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1: ............................................................................ 3
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................................................................................... 7
..................................................... 8

2: ............................................................. 15
............................................................................... 17
..................................................... 17
.................................................... 18
.............................................. 18
................................................................ 21
......................................................... 22

3: .......................................................... 29
.......................................................... 31
...................................................................... 35
........ ....................................................................... 38
....................................................................... 40

 ..................................... 41
1: ................ 44
2: 45

4: ...................................................... 47
................................................................ 59
................................................. 52
............................................................ 52
....................................................................... 54
...................................................................... 54
.................................................................. 54
L ....................................................... 55
L- ......................................................... 55
................................................................... 56
................................................................... 57
....................................................................... 58
................................................. 58
..................................................... 59
......................................... 59
.................................................... 59
....................................................................... 60
Aryl- ....................................................... 62

5: ........................................... 63

 .............................................................. 65
............................................................... 67
.... ....................................................................... 69
: - . 72

......... ....................................................................... 77

......... ....................................................................... 85
..... ....................................................................... 85
.. ....................................................................... 87
..................................................................... 88
................................................................. 88
............................................................... 91
........ ....................................................................... 92
. ....................................................................... 94
..... ....................................................................... 96
..... ....................................................................... 96
..................................................................... 96
...... ....................................................................... 96
....... ....................................................................... 96
... ....................................................................... 97
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. ....................................................................... 98
........ ....................................................................... 99

 . ....................................................................... 99
... ..................................................................... 100
....... ..................................................................... 100
.... ..................................................................... 102
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......... ..................................................................... 105

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........................... 109
............................................. 118
....................... 120
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: : ................... 127
................................ 129
....................................................... 133
.................................... 139
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.... ..................................................................... 139
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................... 142
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........................ 149

 ............................................. 150
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........... 152
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....... 156
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................................ 167

......... ..................................................................... 175

1: ....... 177
......................................................... 179
....................................................... 180
........................ 184
............ 189
....................................................... 190
................................................... 196
.......................................................... 198
BSC ................................... 204
BSC .................................... 207
................................................................ 211

2: ........................................... 215
........... 217

 ................................. 220
........ 223
............ 224
.......................... 226
.................................................... 227
............................................ 231
: ............................................ 234
, ......................................... 236
........................................ 241
............................ 245
.... ..................................................................... 246
.................... 253
........................ 256
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......... ..................................................................... 263

....... ..................................................................... 269

. , , , . . .

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Si, Fe, Mg, Ca. , . , . , .

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.
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(mm)
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20000

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. .
.
7. -

12

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,
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SiO2

O2(OH)Al2(OH)3

6.
. ,

13

7. . , . ,
. ,

.
.

8. .
,

14

15

16

17

, 1 10
mm. . ,

. , ,
.
.
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18

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), .

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20

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- 60
.
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53-250
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m -
- 412

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o.
,

http://en.wikipedia.org

- 42
- 691

21

,

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,
.
10
() (aggregates) . ,
. .

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.
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11, . .

m
0.2

20

22

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)
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( )

200
. ( ),
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2000
. : ,
:

10. o

.
.

23

11.: .
: . : http://passel.unl.edu/
Image/Martha/Diane/
SoilGenDevQ8Lsn4PicLg.jpg

, ,
.
0.05
mm.
. ,
0.05
0.01 mm.
.

24

, () . ,
(0.01-0.002 mm)
.
.

0.002 mm. ()
. .
12.
6 .
. , ,

.

12. . :
6 . : . :

25

(..)
(..).
1 cm3 . , 2.65 g/cm3. ,
%=(1-.../...)*100. 5. .
. 13. , , , . .
.
. ,
, 10 C,
- 15 C. ,
100%, 51%.
-

26
, . .

13.

13
. ,

(
) . ,
. ,
100%, 51% . ,

, .

.

27

13. ,
.

.
.

28

29

30

31

. 14.
. , ( ),
( ) ( ).
( 15)
.
, ..

4+. ,

. ,

14.

32

HO

HO
H3C

H 3C

OH

CH3

OH

O
H

OH

O
O

CH3
OH

OH

15. (
)

. .

( 16).

C/N . , C , C
.
C/N 20 ,
35 , 80
. . , C/N
9.5 ,
, 12 .


R
H3C

NH

33

CH

NH

CH3
R

R
CH

H2N

COOH

CH
H2N

C
H

COOH

16.

C/N . , .
. , , ,
C,

. , C/
N , C
. . , , ,
. , -

34

.
,
2 .


