The History of England

A study in political evolution

A. F. Pollard,
M.A., Litt.D.
C!TE!T"
Chapter.
I. The Foundations of England, 55 B.C.A.D. 1066
II. The u!"ergen#e of England, 10661$%$
III. E"ergen#e of the English &eople, 1$%$1'(5
I). The &rogress of *ationalis", 1'(5160+
). The truggle for elf,go-ern"ent, 160+1(15
)I. The E.pansion of England, 160+1(15
)II. The Industrial /e-olution
)III. A Centur0 of E"pire, 1(151111
I2. English De"o#ra#0
Chronologi#al Ta!le
Bi!liograph0
Chapter #
The Foundations of England
$$ %.C.&A.D. '())
3Ah, 4ell,3 an A"eri#an -isitor is said to ha-e solilo5ui6ed on the
site of the !attle of 7astings, 3it is !ut a little island, and it has
often !een #on5uered.3 8e ha-e in these fe4 pages to tra#e the
e-olution of a great e"pire, 4hi#h has often #on5uered others, out of
the little island 4hi#h 4as often #on5uered itself. The "ere in#idents
of this gro4th, 4hi#h satisfied the #hildli9e #uriosit0 of earlier
generations, hardl0 appeal to a pu!li# 4hi#h is learning to loo9 upon
histori#al narrati-e not as a si"ple stor0, !ut as an interpretation of
hu"an de-elop"ent, and upon histori#al fa#t as the #o"ple. resultant of
#hara#ter and #onditions: and introspe#ti-e readers 4ill loo9 less for
a list of fa#ts and dates "ar9ing the "ilestones on this national "ar#h
than for suggestions to e.plain the for"ation of the ar"0, the spirit
of its leaders and its "en, the progress "ade, and the o!sta#les
o-er#o"e. *o solution of the pro!le"s presented !0 histor0 4ill !e
#o"plete until the 9no4ledge of "an is perfe#t: !ut 4e #annot approa#h
the threshold of understanding 4ithout reali6ing that our national
a#hie-e"ent has !een the out#o"e of singular po4ers of assi"ilation, of
adaptation to #hanging #ir#u"stan#es, and of elasti#it0 of s0ste".
Change has !een, and is, the !reath of our e.isten#e and the #ondition
of our gro4th.
Change !egan 4ith the Creation, and ages of "o"entous de-elop"ent are
shrouded fro" our e0es. The land and the people are the t4o foundations
of English histor0: !ut !efore histor0 !egan, the land had re#ei-ed the
insular #onfiguration 4hi#h has largel0 deter"ined its fortune: and the
-arious peoples, 4ho 4ere to "ould and !e "oulded !0 the land, had
differentiated fro" the other ra#es of the 4orld. e-eral of these
peoples had o##upied the land !efore its #on5uest !0 the Anglo,a.ons,
so"e !efore it 4as e-en Britain. 8hether neolithi# "an superseded
palaeolithi# "an in these islands !0 in-asion or !0 do"esti# e-olution,
4e do not 9no4: !ut #enturies !efore the Christian era the Britons
o-erran the #ountr0 and superi"posed the"sel-es upon its s4arth0, s5uat
inha!itants. The0 "ounted #o"parati-el0 high in the s#ale of
#i-ili6ation: the0 tilled the soil, 4or9ed "ines, #ulti-ated -arious
for"s of art, and e-en !uilt to4ns. But their loose tri!al organi6ation
left the" at the "er#0 of the /o"ans: and though ;ulius Caesar<s t4o
raids in 55 B.C. and 5' B.C. left no per"anent results, the #on5uest
4as soon #o"pleted 4hen the /o"ans #a"e in earnest in A.D. '+.
The e.tent to 4hi#h the /o"ans during the three and a half #enturies of
their rule in Britain #i-ili6ed its inha!itants is a "atter of dou!tful
inferen#e. The re"ains of /o"an roads, /o"an 4alls, and /o"an -illas
still !ear 4itness to their "aterial a#ti-it0: and an o##upation of the
land !0 /o"an troops and /o"an offi#ials, spread o-er three hundred and
fift0 0ears, "ust ha-e i"pressed upon the upper #lasses of the Britons
at least so"e a#5uaintan#e 4ith the language, religion, ad"inistration,
and so#ial and e#ono"i# arrange"ents of the #on5uerors. But, on the
4hole, the e-iden#e points rather to "ilitar0 o##upation than to
#oloni6ation: and the /o"an pro-in#e rese"!led "ore nearl0 a =er"an
than a British #olon0 of to,da0. /o"e had then no surplus population
4ith 4hi#h to fill ne4 territor0: the onl0 e"igrants 4ere the soldiers,
the offi#ials, and a fe4 traders or prospe#tors: and of these "ost 4ere
partiall0 /o"ani6ed pro-in#ials fro" other parts of the e"pire, for a
/o"an soldier of the third #entur0 A.D. 4as not generall0 a /o"an or
e-en an Italian. The i"perial go-ern"ent, "oreo-er, #onsidered the
interests of Britain not in the"sel-es !ut onl0 as su!ordinate to the
e"pire, 4hi#h an0 sort of distin#ti-e national organi6ation 4ould ha-e
threatened. This distinguishes /o"an rule in Britain fro" British rule
in India: and if the ar"0 in Britain graduall0 gre4 "ore British, it
4as due to the 4ea9ness and not to the poli#0 of the i"perial
go-ern"ent. There 4as no atte"pt to for" a British #onstitution, or
4eld British tri!es into a nation: for /o"e !rought to !irth no
daughter states, lest she should dis"e"!er her all,e"!ra#ing unit0. o
the nas#ent nations 4arred 4ithin and rent her: and 4hen, enfee!led and
distra#ted !0 the struggle, she rela.ed her hold on Britain, she left
it "ore #ulti-ated, perhaps, !ut "ore ener-ated and hardl0 stronger or
"ore united than !efore.
7ardier peoples 4ere alread0 ho-ering o-er the pre0. The /o"ans had
the"sel-es esta!lished a 3#ount of the a.on shore3 to defend the
eastern #oasts of Britain against the pirates of the =er"an >#ean: and
it 4as not long after its re-olt fro" /o"e in '10, that the Angles and
a.ons and ;utes dis#o-ered a #han#e to "eddle in Britain, torn as it
4as !0 do"esti# anar#h0, and threatened 4ith inroads !0 the &i#ts and
#ots in the north. *either this te"ptation nor the alleged in-itation
fro" the British #hief )ortigern to #o"e o-er and help, supplied the
original i"pulse 4hi#h dro-e the Angles and a.ons a#ross the sea.
8hate-er its origin?4hether pressure fro" other tri!es !ehind,
internal dissensions, or the e#ono"i# ne#essities of a population
gro4ing too fast for the produ#e of pri"iti-e far"ing?the restlessness
4as general: !ut 4hile the =oths and the Fran9s poured south o-er the
/o"an frontiers on land, the Angles and a.ons o!e0ed a propheti# #all
to the sea and the setting sun.
This "igration !0 sea is a strange pheno"enon. That nations should
4ander !0 land 4as no ne4 thing: !ut ho4 in those da0s 4hole tri!es
transported the"sel-es, their 4i-es and their #hattels, fro" the "ouths
of the El!e and the 8eser to those of the Tha"es and the 7u"!er, 4e are
at a loss to understand. @et #o"e the0 did, and the na"e of the Angles
at least, 4hi#h #lung to the land the0 rea#hed, 4as !lotted out fro"
the ho"e the0 left. It is #lear that the0 #a"e in deta#h"ents, as their
des#endants 4ent, #enturies later, to a land still further 4est: and
the pro#ess 4as spread o-er a hundred 0ears or "ore. The0 #on5uered
Britain !lindl0 and pie#e"eal: and the traditional three 0ears 4hi#h
are said to ha-e elapsed !et4een the o##upation of heppe0 and the
landing in Aent pro-e not that the pun0 ar" of the inter-ening sea
deterred those 4ho had #rossed the o#ean, !ut that heppe0 4as as "u#h
as these petrels of the stor" #ould "anage. The failure to dislodge
the", and the a!sen#e of #entrali6ed go-ern"ent and national
#ons#iousness a"ong the Britons en#ouraged further in-aders: and Aent,
east of the Bed4a0, and the Isle of 8ight "a0 ha-e !een the ne.t
"orsels the0 s4allo4ed. These earl0 #o"ers 4ere ;utes, !ut their eas0
su##ess led to i"itation !0 their "ore nu"erous southern neigh!ours,
the Angles and a.ons: and the torrent of #on5uest gre4 in -olu"e and
rapidit0. In-aders !0 sea naturall0 sailed or ro4ed up the ri-ers, and
all #on5uerors "aster the plains !efore the hills, 4hi#h are the ho"e
of lost #auses and the refuge of nati-e states. Their progress "a0 !e
tra#ed in the na"es of English 9ingdo"s and shiresC in the south the
a.ons founded the 9ingdo"s of usse., Esse., Biddlese., and 8esse.: in
the east the Anglians founded East Anglia, though in the north the0
retained the Celti# na"es, Berni#ia and Deira. The distri#ts in 4hi#h
the0 "et and "ingled ha-e less distin#ti-e na"es: urre0 4as perhaps
disputed !et4een all the a.on 9ingdo"s, 7a"pshire !et4een 8est a.ons,
outh a.ons, and ;utes: 4hile in the #entre Ber#ia 4as a "i.ed "ar#h
or !orderland of Angles and a.ons against the retiring Britons or
8elsh.
It used to !e al"ost a point of honour 4ith #ha"pions of the
superiorit0 of Anglo,a.on -irtues to "aintain that the in-aders, li9e
the Israelites of old, "assa#red their ene"ies to a "an, if not also to
a 4o"an and #hild. Bassa#re there #ertainl0 4as at Anderida and other
pla#es ta9en !0 stor", and no dou!t 4hole British -illages fled at the
approa#h of their !loodthirst0 foes: !ut as the 4a-e of #on5uest rolled
fro" east to 4est, and the #on#entration of the Britons gre4 4hile that
of the in-ader rela.ed, there 4as less and less e.ter"ination. The
English hordes #annot ha-e !een as nu"erous in 4o"en as in "en: and in
that #ase so"e of the British 4o"en 4ould !e spared. It no "ore
re5uired 4holesale slaughter of the Britons to esta!lish English
language and institutions in Britain than it re5uired 4holesale
slaughter of the Irish to produ#e the sa"e results in Ireland: and a
large ad"i.ture of Celti# !lood in the English ra#e #an hardl0 !e
denied.
Boreo-er, the Anglo,a.ons !egan to fight one another !efore the0
#eased to fight their #o""on ene"0, 4ho "ust ha-e profited !0 this
interne#ine strife. >f the pro#ess !0 4hi#h the "igrating #lans and
fa"ilies 4ere !lended into tri!al 9ingdo"s, 4e learn nothing: !ut the
!lending fa-oured e.pansion, and e.pansion !rought the tri!al 9ingdo"s
into hostile #onta#t 4ith tougher ri-als than the Britons. The
e.pansion of usse. and Aent 4as #he#9ed !0 a.ons 4ho had landed in
Esse. or ad-an#ed up the Tha"es and the It#hen: East Anglia 4as he""ed
in !0 tri!es 4ho had sailed up the 8ash, the 7u"!er, and their
tri!utaries: and the three great 9ingdo"s 4hi#h e"erged out of the
anar#h0?*orthu"!ria, Ber#ia, and 8esse.?see" to ha-e o4ed the
supre"a#0, 4hi#h the0 4ielded in turn, to the #ir#u"stan#e that ea#h
possessed a British hinterland into 4hi#h it #ould e.pand. For
*orthu"!ria there 4as trath#l0de on the 4est and #otland on the
north: for Ber#ia there 4as 8ales: and for 8esse. there 4ere the
British re"nants in De-on and in Corn4all.
But a 9ingdo" "a0 ha-e too "u#h hinterland. #otland ta.ed for
#enturies the assi"ilati-e #apa#it0 of united England: it 4as too "u#h
for *orthu"!ria to digest. *orthu"!ria<s supre"a#0 4as distinguished !0
the religious la!ours of Aidan and Cuth!ert and 8ilfrid in England, !0
the "issions of 8illi!rord on the Continent, and !0 the re-i-al of
literature and learning under Caed"on and Bede: !ut it spent its
su!stan#e in efforts to #on5uer #otland, and then fell a -i#ti" to the
!ar!ari# strength of Ber#ia and to #i-il strife !et4een its #o"ponent
parts, Berni#ia and Deira. Ber#ia 4as e-en less ho"ogeneous than
*orthu"!ria: it had no frontiers 4orth "ention: and in spite of its
"ilitar0 pro4ess it #ould not a!sor! a hinterland tre!le the si6e of
the 8ales 4hi#h trou!led Ed4ard I. 8esse., 4ith ser-i#ea!le frontiers
#onsisting of the Tha"es, the Cots4olds, the e-ern, and the sea, and
4ith a hinterland narro4ing do4n to the Cornish peninsula, de-eloped a
slo4er !ut "ore lasting strength. &oliti#al organi6ation see"s to ha-e
!een its forte, and it had set its o4n house in so"e sort of order
!efore it 4as su""oned !0 E#g!erht to assu"e the lead in English
politi#s. Fro" that da0 to this the s#eptre has re"ained in his house
4ithout a per"anent !rea9.
o"e slight se"!lan#e of politi#al unit0 4as thus a#hie-ed, !ut it 4as
alread0 threatened !0 the *orth"en and Danes, 4ho 4ere harr0ing England
in "u#h the sa"e 4a0 as the English, three #enturies earlier, had
harried Britain. The in-aders 4ere in-aded !e#ause the0 had forsa9en
the sea to fight one another on land: and then Christianit0 had #o"e to
ta"e their tur!ulent -igour. A 4a-e of "issionar0 6eal fro" /o"e and a
!a#94ash fro" un#on5uered Ireland had "et at the s0nod of 8hit!0 in
66', and /o"an priests re#o-ered 4hat /o"an soldiers had lost. But the
#hur#h had not 0et ar"ed itself 4ith the 4eapons of the 4orld, and
Christian England 4as no "ore a "at#h than Christian Britain had !een
for a heathen foe. E#g!erht<s fee!le su##essors in 8esse., and their
fee!ler ri-als in the su!ordinate 9ingdo"s, ga-e 4a0 step !0 step
!efore the Danes, until in (%1 E#g!erht<s grandson Alfred the =reat
4as, li9e a se#ond Aing Arthur, a fugiti-e lur9ing in the re#esses of
his disappearing real".
8esse., ho4e-er, 4as "ore #losel0 9nit than an0 Celti# real" had !een:
the Danes 4ere fe4er than their Anglo,a.on prede#essors: and Alfred
4as "ade of sterner stuff than earl0 British prin#es. 7e 4as t0pi#al of
8esse.: "oral strength and all,round #apa#it0 rather than supre"e
a!ilit0 in an0 one dire#tion are his title,deeds to greatness. After
hard fighting he i"posed ter"s of pea#e upon the Danish leader =uthru".
England south,4est of 8atling treet, 4hi#h ran fro" Dondon to Chester,
4as to !e Alfred<s, the rest to !e Danish: and =uthru" su##u"!ed to the
pa#if0ing influen#e of Christianit0. *ot the least of Alfred<s gains
4as the destru#tion of Ber#ia<s unit0: its ro0al house had disappeared
in the struggle, and the 9ingdo" 4as no4 di-ided: 4hile Alfred lost his
no"inal su6eraint0 o-er north,east England, he gained a real
so-ereignt0 o-er south,4est Ber#ia. 7is #hildren, Ed4ard the Elder and
Ethelfleda, the Dad0 of the Ber#ians, and his grandson Athelstan,
pushed on the e.pansion of 8esse. thus !egun, di-iding the land as the0
4on it into shires, ea#h 4ith a !urh E!oroughF or fortified #entre for
its "ilitar0 organi6ation: and Anglo,a.on "onar#h0 rea#hed its 6enith
under Edgar, 4ho ruled o-er the 4hole of England and asserted a
su6eraint0 o-er "ost of Britain.
It 4as transitor0 glor0 and superfi#ial unit0: for there 4as no real
possi!ilit0 of a national state in Anglo,a.on,Celti#,Danish England,
and the 4hole "eaning of English histor0 is "issed in antedating that
a#hie-e"ent !0 se-eral hundred 0ears. Edgar #ould do no "ore than e-ade
diffi#ulties and te"pori6e 4ith pro!le"s 4hi#h i"per#epti!le gro4th
alone #ould sol-e: and the idealisti# pi#tures of earl0 England are not
dra4n fro" life, !ut inspired !0 a !elief in good old da0s and an
un#ons#ious appre#iation of the pole"i#al -alue of su#h a theor0 in
politi#al #ontro-ers0. Ta#itus, a spleneti# /o"an aristo#rat, had
satiri6ed the degenera#0 of the e"pire under the guise of a des#ription
of the pri"iti-e -irtues of a Gtopian =er"an0: and "odern theorists
ha-e found in his Germania an ar"our0 of de"o#rati# 4eapons
against aristo#ra#0 and despotis". Fro" this golden age the Angles and
a.ons are supposed to ha-e deri-ed a politi#al s0ste" in 4hi#h "ost
"en 4ere free and e5ual, o4ning their land in #o""on, de!ating and
de#iding in fol9"oots the issues of pea#e and 4ar, ele#ting their 9ings
Eif an0F, and o!e0ing the" onl0 so far as the0 inspired respe#t. These
id0lli# arrange"ents, if the0 e-er e.isted, did not sur-i-e the stress
of the "igration and the struggle 4ith the Celts. 8ar !egat the 9ing,
and soon the #hur#h !apti6ed hi" and #onfir"ed his po4er 4ith un#tion
and !i!li#al pre#edents. The "oot of the fol9 !e#a"e the "oot of the
8ise E8itanF, and onl0 those 4ere 4ise 4hose 4isdo" 4as apparent to the
9ing. Co""unit0 of goods and e5ualit0 of propert0 !ro9e do4n in the
-ast appropriation in-ol-ed in the #on5uest of Britain: and 4hen, after
their #on-ersion to Christianit0, the !ar!arians learnt to 4rite and
left authenti# re#ords, the0 re-eal a state of so#iet0 4hi#h !ears so"e
rese"!lan#e to that of "edie-al England !ut little to that of the
"0thi#al golden age.
Gpon a nation of free"en in ar"s had !een superi"posed a #lass of
"ilitar0 spe#ialists, of 4ho" the 9ing 4as head. pe#iali6ation had
!ro9en do4n the s0ste" !0 4hi#h all "en did an e5ual a"ount of
e-er0thing. The fe4, 4ho 4ere #alled thegns, ser-ed the 9ing, generall0
!0 fighting his ene"ies, 4hile the "an0 4or9ed for the"sel-es and for
those 4ho ser-ed the 9ing. All holders of land, ho4e-er, had to ser-e
in the national le-0 and to help in "aintaining the !ridges and
pri"iti-e fortifi#ations. But there 4ere endless degrees of ine5ualit0
in 4ealth: so"e no4 o4ned !ut a fra#tion of 4hat had !een the nor"al
share of a household in the land: others held "an0 shares, and the
possession of fi-e shares !e#a"e the di-iding line !et4een the #lass
fro" 4hi#h the ser-ants of the 9ing 4ere #hosen and the rest of the
#o""unit0. 8hile this ine5ualit0 in#reased, the tenure of land gre4
"ore and "ore i"portant as the !asis of so#ial position and politi#al
influen#e. Dand has little -alue for no"ads, !ut so soon as the0 settle
its 4orth !egins to gro4: and the "ore la!our the0 put into the land,
the higher rises its -alue and the less the0 4ant to lea-e it: in a
purel0 agri#ultural #o""unit0 land is the great sour#e of e-er0thing
4orth ha-ing, and therefore the "ain o!He#t of desire.
But it !e#a"e in#reasingl0 diffi#ult for the s"all "an to retain his
holding. 7e needed prote#tion, espe#iall0 during the #i-il 4ars of the
7eptar#h0 and the Danish inroads 4hi#h follo4ed. There 4as, ho4e-er, no
go-ern"ent strong enough to afford prote#tion, and he had to see9 it
fro" the nearest "agnate, 4ho "ight possess ar"ed ser-ants to defend
hi", and perhaps a rudi"entar0 stronghold 4ithin 4hi#h he "ight shelter
hi"self and his !elongings till the stor" 4as past. The "agnate
naturall0 4anted his pri#e for these #o""odities, and the onl0 pri#e
that 4ould satisf0 hi" 4as the poor "an<s land. o "an0 poor "en
surrendered the o4nership of their land, re#ei-ing it !a#9 to !e held
!0 the" as tenants on #ondition of rendering -arious ser-i#es to the
landlord, su#h as ploughing his land, reaping his #rops, and other
4or9. =enerall0, too, the tenant !e#a"e the landlord<s 3"an,3 and did
hi" ho"age: and, thirdl0, he 4ould !e !ound to attend the #ourt in
4hi#h the lord or his ste4ard e.er#ised Hurisdi#tion.
This gro4th of pri-ate Hurisdi#tion 4as another sign of the ti"es.
;usti#e had on#e !een ad"inistered in the popular "oots, though fro"
-er0 earl0 ti"es there had !een so#ial distin#tions. Ea#h -illage had
its 3!est3 "en, generall0 four in nu"!er, 4ho attended the "oots of the
larger distri#ts #alled the 7undreds: and the 3!est3 4ere pro!a!l0
those 4ho had inherited or a#5uired the !est ho"esteads. This
aristo#ra#0 so"eti"es shran9 to one, and the "agnate, to 4ho" the poor
surrendered their land in return for prote#tion, often a#5uired also
rights of Hurisdi#tion, re#ei-ing the fines and forfeits i"posed for
!rea#hes of the la4. 7e 4as "ade responsi!le, too, for the #ondu#t of
his poorer neigh!ours. >riginall0 the fa"il0 had !een "ade to ans4er
for the offen#es of its "e"!ers: !ut the tie of !lood,relationship
4ea9ened as the !ond of neigh!ourhood gre4 stronger 4ith atta#h"ent to
the soil: and instead of the natural unit of the fa"il0, an artifi#ial
unit 4as #reated for the purpose of responsi!ilit0 to the la4 !0
asso#iating neigh!ours together in groups of ten, #alled pea#e,pledges
or frith,!orhs. It is at least possi!le that the 37undred3 4as a
further asso#iation of ten frith,!orhs as a higher and "ore responsi!le
unit for the ad"inistration of Husti#e. But the landless "an 4as
4orthless as a "e"!er of a frith,!orh, for the la4 had little hold o-er
a "an 4ho had no land to forfeit and no fi.ed ha!itation. o the
landless "an 4as #o"pelled !0 la4 to su!"it to a lord, 4ho 4as held
responsi!le for the !eha-iour of all his 3"en3: his estate !e#a"e, so
to spea9, a pri-ate frith,!orh, #onsisting of dependents instead of the
free"en of the pu!li# frith,!orhs. These t4o s0ste"s, 4ith "an0
-ariations, e.isted side !0 side: !ut there 4as a general tenden#0 for
the free"en to get fe4er and for the lords to gro4 "ore po4erful.
This gro4th of o-er,"ight0 su!He#ts 4as due to the fa#t that a
go-ern"ent 4hi#h #ould not prote#t the poorest #ould not restrain the
lo#al "agnates to 4ho" the poor 4ere for#ed to turn: and the 4ea9ness
of the go-ern"ent 4as due ulti"atel0 to the la#9 of politi#al edu#ation
and of "aterial resour#es. The "ass of English"en 4ere lo#all0 "inded:
there 4as nothing to suggest national unit0 to their i"agination. The0
#ould not read, the0 had no "aps, nor pi#tures of #ro4ned so-ereigns,
not e-en a flag to 4a-e: none, indeed, of those s0"!ols 4hi#h !ring
ho"e to the peasant or artisan a #ons#iousness that he !elongs to a
national entit0. Their interests #entred round the -illage green: the
3!est3 "en tra-elled further afield to the hundred and shire,"oot, !ut
an0thing !e0ond these li"its 4as distant and unreal, the affair of an
outside 4orld 4ith 4hi#h the0 had no #on#ern. Anglo,a.on patriotis"
ne-er trans#ended pro-in#ial !oundaries.
The go-ern"ent, on the other hand, possessed no proper roads, no
regular "eans of #o""uni#ation, none of those ner-es 4hi#h ena!le it to
feel 4hat goes on in distant parts. The 9ing, indeed, 4as !eginning to
suppl0 the defi#ien#ies of lo#al and popular organi6ationC a spe#ial
ro0al pea#e or prote#tion, 4hi#h "eant spe#iall0 se-ere penalties to
the offender, 4as !eing thro4n o-er spe#ial pla#es li9e high4a0s,
"ar9ets, !oroughs, and #hur#hes: o-er spe#ial ti"es li9e unda0s, hol0
da0s, and the "eeting,da0s of "oots: and o-er spe#ial persons li9e
priests and ro0al offi#ials. The #hur#h, too, stro-e to set an e.a"ple
of #entrali6ed ad"inistration: !ut its organi6ation 4as still "onasti#
rather than paro#hial and epis#opal, and e-en Dunstan failed to #leanse
it of sloth and si"on0. 8ith no regular s0ste" of ta.ation, little
go-ern"ent "a#hiner0, and no poli#e, standing ar"0, or ro0al Hudges, it
4as i"possi!le to enfor#e ro0al prote#tion ade5uatel0, or to #he#9 the
#entrifugal tenden#0 of England to !rea9 up into its #o"ponent parts.
The "onar#h0 4as a "an rather than a "a#hine: a -igorous ruler #ould
"a9e so"e i"pression, !ut 4hene-er the #ro4n passed to a fee!le 9ing,
the reign of anar#h0 re#o""en#ed.
Alfred<s su##essors anne.ed the Danela4 4hi#h Alfred had left to
=uthru", !ut their efforts to assi"ilate the Danes pro-o9ed in the
first pla#e a rea#tion against 8est a.on influen#e 4hi#h threatened
"ore than on#e to separate England north of the Tha"es fro" 8esse.,
and, se#ondl0, a deter"ination on the part of Danes a#ross the sea to
sa-e their fello4,#ountr0"en in England fro" a!sorption. >ther #auses
no dou!t assisted to !ring a!out a rene4al of Danish in-asion: !ut the
Danes 4ho #a"e at the end of the tenth #entur0, if the0 !egan as
hapha6ard !ands of ro-ers, greed0 of spoil and ranso", de-eloped into
the e"issaries of an organi6ed go-ern"ent !ent on politi#al #on5uest.
Ethelred, 4ho had to suffer fro" e-ils that 4ere in#ura!le as 4ell as
for his prede#essors< negle#t, !ought off the raiders 4ith e-er,
in#reasing !ri!es 4hi#h te"pted the" to return: and !0 le-0ing Danegeld
to stop in-asion, set a pre#edent for dire#t ta.ation 4hi#h the
in-aders e-entuall0 used as the finan#ial !asis of effi#ient
go-ern"ent. At length a foolish "assa#re of the Danish 3uitlanders3 in
England pre#ipitated the ruin of Anglo,a.on "onar#h0: and after heroi#
resistan#e !0 Ed"und Ironside, England 4as a!sor!ed in the e"pire of
Canute.
Canute tried to put hi"self into the position, 4hile a-oiding the
"ista9es, of his English prede#essors. 7e adopted the Christian
religion and set up a for#e of hus,earls to terrif0 lo#al "agnates and
enfor#e o!edien#e to the English la4s 4hi#h he re,ena#ted. 7is di-ision
of England into four great earldo"s see"s to ha-e !een "erel0 a #asual
arrange"ent, !ut he does not appear to ha-e #he#9ed the dangerous
pra#ti#e !0 4hi#h under Edgar and Ethelred the ealdor"en had !egun to
#on#entrate in their hands the #ontrol of -arious shires. The greater
the sphere of a su!He#t<s Hurisdi#tion, the "ore it "ena#ed the
"onar#h0 and national unit0: and after Canute<s e"pire had fallen to
pie#es under his 4orthless sons, the restoration of E#g!erht<s line in
the person of Ed4ard the Confessor "erel0 pro-ided a figurehead under
4hose no"inal rule the great earls of 8esse., Ber#ia, *orthu"!ria, and
East Anglia fought at first for #ontrol of the "onar#h0 and at length
for the #ro4n itself. The strife resol-ed itself into a fa#tion fight
!et4een the Ber#ian house of Deofri# and the 8est a.on house of
=od4ine, 4hose d0nasti# poli#0 has !een "agnified into patriotis" !0 a
great 8est a.on historian. The pri6e fell for the "o"ent on Ed4ard<s
death to =od4ine<s son, 7arold, 4hose a"!ition to sit on a throne #ost
hi" his life and the glor0, 4hi#h other4ise "ight ha-e !een his, of
sa-ing his #ountr0 fro" 8illia" the *or"an. As regent for one of the
s#ions of E#g!erht<s house, he "ight ha-e relied on the #o,operation of
his ri-als: as an upstart on the throne he #ould onl0 #ount on the
-eiled or open en"it0 of Ber#ians and *orthu"!rians, 4ho regarded hi",
and 4ere regarded !0 hi", as hardl0 less foreign than the in-ader fro"
Fran#e.
The !attle of 7astings su"s up a series and #lin#hes an argu"ent.
Anglo,a.ondo" had onl0 !een sa-ed fro" Danish "arauders !0 the
personal greatness of Alfred: it had utterl0 failed to respond to
Ed"und<s #all to ar"s against Canute, and the respite under Ed4ard the
Confessor had !een frittered a4a0. Angles and a.ons in-ited foreign
#on5uest !0 a #i-il 4ar: and 4hen 7arold !eat !a#9 Tostig and his
*or4egian all0, the sullen north left hi" alone to do the sa"e !0
8illia". 8illia"<s 4as the third and de#isi-e Danish #on5uest of a
house di-ided against itself: for his *or"ans 4ere *orth"en 4ith a
Fren#h polish, and the0 #on5uered a #ountr0 in 4hi#h the soundest
ele"ents 4ere alread0 Danish. The stoutest resistan#e, not onl0 in the
"ilitar0 !ut in the #onstitutional and so#ial sense, to the *or"an
Con5uest 4as offered not !0 8esse. !ut !0 the Danela4, 4here personal
freedo" had outli-ed its he0,da0 else4here: and the refle#tion that,
had the English re,#on5uest of the Danela4 !een "ore #o"plete, so, too,
4ould ha-e !een the *or"an Con5uest of England, "a0 "odif0 the -ie4
that e-er0thing great and good in England is Anglo,a.on in origin.
England, indeed, 4as still in the #rudest stages of its "a9ing: it had
as 0et no la4 4orth the na"e, no trial !0 Hur0, no parlia"ent, no real
#onstitution, no effe#ti-e ar"0 or na-0, no uni-ersities, fe4 s#hools,
hardl0 an0 literature, and little art. The disHointed and unrul0
"e"!ers of 4hi#h it #onsisted in 1066 had to undergo a se-ere
dis#ipline !efore the0 #ould for" an organi# national state.
Chapter ##
The "u*+ergence of England
'())&',-,
For nearl0 t4o #enturies after the *or"an Con5uest there is no histor0
of the English people. There is histor0 enough of England, !ut it is
the histor0 of a foreign go-ern"ent. 8e "a0 no4 feel pride in the
strength of our #on5ueror or pretend #lai"s to des#ent fro" 8illia"<s
#o"panions. 8e "a0 !oast of the e"pire of 7enr0 II and the pro4ess of
/i#hard I, and 4e "a0 #ele!rate the organi6ed la4 and Husti#e, the
s#holarship and the ar#hite#ture, of the earl0 &lantagenet period: !ut
these things 4ere no "ore English than the go-ern"ent of India to,da0
is 7indu. 8ith 8altheof and 7ere4ard English na"es disappear fro"
English histor0, fro" the roll of so-ereigns, "inisters, !ishops,
earls, and sheriffs: and their pla#e is ta9en !0 na"es !eginning 4ith
3fit63 and distinguished !0 3de.3 *o 8illia", Tho"as, 7enr0, =eoffre0,
=il!ert, ;ohn, tephen, /i#hard, or /o!ert had pla0ed an0 part in
Anglo,a.on affairs, !ut the0 fill the pages of England<s histor0 fro"
the da0s of 7arold to those of Ed4ard I. The English language 4ent
underground, and !e#a"e the patois of peasants: the thin tri#9le of
Anglo,a.on literature dried up, for there 4as no de"and for Anglo,
a.on a"ong an upper #lass 4hi#h 4rote Datin and spo9e Fren#h.
Foreigners ruled and o4ned the land, and 3nati-e3 !e#a"e s0non0"ous
4ith 3serf.3
Their #o""on lot, ho4e-er, ga-e !irth to a #o""on feeling. The *or"an
4as "ore alien to the Ber#ian than had !een *orthu"!rian or 8est,a.on,
and ri-al tri!es at last dis#o-ered a !ond of unit0 in the i"partial
rigour of their "asters. The *or"an, #o"ing fro" outside and e.e"pt
fro" lo#al preHudi#e, applied the sa"e "ethods of go-ern"ent and
e.ploitation to all parts of England, Hust as English"en !ring the sa"e
ideas to !ear upon all parts of India: and in !oth #ases the stead0
pressure of a superi"posed #i-ili6ation tended to o!literate lo#al and
#lass di-isions. Gn4ittingl0 *or"an and Ange-in despotis" "ade an
English nation out of Anglo,a.on tri!es, as English despotis" has "ade
a nation out of Irish septs, and 4ill "a9e another out of the hundred
ra#es and religions of our Indian e"pire. The "ore effi#ient a
despotis", the sooner it "a9es itself i"possi!le, and the greater the
pro!le"s it stores up for the future, unless it #an di-est itself of
its despoti# attri!utes and "a9e #o""on #ause 4ith the nation it has
#reated.
