi: Loi ph bin gm cc ht
, chnh l cc lectron,
nn tia
b lch v phi bn dng ca t in v lch nhiu hn so vi tia , v khi

lng ca lectrn nh hn nhiu so vi ht . ng v
14
6
C l cacbon phng x, pht x tia
.
Mt loi tia bta khc him hn gm cc ht
+
, cn gi l lectron dng hay
pzitron v n c cng khi lng vi lectron nhng li mang mt in tch nguyn t
dng. ng v
11
6
C cng l cacbon phng x nhng pht ra tia
+
.
+ Cc ht c phng ra vi vn tc rt ln, c th gn bng vn tc
nh sng.
+ Tia cng lm in ho mi trng nhng yu hn so vi tia , nn
tia c tm bay di hn, c th ti hng trm mt trong khng kh.
Tia : K hiu , l sng in t c bc sng rt ngn (di 0, 01mm),
cng l ht phtn c nng lng cao, n khng b lch trong in trng v c kh nng
m xuyn rt ln, c th i qua lp ch y hng dm v l nguy him cho con ngi. Cc
tia phng x u c nng lng (ng nng ca cc ht, nng lng ca sng in t) nn
s phng x to ra nng lng, mt phn nng lng ny bin thnh nhit lm nng bnh
ng cht phng x.
9.3.2 nh lut phng x
Hin tng phng x do cc nguyn nhn bn trong ht nhn gy ra v hon ton khng
ph thuc vo cc tc ng ngoi. D nguyn t phng x c nm trong cc hp cht khc
nhau, d c bt cht phng x chu p sut hay nhit khc nhau th n cng khng b
mt cht nh hng no m c phn r, tc l phng ra tia phng x, v bin i thnh
cht khc theo ng nh lut sau y, gi l nh lut phng x.
a. nh lut:
Mi cht phng x c c trng bi mt thi gian T gi l chu k bn r, c sau
mi chu k ny th
1
2
s nguyn t ca cht y bin i thnh cht khc.
b. Cng thc:
Gi N
0
l s nguyn t ban u, s nguyn t cn li sau thi gian phng x l N,
ta c:
N =
N
0
2
k
vi: k =
t
T
(9.11)
Hay:
N = N
0
e
t
(9.12)
Trong :
=
ln 2
T
=
0, 693
T
l hng s phn r (9.13)
Ch : Gi m
0
v m l khi lng ca ht nhn trc v sau khi phng x, ta cng c:
m =
m
0
2
k
vi: k =
t
T
(9.14)
Hay:
m = m
0
e
t
(9.15)
9.3.3 phng x
a. nh ngha:
phng x H ca mt lng cht phng x l i lng c trng cho tnh phng
x mnh hay yu, o bng s phn r trong 1 giy.
b. Biu thc:
H =
dN
dt
= N
0
e
t
= N (9.16)
hay:
H = H
0
e
t
vi: H
0
= N
0
(9.17)
n v: phn r/ giy;
Ch : 1 phn r/ giy = 1Bq; 1Ci = 3, 7.10
10
Bq
9.3.4 Cc quy tc dch chuyn
a. Phng x :
4
2
He
Phng trnh phng x:
A
Z
X
4
2
He +
A4
Z2
X
(9.18)
Kt lun:so vi ht nhn m th ht nhn con v tr li 2 trong bng tun hon v c
s khi nh hn 4 n v.
b. Phng x

0
1
e
Phng trnh phng x:
A
Z
X
0
1
e +
A
Z+1
X
(9.19)
Vy ht nhn con v tr tin 1 so vi ht nhn m v c cng s khi.
Nghin cu s phng x
ca Bitmut ngi ta thy rng nu phng trnh ca phn ng

ch l (9.19) th nng lng khng c bo ton. Tin tng vo s ng n ca nh lut
bo ton nng lng c trong th gii vi m, nm 1933 nh bc hc Thuy s Paoli nu
ln gi thit rng trong s phng x
cn pht ra mt ht na, gi l ntrin, k hiu .