. ,
F=Cmic/Cassimil, Cassimil
, Cmic .
,
, CO2 (Crealeased): Cassimil=Cmic+Creleased.
C
. Cassimil/Nmic.

Cmic/Nmic F 25 ((Cmic/Nmic)/F>25). C/N
4 10 . C/N 5.

0.2. ,
F C .
, , S ,
Ca Mg -

35

. Ca . , ,

.

.
.
. , , HCL H2SO4.
, .
20.000 100.000 ( 17).
25% .
35-45%. ,
.
.
, , ,
, -

17. . : en.wikipedia.org

36

. , H2SO4.
. ,
.
.
H2SO4.

, .

. , ,
, .
20% .

. ,
Mull ( 18, 20, -

L
F
H

O
A

Mull

Mull-Moder

Moder

Mor

18. ( 20)

37

22). 2-5 cm,

30-50 cm. C/N
10 15 .
, Mor.
5-20 cm.
L
F , , .

(H) .
10-30 cm .
C/N 30,
. ,
Moder .
6 .

6.

Mull

Moder

Mor

(.)


Buffer

OL, OF

( .)

VAM
, NH4, NO3

OL, OF, OH
-

-
, NH4
()

OL, OM

Fe, Al

38

,

. . .
. , ,


. .
19

19.

39

.
.
.
( 20).
. L.
L F. ,
.
H.

{
A

B1

B2

20.
mull. : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_horizon

40

, ,
. ,
, , L P
. pit bog .
.
- A1 . A2 .

A3. . ,
. 1, 2 B3. ( C).
20
mull. . .
,
.
.

. :

41

Entisosl (Ent) ( )
Inceptisols (Ept)
Aridisols (Id)
Mollisols (Ou) -- - , ,
Spodosols (Od) , , Fe-Al
Alfisols (Alf)
Ultisols (Ult) , ,
Oxisols (Ox) Fe Al, Si
Histosols (Ist) ,
Vertisols (Vert)

a Ma O

,
.

. ,
.
.
Alfisols (Alf), .
Ca++ Mg++, -

42

, .
.

fersiallitization.
Fe++.
-.
. .
.

21. mull, .
. , .
22 3 .
.
.
23
.
mull, -
pH.

43

Fe, . A1

A1

A2

A2

A1

+
+

+
+

+
+

A2

A1
A

cm
10

20

21. :
Alfisol. : http://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Alfisol_Italy.jpg

30

22. :
( )

40

23. :

50

44

, C Ca. .

45

1. Fabric: ,
2. Peds: ( )
3. Apedal ():
4. S-matrix: plasma, sceleton grains & voids
5. Plasma:
(<2m),
6. Skeleton grains:
>2m (
)
7. Voids:

8. Pedological features:
matrix (orthic)

9. Plasma concentration: ( , ,
10. Plasma separation: ( )

46

47

48

49

, .
, . () 100 . , 1950 ,
60 .

pH, ,
, , , .

. ( 24).
. ,


.
. ,
.
-

50

vii

ii

iii

vi

vii

-
vii
iv

viii

ix

24. . i), ii) , iii) , iv) , v)

(, , ), vi) , vii)
, viii) , ix) , x)

.
( 25):
1. .
, ,
.
2. ,
.
3. ,

.
4. ,
. -

51

25. (
)

.
:
1. .
2.
.
3. .
4. .
5.
.
6. ATP.

52

,
. , 3 5
5.9%. ,
,
.
,
, pH,
.
/ . ,
. , . . ,
20 cm,
.

53

.

.
.

.
. ,

.
. ,
5% , , .
,
, , .. , , . ( ) . .


. , -

54

. , .

.

- ( 26) .
HOH2C

HO
HO

O-R
OH

+ H2 O

p-Nitrophenyl- -Glucoside

HOH2 C
HO

HO

OH

+ R-OH

OH

-Glucoside
p-Nitrophenol

R=

NO2

26.

.
,
( 27). L-, L, , . -

55

28.

R1

O
CH

H2N

R2

OH

O
RNH2

HN

NH4

NO2

NO3 +E

OH

H2O

RNH

L-
L-
L-

NH4

NO2

NO3 + E

27.

L-

. . L- L-, L- NH3.

L-

C-N . , L- L- NH3.

56

28.

, . ,
.

o NH3 . C-N . .

57

CO2 3. , , . .


. ,

.
, , ,
, .
. ,
,
. ,

, .
1940.

. . ,

.

58

.
, .

( 29).

. , .
pH
pH.

.
O

O
RO PO
O

H2O

OR1
OR2

ROH

OH

O
O

HO PO

H2O

OH

R1OH

OR2

29. ,

59

,
.

