Pfaffenberger A Different Conceptualizations of Optimum Development

http://jhp.sagepub.
com
Psychology
Journal of Humanistic
DOI: 10.1177/0022167806296858
Aug 23, 2007;
2007; 47; 501 originally published online Journal of Humanistic Psychology
Angela Pfaffenberger
Different Conceptualizations of Optimum Development
http://jhp.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/47/4/501
The online version of this article can be found at:
Published by:
http://www.sagepublications.com
On behalf of:
Association for Humanistic Psychology
can be found at: Journal of Humanistic Psychology Additional services and information for
http://jhp.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Email Alerts:
http://jhp.sagepub.com/subscriptions Subscriptions:
http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Reprints:
http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav Permissions:
http://jhp.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/47/4/501 Citations
at PONTIFICA UNIV CATOLICA CHILE on April 13, 2009 http://jhp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
501
DIFFERENT CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF
OPTIMUM DEVELOPMENT
ANGELA PFAFFENBERGER, PhD, is a theoretical
psychologist with an interest in critical theory,
personality development, and humanistic psychol-
ogy. She has previously published in this journal
about higher stages of development (JHP, 45 [3])
and about theoretical issues in therapy outcome
research (JHP, 46 [3]). The current article won the
Jourard Student Paper Award of Division 32 and
was presented at the Annual Convention of the
American Psychological Association. Angela teaches at the Oregon
College of Oriental Medicine, and she maintains a private practice that
integrates counseling and acupuncture for the treatment of emotional
issues in Salem, Oregon.
Summary
This article discusses different conceptualizations of optimum
development in adulthood. The existential perspective of Rollo May
is compared to the self-actualization theory of Abraham Maslow
and to transpersonal psychology. The paradigms and value
assumptions underlying the different theories of personality are
explicated, and social constructionism is used as an organizing
frame of reference. The principal argument is that in addition to
repeating viewpoints in a philosophical debate about values, we
need to substantiate our claims with evidence from the existing
research and explore how well-designed empirical studies can help
us answer lingering questions of what is desirable and possible in
regard to optimal development. The author examines the existing
research literature in regard to how the disagreements of the
above-named schools of thought could be clarified. Suggestions for
future directions in humanistic research are presented.
Keywords: humanistic; existential; personality theory; self-
actualization; adult development
Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 47 No. 4, October 2007 501-523
DOI: 10.1177/0022167806296858
2007 Sage Publications
502 Optimum Adulthood
The focus of this article is on theories of optimal adult development.
Theoretical orientations guide the conceptualization of research
projects and consequently exercise a far-reaching influence over
how a field evolves. Contemporary psychology is strongly influenced
by a hedonistic perspective (Slife, 2004); consequently psychological
health is usually defined as the achievement of happiness and the
absence of problems. This approach currently dominates contem-
porary personality research.
I am interested in alternate positions, those based on maturity
and eudaemonic, meaning-centered definitions of psychological
health. Three approaches are chosen for closer examination: the
existential position of Rollo May (1983) and Kirk Schneider
(2004), the self-actualization theory of Abraham Maslow (1971),
and transpersonal psychology (Wilber, 2000). They represent
competing truth claims within the field of humanistic psychology.
This article is an attempt to explicate the values and similarities
among the three theories in regard to what constitutes health
and optimum development in adulthood.
These divergent theories have been debated over several
decades. My principal argument is that instead of repeating view-
points in a philosophical debate about values, we need to sub-
stantiate truth claims with evidence based on existing research
and explore how well-designed empirical studies can help us
answer lingering questions of what is desirable and possible in
regard to optimal development. To achieve this objective, I pre-
sent findings from relevant research projects and discuss how
future research could contribute to a more differentiated under-
standing. This may pave the way for well-conceived research
efforts that emphasize the contributions of humanistic psychol-
ogy to the fields of personality theory and lifespan development.
THE EXISTENTIAL POSITION OF ROLLO MAY
Since the 1958 publication of Existence, Rollo May has been at
the forefront of existential psychology in America. The existential
perspective emphasizes understanding persons in their being-
ness. According to May (1983) the term existence means to
emerge, and denotes not a static concept of the person but a
process of becoming. May actively rejects the position of tradi-
tional psychology, which is focused on dynamisms, such as drives
or overt behavior in an isolated manner.
Angela Pfaffenberger 503
The existential position understands individuals in a dialectic
manner and embraces paradox (May, 1958). We can understand
others and ourselves in both an objective and a subjective man-
ner. The objective perspective of another person would be
explanatory; we intellectually grasp a problem with which the
other person is struggling. We treat ourselves as objects when we
intellectualize about problems in our lives. The subjective per-
spective is a direct experience, being present with our emotions.
In regard to the other person, we can grasp their being and
understand their subjective position through empathy. May
(1958) sees the simultaneous occurrence of subjective and objec-
tive awareness, the oscillation between the two, as the process of
consciousness itself. Existentialism, in short, is the endeavor to
understand man by cutting below the cleavage between subject
and object which has bedeviled Western thought and science
since shortly after the Renaissance (May, 1983, p. 49).
Central to Mays (1981) conceptualization of psychological
health is the dialectic relationship between freedom and destiny.
Destiny is associated with the objective experience of being. May
noted that the awareness of ones own death, actually the cre-
ation of a word for death, allows us to see our own finitude, our
limitations, and the objective aspect of our lives. Freedom is asso-
ciated more with the subjective aspect of experiencing, and also
with the ability to relate to both aspects of this dichotomy.
Freedom is expressed through directing our attention, being able
to choose and act, and consequently through valuing. Freedom is
thus more than a value itself: it underlies the possibility of valu-
ing; it is basic to our capacity to value (May, 1981, p. 6).
Our gifts and possibilities are real, but they exist only within
the contexts and constraints of our lives, because our capacities,
our time, our energies are limited. The awareness of our limita-
tions, the threat of nonbeing, the ever-presentness of death itself
heightens the preciousness of our potential, and the need to make
choices and to act on them. Nonbeing is thus enhancing our
awareness. In this way freedom and destiny facilitate each other,
create each other.
