Vol.

2, n2 | 1998 : Histoire de la criminalit et de la justice pnale en Amrique latine /

riminal justice !istor" in #atin America
Articles
Gender conflicts in the courts of the early
Venezuelan republic, Caracas, 1811-1840
Arlene J. !az
p. $%&%$
'sum | (lan | )e*te | +i,lio-rap!ie | .otes | itation | Auteur
"#su$#s
/n-lis! 0ran1ais
2omen in earl" repu,lican aracas pursued t!eir quest 3or equalit" ,e3ore t!e la4
t!rou-! t!eir numerous actions in court. )!e ne4 repu,lic5s constitution o3 1811
adopted t!e 6 'i-!ts o3 7en 8, and pro9ided 3or equalit" and citi:ens!ip to
Vene:uelans. Ho4e9er ;panis! ci9il codes 4!ic! supported class, race, and -ender
distinctions still operated in t!e ne4 repu,lic. )!is 4as t!e ,asis 3or t4o contendin- sets
o3 ri-!ts : t!ose o3 t!e padres de 3amilia <male !ouse!old !eads=, 4!o tried to maintain
t!eir ancient le-al prero-ati9es, and t!ose o3 t!e ciudadanas <3emale citi:ens= 4!o
e*pected some t"pe o3 material reciprocit" in t!eir relations!ips 4it! men. /lite 4omen
openl" used t!eir ri-!ts as citi:ens to de3end t!eir propert", 4!ile lo4er&class 4omen
made persistent claims to de3end t!eir indi9idual ri-!ts. 7ost o3 t!e sampled cases
<18$%&18>?= came 3rom t!e lo4er classes <@2 percent= and most o3 t!e cases 4ere 3iled
," 4omen t!emsel9es <%1 percent=.
Haut de pa-e
%lan
Aender relations in late colonial aracas
Aender con3licts in t!e earl" repu,lic
2omen de3endin- t!eir indi9idual li,erties : t!e !idden transcripts
A claim o3 citi:ens!ip : t!e 6 pu,lic transcript 8
Haut de pa-e
&e'te int#(ral
(B0 1,$7 ;i-naler ce document
2 A3ter attainin- independence 3rom ;pain, t!e 3ormer aptainc"&Aeneral o3
Vene:uela, t!e Vice&ro"al<...=
$ !erpaC <19@8, p. 2$?=.
> Arrom <198%, p. 1>&%2=.
1'esearc! on t!e participation o3 4omen o3 Aran olom,ia2 durin- t!e 4ars o3
independence !as concluded t!at independence did not si-ni3icantl" c!an-e 4omen5s
position in societ". Dt !as also ,een ar-ued t!at ,ot! men and 4omen !eld t!e same
traditional attitudes concernin- -ender, and t!at in Aran olom,ia 4omen !ad a 9er"
limited notion o3 t!eir o4n ri-!ts$. 'esearc! on 7e*ico !as presented a more comple*
picture o3 t!e 3emale condition, as 4omen 4on respect, 9isi,ilit", and an appreciation
3or t!eir capacities t!rou-! t!e independence stru--le. Ho4e9er, a3ter t!e 4ars, 4omen
4ent ,acC to t!eir traditional roles>. )!e paucit" o3 researc! not4it!standin-, t!e
-eneral notion is t!at independence 3rom ;pain did not ,rin- major c!an-es to t!e
3emale condition in #atin America.
22!ile t!ese o,ser9ations ma" ,e incontro9erti,le 3rom t!e standpoint o3 4!at 4as
3ormali:ed in la4s, disseminated in print media, and pu,licl" e9ident, t!e" re3lect t!e
assumption t!at 3or contestation to occur it must ,e or-ani:ed, per!aps collecti9e, ,ut
certainl" mani3est in t!e pu,lic e"e. )!e pro,lem 4it! t!is perspecti9e is t!at it 3osters
t!e impression t!at 4omen 4ere passi9e mem,ers o3 societ" durin- a period o3
re9olutionar" c!an-e ,ecause t!e" did not react in a particular, e*pected 4a". 2e must
consider, !o4e9er, t!at a su,stantial proportion o3 4omen5s e9er"da" acti9ities in #atin
America <as in ot!er parts o3 t!e 4orld= un3olded in uno,ser9ed places liCe t!e domestic
sp!ere, not in pu,lic, mostl" male&dominated areas. Hence, t!e need to searc! 3or
4omen5s 9oices in sources di33erent 3rom traditional !istorical records.
% ;cott <199?=.
E ;ee 7allon <199%, p. 9=.
@ )!is !as ,een t!e 3ocus o3 recent researc!. ;ee 7allon <199%= F Gosep! and
.u-ent <199>= F and Aua<...=
8 7allon stresses t!at 6 it is possi,le to anal":e politics at all le9els as nested
arenas o3 contes<...=
$Dn t!is particular endea9or, D use Games . ;cott5s dual concept o3 6 pu,lic 8 and
6 !idden 8 transcripts to unco9er and discern actions t!rou-! 4!ic! Vene:uelan 4omen
resisted domination 3rom a,o9e%. )!ese actions ran-e, respecti9el", 3rom !i-!l" 9isi,le
ones t!at directl" c!allen-ed t!ose in po4er to less conspicuous acts o3 resistance
e*pressed in e9er"da" ,e!a9ior. Dn Vene:uela, t!e contradictions ,et4een elite
discourse on equalit" and li,ert" and t!e actual conditions o3 li3e o3 t!e 9ast majorit" o3
t!e population <e*cluded 3rom po4er and 3rom t!e social and economic opportunities o3
t!e ne4l" independent nation= ine9ita,l" created tensions 4!ic! touc!ed o33 resistance
3rom ,elo4E. 2!ile lo4er&class resistance o3ten tooC t!e 3orm o3 open stru--les o9er
political po4er H stru--les 4!ic! !a9e le3t a 6 pu,lic transcript 8@ H contestation also
un3olded in less conspicuous 4a"s, as 4!en t!e lo4er classes ,attled a-ainst su,tle
3orms o3 social control so in-rained in societ" t!at t!e" 4ere percei9ed as normal and
natural in people5s dail" li9es. (atriarc!" 4as one 3orm o3 control t!at 4as rei3ied in
social norms and mores. ;tru--les to c!allen-e t!e contradictions ,et4een o33icial
discourse and practice did not necessaril" taCe place in t!e political landscape primaril",
,ut could de9elop 4it!in t!e sp!ere o3 t!e !ouse!old. )!ese stru--les <c!ie3l" -ender
con3licts= are t!e 3ocus o3 t!is stud"8.
9 )!is essa" is ,ased on t4o samples o3 ci9il, criminal, and ecclesiastical
la4suits ,et4een 1@8E an<...=
>Dn t!is essa" D anal":e a mass o3 ci9il, criminal, and ecclesiastical court cases to
construct narrati9es o3 indi9idual e*periences o3 4omen in aracas durin- t!e earl"
repu,lic9. Burin- t!is period, 4omen stru--led 3or equal protection under t!e la4 as
4ell as 3or a more e-alitarian relations!ips 4it! men 4it!in t!e !ouse!old. Dn ,ot!
spaces, t!e conjuncture o3 t!e post&independence pro9ed decisi9e. )!e ci9il 4ars o3
independence and t!e esta,lis!ment o3 t!e ne4 repu,lic pro9ided 4omen o3 ,ot! elite
and lo4er&class ,acC-rounds 4it! a ne4 conte*t, and more importantl", 4it! ne4
discursi9e tools to stru--le 3or equalit" at !ome and in t!e courts.
%0emale notions o3 proper -ender relations 4ere not, o3 course, ne4 to t!e earl"
repu,lic. )o ,etter understand t!e c!an-es and continuities o3 -ender issues durin- t!e
earl" repu,lic, D 4ill 3irst discuss some salient points a,out t!e nature o3 -ender
con3licts in late colonial aracas. .e*t, D e*amine t!e e33ect o3 independence o9er t!e
r!etoric and actions o3 4omen durin- t!e earl" repu,lic. A special section is de9oted to
court cases in9ol9in- -ender con3licts in 4!ic! lo4er&class 4omen participated. 0inall",
t!e contestation o3 upper&class 4omen in courts is presented, one t!at openl" com,ined
a r!etoric o3 citi:ens!ip 4it! t!e condition o3 propert" o4ners.
Gender relations in late colonial Caracas
EDn t!e late colonial period, t!e lo4er classes 4ere quite conscious o3 t!eir position in
t!e ;panis! !ierarc!ical social order and 4ere 3amiliar 4it! upper&class, o33icial notions
o3 proper -ender roles, in particular, 4it! t!e ideal o3 3emale isolation or separation
3rom men. #i9in- in t!e cramped conditions in late ei-!teent!&centur" aracas,
!o4e9er, made t!is ideal di33icult to accomplis!. I3ten, at t!e le9el o3 t!e !ouse!old,
man" people slept in t!e same room, sla9es and 3ree, male and 3emale1?. ;eparation o3
t!e races 4as equall" impro,a,le.
1? Dn !is diar" o3 t!e pastoral 9isit to t!e pro9ince o3 Vene:uela ,et4een 1@@1
and 1@8>, +is!op 7ari<...=
11 ;ee 3or e*ample 6 'ita Antonia Bias escla9a de BoJa 7aria Antonia Bias
so,re su li,ertad 8, AA.H,<...=
12 ;ee BKa: <199@, c!apter $=.
1$ ;ee 7caa <198>=.
@(oor 4omen and e9en sla9es !ad to 4orC 3or t!eir dail" sustenance and t!us did not
depend solel" on t!e support o3 male ,read4inners11. ;tories 3rom late ei-!teent!&
centur" court cases t!at D !a9e anal":ed in anot!er 4orC su--est t!at relations!ips
amon- t!e se*es and races 4ere quite 3luid and t!at man" poor 4omen conducted t!eir
dail" li9es 4it! certain autonom"12. )!is does not mean t!at 4omen did not seeC to
3ul3ill ideal roles as 4i9es and mot!ers, nor t!at t!e li9es o3 4omen 4it!out male
-uardians 4ere eas". Dn t!e narrati9es o3 4omen a9aila,le t!rou-! t!e court cases,
!o4e9er, it is clear t!at 4omen 4ere acti9e in t!e !ouse!olds, and t!at i3 t!e"
acCno4led-ed ,ein- su,missi9e, suc! acCno4led-ement 4as conditional and, t!ere3ore,
temporal. ases o3 complete su,ordination are not unCno4n, !o4e9er. )o ,e sure, le-al
con3licts are not a complete representation o3 t!e e*perience o3 t!e 4!ole communit".
A9aila,le e9idence su--ests t!at in Vene:uela a 4oman aspired to and 9alued 3ormal
marria-e and 4as 4illin- to e*c!an-e !er 9ir-init" <t!e one t!in- t!at determined !er
and !er 3amil"5s !onor in societ" accordin- to t!e c!urc! and t!e state= 3or a promise o3
marria-e1$.