, . .

. .

C .
CaCO3.
,
.

(trimetaphosphate
) , . ,
.

60

Aryl-

(SO4--, 30).

ROSO3

H2O

Aryl-

ROH

H2

--

SO 4

R=Aryl-

30.

61

62

63

64

65

.
,

.
, 60% CO2, 40%
.
.

(F/B, F: fungi
B: bacteria).
. , .
F/B , .

pH. pH
(, , ) .
,

F/B 10. ,
100.
.

66

( 31).
. 5 10
,
. , 40 80%

.
. , 10
100 5

31. . : en.wikipedia.org

67

50 ,
.

. 32 .

. taxa , Hippodamia sp.,
.
Tipula ssp.
&
100n

Bacteria Fungi
Nematoda
Protozoa
Rotifera

32

2mm

&

20mm

Acari
Collembola
Protura
Diplura
Symphyla
Enchytreidae
Chelonethi
Isoptera
Opiliones
Isopoda
Amphipoda
Chilopoda
Diplopoda
Earthworms
Coleoptera
Araneida
Molusca

128 512

32

32.

68

, , .
.
, Forficula, , , , .
, . , ..
7

69

, .

. , , .

.
.


. ,
,

C.
. , C (C) (C). C/C
.
C.
qCO2 C2 -

70

.
(.. , ). . , qCO2
.

C/.

.
C/ 5 10
. 10
, ,
. , C/

.

. C/N
,
.

.

71

.
, C/N , ,
,
. ,

.
.
.
, ,
, , . -
, , . ,
. ,
( ) . ,
.
,

. , , ,

72

. ,
. , , ,
.

: -

.

. ,
2 mm
(
33).
.

(, ) . 4 mm ,
, -
.

, exudates,
40%
.
: () , ,

O2
C0 2

. -
-

(exoudates)




mm

pH


pH

73

33 .
.

,
, , , .

33 . E



. :

http://
www.nature.com/
scitable/knowledge/
library/therhizosphere-roots-soiland-67500617

, . .
() , . ()
CO2.

,

74

50% . , 10
20%, 10-20% . , 50% .
. ,
, ,

.
30%
. . , .
.
,
. ,
.

.
( 34).

75

C O2

N2

34.

, , ,
.
, . 80% ,
.

, .

76

. ,
10-40%
50-70% C , , . ,
-
.
, . 15%
.
.
10 100 m,
.
(2-4 )
( 10-12 )


.
, .

. ,

,

77

. ,
5%,

12%.
.
C , , ,

.
,
.
.
8.

,

, ( 35).


. , , ..
.

. ,

78

8.

P N .

,
. , ,
-

79

, .

, - -.
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza VAM (Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza). ,
(, ..). ,

35. .: https://www.dmtnexus.me/forum/default.aspx?g=posts&t=11641

80

. , VAM
. 36 37 -. , ()
. ,

Hartig.
Glomus . .

36. : (VAM,) () . . , Hartig ( ). : www.bio.miami.edu/dana/226/226F09_9.html : VAM. : http://

www.digplanet.com/wiki/Glomus_intraradices

81

CM
. , . -

37 .
. : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Arbuscular_mycorrhiza_microscope.jpg

37 . r
(Gigaspora margarita) Lotus corniculatus. :
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Gigaspora_margarita.JPG

37 .
. :
http://web.unbc.ca/forestry/Hugues/
Photo%20Gallery.html, (courtesy of the
University of Northern British Columbia )

82

,
. C, . , Ericaceae .

. (mycotrophy). , (mycotrophic). , non-host
.
. .
. , , .
, 70% . , ,
.
.
.
9 ,
.

83

9. ,

pH

C/N

ricaceae

3.5-4.2

>100

4.2-5.4

AM VAM

>4.5

,
P

40-80

30-40

ricaceae

AM VAM

,

& ( &
)
,

,

,

ricaceae

, ,

()

,
,

, ,

,
,

AM VAM

,
, &

,
,

Glomales

. ,

84

. ,

.
. ,
.
. ,
,
.
, . , , , .

,
, , ,
.
, ,
.

85

( 38) . -

38 . () ). :
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Amoeba_proteus.jpg

38 . . : http://
www.bioimages.org.uk/html/r152736.htm

38 . . : http://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Paramecium.jpg

86

. .
. ,
. , .
, , , ,
.
200 106 /g . ,
, , .
, .
.
. . ,
.
,
, 10-500
/lit . .

87

( 39) ,
.
. .
, 3 350 . . , , , .