May (1958) argued that we can accept hostility, aggression,
and anxiety in our lives if we accept our limitations and the real-
ity of death itself. Instead of creating an allegiance to only one
side of lifethe positive, expansive sideand repressing all neg-
ativity, a fuller, more real and conscious life can be created if we
acknowledge both sides. According to May (1982) human nature
is daimonic; this means containing destructive and constructive
elements. We can consciously strive to integrate destructive
impulses, which results in the expression of creativity. If we deny
the existence of aggressive elements in human nature, we run
the risk of facilitating their inappropriate expression, leading to
violence and evil on an individual and collective scale. The aware-
ness and recognition of the dichotomy between constructive and
destructive elements allow for a greater actualization of our
potential, for the expression of who we truly are. Meaning in life
is created through making conscious choices about how we con-
front our own finitude and express our potential. Not only do we
need to become conscious and make choices, but we also must
commit to our values by acting on them.
In Mays (1950/1977) view of psychological dynamics, anxiety
has a pivotal place. Anxiety is tied to creativity, especially the cre-
ative act. Psychological health is closely connected to being able
to tolerate the anxiety that arises with the creative act. Anxiety
is also associated with freedom and choosing, because any choice
inevitably denies many other possibilities and futures. Neurotic
anxiety is connected to an inability to decide, to feelings of pow-
erlessness and alienation. Existential anxiety, however, arises
from our awareness of the dynamic tension between freedom and
destiny. The increasing willingness to embrace the paradox, to
tolerate the anxiety, to allow it to be present in our lives is for
May (1958) one of the most significant signs of psychological
growth and maturity. May distrusted easy answers; psychological
health for him was a complex process of struggle and integration.
In addition to May, several contemporary psychologists have
elaborated the existential position. In a recent contribution,
Schneider (2004) delineated how within the field of psychology,
different schools of thought have emerged and aligned them-
selves with the extremist positions of complete freedom and
determinism. Biological psychology and the adjacent practice of
psychopharmacology are associated with determinism, whereas
the New Age approaches of limitless self-fulfillment are associ-
ated with unlimited freedom. Schneider suggested that the field
of psychology would become more capable of assisting clients if it
could adopt an understanding of the person as being suspended
in a dynamic tension of realizing dread, veneration, and wonder,
termed awe (p. xv). Schneider called for a reorientation in the
field of psychology, a reorientation that accepts values and pur-
poses based on the existential orientation.
Clinical commentaries have delineated how the rather philo-
sophical, abstract ideas of existentialism can be brought to bear
fruitfully on the practice of psychology. Schneider, in collabora-
tion with May, presented a detailed discussion of therapeutic
approaches and techniques (Schneider & May, 1995). Bugental
(1976) offered case histories and gave exquisitely detailed
accounts about how existential concerns of being present with the
whole person can be expressed in the clinical encounter. Yalom
(1980) discussed how four existential dichotomies are significant
in our lives: freedom versus destiny, meaning versus meaning-
lessness, isolation versus connectedness, and death versus exis-
tence. According to Yalom, we must accept and consistently relate
to each one of these dichotomies to have excellent health in adult-
hood. Greening (2004) illustrated how these principles can be
brought into therapeutic practice and help us understand the
struggles of persons in psychotherapy.
THE HUMANISTIC PERSONALITY THEORIES OF
ABRAHAM MASLOW AND CARL ROGERS
Maslow (1954/1970) suggested that psychological health is
more than being well adjusted and free from psychopathology.
Individuals strive to satisfy their needs for survival, safety,
belongingness, and esteem. These needs are arranged in a hier-
archical order and decrease in immediacy when persons come to
expect that their needs are reliably gratified. A failure to experi-
ence need satisfaction fixes attention at the respective level and
leads, according to Maslow, to psychopathology.
Once the lower needs are satisfied, higher needs for self-
actualization may emerge. Maslow (1971) termed these the
metaneeds or Being-needs. They include strivings to be creative,
to grow, to acquire knowledge, and to develop ones abilities.
Maslow noted that metaneeds function in a qualitatively differ-
ent manner from the lower needs. Instead of striving for gratifi-
cation and relief from disequilibria, Being-needs are ends in
themselves. People come to enjoy the process and the intrinsic
rewards of seeking knowledge and growth. These so-called meta-
motivations offer a sense of meaning and purpose in life. Maslow
originally assumed that Being-needs and the associated metamo-
tivations would emerge spontaneously once the lower needs have
been met. After many years of observation and qualitative
research he came to conclude that the gratification of the lower
needs is a necessary but insufficient condition for further growth.
To progress, people need to consciously embrace the so-called
Being-values, such as justice and truth, and become motivated to
actively seek growth and knowledge. According to Maslow (1968),
self-actualization often requires that a person leave familiar cir-
cumstances behind and explore new possibilities in life. This
requires courage, commitment, and an ability to take risks. Maslow
noted individual differences in regard to peoples strength, will, and
determination. Self-actualizers are creative and spontaneous, and
they have a continued freshness of appreciation. Maslow observed
that self-actualizers have deeper, healthier interpersonal relation-
ships than other adults. They respect the autonomy and individual-
ity of others and express genuine empathy. Self-actualizers have
peak experiences, moments of awe, of being profoundly at one with
the universe. Maslow devoted a significant amount of attention to
this phenomenon and became interested in exploring the transper-
sonal dimensions of development later in his life. This project
remained incomplete because of his premature death in 1970.
The personality theories of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
are often discussed together (see DeCarvalho, 1992, for an
example), which may have resulted from the fact that they are
seen together as the founders of humanistic psychology. Their ter-
minologies also bear similarities. This overlooks the two theorists
important differences in regard to optimal development. Rogers
(1951) shared Maslows optimism about positive potential for
development, but his emphasis was different. Rogers felt that
people could increasingly learn to attune to what is internally,
organismically, right for them. Given empathy and support, they
could learn to not restrict their sensing of their needs and emotions
because of preconceived notions of how they should be. Rogers dis-
cussed actualizing tendencies to describe this growing awareness of
what is personally right for oneself. He conceptualized a growing
individual as becoming increasingly aware of a process of ongoing
internal change, coupled with an acceptance of oneself and oth-
ers. He termed this openness to experience existential living, and
referred to people who have achieved this ability as persons of
tomorrow. Rogers emphasized that individuals will inevitably
experience positive development if they are exposed to supportive
environmental conditions.