The pro-ision of this e-en,handed t0rann0 4as the great #ontri!ution of
the *or"ans to the "a9ing of England. The0 had no 4ritten la4 of their
o4n, !ut to se#ure the"sel-es the0 had to enfor#e order upon their
s#his"ati# su!He#ts: and the0 4ere a!le to enfor#e it !e#ause, as
"ilitar0 e.perts, the0 had no e5uals in that age. The0 #ould not ha-e
stood against a nation in ar"s: !ut the in#reasing #ost of e5uip"ent
and the gro4th of poor and landless #lasses a"ong the Anglo,a.ons had
transferred the "ilitar0 !usiness of the nation into the hands of large
lando4ning spe#ialists: and the Anglo,a.on 4arrior 4as no "at#h for
his *or"an ri-al, either indi-iduall0 or #olle#ti-el0. 7is !urh 4as
inferior to the *or"an #astle, his shield and !attle,a.e to the 4eapons
of the "ailed and "ounted 9night: and he had none of the #oheren#e that
4as for#ed upon the #on5uerors !0 the iron hand of 8illia" and !0 their
situation a"id a hostile people.
The pro!le" for 8illia" and his #o"panions 4as ho4 to organi6e this
"ilitar0 superiorit0 as a "eans of orderl0 go-ern"ent, and this pro!le"
4ore a t4ofold aspe#t. 8illia" had to #ontrol his !arons, and his
!arons had to #ontrol their -assals. Their "ethods ha-e !een su""ed up
in the phrase, the 3feudal s0ste",3 4hi#h 8illia" is still popularl0
supposed to ha-e introdu#ed into England. >n the other hand, it has
!een hu"ourousl0 suggested that the feudal s0ste" 4as reall0 introdu#ed
into England !0 ir 7enr0 pel"an, a se-enteenth,#entur0 s#holar.
>thers ha-e "aintained that, so far fro" feudalis" !eing introdu#ed
fro" *or"and0 into England, it 4ould !e truer to sa0 that feudalis" 4as
introdu#ed fro" England into *or"and0, and then#e spread throughout
Fran#e. These spe#ulations ser-e, at an0 rate, to sho4 that feudalis"
4as a -er0 -ague and elusi-e s0ste", #onsisting of generali6ations fro"
a -ast nu"!er of #onfli#ting data. pel"an 4as the first to atte"pt to
redu#e these data to a s0ste", and his su##essors tended to forget "ore
and "ore the e.#eptions to his rules. It is no4 #lear that "u#h that 4e
#all feudal e.isted in England !efore the *or"an Con5uest: that "u#h of
it 4as not de-eloped until after the *or"an period: and that at no ti"e
did feudalis" e.ist as a #o"pletel0 rounded and logi#al s0ste" outside
histori#al and legal te.t,!oo9s.
The politi#al and so#ial arrange"ents su""ed up in the phrase related
pri"aril0 to the land and the #onditions of ser-i#e upon 4hi#h it 4as
held. Co""er#e and "anufa#tures, and the organi6ation of to4ns 4hi#h
gre4 out of the", 4ere al4a0s e.#eptions to the feudal s0ste": the
"onar#h0 sa-ed itself, its sheriffs, and the shires to so"e e.tent fro"
feudal influen#e: and soon it set to 4or9 to redee" the ad"inistration
of Husti#e fro" its #lut#hes. In all parts of the #ountr0, "oreo-er,
there 4as land, the tenure of 4hi#h 4as ne-er feudali6ed. =enerall0,
ho4e-er, the theor0 4as applied that all land 4as held dire#tl0 or
indire#tl0 fro" the 9ing, 4ho 4as the sole o4ner of it, that there 4as
no land 4ithout a lord, and that fro" e-er0 a#re of land so"e sort of
ser-i#e 4as due to so"e one or other. A great deal of it 4as held !0
"ilitar0 ser-i#e: the tenant,in,#hief of this land, 4ho "ight !e either
a la0"an or an e##lesiasti#, had to render this "ilitar0 ser-i#e to the
9ing, 4hile the su!,tenants had to render it to the tenants,in,#hief.
8hen the tenant died his land re-erted to the lord, 4ho onl0 granted it
to the heir after the pa0"ent of a 0ear<s re-enue, and on #ondition of
the sa"e ser-i#e !eing rendered. If the heir 4ere a "inor, and thus
in#apa!le of rendering "ilitar0 ser-i#e, the land 4as retained !0 the
lord until the heir #a"e of age: heiresses #ould onl0 "arr0 4ith the
lord<s lea-e so"e one 4ho #ould perfor" his ser-i#es. The tenant had
further to attend the lord<s #ourt?4hether the lord 4as his 9ing or
not?su!"it to his Hurisdi#tion, and pa0 aids to the lord 4hene-er he
4as #aptured and needed ranso", 4hen his eldest son 4as "ade a 9night,
and 4hen his eldest daughter "arried.
>ther land 4as held !0 #hur#h"en on #ondition of pra0ing or singing for
the soul of the lord, and the i"portan#e of this tenure 4as that it 4as
su!He#t to the #hur#h #ourts and not to those of the 9ing. o"e 4as
held in 4hat 4as #alled free so#age, the ter"s of 4hi#h -aried: !ut its
distinguishing feature see"s to ha-e !een that the ser-i#e, 4hi#h 4as
not "ilitar0, 4as fi.ed, and that 4hen it 4as perfor"ed the lord had no
further hold on the tenant. The great "ass of the population 4ere,
ho4e-er, -illeins, 4ho 4ere al4a0s at the !e#9 and #all of their lords,
and had to do as "u#h ploughing, so4ing, and reaping of his land as he
#ould "a9e the". Theoreti#all0 the0 4ere his goods and #hattels, 4ho
#ould o!tain no redress against an0 one e.#ept in the lord<s #ourt, and
none at all against hi". The0 #ould not lea-e their land, nor "arr0,
nor enter the #hur#h, nor go to s#hool 4ithout his lea-e. All these
for"s of tenure and 9inds of ser-i#e, ho4e-er, shaded off into one
another, so that it is i"possi!le to dra4 hard and fast lines !et4een
the". An0 one, "oreo-er, "ight hold different lands on different ter"s
of ser-i#e, so that there 4as little of #aste in the English s0ste": it
4as upon the land and not the person that the ser-i#e 4as i"posed: and
8illia"<s Do"esda0 Boo9 4as not a re#ord of the ran9s and #lasses of
the people, !ut a sur-e0 of the land, detailing the rents and ser-i#e
due fro" e-er0 part.
The lo#al agen#0 !0 4hi#h the *or"ans enfor#ed these arrange"ents 4as
the "anor. The Anglo,a.ons had organi6ed shires and hundreds, !ut the
lo4est unit, to4nship or -ill see"s to ha-e had no organi6ation e.#ept,
perhaps, for agri#ultural purposes. The Danegeld, 4hi#h 8illia" i"posed
after the Do"esda0 sur-e0, 4as assessed on the hundreds, as though
there 4ere no s"aller units fro" 4hi#h it #ould !e le-ied. But the
hundred 4as found too #u"!rous for the effi#ient #ontrol of lo#al
details: it 4as di-ided into "anors, the *or"ans using for this purpose
the ger"s of dependent to4nships 4hi#h had long !een gro4ing up in
England: and the agri#ultural organi6ation of the to4nship 4as
do-etailed into the Hurisdi#tional organi6ation of the "anor. The lord
!e#a"e the lord of all the land on the "anor, the o4ner of a #ourt
4hi#h tried lo#al disputes: !ut he rarel0 possessed that #ri"inal
Hurisdi#tion in "atters of life and death 4hi#h 4as #o""on in
#ontinental feudalis": and if he did, it 4as onl0 !0 spe#ial ro0al
grant, and he 4as graduall0 depri-ed of it !0 the de-elop"ent of ro0al
#ourts of Husti#e, 4hi#h dre4 to the"sel-es large parts of "anorial
Hurisdi#tion.
These and other "atters 4ere reser-ed for the old #ourts of the shire
and hundred, 4hi#h the *or"an 9ings found it ad-isa!le to en#ourage as
a #he#9 upon their !arons: for the "ore #o"pletel0 the nati-es and
-illagers 4ere su!He#ted to their lords, the "ore ne#essar0 4as it for
the 9ing to "aintain his hold upon their "asters. For this reason
8illia" i"posed the fa"ous alis!ur0 oath. In Fran#e the su!,tenant 4as
!ound to follo4 and o!e0 his i""ediate lord rather than the 9ing.
8illia" 4as deter"ined that e-er0 "an<s dut0 to the 9ing should #o"e
first. i"ilarl0, he separated #hur#h #ourts fro" the se#ular #ourts,
in order that the for"er "ight !e sa-ed fro" the feudal influen#e of
the latter: and he enfor#ed the e##lesiasti#al refor"s of 7ilde!rand,
espe#iall0 the prohi!ition of the "arriage of the #lerg0, lest the0
should #on-ert their !enefi#es into hereditar0 fiefs for the !enefit of
their #hildren.
For the prin#iples of heredit0 and pri"ogeniture 4ere a"ong the
strongest of feudal tenden#ies. &ri"ogeniture had pro-ed politi#all0
ad-antageous: and one of the !est things in the Anglo,a.on "onar#h0
had !een its a-oidan#e of the pra#ti#e, pre-alent on the Continent, of
9ings di-iding their do"inions a"ong their sons, instead of lea-ing all
united to the eldest. But the prin#iple of heredit0, sound enough in
national "onar#h0, 4as to pro-e -er0 dangerous in the other spheres of
politi#s. >ffi#e tended to !e#o"e hereditar0, and to !e regarded as the
pri-ate propert0 of the fa"il0 rather than a position of national
trust, thus es#aping national #ontrol and !eing prostituted for
personal ends. The earldo"s in England 4ere so per-erted: originall0
the0 4ere offi#es li9e the "odern lords,lieutenan#ies of the shires:
graduall0 the0 !e#a"e hereditar0 titles. The onl0 re"ed0 the 9ing had
4as to depri-e the earls of their po4er, and entrust it to a no"inal
deput0, the sheriff. In Fran#e, the sheriff Evice,comes, vicomteF
!e#a"e hereditar0 in his turn, and a prolonged struggle o-er the sa"e
tenden#0 4as fought in England. Fortunatel0, the #ro4n and #ountr0
triu"phed o-er the hereditar0 prin#iple in this respe#t: the sheriff
re"ained an offi#ial, and 4hen -is#ounts 4ere #reated later, in
i"itation of the Fren#h no!ilit0, the0 re#ei-ed onl0 a "eaningless and
#o"parati-el0 inno#uous title.
o"e slight #he#9, too, 4as retained upon the #ro4n o4ing to a series
of disputed su##essions to the throne. The Anglo,a.on "onar#h0 had
al4a0s !een in theor0 ele#ti-e, and 8illia" had !een #areful to o!ser-e
the for". 7is son, 8illia" II, had to o!tain ele#tion in order to
se#ure the throne against the #lai"s of his elder !rother /o!ert, and
7enr0 I follo4ed his e.a"ple for si"ilar reasons. Ea#h had to "a9e
ele#tion pro"ises in the for" of a #harter: and ele#tion pro"ises,
although the0 4ere seldo" 9ept, had so"e -alue as re"inders to 9ings of
their duties and theoreti#al dependen#e upon the ele#tors. =raduall0,
too, the 9ings !egan to loo9 for support outside their *or"an !aronage,
and to reali6e that e-en the su!"erged English "ight ser-e as a
"a9e4eight in a !alan#e of opposing for#es. 7enr0 I !id for Dondon<s
support !0 the grant of a nota!le #harter: for, assisted !0 the order
and #o""uni#ations 4ith the Continent fostered !0 *or"an rule, #o""er#e
4as !eginning to flourish and to4ns to gro4. Dondon 4as alread0
distan#ing 8in#hester in their #o""on a"!ition to !e the #apital of the
9ingdo", and the support of it and of other to4ns !egan to !e 4orth
!u0ing !0 grants of lo#al go-ern"ent, "ore espe#iall0 as their
en#ourage"ent pro-ided another #he#9 on feudal "agnates. 7enr0, too,
"ade a great appeal to English senti"ent !0 "arr0ing Batilda, the
granddaughter of Ed"und Ironside, and !0 re-enging the !attle of
7astings through a #on5uest of *or"and0 fro" his !rother /o!ert,
effe#ted partl0 !0 English troops.
But the order, 4hi#h the three *or"an so-ereigns e-ol-ed out of #haos,
4as still due "ore to their personal -igour than to the strength of the
ad"inistrati-e "a#hiner0 4hi#h the0 sought to de-elop: and though that
"a#hiner0 #ontinued to 4or9 during the anar#h0 4hi#h follo4ed, it #ould
not restrain the feudal !arons, 4hen the #ro4n 4as disputed !et4een
7enr0<s daughter Batilda and his nephe4 tephen. The !arons, indeed,
had !een "ore su##essful in ri-eting their !aronial 0o9e on the people
than the 9ings had !een in ri-eting a "onar#hi#al 0o9e on the !arons:
and nothing "ore -i-idl0 illustrates the utter su!He#tion of Anglo,
a.ons than the fa#t that the #on5uerors #ould afford to tear ea#h
other to pie#es for nineteen 0ears E11+5115'F 4ithout the least
atte"pt on the part of their su!He#ts to thro4 off their t0rann0. There
4as no English nation 0et: ea#h feudal "agnate did 4hat he pleased 4ith
his o4n 4ithout fear of ro0al or popular -engean#e, and for on#e in
English histor0, at an0 rate, the lords -indi#ated their independen#e.
The #hur#h 4as the onl0 other !od0 4hi#h profited !0 the strife: 4ithin
its portals and its #ourts there 4as so"e la4 and order, so"e pea#e and
refuge fro" the 4orldl0 4elter: and it sei6ed the opportunit0 to
!roaden its Hurisdi#tion, "agnif0 its la4, e.alt its pri-ileges, and
assert that to it !elonged prin#ipall0 the right to ele#t and to depose
so-ereigns. =reater still 4ould ha-e !een its ser-i#es to #i-ili6ation,
had it !een a!le to assert a po4er of putting do4n the !arons fro"
their #astles and raising the peasantr0 fro" their !ondage.
Deli-eran#e #ould onl0 #o"e !0 ro0al po4er, and in 7enr0 II, Batilda<s
son, AnHou ga-e England a greater 9ing than *or"and0 had done in
8illia" the Bastard. Although a foreigner, 4ho ruled a -ast #ontinental
e"pire and spent !ut a fra#tion of his da0s on this side of the
Channel, he stands se#ond to none of England<s "a9ers. 7e fashioned the
go-ern"ent 4hi#h ha""ered together the fra"e4or9 of a national state.
First, he gathered up su#h frag"ents of ro0al authorit0 as sur-i-ed the
anar#h0: then, 4ith the #onser-ati-e instin#ts and preten#es of a
radi#al, he loo9ed a!out for pre#edents in the #usto"s of his
grandfather, pro#lai"ing his intention of restoring good old la4s. This
rea#tion !rought hi" up against the en#roa#h"ents of the #hur#h, and
the unto4ard in#ident of Be#9et<s "urder i"paired the su##ess of
7enr0<s efforts to esta!lish ro0al supre"a#0. But this supre"a#0 "ust
not !e e.aggerated. 7enr0 did not usurp e##lesiasti#al Hurisdi#tion: he
4anted to see that the #leri#al #ourts did their dut0: he #lai"ed the
po4er of "o-ing the" in this dire#tion: and he hoped to "a9e the #ro4n
the ar!iter of disputes !et4een the ri-al spiritual and te"poral
Hurisdi#tions, reali6ing that the onl0 alternati-e to this supre"e
authorit0 4as the ar!itra"ent of 4ar. 7e also #ontended that #lerg0 4ho
had !een unfro#9ed in the #leri#al #ourts for "urder or other #ri"es
should !e handed o-er as la0"en to !e further punished a##ording to the
la4 of the land, 4hile Be#9et "aintained that unfro#9ing 4as a
suffi#ient penalt0 for the first offen#e, and that it re5uired a se#ond
"urder to hang a for"er priest.
*e.t, he sought to #ur! the !arons. 7e instituted s#utage, !0 4hi#h the
great feudatories granted a "one0 pa0"ent instead of !ringing 4ith the"
to the ar"0 hordes of their su!,tenants 4ho "ight o!e0 the" rather than
the 9ing: this ena!led the 9ing to hire "er#enaries 4ho respe#ted hi"
!ut not the feudatories. 7e #ashiered all the sheriffs at on#e, to
e.plode their pretensions to hereditar0 tenure of their offi#e. B0 the
assi6e of ar"s he #alled the "ass of English"en to redress the "ilitar0
!alan#e !et4een the !arons and the #ro4n. B0 other assi6es he ena!led
the o4ners and possessors of propert0 to appeal to the prote#tion of
the ro0al #ourt of Husti#eC instead of trial !0 !attle the0 #ould
su!"it their #ase to a Hur0 of neigh!ours: and the 4eapons of the
"ilitar0 e.pert 4ere thus superseded !0 the -erdi#ts of pea#eful
#iti6ens.
This "ethod, 4hi#h 4as e.tended to #ri"inal as 4ell as #i-il #ases, of
as#ertaining the truth and de#iding disputes !0 "eans of Huratores, "en
s4orn to tell the truth i"partiall0, in-ol-ed a -ast edu#ational
pro#ess. 7itherto "en had regarded the as#ertain"ent of truth as a
supernatural tas9, and the0 had a!andoned it to &ro-iden#e or the
priests. Ea#h part0 to a dispute had !een re5uired to produ#e oath,
helpers or #o"purgators and ea#h #o"purgator<s oath 4as -alued
a##ording to his propert0, Hust as the nu"!er of a "an<s -otes is still
proportioned to so"e e.tent to his possessions. But if, as #o""onl0
happened, !oth parties produ#ed the re5uisite oath,helpers, there 4as
nothing for it !ut the ordeal !0 fire or 4ater: the "an 4ho san9 4as
inno#ent, he 4ho floated guilt0: and the onl0 rational ele"ent in the
ritual 4as its super-ision !0 the priests, 4ho 9ne4 so"ething of their
parishioners< #hara#ter. Bilitar0 tenants, ho4e-er, preferred their
pri-ilege of trial !0 !attle. *o4 7enr0 !egan to tea#h "en to rel0 upon
their Hudg"ent: and !0 degrees a distin#tion 4as e-en "ade !et4een
"urder and ho"i#ide, 4hi#h had hitherto !een #onfounded !e#ause 3the
thought of "an shall not !e tried, for the de-il hi"self 9no4eth not
the thought of "an.3
In order to #arr0 out his Hudi#ial refor"s, 7enr0 de-eloped the
curia regis, or ro0al #ourt of Husti#e. That #ourt had si"pl0
!een the #ourt of the 9ing<s !arons #orresponding to the #ourt of his
tenants 4hi#h e-er0 feudal lord possessed. Its finan#ial aspe#t had
alread0 !een spe#iali6ed as the e.#he5uer !0 the *or"an 9ings, 4ho had
reali6ed that finan#e is the first essential of effi#ient go-ern"ent.
Fro" finan#e 7enr0 I had gone on to the ad"inistration of Husti#e,
!e#ause justitia magnum emolumentum, the ad"inistration of
Husti#e is a great sour#e of profit. 7enr0 II<s 6eal for Husti#e sprang
fro" si"ilar "oti-esC the "ore Husti#e he #ould dra4 fro" the feudal
#ourts to his o4n, the greater the re-enue he 4ould di-ert fro" his
unrul0 !arons into the ro0al e.#he5uer. Fro" the #entral stores of the
curia regis he dispensed a Husti#e that 4as #heaper, "ore
e.peditious, and "ore e.pert, than that pro-ided !0 the lo#al #ourts.
7e thre4 open its doors to all e.#ept -illeins, he transfor"ed it fro"
an o##asional asse"!l0 of 4arli9e !arons into a regular #ourt of
trained la40ers?"ere ser-ants of the ro0al household, the !arons
#alled the": and !0 "eans of Husti#es in e0re he !rought it into tou#h
4ith all lo#alities in the 9ingdo", and #on-in#ed his people that there
4as a 9ing 4ho "eant to go-ern 4ith their help.
These e.perts had a free hand as regards the la4 the0 ad"inistered. The
old Anglo,a.on #usto"s 4hi#h had done dut0 for la4 had degenerated
into anti5uated for"alities, -ar0ing in al"ost e-er0 shire and hundred,
4hi#h 4ere perfor#e ignored !0 7enr0<s Hudges !e#ause the0 4ere
in#o"prehensi!le. o "u#h as the0 understood and appro-ed the0 !lended
4ith prin#iples dra4n fro" the re-i-ed stud0 of /o"an la4 and 4ith
Fran9ish and *or"an #usto"s. The legal rules thus ela!orated !0 the
9ing<s #ourt 4ere applied !0 the Husti#es in e0re 4here,e-er their
#ir#uits too9 the", and !e#a"e in ti"e the #o""on la4 of England,
#o""on !e#ause it ad"itted no lo#al !ars and no pro-in#ial preHudi#es.
>ne great stride had !een ta9en in the "a9ing of the English nation,
4hen the 9ing<s #ourt, trespassing upon lo#al popular and feudal
Hurisdi#tion, du"ped upon the Anglo,a.on "ar9et the follo4ing a"ong
other foreign legal #on#epts?assi6e, #ir#uit, suit, plaintiff,
defendant, "aintenan#e, li-er0, possession, propert0, pro!ate,
re#o-er0, trespass, treason, felon0, fine, #oroner, #ourt, in5uest,
Hudge, Hur0, Husti#e, -erdi#t, ta.ation, #harter, li!ert0,
representation, parlia"ent, and #onstitution. It is diffi#ult to o-er,
esti"ate the de!t the English people o4e to their po4ers of a!sor!ing
i"ports. The -er0 4at#h4ords of progress and #at#h4ords of li!ert0,
fro" the trial !0 Hur0 4hi#h 4as as#ri!ed to Alfred the =reat to the
#harter e.torted fro" ;ohn, 4ere alien i""igrants. 8e #all the" alien
!e#ause the0 4ere alien to the Anglo,a.ons: !ut the0 are the 4arp and
4oof of English institutions, 4hi#h are too great and too #o"ple. to
ha-e sprung fro" purel0 insular sour#es.
In spite of the fier#e opposition of the !arons, 4ho re!elled in 11%+,
and of disputes 4ith his fra#tious #hildren 4hi#h e"!ittered his
#losing 0ears, 7enr0 II had laid the foundations of national "onar#h0.
But in #o"pleting one part of the *or"an Con5uest, na"el0, the
esta!lish"ent of ro0al supre"a#0 o-er disorderl0 feudatories, he had
"odified the other, the ar!itrar0 rule of the !arons o-er the su!He#t
people. 8illia" had onl0 #on5uered the people !0 the help of his
!arons: 7enr0 II onl0 #rushed the !arons 4ith the help of lo4er orders
and of "inisters raised fro" the ran9s. It 4as left for his sons to
alienate the support 4hi#h he had enlisted, and to sho4 that, if the
first #ondition of progress 4as the restraint of the !arons, the se#ond
4as the #ur!ing of the #ro4n. Their reigns illustrate the ineradi#a!le
defe#t of ar!itrar0 ruleC a "onar#h of genius #reates an effi#ient
despotis", and is allo4ed to #reate it, to deal 4ith e-ils that 0ield
to no "ilder treat"ent. 7is su##essors pro#eed to use that "a#hiner0
for personal ends. /i#hard I gilded his a!use of his father<s po4er
4ith the glor0 of his #rusade, and the end afforded a plausi!le
Hustifi#ation for the "eans he adopted. But ;ohn #loa9ed his t0rann0
4ith no spe#ious preten#es: his greed and -iolen#e spared no se#tion of
the #o""unit0, and for#ed all into a #oalition 4hi#h e.torted fro" hi"
the =reat Charter.
This fa"ous do#u"ent !etra0s its #o"posite authorship: no se#tion of
the #o""unit0 entered the #oalition 4ithout so"ething to gain, and none
4ent entirel0 unre4arded fro" /unn0"ede. But if ir 7enr0 pel"an
introdu#ed feudalis" into England, his #onte"porar0, Chief,Husti#e
Co9e, in-ented Bagna CartaC and in -ie4 of the profound "is#on#eptions
4hi#h pre-ail 4ith regard to its #hara#ter, it is ne#essar0 to insist
rather upon its rea#tionar0 than upon its refor"ing ele"ents. The great
sour#e of error lies in the #hange 4hi#h is al4a0s insensi!l0, !ut
so"eti"es #o"pletel0, transfor"ing the "eaning of 4ords. =enerall0 the
#hange has !een fro" the #on#rete to the a!stra#t, !e#ause in their
earlier stages of edu#ation "en find it -er0 diffi#ult to grasp
an0thing 4hi#h is not #on#rete. The 4ord 3li!ert03 affords a good
illustrationC in 1$15 a 3li!ert03 4as the possession !0 a definite
person or group of persons of -er0 definite and tangi!le pri-ileges,
su#h as ha-ing a #ourt of 0our o4n 4ith its per5uisites, or e.e"ption
fro" the duties of attending the pu!li# #ourts of the shire or hundred,
of rendering the ser-i#es or of pa0ing the dues to 4hi#h the "aHorit0
4ere lia!le. The -alue of a 3li!ert03 4as that through its enHo0"ent
0ou 4ere not as other "en: the !arons 4ould ha-e eared little for
li!erties 4hi#h the0 had to share 4ith the #o""on herd. To the" li!ert0
"eant pri-ilege and "onopol0: it 4as not a general right to !e enHo0ed
in #o""on. *o4 Bagna Carta is a #harter not of 3li!ert0,3 !ut of
3li!erties3: it guaranteed to ea#h se#tion of the #oalition those
spe#ial pri-ileges 4hi#h 7enr0 II and his sons had threatened or ta9en
a4a0. o"e of these li!erties 4ere dangerous o!sta#les to the #o""on
4elfare?for instan#e the 3li!ert03 of e-er0 lord of the "anor to tr0
all suits relating to propert0 and possession in his o4n "anorial
#ourt, or to !e punished !0 his fello4,!arons instead of !0 the Hudges
of the 9ing<s #ourt. This 4as 4hat the !arons "eant !0 their fa"ous
de"and in Bagna Carta that e-er0 "an should !e Hudged !0 his peers:
the0 insisted that the ro0al Hudges 4ere not their peers, !ut onl0
ser-ants of the #ro4n, and their de"ands in these respe#ts 4ere
rea#tionar0 proposals 4hi#h "ight ha-e !een fatal to li!ert0 as 4e
#on#ei-e it.
*or is there an0thing a!out trial !0 Hur0 or 3no ta.ation 4ithout
representation3 in Bagna Carta. 8hat 4e "ean !0 3trial !0 Hur03 4as not
de-eloped till long after 1$15: there 4as still no national, !ut onl0
#lass ta.ation: and the great #oun#il, 4hi#h 4as to gi-e its assent to
ro0al de"ands for "one0, represented no!od0 !ut the tenants,in,#hief of
4ho" it 4as #o"posed. All that the !arons "eant !0 this #lause 4as that
the0, as feudal tenants,in,#hief, 4ere not to pa0 "ore than the
ordinar0 feudal dues. But the0 left to the 9ing, and the0 reser-ed to
the"sel-es, the right to tallage their -illeins as ar!itraril0 as the0
pleased: and e-en 4here the0 see" to !e prote#ting the -illeins, the0
are onl0 pre-enting the 9ing fro" le-0ing su#h Hudi#ial fines fro"
their -illeins as 4ould "a9e it i"possi!le for those -illeins to render
their ser-i#es to the lords. It 4as to !e no affair of the 9ing or
nation if a lord e.a#ted the utter"ost farthing fro" his o4n #hattels:
legall0, the -illeins, 4ho 4ere the !ul9 of the nation, re"ained after
Bagna Carta, as !efore, in the position of a "an<s o. or horse to,da0,
e.#ept that there 4as no la4 for the pre-ention of #ruelt0 to ani"als.
Finall0, the pro-ision that no one 4as to !e arrested until he had !een
#on-i#ted 4ould, if #arried out, ha-e "ade i"possi!le the
ad"inistration of Husti#e.
>n the other hand, the pro-isions for the fi.ing of the #ourt of #o""on
pleas at 8est"inster, for standard 4eights and "easures, for the
ad"inistration of la4 !0 "en a#5uainted 4ith English #usto"s, and so"e
others 4ere 4holeso"e refor"s. The first #lause, guaranteeing that the
#hur#h should !e free fro" ro0al Enot papalF en#roa#h"ents, 4as sound
enough 4hen ;ohn 4as 9ing, and the general restraint of his authorit0,
e-en in the interests of the !arons, 4as not an un"i.ed e-il. But it is
as a!surd to thin9 that ;ohn #on#eded "odern li!ert0 4hen he granted
the #harter of "edie-al li!erties, as to thin9 that he per"itted so"e
one to found a ne4 religion 4hen he li#ensed hi" to endo4 a ne4
religious house Enovam religionemF: and to regard Bagna Carta as
a great popular a#hie-e"ent, 4hen no -erna#ular -ersion of it is 9no4n
to ha-e e.isted !efore the si.teenth #entur0, and 4hen it #ontains
hardl0 a 4ord or an idea of popular English origin, in-ol-es #o"plete
"isunderstanding of its "eaning and a serious antedating of English
nationalit0.
At no ti"e, indeed, did foreign influen#e appear "ore do"inant in
English politi#s than during the generation 4hi#h sa4 /i#hard I
surrender his 9ingdo" to !e held as a fief of the e"pire, and ;ohn
surrender it to !e held as a te"poral fief of the papa#0: or 4hen, in
the reign of 7enr0 III, a papal legate, =ualo, ad"inistered England as
a pro-in#e of the &apal tates: 4hen a foreign free!ooter 4as sheriff
of si. English shires: and 4hen aliens held in their hands the #astles
and 9e0s of the 9ingdo". It 4as a dar9 hour 4hi#h pre#eded the da4n of
English nationalit0, and so far there 4as no sign of English
indignation at the !artering of England<s independen#e. /esistan#e
there 4as, !ut it #a"e fro" "en 4ho 4ere onl0 a degree less alien than
those 4hose do"ination the0 resented.
@et a go-erning #lass, planted !0 7enr0 II, 4as stri9ing root in
English soil and dra4ing nourish"ent and inspiration fro" English
feelings. It 4as reinfor#ed !0 ;ohn<s loss of *or"and0, 4hi#h #o"pelled
!i,national !arons 4ho held lands in !oth #ountries to #hoose !et4een
their Fren#h and English so-ereigns: and those 4ho preferred England
!e#a"e "ore English than the0 had !een !efore. The Fren#h in-asion of
England, 4hi#h follo4ed ;ohn<s repudiation of the #harter, 4idened the
#lea-age: and there 4as so"ething national, if little that 4as English,
in the go-ern"ent of 7u!ert de Burgh, and still "ore in the na-al
-i#tor0 4hi#h 7u!ert and the "en of the Cin5ue &orts 4on o-er the
Fren#h in the traits of Do-er in 1$1%. But not a -estige of national
feeling ani"ated 7enr0 III: and for t4ent0,fi-e 4eariso"e 0ears after
he had attained his "aHorit0 he stro-e to go-ern England !0 "eans of
alien relati-es and dependents.
The opposition offered !0 the great #oun#il 4as !aronial rather than
national: the re-olt in 4hi#h it ended 4as a re-olt of the half,!reeds
rather than a re-olt of the English: and the go-ern"ent the0
esta!lished in 1$5( 4as "erel0 a legali6ed for" of !aronial anar#h0.
But there 4as this differen#e !et4een the anar#h0 of tephen<s reign
and that of 7enr0 III<sC no4, 4hen the foreigners fell out, the English
!egan to #o"e !0 their o4n. A sort of 30oung England3 part0 fell foul
of !oth the !arons and the 9ing: i"on de Bontfort deta#hed hi"self
fro" the !aronial !rethren 4ith 4ho" he had a#ted, and !oldl0 pla#ed
hi"self at the head of a "o-e"ent for se#uring England for the English.
7e su""oned representati-es fro" #ities and !oroughs to sit side !0
side 4ith greater and lesser !arons in the great #oun#il of the real",
4hi#h no4 !e#a"e an English parlia"ent: and for the first ti"e sin#e
the *or"an Con5uest "en of the su!He#t ra#e 4ere #alled up to
deli!erate on national affairs. It does not "atter 4hether this 4as the
stro9e of a states"an<s genius or the lu#90 i"pro-isation of a part0,
leader. i"on fell, !ut his 4or9 re"ained: &rin#e Ed4ard, 4ho #opied
his ta#ti#s at E-esha", #opied his politi#s in 1$%5 and after4ards at
8est"inster: and under the first so-ereign sin#e the *or"an Con5uest
4ho !ore an English na"e, the English people re#ei-ed their national
li-er0 and the seisin of their inheritan#e.
Chapter ###
E+ergence of the English People
',-,&'./$
In 1$65, si"ultaneousl0 4ith the appearan#e of English to4nsfol9 in
parlia"ent, an offi#ial do#u"ent #ou#hed in the English tongue appeared
li9e a first pea9 a!o-e the su!siding flood of foreign language. 8hen,
three generations !a#9, A!!ot a"son had prea#hed English ser"ons, the0
4ere noted as e.#eptions: !ut no4 the -erna#ular language of the
su!He#t ra#e 4as for#ing its 4a0 into higher #ir#les, and e-en into
literar0 use. The upper #lasses 4ere learning English, and those 4hose
nor"al tongue 4as English 4ere thrusting the"sel-es into, or at an0
rate upon the noti#e of, the higher strata of so#iet0.