39. : To Heterodera glycines

. : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Soybean_cyst_nematode_and_egg_SEM.jpg
: Caenorhabditis elegans
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Caenorhabditis_elegans.jpg
: Monysteridae. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/f/fb/Roundworm.jpg

88

,
.
, ,
. .

( 40)
(engineer species).
10 1000 /m2,

40. . : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Regenwurm1.jpg

89

3500 . . ,
. , , .
. , (casts) , mull. taxon
40-70
500-1000 .
, ,
. ,
.
, , . ,


.
taxon 10.
,
. , ,

90

. (..
golf), , .
, taxon

. , ,
.

91

,
(vermicomposting), . (
), , (polders) , .

,
.
( 41) 65-120 . , , , . ,

41. enchytreidae.: http://en.wikipedia.org/

wiki/File:Nerr0328.jpg

92

130000 /m2. .

( 42 43).
. taxon . . .
-

42. Berlese-Tulgren.
: http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent525/soil/soilpix/pages/general_jpg.htm

93

. , .
, (oribatei) .
, .
, , .
, , , 6 6-24 .

.
(grazers), (browsers).
, .

43. . : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phthiracarid.jpg &

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheese_mite.jpg

94

, , . ( 44).
, uropodidae, . .
.
, .
,
. .

44.
o. : http://beneficialbugs.org/bugs/
Predatory_Mites/predatory_mites.htm

( 45). ,
. , 1000
80000 m2.
.

95

45. .
: http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent525/soil/soilpix/pages/collembolan_jpg.htm
& http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent525/soil/soilpix/pages/collembola_jpg.htm

. , , . ,
.

96

. , .

1000-7000 /m2
( 46).

, (50 /m-).
, , .

. .

, .

( 47).

( 47) ,
, , . taxon , . ,

97

.
, .

, .

, . -

46. . : http://
www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent525/soil/
soilpix/pages/protura_jpg.htm

46. . : http://
www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent525/soil/
soilpix/pages/diplura_jpg.htm

46. . :
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/
ent525/soil/soilpix/pages/
pseudoscorp_jpg.htm

98

47. . : http://
www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent525/soil/
soilpix/images/spiders_jpg.jpg

46. . : http://
www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent525/soil/
soilpix/pages/symphyla_jpg.htm

47. . :
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu

,
, . .

,
. , .

99

, .

, . .

47.
.
: http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/
ent525/soil/soilpix/pages/
mothlarva_jpg.htm

47. . :
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent525/
soil/soilpix/pages/flylarvae_jpg.htm

47. . : http://
www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent525/soil/
soilpix/pages/ant_jpg.htm

100

( 48). ,
.
1 14 . ,
. , 15 300 m2. , . .

48. . : http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/
ent525/soil/soilpix/pages/millipede_jpg.htm

,
( 49). ,

101

49. . : http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/File:Porcellio_scaber_and_Oniscus_asellus_-_Zaln%C3%
A920070205.jpg

.
,
. 1 3 .

50 . , :
http://www.scoopweb.com/
geophilomorpha

50 . . : http://
www.robsplants.chttp://
www.scoopweb.com/Lithobiomorpha

102

Cu,
.

,
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182

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188

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195

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212

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219

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222

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233

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: http://www. plantzafrica.com (South African National Biodiversity Institute)

240

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241

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242

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245

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247

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248

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CaCO3 Ca++ + CO3-- CO3-- + H2O HCO3- + OH- HCO3- + H2O
H2CO3 + OH- H2CO3 H2O + CO2

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. : https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phalaris_aquatica.jpg & http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Alfalfa_hay_collection.jpg

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: http://www.greenagenda.gr/?p=371 & http://voriatzoumerka.blogspot.com/2012/05/blogpost.html

256

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261

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262

263

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267

268

269

rhizofiltration, 188

alfisols, 41, 43

rivet (hypothesis, model), 117

Biological Soil Crust (BSC), 198, 204, 207

runoff, 220

biosolids, 218, 251

saline-sodic, 249

bulk density, 217

chelates, 251

, 38, 78, 244-245, 251-252

cover crop, 219

, 134, 169, 231, 246-252

engineer species, 68, 196

, 249, 252

exudates, 72, 185

, 54, 56

fersiallitization, 42

, 54-55

Glomus, 80, 191

, 138, 197, 205, 218

Hartig net, 8

, 52

key species, 197

(), 112, 124, 129, 139,

141, 143, 145, 151-152, 164-165, 167, 169,
171, 173, 197-198, 204, 206-208, 210-211,
222, 226, 228, 231-234, 251

moder, 37
mor, 37
mull, 36-37, 39-40, 42, 89
Phyto-degradation, 185
phytoremedation, 180, 187
phyto-stabilization, 185