1> 2!et!er t!ese ideas came 3rom t!e c!urc!, 4!o placed more constraints on
t!e prero-ati9es o3 men t<...=
1% LMntitled : Bon N-nacio Aon:Ole: & su mujer se resiste a cumplir con las
o,li-aciones de su estado<...=
1E LMntitled : Bi9orcio & Guana 0eliciana Bias con Guan Bomin-o 7orenoP,
AA, 7atrimoniales, 1@9>, le<...=
80ormal marria-e, !o4e9er, did not al4a"s resol9e t!e pli-!t o3 4omen ,ecause, e9en
in marria-e, some males did not ,e!a9e as responsi,le partners. (oor colonial 4omen
!ad a particular 9ision o3 proper -ender relations!ips, one in 4!ic! ,ot! 4omen and
men !ad equal responsi,ilities in t!e domestic conte*t1>. Dn 1@9>, D-na&cia A:carate, a
poor 4!ite, claimed in court t!at 6 a 4oman is -i9en to a man in marria-e to ,ecome !is
partner LcompaeraP not to su33er 9e*ation, oppression and 9iolence 3rom ill&tempered
men, 4!o a,usin- t!eir po4er and p!"sical stren-t!, 3or-et t!eir main o,li-ations as
!us,ands, as !ristians and as citi:ens 81%. Dn t!e same 9ein Guana 0eliciana BKa: 4rote
to t!e court : 6 Ho4 !ard is t!e pli-!t o3 married 4omen Q Ine rarel" 3inds a !us,and
4!o !as t!e same re-ard to4ard !is companion LconsorteP... )!e !us,and ,ecomes a
t"rant, t!e 4i3e a sla9e, t!e !ome !ell, and t!e c!ildren are un3ortunate 4itnesses o3 t!is
!orri,le and lamenta,le metamorp!osis 81E.
1@ LMntitled : Bon N-nacio Aon:Ole:P, 3ols. @2r&@$r.
18 0or instance, 6 Bemanda matrimonial de 7arKa de los ;antos 7arques
contra Guan de la 'o* Bias 8, A<...=
19 LMntitled : Bi9orcio & Guana 0eliciana BiasP, 3ol. 8r.
2? )!is idea is 3irml" asserted in t!e Siete Partidas, 4!ic! 3urt!er esta,lis!ed
t!at t!e adult male<...=
9+ot! in t!e late colonial and in t!e earl" repu,lican periods re3erences to marria-e as
sla9er" and to 4i9es treated as sla9es appeared constantl" in t!e records. ;ince men !ad
le-al control o9er t!eir 3amilies, sometimes t!e" !eld t!e mistaCen ,elie3 t!at 4omen
4ere t!eir pri9ate propert" and 4ere o,li-ed to ser9e t!em. )!e case o3 D-nacia
A:carate ser9es as a -ood e*ample. Accordin- to !er testimon", !er !us,and came to
t!e marria-e 4it! onl" empt" promises and 4it! t!e intention o3 6 !a9in- a sla9e, L4!o
4ouldP ser9e and looC a3ter !im and !is c!ildren, Land endureP t!e "oCe o3 !is ill&
temper 81@. Dn t!ese and ot!er cases, 4omen 9ie4ed t!eir marria-e as a contract, as a
pact amon- equal partners, as a union o3 compaeros18. Dn t!e eloquent 4ords o3 Guana
0eliciana, 6 marria-e t!ou-! a sacrament al4a"s remains a compact 819. And it 4as
under t!is ,elie3 t!at t!e" complained a,out t!e a,uses and lacC o3 responsi,ilit" o3 t!e
men in t!e relations!ip. )!ese 4omen 4ere c!allen-in- t!e o33icial !ierarc!" o3 po4er
4it!in t!e !ouse!old. Accordin- to t!e colonial state, 4!ile 4omen <considered
i-norant and 4eaC= necessitated a male -uardian to protect t!eir p!"sical ,ein-s and
t!eir material properties2?.
21 6 ;eparaciRn que pretende Ba. Ana 7arKa #ope: Nn3ante 8, 3ol. 2$r.
22 6 Autos de di9orcio que si-ue Ba. 0rancisca 'osalKa HernOnde: contra su
le-Ktimo marido Bon Guan )<...=
1?7ales 4ere inclined to see -ender relations in t!e li-!t o3 4!at 4as esta,lis!ed ," t!e
;panis! state. )!e" concei9ed o3 marria-e as a sacrament, an un,reaCa,le ,ond in
4!ic! t!e po4er relations!ip ,et4een !us,and and 4i3e 4as in!erentl" unequal. 0or
t!is reason, t!e" tried to assert in t!e courts t!e importance o3 t!is le-al ,onda-e. As
one !us,and put it : !is 6 le-itimate 4i3e ma" !a9e ,elie9ed t!at t!e marria-e ,ond,
9ested 4it! t!e respecta,le condition o3 t!e sacrament, 4as a to" or a matter o3 little
importance 821. 2omen5s 9ie4 o3 marria-e <maCin- t!eir su,mission conditional to t!e
3ul3illment o3 men o3 certain o,li-ations= seemed to !us,ands as an attempt to
appropriate patria potestas. )!us, men 4anted to maCe sure, e9er" time, t!at 6 in t!e
3amil", no one else L-o9ernedP ,ut t!em 822.
11)!e interpla" ,et4een t!e se*es in late colonial aracas pro9ides a -ood e*ample o3
t!e man" 4a"s in 4!ic! -ender relations ,ecame intrinsicall" related to t!e po4er and
or-ani:ation o3 t!e corporatist state. Bespite 4omen5s su,ordinate social and le-al
position, t!e" contested male dominance ,ot! in t!e !ouse!old and in t!e courts,
seeCin- a relations!ip in 4!ic! ,ot! -enders carried equal responsi,ilities 4it!in t!e
3amil". 7en, instead, 4ere primaril" concerned 4it! Ceepin- t!eir position o3 command
o9er t!e !ouse!old.
12)!e limited set o3 ri-!ts -o9ernin- 4omen5s participation in t!e courts did not stop
t!em 3rom usin- t!e state5s institutions. Almost !al3 o3 t!e cases <in a sample dra4n
3rom late colonial cases, in 1@8E&189?= 4ere ,rou-!t ," 4omen t!emsel9es <>9 percent
o3 a total o3 1>? cases=. I3 t!ese, 81 percent 4ere 3iled ," lo4er&class 4omen.
Ho4e9er, it s!ould ,e noted t!at it 4as a3ter 1@9? t!at t!e num,er o3 la4suits reall"
soared F indeed, >@ percent o3 t!e sample cases ,elon- to 1@9? alone. )!is increase
seemed to !a9e ,een produced ," an increase in t!e participation o3 t!e lo4er classes in
t!e courts. Dn t!at same "ear, %? percent o3 all t!e la4suits 4ere 3iled ," poor
araqueJos. +e3ore 1@9?, la4suits ," t!e upper classes predominated, most o3 t!em
concerned 4it! issues o3 propert" and social status. A3ter 1@9?, t!e claims ,ecame more
di9ersi3ied, marria-e and personal con3licts ,ecomin- more common.
2$ ;ee 7a-allanes <1982=.
1$Alt!ou-! 3urt!er researc! on t!is p!enomenon is needed, a9aila,le e9idence su--ests
t!at t!is increase in court participation ," t!e lo4er classes 4as concurrent 4it! a
4idespread questionin- o3 t!e le-itimac" o3 colonial rule. +" t!e last t4o decades o3 t!e
ei-!teent! centur", t!e num,er o3 re9olts, riots, and insurrections increased. 0i9e o3 a
total o3 ei-!t o3 t!ese mo9ements occurred in t!e pro9ince o3 aracas a3ter t!e 1@8?s,
and 3our o3 t!ose 3i9e 4ere led ," t!e lo4er classes o3 t!e pro9ince, protestin- a-ainst
ta*es, -o9ernment monopolies, and sla9er"2$. )!us, e9en t!ou-! t!e cit" itsel3 4as
quiet, social tensions in t!e restless pro9ince around it periodicall" erupted into
9iolence.
2> ;ee (ino Dturrieta <1991, p. 21&E$ F 1@8&18@=.
2% Ibid., 28.
2E Ibid., >?.
1>Accordin- to !istorian /lKas (ino Dturrieta, man" o3 t!e re3ormist ideas t!at
en-endered mo,ili:ation in t!e late ei-!teent! and earl" nineteent! centuries came to
Vene:uela t!rou-! 3orei-n and ;panis! commerce s!ips2>. )!e introduction o3
re9olutionar" propa-anda ,ecame a concern 3or t!e ;panis! state, as demonstrated in a
series o3 ne4 le-islation a3ter 1@%? t!at increasin-l" punis!ed t!ose accused o3
participatin- in t!e spread o3 modern ideas and in promotin- popular mo,ili:ation2%.
)rinidad 4as one important 3ocus 3or t!e spread o3 modern ideas, suc! as t!ose o3 t!e
0renc! 'e9olution and Mnited ;tates Dndependence. (u,lic parties, oral transmission o3
ne4s 3rom a,road, su,9ersi9e propa-anda, and in3ormal sc!ools or-ani:ed in ,ar,er
s!ops !elped stir up nationalist sentiment and an appreciation 3or indi9idual li,erties,
especiall" in t!e apital cit"2E.
2@ !erpaC <19@8, p. 22?&221=.
28 Ibid., 222. ;ee also )roconis de Veracoec!ea <199?, p. 128, 1$2&1%2=.
1%Dn t!e late colonial protest mo9ements <4!ic! set t!e sta-e 3or t!e stru--le 3or
independence in t!e nineteent! centur"= 4omen 4ere not a,sent. 2omen acti9el"
participated in pre&independence re9olts suc! as t!e 1@9% sla9e re,ellion in oro and
t!e Aual&/spaJa conspirac" o3 1@9@2@. )!e" also participated in t!e independence
4ars. (oor 4omen called troperas H soldiers5 4i9es, 3riends or lo9ers H 3ollo4ed patriot
and re,el troops to t!e countr"side, preparin- 3ood, assistin- 4ounded soldiers, and
e9en taCin- up arms 4!en needed. It!ers sta"ed in t!e cit" to de3end ur,an d4ellers28.
1E)!e participation o3 t!e popular classes in t!e ci9il 4ars o3 independence and a ne4
political conte*t molded ," constitutional ri-!ts 4ere po4er3ul stimuli 3or 4omen.
Mnder t!ese ne4 conditions, 4omen 3elt sel3&assured and a4are o3 t!eir capacit" as
decision maCers and a-ents o3 c!an-e in aracas societ". Actin- in t!is !istorical
conjuncture, 4omen in aracas appropriated t!e ideas and re9olutionar" lan-ua-e o3
li,eral repu,licanism as 4eapons in t!eir con3licts 4it! men.
Gender conflicts in the early republic
1@2it! t!e ,irt! o3 t!e ne4 repu,lic came pro3ound c!an-es in t!e relations!ip ,et4een
-o9ernment and t!e -o9erned. )!e 1811 onstitution ,rou-!t a 3ormal end to t!e
;panis! corporatist state and esta,lis!ed a c!arter inspired ," li,eral ideals o3 t!e
0renc! 'e9olution and t!e onstitution o3 t!e Mnited ;tates. Amon- t!ose principles
4as t!e radical notion t!at Vene:uelans 4ere equal ,e3ore t!e la4 : no one could !old
title or pri9ile-e ot!er t!an t!at o3 citi:en29. )!is meant t!at t!e la4 4ould not
reco-ni:e an" special pri9ile-es, includin- t!ose o3 ,irt!, purit" o3 ,lood, no,ilit" titles
or an special status liCe t!ose enjo"ed ," t!e aristocrac" or ," indi-enous communities.
+" t!e same toCen, t!e onstitution re9oCed all ancient la4s t!at 6 imposed a ci9il
de-radation upon a portion o3 t!e 3ree population o3 Vene:uela Cno4n as pardos 8 and
made t!em equal to e9er"one else$?.