An important difference between the two theories is that Rogers
stayed closer to a concept of excellent psychological health. Maslow
moved beyond that; he saw self-actualization as a distinct stage of
advanced psychological development. His theory has been shown to
be a good fit with the ideas of the post-Piagetian stage theorists.
The post-Piagetians promulgate the idea that personality devel-
opment progresses in a similar manner as cognitive development.
Higher cognitive stages contain the abilities of lower stages, but add
something that is qualitatively different. In her theory of ego devel-
opment, Jane Loevinger (1976) has delineated how people progress
in distinct stages from self-interest to social conformity, and then to
greater complexity and personal autonomy. She cogently argued that
her highest stages, Autonomous and Integrated, are analogous to
self-actualization. Empirical research has shown support for this
hypothesis (Cook-Greuter, 1999; Helson, Mitchell, & Hart, 1985).
Loevingers (1976) semiprojective instrument, the Washington
University Sentence Completion Test (SCT), allows for the assess-
ment of advanced development. It translates qualitative data into
quantitative stage designations. Based on the completion of rudi-
mentary sentence stems, a person is assigned a developmental stage
on a scale from two to nine. The test has facilitated research in the
area of advanced personality development and offered a richness of
new data about optimal development in adulthood (see Alexander,
Heaton, & Chandler, 1994; Cook-Greuter, 1999; M. E. Miller,
1994). Empirical research offers support for the notion that at
higher stages of ego development people tend to display the
characteristics Maslow described, such as creativity, cognitive
flexibility, tolerance of ambiguity, and increased concerns with
self-expression and authenticity (M. E. Miller & Cook-Greuter,
1994). As Maslow noted, self-actualization is indeed rare; few
people in our culture progress to this stage of development.
A COMPARISON BETWEEN EXISTENTIAL
PSYCHOLOGY AND THE HUMANISTIC THEORIES
1
The personality theories of Maslow and May share similari-
ties, but they also have significant differences. Maslow (1968)
explicitly acknowledged the contributions of existentialism to
humanistic psychology, namely the emphases on the living
person, on the evolving potential of the person, and on the phe-
nomenological approach to understanding individuals.
Commonalities between the two theories include that May (1958)
and Maslow (1954/1970) consider maturity as being associated with
greater complexity and the ability to tolerate paradox. Both theorists
discussed creativity and the commitment to goals as aspects of
maturity. Growth is not necessarily seen as being easy; individuals
may have to leave comfortable, familiar circumstances behind to
embrace a new reality and express their potential. Maslow and May
agreed that maturity involves having core values, an inner sense
of knowing of what is right for oneself. How this inner knowing
evolves and the appreciation of the process of development are
usually more important to the mature personality than reaching
a specific goal (Maslow 1954/1970; May, 1980). In this way both
theorists emphasized the dynamic aspects of maturity; it is a
process of becoming, of consistently expressing values. The theo-
ries also have significant differences, in regard to (1) human
nature and (2) what stimulates growth.
Human nature. Maslow (1968), Rogers (1982), and May (1982)
agreed that we need to bring awareness to the social environ-
ment, because social factors lead to the expression of human
traits, either for better or for worse. Maslow (1954/1970) empha-
sized that everybody has the potential for self-actualization; thus
he was strongly focused on aspects of positive potential in human
development. Rogers (1982) emphatically stated that in his opin-
ion, all humans will display compassion and cooperation if they
are provided with the appropriate environmental supports. This
was evidence for him that human nature is good and needs to be
nurtured properly. May (1982), on the other hand, was concerned
with the existence of negative and positive forces within the indi-
vidual, and emphasized that the acknowledgement of both ten-
dencies allows for the integration and embracing of dichotomies,
which leads to creativity and positive, constructive choices
(Greening, 1984). Destructive tendencies need to be acknowl-
edged because the negative potential can become expressed as
violence and aggression. In sum, the main difference between the
existential position and the humanistic position concerns human
nature. Is human nature to be seen as all positive, thriving
toward ever better development, or does human nature contain
destructive, evil tendencies that need to be acknowledged and
worked with? To examine the merit of the respective positions, I
will examine the nature of the arguments and the available
research-based literature.
Mays (1982) argument is premised on the observation that the
environment is made up of individuals, and that the existence of
violence and war proves that evil exists in humans. This view
ignores the perspective of systems theory that living systems are
not the additive sum of their individual components but a dynamic
expression of forces that results from complex interactions of the
parts (Goldberg & Goldberg, 2000). Maslow (1971) noted that
that our culture is low in regard to synergy, meaning that the
interests of the individual and of society as a whole are not well
aligned. He pointed to the studies of anthropologists that show
that low synergy is often associated with societal unrest and,
especially, war. This means that negativity and aggression may
not be because of evil tendencies within individuals; they may be
structural aspects of societal organization. Maslow never denied
that people may behave self-centeredly, given bad circumstances,
but that does not negate the fact that they can and will make con-
structive choices under better circumstances. May and Maslow
thus differed in regard to where their attentions rested. May saw
a half-empty glass, emphasizing that evil will be expressed if the
circumstances allow for it. Rogers and Maslow saw a half-full
glass and stressed that constructive, life-affirming choices will be
made under the right circumstances.
In a review of the available literature on aggression and antiso-
cial behavior, Green (1998) noted that rivaling theories of whether
aggression is because of social context or dispositional factors have
brought about inconsistent research results. Current research sup-
ports the conclusion that biological processes influence aggressive
behavior by interacting with conditions in the social environment.
Green pointed out that contemporary researchers have moved away
from a nature-versus-nurture debate. The research emphasis is on
the situatedness of the aggressive behavior: What processes are
initiated by exposure to an aversive interpersonal situation such
that aggression against the other person is the outcome? (Green,
1998, p. 318).