, 69, 89, 112, 117, 121, 124, 130,

133, 137, 143-146, 149, 157, 165-166, 179180, 185-185, 187, 192-194, 196-198, 218,
225-226, 228, 234

phytovolatilization, 187

(), 5, 38, 40-42, 52, 75,

90, 220, 251-252, 254, 258

recharge, 247, 251

, 5-7, 18, 37, 41, 52, 219

rehabilitation, 165

, 54-55

Restoration, 129, 131, 165, 223

, 54-55


, 52

270
, 81

(), 86, 88, 198-199, 204, 206, , 145, 149-150

210
, 146
, 67, 76, 88, 196
, 49-50
, 83
, 72, 80, 194
, 56,-58
, 31, 33, 47, 49-54, 56-60
, 54-55
, 49-50, 53-54
, 38, 71, 89, 134, 150, 159-161,
, 54
167, 189, 192, 200, 202-203, 208, 212, 217,
, 190-195, 210, 229-230, 233
220-221, 244, 246, 260
, 109, 122-123, 130, 137, 140, 143- , 159, 220
144, 146-147, 149, 198, 200, 204-206, 208- , 203, 220-224, 226, 229-231,
209, 235-237, 256
233
, 158-159, 163-164, 188, 196, 201, , 135
226-227, 259
, 82, 90, 150, 154, 158-159, 172, 181,
, 217
184-186, 190, 193, 225, 228-229, 243, 257
, 38-39

, 31

, 76

, 18

, 5, 18, 58, 75, 188

, 6-7

, 6, 38-39, 41-42, 45, 53

, 50, 71

, 21, 23

, 209-210, 218, 250-251

, 37, 72, 76, 85, 87, 196-197

r- , 232, 236-237

, 115, 118, 197

, 11-13, 42, 51

, 196

, 18, 45, 50, 53, 250

271

, 71, 193, 218-219, 254, 257

140, 150, 190-194, 233

, 35

, 22, 66, 72-74, 76-78, 87-91, 94,

96, 111, 147-148

(, ), 159,
, 84, 118, 150, 153, 155, 158-159,
198-213, 234
179, 193, 195, 208-209, 229, 234-236
, 7
, 185-186
, 198-199, 204, 206
, 31, 36, 41
, 75, 218
( ), 38, 218, 219,
, 31, 52, 89, 100
229
, 95, 198-199, 203-204, 206, 208,
, 5, 20, 22, 33, 35-36, 38-41,
210
52-53, 57, 70, 191, 203, 207, 221, 233, 259
, 134
, 52, 54, 57
, 31-33, 36, 71
, 8-9, 19, 21-22, 42, 211-212, 217
, 5
, 113
, 219
, 5, 23, 25, 89, 190, 217, 259
-, 234
(, ),
, 6-7, 38, 40, 42, 44, 248
32-33, 36,37, 49, 57, 83, 91, 181
, 67, 76, 85, 198

, 15, 22, 66, 72, 74, 76, 85-86

, 11, 13, 41

, 6-7

(, ), 17, 19-20, 31, (, ), 6, 8-13,

34, 37, 65-67, 69-74, 7-84, 86-87, 89, 91, 93- 38, 59
96, 102, 111, 130, 132, 140-141, 148, 150,
, 20, 74, 179, 185-186
180, 190-195, 229-230, 250
-, 188
, 74, 87, 94, 111
, 72-75, 77-78, 86-87, 95, 179, 37, 72, 73, 77-84, 96, 130, 132,
180, 184-186, 195, 218, 229


(), 17, 31, 36, 69, 72, 199
, 17, 21, 58, 143, 146, 167, 202-203, 205, 217, 233
(, ), 66, 77, 82, 130, 172, 186, 191, 229-230
, 110, 123, 149, 152, 217
, 17-23, 26-27, 45, 73, 84, 195-196, 198, 200, 202, 211, 217, 221, 233
, 133, 137
, 53
(), 6-8, 40
, 171, 82, 193
, 149, 152,-154, 172, 228, 236, 238, 240, 242, 246, 257
, 24-25, 27, 247
, 139, 147, 197
(), 65-66, 77, 110-111, 149, 187, 189
, 247-248
-, 181-182, 184185
, 36-36, 53
, 22, 85-86, 93, 95, 199, 206
-, 187
, 179-180, 184-185, 189
-, 185, 187
, 58-59
, 219
(), 19-19,22,37-37, 39-40,42,49-50,53, 71, 83, 93, 95, 253

272


, 36

273

274

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