The t4o nor"al ran9s of feudal so#iet0 had in England naturall0 !een
Fren#h lords and English tillers of the soil: !ut #o""er#e had ne-er
a##o""odated itself to this agri#ultural s0ste", and the gro4th of
trade, of to4ns, of other for"s of 4ealth than land, tended
#on#urrentl0 to !rea9 do4n Fren#h and feudal do"ination. A large nu"!er
of to4ns had !een granted, or rather sold, #harters !0 /i#hard I and
;ohn, not !e#ause those "onar#hs 4ere interested in "uni#ipal
de-elop"ent, !ut !e#ause the0 4anted "one0, and in their rights of
Hurisdi#tion o-er to4ns on the ro0al do"ain the0 possessed a read0
"ar9eta!le #o""odit0. The !od0 4hi#h had the "eans to pa0 the 9ing<s
pri#e 4as generall0 the lo#al "er#hant guild: and 4hile these
transa#tions de-eloped lo#al go-ern"ent, the0 did not ne#essaril0
pro"ote popular self,go-ern"ent, !e#ause the "er#hant guild 4as a
4ealth0 oligar#hi#al !od0, and it "ight e.er#ise the Hurisdi#tion it
had !ought fro" the 9ing in 5uite as narro4 and harsh a spirit as he
had done. The #onse5uent 5uarrels !et4een to4n oligar#hies and to4n
de"o#ra#ies do not, ho4e-er, Hustif0 the #o""on assu"ption that there
had on#e !een an era of "uni#ipal de"o#ra#0 4hi#h graduall0 ga-e 4a0 to
oligar#h0 and #orruption. *e-ertheless, these lo#al !odies 4ere
English, and legall0 their "e"!ers had !een -illeins: and their
e.perien#e in lo#al go-ern"ent prepared the" for ad"ittan#e to that
share in national go-ern"ent 4hi#h the de-elop"ent of ta.ation "ade
al"ost ne#essar0.
7enr0 II<s s#he"e of a#ti-e and #o"prehensi-e ad"inistration, indeed,
led !0 a natural se5uen#e to the parlia"ent of Ed4ard I and further.
The "ore a go-ern"ent tries to do, the "ore ta.ation it "ust i"pose:
and the !roadening of the !asis of ta.ation led graduall0 to the
!roadening of the !asis of representation, for ta.ation is the "other
of representation. o long as real propert0 onl0?that is to sa0, the
o4nership of land?4as ta.ed, the great #oun#il #ontained onl0 the
great lando4ners. But 7enr0 II had found it ne#essar0 to ta. personalt0
as 4ell, !oth #leri#al and la0, and so !0 slo4 steps his su##essors in
the thirteenth #entur0 4ere dri-en to ad"it pa0ers of ta.es on
personalt0 to the great #oun#il. This representati-e s0ste" "ust not !e
regarded as a #on#ession to a popular de"and for national self,
go-ern"ent. 8hen in 1%11 a !enefi#ent British parlia"ent granted a
popular asse"!l0 to the Fren#h Canadians, the0 loo9ed as9an#e and
"uttered, 3C'est une machine anglaise pour nous taxer3: and
Ed4ard I<s people 4ould ha-e !een Hustified in entertaining the
suspi#ion that it 4as their "one0 he 4anted, not their ad-i#e, and
still less their #ontrol. 7e 4ished ta.es to !e -oted in the ro0al
pala#e at 8est"inster, Hust as 7enr0 I had insisted upon !ishops !eing
ele#ted in the ro0al #hapel. In the ro0al presen#e !urgesses and
9nights of the shire 4ould !e "ore li!eral 4ith their #onstituents<
"one0 than those #onstituents 4ould !e 4ith their o4n 4hen there 4ere
neigh!ours to en#ourage resistan#e to a "erel0 distant terror.
The representation people had enHo0ed in the shire and hundred "oots
had !een a !oon, not !e#ause it ena!led a fe4 pri-ileged persons to
attend, !ut !e#ause !0 their attendan#e the "ass 4ere ena!led to sta0
a4a0. If the lord or his ste4ard 4ould go in person, his attendan#e
e.e"pted all his tenants: if he 4ould not, the ree-e and four 3!est3
"en fro" ea#h to4nship had to go. The 3!est,3 "oreo-er, 4ere not #hosen
!0 ele#tion: the dut0 and !urden 4as atta#hed to the 3!est3 holdings in
the to4nship, and in the thirteenth #entur0 the sheriff 4as hard put to
it to se#ure an ade5uate representation. This 3suit of #ourt3 4as, in
fa#t, an o!ligator0 ser-i#e, and "e"!ership of parlia"ent 4as long
regarded in a si"ilar light. &arlia"ent did not #la"our to !e #reated:
it 4as for#ed !0 an enlightened "onar#h0 on a less enlightened people.
A parlia"entar0 3su""ons3 had the i"perati-e, "inator0 sound 4hi#h no4
onl0 atta#hes to its poli#e #ourt use: and #enturies later "e"!ers 4ere
o##asionall0 3!ound o-er3 to attend at 8est"inster, and prose#uted if
the0 failed. >n one o##asion the t4o 9nights for >.fordshire fled the
#ountr0 on hearing of their ele#tion, and 4ere pro#lai"ed outla4s.
Be"!ers of parlia"ent 4ere, in fa#t, the s#apegoats for the people, 4ho
4ere all 3intended3 or understood to !e present in parlia"ent, !ut
enHo0ed the pri-ilege of a!sen#e through representation. The greater
!arons ne-er se#ured this pri-ilege: the0 had to #o"e in person 4hen
su""oned, Hust as the0 had to ser-e in person 4hen the 9ing 4ent to the
4ars. =raduall0, of #ourse, this attitude to4ards representation
#hanged as parlia"ent grasped #ontrol of the pu!li# purse, and 4ith it
the po4er of ta.ing its foes and sparing its friends. In other than
finan#ial "atters it !egan to pa0 to !e a "e"!er: and then it suited
"agnates not onl0 to #o"e in person !ut to represent the people in the
Do4er 7ouse, the so#ial 5ualit0 of 4hi#h de-eloped 4ith the gro4th of
its po4er. >nl0 in -er0 re#ent ti"es has the 7ouse of Co""ons again
in#luded su#h representati-es as these 4hose na"es are ta9en fro" the
offi#ial returns for the parlia"ents of Ed4ard IC ;ohn the Ba9er,
8illia" the Tailor, Tho"as the u""oner, Andre4 the &iper, 8alter the
pi#er, /oger the Draper, /i#hard the D0er, 7enr0 the But#her, Durant
the Cord4ainer, ;ohn the Ta-erner, 8illia" the /ed of Bideford, Citi6en
/i#hard E/i#ardus Ci-isF, and 8illia" the priest<s son.
The appearan#e of e"an#ipated -illeins side !0 side 4ith earls and
prelates in the great #oun#il of the real" is the "ost signifi#ant fa#t
of thirteenth,#entur0 English histor0. The people of England 4ere
!eginning to ha-e a histor0 4hi#h 4as not "erel0 that of an alien
go-ern"ent: and their e"ergen#e is tra#ea!le not onl0 in language,
literature, and lo#al and national politi#s, !ut also in the art of
4ar. Ed4ard I dis#o-ered in his 8elsh 4ars that the long,!o4 4as "ore
effi#ient than the 4eapons of the 9night: and his grandson 4on English
-i#tories at Cre#0 and &oitiers 4ith a 4eapon 4hi#h 4as 4ithin the
rea#h of the si"ple 0eo"an. The dis#o-er0 of gunpo4der and de-elop"ent
of artiller0 soon pro-ed as fatal to the feudal #astle as the long,!o4
had to the "ailed 9night: and 4hen the feudal #lasses had lost their
predo"inan#e in the art of 4ar, and 4ith it their "onopol0 of the po4er
of prote#tion, !oth the reasons for their e.isten#e and their #apa#it0
to "aintain it 4ere under"ined. The0 too9 to trade, or, at least, to
"one0,"a9ing out of land, li9e ordinar0 #iti6ens, and thus entered into
a #o"petition in 4hi#h the0 had not the sa"e assuran#e of su##ess.
Ed4ard I<s greatness #onsists "ainl0 in his pra#ti#al appre#iation of
these tenden#ies. 7e 4as less original, !ut "ore fortunate in his
opportunit0, than 7enr0 II. The ti"e had #o"e to set li"its to the
en#roa#h"ents of feudalis" and of the #hur#h, and Ed4ard 4as a!le to
i"pose the" !e#ause, unli9e 7enr0 II, he had the ele"ents of a nation
at his !a#9. 7e 4as not a!le to s4eep !a#9 these inroads, !ut he pla#ed
high,4ater "ar9s along the frontiers of the state, and sa4 that the0
4ere not transgressed. 7e in5uired into the titles !0 4hi#h the great
lords held those portions of so-ereign authorit0 4hi#h the0 #alled
their li!erties: !ut he #ould ta9e no further a#tion 4hen Earl 8arenne
produ#ed a rust0 s4ord as his effe#ti-e title,deeds. 7e prohi!ited
further su!infeudation !0 ena#ting that 4hen an estate 4as sold, the
pur#haser should !e#o"e the -assal of the -endor<s lord and not of the
-endor hi"self: and the so#ial p0ra"id 4as thus rendered "ore sta!le,
!e#ause its !ase 4as !roadened instead of its height !eing in#reased.
7e e.pelled the ;e4s as aliens, in spite of their usefulness to the
#ro4n: he en#ouraged #o""er#e !0 "a9ing profits fro" land lia!le to
sei6ure for de!t: and he defined the Hurisdi#tion of the #hur#h, though
he had to lea-e it authorit0 o-er all "atters relating to "arriage,
4ills, perHur0, tithes, offen#es against the #lerg0, and e##lesiasti#al
!uildings. 7e su##eeded, ho4e-er, in defian#e of its opposition, in
"a9ing #hur#h propert0 lia!le to te"poral ta.ation, and in passing a
Bort"ain A#t 4hi#h prohi!ited the gi-ing of land to "onasteries or
other #orporations 4ithout the ro0al li#en#e.
B0 thus in#reasing the national #ontrol o-er the #hur#h in England, he
"ade the #hur#h itself "ore national. It is so"eti"es i"plied that the
#hur#h 4as e5uall0 national throughout the Biddle Ages: !ut it is
diffi#ult to spea9 of a national #hur#h !efore there 4as a nation, or
to see that there 4as an0thing reall0 English in a #hur#h ruled !0
Danfran# or Ansel", 4hen there 4as not an English"an on the !ishops<
!en#h, 4hen the -ast "aHorit0 of English"en 4ere legall0 in#apa!le as
-illeins of e-en ta9ing orders in the #hur#h, and 4hen the -erna#ular
language had !een ousted fro" its ser-i#es. But 4ith the English nation
gre4 an English #hur#h: =rosseteste denoun#ed the do"inan#e of aliens
in the #hur#h, 4hile i"on de Bontfort denoun#ed it in the state. It
4as, ho4e-er, !0 se#ular authorit0 that the English #hur#h 4as
differentiated fro" the #hur#h a!road. It 4as the !arons and not the
!ishops 4ho had resisted the assi"ilation of English to /o"an #anon
la4, and it 4as Ed4ard I, and not Ar#h!ishops &e#9ha" and 8in#hilse0,
4ho defied &ope Bonifa#e )III. Ar#h!ishops, indeed, still pla#ed their
allegian#e to the pope a!o-e that to their 9ing.
The sa"e sense of national and insular solidarit0 4hi#h led Ed4ard to
def0 the papa#0 also inspired his efforts to #on5uer 8ales and
#otland. Indeed, it 4as the refusal of the #hur#h to pa0 ta.es in the
#risis of the #ottish 4ar that pro-o9ed the 5uarrel 4ith Bonifa#e.
But, 4hile Ed4ard 4as su##essful in 8ales, he en#ountered in #otland a
gro4ing national spirit not altogether unli9e that upon 4hi#h Ed4ard
hi"self relied in England. *or 4as English patriotis" suffi#ientl0
de-eloped to #ountera#t the se#tional feelings 4hi#h too9 ad-antage of
the 9ing<s e"!arrass"ents. The 9ing<s ne#essit0 4as his su!He#ts<
opportunit0, and the Confir"ation of Charters e.torted fro" hi" in 1$1%
stands, it is said, to the =reat Charter of 1$15 in the relation of
su!stan#e to shado4, of a#hie-e"ent to pro"ise. Ed4ard, ho4e-er, ga-e
a4a0 "u#h less than has often !een i"agined: he #ertainl0 did not
a!andon his right to tallage the to4ns, and the lustre of his "otto,
3Aeep troth,3 is tarnished !0 his appli#ation to the pope for
a!solution fro" his pro"ises. till, he 4as a great 9ing 4ho ser-ed
England 4ell !0 his efforts to eli"inate feudalis" fro" the sphere of
go-ern"ent, and !0 his insisten#e on the do#trine that 4hat tou#hes all
should !e appro-ed !0 all. If to so"e #atholi# "edie-alists his reign
see"s a #li"a. in the as#ent of the English people, a #li"a. to !e
follo4ed !0 a prolonged re#essional, it is !e#ause the national for#es
4hi#h he fostered 4ere soon to "a9e irrepara!le !rea#hes in the
superfi#ial unit0 of Christendo".
The "isera!le reign of his 4orthless su##essor, Ed4ard II, illustrated
the i"portan#e of the personal fa#tor in the "onar#h0, and also sho4ed
ho4 in#apa!le the !arons 4ere of suppl0ing the pla#e of the fee!lest
9ing. Both parties failed !e#ause the0 too9 no a##ount of the #o""ons
of England or of national interests. The leading !aron, Tho"as of
Dan#aster, 4as e.e#uted: Ed4ard II 4as "urdered: and his assassin,
Borti"er, 4as put to death !0 Ed4ard III, 4ho grasped so"e of the
signifi#an#e of his grandfather<s su##ess and his father<s failure. 7e
felt the national i"pulse, !ut he t4isted it to ser-e a selfish and
d0nasti# end. It "ust not, ho4e-er, !e supposed that the 7undred @ears<
8ar originated in Ed4ard<s #lai" to the Fren#h throne: that #lai" 4as
in-ented to pro-ide a #oloura!le prete.t for Fren#h feudatories to
fight their so-ereign in a 4ar 4hi#h 4as due to other #auses. There 4as
#otland, for instan#e, 4hi#h Fran#e 4ished to sa-e fro" Ed4ard<s
#lut#hes: there 4ere the English possessions in =as#on0 and =uienne,
fro" 4hi#h the Fren#h 9ing hoped to oust his ri-al: there 4ere
!i#9erings a!out the lordship of the *arro4 eas 4hi#h England #lai"ed
under Ed4ard II: and there 4as the 4ool,"ar9et in the *etherlands 4hi#h
England 4anted to #ontrol. The Fren#h nation, in fa#t, 4as feeling its
feet as 4ell as the English: and a #ollision 4as onl0 natural,
espe#iall0 in =uienne and =as#on0. 7enr0 II had !een as natural a
so-ereign in Fran#e as in England, !e#ause he 4as 5uite as "u#h a
Fren#h"an as an English"an. But sin#e then the 9ings of England had
gro4n English, and their do"inion o-er soil 4hi#h 4as gro4ing Fren#h
!e#a"e "ore and "ore unnatural. The #lai" to the throne, ho4e-er, ga-e
the struggle a !itter and fruitless #hara#ter: and the national "eans,
4hi#h Ed4ard e"plo0ed to "aintain the 4ar, onl0 dela0ed its ine-ita!l0
futile end. It 4as supported !0 4ealth deri-ed fro" national #o""er#e
4ith Flanders and =as#on0: national ar"ies 4ere raised !0 enlist"ent to
repla#e the feudal le-0: the national long,!o4 and not the feudal 4ar,
horse 4on the !attles of Cre#0 and &oitiers: and #o""and of the sea
se#ured !0 a national na-0 ena!led Ed4ard to 4in the -i#tor0 of lu0s
and #o"plete the redu#tion of Calais. 8ar, "oreo-er, re5uired e.tra
supplies in unpre#edented a"ounts, and the0 too9 the for" of national
ta.es, -oted !0 the 7ouse of Co""ons, 4hi#h supple"ented and then
supplanted the feudal aids as the "ainsta0 of ro0al finan#e.
Control of these supplies !rought the 7ouse of Co""ons into
#onstitutional pro"inen#e. It 4as no "ere Third Estate after the
#ontinental "odel, for 9nights of the shire sat side !0 side 4ith
!urgesses and #iti6ens: and 9nights of the shire 4ere the lesser
!arons, 4ho, re#ei-ing no spe#ial 4rit of su""ons, #ast in their lot
4ith the Do4er and not 4ith the Gpper 7ouse. &arlia"ent had separated
into t4o 7ouses in the reign of Ed4ard II?for Ed4ard I<s Bodel
&arlia"ent had !een a ingle Cha"!er, though dou!tless it -oted !0
#lasses?!ut the 7ouse of Co""ons represented the communities of
the real", and not its lo4er orders: or rather, it #on#entrated all
these #o""unities?shires, #ities, and !oroughs?and 4elded the" into a
single #o""unit0 of the real". It thus #reated a nu#leus for national
feeling, 4hi#h graduall0 #ured the lo#alis" of earl0 England and the
se#tionalis" of feudal so#iet0: and it de-eloped an esprit de
corps 4hi#h #ountera#ted the influen#e of the #ourt. The ad-antages
4hi#h the #ro4n "a0 ha-e hoped to se#ure !0 !ringing representati-es up
to 8est"inster, and thus deta#hing the" fro" their !asis of lo#al
resistan#e, 4ere frustrated !0 the solidarit0 and #onsisten#0 4hi#h
gre4 up a"ong "e"!ers of parlia"ent: and this gro4ing national
#ons#iousness supplanted lo#al #ons#iousness as the safeguard of
#onstitutional li!ert0.
Bost of the prin#iples and e.pedients of representati-e go-ern"ent 4ere
adu"!rated during this first flush of English nationalis", 4hi#h has
!een #alled 3the age of the Co""ons.3 The petitions, !0 4hi#h alone
parlia"ent had !een a!le to e.press its grie-an#es, 4ere turned into
!ills 4hi#h the #ro4n had to ans4er, not e-asi-el0, !ut !0 a thinl0
-eiled 30es3 or 3no.3 The granting of ta.es 4as "ade #onditional upon
the redress of grie-an#es: the #ro4n finall0 lost its right to tallage:
and its po4ers of independent ta.ation 4ere restri#ted to the le-0ing
of the 3an#ient #usto"s3 upon dr0 goods and 4ines. If it re5uired "ore
than these and than the pro#eeds fro" the ro0al do"ains, ro0al
Hurisdi#tion, and di"inishing feudal aids, it had to appl0 to
parlia"ent. The e.pense of the 7undred @ears< 8ar rendered su#h
appli#ations fre5uent: and the0 4ere used !0 the Co""ons to in#rease
their #onstitutional po4er. Atte"pts 4ere "ade 4ith -ar0ing su##ess to
assert that the "inisters of the #ro4n, !oth lo#al and national, 4ere
responsi!le to parlia"ent, and that "one0,grants #ould onl0 originate
in the 7ouse of Co""ons, 4hi#h "ight appropriate ta.es to spe#ifi#
o!He#ts and audit a##ounts so as to see that the appropriation 4as
#arried out.
The gro4th of national feeling led also to li"itations of papal po4er.
Earl0 in Ed4ard III<s reign a #lai" 4as "ade that the 9ing, in -irtue
of his anointing at #oronation, #ould e.er#ise spiritual Hurisdi#tion,
and the statutes of Praemunire and Provisors prohi!ited the
e.er#ise in England of the pope<s po4ers of Hudi#ature and appoint"ent
to !enefi#es 4ithout the ro0al li#en#e, though ro0al #onni-an#e and
popular a#5uies#en#e ena!led the papa#0 to enHo0 these pri-ileges for
nearl0 t4o #enturies longer. *ational feeling 4as parti#ularl0 infla"ed
against the papa#0 !e#ause the 3Ba!0lonish #apti-it03 of the pope at
A-ignon "ade hi" appear an instru"ent in the hands of England<s ene"0,
the 9ing of Fran#e: and that #apti-it0 4as follo4ed !0 the 3=reat
#his",3 during 4hi#h the 5uarrels of t4o, and then three, popes,
si"ultaneousl0 #lai"ing to !e the onl0 head of the #hur#h on earth,
under"ined respe#t for their offi#e. These #ir#u"stan#es #o"!ined 4ith
the 4ealth and #orruption of the #hur#h to pro-o9e the Dollard
"o-e"ent, 4hi#h 4as the e##lesiasti#al aspe#t of the de"o#rati#
tenden#ies of the age.
>ne of the "ost stri9ing illustrations of popular de-elop"ent 4as the
de"and for -erna#ular -ersions of the #riptures, 4hi#h 80#liffe "et !0
his translation of the Bi!le. At the sa"e ti"e Dangland "ade literature
for the #o""on people out of their #o""on lot, a fa#t that #an hardl0
!e understood unless 4e re"e"!er that -illeins, although the0 "ight !e
fined !0 their lords for so doing, 4ere sending their sons in
in#reasing nu"!ers to s#hools, 4hi#h 4ere e-entuall0 thro4n open to
the" !0 the tatute of Da!ourers in 1'06. The fa#t that Chau#er 4rote
in English sho4s ho4 the popular tongue 4as !e#o"ing the language of
the #ourt and edu#ated #lasses. To4n #hroni#les and the re#ords of
guilds and #o"panies !egan to !e 4ritten in English: legal pro#eedings
are ta9en in the sa"e tongue, though the la4,reports #ontinued to !e
4ritten in Fren#h: and after a struggle !et4een Fren#h and Datin, e-en
the la4s are dra4n up in English. That the #hur#h persisted, naturall0
enough, in its usage of #atholi# Datin, tended to in#rease its
alienation fro" popular s0"pathies. 80#liffe represented this national
feeling 4hen he appealed to national authorit0 to refor" a #orrupt
Catholi# #hur#h, and 4hen he finall0 denied that po4er of "ira#ulous
transu!stantiation, upon 4hi#h ulti"atel0 4as !ased the #lai" of the
priesthood to spe#ial pri-ileges and esti"ation. But his asso#iation
4ith the e.tre"e for"s of so#ial agitation, 4hi#h a##o"panied the
Dollard "o-e"ent, is less #lear.
Before the end of Ed4ard III<s reign the Fren#h 4ar had produ#ed a #rop
of disgra#e, disorder, and dis#ontent. 7ea-0 ta.ation had not a-ailed
to retain the pro-in#es #eded to England at the Treat0 of Bretign0 in
1+60, and hordes of dis!anded soldier0 e.ploited the so#ial
disorgani6ation produ#ed !0 the Bla#9 Death: a third of the population
4as s4ept a4a0, and "an0 -illeins deserted their land to ta9e up the
"ore attra#ti-e la!our pro-ided in to4ns !0 gro4ing #rafts and
"anufa#tures. The lords tried !0 drasti# "easures to e.a#t the ser-i#es
fro" -illeins 4hi#h there 4ere not enough -illeins to perfor": and the
i"position of a poll,ta. 4as the signal for a #o"prehensi-e re-olt of
to4n artisans and agri#ultural la!ourers in 1+(1. Its failure did not
long i"pede their e"an#ipation, and the pro#ess of #o""uting ser-i#es
for rent see"s to ha-e gone on "ore rapidl0 in the first half of the
fifteenth than in the fourteenth #entur0. But the passionate prea#hing
of so#ial e5ualit0 4hi#h infla"ed the "inds of the insurgents produ#ed
no further results: in their e.isting #ondition of politi#al edu#ation,
the peasant and artisan had perfor#e to !e #ontent 4ith 4at#hing the
struggles of higher #lasses for po4er.
/i#hard II, 4ho had su##eeded his grandfather in 1+%%, reaped the
4hirl4ind of Ed4ard<s so4ing, not so "u#h in the #onse5uen#es of the
4ar as in the fruits of his peerage poli#0. The fourteenth #entur0
4hi#h nationali6ed the Co""ons, isolated the Dords: and the !aronage
shran9 into the peerage. The 4ord 3peer3 is not of English origin, nor
has it an0 real English "eaning. Its et0"ologi#al "eaning of 3e5ual3
does not #arr0 us -er0 far: for a peer "a0 !e e5ual to an0thing. But
the peers, #onsisting as the0 do of ar#h!ishops, du9es, "ar5uises,
earls, -is#ounts, !ishops, and !arons, of peers 4ho are lords of
parlia"ent and of peers 4ho are neither lords of parlia"ent nor
ele#tors to the 7ouse of Co""ons, are not e-en e5ual to one another:
and #ertainl0 the0 4ould den0 that other people 4ere e5ual to the". The
use of the 4ord in its "odern sense 4as !orro4ed fro" Fran#e in the
fourteenth #entur0: !ut in Fran#e it had a "eaning 4hi#h it #ould not
ha-e in England. A peer in Fran#e #lai"ed e5ualit0 4ith the #ro4n: that
is to sa0, he 4as the ruler of one of the great fiefs 4hi#h had !een
e5ual to the #ount0 of &aris 4hen the #ount of &aris had !een ele#ted
!0 his e5uals 9ing of Fran#e. If the 9ing of 8esse. had !een ele#ted
9ing of England !0 the other 9ings of the 7eptar#h0, and if those other
9ings had left su##essors, those su##essors "ight ha-e #lai"ed to !e
peers in a real sense. But the0 had no su#h pretensions: the0 4ere
si"pl0 greater !arons, 4ho had !een the tenants,at,4ill of their 9ing.
The !arons, ho4e-er, of 8illia" I or 7enr0 II had !een a large #lass of
#o"parati-el0 s"all "en, 4hile the peers of /i#hard II 4ere a s"all
#lass of !ig "en. The "ass of lesser !arons had !een separated fro" the
greater !arons, and had !een "erged in the landed gentr0 4ho 4ere
represented !0 the 9nights of the shire in the 7ouse of Co""ons. The
greater !arons 4ere su""oned !0 spe#ial and indi-idual 4rits to the
7ouse of Dords: !ut there 4as nothing to fetter the #ro4n in its issue
of these 4rits. The fa#t that a great !aron 4as su""oned on#e, did not
"ean that he need !e su""oned again, and the su""ons of the father did
not in-ol-e the su""ons of his eldest son and su##essor. But graduall0
the greater !arons "ade this su""ons hereditar0 and ro!!ed the #ro4n of
all dis#retion in the "atter, though it 4as not till the reign of
Charles I that the 7ouse of Dords de#ided in its o4n fa-our the
5uestion 4hether the #ro4n had the po4er to refuse a 4rit of su""ons to
a peer 4ho had on#e re#ei-ed one.
8ith this narro4ing of the !aronage, the !arons lost the position the0
had held in the thirteenth #entur0 as leaders of #onstitutional refor",
and this part 4as pla0ed in the fourteenth #entur0 !0 the 9nights of
the shire. The greater !arons de-oted the"sel-es rather to fa"il0 than
to national politi#s: and a s0ste" of !reeding,in a"alga"ated "an0
s"all houses into a fe4 great ones. Tho"as of Dan#aster held fi-e
earldo"s: he 4as the ri-al of Ed4ard II, and "ight 4ell !e #alled a
peer of the #ro4n. Ed4ard III, per#ei-ing the "ena#e of these great
houses to the #ro4n, tried to #apture the" in its interests !0 "eans of
"arriages !et4een his sons and great heiresses. The Bla#9 &rin#e
"arried the daughter of the Earl of Aent: Dionel !e#a"e Earl of Glster
in the right of his 4ife: ;ohn of =aunt "arried the heiress of
Dan#aster and !e#a"e Du9e of Dan#aster: Tho"as of 8oodsto#9 "arried the
heiress of the Bohuns, Earls of Esse. and of 7ereford: the des#endants
of Ed"und, Du9e of @or9, a!sor!ed the great ri-al house of Borti"er:
and other great houses 4ere !rought 4ithin the ro0al fa"il0 #ir#le. *e4
titles 4ere i"ported fro" a!road to e"phasi6e the ne4 dignit0 of the
greater !arons. 7itherto there had !een !arons onl0, and a fe4 earls
4hose dignit0 4as an offi#e: no4 !0 Ed4ard III and /i#hard II there
4ere added du9es, "ar5uises, and -is#ounts, and England "ight !oast of
a peerage nearl0, if not 5uite, as dangerous to the #ro4n as that of
Fran#e. For Ed4ard<s poli#0 failedC instead of se#uring the great
houses in the interests of the #ro4n, it degraded the #ro4n to the
arena of peerage ri-alries, and ulti"atel0 "ade it the pri6e of no!le
fa#tions.
/i#hard II 4as not the "an to deal 4ith these o-er,"ight0 su!He#ts. 7e
"a0 perhaps !e des#ri!ed as a 3*e43 "onar#h !orn !efore his ti"e. 7e
had so"e of the notions 4hi#h the Tudors su!se5uentl0 de-eloped 4ith
su##ess: !ut he had none of their po4er and self,#ontrol, and he 4as
fa#ed fro" his a##ession !0 a !and of insu!ordinate un#les. Boreo-er,
it needed the 8ars of the /oses finall0 to #on-in#e the #ountr0 of the
"eaning of the independen#e of the peerage. /i#hard fell a -i#ti" to
his o4n i"patien#e and their tur!ulen#e. 7enr0 I) #a"e to the throne as
the 9ing of the peers, and hardl0 "aintained his uneas0 #ro4n against
their ri-al a"!itions. The Co""ons, !0 #onstitutional refor", redu#ed
al"ost to insignifi#an#e a so-ereignt0 4hi#h the Dords #ould not
o-erthro4 !0 re!ellion: and !0 insisting that the 9ing should 3li-e of
his o4n,3 4ithout ta.ing the #ountr0, depri-ed hi" of the "eans of
orderl0 go-ern"ent. Their ideal #onstitution approa#hed so nearl0 to
anar#h0 that it is i"possi!le not to suspe#t #ollusion !et4een the" and
the Dords. The #hur#h alone #ould 7enr0 pla#ate !0 passing his statute
for !urning hereti#s.
7enr0 ) too9 refuge fro" this do"esti# i"!roglio in a spirited foreign
poli#0, and put for4ard a #lai" "ore hollo4 than Ed4ard III<s to the
throne of Fran#e. There 4ere te"ptations in the hopeless #ondition of
Fren#h affairs 4hi#h no one !ut a states"an #ould ha-e resisted: 7enr0,
a !rilliant soldier and a !igoted #hur#h"an, 4as an0thing !ut a
states"an: and the -alue of his #hur#h"anship "a0 !e gauged fro" the
fa#t that he assu"ed the insolen#e of a #rusader against a nation "ore
#atholi# than his o4n. 7e 4on a deplora!l0 splendid -i#tor0 at
Agin#ourt, "arried the Fren#h 9ing<s daughter, and 4as #ro4ned 9ing of
Fran#e. Then he died in 1'$$, lea-ing a son nine "onths old, 4ith
nothing !ut su##ess in the i"possi!le tas9 of su!duing Fran#e to sa-e
the Dan#astrian d0nast0 fro" the ne"esis of -aulting a"!ition a!road
and pro!le"s shel-ed at ho"e.
tep !0 step the #urse of 4ar #a"e ho"e to roost. 7enr0 )<s a!ler !ut
less !rilliant !rother, Bedford, ste""ed till his death the rising tide
of English fa#tion and Fren#h patriotis". Then the e.pulsion of the
English fro" Fran#e !egan, and a long tale of failure dis#redited the
go-ern"ent. The nation had spirit enough to resent defeat, !ut not the
"eans to a-oid it: and strife !et4een the pea#e part0 and the 4ar part0
in the go-ern"ent resol-ed itself into a fa#tion fight !et4een
Dan#astrians and @or9ists. The #onse5uent i"poten#e of the go-ern"ent
pro-o9ed a !astard feudal anar#h0, "aintained !0 hirelings instead of
liege"en. Do#al fa#tions fought 4ith no respe#t for the la4, 4hi#h 4as
ad"inistered, if at all, in the interests of one or other of the great
fa#tions at #ourt: and these t4o great fa#tions fostered and organi6ed
lo#al parties till the strife !et4een the" gre4 into the 8ars of the
/oses.
Those 4ars are perhaps the "ost pu66ling episode in English histor0.
The a#tion of an organi6ed go-ern"ent is #o"parati-el0 eas0 to follo4,
!ut it is i"possi!le to anal06e the politi#s of anar#h0. The @or9ist
#lai" to the throne 4as not the #ause of the 4ar: it 4as, li9e Ed4ard
III<s #lai" to the throne of Fran#e, "erel0 a "atter of ta#ti#s, and
4as onl0 pla0ed as a tru"p #ard. *o politi#al, #onstitutional, or
religious prin#iple 4as at sta9e: and the "ore pea#ea!le, organi6ed
parts of the #o""unit0 too9 little share in the struggle. *o great
!attle 4as fought south of the Tha"es, and no to4n stood a siege. It
loo9s as though the great "ilitar0 and feudal spe#ialists, 4hose po4er
la0 prin#ipall0 on the Borders, 4ere engaged in a final interne#ine
struggle for the #ontrol of England, in so"e4hat the sa"e 4a0 as the
>st"ar9 or East Border of the E"pire !e#a"e Austria, and the *ord"ar9
or *orth Border !e#a"e &russia, and in turn do"inated =er"an0.
Certainl0 the defeat of these for#es 4as a -i#tor0 for southern and
eastern England, and for the #o""er#ial and "ariti"e interests on 4hi#h
its gro4ing 4ealth and prosperit0 hung: and the "ost i"portant point in
the 4ars 4as not the triu"ph of Ed4ard I) o-er the Dan#astrians in
1'61, !ut his triu"ph o-er 8ar4i#9, the 9ing"a9er, ten 0ears later. The
*e4 Bonar#h0 has !een plausi!l0 dated fro" 1'%1: !ut Ed4ard I) had not
the politi#al genius to 4or9 out in detailed ad"inistration the results
of the -i#tor0 4hi#h he o4ed to his "ilitar0 s9ill, and /i#hard III,
4ho possessed the a!ilit0, "ade hi"self i"possi!le as a 9ing !0 the
#ri"es he had to #o""it in order to rea#h the throne. The
re#onstru#tion of English go-ern"ent on a !roader and fir"er national
!asis 4as therefore left to 7enr0 )II and the 7ouse of Tudor.