29 Art. 1%> and 22E o3 t!e 1811 onstitution. )!e 1811 onstitution onl" lasted
3or one "ear due to t<...=
$? ;ee onstitution o3 1811, !apter DS, Arts. 2?1&22E. A pardo is a person o3
mi*ed A3rican and 4!it<...=
$1 Accordin- to t!e 1811 onstitution, !apter DD, 2nd ;ection, art. 2E a 9oter
4as a 3ree male, 21 "<...=
182!ile independence leaders adopted t!e principle o3 t!e 6 'i-!ts o3 7an 8 <li,ert",
3raternit", equalit", and propert"= into t!e constitution, t!e concept o3 citi:ens!ip 4as
ultimatel" limited to male propert" o4ners. Hence t!e majorit" o3 t!e non&propertied
sectors, includin- a lar-e num,er o3 pardos, sla9es, Dndians, and 4omen, 4ere denied
political ri-!ts$1. )!ese ideas continued in t!e 18$? onstitution, dra3ted in t!e
a3termat! o3 Vene:uela5s split 3rom t!e Aran olom,ian union.
$2 Dn 1821, 4!en t!e union ,et4een Vene:uela and olom,ia H 4!ic! 4e call
toda" Aran olom,ia H 4as e<...=
$$ )!is same pattern is discussed 3or Ar-entina ," ,ot! ;:uc!man <1988, p. 1$=
and Au" <198%=. Arrom<...=
19Bespite t!e c!an-e in t!e 3orm o3 -o9ernment, t!e ;panis! le-al tradition 4as
maintained a3ter independence to -i9e continuit" and le-itimac" to Vene:uelan judicial
institutions$2. Burin- t!e earl" repu,lic, t!e 9arious colonial codes t!at supported class,
race, and -ender distinctions still 3ormed t!e primar" ,asis 3or determinin- people5s
ri-!ts in courts. Dn-rained ;panis! ideas on -ender roles, speci3icall" patriarc!alism,
continued to ser9e t!e state and t!e courts as a means o3 or-ani:in- 3amil" li3e$$. )!e
inte-ration o3 li,eral ideas into t!e juridical s"stem, particularl" t!e ri-!ts t!at applied
to ordinar" citi:ens, 4ould !a9e to 4ait until t!e dra3tin- o3 t!e i9il ode o3 18@$.
)!us, ,et4een 1811 and 18@$ t!e state and t!e citi:ens !ad to deal 4it! t!e
contradiction ,et4een t!e constitutional ri-!t o3 4omen to ,e citi:ens <ciudadanas= and
t!e in3erior status accorded to t!em ," ;panis! ci9il la4.
$> !iossone <198?, p. 12$&>=. ;ee also +us!nell <19%>, p. >E&>@, >9=.
2?)!e judicial s"stem 4as a,le to 3unction in spite o3 t!e con3usion created ," t!e use
o3 9arious le-al codes in!erited 3rom t!e colonial and earl" repu,lican times. )!e need
to pro9ide co!esi9eness to t!e state and consolidate its le-itimac" -a9e support to a
4orCin- judicial apparatus. )!e 3act t!at le-al institutions maintained ;panis! juridical
traditions ser9ed to esta,lis! a continuit" in t!e s"stem e9en in periods o3 social and
political crisis. onsiderin- t!e 9ariet" o3 people 4!o relied on t!e tri,unals 3or sol9in-
con3licts, t!e ,alance maintained ," t!e judiciar" durin- t!is period is trul"
remarCa,le$>.
$% ;ee #.@, t.19, li,.%, Novsima Recopilacin ; Diccionario razonado, s.9.
6 liti-ante 8 and 6 po,re<...=
$E Cuerpo de lees, decretos resoluciones sancionados por los Con!resos de
"enezuela en los aos de<...=
21+ased on ;panis! la4 o3 t!e Novsima Recopilacin, t!e tri,unals o3 aracas !onored
petitions 3rom t!e poor. )!e Recopilacin pro9ided t!at a person 4it!out resources
could ,e e*empted 3rom t!e costs o3 justice i3 !e or s!e presented a 6 erti3Kcate o3
(o9ert" 8. ;ome 4omen, especiall" t!ose seeCin- di9orce, 4ere issued suc! certi3icates
on t!e -rounds t!at t!eir !us,ands 4ere not pro9idin- support$%. Dn addition, t!e poor
could attend lo4er courts, !eaded ," an alcalde parro#uial <a local paris! ma-istrate=,
3or a 6 conciliation 8 or a 6 9er,al 8 trial. )!ese ,rie3 trials, 4it! t!e plainti33 orall"
3ilin- a claim in court, aimed to resol9e smaller complaints suc! as de,ts under one
!undred pesos, de3amation o3 c!aracter or marital 3i-!ts. Dn t!em, t!e contendin- parties
sou-!t conciliation or a e*pedient solution, t!us minimi:in- t!e need 3or a case to -o to
a !i-!er court$E. ;ome o3 t!e 2>? cases o3 t!e earl" repu,lic 4ere collected amon-
t!ese $uicios de conciliacin and $uicios verbales 3or t!e aracas paris!es.
$@ )!e percenta-e 4ould ,e !i-!er i3 D added t!e num,er o3 cases in ot!er
cate-ories in 4!ic! 4omen 4<...=
$8 ;usan ;ocolo4 <199?= 3ound t!at 4omen in9ol9ed in criminal cases in
+uenos Aires in t!e 1@%@&1@9@<...=
22)!e e*tent o3 3emale participation as liti-ants in court ,elies t!e entrenc!ed ,elie3
t!at 4omen as a -roup 4ere passi9e. Bata 3rom aracas tri,unals point to t!e contrar".
)!e 3act t!at in >$.$ percent o3 t!e cases 4omen acted as plainti33s is rat!er astonis!in-
considerin- t!at t!e tri,unals remained a male&dominated 4orld$@. /9en t!ou-! 19.2
percent o3 4omen 4ere 9ictims and a small percenta-e 4ere a--ressors or accomplices
<2.9 and ?.> percent, respecti9el"=, one 4onders 4!et!er 4omen 4ere as su,missi9e as
is -enerall" ,elie9ed. )!e attitudes and actions o3 Cara#ueas D studied contrasts
s!arpl" 4it! t!e demeanor o3 4omen in late colonial +uenos Aires$8.
$9 )!e percenta-e o3 4omen 4!o initiated t!e le-al procedure in court <%?.E
percent= is t!e sum o3 t!<...=
2$)o 3urt!er illustrate t!e initiati9es o3 t!ese 4omen, D anal":ed !o4 t!e cases 4ere
distri,uted in terms o3 t!e -ender and role o3 t!e people 4!o su,mitted t!e complaint to
court. Dt is 4ort! notin- t!at t!e la4 pro9ided 3or married 4omen to -o to court onl" to
accuse !us,ands in criminal or ci9il cases, to de3end t!emsel9es a-ainst a criminal
c!ar-e, or to maCe t!eir o4n 4ill$9. )o 3ile anot!er t"pe o3 complaint, a 4oman !ad to
o,tain a license 3rom !er !us,and F 4omen 4!o 4ere not under patria potestas and
4ere t4ent"&3i9e "ears o3 a-e or older needed no license. Dn spite t!ese limitations, %1
percent o3 all t!e claims 4ere ,rou-!t to court ," 4omen t!emsel9es.
>? ;ee 6 #ista de los ciudadanos del antRn aracas, que reTnen las cualidades
para ser electores 8,<...=
2>A class 9aria,le 4as incorporated into t!e data,ase to capture t!e social
di33erentiation in t!e nature o3 t!e court cases. )!is 9aria,le 4as created taCin- into
account propert", rent, num,er o3 sla9es, and 4!et!er or not a person could 9ote. 0or
t!is last item, D dre4 upon a list o3 quali3ied 9oters in aracas 3or 18%?>?. )4o ,road
cate-ories, ric! and poor, 4ere esta,lis!ed. )!e poor sector ran-es 3rom t!e indi-ent to
t!ose 4!o o4ned a small rentin- !ouse.
2%2!en t!e cases 4ere -rouped ," class o3 liti-ant <)a,le 1=, a clear pattern emer-ed.
Dn 3i3teen percent o3 cases in 4!ic! ,ot! parties 4ere 4ealt!", most 4ere related to t!e
preser9ation o3 patrimon". /9en di9orce cases !ad material undertones since in all o3
t!em t!e mismana-ement o3 t!e 4i3e5s propert" 4as a constant ar-ument. )!e small
percenta-e o3 interclass liti-ation ma" su--est a limited social interaction ,et4een t!e
t4o classes. 7ost o3 t!e cases in t!e cate-or" 6 Mpper lass a-ainst #o4er lass 8 dealt
4it! pro,lems in9ol9in- ric! 4omen 4ell ,e"ond t!eir prime "ears 4!o !ad a33airs
4it! poor men, mostl" "oun- immi-rant /uropean men <primaril" ;paniards=. In t!e
ot!er !and, poor people5s cases a-ainst 4ealt!" de3endants 4ere mostl" related to
claims made ," sla9es.
2Eases in 4!ic! ,ot! parties 4ere poor 4ere t!e most common <@2 percent o3 all
cases=, pointin- to some de-ree o3 le-al recourse 3or all classes durin- t!e earl"
repu,lican period. )!e cases in9ol9ed con3licts not o3 propert", as in t!e cases o3
4ealt!" liti-ants, ,ut o3 an interpersonal nature. As 4ill ,e discussed later in t!is
section, con3licts amon- t!e poor, especiall" t!ose in9ol9in- 4omen, dealt 4it! t!e
de3ense o3 indi9idual li,erties : t!e ri-!t to paid 4orC, t!e ri-!t to t!e control o3 t!eir
,odies, and t!e ri-!t to ,e equall" protected ," la4 as men 4ere.
>1 +et4een 1@9E and 1829, t!e se* ratios in aracas remained rat!er constant,
4it! an a9era-e o3 a,ou<...=
>2 2aldron <19@@, p. 12@&1$@=.
>$ In t!e 6 race and class 4ar 8, see D:ard <19@9= F arrera Bamas <19@2= F
Vallenilla #an: <1991, p.<...=
>> Uuoted ," 0riedman <19@E, p. 1?8, 2$8=. Go!n Ha4Cs!a4 9isited aracas in
18$8. Anot!er tra9eler, /<...=
2@2!ile t!e le-al 3rame4orC in Vene:uela maintained and rea33irmed t!e po4ers o3 t!e
male !eads o3 !ouse!olds <as it did in t!e late colonial period=, t!ere 4ere limits to
men5s po4er o9er 4omen durin- t!e earl" nineteent! centur" as 4ell. Adult 4omen !ad
outnum,ered men in t!e capital cit" o3 aracas since t!e late ei-!teent! centur">1.
2omen 3rom t!e popular classes dominated t!e streets as 9endors and pett" 4orCers.
)!eir !ouse!olds o3ten !ad no adult males present>2. onsequentl", man" 4omen 4ere
not under t!e patria potestas o3 an" male. Burin- t!e independence 4ars and a3ter, t!e
people o3 aracas e*perienced t!e popular re9olts and ci9il 4ars t!at trans3ormed
traditional ur,an societ". )!e stru--le o3 t!e pardo population 3or equalit" and up4ard
mo,ilit", and t!e searc! o3 sla9es 3or li,ert" H in s!ort, t!e 4idespread rumors o3 a
6 race and class 4ar 8 t!at t!reatened t!e 4!ite elite H Cept Vene:uelans a4are o3 t!eir
social condition>$. As an /n-lis! tra9eler to aracas in t!e 18$?s o,ser9ed, a 6 -eneral
de-ree o3 3reedom... no4 e*ists amon- t!e races 8, addin- t!at 6 ne-roes and mulattoes
L!a9eP t!e pri9ile-e o3 -reetin- an" person, 4!ate9er !is ranC or situation in li3e, 4it!
t!e 3amiliar appellation o3 citi:en 8>>. 0or man" ot!er 4omen, t!eir a-enc" durin-
t!ese tur,ulent "ears -a9e t!em sel3&assurance and sel3&a4areness o3 t!eir capacit" as
decision&maCers. +" t!e ,e-innin- o3 t!e 'epu,lican era, a3ter Vene:uela separated
3rom Aran olom,ia in 18$?, 4omen in aracas 4ere alread" claimin- t!eir citi:ens!ip
ri-!ts in court.