Growth stimulators. The second major difference between the the-
orists concerns what factors they consider as stimulating growth.
May saw the acknowledgement of freedom and of limitations, of
nonbeing, as the main aspect that prompts development to higher
levels of personal maturity, which is expressed as the embracing of
a paradox. Maslow (1954/1970) did not emphasize this point.
Maslows focus is on the satisfaction of the lower needs as the pre-
requisite of further development, as well as on the individuals
determination and aspiration. Rogers (1982) emphasis is on
growth-enhancing relationships that facilitate inner awareness
and congruence. Maslow (1968), nevertheless, explicitly acknowl-
edged that difficult circumstances can be growth enhancing. In
this way, the differences between Rogers, Maslow, and May may
be because of their differing emphases rather than being
differences in principle.
Two interesting research projects have inquired into the
nature of existential concerns, psychological health, and person-
ality development. Debats (1999) combined quantitative and
qualitative methods in a research project that inquired into
sources of meaning in the lives of young adults. She found that
the participants were primarily oriented toward fulfilling their
relational needs in addition to being concerned with issues of
livelihood and professional identity. Other-directed service was
largely absent from their concerns. Debats speculates that this
confirms the theories of Maslow and Erik Erikson, (1978) which
state that generative concerns emerge in midlife, after more
immediate, need-based issues have been addressed. Debats also
found that lack of meaning interacts with psychopathology, leav-
ing the question about the directionality of this effect unan-
swered. Based on her research findings, she cogently argued that
the perception of purposes and goals does not impart vitality and
meaning, but that the level of commitment and active engage-
ment with the perceived goals are the crucial factors. This study
can be seen as confirming both Maslows and Mays theories of
psychological maturation. In addition to illustrating the impor-
tance of need satisfaction, which is a cornerstone of Maslows
theory of self-actualization, it confirms Mays assumption that
commitment, as the result of an active valuing process, imparts
meaning and interacts with psychological health.
In a different research study, King (2001) investigated the
influence of challenging and limiting life events on personality
development as measured by Loevingers (1976) SCT. She found
that the occurrence of difficulty in itself is not associated with
growth. The author enrolled research participants who had lived
through significant difficulties in life, such as having a child with
Downs syndrome, and women who experienced divorce after 20
years of marriage. She coded stories that the participants told of
difficult events. She particularly noted signs of assimilation and
accommodation, terms from Piagets (1977) theory about how
cognitive stage change happens. According to Block (1982), who
adjusted this aspect of Piagets theory to personality develop-
ment, assimilation means fitting an event into an existing struc-
ture. If assimilation fails, because of the severity of the event or
the constraints of the existing structures, the individual will use
accommodation, which is a reworking of the internal frame of
reference.
As expected, King (2001) found that assimilation was not asso-
ciated with gains in personality growth, as measured by the SCT.
Accommodation and gains in maturity resulted when individuals
not only experienced events as difficult, but also saw them as
challenging to their worldview. The author suggested that this
active engagement with difficulties resulted in the emergence of
new personality structures that lead to higher ego stages. King
proposed that people are motivated by a desire to experience pos-
itive states of well-being, which prompts them to cognitively
restructure a negative event into one that creates meaning in
their lives and contributes to their growth. This research allows
for the conclusion that cognitive abilities and personality struc-
tures interact with life circumstances, and that the nature of this
interaction is relevant to whether growth occurs.
This project lends strong support to Mays (1958) theory of
existential therapy, which is intended to teach clients to con-
structively work with their limitations and to create freedom so
that they can choose values, meanings, and commitments.
TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Transpersonal psychology is concerned with the entire range
of human functioning, especially processes related to spiritual
practices, altered states of consciousness, and peak experiences.
Ken Wilber (2000) has emerged as the most prominent theorist in
the field.
He proposed a model of advanced development that includes
transpersonal stages and defines what constitutes transpersonal
development (Wilber, 1986). This model, like Loevingers (1976)
theory of ego development, is based on a Piagetian model of
invariant, qualitative stages that are arranged hierarchically.
According to Wilbers theory, all development falls into three con-
secutive tiers: the prepersonal, the personal, and the transper-
sonal; each of those contains three stages. His final stage in the
personal realm is called Vision-logic, and he likens it to Maslows
self-actualization, to existential awareness, and to Loevingers
Autonomous and Integrated stages. Wilber emphasized advanced
cognitive abilities here, such as dialectic thinking and postformal
thought. This stage is followed by the first of his transpersonal
stages, called Psychic. Individuals become conscious of how the
mind works. They start to take an interest in how their percep-
tions of the self and the world are influenced by cognitive pat-
terns and by the incessant stream of thoughts.
The shift in consciousness that takes place at the Psychic stage
is comparable in nature to the qualitative change that, according
to Loevinger (1976), occurred at earlier levels of ego development.
Individuals at the Psychic stage start to notice that they have
an ego, just as they understood earlier that they have a social
role. Stage progression occurs when individuals can go beyond
the constraining sense of being a social role or an ego. They need
to become able to shift their attention from being inside the social
role or the ego to a perspective that is larger and more panoramic.
The shift in consciousness that is necessary to see the ego is sig-
nificantly harder to accomplish than earlier ones, because there
are few cultural supports available; and individuals are often
without assistance, because this level of development is so rare.
Further stages of development are usually only achievable
through meditation, and most of the descriptions we have avail-
able rely on Eastern sources such as Buddhist and Hindu scrip-
tures. Wilber (1986) calls the next stage Subtle and associates it
with meditative stabilization, experiences of bliss and samadhi,
and an experiential understanding of the collective archetypes.
The following stage is termed Causal and is associated with the
experience of effortlessness in meditative absorption, of enlight-
enment and detachment. Wilbers final stage, Unitive, constitutes
moving beyond all experiences of dichotomy, of being inseparable
from cosmic consciousness.