Chapter #0
The Progress of !ationalis+
'./$&')(1
England had passed through the Biddle Ages 4ithout gi-ing an0 sign of
the greatness 4hi#h a4aited its future de-elop"ent. Ed4ard III and
7enr0 ) had 4on te"porar0 reno4n in Fran#e, !ut English so-ereigns had
failed to su!Hugate the s"aller #ountries of #otland and Ireland,
4hi#h 4ere "ore i""ediatel0 their #on#ern. 80#liffe and Chau#er, 4ith
perhaps /oger Ba#on, are the onl0 English na"es of first i"portan#e in
the real"s of "edie-al thought and literature, unless 4e put Bede E6%+,
%+5F in the Biddle Ages: for insular genius does not see" to ha-e
flourished under e#u"eni#al inspiration: and e-en 80#liffe and Chau#er
"a0 !e #lai"ed as produ#ts of the national rather than of the #atholi#
spirit. But 4ith the transition fro" "edie-al to "odern histor0, the
#onditions 4ere altered in England<s fa-our. The geographi#al e.pansion
of Europe "ade the outposts of the >ld 8orld the entrepts for
the *e4: the de-elop"ent of na-igation and sea,po4er #hanged the o#ean
fro" the li"it into the lin9 of e"pires: and the gro4th of industr0 and
#o""er#e re-olutioni6ed the so#ial and finan#ial foundations of po4er.
*ational states 4ere for"ing: the state 4hi#h #ould !est adapt itself
to these #hanged and #hanging #onditions 4ould outdistan#e its ri-als:
and its #apa#it0 to adapt itself to the" 4ould largel0 depend on the
strength and fle.i!ilit0 of its national organi6ation. It 4as the
a#hie-e"ent of the *e4 Bonar#h0 to fashion this organi6ation, and to
res#ue the #ountr0 fro" an anar#h0 4hi#h had alread0 gi-en other po4ers
the start in the ra#e and pro"ised little su##ess for England.
7enr0 )II had to !egin in a 5uiet, unostentatious 4a0 4ith -er0 s#ant0
"aterials. 8ith a !ad title and "an0 pretenders, 4ith an e-il heritage
of so#ial disorder, he "ust ha-e !een sorel0 te"pted to indulge in the
heroi#s of 7enr0 ). 7e follo4ed a sounder !usiness poli#0, and his
reign is dull, !e#ause he ga-e pea#e and prosperit0 at ho"e 4ithout
fighting a !attle a!road. 7is foreign poli#0 4as di#tated !0 insular
interests regardless of personal glor0: and the se#urit0 of his 9ingdo"
and the trade of his people 4ere the ai"s of all his treaties 4ith
other po4ers. At ho"e he #arefull0 depressed the o-er,"ight0 su!He#ts
4ho had "ade the 8ars of the /oses: he 9ept do4n their nu"!er 4ith su#h
su##ess that he left !ehind hi" onl0 one English du9e and one English
"ar5uis: he li"ited their retainers, and restrained !0 "eans of the
tar Cha"!er their ha!its of "aintaining la4!rea9ers, pa#9ing Huries,
and inti"idating Hudges. B0 a #areful distri!ution of fines and
!ene-olen#es he filled his e.#he5uer 4ithout ta.ing the "ass of his
people: and !0 gi-ing offi#e to e##lesiasti#s and "en of hu"!le origin
he !oth se#ured #heaper and "ore effi#ient ad"inistration, and
esta!lished a #he#9 upon feudal influen#e. 7e 4as deter"ined that no
English"an should !uild an0 #astle 4alls o-er 4hi#h the English 9ing
#ould not loo9, and that, as far as possi!le, no pri-ate person should
possess a fran#hise in 4hi#h the 9ing<s 4rit did not run. 7e left to
his son, 7enr0 )III, a sta!le throne and a united 9ingdo".
The first half of 7enr0 )III<s reign left little "ar9 on English
histor0. 8olse0 pla0ed a !rilliant !ut essentiall0 futile part on the
diplo"ati# stage, 4here the ri-alr0 and !alan#e of for#es !et4een the
E"peror Charles ) and Fran#is I of Fran#e helped hi" to pose as the
ar!iter of Christendo". But he o!tained no per"anent national gains:
and the final result of his foreign poli#0 4as to "a9e the e"peror
"aster of the papa#0 at the "o"ent 4hen 7enr0 4anted the pope to annul
his "arriage 4ith the e"peror<s aunt, Catherine of Aragon. 7enr0
desired a son to su##eed hi" and to pre-ent the re#urren#e of d0nasti#
4ars: he had onl0 a daughter, Bar0, and no 4o"an had 0et ruled or
reigned in England. The death of all his "ale #hildren !0 Catherine
#on-in#ed hi" that his "arriage 4ith his de#eased !rother Arthur<s
4ido4 4as in-alid: and his passion for Anne Bole0n added 6est to his
suit for a di-or#e. The pope #ould not afford to 5uarrel 4ith Charles
), 4ho #ared little, indeed, for the #ause of his aunt, !ut "u#h for
his #ousin Bar0<s #lai" to the English throne: and in 15$1 7enr0 !egan
the pro#ess, #o"pleted in the a#ts of Annates, Appeals, and upre"a#0,
!0 4hi#h England se-ered its #onne.ion 4ith /o"e, and the 9ing !e#a"e
head of an English #hur#h.
It is irrational to pretend that so dura!le an a#hie-e"ent 4as due to
so transient a #ause as 7enr0<s passion for Anne Bole0n or desire for a
son: -aster, older, and "ore deepl0 seated for#es 4ere at 4or9. In one
sense the !rea#h 4as si"pl0 the e##lesiasti#al #onsu""ation of the
for#es 4hi#h had long !een "a9ing for national independen#e, and the
religious #o"ple"ent of the #hanges 4hi#h had e"an#ipated the English
state, language, and literature fro" foreign #ontrol.
The Catholi# #hur#h naturall0 resisted its disintegration, and the
se-eran#e 4as effe#ted !0 the se#ular ar"s of parlia"ent and the #ro4n.
The nationalis" of the English #hur#h 4as the result rather than the
#ause of the !rea#h 4ith /o"e, and its national #hara#teristi#s?
supre"e go-ernan#e !0 the 9ing, the disappearan#e of #os"opolitan
religious orders, the parlia"entar0 authori6ation of ser-i#es in the
-erna#ular, of English !oo9s of Co""on &ra0er, of English -ersions of
the Bi!le, and of the Thirt0,nine Arti#les?4ere all i"posed !0
parlia"ent after, and not adopted !0 the #hur#h !efore, the separation.
There 4ere, indeed, no legal "eans !0 4hi#h the #hur#h in England #ould
ha-e a##o"plished these things for itself: there 4ere the #on-o#ations
of Canter!ur0 and @or9, !ut these 4ere t4o su!ordinate pro-in#es of the
Catholi# #hur#h: and, 4hate-er "a0 !e said for pro-in#ial autono"0 in
the "edie-al #hur#h, the onl0 "ar9s of national autono"0 4ere sta"ped
upon it !0 the state. @or9 4as "ore independent of Canter!ur0 than
Canter!ur0 4as of /o"e: and the unit0 as 4ell as the independen#e of
the national #hur#h depends upon the #o""on su!He#tion of !oth its
pro-in#es to the #ro4n. This predo"inan#e of state o-er #hur#h 4as a
#onse5uen#e of its nationali6ation: for 4here the !oundaries of the t4o
#oin#ide, the state generall0 has the upper hand. The papa#0 4as onl0
"ade possi!le !0 the fall of the 8estern E"pire: in the Eastern E"pire
the state, so long as it sur-i-ed, #ontrolled the #hur#h: and the
independen#e of the "edie-al #hur#h 4as due to its #atholi#it0, 4hile
the state at !est 4as onl0 national. It 4as in defen#e of the
#atholi#it0, as opposed to the nationalis", of the #hur#h that Bore and
Fisher 4ent to the s#affold in 15+5, and nearl0 the 4hole !en#h of
!ishops 4as depri-ed in 1551. 7enr0 )III and Eli6a!eth 4ere !ent on
destro0ing the "edie-al dis#ord !et4een the Catholi# #hur#h and the
national state. Catholi#it0 had !ro9en do4n in the state 4ith the
de#line of the e"pire, and 4as fast !rea9ing do4n in the #hur#h:
nationalis" had triu"phed in the state, and 4as no4 to triu"ph in the
#hur#h.
In this respe#t the /efor"ation 4as the greatest a#hie-e"ent of the
national state, 4hi#h e"erged fro" the struggle 4ith no ri-al for its
o"ni#o"petent authorit0. Its despotis" 4as the predo"inant
#hara#teristi# of the #entur0, for the national state su##essfull0 rid
itself of the #he#9s i"posed, on the one hand !0 the Catholi# #hur#h,
and on the other !0 the feudal fran#hises. But the supre"a#0 4as not
e.#lusi-el0 ro0al: parlia"ent 4as the partner and a##o"pli#e of the
#ro4n. It 4as the 4eapon 4hi#h the Tudors e"plo0ed to pass A#ts of
Attainder against feudal "agnates and A#ts of upre"a#0 against the
#hur#h: and "en #o"plained that despoti# authorit0 had "erel0 !een
transferred fro" the pope to the 9ing, and infalli!ilit0 fro" the
#hur#h to parlia"ent. 3&arlia"ent,3 4rote an Eli6a!ethan states"an,
3esta!lisheth for"s of religion....3
But 4hile English"en on the 4hole 4ere prett0 4ell agreed that foreign
Hurisdi#tion 4as to !e eli"inated, and that English"en 4ere to !e
organi6ed in one !od0, se#ular and spiritual, 4hi#h "ight !e #alled
indifferentl0 a state,#hur#h or a #hur#h,state, there 4as "u#h "ore
differen#e of opinion 4ith regard to its theologi#al #o"ple.ion. It
"ight !e Catholi# or it "ight !e &rotestant in do#trine: and it 4as far
"ore diffi#ult to sol-e this religious pro!le" than to effe#t the
se-eran#e fro" /o"e. There 4ere, indeed, "an0 #urrents in the strea",
so"e of the" #ross,#urrents, so"e politi#al, so"e religious, !ut all
"ingling i"per#epti!l0 4ith one another. The re-olt of the nation
against a foreign authorit0 is the "ost easil0 distinguished of these
tenden#ies: another is the re-olt of the lait0 against the #leri#al
spe#ialist. The #hur#h, it "ust !e re"e"!ered, 4as often regarded as
#onsisting not of the 4hole !od0 of the faithful, !ut si"pl0 of the
#lerg0, 4ho #ontinued to #lai" a "onopol0 of its pri-ileges after the0
had #eased to enHo0 a "onopol0 of its intelligen#e and -irtue. The
/enaissan#e had !een a ne4 !irth of se#ular learning, not a re-i-al of
#leri#al learning. >thers !esides the #lerg0 #ould no4 read and 4rite
and understand: to4n #hroni#les too9 the pla#e of "onasti# #hroni#les,
se#ular poets of di-ines: and a "iddle #lass that 4as gro4ing in 4ealth
and intelligen#e gre4 also as i"patient of #leri#al as it had done of
"ilitar0 spe#ialists. The essential feature of the refor"ed ser-i#es
4as that the0 4ere #o"piled in the #o""on tongue and not in the Datin
of e##lesiasti#al e.perts, that a Boo9 of Common &ra0er 4as used,
that #ongregational psal",singing repla#ed the sa#erdotal solo,
and a #o""union 4as su!stituted for a priestl0 "ira#le. /eligious
ser-i#e 4as to !e so"ething rendered !0 the people the"sel-es, and not
perfor"ed for their !enefit !0 the priest.
Indi-idual parti#ipation and pri-ate Hudg"ent in religion 4ere indeed
the essen#e of &rotestantis", 4hi#h 4as largel0 the religious aspe#t of
the re-olt of the indi-idual against the #olle#ti-is" of the Biddle
Ages. The #ontrol e.er#ised !0 the #hur#h had, ho4e-er, !een less the
e.pression of the general 4ill than the dis#ipline !0 authorit0 of
"asses too illiterate to thin9 for the"sel-es. Attendan#e at pu!li#
4orship 4ould ne#essaril0 !e their onl0 for" of de-otion. But the
general e"an#ipation of ser-ile #lasses and spread of intelligen#e !0
the /enaissan#e had led to a de"and for -erna#ular -ersions of the
#riptures and to a great deal of pri-ate and fa"il0 religious
e.er#ise, 4ithout 4hi#h there #ould ha-e !een no &rotestant
/efor"ation. Dollard0, 4hi#h 4as a -iolent out!urst of this do"esti#
piet0, 4as ne-er #o"pletel0 suppressed: and it fla"ed out afresh 4hen
on#e politi#al reasons, 4hi#h had led the Dan#astrians to support the
#hur#h, indu#ed the Tudors to atta#9 it.
Bost spiritual of all the fa#tors in the /efor"ation 4as the slo4 and
partial e"an#ipation of "en<s "inds fro" the "aterialis" of the Biddle
Ages. It "a0 see" !old, in fa#e of the -ast se#ulari6ation of #hur#h
propert0 and other things in the si.teenth #entur0, to spea9 of
e"an#ipation fro" "aterialis". *e-ertheless, there 4as a distin#t step
in the progress of "en<s "inds fro" that pri"iti-e #ondition of
intelligen#e in 4hi#h the0 #an onl0 grasp "aterial s0"!ols of the real
#on#eption. /udi"entar0 Hurispruden#e had #onfessed its ina!ilit0 to
penetrate "en<s thoughts and differentiate their a#tions a##ording to
their "oti-es: there had !een a ti"e 4hen possession had see"ed "ore
real than propert0, and 4hen the transferen#e of a right 4as
in#o"prehensi!le 4ithout the transferen#e of its #on#rete s0"!ols.
There #ould !e no gift 4ithout its "anual #on-e0an#e, no "arriage
4ithout a ring, no 9ing 4ithout a #oronation. Ban0 of these "aterial
s4addling,#lothes re"ain and ha-e their -alue. A national flag
sti"ulates lo0alt0, gold la#e helps the #ause of dis#ipline. Bishop
=ardiner, in the si.teenth #entur0, defended i"ages on the ground that
the0 4ere do#u"ents all #ould read, 4hile fe4 #ould read the
#riptures. To uni"aginati-e "en there #ould !e no priest 4ithout
-est"ents, no 4orship 4ithout ritual, no #o""union of the pirit
4ithout the presen#e of the Bod0, no te"ple not "ade 4ith hands, no =od
4ithout an i"age. To !rea9 the i"age, to a!olish the -est"ents and the
ritual, to den0 the transu!stantiation, 4as to destro0 the religion and
re-eren#e of the "asses, 4ho #ould onl0 grasp "atter and 4orship 4ith
their senses.
&rotestantis" 4as, therefore, not a popular religion, and to thousands
of edu#ated "en it did not appeal. Fe4 people are so i""aterialisti#
that the0 #an dispense 4ith s0"!ols: "an0 #an ideali6e s0"!ols in 4hi#h
others see nothing !ut "atter: and onl0 those de-oid of artisti#
per#eption den0 the religious -alue of s#ulpture, painting, and "usi#.
&rotestantis" "ight !e an ideal religion if "en 4ere #o"pounded of pure
reason: !eing 4hat the0 4ere, "an0 adopted it !e#ause the0 4ere
i"per-ious to artisti# influen#e or i"patient of spiritual dis#ipline.
It 4ill hardl0 do to di-ide the nation into intelligent &rotestants and
illiterate Catholi#sC the point is that the so"e4hat #rude s0"!olis"
4hi#h had satisfied the #ra-ings of the a-erage "an had #eased to !e
suffi#ient for his ne4er intelligent needs: he de"anded either a higher
s0"!olis" or else as little as possi!le. o"e felt the s0"!ol a help,
others felt it a hindran#e to the reali6ation of the ideal: so so"e "en
#an see !etter 4ith, others 4ithout, spe#ta#les, !ut that fa#t 4ould
hardl0 Hustif0 their a!olition.
7enr0 )III #onfined his s0"pathies to the re-olt of the nation against
/o"e and the re-olt of the lait0 against the priests. The for"er he
used to "a9e hi"self upre"e 7ead of the #hur#h, the latter to su!due
#on-o#ation and despoil the "onasteries. All #i-ili6ed #ountries ha-e
found it e.pedient sooner or later to follo4 his e.a"ple 4ith regard to
"onasti# 4ealth: and there #an !e little dou!t that the 4ithholding of
so "u#h land and so "an0 "en and 4o"en fro" produ#ti-e purposes i"peded
the "aterial prosperit0 of the nation. But the de-otion of the pro#eeds
to the foundation of pri-ate fa"ilies, instead of to edu#ational
endo4"ent, #an onl0 !e e.plained and not e.#used !0 the e.igen#ies of
politi#al ta#ti#s. 7is real ser-i#es 4ere politi#al, not religious. 7e
taught England a good deal of her insular #onfiden#e: he pro#lai"ed the
indi-isi!le and indisputa!le so-ereignt0 of the #ro4n in parlia"ent: he
not onl0 in#orporated 8ales and the #ount0 palatine of Chester 4ith
England, and !egan the English re,organi6ation of Ireland, !ut he
united England north 4ith England south of the 7u"!er, and #onsolidated
the Borders, those fra0ed edges of the national state. 7e #arried on
the 4or9 of 7enr0 II and Ed4ard I, and !0 su!duing ri-al Hurisdi#tions
sta"ped a final unit0 on the fra"e4or9 of the go-ern"ent.
The ad-isers of Ed4ard )I e"!ar9ed on the "ore diffi#ult tas9 of "a9ing
this organi6ation &rotestant: and the haste 4ith 4hi#h the0, and
espe#iall0 *orthu"!erland, pressed on the #hange pro-o9ed first
re!ellion in 15'1 and then rea#tion under Bar0. The0 4ere also
#onfronted 4ith so#ial dis#ontent arising out of the general
su!stitution of #o"petition for #usto" as the ruling e#ono"i#
prin#iple. Capital a"assed in trade 4as applied to land, 4hi#h !egan to
!e treated as a sour#e of "one0, not a sour#e of "en. Dand held in
se-eralt0 4as found "ore profita!le than land held in #o""on, large
estates than s"all holdings, and 4ool,gro4ing than #orn,gro4ing. "all
tenants 4ere e-i#ted, s"all holdings #onsolidated, #o""ons en#losed,
and ara!le land #on-erted to pasture. The "ass of the agri#ultural
population !e#a"e "ere la!ourers 4ithout rights of propert0 on the soil
the0 tilled: thousands lost e"plo0"ent and s4elled the ran9s of sturd0
!eggars: and sporadi# disorder #a"e to a head in Aett<s re!ellion in
*orfol9 in 15'1, 4hi#h 4as 4ith diffi#ult0 suppressed. But e-en this
highhanded e.propriation of peasants !0 their landlords sti"ulated
national de-elop"ent. It #reated a -agrant "o!ile "ass of la!our, 4hi#h
helped to "eet the de"ands of ne4 industrial "ar9ets and to feed
English o-ersea enterprise. A ra#e that sti#9s li9e a li"pet to the
soil "a0 !e happ0 !ut #annot !e great: and the eHe#tion of English
peasants fro" their ho"esteads sa-ed the" fro" the reproa#h of ho"e,
9eeping 0ouths that the0 ha-e e-er ho"el0 4its.
Bar0<s reign, ho4e-er, #he#9ed the national i"pulse to4ards e.pansion,
and thrust England for the "o"ent !a#9 into the Biddle Ages. First she
put herself and her 9ingdo" under the aegis of pain, to 4hi#h in heart
and "ind she !elonged, !0 "arr0ing &hilip II. Then 4ith his assistan#e
she restored the papal Hurisdi#tion, and England surrendered its
national independen#e. Those 4ho repudiated their foreign Hurisdi#tion
4ere naturall0 treated as #ontu"a#ious !0 the papal #ourts in England
and sent to the sta9e: and English ad-enturers 4ere prohi!ited, in the
interests of pain and &ortugal, fro" trespassing in the *e4 8orld.
Finall0 England 4as plunged into 4ar 4ith Fran#e in order to help
&hilip, and lost Calais for its pains. Bar0<s reign sho4ed that in a
so-ereign good intentions and upright #on-ersation e.aggerate rather
than redee" the e-il effe#ts of !igotr0 and !lindness. he had,
ho4e-er, "ade it i"possi!le for an0 su##essor to perpetuate in England
the /o"an Hurisdi#tion and the patronage of pain.
Eli6a!eth 4as a so-ereign "ore purel0 British in !lood than an0 other
sin#e the *or"an Con5uest: and to her appropriatel0 fell the tas9 of
#o"pleting her #ountr0<s national independen#e. 7enr0 )III<s A#t of
upre"a#0 and Ed4ard )I<s of Gnifor"it0 4ere restored 4ith so"e
"odifi#ations, in spite of the opposition of the Catholi# !ishops, 4ho
#ontended that a nation had no right to deal independentl0 4ith
e##lesiasti#al "atters, and suffered depri-ation and i"prison"ent
rather than re#ogni6e a s#his"ati# national #hur#h. Eli6a!eth reHe#ted
&hilip<s offers of "arriage and paid no heed to his #ounsels of state.
he s#andali6ed Catholi# Europe !0 assisting the re-olted #ots to
e.pel the Fren#h fro" *orth Britain: and re-enged the #onte"pt, in
4hi#h England had !een held in Bar0<s reign, !0 supporting 4ith
i"punit0 the Dut#h against &hilip II and the 7uguenots against the 9ing
of Fran#e. he #on#ealed her aggressions 4ith diplo"ati# artifi#e and
#aution: !ut at heart she 4as 4ith her people, 4ho lost no opportunit0,
in their ne4,found #onfiden#e, of plundering and insulting the Catholi#
po4ers in their 4a0.
The astonishing su##ess of England a"id the no-el #onditions of
national ri-alr0 re5uires so"e atte"pt at e.planation. It see"s to ha-e
!een due to the singular fle.i!ilit0 of the English #hara#ter and
national s0ste", and to the #onse5uent ease 4ith 4hi#h the0 adapted
the"sel-es to #hanging en-iron"ent. Indeed, 4hate-er "a0 !e the #ase at
present, a sur-e0 of English histor0 suggests that the #on-entional
stolidit0 as#ri!ed to ;ohn Bull 4as the least o!-ious of his
#hara#teristi#s: and e-en to,da0 the onl0 people 4ho ne-er #hange their
"ind at general ele#tions are the "er#urial Celts. Certainl0 England
has ne-er suffered fro" that rigidit0 of so#ial s0ste" 4hi#h has
ha"pered in the past the adapta!ilit0 of its ri-als. E-en in feudal
ti"es there 4as little la4 a!out status: and 4hen the #usto"ar0
arrange"ent of so#iet0 in t4o agri#ultural #lasses of landlord and
tenant 4as "odified !0 #o""er#e, #apitalis", and #o"petition, no!les
adapted the"sel-es to the #hange 4ith so"e fa#ilit0. The0 too9 to
sheep,far"ing and #o""er#ial spe#ulations, Hust as later on the0 too9
to 9eeping dair0,shops. It is the s"allness rather than the sour#e of
his profits that e.#ites so#ial preHudi#e against the shop9eeper in
England. >n the Continent, ho4e-er, #lass feeling pre-ented the
go-erning #lasses fro" parti#ipating in the e.pansion of #o""er#e.
=er"an !arons, for instan#e, often 4ith onl0 a fe4 florins a 0ear
in#o"e, #ould not supple"ent it !0 trade: all the0 #ould do 4as to ro!
the traders, ro!!er0 !eing a thoroughl0 genteel o##upation. 7en#e
foreign go-ern"ents 4ere, as a rule, less ali-e and less responsi-e to
the #o""er#ial interests of their su!He#ts. &hilip II tra"pled on
#o""er#ial opinion in a 4a0 no English so-ereign #ould ha-e done.
Indeed, #o"plaints 4ere raised in England at the e.tent to 4hi#h the
#o""er#ial #lasses had the ear of parlia"ent and the #ro4n: sin#e the
a##ession of 7enr0 )III, it 4as said in 1551, the0 had su##eeded !0
their se#ret influen#e in pro#uring the reHe#tion of e-er0 !ill the0
thought inHurious to their interests.
There 4as no feeling of #aste to o!stru#t the effi#ien#0 of English
ad"inistration. The no!ilit0 4ere separated fro" the nation !0 no fi.ed
line: there ne-er 4as in England a no!ilit0 of !lood, for all the sons
of a no!le e.#ept the eldest 4ere #o""oners. And 4hile the0 4ere
#onstantl0 sin9ing into the "ass of the nation, #o""oners fre5uentl0
rose to the ran9 of no!ilit0. Before the end of the fourteenth #entur0
4ealth deri-ed fro" trade had !e#o"e an a-enue to the 7ouse of Dords.
The Husti#es of the pea#e, on 4ho" the Tudors relied for lo#al
ad"inistration, 4ere largel0 des#ended fro" su##essful #it0 "en 4ho
had, li9e the 8alsingha"s, planted the"sel-es out in the #ountr0: and
Eli6a!eth herself 4as great,great,granddaughter of a Dondon "a0or. This
so#ial elasti#it0 ena!led the go-ern"ent to a-ail itself of a!le "en of
all #lasses, and the effi#ien#0 of Tudor ad"inistration 4as "ainl0 due
to these re#ruits, 4hose genius 4ould ha-e !een else4here negle#ted.
Further, it pro-ided the go-ern"ent 4ith agents pe#uliarl0 fitted !0
training and 9no4ledge to deal 4ith the #o""er#ial pro!le"s 4hi#h 4ere
!eginning to fill so large a sphere in politi#s: and finall0, it
rendered the go-ern"ent singularl0 responsi-e to the pu!li# opinion of
the #lasses upon 4hose 4elfare depended the e.pansion of England.
English"en li9e4ise too9 to the sea, 4hen the sea !e#a"e all,i"portant,
as readil0 as the0 too9 to trade. English #o""and of the *arro4 eas
had laid Fran#e open to the in-asions of Ed4ard III and 7enr0 ), and
had #he#9ed the tide of Fren#h re#on5uest !efore the 4alls of Calais.
English pira#0 in the Channel 4as notorious in the fifteenth #entur0,
and in the si.teenth it attained patrioti# proportions. 7enr0 )II had
en#ouraged Ca!ot<s -o0age to *e4foundland, !ut the papal partition of
ne4,found lands !et4een pain and &ortugal !arred to England the door
of legiti"ate, pea#eful e.pansion: and there #an !e little dou!t that
this prohi!ition "ade "an0 #on-erts to &rotestantis" a"ong English
seafaring fol9. E-en Bar0 #ould not pre-ent her su!He#ts fro" pre0ing
on panish and &ortuguese #o""er#e and #olonies: and 4ith Eli6a!eth<s
a##ession pre0ing gre4 into a national pasti"e. 7a49ins !ro9e into
panish "onopol0 in the 8est Indies, Dra9e !urst into their &a#ifi#
preser-es, and #ir#u"-ented their defen#es: and a host of follo4ers
plundered nearl0 e-er0 panish and &ortuguese #olon0.
At last &hilip 4as pro-o9ed into a na-al 4ar for 4hi#h the English 4ere
and he 4as not prepared. panish rigidit0 e"!ra#ed the panish "arine
as 4ell as panish theolog0. Clinging to Bediterranean and "edie-al
traditions, pain had failed to reali6e the #onditions of sea,po4er or
na-al ta#ti#s. England, on the other hand, had, largel0 under the
inspiration of 7enr0 )III, adapted its na-0 to o#eani# purposes. A t0pe
of -essel had !een e-ol-ed #apa!le of #rossing the o#ean, of
"anoeu-ring and of fighting under sail: to Dra9e the ship had !e#o"e
the fighting unit, to the Du9e of Bedina idonia a ship 4as si"pl0 a
-ehi#le for soldiers, and a sea,fight 4as si"pl0 a land,fight on sea.
The #ro4ning illustration of pain<s in#apa#it0 to adapt itself to ne4
#onditions is perhaps the fa#t that onl0 a "ar5uis or du9e #ould !e
"ade a panish ad"iral.
England had disposed of si"ilar #lai"s to politi#al and "ilitar0
authorit0 in 1561, 4hen "edie-al feudalis" "ade its last !id for the
#ontrol of English poli#0. For ten 0ears Eli6a!eth had !een guided !0
ir 8illia" Ce#il, a t0pi#al 3ne4 "an3 of Tudor "a9ing, 4ho hoped to
4ean the #o""on people fro" dependen#e upon their lords, and to
#o"plete the destru#tion of feudal pri-ileges 4hi#h still i"peded the
a#tion of national so-ereignt0. The flight of Bar0 Iueen of #ots into
England in 156( pro-ided a fo#us for no!le dis#ontent 4ith Ce#il<s
rule, and the northern earls re!elled in 1561. The re!ellion 4as easil0
suppressed, !ut its failure did not deter the Du9e of *orfol9, the
earls< a##o"pli#e, fro" Hoining /idolfi<s plot 4ith si"ilar ends. 7e
4as !rought to the !lo#9 in 15%$, and in hi" perished the last
sur-i-ing English du9e. For "ore than half a #entur0 England had to do
its !est?defeat the panish Ar"ada, #on5uer Ireland, #ir#u"na-igate
the glo!e, la0 the foundations of e"pire, produ#e the literature of the
Eli6a!ethan age?4ithout an0 du#al assistan#e. It 4as left for ;a"es I,
4ho also #reated the ran9 of !aronet in order to sell the title E1611F,
to re-i-e the glories of du#al dignit0 in the persons of Dudo-i#
tuart, Du9e of /i#h"ond, and =eorge )illiers, Du9e of Bu#9ingha"
E16$+F.
Ce#il<s drasti# "ethods of dealing 4ith the opposition lords left the
door of go-ern"ent open to "en li9e 8alsingha", 4ho 4ere deter"ined to
gi-e full pla0 to the ne4 for#es in English politi#s. Dis#ontented
rea#tionaries 4ere redu#ed to i"potent silen#e, or dri-en a!road to
side openl0 4ith the ene"0. &ius )<s !ull e.#o""uni#ating and deposing
Eli6a!eth E15%0F shattered in a si"ilar 4a0 the old Catholi# part0. The
"aHorit0 a#5uies#ed in the national religion: the e.tre"ists fled to
!e#o"e #onspirators at foreign #ourts or ;esuit and "issionar0 priests.
The antagonis" !et4een England and pain in the *e4 8orld did "ore,
perhaps, than panish Catholi#is" to "a9e &hilip the natural patron of
these e.iles and of their plots against the English go-ern"ent: and as
pain and England dre4 apart, England and Fran#e dre4 together. In 15%$
a defensi-e allian#e 4as for"ed !et4een the", and there see"ed a
prospe#t of their #o,operation to dri-e the paniards out of the
*etherlands. But Catholi# Fran#e resented this 7uguenot poli#0, and the
"assa#re of t. Bartholo"e4 put a -iolent end to the s#he"e, 4hile
Eli6a!eth and &hilip pat#hed up a tru#e for so"e 0ears. There #ould,
ho4e-er, !e no per"anent #o"pro"ise, on the one hand, !et4een panish
e.#lusi-eness and the deter"ination of English"en to for#e open the
door of the *e4 8orld and, on the other, !et4een English nationalis"
and the papal resol-e to re#on5uer England for the Catholi# #hur#h.
&hilip "ade #o""on #ause 4ith the papa#0 and 4ith its British #ha"pion,
Bar0 Iueen of #ots, 4hile English"en "ade #o""on #ause 4ith &hilip<s
re-olted su!He#ts in the *etherlands. The a#5uisition of &ortugal, its
fleet, and its #olonial e"pire !0 &hilip in 15(0, the assassination of
8illia" of >range in 15(', and the -i#tories of Ale.ander of &ar"a in
the *etherlands for#ed Eli6a!eth into de#isi-e a#tion. The Dut#h 4ere
ta9en under her 4ing, a national e.pedition led !0 Dra9e paral06ed
panish do"inion in the 8est Indies in 15(5 and then destro0ed &hilip<s
fleet at Cadi6 in 15(%, and the Iueen of #ots 4as e.e#uted.
At last &hilip atte"pted a tard0 retaliation 4ith the panish Ar"ada.
Its na-al ineffi#ien#0 4as "at#hed !0 politi#al "is#al#ulations. &hilip
ne-er i"agined that a united England #ould !e #on5uered: !ut he
la!oured under the delusion, spread !0 English Catholi# e.iles, that
the "aHorit0 of the English people onl0 a4aited a signal to rise
against their 5ueen. 8hen this delusion 4as e.ploded and the na-al
in#o"peten#e of pain e.posed, his drea"s of #on5uest -anished, and he
#ontinued the 4ar "erel0 in the hope of se#uring guarantees against
English interferen#e in the *e4 8orld, in the *etherlands, and in
Fran#e, 4here he 4as helping the Catholi# Deague to 9eep 7enr0 of
*a-arre off the Fren#h throne. Ireland, ho4e-er, 4as his "ost pro"ising
sphere of operations. There religious and ra#ial hostilit0 to the
English 4as fusing dis#ordant Irish septs into an Irish nation, and the
appearan#e of a panish e.pedition 4as the signal for so"ething li9e a
national re-olt. England had not !een ri#h enough in "en or "one0 to
gi-e Ireland a reall0 effi#ient go-ern"ent, !ut the e.tent of the
danger in 151(160$ sti"ulated an effort 4hi#h resulted in the first
real #on5uest of Ireland: and English"en set the"sel-es to do the sa"e
4or9, 4ith a!out the sa"e a"ount of !ene-olen#e, for the Irish that the
*or"ans had done for the Anglo,a.ons.
o far Tudor "onar#h0 had pro-ed an ade5uate e.ponent of English
nationalis", !e#ause nationalis" had !een #on#erned "ainl0 4ith the
e.ternal pro!le"s of defen#e against foreign po4ers and Hurisdi#tions.