)A+#/ 1 : )"pe o3 #a4suit ," ;ocial lass o3 t!e #iti-ants <aracas, 18$%&18>?=
a 7altrato cases mainl" deal 4it! p!"sical punis!ment in3licted on 4i9es and sla9es ,"
t!eir spouses and o4ners.
, %stupro is t!e de3lo4erin- o3 a 9ir-in 4oman or c!aste 4ido4 ," deceit or seduction.
/scric!e " 7artin <18>?=, s.9. 6 estupro 8.
Sources & Arc!i9o del 'e-istro (rincipal del Bistrito 0ederal <aracas=, i9iles,
riminales, 18$%&18>? F Arc!i9o Arqui&diocesano de aracas, Gudiciales,
7atrimoniales, 18$%&18>?. (ercenta-es 4ere computed ," t!e aut!or.
)o$en defendin( their indi*idual
liberties + the hidden transcripts
28ourt records in9ol9in- t!e poor 3or t!e earl" nineteent! centur" demonstrate a
m"riad o3 issues t!at 4ere at staCe, especiall" i3 4e compare t!em 4it! t!e situation
amon- t!e upper classes. )!rou-! t!ese claims, t!e lo4er classes de3ended t!eir
particular understandin- o3 -ender relations!ips and t!eir 6 ri-!t 8 to de3end t!eir
indi9idual li,erties.
>% 0or e*amples o3 t!ese strate-ies in ot!er countries, see !al!ou, <198E, p.
12$&1$E= F ;il9a +onil<...=
290or t!e poor, li3e in post&colonial aracas 4as riddled 4it! man" di33iculties. )o
meet t!eir emotional and economic needs in t!e o9ercro4ded and e*pensi9e cit", t!e
poor de9eloped e*tensi9e net4orCs o3 3riends and relati9es. )!ese solidarit" net4orCs
must ,e taCen into account i3 4e are to understand t!e li3e strate-ies o3 t!e popular
classes>%. Dt 4as implicit in t!e la4suits studied t!at 4omen 4orCed 3or 4a-es and
usuall" !eld more t!an one jo,. A nei-!,or or !ousemate 4ould !elp 4!en a 3riend 4as
in personal dan-er. )!ese personal alliances 4ere stron- ,ut could ,e ,roCen ," 9er,al
o33enses or p!"sical a,use.
>E (a,lo 'odri-ue: discusses t!e importance o3 t!ese s"m,olic e*c!an-es
<1991, p. 29&$?=.
>@ )!e 3act t!at D am presumin- a material linC a33ectin- 4oman&man
relations!ips does not mean t!at<...=
$?Dn male&3emale relations!ips, 4omen e*pected some t"pe o3 material reciprocit" 3rom
!us,ands or lo9ers. )!is could !a9e eit!er s"m,olic or material importance, or ,ot!.
ourtin- couples 4!o 4ere still not li9in- to-et!er could seal t!eir relations!ip 4it! a
s"m,olic -i3t F t!rou-! it t!e man demonstrated !is 4illin-ness and a,ilit" to support
t!e 4oman>E. 7ost o3 t!e cases in m" earl" nineteent!&centur" sample emp!asi:ed
suc! an association>@. 2!at t!ese e*c!an-es o3 material/emotional -oods ma"
ultimatel" re3lect is t!e demand man" 4omen made t!at men responsi,l" 3ul3ill a
traditional role as !ouse!old pro9iders.
>8 0or a discussion o3 t!e issue o3 9er,al de3erence and economic o,li-ation,
see ;tern <199%, p. @?&<...=
>9 6 riminales contra Bionisio Ve-a por !eridas 8, Arc!i9o del 'e-istro
(rincipal del Bistrito 0eder<...=
$1)!e cases o3 Bolores +lanco and o3 Dsa,el 0reites o33er -ood e*amples o3 t!e lo9ers5
e*c!an-e o3 material -oods and t!e importance o3 emotional ,onds and 3idelit". Ine
ni-!t Bolores5 ,o"3riend 4ent to !er !ouse 4it! a mac!ete to demand an e*planation 3or
4!" s!e !ad -one to #a Auaira <t!e adjacent port cit"= 4it!out !is permission. ;!e
ans4ered t!at !e 4as not !er 3at!er or mot!er, t!at !e s!ould not ,ot!er !er 3or !e !ad
not -i9en !er an"t!in- to seal an" ,ond ,et4een t!em. He ,ecame so in3uriated 4it! !er
ans4er t!at !e tried to Cill !er>8. )r"in- to pre9ent Gos Bionicio 3rom sta,,in- !er,
e9en Bolores5 3riend Gusta 4as injured>9. Gos Bio&nicio claimed some po4er o9er !er,
4it!out !a9in- 3ul3illed a s"m,olic ritual t!at 4as important to !er. Bolores in turn
seemed to understand t!at !er relations!ip 4it! Gos Bionicio 4ould not ,e taCen
seriousl" until !e -a9e !er concrete proo3 o3 !is commitment.
%? 6 riminales se-uidos contra Nsa,el 0re"tes por imputOrsele complicidad en
el !urto de unas ,otell<...=
$2Dn a second case, Dsa,el 0reites, a 3ree 4oman 3rom ura1ao 4!o 4as a cooC and
street&9endor, 4as accused o3 stealin- some ,ottles o3 rap' <to,acco po4der used as
snu33=. Dn court, s!e 4as a,le to pro9e t!at t!e ,ottles 4ere a -i3t 3rom Gos, !er sla9e
,o"3riend. .ot Cno4in- t!at t!e rap' 4as stolen, s!e tooC t!e ,ottles to #a Auaira
4!ere s!e sold t!e product at a reduced price. Dn t!e proceedin-s, t!e sla9e con3essed
t!at !e !ad stolen t!e ,ottles one ," one to -i9e to !is ,elo9ed Dsa,el eac! time t!e" met
<!e !ad told Dsa,el t!at !e !ad !imsel3 prepared t!e to,acco po4der=%?. 0or Gos, t!e
rap' 4as a toCen o3 !is commitment to !er. Dt s!o4ed t!at, to !elp !is 4oman in times
o3 need, !is personal sacri3ices Cne4 no limit.
%1 Arrom 3inds t!at t!e same !olds true 3or poor 4omen in 7e*ico it" <198%,
p. 1@E&18>=.
$$/9en t!ou-! lo4er&class 4omen 4ere e*pected to !elp in t!e !ouse!old econom",
t!e" aspired to !a9e t!e male contri,ute%1. 2omen and men anticipated some t"pe o3
,alance in t!e emotional and economic duties o3 t!eir relations!ips. +ecause o3
4omen5s understandin- o3 t!eir relations!ip 4it! men as an consortium o3 equal
responsi,ilities, t!e" 9indicated t!eir 6 ri-!t 8 to de3end t!emsel9es 3rom a,usi9e
relations!ips. Dndeed, -ender con3licts emer-ed 4!en one part" percei9ed t!at t!e
e*pected conduct 4as not met.
$>Dn t!e 3ollo4in- cases, 4omen 4ere t!e pro9iders o3 t!e !ouse!old and pro,lems
arose 4!en men a,used 4omen economicall", 9er,all" or p!"sicall". 7oreo9er, t!ese
4omen clearl" Cne4 t!at t!e" could not li9e a secluded li3e i3 t!eir !us,ands 4ere not
supportin- t!e 3amil".
%2 6 Bemanda propuesta por ecilia +arani: para que se o,li-ue a su marido a
acreditar que la sostien<...=
$%Dn 18$E ecilia +arrani:, a t!eater actress, 3iled di9orce papers ,ecause o3 a,use. Dn
!er ci9il suit, s!e declared t!at durin- se9en "ears o3 marria-e s!e !ad supported !er
!us,and (edro Villalo,os 4!ile !e !ad not 3ul3illed !is duties. .o4 !er !us,and
4anted !er to a,andon !er pro3ession and stop 4orCin-. ecilia demanded t!at t!e court
3orced !er !us,and to sustain !er or else allo4ed !er to 4orC. Dn t!is case, ecilia
success3ull" de3ended in court !er 6 ri-!t 8 to earn a 4a-e%2.
%$ 6 A-ustina Arnal demandando en conciliaciRn a su le-Ktimo marido Bionisio
Acosta 8, A'(B0, i9iles<...=
%> 6 Guana 'a3aela asares quejOndose de su marido 8, AA, 7atrimoniales,
18$?, le-. 2%>.
$EDn anot!er case, A-ustina Arnal started a num,er o3 la4suits a-ainst !er !us,and,
alle-in- t!at !e 4as cra:", a,usi9e, -i9en to drinCin-, and a 9a-rant. 2!ile s!e 4as t!e
sole pro9ider 3or t!e 3amil", !er !us,and demanded !er H in court H to remain secluded
at !ome to 3ul3ill !er duties%$. Guana 'a3aela asares made a similar complaint a-ainst
!er !us,and. ;!e requested a di9orce c!ar-in- !er !us,and 4as onl" interested in !er
properties and in t!e la,or o3 t!eir c!ildren <t!e couple !ad t!ree c!ildren ,e3ore t!e"
married=. Dn addition, !er !us,and !ad !it !er ,ecause s!e re3used to -i9e !er scant
je4elr" to !im, 6 con9ertin- !imsel3 into a .ero 8%>.
%% ;tern <199%, p. @8&8%=.
%E ;ee 3or e*ample, 6 Bemanda de di9orcio de Gos de la ru: (arra contra su
mu-er 'osa 7arKa (re: 8<...=
$@7en also e*pected 4i3el" 3ait!3ulness, especiall" 4!en t!e" 4ere pro9idin- support.
/9en i3 t!e" 4ere not le-all" married, men insisted t!at 4omen ,e!a9e in t!eir
traditional role as o,edient 4i9es. )!e dominant ideal o3 padre de (amilia ser9ed as a
le-al ,asis 3or c!astisin- and controllin- 4omen. As !istorian ;te9e G. ;tern asserts,
men also considered 4omen as se*ual propert"%%. In t!ese -rounds, men 3requentl"
4ent to court demandin- t!at t!eir spouses render t!e su,missi9e&ness t!e" o4ed t!eir
!us,ands%E.
%@ 6 (edro (a,lo Herrera contra su mujer /scolOstica Autierres por !e,ria 8,
A'(B0, i9iles, 18$9, #e<...=
$8Bue to t!eir strained 3inancial situations, lo4er&class 4omen 4ere o3ten induced to
earn t!eir o4n li9in-. )!rou-! t!is income, t!e" 4ere a,le to o,tain -reater social and
economic independence t!an t!eir upper&class counterparts. Hence, t!e an*iet" 3elt ,"
lo4er&class men a,out t!e e*cessi9e 6 li,erties 8 o3 t!eir 4i9es and lo9ers. Dn particular,
men o,jected to t!eir mates5 maintainin- 3riends!ips 4it! ot!er people and to t!eir
seemin- independence F men e*pected t!em to ,e!a9e as secluded, 9irtuous 4omen. )o
attain t!is ideal some men petitioned t!e tri,unals to control t!eir 4i9es appl"in- t!e
e*istin- 9a-ranc" la4s. 0or instance, (edro (a,lo Herrera e*pressed !is concern a,out
t!e drunCenness o3 !is 4i3e, /scolOstica. ;!e !ad ,een a !ard&4orCin- 4oman ,ut !ad
,ecome increasin-l" dependent on alco!ol. ;ince !e needed to -o to t!e 3ields, and t!e
)acendados 4ould not allo4 !er to accompan" !im in a suc! condition, !e asCed t!e
court to imprison !er%@.