The important contribution of transpersonal psychology to the-
ories of optimal functioning in adulthood lies in the conceptual-
ization of development beyond the ego structures that Western
psychology ordinarily assumes to be the personality. In this way
it is a new paradigm; it has expanded our awareness of how per-
sonality can be understood and defined. Social constructionism
(Gergen, 1985) arrives at a similar conclusion coming from a differ-
ent direction. According to this school of thought, whatever we con-
sider the person in Western psychology is but a cultural construct
rather than an observation of actual processes. This viewpoint has
been further elaborated by Cushman (1990, 1991), who argued
that our construction of childhood development is nothing but a
value-laden cultural interpretation of what occurs in early child-
hood, rather than being an objective observation of events.
MASLOWS THEORY OF SELF-ACTUALIZATION AND
Maslows (1954/1970) and Wilbers (1986) models of develop-
ment share many similarities; both accept stage theory as an
underlying frame of reference. This agreement has increased the
acceptance of those models within humanistic psychology, but
several aspects of the theories are not sufficiently supported by
existing research and should therefore be considered preliminary.
First, both theorists propose that ordinary mental health is a
prerequisite for higher development (Maslow, 1954/1970; Wilber,
1986). Empirically, however, we know very little about what moti-
vates people to explore transpersonal interests. Engler (1986)
presented convincing arguments that the motivation to explore
the transpersonal realm is not necessarily based on psychological
health and maturity. Based on his clinical observations, he noted
that people with narcissistic or borderline conformations are
frequently drawn to transpersonal practices out of a desire to
feel special and to overcome their inner sense of emptiness.
Nevertheless, they may experience genuine transpersonal states
of consciousness. As Cortright (1997) pointed out, the transper-
sonal literature is full of accounts that transpersonal interests
can emerge at any developmental stage, often unexpectedly for
the individual. Many such individuals do not show signs of excep-
tional psychological health. They may be struggling with sub-
stance abuse or have prejudiced, sexist attitudes that bespeak
cultural embeddedness, which, according to Maslow, is tran-
scended in self-actualization.
Second, the stage model accepts an implicit assumption of a uni-
directional movement up a developmental ladder. Helson et al.
(1985) noted that a significant number of the women who attained
advanced stages of ego development, such as self-actualization,
showed a consistent interest in spiritual practice, and that these
women considered this an important aspect of their adult lives. The
women may have attained the advanced stage of ego development
exactly because of their spiritual practice, instead of engaging in
spiritual practice because of their advanced ego stage, which would
be Wilbers (1989) line of argumentation. Alexander, Rainforth, and
Gelderloos (1991) research showed that meditation promotes ego
development, as defined by Loevinger (1976), regardless of the
initial ego stage. This suggests that transpersonal experience
may lead to a restructuring within the domain of personality.
Consequently, self-actualization does not seem to be a require-
ment for benefiting from transpersonal practices. Instead per-
sonal maturity and transpersonal experiences seem to have a
bidirectional relationship.
Wilbers (2000) conceptualization of growth relies to a significant
degree on cognitive structures. He sees evolving cognitive struc-
tures, such as increased complexity and systems thinking, as the
leading edge of development, a position previously advanced by
Kohlberg (1969). However, Skoe and von der Lippe (2002) cogently
argue that cognitive complexity and socio-emotional development,
as reflected in ego stage, are separate strands of development.
Wilbers (1986) argument that they form a continuous line of devel-
opment certainly makes for a plausible-sounding theory, but it is
not supported by cross-cultural observations or contemporary
research. Nothing in the research-based literature suggests that
individuals need postformal cognitive development and dialectical
reasoning to progress in their transpersonal development. Medita-
tion appears to be a method of gaining understanding and insight
that is not mediated through ordinary cognitive structures. The
Eastern literature leaves no doubt that many people of high spiri-
tual attainment, such as the historical Buddha, were illiterate
(Kanai, 1995). It is an imposition of Western cultural values to
assume that only those who are well educated can have access to
spiritual development. Transpersonal psychology appears to be a
cultural narrative with its own values and assumptions about what
a person is and what is desirable and possible in development.
Wilbers attempt to cross the paradigmatic boundaries of Western
psychology and Eastern mysticism has not been entirely successful.
In sum, we can say that the relationships among advanced
psychological development, as conceptualized by Maslow (1971)
and Loevinger (1976), the underlying cognitive structures, and
transpersonal development are more complex and dynamic than
has so far been explicated in psychological research. This forms an
exiting area of research for future study. The research questions
that readily emerge from the above discussion are as follows: (1) Do
individuals need mental health to progress to higher stages of
development? (2) Do people need to achieve self-actualization before
they can progress to transpersonal stages of development? (3) What
is the relationship between cognitive complexity and development
in the realm of personal and spiritual development? The most
promising approach to this exploration would certainly be a lon-
gitudinal project that follows individuals developmental paths
over several decades. We could assess cognitive development,
personality as measured by ego stage, and spiritual maturity
longitudinally and compare how the different development
strands interact. In light of the fact that such projects are hard
to carry out, it would be interesting to explore if an available
archival data set, like the one Block (1993) assembled over a 30-
year time frame, offers information that could be analyzed from
this perspective.
EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND
The existential and transpersonal psychologies are separate
theories that differ in important aspects, most prominently about
end stages of development. Transpersonal psychology posits that
the ego should be seen as a form, an idea, that the individual
identifies with, and the end stage of development in this para-
digm is conceptualized as a complete resolution of the individual
self-sense within either the godhead or the void (Walsh, 2000). As
a means of achieving this stage, transpersonal developmentalists
advocate the use of methods such as meditation that impart
insights that are usually not achievable with any other means.
Existential psychology is more closely focused on optimum devel-
opment within what is conventionally defined as the personality.
The highest stage of development is seen as the maturity to rec-
ognize the dynamic tension that exists between freedom and des-
tiny, to make conscious choices in the face of finitude, what
Schneider (2004) calls the fluid center of life (p. 11). Existential
psychologists acknowledge the benefits of peak experiences, such
as awe and the I-thou encounter, but they do not see these as a
means of moving beyond a bounded self in a progressive manner.