But 4ith the defeat of the panish Ar"ada, the urgen#0 of those
pro!le"s passed a4a0: and during the last fifteen 0ears of Eli6a!eth<s
reign national feelings found in#reasing e.pression in parlia"ent and
in popular literature. In all for"s of literature, !ut espe#iall0 in
the ha9espearean dra"a, the 9e0note of the age 4as the e-olution of a
national spirit and te#hni5ue, and their e"an#ipation fro" the
influen#e of #lassi#al and foreign "odels. In do"esti# politi#s a rift
appeared !et4een the "onar#h0 and the nation. For one thing the
allian#e, forged !0 7enr0 )III !et4een the #ro4n and parlia"ent,
against the #hur#h, 4as !eing #hanged into an allian#e !et4een the
#ro4n and #hur#h against the parlia"ent, !e#ause parlia"ent 4as
!eginning to gi-e e.pression to de"o#rati# ideas of go-ern"ent in state
and #hur#h 4hi#h threatened the prin#iple of personal rule #o""on to
"onar#h0 and to epis#opa#0. 3*o Bishop, no Aing,3 4as a shre4d aphoris"
of ;a"es I, 4hi#h 4as in the "a9ing !efore he rea#hed the throne. In
other respe#ts?su#h as "onopolies, the po4er of the #ro4n to le-0
indire#t ta.ation 4ithout #onsent of parlia"ent, to i"prison su!He#ts
4ithout #ause sho4n, and to ta"per 4ith the pri-ileges of the 7ouse of
Co""ons?the ro0al prerogati-e 4as #alled in 5uestion. &opular
a#5uies#en#e in strong personal "onar#h0 4as !eginning to 4a-er no4
that the need for it 4as disappearing 4ith the gro4ing se#urit0 of
national independen#e. &eople #ould afford the lu.uries of li!ert0 and
part0 strife 4hen their national e.isten#e 4as pla#ed !e0ond the rea#h
of danger: and a national de"and for a greater share of self,
go-ern"ent, 4hi#h 4as to 4re#9 the 7ouse of tuart, 4as "a9ing itself
heard !efore, on Bar#h $', 160+, the last so-ereign of the line 4hi#h
had "ade England a reall0 national state passed a4a0.
Chapter 0
The "truggle for "elf2govern+ent
')(1&'/'$
*ational independen#e and popular self,go-ern"ent, although the0 4ere
inti"atel0 asso#iated as the t4o #ardinal dog"as of nineteenth,#entur0
li!eralis", are -er0 different things: and the a#hie-e"ent of #o"plete
national independen#e under the Tudors did not in the least in-ol-e an0
solution of the 5uestion of popular self,go-ern"ent. till, that
a#hie-e"ent had !een largel0 the 4or9 of the nation itself, and a
nation 4hi#h had !ra-ed the spiritual thunders of the papa#0 and the
te"poral ar"s of &hilip II 4ould not !e naturall0 su!"issi-e under
do"esti# t0rann0. &erhaps the fa#t that ;a"es I 4as an alien hastened
the ad"onition, 4hi#h parlia"ent addressed to hi" in the first session
of the reign, to the effe#t that it 4as not prepared to tolerate in hi"
"an0 things 4hi#h, on a##ount of her age and se., it had o-erloo9ed in
Eli6a!eth.
&arlia"ent !egan the #onstitutional #onfli#t thus foreshado4ed 4ith no
#lear #onstitutional theor0: and its -ie4s onl0 #r0stalli6ed under
pressure of ;a"es I<s pretensions. ;a"es possessed an aptitude for
politi#al spe#ulation, 4hi#h 4as rendered all the "ore dangerous !0 the
fa#ilities he enHo0ed for putting his theories into pra#ti#e. 7e tried
to redu#e "onar#h0 to a logi#al s0ste", and to enfor#e that s0ste" as
pra#ti#al politi#s. 7e had su##eeded to the English throne in spite of
7enr0 )III<s 4ill, 4hi#h had !een gi-en the for#e of a parlia"entar0
statute, and in spite of the #o""on la4 4hi#h disa!led an alien fro"
inheriting English land. 7is onl0 #lai" 4as !0 heredit0, 4hi#h had
ne-er !een legall0 re#ogni6ed to the e.#lusion of other prin#iples of
su##ession. ;a"es 4as not #ontent to as#ri!e his a##ession to su#h
"undane #ir#u"stan#es as the personal unfitness of his ri-als and the
o!-ious ad-antages of a union of the English and #ottish #ro4ns: and
he 4as led to attri!ute a supernatural -irtue to the hereditar0
prin#iple 4hi#h had o-er#o"e o!sta#les so tre"endous. 7en#e his theor0
of di-ine hereditar0 right. It "ust !e distinguished fro" the di-ine
right 4hi#h the Tudors #lai"ed: that 4as a right 4hi#h 4as not
ne#essaril0 hereditar0, !ut "ight !e -aried !0 the =od of !attles, as
at Bos4orth. It "ust also !e distinguished fro" the Catholi# theor0,
4hi#h ga-e the #hur#h a -oi#e in the ele#tion and deposition of 9ings.
A##ording to ;a"es<s -ie4, &ro-iden#e had not "erel0 ordained the 9ing
de facto, !ut had pre,ordained the 9ings that 4ere to !e, !0
sele#ting heredit0 as the prin#iple !0 4hi#h the su##ession 4as to !e
deter"ined for e-er and e-er. This ordinan#e, !eing di-ine, 4as !e0ond
the po4er of "an to alter. The fitness of the 9ing to rule, the Husti#e
or effi#ien#0 of his go-ern"ent, 4ere irrele-ant details. &arlia"ent
#ould no "ore alter the su##ession, depose a so-ereign, or li"it his
authorit0 than it #ould a"end the #onstitution of the uni-erse. Fro"
this pre"iss ;a"es dedu#ed a nu"!er of #on#lusions. /o0al po4er 4as
a!solute: the 9ing #ould do no 4rong for 4hi#h his su!He#ts #ould #all
hi" to a##ount: he 4as responsi!le to =od !ut not to "an?a do#trine
4hi#h the /efor"ation had en#ouraged !0 pro#lai"ing the /o0al upre"a#0
o-er the #hur#h. 7e "ight, if he #hose, "a9e #on#essions to his people,
and a 4ise so-ereign li9e hi"self 4ould respe#t the #on#essions of his
prede#essors. But parlia"entar0 and popular pri-ileges e.isted !0 ro0al
gra#e: the0 #ould not !e #lai"ed as rights.
This dog"ati# assuran#e, to 4hi#h the Tudors had ne-er resorted,
e"!ittered parlia"entar0 opposition and o!s#ured the histori#al
Hustifi#ation for "an0 of ;a"es<s #lai"s. 7istori#all0, there 4as "u#h
"ore to !e said for the #ontention that parlia"ent e.isted !0 gra#e of
the "onar#h0 than for the #ounter#lai" that the "onar#h0 e.isted !0
gra#e of parlia"ent: and for the plea that parlia"ent onl0 possessed
su#h po4ers as the #ro4n had granted, than for the #ounter,assertion
that the #ro4n onl0 enHo0ed su#h rights as parlia"ent had #on#eded. Fe4
of ;a"es<s ar!itrar0 a#ts #ould not !e Hustified !0 pre#edent, and not
a little of his unpopularit0 4as due to his efforts to e.a#t fro" lo#al
gentr0 the perfor"an#e of duties 4hi#h had !een i"posed upon the" !0
earlier parlia"ents. The "ain #ause of dissatisfa#tion 4as the gro4ing
popular #on-i#tion that #onstitutional 4eapons, used !0 the Tudors for
national purposes, 4ere no4 !eing used !0 the tuarts in the interests
of the "onar#h0 against those of the nation: and as the !rea#h 4idened,
the "ore the tuarts 4ere led to rel0 on these 4eapons and on their
theor0 of the di-ine right of 9ings, and the "ore parlia"ent 4as dri-en
to insist upon its pri-ileges and upon an alternati-e theor0 to that of
;a"es I.
This alternati-e theor0 4as diffi#ult to ela!orate. There 4as no idea
of de"o#ra#0. Co"plete popular self,go-ern"ent is, indeed, i"possi!le:
for the "ass of "en #annot rule, and the a#tual ad"inistration "ust
al4a0s !e in the hands of a #o"parati-el0 fe4 e.perts. The pro!le" 4as
and is ho4 to #ontrol the" and 4here to li"it their authorit0: and this
is a 5uestion of degree. In 160+ no one #lai"ed that "inisters 4ere
responsi!le to an0 one !ut the 9ing: ad"inistration 4as his e.#lusi-e
fun#tion. It 4as, ho4e-er, #lai"ed that parlia"entar0 san#tion "ust !e
o!tained for the general prin#iples upon 4hi#h the people 4ere to !e
go-erned?that is to sa0, for legislation. The #ro4n "ight appoint 4hat
!ishops it pleased, !ut it #ould not repeal the A#t of Gnifor"it0: it
"ight "a9e 4ar or pea#e, !ut #ould not i"pose dire#t and general
ta.ation: it sele#ted Hudges, !ut the0 #ould onl0 #onde"n "en to death
or i"prison"ent for offen#es re#ogni6ed !0 the la4. The su!He#t 4as not
at the "er#0 of the 9ing e.#ept 4hen he pla#ed hi"self outside the la4.
The disad-antage, ho4e-er, of an un4ritten #onstitution is that there
are al4a0s a nu"!er of #ases for 4hi#h the la4 does not pro-ide: and
there 4ere "an0 "ore in the se-enteenth #entur0 than there are to,da0.
These #ases #onstituted the de!ata!le land !et4een the #ro4n and
parlia"ent. &arlia"ent assu"ed that the #ro4n #ould neither di"inish
parlia"entar0 pri-ilege nor de-elop its o4n prerogati-e 4ithout
parlia"entar0 san#tion: and it read this assu"ption !a#9 into histor0.
*othing 4as legal unless it had !een san#tioned !0 parlia"ent: unless
the #ro4n #ould -ou#h a parlia"entar0 statute for its #lai"s the0 4ere
denoun#ed as -oid. This theor0 4ould ha-e disposed of "u#h of the
#onstitution, in#luding the #ro4n itself: e-en parlia"ent had gro4n !0
pre#edent rather than !0 statute. There 4ere, as al4a0s, pre#edents on
!oth sides. The 5uestion 4as, 4hi#h 4ere the pre#edents of gro4th and
4hi#h 4ere those of de#a0J That #ould onl0 !e de#ided !0 the for#e of
#ir#u"stan#es, and the #ontrol of parlia"ent o-er the national purse
4as the de#isi-e fa#tor in the situation.
The tuarts, indeed, 4ere held in a #left sti#9. Their re-enue 4as
steadil0 de#reasing !e#ause the dire#t ta.es, instead of gro4ing 4ith
the nation<s in#o"e, had re"ained fi.ed a"ounts sin#e the fourteenth
#entur0, and the real -alue of those a"ounts de#lined rapidl0 4ith the
influ. of pre#ious "etals fro" the *e4 8orld. @et the e.pense of
go-ern"ent auto"ati#all0 and ine-ita!l0 in#reased, and disputes o-er
foreign poli#0, o-er the treat"ent of /o"an Catholi#s, o-er epis#opal
Hurisdi#tion, o-er parlia"entar0 pri-ileges, and a host of "inor
"atters "ade the Co""ons "ore and "ore relu#tant to fill the e"pt0
Treasur0. The !lunt truth is that people 4ill not pa0 for 4hat the0 do
not #onsider their #on#ern: and tuart go-ern"ent gre4 less and less a
popular affair. The "ore the tuarts de"anded, the greater the
o!sta#les the0 en#ountered in se#uring #o"plian#e.
;a"es I le-ied additional #usto"s 4hi#h 4ere #alled i"positions, and
the Hudges in 1606 properl0 de#ided that these 4ere legal. But the0
in#reased ;a"es<s unpopularit0: and, as a pre#aution, parlia"ent 4ould
onl0 grant Charles I tonnage and poundage Ethe nor"al #usto"s dutiesF
for one 0ear after his a##ession instead of for life. Charles #ontended
that parlia"ent had, o4ing to non,user, lost the right of refusing
these supplies to the #ro4n: he pro#eeded to le-0 the" !0 his o4n
authorit0, and further de"anded a general for#ed loan and !ene-olen#e.
For refusing to pa0, fi-e 9nights 4ere sent to prison !0 order of the
pri-0 #oun#il 34ithout #ause she4n,3 4here!0 the #ro4n a-oided a
Hudi#ial de#ision on the legalit0 of the loan. This pro-o9ed the
&etition of /ight in 16$(: !ut in 16$1 Charles finall0 5uarrelled 4ith
parlia"ent o-er the 5uestion 4hether in assenting to the petition he
had a!andoned his right to le-0 tonnage and poundage. For ele-en 0ears
he ruled 4ithout parlia"ent, raising supplies !0 -arious o!solete
e.pedients #ul"inating in ship "one0, on !ehalf of 4hi#h "an0 patrioti#
argu"ents a!out the ne#essities of na-al defen#e 4ere used.
7e 4as !rought up sharpl0 4hen he !egan to 9i#9 against the
&res!0terian pri#9s of #otland: and the e.penses of the Bishops< 8ar
put an end to the hand,to,"outh e.isten#e of his unparlia"entar0
go-ern"ent in England. The Dong parlia"ent 4ent to the root of the
"atter !0 de"anding triennial sessions and the #hoi#e of "inisters 4ho
had the #onfiden#e of parlia"ent. It e"phasi6ed its insisten#e upon
"inisterial responsi!ilit0 to parlia"ent !0 e.e#uting trafford and
after4ards Daud. Charles, 4ho la!oured under the i"pression #o""on to
rea#tionaries that the0 are defending the rights of the people,
#ontended that, in #lai"ing an unfettered right to #hoose his o4n
ad-isers, he 4as #ha"pioning one of the "ost o!-ious li!erties of the
su!He#t. &arlia"ent, ho4e-er, had reali6ed that in politi#s prin#iples
#onsist of details as a pound #onsists of pen#e: and that if it 4anted
sound legislati-e prin#iples, it "ust ta9e #are of the details of
ad"inistration. Charles had ruled ele-en 0ears 4ithout parlia"ent: !ut
so had 8olse0, and Eli6a!eth had apologi6ed 4hen she #alled it together
oftener than a!out on#e in fi-e 0ears. If the state had had "ore
finan#ial !allast, and the #hur#h had !een less high and top,hea-0,
Charles "ight see"ingl0 ha-e 4eathered the stor" and let parlia"ent
su!side into i"poten#e, as the Bour!ons let the tates,=eneral of
Fran#e, 4ithout an0 o-ert !rea#h of the #onstitution. After all, the
original design of the #ro4n had !een to get "one0 out of parlia"ent,
and the "ain o!He#t of parlia"ent had on#e !een to "a9e the 9ing li-e
of his o4n. A 9ing #ontent 4ith parsi"on0 "ight la4full0 dispense 4ith
parlia"ent: and the ele-en 0ears had sho4n the pre#arious !asis of
parlia"entar0 institutions, gi-en a thrift0 9ing and an una"!itious
#ountr0. E-ents 4ere de"onstrating the truth of 7o!!es<s "a.i" that
so-ereignt0 is indi-isi!le: pea#e #ould not !e 9ept !et4een a so-ereign
legislature and a so-ereign e.e#uti-e: parlia"ent "ust #ontrol the
#ro4n, or so"e da0 the ele-en 0ears 4ould re#ur and !e#o"e perpetual.
In Fran#e, unparlia"entar0 go-ern"ent 4as prolonged !0 the -i#tor0 of
the #ro4n for a #entur0 and three,5uarters. In England, Charles<s 4as
the last e.peri"ent, !e#ause parlia"ent defeated the #lai" of the #ro4n
to rule !0 "eans of irresponsi!le "inisters.
In su#h a #ontest for the #ontrol of the e.e#uti-e there #ould !e no
final ar!itra"ent sa-e that of for#e: !ut Charles 4as onl0 a!le to
fight at all !e#ause parlia"ent destro0ed its o4n unani"it0 !0
atta#9ing the #hur#h, and thus pro-ided hi" 4ith a part0 and an ar"0.
Bore than a te"porar0 i"portan#e, ho4e-er, atta#hes to the fa#t that
the a!e0an#e of "onar#hi#al po4er at on#e ga-e rise to per"anent
English parties: and it 4as natural that those parties should !egin !0
fighting a #i-il 4ar, for part0 is in the "ain an organ for the
e.pression of #o"!ati-e instin#ts, and the "etaphors of part0 4arfare
are still of a "ilitar0 #hara#ter. English"en<s #o"!ati-e instin#ts
4ere for"erl0 #ur!ed !0 the #ro4n: !ut sin#e the de#line of "onar#h0
the0 ha-e either !een -ented against other nations, or e.pressed in
part0 #onfli#ts. The instin#t does not #o""onl0 re5uire t4o for"s of
e.pression at on#e, and part0 strife su!sides during a national 4ar.
Its "ethods of e.pression, too, ha-e !een slo4l0 and partiall0
#i-ili6ed: and e-en a general ele#tion is "ore hu"ane than a #i-il 4ar.
But the first atta#9 of an epide"i# is usuall0 the "ost -irulent, and
part0 strife has not a se#ond ti"e attained the di"ensions of #i-il
4ar.
>ne reason for this "itigation is that the 5uestions at issue ha-e !een
graduall0 narro4ed do4n until, although the0 !ul9 large to heated
i"aginations, the0 reall0 #o-er a -er0 s"all area of politi#al life,
and the "ain lines #ontinue the sa"e 4hi#he-er part0 triu"phs. Another
reason is that e.perien#e has pro-ed the ne#essit0 of the su!"ission of
the "inorit0 to the "aHorit0. This is one of the greatest a#hie-e"ents
of politi#s. In the thirteenth #entur0 &eter des /o#hes #lai"ed
e.e"ption fro" the pa0"ent of a s#utage on the ground that he had -oted
against it, and his #lai" 4as held to !e -alid. u#h a #ontention "eans
anar#h0, and #onsidera!le progress had !een "ade !efore the se-enteenth
#entur0 to4ards the #onstitutional do#trine that the -ote of the
"aHorit0 !inds the 4hole #o""unit0. But the pro#ess 4as in#o"plete, and
the #auses of strife !et4een /oundhead and /o0alist 4ere funda"ental. A
-i#tor0 of the /o0alists 4ould ha-e !een #arried to e.tre"es, as the
-i#tor0 of the /oundheads 4as: and the result 4ould al"ost #ertainl0
ha-e !een despoti# go-ern"ent until a still "ore -iolent out!rea9
pre#ipitated the #ountr0 into a series of re-olutions.
Di!ert0, li9e religious toleration, has !een 4on through the
interne#ine 4arfare !et4een -arious for"s of despotis": and the
strength of the /o0alists la0 in the fa#t that parlia"ent, in espousing
&res!0terianis", 4eighted its #ause 4ith an e##lesiasti#al s0ste" as
narro4 and t0ranni#al as Daud<s. *e4 pres!0ter 4as !ut old priest 4rit
large, and the !alan#e !et4een the t4o ga-e the de#ision into the hands
of the Independents, 4hose nu"eri#al inferiorit0 4as redee"ed !0
Cro"4ell<s "ilitar0 genius. 8hen &res!0terians and Independents had
ground the /o0alists to po4der at Barston Boor and *ase!0, Charles
sought to re#o-er his authorit0 through their 5uarrels. 7e fell !et4een
t4o stools. 7is dou!le dealings 4ith !oth parties led to the se#ond
#i-il 4ar, to his o4n e.e#ution, and to the a!olition of "onar#h0 and
of the 7ouse of Dords in 16'1. 7a-ing #rushed Catholi# Ireland and
&res!0terian #otland, to 4hi#h Charles and his son had in turn
appealed, Cro"4ell 4as fa#ed 4ith the pro!le" of go-erning England.
The -i#torious part0 4as in a hopeless "inorit0, and so"e of the
fer-our 4ith 4hi#h the Independents appealed to di-ine ele#tion "a0
ha-e !een due to a #ons#iousness that the0 4ould not ha-e passed the
test of a popular -ote. In their -ie4, =od had deter"ined the
funda"entals of the #onstitution !0 gi-ing the -i#tor0 to 7is ele#t:
these funda"entals 4ere to !e enshrined in a 4ritten rigid
#onstitution, and pla#ed !e0ond the rea#h of parlia"ent or the people.
Gnder the so-ereignt0 of this inspired #onstitution E165+F, 4hi#h
pro-ided, a"ong other things, for the union of England, Ireland, and
#otland, a drasti# refor" of the fran#hise and redistri!ution of
seats, the go-ern"ent 4as to !e in the hands of a 3single person,3 the
&rote#tor, and a single #ha"!er, the 7ouse of Co""ons. The single
person soon found the single #ha"!er 3horridl0 ar!itrar0,3 and
preferred the freedo" of "ilitar0 despotis". But his "aHor,generals
4ere e-en "ore ar!itrar0 than the single #ha"!er, and in 165% a fresh
#onstitution 4as ela!orated 4ith a e#ond Cha"!er to "a9e it popular.
The /estoration had, in fa#t, !egun al"ost as soon as the 4ar 4as o-er:
the single #ha"!er repu!li# of 16'1165+ had gi-en pla#e to a single,
#ha"!er "onar#h0, #alled the &rote#torate, and a further step 4as ta9en
4hen in 165% the 3other3 7ouse 4as added: Cro"4ell 4as 4ithin an a#e of
"a9ing hi"self a 9ing and his d0nast0 hereditar0. >nl0 his personal
genius, the strength of his ar"0, and the su##ess of his foreign poli#0
ena!led hi" thus to restore the for"s of the old #onstitution 4ithout
the support of the so#ial for#es on 4hi#h it had !een !ased. 7is death
in 165( 4as ne#essaril0 follo4ed !0 anar#h0, and anar#h0 !0 the re#all
of Charles II.
The /estoration 4as not so "u#h a restoration of "onar#h0, 4hi#h had
reall0 !een a#hie-ed in 165+, as a restoration of the #hur#h, of
parlia"ent, and of the landed gentr0: and ea#h too9 its toll of profit
fro" the situation. The #hur#h se#ured the "ost se#tarian of its
-arious settle"ents, and the narro4ness of its re,esta!lish"ent 9ept
nearl0 half the nation outside its pale. The landed gentr0 o!tained the
predo"inant -oi#e in parlia"ent for a #entur0 and three,5uarters, and,
as a #onse5uen#e, the a!olition of its feudal ser-i#es to the #ro4n,
the finan#ial defi#it !eing "ade up !0 an e.#ise on !eer instead of !0
a land,ta.. &arlia"ent e"an#ipated itself fro" the di#tation of the
ar"0, ta9ing #are ne-er to run that ris9 again, and fro" the
restri#tions of a 4ritten, rigid #onstitution. It also re#o-ered its
rotten !oroughs and anti5uated fran#hise, !ut lost its union 4ith the
parlia"ents of Ireland and #otland. At first it see"ed "ore ro0alist
than the 9ing: !ut it soon appeared that its enthusias" for the
"onar#h0 4as "ore e-anes#ent than its atta#h"ent to the #hur#h and
landed interest. E-en in the first flush it refrained fro" restoring
the tar Cha"!er and the other prerogati-e #ourts and #oun#ils 4hi#h
had ena!led the #ro4n to dispense 4ith parlia"entar0 and #o""on la4
#ontrol: and Charles II 4as ne-er a!le to repeat his father<s
e.peri"ent of ruling for ele-en 0ears 4ithout a parlia"ent.
The a!lest, least s#rupulous, and "ost popular of the tuarts, he !egan
his reign 4ith t4o o!He#tsC the e"an#ipation of the #ro4n fro" #ontrol
as far as possi!le, and the e"an#ipation of the /o"an Catholi#s fro"
their position of politi#al inferiorit0: !ut the pursuit of !oth
o!He#ts 4as stri#tl0 #onditioned !0 a deter"ination not to e"!ar9 on
his tra-els again. The t4o o!He#ts 4ere reall0 in#o"pati!le. Charles
#ould onl0 "a9e hi"self auto#rati# 4ith the support of the Angli#an
#hur#h, and the #hur#h 4as deter"ined to tolerate no rela.ation of the
penal #ode against other Catholi#s. At first Charles had to su!"it to
Clarendon and the #hur#h: !ut in 166% he gladl0 repla#ed Clarendon !0
the Ca!al ad"inistration, a"ong the "e"!ers of 4hi#h the onl0 !ond of
unit0 4as that it did not #ontain a sound Angli#an #hur#h"an. 8ith its
assistan#e he pu!lished his De#larations of Indulgen#e for /o"an
Catholi#s and Dissenters E16%$F, and sought to se#ure hi"self against
parlia"entar0 re#al#itran#e !0 a se#ret treat0 4ith Douis 2I) E16%0F.
This poli#0 failed against the stu!!orn opposition of the #hur#h. The
Ca!al fell: Dan!0, a repli#a of Clarendon, #a"e into offi#e: and the
Test A#t of 16%+ "ade the position of the /o"an Catholi#s 4orse than it
4as !efore the De#laration.
This failure #on-in#ed Charles that one of his t4o designs "ust go !0
the !oard. 7e thre4 o-er the less popular #ause of his #o,religionists:
and hen#eforth de-oted hi"self to the tas9 of e"an#ipating the #ro4n
fro" parlia"entar0 interferen#e. But popular suspi#ion had !een aroused
!0 Charles<s se#ret dealings and ;a"es<s open professions: and Titus
>ates, 4ho 9ne4 so"ething a!out real plans for the re#on-ersion of
England, inflated his 9no4ledge into a "onstrous tale of a popish plot.
The 8higs, as the opposition part0 #a"e to !e #alled, used it for "ore
than it 4as 4orth to da"age the Tories under Dan!0. The pani# produ#ed
one useful "easure, the 7a!eas Corpus A#t of 16%1, "an0 Hudi#ial
"urders, and a foolish atte"pt to e.#lude ;a"es fro" the su##ession, As
it su!sided, Charles deftl0 turned the rea#tion to the ruin of the
8higs E16(1F. >f their leaders, haftes!ur0 fled to 7olland, and idne0
and /ussell 4ere !rought to the !lo#9: their parlia"entar0 strongholds
in the #ities and to4ns 4ere pa#9ed 4ith Tories: and for the last four
0ears of his reign Charles ruled 4ithout a parlia"ent, !ut 4ith the
good4ill of the Tories and the #hur#h.
This half of the nation 4ould pro!a!l0 ha-e a#5uies#ed in the gro4th of
despotis" under ;a"es II, had not the ne4 9ing ostentatiousl0 ignored
the 4isdo" of Charles II. 7e !egan E16(5F 4ith e-er0thing in his
fa-ourC a Tor0 parlia"ent, a dis#redited opposition, 4hi#h further
4ea9ened its #ase !0 Arg0ll<s and Bon"outh<s re!ellions, and a great
reputation for honest0. 8ithin a #ouple of 0ears he had thro4n a4a0 all
these ad-antages !0 his re-i-al of Charles II<s a!andoned /o"an
Catholi# poli#0, and had alienated the Angli#an #hur#h, !0 4hose
support alone he #ould hope to rule as an English despot. 7e suspended
and dispensed 4ith la4s, introdu#ed /o"an Catholi#s into the ar"0, the
uni-ersities, the pri-0 #oun#il, raised a standing for#e of thirt0
thousand "en, and finall0 prose#uted se-en !ishops for seditious li!el.
8illia" III, the hus!and of ;a"es<s daughter Bar0, 4as in-ited !0
representati-es of all parties to #o"e o-er as England<s deli-erer, and
;a"es fled on his approa#h. 7e #ould not fight, li9e his father,
!e#ause no English part0 supported his #ause.
The /e-olution of 16(( 4as singularl0 negati-e so far as its results
4ere e.pressed in the Bill of /ights and the A#t of ettle"ent. These
#ele!rated #onstitutional do#u"ents "ade little pro-ision for national
self,go-ern"ent. >ne 9ing, it is true, had !een e-i#ted fro" the
throne, and /o"an Catholi#s 4ere to !e al4a0s e.#luded: and these
"easures disposed of di-ine hereditar0 right. But that had !een a
tuart in-ention, and 9ings had !een deposed !efore ;a"es II. 8h0
should self,go-ern"ent follo4 on the e-ents of 16(( an0 "ore than on
those of 1+11, 1'61, or 1'(5J Future so-ereigns 4ere, indeed, to
refrain fro" doing "u#h that ;a"es had done. The0 4ere not to 9eep a
standing ar"0 in ti"e of pea#e, not to pardon "inisters i"pea#hed !0
the 7ouse of Co""ons, not to dis"iss Hudges e.#ept on an address fro"
!oth 7ouses of &arlia"ent, not to suspend la4s at all nor to dispense
4ith the" in the 4a0 ;a"es had done, not to 9eep a parlia"ent nor do
4ithout one longer than three 0ears, and not to re5uire e.#essi-e !ail.
/eligious toleration, too, 4as se#ured in so"e "easure, and freedo" of
the press to a li"ited e.tent. But all these ena#t"ents 4ere safeguards
against the a!use of ro0al po4er and infringe"ent of #i-il li!ert0
rather than pro-isions for self,go-ern"ent. *o la4 4as passed re5uiring
the 9ing to !e guided !0 "inisters enHo0ing the #onfiden#e of
parlia"ent: he 4as still the real and irresponsi!le e.e#uti-e, and
parlia"ent 4as li"ited to legislation. The fa-ourite 8hig toast of
3#i-il and religious li!ert03 i"plied an English"an<s right to freedo"
fro" "olestation, !ut not a right to a -oi#e in the go-ern"ent of the
#ountr0. /esponsi!le self,go-ern"ent 4as not guaranteed !0 the la4s,
!ut it 4as ensured !0 the fa#ts, of the /e-olution.
The truth is, that the "ethods of English #onstitutional progress ha-e
!een, do4n to this da0, offensi-e strateg0 and defensi-e ta#ti#s.
&ositions ha-e !een ta9en up 4hi#h ne#essitate the retire"ent of the
for#es of rea#tion, unless the0 are prepared to "a9e atta#9s
predestined to defeat: and so, nearl0 e-er0 Di!eral ad-an#e has !een
"ade to appear the result of Tor0 aggression. The #entral position has
al4a0s !een #ontrol of the purse !0 parlia"ent. At first it onl0
e"!ra#ed #ertain for"s of dire#t ta.ation: graduall0 it 4as e.tended
and de-eloped !0 #areful spade,4or9 until it #o-ered e-er0 sour#e of
re-enue. Entren#hed !ehind these for"ida!le earth4or9s, parlia"ent
pro#eeded to di#tate to the earl0 tuarts the ter"s of national poli#0.
Charles I, pro-o9ed !0 its assu"ptions, "ade his atta#9 on the #entral
position, 4as foiled, and in his retreat left large portions of the
#ro4n<s e5uip"ent in the hands of parlia"ent. /asher atta#9s !0 ;a"es
II resulted in a still "ore pre#ipitate retreat and in the a!andon"ent
of "ore of the ro0al prerogati-es. The gro4th of the e"pire and of the
e.penses of go-ern"ent ri-eted "ore fir"l0 than e-er the hold of
parlia"ent o-er the #ro4n: the greater the de"ands 4hi#h it alone #ould
"eet, the higher the #onditions it #ould i"pose upon their grant, until
parlia"ent deter"ined a!solutel0 the ter"s upon 4hi#h the offi#e of
"onar#h0 should !e held. In a si"ilar 4a0 the Co""ons used their
#ontrol of the national purse to restri#t the po4ers of the 7ouse of
Dords: pro-o#ation has led to atta#9s on the #entral position, and the
failure of these atta#9s has !een follo4ed !0 surrender. &rudent
leaders ha-e preferred to retire 4ithout #ourting the preli"inar0 of
defeat.
8illia" III and his su##essors adopted this #ourse 4hen #onfronted 4ith
the i"pregna!le position of parlia"ent after the /e-olution: and hen#e
later #onstitutional gains, 4hile no apparent part of the parlia"entar0
position, 4ere its ine-ita!le #onse5uen#es. 8illia", a!sor!ed in a
life,and,death struggle 4ith Douis 2I), re5uired a #onstant strea" of
supplies fro" parlia"ent: and to se#ure its regularit0 he had to rel0
on the good offi#es and ad-i#e of those 4ho #o""anded "ost -otes in the
7ouse of Co""ons. In the Dords, 4ho then nu"!ered less than t4o
hundred, he #ould se#ure the !alan#e of po4er through the appoint"ent
of !ishops. In the Co""ons his situation 4as "ore diffi#ult. The
partial de"ise of personal "onar#h0 in 16(( led to a s#ra"!le for its
effe#ts, and the s#ra"!le to the organi6ation of the t4o prin#ipal
#o"petitors, the 8hig and Tor0 parties. The 8higs for"ed a 3Hunto,3 or
#au#us, and the Tories follo4ed their e.a"ple. 8illia" preferred the
8higs, !e#ause the0 s0"pathi6ed 4ith his 4ars: !ut the #ountr0
so"eti"es preferred the Tories, !e#ause it hated 8illia"<s Dut#h"en and
ta.ation. >n 8illia"<s death in 1%0$ the danger fro" Douis 2I) 4as
#onsidered so a#ute that a "inistr0 4as for"ed fro" all parties in
order to se#ure the united support of parlia"ent: !ut graduall0, in
Anne<s reign, the Tories 4ho 4anted to "a9e pea#e left the "inistr0,
until in 1%0( it !e#a"e purel0 8hig. In 1%10 it fell, and the Tories
too9 its pla#e. The0 4anted a tuart restoration, e-en at the pri#e of
undoing the /e-olution, if onl0 the &retender 4ould a!andon his poper0:
4hile the 8higs 4ere deter"ined to "aintain the /e-olution e-en at the
pri#e of a 7ano-erian d0nast0. The0 returned to po4er in 1%1' 4ith the
a##ession of =eorge I, and "onopoli6ed offi#e for "ore than half a
#entur0. As ti"e 4ent on, "an0 8higs !e#a"e hardl0 distinguisha!le fro"
Tories 4ho had relin5uished ;a#o!itis": and fro" Dord *orth<s a##ession
to offi#e in 1%%0 do4n to 1(+0 the Tories enHo0ed in their turn a half,
#entur0 of nearl0 un!ro9en po4er.