%8 6 riminales contra Antonio 'omero por aporreo 8, A'(B0, i9iles, 18$@,
#etra ', e*p. 12. ;ee also<...=
$9A4are o3 t!eir le-al ri-!t to punis! 4omen 3or t!eir ,e!a9ior, some men tooC
6 correction 8 in t!eir o4n !ands. Antonio 'omero5s de3ense 3or !ittin- !is lo9er
pro9ides a -ood e*ample o3 contested perceptions o3 proper -ender ,e!a9ior. He !ad a
lo9e a33air 4it! /ulalia ;armiento. 2it! t!e intention o3 marr"in- !er, !e !ad paid 3or
t!e !ouse 4!ere s!e li9ed and !ad supported !er. Ho4e9er, !er loose ,e!a9ior and
in3idelities upset !im. Antonio tried to split up 4it! /ulalia man" times, ,ut s!e Cept
asCin- 3or !im and e9en tooC !is clot!es 3or launderin- to 3orce !im to return to t!e
!ouse. +ut one da" !e ,ecame irritated and jealous 4!en !e sa4 a man runnin- out o3
/ulalia5s !ouse. Antonio !it !er to induce !er to 6 re3orm !ersel3 8 and stop suc!
,e!a9ior%8.
%9 ;ee ;tern <199%, p. 8>&8@=.
>?)!e ina,ilit" to 3ul3ill ideal -ender roles ,ecause o3 po9ert" 4as anot!er point o3
contention. )!e need 3or 4omen5s economic support 3or t!e !ouse!old contradicted t!e
compliance 4it! t!e code o3 proper 4oman!ood. 7an" 4omen could not remain in t!e
!ouse ,ecause t!e" needed to seeC sustenance ," sellin- in t!e streets or at t!e marCet,
," 4orCin- at ot!er people5s !ouses or ," 4as!in- clot!es in t!e ri9er. 7an" times
t!ese 4omen 4ere 6 -o9ernin- t!emsel9es 8 H as repeatedl" mentioned in t!e
documents H and rentin- a room in a cro4ded !ouse. I3ten t!e" de3ended t!emsel9es
p!"sicall" 3rom personal con3licts 4it! nei-!,ors or stran-ers, s!o4in- t!eir
independent and unsu,missi9e c!aracter. )!e 9iolent ,e!a9ior o3 males in t!ese cases
mi-!t ,e related to t!eir ina,ilit" to control 4omen and t!ere3ore sa9e 3ace in t!e
communit"%9.
>1/ndorsement o3 proper -ender ,e!a9ior ," t!e popular classes could ,e taCen as a
si-n o3 t!eir acceptance o3 dominant 3amil" 9alues, "et eac! -ender assi-ned a di33erent
meanin- to t!e ot!er5s role. )!e lo4er&classes 4ould 3ollo4 -ender role e*pectations
4!et!er married or li9in- in consensual unions on t!e condition t!at t!e ot!er acted
accordin-l". 0rom t!ese notions, 4omen deri9ed particular ideas a,out t!eir ri-!ts
4!ic! t!e" de3ended acti9el" in t!e courts o3 aracas.
A clai$ of citizenship + the , public
transcript -
>2Bemandin- t!at men ,e equall" responsi,le 3or t!eir duties to t!e !ouse!old,
de3endin- t!emsel9es 3rom a,usi9e relations!ips, and 9indicatin- t!eir ri-!t to 4orC 3or
a salar", lo4er class 4omen 4ere protectin- t!eir indi9idual ri-!ts. (oor 4omen ma"
!a9e not made 9er,al re3erence to t!e concepts o3 citi:ens!ip as o3ten as t!e upper&
classes did, ,ut t!eir man" actions in court su--ested t!at t!e" 9alued t!is status just as
!i-!l". )!e court records contain t!e 6 !idden transcript 8 o3 t!eir de3ense o3 t!eir
natural ri-!ts in t!e domestic sp!ere.
>$2ealt!" 4omen, instead, openl" appealed to t!eir ri-!ts as citi:ens 4!en 3i-!tin-
a-ainst t!eir !us,ands o9er questions o3 propert". Ine case is t!at o3 7aria Antonia
(re:, 4!o in 1811 3iled a di9orce suit a-ainst !er !us,and claimin- t!at !e did not
pro9ide 3or !er sustenance 4!ile administerin- t!e onl" marital propert" 4!ic!
,elon-ed entirel" to !er. ;idin- 4it! !er !us,and, t!e court decided to 3or,id 7arKa
Antonia 3rom -oin- out o3 t!e !ouse o3 con3inement, e9en t!ou-! a 4eeC ,e3ore t!e
court !ad allo4ed !er to -o out 4it! !er ser9ant. 7arKa Antonia responded to t!e court
decision in t!ese 4ords :
E? 6 Bi9orcio que prepara BoJa 7arKa Antonia (re: a su le-Ktimo
marido Bon 'amRn 7aucR 8, AA, 7atri<...=
Dn marria-e, !us,ands are not!in- ,ut t!e ones 4!o represent t!e 3amil", and 4omen,
t!eir compaeras <partners=, 4!o s!ould !elp t!em 4it! marital o,li-ations ,ut are not
condemned to ,e t!e !us,and5s sla9es F nor are 4omen o3 an in3erior condition in t!e
e*ercise o3 t!eir ri-!ts F t!e qualit" o3 ,ein- a 4oman does not e*clude t!em eit!er 3rom
t!e societal order or 3rom t!e -uarant" to enjo" t!eir li,ert" and securit" o3 t!eir person.
*)e la+ ma,es us all e#uals as citizens, and i3 m" !us,and is ," t!is ri-!t aut!ori:ed to
,e!a9e in a 3ree manner, D am, ," t!e same ri-!t, entitled to resol9e m" needs on m"
o4nE?.
>>7arKa Antonia is onl" one amon- a -roup o3 upper class 4omen 4!o 4ere a,le to
ar-ue persuasi9el" 3or t!eir equal ri-!ts as citi:ens. 2!at cau-!t m" attention 4as !er
idea o3 li,ert", in t!e sense t!at s!e 4as not !er !us,and5s sla9e <a common complaint
amon- 4omen=, and t!at s!e !ad t!e ri-!t to seeC !er securit" and to 3ul3ill !er needs.
Also striCin- is !er r!etoric o3 equalit" ,e3ore t!e la4, claimin- t!at s!e enjo"ed t!e
same ri-!ts as men.
>%;imilarl", 7icaela 'a9elo " AlcOntara 4ent to t!e Alcalde 7unicipal in 18$E to asC
t!at !er !us,and aut!ori:e !er to administer t!e propert" in!erited 3rom !er 3at!er. ;!e
!ad ,een married 3or man" "ears to Guan Gos /spinosa and !ad ,orne !im 3i9e c!ildren.
Guan Gos !ad a,andoned !er 3our "ears earlier 4it!out pro9idin- support 3or !er or t!e
c!ildren. ;!e !ad in!erited 4ealt! 3rom 4!ic! s!e could earn a decent li9eli!ood, ,ut
!er !us,and did not aut!ori:e !er to use it, s!e 4as 6 li9in- in miser" 8.
E1 6 #a ;ra. 7icaela 'a9elo solicitando se le !a,ilite judicialmente para
administrar por si los ,ien<...=
E2 Ibid., 3ol. 1@9.
>E)!e !us,and claimed t!at it 4as a,out time t!at s!e assumed 6 !er duties as mot!er
and as a su,missi9e 4i3e 8E1. 7oreo9er, !e maintained t!at s!e !ad no judicial
standin- to pose a demand. As a 4i3e5s 3irst jud-e 4as !er !us,and, !e s!ould !a9e ,een
asCed 3irst ,e3ore s!e ,rou-!t t!e case to t!e attention o3 t!e aut!orities. Guan Gos
clinc!ed !is ar-ument to t!e jud-e : 6 )o ,e!a9e in an" ot!er 4a" is to dismiss 4oman
3rom t!e duties and ri-!ts o3 t!e male F it is to de3raud t!e male 3rom t!e pri9ile-es t!at
!e !as 3rom nature, 3rom t!is nation5s la4s, and 3rom t!e unc!an-in- order o3 t!e 4!ole
uni9erse. 8E2 He denied t!at !e !ad not supported !is 4i3e and 3amil" F rat!er, !e
claimed it 4as 7icaela 4!o 4ould 4aste and misspend t!e stipend. 0inall", !e
requested t!at s!e ,e returned to !er mot!er5s !ouse, 3rom 4!ic! s!e 6 ran a4a". 8
E$ 6 Guan Gos /spinosa solicitando que 7icaela 'a9elo se restitu"a con los
!ijos que !a ocultado a l<...=
E> Ibid., 3ol. E9.
E% -ienes para(ernales are t!e -oods t!at a 4i3e ,rin-s to marria-e, independent
o3 !er do4r", and t!a<...=
EE 6 Guan Gos /spinosa 8, 3ol. @r.
>@7icaela 4as surprised to learn t!at !er !us,and 4as no4 6 assertin- t!at D am a
runa4a" 3rom !is marital po4er and demandin- ri-!ts 3rom a consortium 4!ic! !e !as
completel" 3or-otten, a,andoned, i-norin- !is conju-al responsi,ilities 8E$. ;!e
claimed t!at ,e!ind all t!is 4as Guan Gos5s am,ition to dispose o3 !er in!erited
3ortuneE>. ;!e alle-ed t!at Guan Gos 4as no4 administerin- !er monies t!rou-! !is
ri-!t as a !us,and, not acCno4led-in- t!at ," la4 s!e !ad dominion o9er and
administration o3 t!e bienes para(ernalesE%. ;!e !ad not -ranted !im suc! po4ers ,"
la4, and 6 t!e onstitution o3 t!e ;tate L-a9e !erP t!e precious condition o3 citi:en,
o4ner o3 m" ri-!ts and assisted ," m" o4n properties 8EE.
E@ ;ee 6 Guan Gos /spinosa 8, 3ol. 18r.
>8Dn cases liCe t!is !us,ands consistentl" accused t!eir 4i9es o3 rel"in- on t!e
6 su,9ersi9e 8 principles o3 t!e onstitution, t!at is, o3 citi:ens!ip and t!e equalit" o3
people ,e3ore la4. Hus,ands claimed t!at suc! li,eral 9ie4s 4ould lead to anarc!"
since t!e" directl" a33ected male 3amilial control, 4!ic! 4as t!e ,asis o3 t!e ci9il
societ". 7oreo9er, suc! principles de3ied male aut!orit" and !onor in societ"E@.
>9Dt is !ard to 3ind suc! an articulate de3ense o3 citi:ens!ip ri-!ts amon- lo4er&class
4omen. MnliCe t!eir counterparts in t!e upper run-s o3 societ", lo4er&class 4omen
de3ended t!eir ri-!ts as citi:ens mostl" ," t!eir actions at !ome and in t!e courts. Net D
3ound one instance in 4!ic! a 4oman 9er,all" e*pressed !er e*pectations o3 ,ein-
treated 4it! equalit". ;uc! 4as t!e case o3 a 3reed 4oman called +ar,ara Gedler, 4!o
complained a,out t!e cruel a,use !er son su33ered 3rom t!e (ro9incial Ao9ernor and !is
master in 18$% :
E8 6 +ar,ara Gedler quejOndose contra el -o,ernador de la (ro9incia por
el cruel casti-o que !a !ec!o<...=
6 2!en D started to contend a-ainst a 4ealt!", po4er3ul and in3luential man, D, a lo4
colored 4oman, and !im, a !i-! cate-or" man 4!o is t!e o4ner o3 m" son, 2!at could
D e*pect V 2!at 4ould ,e t!e result o3 a contro9ers" amon- people o3 di33erent sp!eres F
and 4!at 4ould ,e m" success i3 D did not count on t!e justice and e9en&!andedness o3
t!e court V )!is persuasion encoura-es me, and t!e e#ualit o( ri!)ts all "enezuelans
en$o -i9es more stren-t! to m" 4eaC 3orces and empo4ers me, to not !ide m" 3ace
3rom 7r. Hui:i5s ar-uments...,ecause, alt!ou-! D am a 3reed sla9e, it 4ould depress m"
condition o3 respect3ul 4oman to ot!er men and especiall" to social manners, ,ut it
s!ould not ,e ,elie9ed ,ecause o3 t!is t!at D am a3raid o3 maCin- use o3 m" ri-!ts... 8E8.