Existential and transpersonal psychologists have had an intense,
multifaceted relationship that has spanned many decades. In his
1958 publication Existence (p. 18), May specifically noted the simi-
larities between existentialism and Eastern thought, such as the
shared emphasis on ontology and beingness, as well as the attempt
to overcome the duality of subject and object. According to May, exis-
tentialists and oriental philosophers view the subjugation of nature
as the reason that humans have become estranged from them-
selves. He argued that the interest in Eastern mysticism arises
for the same reason that the existential psychology movement
has emerged, namely the conflicting, dichotomous relationship of
humans and nature, and the consequent loss of meaning.
Once the transpersonal psychology movement came into its
own in the 1970s and 80s, such rapprochement and sharing of
ideas were quickly lost in what became an antagonistic, acrimo-
nious dialogue. May and his colleague Schneider took front seats
opposite Wilber. May (1989) started with a full-blown assault on
Wilber, whom many transpersonal and humanistic psychologists
considered to be the leading thinker in the field (Fischer, 1997;
Vaughan & Walsh, 1994). May challenged the absolutist truth
claims of the transpersonalists, the decadence of the emerging
spiritual groups, and the Pollyannaish attitudes in regard to how
we can all achieve perfection through transpersonal practices. In
Mays view, transpersonal psychology is a nave allegiance to the
expansive side of human nature and a denial of the daimonic,
dichotomous aspects of existence. He expressed adamantly that
this denial would eventually exert a price in terms of our cultural
development, because the dark side of human nature cannot be
denied or repressed; it needs to be acknowledged and integrated.
May was concerned with the overemphasis within the field of
psychology on that which is individual experience at the expense
of considerations of how communal change can be affected.
Schneider (1987, 1989) criticized Wilbers (1986) model of per-
sonality and development on the grounds that a complete tran-
scendence of the self is neither possible nor desirable, and that
such transcendence may hide an inability to confront existential
issues of finitude. He also argued that there is no ultimate truth
that is uncovered by higher development as Wilber postulated. In
his rebuttal Wilber (1989a, 1989b) argued that transpersonal
psychology has its own epistemology and ways of knowing. He
defended his model of a qualitative value hierarchy and reiter-
ated his view that transpersonal realization is a higher, more
advanced stage of development. Wilbers response was highly
technical, overly detailed, and hard to follow. He showed a thinly
veiled sarcasm toward existentialism, portraying it as an inferior
form of thought that cannot go beyond its own limitations. Other
theorists (Koltko, 1989; Vaughan & Walsh, 1994) jumped into the
debate to say, yes, Wilber is arrogant and confusing, but never-
theless right. In a more recent exchange between Walsh (2001)
and Schneider (2001), the former carefully delineates the com-
monalities between existential and transpersonal psychologists,
such as the rejection of superficiality and conformity, and an
emphasis on living an examined life. Both authors acknowledged
that the existential and transpersonal psychologies are rather
separate fields of study at this time. Theorists and practitioners
within one of the fields are usually not well educated in the other
discipline, which has led to mutual misunderstandings and an
inability to properly appreciate the other perspective from within
its own context.
It might be possible to clarify the divergent perspectives of exis-
tential versus transpersonal psychology through empirical research.
Principal issues concern developmental goals and the validity of
stage theory. Transpersonalists tend to treat the qualitative stage
hierarchy as real and objective, similar to grades in a school (Wilber,
2000). They argue that tenth grade is inevitably more sophisticated
than second grade; therefore progression in an objective manner is
taking place. This ascertainment is true, but it is made true by a
societal context that creates specific learning objectives and
designs a curriculum to achieve those goals. Without agreement on
the goals, the stages or grades, the school itself would have no
meaning. Consequently, we can see that stage theory is a means of
organizing information after we have defined what is to be valued
in development. At this time, transpersonal and existential psy-
chologists have no such agreement about values and, without it,
neither researchable questions nor methods can be arrived at.
Consequently, the principal disagreements between the two groups
about endpoints in development cannot be explored through sys-
tematic inquiry, although both groups do carry out projects within
their own frames of reference that they see as confirmatory (see
Walsh, 2001, for an example).
Social constructionism (Gergen, 1985) can serve as a useful
framework, or metanarrative, that allows us to see the subjectivity
of values and perspectives that exist within different reality con-
structions. Constructionism has its own implicit values, such as the
value of respecting subjectivity and the context-dependent nature
of all viewpoints. The existential and transpersonal psychologies
are thus seen as narratives that rely on differing views of what is
to be valued in human development. Interestingly enough, Wilber
(2000) and Schneider (2004) share a certain disdain for construc-
tionism. They base their views on the argument that construc-
tionism is devoid of values and presents a form of relativism.
Wilber tends to rely on reasoning advanced by the German
philosopher and critical theorist Jrgen Habermas (1988), who
suggested that values are intrinsic to human nature and what is
good can be explicated through dialogue. This position is a rejec-
tion of constructionism in its entirety. Wilber insisted that absolute
truth and an absolute, knowable reality exist. Schneider agreed
that values are desirable and should guide psychological theory,
but he did not agree with Wilber about what those values are and
how they are arrived at. Neither author has contributed to a
debate of how they ground the values that they are advancing and
that ultimately represent the foundation of the paradigms.
In short, both theories affirm certain values but they do not
want to acknowledge the subjectivity of values as it is taught
in social constructionism (Gergen, 1985). Constructionism sees
truth as a social product negotiated between people; different
groups of people socially construct different truths. Consequently,
instead of placing emphasis on using empirical research to clar-
ify which is right, we could investigate how different values and
beliefs lead to differential experiences in the lived experience of
people. Possible research projects might delineate how an exis-
tential versus a transpersonal focus in the lives of individuals
leads to outcomes that may have differential rewards in the life
course. We could enroll some research participants who were cho-
sen by existential psychologists and others who were chosen by
transpersonalists as embodying desirable aspects of development
within their respective schools of thought. Researchers from both
traditions would be involved in the design, which would emphasize
a qualitative, interpretive approach. We could collect a life narrative
from every participant (Josselson, Lieblich, & McAdams, 2003).
Researchers from both orientations could code the stories and offer
interpretations. This would probably be best designed as an open-
ended kind of inquiry where the outcome, that is, the reporting of
the findings, might be less significant than the process of research
and the enrichment of the mutual dialogue.