During this period the part0 s0ste" and #a!inet go-ern"ent 4ere
ela!orated. &art0 supplanted the #ro4n as the deter"ining fa#tor in
British go-ern"ent, and the #a!inet !e#a"e the e.e#uti-e #o""ittee of
the part0 possessing a "aHorit0 in the 7ouse of Co""ons. Iueen Anne had
not the intelle#t nor -igour to assert her independen#e of "inisters,
and =eorge I, 4ho understood no English, #eased to attend #a!inet
"eetings. The ro0al -eto disappeared, and e-en the 9ing<s #hoi#e of
"inisters 4as se-erel0 li"ited, not !0 la4 !ut !0 pra#ti#al
ne#essities. Binisters, instead of gi-ing indi-idual ad-i#e 4hi#h the
so-ereign "ight reHe#t, "et together 4ithout the 9ing and tendered
#olle#ti-e ad-i#e, the reHe#tion of 4hi#h !0 the so-ereign "eant their
resignation, and if parlia"ent agreed 4ith the", its dissolution or
surrender on the part of the #ro4n. For the purpose of tendering this
ad-i#e and "aintaining order in the #a!inet, a #hief 4as needed:
8alpole, !0 eli"inating all #o"petitors during his long ad"inistration
E1%$11%'$F, de-eloped the offi#e of pri"e "inister, 4hi#h, 4ithout an0
la4 to esta!lish it, !e#a"e one of the "ost i"portant of British
institutions. i"ilarl0 the #a!inet itself gre4 and 4as not #reated !0
an0 A#t: indeed, 4hile the #a!inet and the pri"e "inister 4ere gro4ing,
it 4ould ha-e !een i"possi!le to indu#e an0 parlia"ent to #reate the",
for parlia"ent 4as still Healous of ro0al influen#e, and e-en 4anted to
e.#lude fro" its ran9s all ser-ants of the #ro4n. But, fortunatel0, the
a!sen#e of a 4ritten #onstitution ena!led the British #onstitution to
gro4 and adapt itself to #ir#u"stan#es 4ithout legal ena#t"ent.
The #ir#u"stan#e that the #a!inet 4as the e.e#uti-e #o""ittee of the
"aHorit0 in the 7ouse of Co""ons ga-e it the #o""and of the Do4er
7ouse, and !0 "eans of the Co""ons< finan#ial po4ers, of the #ro4n.
This part0 s0ste" 4as deplored !0 "an0: Boling!ro9e, a Tor0 leader out
of offi#e, #alled for a national part0, and urged the #ro4n to
e"an#ipate itself fro" 8hig do"ination !0 #hoosing "inisters fro" all
se#tions. Chatha" thought that in the interests of national effi#ien#0,
the a!lest "inisters should !e sele#ted, 4hate-er their politi#al
predile#tions. =eorge III adapted these ideas to the purpose of "a9ing
hi"self a 9ing in deed. But his su##ess in !rea9ing do4n the part0 and
#a!inet s0ste" 4as partial and te"porar0: he onl0 su##eeded in hu"!ling
the 8hig houses !0 gi-ing hi"self a "aster in the person of the 0ounger
&itt E1%('F, 4ho 4as supported !0 the "aHorit0 of the nation.
8ith the 7ouse of Dords the #a!inet has had "ore prolonged and
#o"pli#ated trou!les. >stensi!l0 and #onstitutionall0 the disputes ha-e
!een !et4een the t4o 7ouses of &arlia"ent: and this 4as reall0 the #ase
!efore the de-elop"ent of the #lose #onne.ion !et4een the #a!inet and
the Co""ons. Both 7ouses had profited !0 the o-erthro4 of the #ro4n in
the se-enteenth #entur0, and the e.tre"es to 4hi#h the0 so"eti"es
pushed their #lai"s suggest that the0 4ere as an.ious as the #ro4n had
!een to pla#e the"sel-es a!o-e the la4. The 7ouse of Dords did su##eed
in "a9ing its Hudi#ial de#isions la4 in spite of the #ro4n and Co""ons,
although the Co""ons 4ere part of the 37igh Court of &arlia"ent,3 and
no la4 had granted the Dords supre"e appellate Hurisdi#tion: hen#e the
#onstitutional position of the 7ouse of Dords 4as "ade !0 its o4n
de#isions and not !0 A#t of &arlia"ent or of the #ro4n. This #lai" to
appellate Hurisdi#tion, 4hi#h 4as "u#h disputed !0 the Co""ons during
the reign of Charles II, 4as onl0 #on#eded in return for a si"ilar
#on#ession to the Co""ons in finan#ial "atters. 7ere the Co""ons
pra#ti#all0 "ade their resolutions la4, though the Dords insisted that
the pri-ilege should not !e a!used !0 3ta#9ing3 e.traneous pro-isions
on to finan#ial "easures.
There 4ere so"e further disputes in the reigns of 8illia" III and Anne,
!ut the onl0 o##asion upon 4hi#h peers 4ere a#tuall0 "ade in order to
#arr0 a "easure, 4as 4hen the Tories #reated a do6en to pass the &ea#e
of Gtre#ht in 1%1$. It is, indeed, a singular fa#t that no serious
#onfli#t !et4een the t4o 7ouses o##urred during the 4hole of the
=eorgian period fro" 1%1' to 1(+0. The e.planation see"s to !e that
!oth 7ouses 4ere si"pl0 the politi#al agents of the sa"e organi6ed
aristo#ra#0. The hu"!le to4nsfol9 4ho figured in the parlia"ents of
Ed4ard I Esee p. 65F disappeared 4hen a seat in the 7ouse of Co""ons
!e#a"e a position of po4er and pri-ilege: and to the first parlia"ent
E15'%F for 4hi#h Hournals of the Co""ons pro-ed 4orth preser-ing, the
eldest son of a peer thought it 4orth 4hile see9ing ele#tion. Ban0
su##essors follo4ed: to4ns 4ere !ri!ed or #onstrained to #hoose the
no"inees of peers and #ountr0 "agnates: !urgage tene"ents 4ere !ought
up !0 no!le fa"ilies to se#ure -otes: and the /estoration parlia"ent
had "aterial reasons for treating Cro"4ell<s refor"s as -oid, and
restoring rotten !oroughs and fan#0 fran#hises. B0 the ti"e that
parlia"ent had e"an#ipated itself fro" the #ontrol of the #ro4n, it had
also e"an#ipated itself to a #onsidera!le e.tent fro" the #ontrol of
the #onstituen#ies.
This politi#al s0ste" 4ould not ha-e de-eloped nor lasted so long as it
did, had it not had so"e -irtue and so"e rele-an#e to its en-iron"ent.
In e-er0 #ountr0<s de-elop"ent there is a stage in 4hi#h aristo#ra#0 is
the !est for" of go-ern"ent. England had outgro4n "onar#hi#al
despotis", !ut it 4as not 0et fit for de"o#ra#0. &oliti#al po4er
depends upon edu#ation, and it 4ould ha-e !een unreasona!le to e.pe#t
intelligent -otes fro" "en 4ho #ould not read or 4rite, had s"all
9no4ledge of politi#s, little pra#ti#al training in lo#al
ad"inistration, and none of the 4ill to e.er#ise #ontrol. &oliti#s 4ere
still the affair of the fe4, !e#ause onl0 the fe4 #ould #o"prehend
the", or 4ere #ons#ious of the uses and li"itations of politi#al po4er.
The #orrupt and "isguided use of their -otes !0 those 4ho possessed
the" 4as so"e reason for not e.tending the fran#hise to still "ore
ignorant "asses: and it 4as not entirel0 irrational to lea-e the
#ontrol of national affairs in the hands of that se#tion of the nation
4hi#h had re#ei-ed so"e sort of politi#al edu#ation.
The defe#ts, ho4e-er, of a politi#al s0ste", 4hi#h restri#ts po4er to a
li"ited #lass or #lasses, are that ea#h #lass tends to e.er#ise it in
its o4n interests and resents its e.tension to others, e-en 4hen the0
are 5ualified for its use. If all other histori#al re#ords had
disappeared, land la4s, ga"e la4s, in#losure a#ts, and #orn la4s?after
the /e-olution a !ount0 4as a#tuall0 pla#ed on the e.port of #orn,
4here!0 the #o""unit0 4as ta.ed in order to depri-e itself of food or
"a9e it dearer?alone 4ould pro-e that politi#al po4er in the =eorgian
period 4as -ested in a landed aristo#ra#0, though England<s #o""er#ial
poli#0, espe#iall0 to4ards Ireland, 4ould sho4 that "er#antile
interests had also to !e #onsulted. i"ilarl0, the Hournals of the
7ouse of Co""ons 4ould pro-e it to ha-e !een a #lose #orporation less
an.ious for the reign of la4 than for its o4n supre"a#0 o-er the la4.
It #lai"ed authorit0 to de#ide !0 its o4n resolutions 4ho had the right
to -ote for its "e"!ers and 4ho had the right to a seat. It e.pelled
"e"!ers dul0 ele#ted, and de#lared #andidates ele#ted 4ho had !een dul0
reHe#ted. It repudiated responsi!ilit0 to pu!li# opinion as derogator0
to its li!erties and independen#e: it e.#luded strangers, and punished
the pu!li#ation of de!ates and di-ision,lists as high "isde"eanours. It
4as a la4 unto itself, and its notions of li!ert0 so"eti"es san9 to the
le-el of those of a feudal !aron.
7en#e the #o"parati-e ease and su##ess 4ith 4hi#h =eorge III filled its
sa#red pre#in#ts 4ith his paid !attalions of 39ing<s friends.3 7e 4ould
ha-e !een po4erless against a reall0 representati-e 7ouse: !ut he #ould
!u0 !oroughs and -otes as effe#ti-el0 as 8hig or Tor0 du9es, and it 4as
his inter-ention that raised a dou!t in the "ind of the 7ouse 4hether
it "ight not need so"e "easure of refor". The influen#e of the #ro4n,
it resol-ed in 1%(0, had in#reased, 4as in#reasing, and ought to !e
di"inished. But it #ould onl0 !e di"inished !0 destro0ing that !asis of
#orruption 4hi#h supported the po4er of the oligar#hs no less than that
of the #ro4n. /efor" 4ould !e a self,den0ing ordinan#e, if not an a#t
of politi#al sui#ide, as 4ell as a !lo4 at =eorge III. &ri-ileged
!odies do not refor" the"sel-es: proposals !0 Bur9e and !0 &itt and !0
others 4ere reHe#ted one after another: and then the Fren#h /e-olution
#a"e to stiffen the 4a-ering ran9s of rea#tion. *ot till the Industrial
/e-olution had #hanged the fa#e of England did the old politi#al for#es
a#9no4ledge their defeat and surrender their #lai" to go-ern the nation
against its 4ill.
Chapter 0#
The E3pansion of England
')(1&'/'$
In the reign of Eli6a!eth English"en had "ade the"sel-es a#5uainted
4ith the 4orld. The0 had sur-e0ed it fro" =reenland<s i#0 "ountains to
India<s #oral strand, and fro" the >rino#o to ;apan, 4here 8illia"
Ada"s !uilt the first ;apanese na-0: the0 had interfered in the
politi#s of the Bolu##as and had sold English 4oollens in Bo9hara: the0
had sailed through the =olden =ate of California and up the =olden 7orn
of the Bosphorus: the0 had #rossed the &a#ifi# >#ean and the deserts of
Central Asia: the0 had "ade their #ountr0 9no4n ali9e to the =reat Tur9
and to the =rand Boghul. *ational unit0 and the fertile "ingling of
#lasses had generated this e.pansi-e energ0, for the e.plorers in#luded
earls as 4ell as hu"!le "ariners and traders: and all ran9s, fro" the
5ueen do4n4ards, too9 shares in their 3ad-entures.3 The0 had thus
a#5uired a !od0 of 9no4ledge and e.perien#e 4hi#h "a9es it "isleading
to spea9 of their !lundering into e"pire. The0 soon learnt to
#on#entrate their energies upon those 5uarters of the glo!e in 4hi#h
e.pansion 4as easiest and "ost profita!le. The East India Co"pan0 had
re#ei-ed its #harter in 1600, and the na-al defeat of pain had opened
the sea to all "en: !ut, 4ith the dou!tful e.#eption of *e4foundland,
England se#ured no per"anent footing outside the British Isles until
after the #ro4ns of England and #otland had !een united.
This personal union #an hardl0 !e #alled part of the e.pansion of
England, !ut it had !een prepared !0 so"e assi"ilation and #ooperation
!et4een the t4o peoples, and it 4as follo4ed !0 a great deal "ore. The
plantation of Glster !0 English and #ots after the flight of the Irish
earls of T0rone and T0r#onnell in 160% is one illustration, and *o-a
#otia is another: !ut )irginia, the first #olon0 of the e"pire, 4as a
purel0 English enterprise, and it #radled the first,!orn #hild of the
Bother of &arlia"ents. To )irginia "en 4ent for profit: prin#iple dro-e
the" to *e4 England. The &ilgri" Fathers, 4ho sailed in the
Mayflower in 16$0, had separated fro" the #hur#h and "eant to
separate fro" the state, and to set up a polit0 the antithesis of that
of Daud and the tuarts. But there 4as so"ething in #o""on !et4een
the": the &uritans, too, 4anted unifor"it0, and !elie-ed in their right
to #o"pel all to thin9, or at least to 4orship, ali9e. #his", ho4e-er,
appeals 4ith ill gra#e and little su##ess to authorit0: and
dissentients fro" the dissenters for"ed Independent offshoots fro" *e4
England. But all these &uritan #o""unities in the north 4ere different
in #hara#ter fro" )irginia in the south: the0 #onsisted of de"o#rati#
to4nships, )irginia of plantations 4or9ed !0 sla-es. la-e la!our 4as
also the e#ono"i# !asis of the #olonies esta!lished on -arious 8est
Indian islands during the first half of the se-enteenth #entur0: and
this distin#tion !et4een #olonies used for e.ploitation and #olonies
used for settle"ent has led to i"portant #onstitutional -ariations in
the e"pire. >nl0 those #olonies in 4hi#h large 4hite #o""unities are
settled ha-e re#ei-ed self,go-ern"ent: those in 4hi#h a fe4 4hites
e.ploit a large #oloured population re"ain su!He#t to the #ontrol of
the ho"e go-ern"ent. The sa"e e#ono"i# and so#ial differen#es 4ere
responsi!le for the great A"eri#an #i-il 4ar !et4een *orth and outh in
the nineteenth #entur0.
There are three periods in British #olonial e.pansion. The first, or
introdu#tor0 period, 4as "ar9ed !0 England<s ri-alr0 4ith pain and
&ortugal: the se#ond !0 its ri-alr0 4ith the Dut#h: and the third !0
its ri-alr0 4ith Fran#e: and in ea#h the ri-alr0 led to 4ars in 4hi#h
Britain 4as -i#torious. The Eli6a!ethan 4ar 4ith pain 4as follo4ed !0
the Dut#h 4ars of the Co""on4ealth and Charles II<s reign, and then !0
the Fren#h 4ars, 4hi#h lasted, 4ith longer or shorter inter-als, fro"
16(( to 1(15. The 4ars 4ith the Dut#h sho4ed ho4 #o"pletel0, in the
latter half of the se-enteenth #entur0, #o""er#ial interests out4eighed
those of religion and politi#s. E-en 4hen English and Dut#h 4ere !oth
li-ing under &rotestant repu!li#s, the0 fought one another rather than
the Catholi# "onar#hies of Fran#e and pain. Their antagonis" arose
o-er ri-al #lai"s to so-ereignt0 in the *arro4 eas, 4hi#h the herring
fisheries had "ade as -alua!le as gold "ines, and out of #o"petition
for the 4orld<s #arr0ing trade and for #o""er#e in the East Indies. The
last,na"ed sour#e of irritation had led to a 3"assa#re3 of English"en
at A"!o0na in 16$+, after 4hi#h the English a!andoned the East Indian
islands to the Dut#h East India Co"pan0, #on#entrating their attention
upon India, 4here the a#5uisition of settle"ents at Cal#utta, Badras,
and Bo"!a0 laid the foundations of the three great &residen#ies of the
British E"pire in India.
A fatal !lo4 4as stru#9 at the Dut#h #arr0ing trade !0 the *a-igation
A#ts of 16501651, 4hi#h pro-ided that all goods i"ported into England
or an0 of its #olonies "ust !e !rought either in English ships or in
those of the produ#ing #ountr0. The Dut#h #ontested these A#ts in a
stu!!orn na-al 4ar. The great Ad"irals, )an Tro"p and Bla9e, 4ere not
une-enl0 "at#hed: !ut the Dut#h failed to #arr0 their point. The
prin#iple of the *a-igation A#ts 4as reaffir"ed, 4ith so"e
"odifi#ations, after the /estoration, 4hi#h "ade no differen#e to
England<s #o""er#ial and #olonial poli#0. A se#ond Dut#h 4ar
a##ordingl0 !ro9e out in 166', and this ti"e the Dut#h, !esides failing
in their original design, lost the *e4 *etherland #olon0 the0 had
esta!lished in *orth A"eri#a. &ortions of it !e#a"e *e4 @or9, so na"ed
after the future ;a"es II, 4ho 4as Du9e of @or9 and Dord 7igh Ad"iral,
and other parts 4ere #oloni6ed as &enns0l-ania !0 the Iua9er, 8illia"
&enn. The great i"portan#e of this a#5uisition 4as that it dro-e out
the 4edge di-iding the *e4 England #olonies to the north fro" )irginia
and Bar0land, 4hi#h had !een founded in Charles I<s reign, "ainl0 as a
refuge for /o"an Catholi#s, to the south: and this #ontinuous line of
British #olonies along the Atlanti# sea!oard 4as soon #ontinued
south4ards !0 the settle"ent of the t4o Carolinas. The #oloni6ation of
=eorgia, still further south, in the reign of =eorge II, #o"pleted the
thirteen #olonies 4hi#h !e#a"e the original Gnited tates.
Fran#e no4 o-ershado4ed 7olland as England<s #hief #o"petitor. Canada,
originall0 #oloni6ed !0 the Fren#h, had !een #on5uered !0 the English
in 16$1, !ut speedil0 restored !0 Charles I: and to4ards the #lose of
the se-enteenth #entur0 Fran#e !egan to thin9 of uniting Canada 4ith
another Fren#h #olon0, Douisiana, !0 a #hain of posts along the
Bississippi. Col!ert, Douis 2I)<s "inister, had greatl0 de-eloped
Fren#h #o""er#e, na-0, and na-igation: and the Bississippi Co"pan0 4as
an i"portant fa#tor in Fren#h histor0 earl0 in the eighteenth #entur0.
This design, if su##essful, 4ould ha-e neutrali6ed the ad-antage
England had se#ured in the possession of the Atlanti# sea!oard of *orth
A"eri#a, and ha-e "ade the -ast 8est a heritage of Fran#e.
*e-ertheless, the 4ars of 8illia" III and Anne 4ere not in the "ain
#olonial. Douis< support of ;a"es II, and his re#ognition of the >ld
&retender, 4ere !lo4s at the heart of the e"pire. Boderate su##ess on
;a"es<s part "ight ha-e led to its dis"e"!er"ent, to the separation of
Catholi# Ireland and the #ottish 7ighlands fro" the re"ainder of the
British Isles: and do"inion a!road 4ould not long ha-e sur-i-ed
disruption at ho"e. The !attle of the Bo0ne E1610F disposed of Irish
independen#e, and the A#t of Gnion 4ith #otland E1%0%F ensured =reat
Britain against the re-i-al of separate so-ereignties north and south
of the T4eed. #otland surrendered her independent parlia"ent and
ad"inistrationC it re#ei-ed instead the prote#tion of the *a-igation
la4s, representation in !oth houses of the Gnited &arlia"ent, and the
pri-ilege of free trade 4ith England and its #olonies?4hi#h put an end
to the tariff 4ars 4aged !et4een the t4o #ountries in the se-enteenth
#entur0: and it retained its esta!lished &res!0terian #hur#h. Fort0,
fi-e #ottish "e"!ers 4ere to sit in the 7ouse of Co""ons, and si.teen
#ottish peers ele#ted !0 their fello4s for ea#h parlia"ent in the
7ouse of Dords. #ottish peers 4ho 4ere not thus #hosen #ould neither
sit in the 7ouse of Dords nor see9 ele#tion to the 7ouse of Co""ons.
In ti"e this union #ontri!uted "ateriall0 to the e.pansi-e energ0 of
the British E"pire, !ut it did not su!stantiall0 help Barl!orough to
4in his !rilliant -i#tories in the 4ar 4ith Fran#e E1%0$1%1+F. Apart
fro" the general defeat of Douis 2I)<s a"!ition to do"inate Europe, the
"ost i"portant result, fro" the British point of -ie4, 4as the definite
esta!lish"ent of =reat Britain as a Bediterranean po4er !0 the
a#5uisition of =i!raltar and Binor#a. English e.peditions against
Canada had not !een -er0 su##essful, !ut the &ea#e of Gtre#ht E1%1+F
finall0 se#ured for the e"pire the out4or9s of the Canadian #itadel?
7udson<s Ba0 Territories, *e4foundland, and the future pro-in#es of
*o-a #otia and *e4 Bruns4i#9. The trading pri-ileges 4hi#h =reat
Britain also se#ured in panish A"eri#a !oth assisted the -ast gro4th
of British #o""er#e under 8alpole<s pa#ifi# rule, and pro-o9ed the 4ar
4ith pain in 1%+1 4hi#h helped to !ring a!out his fall. This 4ar,
4hi#h soon "erged in the 4ar of the Austrian u##ession E1%'11%'(F,
4as inde#isi-e in its #olonial aspe#ts, and left the 5uestion of Fren#h
or English predo"inan#e in India and *orth A"eri#a to !e settled in the
e-en @ears< 8ar of 1%561%6+.
8ar, ho4e-er, de#ides little !0 itself, and three of the 4orld<s
greatest soldiers, Ale.ander, 7anni!al, and *apoleon, founded no
per"anent e"pires. An e.#ellent ser-ant, !ut a !ad "aster, the soldier
needs to !e the instru"ent of other than "ilitar0 for#es if his la!ours
are to last: and the per"anen#e of the results of the e-en @ears< 8ar
is due less to the genius of &itt, 8olfe, Cli-e, and 7o4e than to the
#auses 4hi#h laid the foundations of their a#hie-e"ents. The future of
*orth A"eri#a 4as deter"ined not so "u#h !0 8olfe<s #apture of Iue!e#?
4hi#h had fallen into British hands !efore?as !0 the fa#t that !efore
the e-en @ears< 8ar !ro9e out there 4ere a "illion and a 5uarter
British #olonists against so"e eight0 thousand Fren#h. If Canada had
not fallen in the e-en @ears< 8ar, it 4ould ha-e su##u"!ed to British
ar"s in the 4ars of the Fren#h /e-olution and *apoleon. The fate of
India see"ed less #ertain, and the genius of Duplei. roused !etter
hopes for Fran#e: 0et India, defen#eless as it 4as against European
for#es, 4as !ound to fall a pri6e to the "asters of the sea, unless
so"e European state #ould #ontrol its al"ost i"passa!le o-erland
approa#hes. Cli-e, perhaps, 4as al"ost as "u#h the !rilliant ad-enturer
as Duplei., !ut he 4as supported at need !0 an organi6ed go-ern"ent
"ore sus#epti!le than the Fren#h ancien rgime to the pressure
of #o""er#ial interests and of popular a"!itions.
The #on5uest of Canada led to the loss of the thirteen A"eri#an
#olonies. Their original !ias to4ards separation had ne-er !een
eradi#ated, and the re#urrent 5uarrels !et4een the -arious legislatures
and their go-ernors had onl0 !een pre-ented fro" #o"ing to a head !0
fear of the Fren#h"en at their gates and disunion a"ong the"sel-es.
Charles II and ;a"es II 4anted to #entrali6e the *e4 England #olonies
on a "onar#hi#al !asis: and the0 !egan !0 atta#9ing their #harters in
"u#h the sa"e 4a0 as the0 dealt 4ith the &uritan #orporations of
English #ities and !oroughs. Those of Bassa#husetts, Conne#ti#ut, and
/hode Island 4ere forfeited, and these #olonies 4ere thus pro-ided 4ith
a grie-an#e #o""on to the"sel-es and to the "other,#ountr0. But, 4hile
the /e-olution supplied a re"ed0 at ho"e, it did not in the #olonies.
Their #harters, indeed, 4ere restored: !ut 4hen the Bassa#husetts
legislature passed a !ill si"ilar to the Bill of /ights, the ro0al
assent 4as not a##orded, and the #olonists re"ained lia!le to ta.ation
4ithout their o4n #onsent. This theoreti#al right of =reat Britain to
ta. the A"eri#an #olonies 4as 4isel0 left in a!e0an#e until =eorge
=ren-ille<s righteous soul 4as -e.ed 4ith the thought that #olonists,
for 4hose !enefit the e-en @ears< 8ar had largel0 !een 4aged, should
es#ape #ontri!ution to4ards its e.penses. 8alpole had redu#ed the
duties on #olonial produ#e and had 4in9ed at the s0ste"ati# e-asion of
the *a-igation A#ts !0 the #olonists. =ren-ille 4as in#apa!le of su#h
states"anli9e o!li5uit0. 7e tried to stop s"uggling: he asserted the
right of the ho"e go-ern"ent to #ontrol the -ast hinterland fro" 4hi#h
the #olonists thought that the Fren#h had !een e-i#ted for their
parti#ular !enefit: and he passed the ta"p A#t, le-0ing internal
ta.ation fro" the #olonies 4ithout #onsulting their legislatures.
e#urit0 fro" the Fren#h "ade the #olonists thin9 the0 4ere independent
of the British, and, ha-ing an inordinate proportion of la40ers a"ong
the", the0 did not la#9 plausi!le argu"ents. The0 ad"itted the right of
the British parlia"ent to i"pose e.ternal ta.es, su#h as #usto"s
duties, on the #olonies, !ut denied its right to le-0 internal
ta.ation. The distin#tion 4as 4ell esta!lished in English
#onstitutional histor0, and 9ings had long enHo0ed po4ers o-er the
#usto"s 4hi#h the0 had lost o-er dire#t ta.ation. But the English
forefathers of the &uritan #olonists had seen to it that #ontrol o-er
dire#t, led to #ontrol o-er indire#t, ta.ation: and it "a0 !e assu"ed
that the A"eri#an de"and for the one 4ould, if granted, soon ha-e !een
follo4ed !0 a de"and for the other. In an0 #ase, reasons for separation
4ould not ha-e !een long in forth#o"ing. It 4as not that the old
#olonial s0ste" 4as parti#ularl0 harsh or oppressi-e: for the #olonial
produ#er, if restri#ted Eno"inall0F to the ho"e "ar9et, 4as 4ell
prote#ted there. But the #olonists 4anted #o"plete #ontrol o-er their
o4n do"esti# affairs. It 4as a natural and a thoroughl0 British desire,
the denial of 4hi#h to,da0 4ould at on#e pro-o9e the disruption of the
e"pire: and there 4as no reason to e.pe#t #olonial #ontent 4ith a
go-ern"ent 4hi#h 4as not gi-ing "u#h satisfa#tion in England. A
pea#eful solution 4as out of the 5uestion, !e#ause the go-erning
#lasses, 4hi#h steadil0 resisted English de"ands for refor", 4ere not
li9el0 to #on#ede A"eri#an de"ands for radi#al inno-ations. There 4ere
no pre#edents for su#h a self,den0ing ordinan#e as the grant of
#olonial self,go-ern"ent, and la4 4as on the side of =eorge III. But
things that are la4ful are not al4a0s e.pedient, and legal
Hustifi#ation is no proof of 4isdo" or states"anship.
The English people supported =eorge III until he had failed: !ut there
4as not "u#h enthusias" for the 4ar, e.#ept at pla#es li9e Bir"ingha",
4hi#h possessed a s"all,ar"s "anufa#tor0 and other sti"ulants to
patrioti# fer-our. It 4as !adl0 "is"anaged !0 =eorge, and 8higs did
their !est to ha"per his efforts, fearing, 4ith so"e reason, that
su##ess in *orth A"eri#a 4ould en#ourage despoti# enterprise at ho"e.
=eorge 4ould, ho4e-er, in all pro!a!ilit0 ha-e 4on !ut for the
inter-ention of Fran#e and pain E1%%(1%%1F, 4ho hoped to 4ipe off the
s#ores of the e-en @ears< 8ar, and for the ar"ed neutralit0 of /ussia
and 7olland E1%(0F, 4ho resented the arrogant #lai"s of the British to
right of sear#h on the high seas. At the #riti#al "o"ent Britain lost
the #o""and of the sea: and although /odne0<s na-al -i#tor0 E1%($F and
the su##essful defen#e of =i!raltar E1%%11%(+F ena!led her to o!tain
tolera!le ter"s fro" her European ene"ies, A"eri#an independen#e had to
!e granted E1%(+F. For Ireland 4as on the -erge of re-olt, and British
do"inion in India 4as sha9en to its foundations. o the t4o great
se#tions of the English people parted #o"pan0, perhaps to their "utual
profit. Certainl0 ea#h go-ern"ent has no4 enough to do 4ithout sol-ing
the other<s pro!le"s, and it is 4ell,nigh i"possi!le to #on#ei-e a
state "aintaining its e5uili!riu" or its e5uani"it0 4ith t4o su#h
partners as the British E"pire and the Gnited tates struggling for
predo"inan#e 4ithin it.
Bean4hile, 8arren 7astings sa-ed the situation in India !0 "eans that
4ere a!o-e the >riental !ut !elo4 the nor"al English standard of
"oralit0. 7e 4as i"pea#hed for his pains later on !0 the 8higs, 4hose
"oral indignation 4as sharpened !0 resent"ent at the use of Anglo,
Indian gold to defeat the" at the general ele#tion of 1%('. Ireland 4as
pla#ated !0 the grant of legislati-e independen#e E1%($F, a #on#ession
!oth too 4ide and too narro4 to pro-ide an0 real solution of her
diffi#ulties. It 4as too 4ide !e#ause =rattan<s parlia"ent, as it is
#alled, 4as #o,ordinate 4ith, and not su!ordinate to, the i"perial
parlia"ent: and there 4as thus no supre"e authorit0 to settle
differen#es, 4hi#h sooner or later 4ere !ound to arise !et4een the t4o.
It 4as too narro4, !e#ause the Irish e.e#uti-e re"ained responsi!le to
Do4ning treet and not to the Irish parlia"ent. The parlia"ent,
"oreo-er, did not represent the Irish people: Catholi#s 4ere e.#luded
fro" it, and until 1%1+ 4ere denied the -ote: si.t0 seats 4ere in the
hands of three fa"ilies, and a "aHorit0 of the "e"!ers 4ere returned !0
po#9et,!oroughs. A "ore hopeless 4ant of s0ste" #an hardl0 !e i"aginedC
a #orrupt aristo#ra#0, a fero#ious #o""onalt0, a distra#ted go-ern"ent,
a di-ided people?su#h 4as the -erdi#t of a #onte"porar0 politi#ian. At
length, after a &rotestant re-olt in Glster, a Catholi# rising in the
south, and a Fren#h in-asion, &itt !ri!ed and #aHoled the !orough,
"ongers to #onsent to union 4ith =reat Britain E1(00F. Thirt0,t4o Irish
peers, t4ent0,eight te"poral and four spiritual, 4ere to sit in the
7ouse of Dords, and a hundred Irish "e"!ers in the 7ouse of Co""ons.
The reali6ation of the prospe#t of /o"an Catholi# E"an#ipation, 4hi#h
had !een held out as a further #onsideration, 4as postponed !0 the
preHudi#es of =eorge III until its sa-ing gra#e had !een lost.
=rattan<s prophe#0 of retri!ution for the destru#tion of Irish li!ert0
has often !een 5uotedC 38e 4ill a-enge oursel-es,3 he said, 3!0 sending
into the ran9s of 0our parlia"ent, and into the -er0 heart of 0our
#onstitution, one hundred of the greatest s#oundrels in the 9ingdo"3:
!ut it is generall0 forgotten that he had in "ind the 9ind of "e"!ers
no"inated !0 peers and !orough,"ongers to represent the" in an
unrefor"ed 7ouse of Co""ons.
The loss of the A"eri#an #olonies thre4 a shado4 o-er British #olonial
enterprise 4hi#h had so"e lasting effe#ts on the #olonial poli#0 of the
"other,#ountr0. The se-eran#e did not, as is often supposed, #on-in#e
=reat Britain that the grant of self,go-ern"ent to #olonies 4as the
onl0 "eans to retain the". But the0 had !een estee"ed "ainl0 as "ar9ets
for British e.ports, and the dis#o-er0 that British e.ports to A"eri#a
in#reased, instead of di"inishing, after the grant of independen#e,
raised dou!ts a!out the -alue of #olonies 4hi#h e.plain the #o"parati-e
indifferen#e of pu!li# opinion to4ards the" during the ne.t half,
#entur0. For the #o""er#ial #on#eption of e"pire 4as still in the
as#endant: and if the landed interest #ontrolled the do"esti# politi#s
of the eighteenth #entur0, the #o""er#ial interest deter"ined the
outlines of British e.pansion. Territor0 4as a#5uired or strongholds
sei6ed in order to pro-ide "ar9ets and guard trade #o""uni#ations.
Fro" this point of -ie4 India !e#a"e, after the loss of the A"eri#an
#olonies, the do"inant fa#tor in British e.ternal poli#0. The "onetar0
-alue of India to the British far e.#eeded that of all their other
foreign possessions put together. The East India Co"pan0<s ser-ants
often a"assed huge fortunes in a fe4 0ears, and the influen#e of this
4ealth upon British politi#s !e#a"e -er0 apparent in the last 5uarter
of the #entur0. It put up the pri#e of parlia"entar0 po#9et,!oroughs,
and thus dela0ed refor": it ena!led #o""er#ial "en to for#e their 4a0
into the 7ouse of Dords !0 the side of landed "agnates, and the 0ounger
&itt dou!led its nu"!ers in his efforts to 4in the politi#al support of
the "one0ed #lasses: and finall0, it affe#ted #ons#iousl0 or
un#ons#iousl0 "en<s -ie4s of the interests of the e"pire and of the
poli#0 to !e pursued to ser-e the".
The half,#entur0 4hi#h follo4ed the A"eri#an 8ar of Independen#e 4as
not, indeed, !arren of results in other dire#tions than those indi#ated
!0 the East India Co"pan0. Canada 4as sa-ed fro" the sedu#tions of
A"eri#an independen#e !0 a 4ise re#ognition of its esta!lished #usto"s
and religion E1%%'F, and 4as strengthened !0 the influ. of Gnited
E"pire Do0alists 4ho 4ould not !o4 the 9nee to repu!li#an separatis".