%?.ote t!at t!e act o3 complainin- respect3ull" to court 4as not incon-ruent 4it! t!e
ideal o3 an !onora,le 4oman. ;uc! a 4oman 4as not 4illin- to 4it!dra4 a just demand
in t!e conte*t o3 !er ri-!ts as a citi:en o3 Vene:uela. In t!e contrar", s!e claimed t!at
s!e 4as encoura-ed to pursue !er claims.
%1MnliCe t!e situation amon- t!e upper classes, -ender con3licts amon- t!e popular
classes 4ere related to t!e de3ense o3 indi9idual li,erties. (oor 4omen questioned not
t!e 9alidit" o3 t!e institution o3 marria-e ,ut t!e capacit" and c!aracter o3 t!eir
!us,ands or lo9ers. )!e" accused men o3 ,ein- alco!olics, la:", or a,usi9e partners
4!o 4ere not responsi,le to reciprocal ri-!ts and duties em,odied in t!eir 3ormal or
in3ormal marria-e contract. Dn t!is sense, D 4ould ar-ue t!at poor 4omen 4ere
em,racin- notions o3 citi:ens!ip, li,ert", and equalit" em,edded in t!e 1811
onstitution. #o4er&class 4omen 4ere alread" practicin- li,eral ideas in t!eir dail"
relations!ips 4it! men at t!e le9el o3 t!e !ouse!old, a situation t!at transpired in t!e
court cases. )!e" did not 4ant to ,e a,used, to ,e ,anned 3rom 4orCin- 3or a salar" or
to ,e depri9ed o3 t!eir li,erties. )!e" 4anted compensation 3or t!eir ser9ices and, ,"
t!e same toCen, t!e" 4anted material contri,utions 3rom t!eir relations!ips. )!e"
4anted to ,e treated as ciudadanas, 4it! equal protection under t!e la4.
%2Dn earl" repu,lican aracas poor 4omen pursued t!eir quest 3or equalit" ,e3ore t!e
la4 ," t!eir numerous actions in court. Mpper&class 4omen spelled out more openl"
t!eir pretended citi:ens!ip, 4!ile de3endin- t!eir propert". ontrar" to t!e 4idespread
,elie3 t!at independence did not ,rin- si-ni3icant c!an-es to 4omen, m" data s!o4 t!at
4omen 4ere seeCin- indi9iduall" a trans3ormation in t!eir ri-!ts. )!e" met 3ierce
resistance 3rom t!eir !us,ands or lo9ers 4!o stucC to t!eir claims as customar" padres
de (amilia.
Haut de pa-e
.iblio(raphie
Arrom, ;.7., .omen o( /e0ico Cit,123451672, ;tan3ord, ;tan3ord Mni9ersit" (ress,
198%.
+o"er, '., 2omen, 5#a mala 9ida5, and t!e politics o3 marria-e, in #a9rin, A., /d.=,
Se0ualit and /arria!e in Colonial 8atin 9merica, #incoln, Mni9ersit" o3 .e,rasCa
(ress, 1989, p. 2%2&28E.
+re4er&arKas, A.'., 8as constituciones de "enezuela, 7adrid, Mni9ersidad del )Oc!ira
" entro de /studios onstitucionales, 198%.
+us!neil, B., *)e Santander Re!ime in :ran Colombia, .e4arC, Mni9ersit" o3
Bela4are (ress, 19%>.
arrera Bamas, A., -oves & aspectos socioeconmicos de la :uerra de Independencia,
aracas, Mni9ersidad entral de Vene:uela, 19@2.
!al!ou,, ;., *rabal)o, lar e bote#uim & o cotidiano dos trabal)adores no Rio de
;aneiro da -elle <po#ue, ;Wo (aulo, +rasiliense, 198E.
!erpaC, /., )!e participation o3 4omen in t!e independence mo9ement o3 Aran
olom,ia, 1@8?&18$?, in #a9rin, A. </d.=, 8atin 9merican .omen & =istorical
Perspectives, 2est&port, Areen4ood (ress, 19@8, p. 219&2$>.
!iossone, )., >ormacin $urdica de "enezuela en la colonia en la rep?blica,
aracas, Mni9ersidad entral de Vene:uela, 198?.
ope, B., *)e 8imits o( Racial Domination & Plebeian Societ in Colonial /e0ico Cit,
1@@45122A, 7adison, Mni9ersit" o3 2isconsin (ress, 199>.
osta, /. Viotti da, Cro+ns o( :lor, *ears o( -lood & t)e Demerara Slave Rebellion o(
16AB, .e4 NorC, I*3ord Mni9ersit" (ress, 199>.
BKa:, A.G., 6 Ciudadanas C and D Padres de >amilia C & 8iberal C)an!e, :ender, 8a+,
and t)e 8o+er Classes in Caracas, "enezuela, 126@51666, (!.B. diss., Mni9ersit" o3
7innesota, 199@.
/scric!e " 7artKn, G., Diccionario razonado de le!islacin civil, penal, comercial
(orense, aracas, Dmprenta de ValentKn /spinal, 18>?.
0lor", )., 'ace and social control in independent +ra:il, ;ournal o( 8atin 9merican
Studies, 19@@, 9, 2, p. 199&22>.
0riedman, ;.G., Cit o( Caracas & 16B4516E@, (!.B. diss., .e4 NorC Mni9ersit", 19@E.
Aould, G.#., *o 8ead as %#uals & Rural Protest and Political Consciousness in
C)inande!a, Nicara!ua, 131A51323, !apel Hill, Mni9ersit" o3 .ort! arolina (ress,
199?.
Auardino, (.0., Peasants, Politics, and t)e >ormation o( /e0icoFs National State &
:uerrero, 164451672, ;tan3ord, ;tan3ord Mni9ersit" (ress, 199E.
Au", B.G., #o4er&class 3amilies, 4omen, and t!e la4 in nineteent!&centur" Ar-entina,
;ournal o( >amil =istor, 198%, 1?, $, p. $18&$$1.
Gosep!, A.7., and .u-ent, B., </ds.=, %verda >orms o( State >ormation & Revolution
and t)e Ne!otiation o( Rule in /odern /e0ico, Bur!am, BuCe Mni9ersit" (ress, 199>.
D:ard, 7., %l miedo a la revolucin & la luc)a por la libertad en "enezuela G1222516B4H,
7adrid, /ditorial )ecnos, 19@9.
#om,ardi, G.V., People and Places in Colonial "enezuela, +loomin-ton, Dndiana
Mni9ersit" (ress, 19@E.
7a-allanes 7.V., 8uc)as e insurrecciones en la "enezuela colonial, aracas,
Academia .acional de la Historia, 1982.
7allon, 0./., Peasant and Nation & *)e /a,in! o( Postcolonial /e0ico and Per?,
+erCele", Mni9ersit" o3 ali3ornia (ress, 199%.
7atos 'odri-ue:, 0.V., #a mujer " el derec!o en el si-lo SDS en ;an Guan, (uerto 'ico
<182?&18E2, in Aon:al,o, (., </d.=, >amilia, !'nero mentalidades en 9m'rica 8atina,
'Ko (iedras, /ditorial de la Mni9ersidad de (uerto 'ico, 199@, p. 22@&2E$.
7caa, '., alidad, lase, and 7arria-e in olonial 7e*ico : t!e ase o3 (arral, 1@88&
9?, =ispanic 9merican =istorical Revie+, 198>, E>, $, p. >@@&%?1.
.a::ari, 7., Disappearance o( t)e Do+r & .omen, >amilies, and Social C)an!es in
SIo Paulo, -razil, 1@4451344, ;tan3ord, ;tan3ord Mni9ersit" (ress, 1991.
(ino Dturrieta, /., Contra lu$uria, castidad, Caracas, Al3adil /diciones, 1992.
(ino Dturrieta, /., 8a mentalidad venezolana de la emancipacin, 2d ed. aracas,
/diciones /ldorado, 1991.
(ino Dturrieta, /., and al:adilla, (./., <comps.=, 8a mirada del otro & via$eros
e0tran$eros en la "enezuela del si!lo JIJ, aracas, 0undaciRn +i-ott, 199$.
'odrK-ue:, (., Seduccin, amancebamiento abandono en la colonia, ;anta 0e de
+o-otO, 0undaciRn ;imRn " #ola Au,ereC, 1991.
;cott, G.., Domination and t)e 9rts o( Resistance & =idden *ranscripts, .e4 Ha9en,
Nale Mni9ersit" (ress, 199?.
;cott, G.2., :ender and t)e Politics o( =istor, .e4 NorC, olum,ia Mni9ersit" (ress,
1988.
;il9a +onilla, '., et al., =a amores #ue matan, 'Ko (iedras, /diciones HuracOn, 199?.
;ociedad /conRmica de Ami-os del (aKs, 9nuario de la Provincia de Caracas de 16BA
K 16BB, aracas, Dmprenta de A. BamirRn, 18$%.
;ocolo4, ;.7., 2omen and rime, in Go!nson, #., </d.=, *)e Problem o( Lrder in
C)an!in! Societies, Al,uquerque, Mni9ersit" o3 .e4 7e*ico (ress, 199?, p. 1&18.
;tem, ;., *)e Secret =istor o( :ender & .omen, /en, and Po+er in 8ate Colonial
/e0ico, !apel Hill, Mni9ersit" o3 .ort! arolina (ress, 199%.
;:uc!man, 7.B., Lrder, >amil, and Communit in -uenos 9ires, 1614516@4,
;tan3ord, ;tan3ord Mni9ersit" (ress, 1988.
)roconis de Veracoec!ea, /., Indias, esclavas, mantuanas primeras damas, Caracas,
Al3adil /diciones, 199?.
Vallenilla #an:, #., Cesarismo democrKtico otros te0tos, aracas, +i,lioteca
A"acuc!o, 1991.
2aldron, X., 9 Social =istor o( a Primate Cit & *)e Case o( Caracas, 127451614,
(!.B. diss., Dndiana Mni9ersit", 19@@.
2aldron, X., )!e sinners and t!e ,is!op in colonial Vene:uela : t!e 59isita5 o3 +is!op
7ariano 7arti, 1@@1&1@8>, in #a9rin, A., </d.=, Se0ualit and /arria!e in Colonial
8atin 9merica, #incoln, Mni9ersit" o3 .e,rasCa (ress, 1989, p. 1%E&1@@.
Haut de pa-e
/otes
2 A3ter attainin- independence 3rom ;pain, t!e 3ormer aptainc"&Aeneral o3
Vene:uela, t!e Vice&ro"alt" o3 ;anta3 de +o-otO, and t!e Audiencia o3 Uuito 3ormed
t!e 'epu,lic o3 olom,ia, more commonl" re3erred to ," !istorians as 6 Aran
olom,ia 8. )!e -reat +oli9arian dream o3 unit" 4as s!ort&li9ed and ended a,ruptl" in
18$? 4it! t!e dissolution o3 t!e political entit" into t!ree independent states : olom,ia,
/cuador, and Vene:uela.