CONCLUSION
Optimum development in adulthood can be seen from many
different perspectives. What is considered desirable depends on
the viewpoint taken. The three approaches discussed above share
an emphasis on the individuals intrapsychic development. They
were chosen because they are comparable based on this similar-
ity, not because other approaches of personality development are
deemed less worthy of our attention. Alternative positions may
emphasize the persons social or relational capacities. An example
of the former would be McAdams and de St. Austins (1999) elabora-
tion of Eriksons (1978) theory of generativity, which is focused on
how well adults can accept their responsibilities of caring for others
and society as a whole. Examples of the latter would be the rela-
tional, feminist psychologies (J. B. Miller, 1986; Spencer, 2000) that
stress the individuals ability to connect, empathize, and grow in a
relationship. For optimum adulthood, a person needs to grow in
many different areas. The interrelatedness of the different streams
of development remains a field in need of further elaboration.
Empirical research remains sparse within the three areas dis-
cussed in the main part of this article. This appears to be due to the
marginalized position of humanistic psychology as a whole, the
lack of research funding, and the fact that few graduate schools
offer support for relevant research projects. The most significant
amount of research has accumulated in regard to self-actualization
theory because Loevingers (1976) development of the SCT has
allowed for the operationalization and assessment of higher stages
of development. Most of those projects were carried out by
researchers who have no allegiance to humanistic personality
theory. The projects usually emphasized a variable-centered as
opposed to a person-centered view within a quantitative research
design. Consequently important aspects have been neglected,
such as the fact that Loevingers test is a method that does not
grasp the whole person; instead it relies on the interpretation of ver-
bal material. Labouvie-Vief and Diehl (1998) and Schultz and
Selman (1998) have convincingly argued that the SCT is predomi-
nantly an assessment of cognitive complexity and that important
dimensions of personality are not sufficiently described through
this method. If we want to respect the humanistic worldviews of the
above-presented theories, it would advisable to flesh out the quan-
titative data with qualitative methods, such as life stories
(McAdams, 1993, 1996) or interview materials (Hewlett, 2004), to
gain a better understanding of advanced development. Humanistic
researchers of optimal development will need to rely on their cre-
ativity and the courage to try new ways of exploration if they want
to advance the field.
NOTE
1. I do not intend to imply that existential personality theory is not
humanistic.
REFERENCES
Alexander, C. N., Heaton, D. P., & Chandler, H. M. (1994). Advanced
human development in the vedic psychology of Maharishi Mahesh
Yogi: Theory and research. In M. E. Miller & S. Cook-Greuter (Eds.),
Transcendence and mature thought in adulthood (pp. 3970).
Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Alexander, C. N., Rainforth, M. V., & Gelderloos, P. (1991).
Transcendental meditation, self-actualization, and psychological
health: A conceptual overview and statistical meta-analysis. Journal
of Social Behavior and Personality, 6(5), 189247.
Block, J. (1982). Assimilation, accommodation, and the dynamics of per-
sonality development. Child Development, 53, 281295.
Block, J. (1993). Studying personality the long way. In D. C. Funder, R. D.
Parke, C. Tomlinson-Keasey, & K. Widaman (Eds.), Studying lives
through time. (pp. 944). Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
Bugental, J. (1976). The search for existential identity. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Cook-Greuter, S. (1999). Postautonomous ego development: A study of its
nature and measurement. Dissertation Abstracts International,
60/06B. (UMI No. AAT 9933122). Retrieved November 8, 2003, from
Proquest/UMI database.
Cortright, B. (1997). Psychotherapy and spirit: Theory and practice in
transpersonal psychotherapy. Albany, NY: State University of New
York Press.
Cushman, P. (1990). Why the self is empty: Towards a historically situ-
ated psychology. American Psychologist, 45, 599611.
Cushman, P. (1991). Ideology obscured: Political uses of Daniel Sterns
infant. American Psychologist, 46, 206219.
Debats, D. L. (1999). Sources of meaning: An investigation of significant
commitments in life. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 39(4), 3057.
DeCarvalho, R. J. (1992). The humanistic ethics of Rollo May. Journal of
Humanistic Psychology, 32(1), 718.
Engler, J. (1986). Therapeutic aims in psychotherapy and meditation. In
K. Wilber, J. Engler, & D. P. Brown, (Eds.), Transformations of con-
sciousness (pp. 1753). Boston: Shambhala.
Erikson, E. H. (1978). Adulthood. New York: Norton.
Fisher, R. M. (1997). A guide to Wilberland: Some common misunder-
standings of the critics of Ken Wilber and his work on transpersonal
theory prior to 1995. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 37(4), 3073.
Gergen, K. (1985). The social constructionist movement in modern psy-
chology. American Psychologist, 40, 266274.
Goldberg, I., & Goldberg, H. (2000). Family therapy. In R. J. Corsini &
D. Wedding (Eds.), Current psychotherapies (6th ed.) (pp. 375406).
Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock.
Green, R. G. (1998). Aggression and antisocial behavior. In D. T. Gilbert,
S. T. Fiske and G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (4th
ed) (pp. 317356). New York: Oxford University Press.
Greening, T. (Ed.) (1984). American politics and humanistic psychology.
Dallas, TX: Saybrook Press.
Greening, T. (2004). Four existential challenges and three answers to each.
retrieved January 1, 2005, from https://athena.saybrook.edu/resources/
assets/January2005RC/ HTP/HTP_challenges_greening.doc
Habermas, J. (1988). On the logic of the social sciences. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press.
Helson, R., Mitchell, V., & Hart, B. (1985). Lives of women who became
autonomous. Journal of Personality, 53(2), 258285.
Hewlett, D. C. (2004). A qualitative study of postautonomous ego devel-
opment: The bridge between postconventional and transcendent ways
of being. Dissertation Abstracts International, 65/02B. (UMI No. AAT
3120900). Retrieved May 5, 2004, from Proquest/UMI database.
Josselson, R., Lieblich, A, & McAdams, D. P. (Eds.). (2003). Up close and
personal: The teaching and learning of narrative research.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Kanai L. H. (1995). The rise and decline of Buddhism in India. New
Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.