Hai mi nm sau, thc nghim xc nhn gi thit ny. Ht ntrinoo khng mang in,
c khi lng bng khng (hoc cc k nh) chuyn ng vi vn tc ca nh sng, nn hu
nh khng tng tc vi vt cht v rt kh pht hin.
Thc cht ca s phng x
l trong ht nhn mt ntron bin thnh mt prtn cng

vi mt lectron v mt ntrino:
n p +e
+. (9.20)
c. Phng x
+
:
+
0
+1
e
Phng trnh phng x:
A
Z
X
0
1
e +
A
Z1
X
(9.21)
Vy ht nhn con v tr li 1 so vi ht nhn m v c cng s khi.
Thc cht ca s phng x
l trong ht nhn mt prtn bin thnh mt ntron cng

vi mt pozitron v mt ntrino:
p n +e
+
+. (9.22)
d. Phng x gamma:
Ht nhn con sinh ra trng thi kch thch v chuyn t mc nng lng trn E
2
xung mc nng lng di E
1
, ng thi phng ra phtn c tn s f xc nh bi h thc:
E
2
E
1
= fh.
Vy phng x l phng x i km theo cc phng x v , khng c s bin i ht
nhn trong phng x .
Ht nhn cng c nhng mc nng lng xc nh, ging nh cc mc nng lng ca
lectron nghin cu trc y, nhng khong cch cc mc nng lng ca ht nhn ln
hn hng triu ln, nn phtn do ht nhn phng ra c nnglng rt ln (tn s f rt
cao (bc sng rt ngn)).
9.3.5 ng dng ca ng v phng x
Cc ng v phng x t nhin hoc nhn to c rt nhiu ng dng trong khoa hc v
i sng. Cht coban
60
27
Co pht tra tia c kh nng xuyn su ln nn c dng tm
khuyt tt trong cc chi tit my (phng php tng t nh dng tia X chp nh cc
b phn trong c th), bo qun thc phm (v tia g dit cc vi khun), cha bnh ung th
v.v...
Mun theo di s di chuyn ca cht ln trong mt ci cy, ngi ta cho mt t ln
P
32
vo phn ln thng P
31
. V mt sinh l thc vt th hai ng v ny hon ton tng
ng v c v in t ging nhau, nhng ng v P
32
l cht phng x
nn ta d dng
theo di s di chuyn ca n, cng l ca cht ln ni chung. l phng php cc nguyn
t nh du c dng rng ri trong khoa hc.
Kho c hc c mt phng php rt chnh xc nh tui ca cc di vt gc sinh
vt, l phng php dng cc bon 14. Cacbon c 4 ng v: C12 (ph bin nht) v C13
l bn, C14 l cht phng x
v C11 l cht phng x

+
. C14 c to ra trong kh
quyn v thm nhp vo mi vt trn Tri t. N c chu k bn r 5600 nm. S phn
r ny cn bng vi s to ra, nn t hng vn nm nay mt ca C14 trong kh quyn
khng i: C trong 10
12
nguyn t cacbon th c 1 nguyn t C14. Mt thc vt cn sng,
cn qu trnh dip lc ho th cn gi t l trn trong cc thnh phn cha cacbon ca n.
Nhng nu thc vt cht, th n khng trao i g vi khng kh na, C14 vn phn r m
khng c b li nn t l ca n s gim, sau 5600 nm ch cn mt na, d phng x H
ca n cng gim tng ng. o phng x ny th tnh c thi gian tri qua t khi
cy cht. ng vt n thc vt nn t l C14 trong c th cng gim nh trn sau khi cht.
V vy c th nh tui cc mu xng ng vt tm c trong cc di ch bng phng
php ny.
9.4 Phn ng phn hch. Phn ng dy chuyn. S lt v l phn
ng v nh my pht in ht nhn
9.4.1 Phn ng phn hch
S phn hch l hin tng mt ht nhn (loi rt nng) hp th mt ntrn chm ri v
thnh hai ht nhn trung bnh.
Ntrn chm, c ng nng tng ng vi ng nng trung bnh ca chuyn ng nhit
(di 0, 1eV ), d b hp th hn ntrn nhanh.
235
92
U +
1
0
n
236
92
U
A
Z
X +
A
Z
X
+k
1
0
n + 200MeV (9.23)
X v X
l cc ht nhn trung bnh, c s khi t 80 n 160. Phn ng ny sinh ra k = 2