$ !erpaC <19@8, p. 2$?=.
> Arrom <198%, p. 1>&%2=.
% ;cott <199?=.
E ;ee 7allon <199%, p. 9=.
@ )!is !as ,een t!e 3ocus o3 recent researc!. ;ee 7allon <199%= F Gosep! and .u-ent
<199>= F and Auardino <199E=.
8 7allon stresses t!at 6 it is possi,le to anal":e politics at all le9els as nested arenas o3
contestation, 4!ere !e-emonic processes are at 4orC. Dn 3amilies, communities,
political or-ani:ations, re-ions, and state structures, po4er is al4a"s ,ein- contested,
le-itimated and rede3ined 8 <199%, p. E=. Goan 2allac! ;cott !as also emp!asi:ed t!e
ties ,et4een -o9ernment po4er and !ouse!old or-ani:ation. ;ee !er in3luential ,ooC
<1988, p. >%&%?=.
9 )!is essa" is ,ased on t4o samples o3 ci9il, criminal, and ecclesiastical la4suits
,et4een 1@8E and 1@9?, and 3rom 18$% and 18>?. )!ese cases are part o3 a lar-er
project in 4!ic! 3our samples 4ere made e9er" 3i3t" "ears since t!e 3oundation o3 t!e
'eal Audiencia <Hi-! ourt o3 Appeals= in 1@8E t!rou-! t!e inception o3 li,eral and
positi9ist re-imes to Vene:uela5s oil ,oom in t!e earl" t4entiet! centur" <19$%=. D c!ose
la4suits in 4!ic! 4omen 4ere 9ictims, perpetrators, plainti33s, or de3endants in 9arious
matters, e*ceptin- t!ose dealin- 4it! de,t, in!eritance and propert". )!e reason is t!at
in!eritance and propert" cases o3ten re3erred to t!e upper classes, and m" o,jecti9e 4as
to e*amine t!e e*perience o3 t!e majorit" o3 t!e population. Dn terms o3 t!e participation
o3 t!e liti-ants ," t"pe o3 court <ecclesiastical or secular=, D 3ound t!at t!is depended on
t!e nature o3 t!eir claims, not on t!e social standin- o3 t!e liti-ants. )!e c!urc!
tri,unals !eard cases related to spiritual matters <marria-e, di9orce, ,reac! o3 promise,
etc.= and t!e secular courts dealt 4it! temporal issues <administration o3 propert",
support, patria potestas, etc.=. I3 course, t!ere 4ere some e*ceptions. ;ee BKa: <199@,
c!apter 1=.
1? Dn !is diar" o3 t!e pastoral 9isit to t!e pro9ince o3 Vene:uela ,et4een 1@@1 and
1@8>, +is!op 7ariano 7artK ad9ised !is paris!ioners to pre9ent mem,ers o3 t!e
opposite se* 3rom s!arin- t!e same ,ed and room, 4!ic! 4as quite di33icult. 2aldron
<1989, p. 1E9&@?=. ;ee also 6 Autos que si-ue N-nes 7aria con su amo Bn. Guan 7atias
'amos so,re su li9ertad 8, Arc!i9o de la Academia .ational de la Historia <!ereina3ter
AA.H=, i9iles, 1@9?, #etra V, e*p. 2.
11 ;ee 3or e*ample 6 'ita Antonia Bias escla9a de BoJa 7aria Antonia Bias so,re su
li,ertad 8, AA.H, i9iles, 1@89, #etra B, e*p. %.
12 ;ee BKa: <199@, c!apter $=.
1$ ;ee 7caa <198>=.
1> 2!et!er t!ese ideas came 3rom t!e c!urc!, 4!o placed more constraints on t!e
prero-ati9es o3 men t!an t!e state did, or 4ere -enerated ," people li9in- under se*ual
or racial oppression, needs to ,e 3urt!er studied. Net it is interestin- to note t!at some
4orCs !a9e 3ound t!at 4omen and sla9es tended to !a9e more e-alitarian 9ie4s on
social relations!ips. /milia Viotti da osta, maCes an e*cellent ar-ument t!at sla9es !ad
a particular notion o3 ri-!ts in 4!ic! t!eir relations!ips to t!eir masters entailed a
6 mutual o,li-ation 8 <199>, p. @2&@$=. Ine instance o3 !o4 3emale leaders!ip
e*panded notions o3 democratic and e-alitarian ideolo-" is t!e .icara-uan case aptl"
studied ," Aould <199?, p. 2$%&2>1=.
1% LMntitled : Bon N-nacio Aon:Ole: & su mujer se resiste a cumplir con las
o,li-aciones de su estadoP, Arc!i9o Arquidiocesano de aracas L!ereina3ter AAP,
7atrimoniales, 1@9%, le-. 12>, 3ols. 2@r&2@9. Dn t!e colonial period, t!e 4ord citi:en
4as used in t!e sense o3 ,ein- a resident o3 a place or a state, a condition t!at carried
some ri-!ts. ;ee /scric!e " 7artin <18>?=, s.9. 6 iudadano 8.
1E LMntitled : Bi9orcio & Guana 0eliciana Bias con Guan Bomin-o 7orenoP, AA,
7atrimoniales, 1@9>, le-. 12?, 3ol. 8r.
1@ LMntitled : Bon N-nacio Aon:Ole:P, 3ols. @2r&@$r.
18 0or instance, 6 Bemanda matrimonial de 7arKa de los ;antos 7arques contra Guan
de la 'o* Bias 8, AA, 7atrimoniales, 1@89, le-. 1?E F 6 Bemanda matrimonial puesta
por Guana 7arKa 7uJo: <morena li,re= contra Gose3 Vicente ordero <pardo= 8, AA,
7atrimoniales, 1@8@, le-. 1?2 F 8 ;eparaciRn que pretende Ba. Ana 7arKa #ope:
Nn3ante 8 F 6 Autos se-uidos por Ba. #uisa de Ic!oa so,re que se e*trai-an del poder
de su marido don +ernardo 'iso todos " cualesquiera ,ienes que manten-a en su poder
por ser propios su"os " estarlos disipando 8, AA.H, i9iles, 1@9?, #etra I, e*p. E.
19 LMntitled : Bi9orcio & Guana 0eliciana BiasP, 3ol. 8r.
2? )!is idea is 3irml" asserted in t!e Siete Partidas, 4!ic! 3urt!er esta,lis!ed t!at t!e
adult male <t!e padre de (amilia or 3amil" !ead= ruled !is 4i3e and c!ildren 4it! t!e
support o3 po4ers -i9en to !im ," la4. 0at!ers !ad patria potestas <parental po4er=,
4!ic! is t!e ri-!t t!at 3amil" !eads e*ercised o9er t!e person and propert" o3 3amil"
mem,ers. Mnder t!is principle 3at!ers and !us,ands enjo"ed t!e 3ruits o3 t!eir 3amil"
propert" and imposed t!eir 4ill ," le-al aut!orit" and p!"sical punis!ment i3 necessar".
;ee /scric!e " 7artKn <18>?=, s.9. 6 padre de (amilia 8 F +o"er <1989, p. 2%>&2%%= F
Arrom <198%, p. E8&@$= F (ino Dturrieta <1992, p. 28&$$=.
21 6 ;eparaciRn que pretende Ba. Ana 7arKa #ope: Nn3ante 8, 3ol. 2$r.
22 6 Autos de di9orcio que si-ue Ba. 0rancisca 'osalKa HernOnde: contra su le-Ktimo
marido Bon Guan )ru*illo 8, AA, 7atrimoniales, 1@9>, le-. 12?, 3ol. 1>9.
2$ ;ee 7a-allanes <1982=.
2> ;ee (ino Dturrieta <1991, p. 21&E$ F 1@8&18@=.
2% Ibid., 28.
2E Ibid., >?.
2@ !erpaC <19@8, p. 22?&221=.
28 Ibid., 222. ;ee also )roconis de Veracoec!ea <199?, p. 128, 1$2&1%2=.
29 Art. 1%> and 22E o3 t!e 1811 onstitution. )!e 1811 onstitution onl" lasted 3or
one "ear due to t!e independence 4ars, ,ut it set t!e 3rame 3or 3uture onstitutions. )!is
4as t!e 3irst 'epu,lican onstitution 3or #atin America. ;ee +re4er&arias <198%, p.
1%&%2=.
$? ;ee onstitution o3 1811, !apter DS, Arts. 2?1&22E. A pardo is a person o3 mi*ed
A3rican and 4!ite ,lood.
$1 Accordin- to t!e 1811 onstitution, !apter DD, 2nd ;ection, art. 2E a 9oter 4as a
3ree male, 21 "ears o3 a-e and older, 4!o !ad a 4ealt! o3 E?? pesos i3 sin-le and >??
pesos i3 married even i( t)e mone belon!ed to t)e +i(e. )!e +ra:ilian onstitution o3
182> also !ed-ed its lan-ua-e 4!ere t!e ri-!ts o3 t!e 3ree mi*ed&races 4ere concerned.
;ee 0lor" <19@@, p. 199&22>=.
$2 Dn 1821, 4!en t!e union ,et4een Vene:uela and olom,ia H 4!ic! 4e call toda"
Aran olom,ia H 4as esta,lis!ed, it settled t!e order in 4!ic! t!e la4s 4ere -oin- to ,e
applied. )!e la4 o3 1$ 7a" 182% esta,lis!ed t!at t!e !ierarc!" o3 la4s 4ould ,e as
3ollo4s : <1= la4s decreed ," t!e le-islati9e po4er F <2= pra-matics and ot!er la4s and
orders suc! as cdulas, rdenes, decretos, and ordenanzas 3rom t!e ;panis! -o9ernment
appro9ed ," t!e la4 o3 18 7arc! 18?8, and t!at 4ere o,ser9ed in t!e repu,lic5s
territor" F <$= t!e la4s o3 t!e Recopilacin de Indias F <>= t!e la4s o3 t!e Recopilacin
de Castilla F and <%= t!e Siete Partidas. Dt 4as also esta,lis!ed t!at all la4s 4!ic!
directl" or indirectl" contradicted t!ose o3 t!e onstitution or o3 t!e le-islature 4ould
!a9e no e33ect. !iossone <198?, p. 1$$&1$>=.
$$ )!is same pattern is discussed 3or Ar-entina ," ,ot! ;:uc!man <1988, p. 1$= and
Au" <198%=. Arrom also raises t!is issue <198%, p. 9$&9@=.
$> !iossone <198?, p. 12$&>=. ;ee also +us!nell <19%>, p. >E&>@, >9=.
$% ;ee #.@, t.19, li,.%, Novsima Recopilacin ; Diccionario razonado, s.9. 6 liti-ante 8
and 6 po,re 8. /scric!e 4rites : 6 A poor person, t!ou-! ma" !a9e su33icient means to
su,sist, does not necessaril" !a9e su33icient means to liti-ate, and s!ould not ,e
compelled to pa" t!e costs and 3ees t!at are necessar" in order to ,e de3ended, i3
L!e/s!eP presents proo3s o3 L!is/!erP po9ert" ,e3ore an" jud-e and presents, 3urt!ermore,
a dependa,le 4itness ,e3ore t!e court 4!ic! is !earin- t!e case 8 L6 /l po,re que,
aunque ten-a lo su3iciente para 9i9ir, carece de lo necesario para liti-ar, no !a de ser
compelido a pa-ar las costas " derec!os que de9en-ue en de3enderse, con tal que !a-a
constar su po,re:a mediante in3ormaciRn ante cualquier jue:, presentando ademOs un
testi-o 3idedi-no ante el tri,unal en que se si-ue el pleito 8P.