&ro-ision 4as "ade for the go-ern"ent of these so"e 4hat dis#ordant
ele"ents !0 di-iding Canada into t4o pro-in#es, one predo"inantl0
Fren#h, the other British, and gi-ing ea#h a legislature for the
-oi#ing of its grie-an#es E1%11F. o, too, the i"pulse of the e-en
@ears< 8ar sur-i-ed the 8ar of Independen#e in other 5uarters of the
glo!e. *a-al offi#ers, released fro" 4ar,li9e operations, 4ere sent to
e.plore the &a#ifi#: and, a"ong the", Captain ;a"es Coo9 sur-e0ed the
#oasts of Australia and *e4 Kealand E1%%0F. The enthusiasti# naturalist
of the e.pedition, ;oseph Ban9s, persistentl0 sang the praises of
Botan0 Ba0: !ut the ne4 a#5uisition 4as used as a #on-i#t settle"ent
E1%((F, 4hi#h 4as hardl0 a happ0 "ethod of e.tending British
#i-ili6ation. The origin of Australia differed fro" that of *e4
England, in that the &ilgri" Fathers 4anted to a-oid the "other,
#ountr0: 4hile the "other,#ountr0 4anted to a-oid the #on-i#ts: !ut in
neither #ase 4as there an0 i"perialis" in the a-ersion.
India 4as, in fa#t, the #hief outlet at that period for British
i"perial senti"ent. It is true that =reat Britain laid do4n in sole"n
offi#ial language, in 1%(', that the a#5uisition of territor0 4as
repugnant to the prin#iples of British go-ern"ent. But so had Frederi#9
the =reat !egun his #areer !0 4riting a refutation of Ba#hia-elli:
#ir#u"stan#es, and so"ething 4ithin 4hi#h "ade for e"pire, pro-ed too
strong for li!eral intentions, and the onl0 British 4ar 4aged !et4een
the &ea#e of )ersailles in 1%(+ and the rupture 4ith /e-olutionar0
Fran#e in 1%1+ resulted in the dis"e"!er"ent of Tippoo ultan<s 9ingdo"
of B0sore E1%1$F. The #rusading tru#ulen#e of the Fren#h repu!li#ans,
and *apoleon<s a"!ition, "ade the se#urit0 of the British Isles &itt<s
first #onsideration: !ut 4hen that 4as #onfir"ed !0 na-al -i#tories
o-er the Fren#h on the 1st of ;une, 1%1', and at the !attle of the *ile
in 1%1(, o-er the Dut#h at Ca"perdo4n and o-er the paniards at Cape
t. )in#ent in 1%1%, o-er the Danes at Copenhagen in 1(01, and o-er the
Fren#h and paniards #o"!ined at Trafalgar in 1(05, =reat Britain
#on#entrated its energies "ainl0 on e.tending its hold on India and the
Far East, and on strengthening its #o""uni#ations 4ith the". The
purpose of the !attle of the *ile 4as to e-i#t *apoleon fro" Eg0pt,
4hi#h he had o##upied as a stepping,stone to India, and Balta 4as
sei6ed E1(00F 4ith a si"ilar o!He#t. Bauritius, too, 4as ta9en E1(10F,
!e#ause it had for"ed a profita!le !asis of operations for Fren#h
pri-ateers against the East India trade: and the Cape of =ood 7ope 4as
#on5uered fro" the Dut#h, the relu#tant allies of the Fren#h, in 1%15,
as a !etter half,4a0 house to India than t. 7elena, 4hi#h England had
a#5uired fro" the sa"e #olonial ri-als in 16%+. The Cape 4as restored
in 1(0$, !ut re#on5uered in 1(06 and retained in 1(15.
In the Far East, British do"inion 4as rapidl0 e.tended under the
sti"ulus of the Bar5uess 8ellesle0, elder !rother of the Du9e of
8ellington, 4ho endea-oured in redundantl0 elo5uent despat#hes to
re#on#ile his deeds 4ith the pa#ifi# tone of his instru#tions. Ce0lon
4as ta9en fro" the Dut#h in 1%16, and 4as not restored li9e ;a-a, 4hi#h
suffered a si"ilar #on5uest: and British settle"ents 4ere soon
after4ards founded at ingapore and on the Bala0 &eninsula. In India
itself Tippoo 4as defeated and slain in his #apital at eringapata" in
1%11, the Bahrattas 4ere #rushed at Ass0e and Argau" in 1(0+, the na!o!
4as for#ed to surrender the Carnati#, and the -i6ier the pro-in#e of
>udh, until the 4hole #oast,line of India and the -alle0 of the =anges
had passed dire#tl0 or indire#tl0 under British #ontrol. These regions
4ere #on5uered partl0 !e#ause the0 4ere "ore attra#ti-e and a##essi!le
to the British, and partl0 to pre-ent their !eing a##essi!le to the
Fren#h: the poorer and "ore diffi#ult "ountainous distri#ts of the
De##an, isolated fro" foreign infe#tion, 4ere left under nati-e rulers.
The final o-erthro4 of *apoleon, to 4hi#h =reat Britain had #ontri!uted
"ore !0 its efforts in the panish &eninsular 8ar E1(0(1(1'F than at
the #ro4ning "er#0 of 8aterloo, #onfir"ed its #on5uests in India and
its #ontrol of the trade routes of the 4orld. Its one per"anent failure
during the 4ar 4as 8hitelo#9e<s e.pedition to Buenos A0res in 1(0%:
that atta#9 4as not repeated !e#ause the paniards ha-ing, !0 their
re-olt against *apoleon, !e#o"e England<s allies, it 4as hardl0 fair to
appropriate their #olonies: and so outh A"eri#a 4as left to 4or9 out
its destinies under Datin and not Teutoni# influen#e. Bost of the 8est
Indian islands, ho4e-er, 4ith British 7onduras and British =uiana on
the "ainland, had !een a#5uired for the e"pire, 4hi#h had no4 se#ured
footholds in all the #ontinents of the 4orld. The de-elop"ent of those
footholds into great self,go-erning #o""unities, the uni5ue and real
a#hie-e"ent of the British E"pire, 4as the 4or9 of the nineteenth
#entur0: and its a##o"plish"ent depended upon the effe#ts of the
#hanges 9no4n to us as the Industrial /e-olution.
Chapter 0##
The #ndustrial 4evolution
The Industrial /e-olution is a phrase in-ented !0 Arnold To0n!ee, and
no4 generall0 used to indi#ate those e#ono"i# #hanges 4hi#h turned
England fro" an agri#ultural into an industrial #o""unit0. The period
during 4hi#h these #hanges too9 pla#e #annot fro" the nature of things
!e definitel0 fi.ed: !ut usuall0 it is ta9en to e.tend fro" a!out the
"iddle of the eighteenth #entur0 to the #lose of the reign of =eorge
III. T4o points, ho4e-er, "ust !e re"e"!eredC first, that there 4as a
#o""er#ial as 4ell as an agri#ultural and an industrial stage of
de-elop"ent: and se#ondl0, that this period #ontains "erel0 the #entral
and #ru#ial 0ears of a pro#ess of spe#iali6ation and e.pansion 4hi#h
o##upied #enturies of English e#ono"i# histor0. There 4as also !efore
the agri#ultural stage a pastoral stage: !ut that lies !e0ond the s#ope
of English histor0, !e#ause !oth the English people and the Celts the0
#on5uered had passed out of the pastoral stage !efore re#orded English
histor0 !egins. Ea#h of these stages #orresponds to a different so#ial
organi6ationC the pastoral stage 4as patriar#hal, the agri#ultural
stage 4as feudal, the #o""er#ial stage 4as pluto#rati#, and the
industrial stage leads to4ards de"o#ra#0. The stages, of #ourse,
o-erlap one another, and e-er0 national #o""unit0 to,da0 is partl0
pastoral, partl0 agri#ultural, partl0 #o""er#ial, and partl0
industrial. 8e #an onl0 #all a nation an0 one of these things in the
sense that the0 denote its do"inant #hara#teristi#.
This e-olution has !een the result of "an<s in#reasing #ontrol o-er
nature. In the pastoral stage he ta9es of the produ#e of nature,
pro-iding little or nothing hi"self. In the agri#ultural stage he
"anipulates the soil and su!dues it, he harnesses the 4ind and the
strea"s to grind his #orn, and to 4ater his land: &ro-iden#e "a0 ha-e
pla#ed all things under his feet, !ut he ta9es long to dis#o-er their
use and the "eans to use the". In the #o""er#ial and industrial stages
he e"plo0s the 4ind and 4ater, stea" and ele#tri#it0, for transport,
#o""uni#ations, and "anufa#tures. But he #an onl0 de-elop this "aster0
!0 the interdependent pro#esses of spe#iali6ation, #o,operation, and
e.pansion. A lonel0 shepherd #an li-e on his flo#9s 4ithout help: a
single fa"il0 #an pro-ide for its o4n agri#ultural su!sisten#e, and the
nor"al holding of the pri"iti-e English fa"il0, the 3hide3 as it 4as
#alled, 4as reall0 a share in all the "eans of li-elihood, #orn,land,
pasture,land, rights of #o""on and of #utting 4ood. This fa"il0
independen#e long sur-i-ed, and ho"e,!re4ing, ho"e,!a9ing, ho"e,
4ashing, are not e-en no4 e.tin#t. Ea#h fa"il0 in the pri"iti-e -illage
did e-er0thing for itself. 8hen its needs and standard of #o"fort gre4,
in#reased fa#ilities !e0ond the rea#h of the indi-idual household 4ere
pro-ided !0 the lord of the "anor, as, for instan#e, a "ill, a
!a9ehouse, a 4ine,press. Indeed, the possession of these things "a0
ha-e helped hi" into the lordship of the "anor. Certainl0, so"e of the"
are "entioned in earl0 Anglo,a.on da0s a"ong the 5ualifi#ations for
thegnhood, and 4hen the lord possessed these things, he #lai"ed a
"onopol0: his tenants 4ere !ound to grind their #orn at his "ill, and
so forth. But there 4ere things he did not #are to do, and a -illager
here and there !egan to spe#iali6e in su#h trades as the !la#9s"ith<s,
#arpenter<s, and "ason<s. This spe#iali6ation in-ol-ed #o,operation and
the e.pansion of household e#ono"0 into -illage e#ono"0. >thers "ust do
the !la#9s"ith<s so4ing and reaping, 4hile he did the shoeing for the
4hole -illage.
Thus -illage industries gre4 up, and in unprogressi-e #ountries, su#h
as India, 4here, o4ing to distan#e and la#9 of #o""uni#ations, -illages
4ere isolated and self,suffi#ing, this -illage e#ono"0 !e#a"e
stereot0ped, and the -illage trades hereditar0. But in 4estern Europe,
as order 4as slo4l0 e-ol-ed after the #haos of the Dar9 Ages,
#o""uni#ations and trade,routes 4ere opened up: and 4hole -illages
!egan to spe#iali6e in #ertain industries, lea-ing other #o""odities to
!e produ#ed !0 other #o""unities. For the e.#hange of these #o""odities
"ar9ets and fairs 4ere esta!lished at -arious #on-enient #entres: and
this in turn led to the spe#iali6ation of traders and "er#hants, 4ho
did not "a9e, !ut onl0 arranged for the !arter of, "anufa#tures.
Through the de-elop"ent of lo#al industries and "ar9ets, -illages gre4
into to4ns, and to4ns e.panded 4ith the e.tent of the area the0
supplied. A to4n 4hi#h supplied a nation 4ith #utler0, for instan#e,
4as ne#essaril0 !igger than a to4n 4hi#h onl0 supplied a #ount0. This
e.pansion of "ar9ets "eant that to4ns and #ities 4ere "ore and "ore
spe#iali6ing in so"e one or "ore industries, lea-ing the great "aHorit0
of their needs to !e supplied fro" else4here: and the 4hole pro#ess 4as
!ased on the gro4ing #o"ple.it0 of #i-ili6ation, on the "ultipl0ing
nu"!er of i"ple"ents re5uired to do the 4or9 of the 4orld.
The #o"parati-el0 si"ple organi6ation of feudal so#iet0 !ro9e do4n
under the stress of these #hanges: a "iddle #lass, #onsisting of
neither lords nor -illeins, 4as needed to #ope 4ith industr0 and
#o""er#e. 7and4or9ers also 4ere re5uired, so that fro" the "iddle of
the fourteenth #entur0 4e find a regular flight fro" the land to the
to4ns in progress. Another great #hange too9 pla#e. *o one had !een
ri#h a##ording to "odern notions in the earl0 Biddle Ages, and no one
had !een destitute: there 4as no need of a &oor Da4. But 4ith the
e.pansion of the sphere of "en<s operations, the differen#es !et4een
the poor and the ri#h !egan to in#rease. There is little to #hoose
!et4een a slo4 runner and a s4ift 4hen the ra#e #o-ers onl0 ten 0ards:
there is "ore 4hen it #o-ers a hundred, and a great deal 4hen it #o-ers
a "ile. o, too, 4hen operations are li"ited to the -illage "ar9et,
a!ilit0 has a li"ited s#ope, and the a!le finan#ier does not gro4 so
-er0 "u#h ri#her than his neigh!our. But 4hen his "ar9et #o"prises a
nation, his "eans for a#5uiring 4ealth are e.tended: the ri#h !e#o"e
ri#her, and the poor, #o"parati-el0 at an0 rate, poorer. 7en#e, 4hen in
the fourteenth and follo4ing #enturies the national "ar9et e.pands into
a 4orld "ar9et, 4e find gro4ing up side !0 side #apitalis" and
destitution: and the reason 4h0 there are so "an0 "illionaires and so
"u#h destitution to,da0, #o"pared 4ith earlier ti"es, is that the 4orld
is no4 one "ar9et, and the range of operations is onl0 li"ited !0 the
glo!e.
The #ontrol of the 4orld<s supplies tends to get into the hands of a
fe4 !ig produ#ers or operators instead of !eing in the hands of a -ast
nu"!er of s"all ones: and this has #o"e a!out through e-er,e.panding
"ar9ets and e-er,in#reasing spe#iali6ation. E-en 4hole nations
spe#iali6e "ore or less: so"e produ#e the #orn,suppl0 of the 4orld,
so"e its #oal, so"e its oil, and so"e do its #arr0ing trade. It is no4
a 5uestion 4hether there should not !e so"e li"its to this pro#ess, and
it is as9ed 4hether a nation or e"pire should not !e self,supporting,
irrespe#ti-e of the e#ono"i# ad-antages of e.pansion and
spe#iali6ation, and of the fa#t that the "ore self,supporting it is,
the less trade #an it do 4ith others: for it #annot e.port unless it
i"ports, and if ea#h nation "a9es e-er0thing it 4ants itself it 4ill
neither sell to, nor !u0 fro", other nations.
There ha-e !een t4o periods in English histor0 during 4hi#h these
general tenden#ies ha-e !een espe#iall0 "ar9ed. >ne 4as at the #lose of
the Biddle Ages, and the other during the reign of =eorge III. The
!rea9,up of the "anorial s0ste", the gro4th of a !od0 of "o!ile la!our,
and of #apital see9ing in-est"ent, the dis#o-er0 of ne4 4orlds and ne4
"ar9ets, heralded the ad-ent of the "iddle #lass and of the #o""er#ial
age. Custo", 4hi#h had regulated "ost things in the Biddle Ages, ga-e
4a0 to #o"petition, 4hi#h defied all regulation: and England !e#a"e a
nation of pri-ateers, despoiling the #hur#h, pain, Ireland, and often
the #o""on4ealth itself. #ores of a#ts against fraudulent
"anufa#turers and against in#losures 4ere passed in -ain, !e#ause the0
ran #ounter to e#ono"i# #onditions. The produ#ts of the ne4 fa#tories,
li9e ;a#9 of *e4!ur0<s 9erse0s, #ould not e5ual in 5ualit0 the older
ho"e,"ade arti#le, !e#ause the ho"e,"ade arti#le 4as produ#ed under
non,e#ono"i# #onditions. pinsters toda0 9nit !etter gar"ents than
those turned out in !ul9, !e#ause neither ti"e nor "one0 is an0
#onsideration 4ith the": the0 9nit for o##upation, not for a li-ing,
and the0 #an afford to de-ote "ore la!our to their produ#e than the0
#ould possi!l0 do if the0 depended upon it for su!sisten#e. The #ase
4as the sa"e 4ith the ho"e,produ#ts of earlier ti"es, and #o"pared 4ith
the" the ne4er fa#tor0,produ#t 4as shodd0: !e#ause, if the "anufa#turer
4as to earn a li-ing fro" his industr0 he "ust produ#e a #ertain
5uantit0 4ithin a li"ited ti"e. These !0,produ#ts of the ho"e 4ere
ena!led to hold their o4n against the fa#tor0 produ#ts until the
de-elop"ent of "a#hiner0 in the eighteenth #entur0: and until that ti"e
the fa#tor0 s0ste", although fa#tories e.isted on a rudi"entar0 s#ale,
did not full0 de-elop. o far as it did de-elop, it "eant an in#rease
in the effi#ien#0 and in the total 4ealth of the nation, !ut a de#rease
in the prosperit0 of thousands of indi-idual households.
The effe#t of in#losures 4as -er0 si"ilar. The old s0ste" of the
-illagers #ulti-ating in turn strips of land in open fields 4as
undou!tedl0 unsound, if the a"ount of 4ealth produ#ed is the sole
#riterion: !ut it produ#ed enough for the indi-idual -illage,#o""unit0,
and the in#reased produ#tion a##ruing fro" in#losures 4ent to s4ell the
total 4ealth of the nation and of those 4ho "anipulated it at the #ost
of the tillers of the soil. The #ost to the #o""unit0 4as potential
rather than a#tual: #o""on lands 4hi#h are no4 4orth "illions 4ere
appropriated !0 landlords in defian#e of the la4. This illegalit0 4as
re"edied in 15'1, not !0 stopping the in#losures !ut !0 "a9ing the"
legal, pro-ided that 3suffi#ient3 #o""ons 4ere left: if the in#loser
#onsidered his lea-ings enough, the gainsa0ing of the tenants 4as to !e
ignored, or punished as treason or felon0 in #ase of persisten#e.
England, ho4e-er, 4as still fairl0 !ig for its three or four "illions
of souls, and an A#t of Iueen Eli6a!eth pro-ided that e-er0 ne4 #ottage
!uilt should stand in four a#res of its o4n. This anti#ipation of the
de"and for three a#res and a #o4 did so"ething to #he#9 e.#essi-e
spe#iali6ation: for the tenants of these #ottages added a little
#ulti-ation on their o4n a##ount to their o##upations as hired
la!ourers or -illage artisans. In the se-enteenth #entur0 the land,
hunger of the landlords 4as generall0 sated !0 s#he"es for draining and
e"!an9ing: and -ast tra#ts of fen and "arsh, su#h as 7atfield Chase and
Bedford De-el, 4ere thus !rought under #ulti-ation.
Co""er#e rather than industrialis" or agri#ulture is the distin#ti-e
feature of English e#ono"0 during the se-enteenth and first half of the
eighteenth #entur0. B0 "eans of ne4l0 de-eloped trade,routes, the East
and the 8est 4ere tapped for su#h produ#ts as to!a##o, tea, #offee,
#o#oa, sugar, ru", spi#es, oranges, le"ons, raisins, #urrants, sil9s,
#otton, ri#e, and others 4ith 4hi#h England had pre-iousl0 so"eho4 or
other dispensed: and the prin#ipal !one of #ontention 4as the #arr0ing
trade of the 4orld. hip!uilding 4as the "ost fa"ous English industr0:
and 4hen &eter the =reat -isited England, he spent "ost of his ti"e in
the Deptford 0ards. For so"e of these i"ports England paid !0 her
ser-i#es as #arrier: and so far as India 4as #on#erned it 4as a #ase of
ro!!er0 rather than e.#hange. But e.ports 4ere "ore and "ore re5uired
to pa0 for the e-er,in#reasing i"ports. It is i"possi!le to state
#ategori#all0 either that the i"ports pro-o9ed the e.ports or the
e.ports the i"ports: for the suppl0 #reates the de"and as "u#h as the
de"and #reates the suppl0. There #an ha-e !een no #ons#ious de"and for
to!a##o in England !efore an0 English"an had s"o9ed a pipe: and 4hen an
English "er#hant in Eli6a!eth<s reign too9 a thousand 9erse0s to
Bo9hara, he did so 4ithout 4aiting for an order. Both e.ports and
i"ports, ho4e-er, #an onl0 de-elop together: the di"ensions to 4hi#h
English #o""er#e had attained !0 8alpole<s ti"e in-ol-ed e.ports as
4ell as i"ports: and the e.ports #ould not ha-e !een pro-ided 4ithout
de-eloping English industries.
In parti#ular, England had to e.port to the #olonies !e#ause the
#olonies had !0 the *a-igation A#ts to e.port to England: and 8alpole<s
a!olition or redu#tion of duties on #olonial produ#e illustrated and
en#ouraged the gro4th of this trade. In return for #olonial to!a##o,
ri#e, #otton, sugar, England sent #hiefl0 4oollen and after4ards #otton
"anufa#tures. These 4oollens had long !een "anufa#tured on the do"esti#
s0ste" in the sheep,rearing distri#ts of England, parti#ularl0
@or9shire: "an0 a #ottage 4ith its four a#res for far"ing had also its
spinning,4heel, and "an0 a -illage its loo": and the #loth 4hen
finished 4as #on-e0ed !0 pa#9,horses or 4aggons to the "ar9ets and
fairs to !e sold for e.port or ho"e #onsu"ption. But !et4een 1%6' and
1%%1 a series of in-entions !0 Ar94right, 7argrea-es, and Cro"pton,
transfor"ed the si"ple spinning,4heel into an ela!orate "a#hine #apa!le
of doing the 4or9 of "an0 spinners: and on#e "ore an ad-an#e in
national produ#ti-it0 4as "ade at the e.pense of the indi-idual 4or9ers
4ho too9 to !rea9ing the "a#hines to stop their loss of 4or9.
i"ilar #hanges follo4ed in #otton,spinning and other industries, and
the result 4as to alter the 4hole e#ono"i# stru#ture of England. The
#ottager #ould not afford the ne4 and e.pensi-e "a#hiner0, and his
spinning,4heels and hand,loo"s 4ere hopelessl0 !eaten in the
#o"petition. 7uge fa#tories 4ere re5uired for the ne4 in-entions, 4here
the 4or9ers 4ere all huddled together instead of 4or9ing in their
s#attered ho"es: and large populations gre4 up around these ne4 and
artifi#ial "anufa#turing #entres. Their lo#alit0 4as, ho4e-er,
deter"ined !0 natural #auses: at first 4ater,po4er 4as the !est
a-aila!le for#e to dri-e the ne4 "a#hines, and #onse5uentl0 to4ns
sprang up along the !an9s of ri-ers. But 8att<s appli#ation of stea",
po4er to "a#hiner0 soon supplanted 4ater: and for stea",po4er #oal and
iron 4ere the greatest ne#essities. Fa#tories therefore tended to
#ongregate 4here #oal and iron 4ere found: and the need for these
"aterials #reated the #oal and iron industries. Boreo-er, the pa#9,
horse, the 4aggon, and the old un"etalled roads soon pro-ed inade5uate
for the ne4 re5uire"ents of transport. For a ti"e #anals !e#a"e the
fa-ourite su!stitute, and "an0 4ere #onstru#ted. Then Ba#ada" in-ented
his "ethod of "a9ing roads: finall0, tephenson de-eloped the stea"
lo#o"oti-e, and the rail4a0 s0ste" #a"e into e.isten#e.
Closel0 #onne#ted 4ith these #hanges 4as a rene4al of the in#losure
"o-e"ent. The introdu#tion of turnips and other roots, and the
de-elop"ent of the rotation of #rops in#reased the -alue of the soil
and re-i-ed the sti"ulus to in#losure: and hundreds of in#losure a#ts
4ere hurriedl0 passed !0 a parlia"ent 4hi#h #ontained no
representati-es of those 4ho suffered fro" the pro#ess. It 4as assisted
!0 the further spe#iali6ation #onse5uent upon the industrial
re-olution: 4hile the agri#ultural la!ourer ga-e up spinning under the
stress of fa#tor0 #o"petition, the spinner deserted his #ottage and
four a#res in the #ountr0, to see9 a d4elling near the fa#tor0 4hi#h
e"plo0ed hi": and the Eli6a!ethan A#t, insisting upon the allo#ation of
four a#res to ea#h ne4 #ottage !uilt, 4as repealed. But for that
repeal, fa#tor0 slu"s 4ould !e garden #ities, unless the in#u!us of
this pro-ision had stopped the fa#tor0 de-elop"ent. The final result of
the in#losure "o-e"ent upon the #ountr0 4as to depri-e the pu!li# of
"ost of its #o""ons and open spa#es, to depri-e the agri#ultural
la!ourer of all right in the soil he tilled, and to ro! hi" of that
"agi# of propert0 4hi#h, in Arthur @oung<s phrase, turned sand into
gold.
The ine-ita!le adHust"ent of the population to these altered e#ono"i#
#onditions entirel0 #hanged its distri!ution. 7itherto the progressi-e
and predo"inant parts of England had !een the south and east:
#onser-atis" found its refuge in the north and 4est, 4hi#h re!elled
against the Tudors and fought for Charles I. The south and east had
!een the "anufa#turing #entres !e#ause iron 4as s"elted 4ith 4ood and
not 4ith #oal. *o4 that #oal 4as su!stituted for 4ood, the
Hu.taposition of #oal and iron "ines in the north attra#ted thither the
industries of the nation, 4hile the spe#ial features of its #li"ate
"ade outh Dan#ashire the ho"e of #otton,spinning. The !alan#e of
population and politi#al po4er follo4ed. To,da0 southern England, apart
fro" Dondon and so"e other ports, hardl0 does "ore than su!sist, and
its o##upations are largel0 parasiti#. The 4or9 and the 4ealth and the
trade 4hi#h support the e"pire and its !urdens ha-e their origin and
!eing in the north.
The population not onl0 shifted, !ut rapidl0 in#reased. The uprooting
of peasants fro" their little plots of land 4hi#h a#ted in "edie-al
England and a#ts to,da0 in Fran#e as a #he#9 upon !reeding, and their
herding in #ro4ded tene"ents, 4ea9ened !oth "oral and prudential
restraints in the to4ns: 4hile in the #ountr0 the 4ell,"eant !ut ill,
#onsidered a#tion of the Husti#es of the pea#e in supple"enting the
!eggarl0 4ages of the la!ourers !0 grants out of the rates proportioned
to the nu"!er of ea#h "an<s #hildren produ#ed a si"ilar effe#t. The
result 4as an in#rease in the population 4el#o"e to patriots 4ho hoped
for hordes of soldiers and sailors to fight *apoleon, !ut startling to
e#ono"ists li9e Balthus, 4ho inferred therefro" a natural la4
#onstraining population to outrun the earth<s in#rease. Balthus did not
foresee the needs of the e"pire, nor reali6e that the rapid gro4th in
the population of his da0 4as largel0 due to the a!sen#e fro" the
proletariate of a standard of #o"fort and de#en#0. 8ithout the
Industrial /e-olution =reat Britain 4ould not ha-e !een a!le to people
the lands she had "ar9ed for her o4n.
This in#rease and shifting of the people put the finishing tou#h to the
in#ongruities of the old politi#al s0ste", in 4hi#h -ast #entres of
population tee"ing 4ith life and thro!!ing 4ith industr0 4ere
unrepresented, 4hile "e"!ers sat in parlia"ent for !oroughs so de#a0ed
that nothing 4as left of the" !ut a green "ound, a par9, or a ruined
4all. The struggle 4ith the Fren#h /e-olution and then 4ith *apoleon
ga-e the -ested interests a respite fro" their doo": and for se-enteen
0ears after its #lose the Tories sat, #lothed in the departing glories
of the 4ar, upon the safet0,-al-e of #onstitutional refor". Then in
1(+$, after one general ele#tion fought on this issue, and after
further resistan#e !0 the 7ouse of Dords on !ehalf of the li!erties of
!orough,proprietors and faggot,-oters, the threat to #reate peers
indu#ed a nu"!er to a!stain suffi#ient to ensure the passing of the
first /efor" Bill. It 4as a "oderate "easure to ha-e !rought the
#ountr0 to the -erge of politi#al re-olution: roughl0, it disfran#hised
a nu"!er of poor -oters, !ut enfran#hised the "ass of the "iddle and
lo4er "iddle,#lass. A!solutel0 rotten !oroughs 4ere a!olished, !ut a
large nu"!er of -er0 s"all ones 4ere retained, and the representation
of the ne4 to4ns 4as so"e4hat grudging and restri#ted. A "ore drasti#
"easure, gi-ing the -ote to "ost of the to4n artisans 4as?!eing
introdu#ed !0 a Tor0 "inister, Disraeli, in 1(6%?passed !0 the 7ouse
of Dords 4ithout diffi#ult0. The last alteration of the fran#hise,
gi-ing the -ote to agri#ultural la!ourers 4as?!eing introdu#ed !0
=ladstone in 1(('?onl0 passed !0 the 7ouse of Dords at the se#ond ti"e
of as9ing and after an agitation.
&oliti#al e"an#ipation 4as !ut one of the results of the Industrial
/e-olution: #o""er#ial e.pansion 4as another. England had no4
definitel0 and de#isi-el0 spe#iali6ed in #ertain industries: she #ould
onl0 do so !0 rel0ing upon e.ternal sour#es for her suppl0 of other
4ants. The "ore her ne4 industries ga-e her to e.port, the "ore she
re5uired to i"port fro" #usto"ers upon 4hose 4ealth her o4n prosperit0
depended. In parti#ular, England !e#a"e dependent upon foreign
produ#ers for her food supplies. During the 4ar the foreign suppl0 of
#orn 4as so ha"pered that it 4as as dear to i"port as to gro4 at ho"e:
!ut after the pea#e the pri#e !egan to fall, and the far"ers and
landlords, 4hose rents depended ulti"atel0 upon the pri#e of #orn,
de"anded prote#tion #orresponding to that 4hi#h e.tensi-e tariffs on
i"ported arti#les ga-e to the "anufa#turers. The "anufa#turers, on the
other hand, 4anted #heap food for their 4or9people in order to !e a!le
to pa0 the" lo4 4ages. As a #o"pro"ise, the Corn Da4s of 1(1' and 1($(
pro-ided a sliding s#ale of duties 4hi#h rose as pri#es fell, and fell
as pri#es rose, a preferen#e !eing gi-en to #olonial 4heat.
The /efor" A#t of 1(+$, ho4e-er, and the rapid in#rease of
"anufa#tures, transferred the !alan#e of po4er in parlia"ent fro" the
landed to the "anufa#turing #lasses: fa#tor0 hands 4ere persuaded that
the repeal of the duties 4ould largel0 in#rease the -alue of their
4ages: and the failure of the potato,#rop in Ireland in 1('5'6
rendered an in#rease of i"ported food,stuffs i"perati-e. ir /o!ert
&eel a##ordingl0 #arried a "easure in 1('6 pro-iding for the gradual
a!olition of the #orn,duties, sa-ing onl0 a registration dut0 of one
shilling, 4hi#h 4as re"o-ed so"e t4ent0 0ears later. This repeal of the
Corn Da4s did not appre#ia!l0 affe#t the pri#e of #orn, the great
redu#tion of 4hi#h 4as su!se5uentl0 effe#ted !0 the -ast e.pansion of
#orn,gro4ing areas in the #olonies and a!road. But it enor"ousl0
in#reased the suppl0 at on#e, and graduall0 ga-e England the full
!enefit of gro4ing areas and de#lining pri#es. It is o!-ious that the
retention of the dut0, 4hi#h had !een fi.ed at $'s. (d. in 1($(
4hen the pri#e 4as 6$s. or less a 5uarter, 4ould ha-e pre-ented
pri#es falling as the0 su!se5uentl0 did !elo4 the -alue of the dut0:
and it is no less #ertain that it 4ould ha-e i"peded the de-elop"ent of
#orn,gro4ing distri#ts in the #olonies and a!road, and of British
i"ports fro", and e.ports to, the".
The enor"ous in#rease in the i"port of #orn helped, in fa#t, to dou!le
British e.ports 4ithin ten 0ears. This 4as the result of the general
freeing of trade, of 4hi#h the repeal of the Corn Da4s 4as onl0 a part.
In the third 5uarter of the eighteenth #entur0 there 4ere hundreds of
A#ts, #o-ering thousands of pages, on the statute,!oo9, i"posing an
infinit0 of #haoti# duties on e-er0 9ind of i"port: the0 "ade the
#usto"s #ostl0 to #olle#t and eas0 to e-ade: and the industr0 the0
sti"ulated "ost 4as s"uggling. The 0ounger &itt, influen#ed !0 Ada"
"ith, 4hose Wealth of ations appeared in 1%%6, redu#ed and
si"plified these duties: !ut ''+ A#ts still sur-i-ed 4hen in 1($5
7us9isson and other enlightened states"en se#ured their #onsolidation
and redu#tion to ele-en. This Tariff /efor", as its supporters #alled
it, 4as a step to4ards Free Trade. &eel graduall0 adopted its
prin#iples, indu#ed partl0 !0 the failure of his efforts to use
e.isting duties for purposes of retaliation: and !et4een 1('1 and 1('6
he a!olished the duties on 605 arti#les and redu#ed the" on 10+5 "ore,
i"posing a dire#t in#o"e,ta. to repla#e the indire#t ta.es thus
repealed. The pro#ess 4as #o"pleted !0 =ladstone, and 4hat is #alled
Free Trade 4as esta!lished as the funda"ental prin#iple of English
finan#ial poli#0.
This does not "ean that no duties are i"posed on e.ports or i"ports: it
si"pl0 "eans that su#h duties as are le-ied are i"posed for the sa9e of
re-enue, and to prote#t neither the #onsu"er fro" the e.port of
#o""odities he desires to pur#hase, nor the "anufa#turer fro" the
i"port of those he 4ishes to "a9e. The great interests #onne#ted 4ith
land and "anufa#tures had #eased to hang together, and fell separatel0.
&rote#tion of "anufa#tured goods did not long sur-i-e the su##essful
atta#9 4hi#h "anufa#turers had le-elled against the prote#ted produ#e
of the landlords and the far"ers. The repeal of the *a-igation A#ts
rounded off the s0ste": British shipping, indeed, needed no prote#tion,
!ut the ad"ission of #olonial goods free of dut0 and the re"o-al of the
e"!argo on their trade 4ith foreign #ountries "a0 not ha-e #o"pensated
the #olonies for the loss of their preferen#e in the British "ar9et.