hoc 3 (trung bnh 2, 5) ntrn, v to ra nng lng khong 200MeV di dng ng nng
ca cc ht.
9.4.2 Phn ng dy chuyn
Mt phn s ntrn sinh ra b mt mt v nhiu nguyn nhn (thot ra ngoi khi urani, b
hp th bi cc ht nhn khc ...) nhng nu sau mi phn hch, vn cn li trung bnh s
ntrn, m s > 1, th s ntrn ny p vo cc ht nhn U235 khc, li gy ra s phn hch,
sinh ra s
2
ntrn ri s
3
, s
4
... ntrn. S phn hch tng rt nhanh trong mt thi gian rt
ngn: Ta c phn ng ht nhn dy chuyn; s gi l h s nhn ntrn.
Mi phn hch ch to ra nng lng 200MeV = 3, 2.10
11
J nhng 1 gam U235
cha ti 2, 5.10
21
ht nhn, nn khi phn hch s cho nng lng rt ln, bng 8.10
10
J
tng ng 22000kWh. Nng lng phn hch ny c gi khng chnh xc l nng lng
nguyn t.
Vi s > 1 th h thng gi l vt hn: ta khng khng ch c phn ng dy
chuyn, nng lng ta ra c sc tn ph d di. Trng hp ny c s
dng ch to bom nguyn t.
Nu s = 1 th h thng gi l ti hn: phn ng dy chuyn tip din, nhng
khng tng vt, nng lng to ra khng i v c th kim sot c.
l ch hot ng ca cc l phn ng ht nhn trong cc nh my in
nguyn t.
Nu s < 1 th h thng gi l di hn: phn ng dy chuyn khng xy ra.
S ntrn b mt v thot ra ngoi (t l vi din tch mt ngoi khi urani), so vi
s ntrn sinh ra (t l vi th tch ca khi) cng nh nu khi lng urani cng ln. Khi
lng ny phi t ti mt gi tr ti thiu, gi l khi lng ti hn m
h
th mi c s 1.
Qu bom nguyn t m my bay M nm xung thnh ph Hirsima ca Nht nm 1945
cha U235 nguyn cht c m
h
= 50kg. Lc u, urani chia lmhi khi cch nhau, mi khi
c khi lng b hn mh nn khng n. Lm chp hai khi li th khi lng urani vt m
h
v bom n.
9.4.3 S lt v l phn ng v nh my pht in ht nhn
B phn chnh ca nh my ny l l phn ng ht nhn, phn ng phn hch dy
chuyn c khng ch mc ti hn.
L c nhng thanh nhin liu ht nhn (A) thng lm bng hp kim cha urani
lm giu. Nhng thanh ny t trong cht lm chm (B) (nc nng D
2
O, hoc tham ch,
berili); ntrn pht ra trong phn hch l ntrn nhanh, chng va chm vo cc ht nhn
ca cht lm chm, mt dn ng nng v tr thnh ntrn chm, d b urani hp th. L
phn ng cn c cc thnh iu chnh (C) lm bng nhng cht hp th ntrn (m khng
phn hch) nh Bo, cadimi. Khi h thp cc thanh ny th h s nhn ntrn s gim, nng
ln cao th s tng. Khi l hot ng th cc thanh iu chnh c t ng gi cao sao
cho s = 1. Phn ng phn hch to ra nng lng di dng ng nng ca cc mnh ht
nhn v cc ht khc, ng nng ny chuyn thnh nhit nng ca l. Nhit ny cmang
i bng cht ti nhit, thng l mt cht lng chy qua l v sau khi nng ln th cung
cp nhit cho l sinh hi D. Hi nc lm chy tua bin pht in ging nh trong nh my
nhit in thng thng. Tuy ging nh my nhit in khu s dng nhit thu c, nh
my in nguyn t c thit k khc nhiu, v phi c nhng bin php bo m an ton
nh cc thnh bng thp, tng bng btng, chn cc tia phng x nguy him cho con
ngi, c cc thit b ring ngn khngcho l phn ng tr thnh vt hn.
Nhiu nh my in nguyn t c xy dng cc nc cng nghip v