$E Cuerpo de lees, decretos resoluciones sancionados por los Con!resos de
"enezuela en los aos de 16B4, B1, BA BB <aracas : ValentKn /spinal, 18$$=, $2&$E
<#e" de 1$ de ma"o de 182%, apt. D, DD and DDD=. ;ee also 7atos&'odrK-ue: <199@, p.
2$E&2$8=.
$@ )!e percenta-e 4ould ,e !i-!er i3 D added t!e num,er o3 cases in ot!er cate-ories in
4!ic! 4omen 4ere contendin- a-ainst anot!er 4omen.
$8 ;usan ;ocolo4 <199?= 3ound t!at 4omen in9ol9ed in criminal cases in +uenos
Aires in t!e 1@%@&1@9@ period 4ere mostl" 9ictims or accomplices, a 3indin- t!e aut!or
interprets as a re3lection o3 t!eir -enerall" passi9e role in societ".
$9 )!e percenta-e o3 4omen 4!o initiated t!e le-al procedure in court <%?.E percent= is
t!e sum o3 t!e num,er o3 4omen plainti33s, 9ictims, and mot!er o3 t!e 9ictims. In
4omen5s ri-!ts, see /scric!e " 7artKn <18>?=, s.9. 6 mujer casada 8, and 6 mujer
pT,lica 8.
>? ;ee 6 #ista de los ciudadanos del antRn aracas, que reTnen las cualidades para
ser electores 8, +i,lioteca .acional, olecciRn de #i,ros 'aros " 7anuscritos,
olecciRn de Hojas ;ueltas, 1 de julio de 18%?.
>1 +et4een 1@9E and 1829, t!e se* ratios in aracas remained rat!er constant, 4it! an
a9era-e o3 a,out 1.E 4omen 3or e9er" male. omputed 3rom data in #om,ardi <19@E, p.
18$&18%= ;ociedad /conRmica de Ami-os del (aKs <18$%, p. $2&$%=.
>2 2aldron <19@@, p. 12@&1$@=.
>$ In t!e 6 race and class 4ar 8, see D:ard <19@9= F arrera Bamas <19@2= F Vallenilla
#an: <1991, p. 19&$@=. )!ese aut!ors c!allen-e t!e dominant !istorio-rap!" on
Dndependence, ar-uin- t!at t!is period encompassed one o3 man" ci9il 4ars in 4!ic!
political independence 4as onl" one o3 its moti9es.
>> Uuoted ," 0riedman <19@E, p. 1?8, 2$8=. Go!n Ha4Cs!a4 9isited aracas in 18$8.
Anot!er tra9eler, /d4ard +. /ast4icC, ent!usiasticall" remarCed !o4 4ell t!e doctrine
o3 equalit" 4as practiced in Vene:uela in t!e 18??s. ;ee /lKas (ino Dturrieta and
al:adilla <199$, p. 1>8=.
>% 0or e*amples o3 t!ese strate-ies in ot!er countries, see !al!ou, <198E, p. 12$&
1$E= F ;il9a +onilla, et al. <199?, p. 2@&$2= F and ope <199>=.
>E (a,lo 'odri-ue: discusses t!e importance o3 t!ese s"m,olic e*c!an-es <1991, p.
29&$?=.
>@ )!e 3act t!at D am presumin- a material linC a33ectin- 4oman&man relations!ips
does not mean t!at t!is 4as t!e onl" tie or reason 3or a couple to ,e to-et!er. 2!ile D
4as 4ritin- m" dissertation, on 4!ic! t!is article is ,ased, ;te9e G. ;tern pu,lis!ed an
e*cellent ,ooC in 4!ic! !e ar-ues similarl" 3or colonial 7e*ico <199%, p. @%&@@=.
7uriel .a::ari !as ar-ued t!at t!e do4r" 4as t!e 3oremost material incenti9e 3or men
to contract marria-e in colonial ;Wo (aulo. 2it! t!e decline o3 t!e do4r", people5s
perception o3 marria-e c!an-ed as 4ell. ;ee .a::ari <1991, p. 1%9&1E1=.
>8 0or a discussion o3 t!e issue o3 9er,al de3erence and economic o,li-ation, see ;tern
<199%, p. @?&@%=.
>9 6 riminales contra Bionisio Ve-a por !eridas 8, Arc!i9o del 'e-istro (rincipal del
Bistrito 0ederal L!ereina3ter A'(B0P, i9iles, 18>?, #etra V, e*p. 1?.
%? 6 riminales se-uidos contra Nsa,el 0re"tes por imputOrsele complicidad en el
!urto de unas ,otellas de rap a 7.A. LNeseirumP 8, A'(B0, riminales, 18$@, #etra 0,
e*p. 2.
%1 Arrom 3inds t!at t!e same !olds true 3or poor 4omen in 7e*ico it" <198%, p. 1@E&
18>=.
%2 6 Bemanda propuesta por ecilia +arani: para que se o,li-ue a su marido a
acreditar que la sostiene con todo lo necesario, o a que no la impida tra,ajar en su
pro3esiRn 8, A'(B0, i9iles, 18$E, #etra +, e*p. E.
%$ 6 A-ustina Arnal demandando en conciliaciRn a su le-Ktimo marido Bionisio
Acosta 8, A'(B0, i9iles, 18$%, #etra 7, e*p. 1? F 6 ;umarKa in3ormaciRn contra
Bionicio Acosta instruida por el Gue: de (a: 1 de la (arroquia de ;ta. 'osalKa por ante
el escri,ano Guan Gos 7edina 8, A'(B0, i9iles, 18$E, #etra A, e*p. % F 6 riminales
contra Bionicio Acosta por 9a-ancia 8, A'(B0, i9iles, 18$E, #etra A, e*p. $1 F
6 A-ustina Arnal se di9orcia de su le-Ktimo marido Bionicio Acosta 8, AA,
7atrimoniales, 18$%, le-. 2E>.
%> 6 Guana 'a3aela asares quejOndose de su marido 8, AA, 7atrimoniales, 18$?,
le-. 2%>.
%% ;tern <199%, p. @8&8%=.
%E ;ee 3or e*ample, 6 Bemanda de di9orcio de Gos de la ru: (arra contra su mu-er
'osa 7arKa (re: 8, AA, 7atrimoniales, 18$2, le-. 2%@.
%@ 6 (edro (a,lo Herrera contra su mujer /scolOstica Autierres por !e,ria 8, A'(B0,
i9iles, 18$9, #etra H, e*p. s/n.
%8 6 riminales contra Antonio 'omero por aporreo 8, A'(B0, i9iles, 18$@, #etra ',
e*p. 12. ;ee also 6 A9eri-uaciRn sumaria por la que resulta que la ;ra. Aureliana
;il9era 9ecina de esta arroquia, en uso de su de3ensa natural Lile-i,leP repelendo, !iriR a
osme Irosco, 9ecino de la de !acao 8, A'(B0, riminales, 18$E, #i,ro ';, #etra ;,
e*p. $.
%9 ;ee ;tern <199%, p. 8>&8@=.
E? 6 Bi9orcio que prepara BoJa 7arKa Antonia (re: a su le-Ktimo marido Bon 'amRn
7aucR 8, AA, 7atrimoniales, 1811, le-. 18@, 3ols. >Er&>@r.
E1 6 #a ;ra. 7icaela 'a9elo solicitando se le !a,ilite judicialmente para administrar
por si los ,ienes que !eredR de su padre 7i-uel 'a9elo " sin la inter9enciRn de su
marido el ;r. Guan Gos /spino:a 8, A'(B0, i9iles, 18$E, #etra ', e*p. 1>, 3ol. 1>r.
E2 Ibid., 3ol. 1@9.
E$ 6 Guan Gos /spinosa solicitando que 7icaela 'a9elo se restitu"a con los !ijos que
!a ocultado a la casa de su madre donde aquel la tenKa 8, A'(B0, i9iles, 18$E, #etra
/, e*p. 1%, 3ol. E9.
E> Ibid., 3ol. E9.
E% -ienes para(ernales are t!e -oods t!at a 4i3e ,rin-s to marria-e, independent o3 !er
do4r", and t!at are at !er disposal. Msuall" t!ese -oods 4ere clot!es and je4els and
an" propert" s!e acquired t!rou-! in!eritance or donation. Dt seems t!at !us,ands
customaril" mana-ed t!e bienes para(ernales 3or t!eir 4i9es, alt!ou-! t!e la4
esta,lis!ed t!at !e could not dispose o3 t!ose -oods unless t!e 4i3e a-reed in 4ritin-.
;ee /scric!e " 7artKn <18>?=, s.9. 6 bienes estradotales 8, and 6 bienes para(ernales 8 F
Arrom <198%, p. E@&E8=.
EE 6 Guan Gos /spinosa 8, 3ol. @r.
E@ ;ee 6 Guan Gos /spinosa 8, 3ol. 18r.
E8 6 +ar,ara Gedler quejOndose contra el -o,ernador de la (ro9incia por el cruel
casti-o que !a !ec!o dar a su !ijo Antonio 7adri:, ecla9o del ;r. Guan (a,lo Hui:i, por
indicios de estar comprendido en una re9oluciRn que tramara 8, A'(B0, i9iles, 18$%,
#etra G, e*p. 22, 3ol. 11r.
Haut de pa-e
%our citer cet article
"#f#rence #lectroni0ue
Arlene J. !az , 6 Aender con3licts in t!e courts o3 t!e earl" Vene:uelan repu,lic,
aracas, 1811&18>? 8, Crime, =istoire M Soci't's N Crime, =istor M Societies L/n
li-neP , Vol. 2, n2 | 1998 , mis en li-ne le ?$ a9ril 2??9, onsult le $? juillet 2?11.
M'# : /inde*9E>.!tml F BID : 1?.>???/c!s.9E>
Haut de pa-e
Auteur
Arlene J. !az
Bepartment o3 Histor", Dndiana Mni9ersit", +allantine Hall
+loomin-ton, Dndiana >@>?%.EE2>, M;A, /&mail:ardia:Yindiana.edu
Arlene G. BKa: is Assistant (ro3essor o3 Histor" at Dndiana Mni9ersit"&+loomin-ton,
Dndiana. ;!e !as pu,lis!ed 6 5.ecesidad !i:o parir mulatas5 : li,eralismo, nacionalidad e
ideas so,re las mujeres en la u,a del si-lo SDS 8, in (ilar Aon:al,o, <ed.=, >amilia,
!'nero mentalidades en 9merica 8atina <'Ko (iedras : /ditorial de la Mni9ersidad de
(uerto 'ico, 199@= and is t!e co&aut!or o3 6 Iccupational lass and 0emale&Headed
House!olds in ;antia-o 7aior do D-uape, +ra:il, 18$% 8, ;ournal o( >amil =istor
<0all, 1991=. urrentl" s!e is 4orCin- on a ,ooC manuscript entitled 6 5iudadanas5 and
5padres de 3amilia5 : Aender, (o4er, and #a4 in aracas, Vene:uela, 1@8E&1888 8 and is
conductin- researc! on 4omen5s or-ani:ations in earl" t4entiet!&centur" aracas. )!e
aut!or 4is!es to t!anC #uis A. Aon:Ole:, 'icardo B. ;al9atore, 'o,ert 7caa, and Ail
Gosep! 3or t!eir comments and su--estions. An earl" 9ersion o3 t!is article 4as
presented at t!e ;econd arleton on3erence on t!e Histor" o3 t!e 0amil", arleton
Mni9ersit", Itta4a, anada, 7a" 199>, and a more recent 9ersion at t!e on3erence on
6 )!e ontested )errains o3 #a4, Gustice, and 'epression in #atin American Histor" 8,
Nale Mni9ersit", April 199@.
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