King, L. (2001). The hard road to the good life: The happy, mature person.
Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 41(1), 5172.
Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive developmental
approach to socialization. In D. A. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of social-
ization theory and research (pp. 348480). Chicago: Rand McNally.
Koltko, M. E. (1989). The humanized no-self: A response to Schneiders
critique of transpersonal psychology. Journal of Humanistic
Psychology, 29(4), 482492.
Labouvie-Vief, G., & Diehl (1998). The role of ego development in the
adult self. In P. M. Westenberg, A. Blasi, & L. D. Lawrence (Eds.),
Personality development. Theoretical, empirical, and clinical investi-
gations of Loevingers conception of ego development (pp. 219236).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Loevinger, J. (1976). Ego development. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Maslow, A. H. (1968). Towards a psychology of being. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold.
Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York:
Harper & Row. (Original work published 1954)
Maslow, A. H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York:
Viking.
May, R. (1958). Contributions to existential psychotherapy. In R. May,
E. Angela, & H. Ellenberger (Eds.), Existence: A new dimension in psy-
chology and psychiatry (pp. 3791). New York: Basic Books.
May, R. (1977). The meaning of anxiety (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.
(Original work published 1950)
May, R. (1980). Value conflicts and anxiety. In I. L. Kutash & L. B.
Schlesinger (Eds.), Handbook on stress and environment (pp. 241248).
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
May, R. (1981). Freedom and destiny. New York: Norton.
May, R. (1982). The problem of evil: An open letter to Carl Rogers.
May, R. (1983). The discovery of being. New York: Norton.
May, R. (1989). Answers to Ken Wilber and John Rowan. Journal of
Humanistic Psychology, 29(2), 244248.
McAdams, D. P. (1993). The stories we live by: Personal myth and the
making of the self. New York: William Morrow.
McAdams, D. P. (1996). Alternative futures for the study of human indi-
viduality. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 374388.
McAdams, D. P., & de St. Austin, E. (Eds.). (1998). Generativity and adult
development. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Miller, J. B. (1986). What do we mean by relationship? Wellesley, MA:
Wellesley Center for Women. Retrieved January 20, 2003, from
http://www.wcwonline.org/title147. html
Miller, M. E. (1994). World views, ego development, and epistemological
changes from the conventional to the postformal: A longitudinal per-
spective. In M. E. Miller & S. Cook-Greuter (Eds.), Transcendence and
mature thought in adulthood (pp. 147181). Lanham, MD: Rowman &
Littlefield.
Miller, M. E., & Cook-Greuter, S. (1994). From postconventional development
to transcendence: Visions and theories. In M. E. Miller & S. Cook-Greuter
(Eds.), Transcendence and mature thought in adulthood: The further
reaches of adult development. (pp. xvxxxii). Lanham, MD: Rowman &
Littlefield.
Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive
structures. New York: Viking.
Rogers, C. (1951). Client-centered therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Rogers, C. (1982). Reply to Rollo Mays letter. Journal of Humanistic
Psychology, 22(4), 8589.
Schneider, K. J. (1987). The deified self: A centaur response to Wilber
and the transpersonal movement. Journal of Humanistic Psychology,
27(2), 196216.
Schneider, K. J. (1989). Infallibility is so damn appealing: A response to
Ken Wilber. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 29(4), 470481.
Schneider, K. J. (2001). A reply to Walsh. In K. J. Schneider, J. F. T.
Bugental, & J. F. Pierson (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychol-
ogy (pp. 621624). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Schneider, K. J. (2004). Rediscovery of awe: Splendor, mystery, and the
fluid center of life. St Paul, MN: Paragon House.
Schneider, K. J. & May, R. (1995). The psychology of existence: An inte-
grative, clinical perspective. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Schultz, L. H., & Selman, R. L. (1998). Ego development and interper-
sonal development in young adulthood. In P. M. Westenberg, A. Blasi,
& L. D. Lawrence (Eds.), Personality development. Theoretical, empir-
ical, and clinical investigations of Loevingers conception of ego devel-
opment (pp. 181202). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Skoe, E. A., & von der Lippe, A. (2002). Ego development and the ethics
of care and justice: The relations among them revisited. Journal of
Personality, 70(4), 485508.
Slife, B. D. (2004). Theoretical challenges to therapy practice and
research: The constraints of naturalism. In M. J. Lambert (Ed.),
Bergin and Garfields handbook of psychotherapy and behavior
change (5th ed.) (pp. 4483). New York: John Wiley.
Spencer, R. (2000). A comparison of relational psychologies. Wellesley,
MA: Wellesley Center for Women. Retrieved January 20, 2003, from
http://www.wcwonline.org/title320.html
Vaughan, F., & Walsh, R. (1994). The worldview of Ken Wilber. Journal
of Humanistic Psychology, 34(2), 621.
Walsh, R. (2000). Asian Psychotherapies. In R. J. Corsini & D. Wedding
(Eds.), Current psychotherapies (6th ed.) (pp. 407461). Itasca, IL:
F. E. Peacock.
Walsh, R. (2001). Authenticity, conventionality, and angst: Existential and
transpersonal perspectives. In K. J. Schneider, J. F. T. Bugental, &
J. F. Pierson (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology (pp. 609620).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Wilber, K. (1986). The spectrum of development. In K. Wilber, J. Engler,
& D. P. Brown, (Eds.). Transformations of consciousness (pp. 65106).
Boston: Shambhala.
Wilber, K. (1989a). God is so damn boring: A response to Kirk Schneider.
Wilber, K. (1989b). Reply to Schneider. Journal of Humanistic
Psychology, 29(4), 493500.
Wilber, K. (2000). Integral psychology. Boston: Shambhala.
Yalom, I. (1980). Existential psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.

Pfaffenberger A Different Conceptualizations of Optimum Development

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Pfaffenberger A Different Conceptualizations of Optimum Development

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pfaffenberger A Different Conceptualizations of Optimum Development

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

http://jhp.sagepub.

You might also like