cung cp mt lng in nng ng k: trn 35% tng in nng sn xut hng
nm Php, Thu in, Phn Lan... 30% Nht, 12% M, 6% Lin X
c... Tuy nhin s c xy ra nh my in nguyn t Trcnbn (Ucraina)
buc mt s nc cn nhc li vic xy dng cc nh my in nguyn t.
Nc ta c mt l phn ng ht nhn nh Lt, dng nghin cu khoa
hc v sn xut ng v phng x (cng sut 500kW, c 89 thanh nhin liu
l hp kim cha urani lm giu ti 36%U235.
L phn ng ht nhn cng c t trn cc tu thu, tu ngm; ch cn mt
ln np nhin liu l cc tu ny c th hot ng lin tc vi nm. Ngi ta ang nghin
cu gim khi lng ca l c th t trn my bay.
9.5 Phn ng nhit hch
a. nh nghi:
Loi phn ng ht nhn th hai to ra nng lng l s kt hp hai ht nhn rt
nh thnh mt ht nhn nng hn.
Th d cc phn ng kt hp cc ng v nng ca hir l teri
2
1
H (hoc D) v
triti
3
1
H (hoc T).
2
1
H +
2
1
H
3
2
He +
1
0
n + 3, 25MeV
2
1
H +
3
1
H
4
2
He +
1
0
n + 17, 6MeV
(9.24)
Tuy mt phn ng kt hp to nng lng b hn mt phn ng phn hch, nhng nu tnh
theo khi lng nhin liu th phn ng kt hp to nng lng nhiu hn.
b. iu kin phn ng xy ra:
Tuy nhin phn ng kt hp rt kh xy ra v cc ht nhn tch in dng v y
nhau. Ngi ta tnh ra rng phi nng nhit ca hir ln ti khong 50-100 triu
th cc ht nhn mi c ng nng ln thng lc y Culng v tin gn nhau n
mc m lc ht nhn tc dng v kt hp chng li. Chnh v phn ng kt hp ch xy ra
nhit rt cao nn mi gi l phn ng nhit hch.
T lu ngi ta tm hiu ngun gc nng lng ca mt Tri v cc ngi sao.
Mt Tri lin tc pht ra nng lng rt ln trong khng gian, cng sut bc x ln ti
3, 8.10
26
W. n nay ngi ta cho rng chnh cc phn ng nhit hch l ngun gc nng
lng ca Mt Tri, v trong lng Mt Tri tn ti nhit rt cao, cho php cc phn ng
y xy ra.
C chu trnh ko di hng trc triu nm nhng tng phn ng lin tc xy ra, v
chu trnh ny cung cp mt phn nng lng cho Mt Tri (bn cnh cc chu trnh khc).
Mt tri mt nng lng do bc x th theo h thc ca Anhxtanh, khi lng ca n lin
tc gim. Nhng v khi lng mt Tri rt ln nn s gim ny ch ng k sau hng triu
nm.
Con ngi thc hin c phn ng nhit hch di dng khng kim sot c,
l s n ca bom khinh kh (khinh kh l tn c ca hirro, ng ra phi gi l bom nhit
hch). Bom ny cha mt hn hp tri v triti, v mt qu bom nguyn t lm kp.
Mi u bom nguyn t n, sinh ra nhit hng trm triu , tip phn ng nhit
hch xy ra, cng thm nng lng ca n vo nng lng phn hch, nn bom khinh kh
c sc tm ph gh gm (tng ng vi chc trc tn cht n thng thng TNT).
Mt trong nhng mc tiu quan trng nht ca vt l hc hin nay l thc hin phn
ng nhit hch di dng kim sot c, ngha l xy ra vi nhng lng nhin liu nh,
to ra nng lng hn ch c th s dng vo cc mc ch ho bnh. Nu thc hin c
th nhn loi khng cn lo thiu ngun nng lng v nhin liu nhit hch hu nh v tn:
trong nc thng ca sng ngi, i dng ... bao gi cng c ln 0, 015% nc nng D
2
O
t c th ly ra tri. Triti th c th thu c t cht liti
6
3
Li. V mt sinh thi th phn
ng nhit hch cng

sch
hn phn ng phn hch, v t c bc x hoc cn b phng x

lm nhim mi trng.
Chng 10
T V CNG LN N V CNG B
10.1 Cc ht s cp
10.1.1 Ht s cp l g?
Ht s cp l cc ht c khi lng v kch thc nh.
V d: electron, proton, notron, mezon. . .
10.1.2 Cc c trng ca ht s cp
a. Khi lng ngh m
0
:
Mi ht s cp u c c trng l khi lng ngh m
0
tng ng vi nng lng
ngh E
0
E
0
= m
0
c
2
(10.1)
V d:
electron c khi lng ngh m
0
= 9, 1.10
31
kg; proton c khi lng ngh 0.
b. in tch:
Ht s cp c in tch Q = +1 ( tnh theo n v e = 1, 6.10
19
C ) hoc Q = 1
hoc Q = 0 ( ht trung ha).
Q c gi l s lng t in tch, biu th tnh gin on ca ln in tch cc
ht.
c. Spin:
Spin l mt c trng lng t tng t nh momen ng lng.
Chn hn: electron, proton, notron c spin s =
1
2
( tnh theo n v =
h
2
).
Nhng photon c spin bng 1; pion c spin 0.
d. Momen ring:
Momen t ring l mt c trng lng t v t tnh.
e. Thi gian sng trung bnh T:
Trong mt s ht s cp, mt s ht khng bin thnh cc ht khc gi l ht bn (
nh proton, electron, photon, notrino )
Cn tt c cc ht khc l cc ht khng bn v phn r thnh cc ht khc. Tr
notron c thi gian sng di, c 932s, cn cc ht khng bn khc u c thi gian sng rt
ngn, c t 10
24
s n 10
6
s.
10.1.3 Phn ht
Phn ln cc ht s cp u to thnh cp, mi cp gm 2 ht c khi lng ngh m
0
v
spin s nh nhau, nhng chng c in tch Q bng nhau v ln nhng tri du, gi l
ht v phn ht.
V d: electron, pozitron c cng khi lng ngh bng m
e
v spin bng
1
2
, nhng c
in tch tng ng +1 v 1.
Trong qu trnh tng tc ca cc ht s cp, c th xy ra hin tng hy mt cp
ht + phn ht

thnh cc ht khc, hoc cng mt lc sinh ra mt cp

ht + phn ht
V d:
e
+
+e
+
+
+ e
+
+e
10.1.4 Phn loi ht s cp

Ngi ta thng sp xp cc ht s cp bit thnh cc loi sau theo khi lng ngh tng
dn.
+ photon ( lng t nh sng ): c khi lng ngh m = 0.
+ Lepton gm cc ht nh nh electron, myon (
+
,
), ht tau (
+
,
), cc
notron (
e
,
).
+ Mezon gm cc ht c khi lng trung bnh trong khong t 200 900m
e
,
gm hai nhm: mezon (
+
,
0
,
) v mezon K (K
+
, K
).
+ Barion gm cc ht c khi lng bng hoc ln hn khi lng ca proton.
C hai nhm Barion: nhm nuclon (p, n) v hyperon (, , ), ngoi ra cn c hyperon l
ht
. Tp hp cc mezon v cc barion c tn chung l cc hadron.

10.1.5 Tng tc ca cc ht s cp
a. Tng tc hp dn:
l tng tc gia cc ht vt cht c khi lng ln. So vi cc tng tc khc,
cng ca ca tng tc hp dn l rt nh.
b. Tng tc in t:
l tng tc gia cc ht mang in, gia cc vt c ma st. C ch ca tng
tc in t l s trao i photon gia c ht mang in. Bn knh tc dng c xem nh
l v hn. Tng tc in t ln hn tng tc hp dn c 10
38
ln.
c. Tng tc yu:
l tng tc chu trch nhim phn r . Tng tc yu c bn knh c 10
18
m
v c cng nh hn tng tc in t 10
11
ln.
d. Tng tc mnh:
l tng tc gia cc hadron, nh tng tc gia cc nuclon trong ht nhn, to
nn lc ht nhn, cng nh tng tc dn n s sinh ht hadron trong cc qu trnh va
chm ca cc hadron. Tng tac mnh ln hn tng tc in t khong 100 ln v c bn
knh tc dng c 10
15
m.
10.1.6 Ht quac ( quak)
a. nh ngha:
Tt c cc hadron u cu to t cc ht nh hn gi l quac.
b. Phn loi: C 6 loi (u, d, s, c, b, t). Cng vi 6 ht quac cn c 6 phn ht quac vi in
tch c du ngc li. Cc ht quac c in tch l
e
3
;
2e
3
. Cha quan st c ht quac
t do.
c. Cc baryon:
L t hp ca ba quac. V d nh proton c to nn t 3 quac (u, u, d).
10.2 Mt tri v h mt tri
10.2.1 H mt tri
a. H Mt Tri bao gm:
+ Mt Tri trung tm H ( v l thin th duy nht nng sng )
+ 9 hnh tinh ln: a s cc hnh tinh ny u c cc v tinh chuyn ng.
Chn hn nh Tri t c Mt Trng lm v tinh chuyn ng.
Tnh t tm Mt Tri ra, theo th t l cc hnh tinh: Thy tinh; Kim tinh; Tri
t; Ha tinh; Mc tinh; Th tinh; Thin tinh; Hi tinh; Dim tinh.
o khong cch t cc hnh tinh n Mt Tri ngi ta dng n v thin
vn ( k hiu vtv). Mt n v thin vn bng khong cch t Tri t n Mt Tri:
1vtv = 150triukm
b. iu ng ch l tt c cc hnh tinh u chuyn ng quanh Mt Tri theo cng mt
chiu ( chiu thun) v gn nh trong cng mt mt phng. Mt Tri v cc hnh tinh u
t quay quanh mnh n v u quanh theo cng mt chiu, tr Kim tinh.
10.2.2 Mt Tri
a.Mt tri c cu to gm hai phn, l: quang cu v kh quyn Mt Tri.
Quang cu: L mt a sng trn vi bn knh gc 16 pht. Khi lng ring
trung bnh l 1400kg/m
3
. Cn c vo nh lut bc x nhit ngi ta tnh c nhit
ca quang cu vo c 6000K.
Kh quyn Mt Tri: L phn bao xung quanh quang cu, c cu to ch yu l Hiro v
Heli. Kh quyn Mt Tri c hai phn:
+ Sc cu: l phn gn quang cu, c dy 10
4
km v nhit 4500K.
+ Nht hoa: phn ngoi sc cu, l vt cht b ion ha mnh (plaxma), nhit triu ,
khng c hnh dng xc nh.
b. Nng lng Mt Tri.
Mt Tri lin tc bc x nng lng ra xung quanh. Lng nng lng Mt Tri
truyn vung gc ti mt n v din tch cch n mt n v thin vn ngi ta gi l hng
s Mt Tri H. ( Kt qa o c H = 1360W/m
2
)
10.2.3 Tri t
10.2.4 Mt Trng- v tinh ca Tri t
10.3 Cc sao. Thin h
10.3.1 Cc sao
10.3.2 Thin h

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1

, ng nng bng 0 v th nng tng n gi tr cc i.

v O v v B. Vy, trong qu trnh dao ng iu

. Qu trnh c tip tc nh vy to nn dao

a (). Chiu phng trnh () ln trc xx

: Do qun tnh nn hn bi chuyn ng qua O,

: thnh phn tip tuyn ca trng lc

= mgd. sin hay

x so vi sng ti O. Biu thc (3.4) cho chng ta thy,

vi vn tc gc khng i trong t trng u

B hai nhnh quay u. Khi nam chm quay u vi vn tc

khng i theo thi gian, ta c th thay n bng t s cc gi tr hiu dng:

hai u cun th cp bng E

< U, my bin th l my h th.

. Tuy nhin, ngi ta vn c th dng (4.46) nh mt cng thc gn ng,

Sut in ng qua cun cm cng chnh l hiu in th hai u t in:

chit sut tuyt i ca mi trng trong sut; l hng s in mi, l

di hn bc ca nh sng knh thch .

chuyn ng i vi H th ng thi im t l thi im t

ph thuc vo c ta m ta ang xt.

trong khong thi

b lch v phi bn dng ca t in v lch nhiu hn so vi tia , v khi

ca Bitmut ngi ta thy rng nu phng trnh ca phn ng

cn pht ra mt ht na, gi l ntrin, k hiu .

l trong ht nhn mt ntron bin thnh mt prtn cng

l trong ht nhn mt prtn bin thnh mt ntron cng

v C11 l cht phng x

l cc ht nhn trung bnh, c s khi t 80 n 160. Phn ng ny sinh ra k = 2

hn phn ng phn hch, v t c bc x hoc cn b phng x

10.1.4 Phn loi ht s cp

. Tp hp cc mezon v cc barion c tn chung l cc hadron.

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