The 4hole trend of affairs, ho4e-er, !oth #ons#ious and un#ons#ious,
4as to "a9e the 4orld one -ast hi-e of industr0, instead of an infinite
nu"!er of self,suffi#ient, separate hi-es: the -illage "ar9et had
e.panded into the pro-in#ial "ar9et, the pro-in#ial into the national,
the national into the i"perial, and the i"perial into the 4orld "ar9et.
8e ha-e not !0 an0 "eans e.hausted the results of the Industrial
/e-olution, and "ost of our so#ial pro!le"s "a0 !e tra#ed dire#tl0 or
indire#tl0 to this sour#e. Its "ost general effe#t 4as to e"phasi6e and
e.aggerate the tenden#0 to4ards spe#iali6ation. *ot onl0 ha-e "ost
4or9ers no4 !ut one 9ind of 4or9: that 4or9 !e#o"es a s"aller and
s"aller part of in#reasingl0 #o"ple. industrial pro#esses: and
#on#entration thereon "a9es it "ore and "ore diffi#ult for the 4or9er
to turn to other la!our, if his e"plo0"ent fails. The spe#ialist<s la#9
of all,round #apa#it0 is natural and notorious. 7en#e "ost serious
results follo4 the slightest dislo#ation of national e#ono"0. This
spe#iali6ation has also i"portant ps0#hologi#al effe#ts. A far"er, 4ith
his -aried outdoor o##upations, feels little #ra-ing for relief and
rela.ation. The fa#tor0 hand, 4ith his attention ri-eted for hours at a
stret#h on the 4eariso"e iteration of "a#hiner0, re5uires re#reation
and distra#tionC naturall0 he is a pre0 to un4holeso"e sti"ulants, su#h
as drin9, !etting, or the 0ello4 press. The "ore edu#ated and "orall0
restrained, ho4e-er, see9 intelle#tual sti"ulus, and the "odern popular
de"and for #ulture arises largel0 fro" the need of so"ething to relie-e
the gre0 "onoton0 of industrial la!our.
o, too, the pro!le"s of po-ert0, lo#al go-ern"ent, and sanitation ha-e
!een #reated or intensified !0 the Industrial /e-olution. It "ade
#apitalists of the fe4 and 4age,earners of the "an0: and the tenden#0
of 4ages to4ards a "ini"u" and of hours of la!our to4ards a "a.i"u" has
onl0 !een #ountera#ted !0 painful organi6ation a"ong the 4or9ers, and
later on !0 legislation e.torted !0 their -otes. *either the
E-angeli#al nor the >.ford "o-e"ent pro-ed an0 proph0la#ti# against the
i""oralit0 of #o""er#ial and industrial #reeds. 8hile those t4o
religious "o-e"ents 4ere at their height, ne4 #entres of industrial
population 4ere allo4ed to gro4 up 4ithout the least regard for health
or de#en#0. Gnder the influen#e of laisse!"faire philosoph0, ea#h
4ret#hed slu",d4eller 4as supposed to !e #apa!le, after his ten or
t4el-e hours in the fa#tor0, of loo9ing after his o4n and his
#hildren<s edu#ation, his "ain,drainage, his ris9s fro" infe#tion, and
the purit0 of his food and his 4ater,suppl0. The old s0ste" of lo#al
go-ern"ent 4as utterl0 inade5uate and ill adapted to the ne4
#onditions: and the so#ial and ph0si#al en-iron"ent of the 4or9ing
#lasses 4as a disgra#e to #i-ili6ation pending the re#onstru#tion of
so#iet0, still in#o"plete, 4hi#h the Industrial /e-olution i"posed upon
the #ountr0 in the nineteenth #entur0.
Chapter 0###
A Century of E+pire
'/'$&'5''
The British real"s !e0ond the seas ha-e little histor0 !efore the
!attle of 8aterloo, a date at 4hi#h the English"an<s histori#al
edu#ation has #o""onl0 #o"e to an end: and if !0 #han#e it has gone an0
further, it has pro!a!l0 !een #onfined to purel0 do"esti# e-ents or to
foreign episodes of su#h ephe"eral interest as the Cri"ean 8ar. It "a0
!e 4ell, therefore, to pass lightl0 o-er these "atters in order to
s9et#h in !rief outline the de-elop"ent of the e"pire and the pro!le"s
4hi#h it in-ol-es. European affairs, in fa#t, pla0ed a -er0 su!ordinate
part in English histor0 after 1(15: so far as England 4as #on#erned, it
4as a period of e.#ursions and alar"s rather than a#tual hostilities:
and the fortunes of English,spea9ing #o""unities 4ere not greatl0
affe#ted !0 the re-olutions and 4ars 4hi#h "ade and "arred #ontinental
nations, a #ir#u"stan#e 4hi#h e.plains, if it does not e.#use, the
al"ost total ignoran#e of European histor0 displa0ed in British
#olonies.
The inter-entions of Britain in #ontinental politi#s 4ere generall0 on
!ehalf of the prin#iples of nationalit0 and self,go-ern"ent. Gnder the
influen#e of Castlereagh and Canning the British go-ern"ent graduall0
!ro9e a4a0 fro" the 7ol0 Allian#e for"ed to suppress all protests
against the settle"ent rea#hed after *apoleon<s fall: and Britain
interposed 4ith de#isi-e effe#t at the !attle of *a-arino in 1($%,
4hi#h se#ured the independen#e of =ree#e fro" Tur9e0. Bore diplo"ati#
inter-ention assisted the outh A"eri#an #olonies to assert their
independen#e of the panish "other,#ountr0: and British -olunteers
helped the Di!eral #ause in pain and &ortugal against rea#tionar0
"onar#hs. Belgiu" 4as #ountenan#ed in its su##essful re-olution against
the 7ouse of >range, and Italian states in their re-olts against nati-e
and foreign despots: the e.pulsion of the 7aps!urgs and Bour!ons fro"
Ital0, and its unifi#ation on a nationalist !asis, o4ed so"ething to
British diplo"a#0, 4hi#h supported Ca-our, and to British -olunteers
4ho fought for =ari!aldi. The attitude of Britain to4ards the Bal9an
nationalities, 4hi#h 4ere endea-ouring to thro4 off the Tur9ish 0o9e,
4as "ore du!ious: 4hile =ladstone denoun#ed Tur9ish atro#ities,
Disraeli strengthened Tur9e0<s hands. @et England 4ould ha-e !een as
enthusiasti# for a li!erated and united Bal9an po4er as it had !een for
a united Ital0 !ut for the #lai"s of a ri-al li!erator, /ussia.
/ussia 4as the !ug!ear of t4o generations of English"en: and #lassi#al
s#holars, 4ho interpreted "odern politi#s !0 the light of an#ient
=ree#e, sa4 in the a!sorption of Athens !0 Ba#edon a #on-in#ing
de"onstration of the fate 4hi#h the "odern !ar!arian of the north 4as
to infli#t upon the British heirs of 7ellas. India 4as the real sour#e
of this ner-ousness. British do"inion, after further 4ars 4ith the
Bahrattas, the i9hs, and the =ur9has, had e.tended up to the frontiers
of Afghanistan: !ut there 4as al4a0s the fear lest another s4ord should
ta9e a4a0 do"inion 4on !0 the British, and in British e0es it 4as an
offen#e that an0 other po4er should e.pand in Asia. The /ussian and
British spheres of influen#e ad-an#ed till the0 "et in Aa!ul: and for
fift0 0ears the t4o po4ers #ontested, !0 "ore or less diplo"ati#
"ethods, the #ontrol of the A"ir of Afghanistan. Tur9e0 flan9ed the
o-erland route to India: and hen#e the prote#tion of Tur9e0 against
/ussia !e#a"e a #ardinal point in British foreign poli#0. >n !ehalf of
Tur9e0<s integrit0 =reat Britain fought, in allian#e 4ith Fran#e and
ardinia, the futile Cri"ean 8ar of 1(5'1(56, and nearl0 4ent to 4ar
in 1(%%.
The opening of the ue6 Canal in 1(61 introdu#ed a fresh #o"pli#ation.
/elations !et4een England and Fran#e had sin#e 8aterloo !een friendl0,
on the 4hole: !ut Fran#e had traditional interests in Eg0pt, 4hi#h 4ere
strengthened !0 the fa#t that a Fren#h engineer had #onstru#ted the
ue6 Canal, and !0 Fren#h #olonies in the Far East, to 4hi#h the #anal
4as the shortest route. /i-alr0 4ith England for the #ontrol of Eg0pt
follo4ed. The Dual Control, 4hi#h 4as esta!lished in 1(%6, 4as
ter"inated !0 the refusal of Fran#e to assist in the suppression of
Eg0ptian re-olts in 1(($: and =reat Britain 4as left in sole !ut
infor"al possession of po4er in Eg0pt, 4ith the responsi!ilit0 for its
defen#e against the Bahdi E1(('1((5F and for the re,#on5uest of the
udan E1(161(1(F, 4hi#h is no4 under the Hoint Eg0ptian and British
flags.
Bean4hile, British e.pansion to the east of India, the Bur"ese 4ars,
and anne.ation of Bur"a E1((5F !rought the e"pire into a #onta#t 4ith
Fren#h influen#e in ia" si"ilar to its #onta#t 4ith /ussian in
Afghanistan. Co""unit0 of interests in the Far East, as 4ell as the
need of prote#tion against the Triple Allian#e of =er"an0, Austria, and
Ital0 produ#ed the entente cordiale !et4een Fran#e and /ussia in
1(10. Fortunatel0, the dangerous 5uestions !et4een the" and =reat
Britain 4ere settled !0 diplo"a#0, assisted !0 the allian#e !et4een
=reat Britain and ;apan. The British and /ussian spheres of a#tion on
the north,4est, and the British and Fren#h spheres to the east, of
India 4ere deli"ited: southern &ersia, the &ersian =ulf, and the Bala0
&eninsula 4ere left to British -igilan#e and penetration, northern
&ersia to /ussian, and eastern ia" to Fren#h. Freed fro" these #auses
of fri#tion, =reat Britain, /ussia, and Fran#e e.ert a restraining
influen#e on the predo"inant partner in the Triple Allian#e.
The de-elop"ent of a -ast do"inion in India has #reated for the British
go-ern"ent pro!le"s, of 4hi#h the great Indian "utin0 of 1(5% 4as
"erel0 one illustration. *o po4er has su##eeded in per"anentl0
go-erning su!He#t ra#es !0 despoti# authorit0: in *orth and outh
A"eri#a the nati-es ha-e so d4indled in nu"!ers as to lea-e the
#on5uerors indisputa!l0 supre"e: in Europe and else4here in for"er
ti"es the su!He#t ra#es fitted the"sel-es for self,go-ern"ent, and then
a!sor!ed their #on5uerors. The ra#ial and religious gulf for!ids a
si"ilar solution of the Indian 5uestion, 4hile the a!andon"ent of her
tas9 !0 =reat Britain 4ould lea-e India a pre0 to anar#h0. The
diffi#ulties of despoti# rule 4ere "itigated in the past !0 the utter
a!sen#e of an0 #o""on senti"ents and ideas a"ong the "an0 ra#es,
religions, and #astes 4hi#h #onstituted India: and a Ba#hia-ellian
perpetuation of these di-isions "ight ha-e eased the la!ours of its
go-ernors. But a go-ern"ent suffers for its -irtues, and the stead0
efforts of =reat Britain to #i-ili6e and edu#ate its Eastern su!He#ts
ha-e tended to destro0 the di-isions 4hi#h "ade #o""on a#tion, #o""on
aspirations, pu!li# opinion and self,go-ern"ent i"possi!le in India.
The "issionar0, the engineer, the do#tor, the la40er, and the politi#al
refor"er ha-e all helped to re"o-e the !ars of #aste and ra#e !0
#on-erting Brah"ans, Boha""edans, &arsees to a #o""on Christianit0 or
!0 under"ining their atta#h"ent to their parti#ular distin#tions. The0
ha-e !uilt rail4a0s and #anals, 4hi#h "ade #o""uni#ations and #onta#t
una-oida!le: the0 ha-e i"posed #o""on "easures of health, #o""on legal
prin#iples, and a #o""on edu#ation in English #ulture and "ethods of
ad"inistration. The result has !een to foster a #ons#iousness of
nationalit0, the gro4th of a pu!li# opinion, and a de"and for a greater
share in the "anage"ent of affairs. The "ore effi#ient a despotis", the
"ore #ertain is its supersession: and the pro!le" for the Indian
go-ern"ent is ho4 to adHust and adapt the politi#al e"an#ipation of the
nati-es of India to the slo4 gro4th of their edu#ation and sense of
"oral responsi!ilit0. At present, #aste and ra#ial and religious
differen#es, espe#iall0 !et4een Boha""edans and 7indus, though
4ea9ening, are po4erful disintegrants: not one per #ent of the
population #an read or 4rite: and the e.isten#e of hundreds of nati-e
states i"pedes the progress of national agitation.
A so"e4hat si"ilar pro!le" #onfronts British ad"inistration in Eg0pt,
4here the diffi#ult0 of dealing 4ith the agitation for national self,
go-ern"ent is #o"pli#ated !0 the fa#t that te#hni#all0 the British
agent and #onsul,general is "erel0 the infor"al ad-iser of the 9hedi-e,
4ho is hi"self the -i#ero0 of the ultan of Tur9e0. Glti"atel0 the sa"e
sort of dile""a 4ill ha-e to !e fa#ed in other parts of Afri#a under
British rule?British East Afri#a and Gganda, the *igerian
prote#torates and neigh!ouring distri#ts, /hodesia and British Central
Afri#a?as 4ell as in the Bala0 tates, 7ong Aong, and the 8est Indies.
There are great differen#es of opinion a"ong the 4hite #iti6ens of the
e"pire 4ith regard to the treat"ent of their #oloured fello4,su!He#ts.
Australia and so"e pro-in#es of the outh Afri#an Gnion 4ould e.#lude
Indian i""igrants altogether: and 4hite "inorities ha-e an in-in#i!le
repugnan#e to allo4ing !la#9 "aHorities to e.er#ise a -ote, e.#ept
under stringent pre#autions against its effe#t. 8e ha-e, indeed,
i"pro-ed upon the =ree9s, 4ho regarded all other ra#es as outside the
s#ope of =ree9 "oralit0: !ut 4e do not 0et e.tend to #oloured ra#es the
sa"e #onsideration that 4e do to 4hite "en.
o far as the 4hite population of the e"pire is #on#erned, the pro!le"
of self,go-ern"ent 4as sol-ed in the nineteenth #entur0 !0 pro#edure
#o""on to all the great do"inions of the #ro4n, though the
e"an#ipation, 4hi#h had #ost the "other,#ountr0 #enturies of #onfli#t,
4as se#ured !0 "an0 #olonies in less than fift0 0ears. Three nor"al
stages "ar9ed their progress, and Canada led the 4a0 in ea#h. The first
4as the a#5uisition of representati-e go-ern"ent?that is to sa0, of a
legislature #onsisting generall0 of t4o 7ouses, one of 4hi#h 4as
popularl0 ele#ted !ut had little #ontrol o-er the e.e#uti-e: the se#ond
4as the a#5uisition of responsi!le go-ern"ent?that is to sa0, of an
e.e#uti-e responsi!le to the popular lo#al legislature instead of to
the ho"e Colonial >ffi#e: and the third 4as federation. Canada had
possessed the first degree of self,go-ern"ent e-er sin#e 1%11, and 4as rapidl0 outgro4ing it. Australia,
ho4e-er, did not pass
out of the #ro4n #olon0 stage, in 4hi#h affairs are #ontrolled !0 a
go-ernor, 4ith or 4ithout the assistan#e of a no"inated legislati-e
#oun#il, until 1('$, 4hen ele#ted "e"!ers 4ere added to the #oun#il of
*e4 outh 8ales, and it 4as gi-en the po4er of the purse. This
de-elop"ent 4as due to the e.odus of the surplus population, #reated !0
the Industrial /e-olution, fro" =reat Britain, 4hi#h !egan soon after
1($0, and affe#ted Canada, Australia, *e4 Kealand, and outh Afri#a.
)arious #o"panies and asso#iations 4ere founded under the influen#e of
Dord Durha", Ed4ard =i!!on 8a9efield, and others, for the purpose of
settling la!ourers in these lands. Bet4een 1($0 and 1(+0 se-eral
settle"ents 4ere esta!lished in 8estern Australia, in 1(+6 outh
Australia 4as #oloni6ed, and graduall0 )i#toria, Iueensland, and
Tas"ania 4ere organi6ed as independent #olonies out of offshoots fro"
the parent *e4 outh 8ales. Ea#h in turn re#ei-ed a representati-e
asse"!l0, and de-eloped indi-idual #hara#teristi#s.
Cape Colon0 follo4ed on si"ilar lines, -ariegated !0 the presen#e of a
ri-al European ra#e, the Dut#h. lo4l0, in the generation 4hi#h
su##eeded the British #on5uest, the0 a##u"ulated grie-an#es against
their rulers. English 4as "ade the sole offi#ial language: Dut#h
"agistrates 4ere superseded !0 English #o""issioners: sla-er0 4as
a!olished, 4ith inade5uate #o"pensation to the o4ners: little support
4as gi-en the" in their 4ars 4ith the nati-es, 4hi#h the ho"e
go-ern"ent and the "issionaries, "ore interested in the 4oes of negroes
in outh Afri#a than in those of #hildren in British "ines and
fa#tories, attri!uted to Dut#h !rutalit0: and a 7ottentot poli#e 4as
a#tuall0 esta!lished. In 1(+% the "ore deter"ined of the Dut#h
3tre99ed3 north and east to found repu!li#s in *atal, the >range /i-er
Free tate, and the Trans-aal. &urged of these dis#ontented ele"ents,
the Cape 4as gi-en representati-e go-ern"ent in 1(5+, and *atal, 4hi#h
had !een anne.ed in 1('', re#ei-ed a si"ilar #onstitution in 1(56.
Bean4hile, Canada had ad-an#ed through #onstitutional struggles and
open re!ellion to the se#ond stage. It had re#ei-ed its !aptis" of fire
during the 4ar E1(1$1(1'F !et4een =reat Britain and the Gnited tates,
4hen Fren#h and British Canadians fought side !0 side against a #o""on
ene"0. But !oth pro-in#es soon e.perien#ed diffi#ulties si"ilar to
those !et4een the tuarts and their parlia"ents: their legislati-e
asse"!lies had no #ontrol o-er their e.e#uti-e go-ern"ents, and in 1(+%
&apineau<s re!ellion !ro9e out in Do4er, and Ba#9en6ie<s in Gpper,
Canada. Dord Durha" 4as sent out to in-estigate the #auses of
dis#ontent, and his report "ar9s an epo#h in #olonial histor0. The idea
that the A"eri#an 8ar of Independen#e had taught the "other,#ountr0 the
ne#essit0 of granting #o"plete self,go-ern"ent to her #olonies is a
persistent "is#on#eption: and hitherto no British #olon0 had re#ei-ed a
fuller "easure of self,go-ern"ent than had !een enHo0ed !0 the A"eri#an
#olonies !efore their De#laration of Independen#e. The grant of this
responsi!le self,go-ern"ent 4as one of the t4o prin#ipal
re#o""endations of Dord Durha"<s report. The other 4as the union of the
t4o pro-in#es, 4hi#h, it 4as hoped, 4ould gi-e the British a "aHorit0
o-er the Fren#h. This re#o""endation, 4hi#h ulti"atel0 pro-ed
un4or9a!le, 4as #arried out at on#e: the other, 4hi#h has !een the
sa-ing of the e"pire, 4as left for Dord Elgin to ela!orate. 7e "ade it
a prin#iple to #hoose as "inisters onl0 those politi#ians 4ho possessed
the #onfiden#e of the popular asse"!l0, and his e.a"ple, follo4ed !0
his su##essors, #r0stalli6ed into a funda"ental "a.i" of British
#olonial go-ern"ent. It 4as e.tended to *o-a #otia and *e4 Bruns4i#9
in 1('(, and to *e4foundland E4hi#h had in 1(+$ re#ei-ed a legislati-e
asse"!l0F in 1(55.
To Dord ;ohn /ussell, 4ho 4as pri"e "inister fro" 1('6 to 1(51, to his
#olonial se#retar0, the third Earl =re0, and to Dords A!erdeen and
&al"erston, 4ho su##eeded as pre"iers in 1(5$ and 1(55, !elongs the
#redit of ha-ing #onferred full rights of self,go-ern"ent on "ost of
the e"pire<s o-ersea do"inions. Australia, 4here the dis#o-er0 of gold
in 1(51 added enor"ousl0 to her population, soon follo4ed in Canada<s
4a9e, and !0 1(56 e-er0 Australian #olon0, 4ith the e.#eption of
8estern Australia, had, 4ith the #onsent of the I"perial parlia"ent,
4or9ed out a #onstitution for itself, #o"prising t4o legislati-e
#ha"!ers and a responsi!le #a!inet. *e4 Kealand, 4hi#h had !egun to !e
sparsel0 settled !et4een 1($0 and 1('0, and had !een anne.ed in the
latter 0ear, re#ei-ed in 1(5$ fro" the I"perial parlia"ent a
Constitution A#t, 4hi#h left it to ir =eorge =re0, the =o-ernor, to
4or9 out in pra#ti#e the responsi!ilit0 of "inisters to the
legislature. >ther #olonies 4ere slo4er in their #onstitutional
de-elop"ent: Cape Colon0 4as not granted a responsi!le ad"inistration
till 1(%$: 8estern Australia, 4hi#h had #ontinued to re#ei-e #on-i#ts
after their transportation to other Australian #olonies had !een
su##essfull0 resisted, did not re#ei-e #o"plete self,go-ern"ent till
1(10, and *atal not until 1(1+.
The latest British #olonies to re#ei-e this li-er0 of the e"pire 4ere
the Trans-aal and the >range /i-er #olonies. A #he5uered e.isten#e had
!een their fate sin#e their founders had tre99ed north in 1(+%. The
>range /i-er Free tate had !een anne.ed !0 Britain in 1('(, had
re!elled, and !een granted independen#e again in 1(5'. The Trans-aal
had !een anne.ed in 1(%%, had re!elled, and had !een granted al"ost
#o"plete independen#e again after BaHu!a in 1((1. The >range Free
tate, relie-ed of the dia"ond fields 4hi#h !elonged to it in the
neigh!ourhood of Ai"!erle0 in 1(%0, pursued the e-en tenor of its 4a0:
!ut the gold "ines dis#o-ered in the Trans-aal 4ere not so near its
!orders, and ga-e rise to "ore prolonged dissensions. Cro4ds of
#os"opolitan ad-enturers, as la4less as those 4ho distur!ed the pea#e
in )i#toria or California, flo#9ed to the /and. The0 4ere not of the
stuff of 4hi#h Dut#h !urghers 4ere "ade, and the fran#hise 4as denied
the" !0 a go-ern"ent 4hi#h did not hesitate to profit fro" their
la!ours. The ;a"eson /aid, a hast0 atte"pt to use their 4rongs to
o-erthro4 &resident Aruger<s go-ern"ent in 1(15, 3upset the apple,#art3
of Ce#il /hodes, the pri"e "inister of the Cape, 4ho had added /hodesia
to the e"pire and 4as planning, 4ith "oderate Dut#h support, to
federate outh Afri#a. Aruger hardened his heart against the
Gitlanders, and ar"ed hi"self to resist the argu"ents of the British
go-ern"ent on their !ehalf. Both sides underesti"ated the deter"ination
and resour#es of the other. But Aruger 4as "ore ignorant, if not "ore
o!stinate, than Br. Cha"!erlain: and his ulti"atu" of >#to!er 1(11
pre#ipitated a 4ar 4hi#h lasted t4o 0ears and a half, and #ost the t4o
repu!li#s their independen#e. The Trans-aal 4as gi-en, and the >range
/i-er Colon0 4as pro"ised, representati-e go-ern"ent !0 the
Conser-ati-es: !ut the Di!erals, 4ho #a"e into po4er at the end of
1105, e.#used the" this apprenti#eship, and granted the" full
responsi!le go-ern"ent in 1106110%.
British #olonies ha-e tried a series of useful e.peri"ents 4ith the
po4er thus allotted the" of "anaging their o4n affairs, and ha-e
#ontri!uted "ore to the s#ien#e of politi#s than all the ar",#hair
philosophers fro" Aristotle do4n4ards: and an e.a"ination in their
results 4ould !e a -alua!le test for aspiring politi#ians and #i-il
ser-ants. The Canadian pro-in#es, 4ith t4o e.#eptions, dispense 4ith a
se#ond #ha"!er: else4here in the e"pire, se#ond #ha"!ers are uni-ersal,
!ut no4here outside the Gnited Aingdo" hereditar0. Their "e"!ers are
either no"inated !0 the pri"e "inister for life, as in the Do"inion of
Canada, or for a ter" of 0ears, 4hi#h is fi.ed at se-en in *e4 Kealand:
or the0 are popularl0 ele#ted, so"eti"es on a different propert0
5ualifi#ation fro" the Do4er 7ouse, so"eti"es for a different period,
so"eti"es !0 a different #onstituen#0. In the Co""on4ealth of Australia
the0 are #hosen !0 ea#h state -oting as a 4hole, and this "ethod, !0
4hi#h a !ig "aHorit0 in one lo#alit0 out4eighs se-eral s"all "aHorities
in others, has so"eti"es resulted in "a9ing the Gpper 7ouse "ore
radi#al and so#ialisti# than the Do4er: the s0ste" of no"ination
o##asionall0 has in Canada a result e5uall0 strange to English ideas,
for the present Conser-ati-e "aHorit0 in the 7ouse of Co""ons is
#onfronted 4ith a hostile Di!eral "aHorit0 in the Gpper 7ouse, pla#ed
there !0 ir 8ilfrid Daurier during his long tenure of offi#e. The "ost
effe#ti-e pro-ision against deadlo#9s !et4een the t4o 7ouses is one in
the #onstitution of the Australian Co""on4ealth, !0 4hi#h, if the0
#annot agree, !oth are dissol-ed.
>ther #ontrasts are "ore !e4ildering than instru#ti-e. In Canada the
"o-e"ent for 4o"en<s suffrage has "ade little head4a0, and e-en less in
outh Afri#a: !ut at the Antipodes 4o"en share 4ith "en the pri-ilege
of adult suffrage in *e4 Kealand, in the Co""on4ealth of Australia, and
in e-er0 one of its #o"ponent states: an ad-o#ate of the #ause 4ould
perhaps e.plain the #ontrast !0 the presen#e of unprogressi-e Fren#h in
Canada, and of unprogressi-e Dut#h in outh Afri#a. Certainl0, the all,
British do"inions ha-e !een "ore ad-an#ed in their politi#al
e.peri"ents than those in 4hi#h the flight0 Anglo,a.on has !een
te"pered !0 "ore stolid ele"ents: and the pendulu" s4ings little "ore
in Fren#h Canada than it does in Celti# Ireland. In *e4 Kealand old age
pensions 4ere in for#e long !efore the0 4ere introdu#ed into the
"other,#ountr0: and #o"pulsor0 ar!itration in industrial disputes,
pa0"ent of B.&.<s, and po4ers of lo#al option and prohi!ition ha-e !een
for 0ears in operation. Both the Do"inion and the Co""on4ealth le-0
ta.es on land far e.#eeding those i"posed !0 the British !udget of
1101. Australia is, in addition, tr0ing a so#ialisti# la!our "inistr0
and #o"pulsor0 "ilitar0 training. It has also tried the "ore serious
e.peri"ent of de-eloping a standard of #o"fort a"ong its proletariate
!efore peopling the #ountr0: and is #onse5uentl0 for#ed to e.#lude !0
legislation all sorts of #heap la!our, 4hi#h "ight de-elop its
industries !ut 4ould #ertainl0 lo4er its le-el of 4ages. It !elie-es in
high prote#tion, !ut ta9es #are !0 so#ialisti# legislation that high
4ages shall "ore than #ounter!alan#e high pri#es: prote#tion is to it
"erel0 the for" of state so#ialis" 4hi#h pri"aril0 !enefits the
e"plo0er. It has also nationali6ed its rail4a0s and denationali6ed all
#hur#hes and religious instru#tion in pu!li# s#hools. There is, indeed,
no state #hur#h in the e"pire outside =reat Britain. But the "ost
signifi#ant, perhaps, of Antipodean notions is the do#trine, in#ul#ated
in the Iueensland ele"entar0 s#hools, of the san#tit0 of state
propert0.
Finall0, the #olonies ha-e "ade "o"entous e.peri"ents in federation.
*e4 Kealand<s 4as the earliest and the !riefest: after a fe4 0ears<
e.perien#e of pro-in#ial go-ern"ents !et4een 1(5$ and 1(%0, it redu#ed
its pro-in#ial parlia"ents to the le-el of #ount0 #oun#ils, and adopted
a unitar0 #onstitution. In Canada, on the other hand, the union of the
Gpper and Do4er &ro-in#es pro-ed un4or9a!le o4ing to ra#ial
differen#es: and in 1(6% the federation #alled the Do"inion of Canada
4as for"ed !0 agree"ent !et4een Gpper and Do4er Canada Ehen#eforth
#alled >ntario and Iue!e#F, *e4 Bruns4i#9, and *o-a #otia. &rin#e
Ed4ard Island and British Colu"!ia Hoined soon after4ards: and fresh
pro-in#es ha-e sin#e !een #reated out of the 7udson Ba0 and *orth,4est
Territories: *e4foundland alone has stood aloof. Considera!le po4ers
are allotted to the pro-in#es, in#luding edu#ation: !ut the
distinguishing feature of this federation is that all po4ers not
definitel0 assigned !0 the Do"inion A#t to the pro-in#es !elong to the
Do"inion. This is in sharp #ontrast to the Gnited tates, 4here ea#h
indi-idual state is the so-ereign !od0, and the Federal go-ern"ent onl0
possesses su#h po4ers as the states ha-e delegated to it !0 the
#onstitution.
In this respe#t the Australian federation #alled the Co""on4ealth,
4hi#h 4as for"ed in 1100, rese"!les the Gnited tates rather than
Canada. The #ir#u"stan#e that ea#h Australian #olon0 gre4 up round a
seaport, ha-ing little or no o-erland #onne.ion 4ith other Australian
#olonies, 9ept the" long apart: and the #o""er#ial interests #entred in
these ports are still #entrifugal rather than #entripetal in senti"ent.
7en#e po4ers, not spe#ifi#all0 assigned to the Federal go-ern"ent,
re"ain in the hands of the indi-idual states: the Da!our part0,
ho4e-er, in#lines to4ards a #entrali6ing poli#0, and the general trend
see"s to !e in that dire#tion. It 4ill pro!a!l0 !e strengthened !0 the
#onstru#tion of trans#ontinental rail4a0s and !0 a further gro4th of
the nationalist feeling of Australia, 4hi#h is alread0 "ar9ed.
The Gnion of outh Afri#a, for"ed in 1101, soon after the Boer #olonies
had re#ei-ed self,go-ern"ent, 4ent al"ost as far to4ards unifi#ation as
*e4 Kealand, and !e#a"e a unitar0 state rather than a federation. The
greater e.pense of "aintaining se-eral lo#al parlia"ents as 4ell as a
#entral legislature, and the diffi#ult0 of apportioning their po4ers,
deter"ined outh Afri#an states"en to s4eep a4a0 the old legislatures
altogether, and to esta!lish a united parlia"ent 4hi#h "eets at Cape
To4n, a single e.e#uti-e 4hi#h has its offi#es at &retoria, and a
Hudi#ature 4hi#h is lo#ated at Bloe"fontein. Thus al"ost e-er0 -ariet0
of Gnion and 7o"e /ule e.ists 4ithin the e"pire, and argu"ents fro"
analog0 are pro-ided for !oth the British politi#al parties.
T4o e.tre"es ha-e !een, and "ust !e, a-oided. 7istor0 has falsified the
i"pression pre-alent in the "iddle of the nineteenth #entur0 that the
#olonies 4ould sooner or later follo4 the e.a"ple of the Gnited tates,
and se-er their #onne.ion 4ith the "other,#ountr0. It has no less
#learl0 de"onstrated the i"possi!ilit0 of "aintaining a #entrali6ed
go-ern"ent of the e"pire in Do4ning treet. The union or federation of
Canada, Australia, *e4 Kealand, and outh Afri#a has strengthened the
#lai"s of ea#h of those i"perial real"s to !e #onsidered a nation, 4ith
full rights and po4ers of self,go-ern"ent: and it re"ains to !e seen
4hether the federating pro#ess #an !e #arried to a higher le-el, and
i"perial senti"ent #r0stalli6ed in I"perial Federation. I"perial
Conferen#es ha-e !e#o"e regular, !ut 4e "a0 not #all the" #oun#ils: no
"aHorit0 in the" has po4er to !ind a "inorit0, and no #onferen#e #an
!ind the "other,#ountr0 or a single do"inion of the #ro4n. As an
edu#ational !od0 the I"perial Conferen#e is e.#ellent: !ut no one 4ould
-enture to gi-e po4ers of ta.ation or of "a9ing 4ar and pea#e to a
#on#la-e in 4hi#h =reat Britain, 4ith its fort0,four "illions of people
and the na-0 and ar"0 it supports, has no "ore -otes than *e4foundland,
4ith its 5uarter of a "illion of inha!itants and i""unit0 fro" i"perial
!urdens.
Edu#ation is, ho4e-er, at the root of all politi#al s0ste"s. 8here the
"ass of the people 9no4 nothing of politi#s, a despotis" is essential:
4here onl0 the fe4 are politi#all0 edu#ated, there needs "ust !e an
aristo#ra#0. =reat Britain lost its A"eri#an #olonies largel0 through
ignoran#e: and no i"perial organi6ation #ould arise a"ong a group of
states ignorant of ea#h other<s needs, resour#es, and aspirations. The
I"perial Conferen#e is not to !e Hudged !0 its "eagre tangi!le results:
if it has led British politi#ians to appre#iate the -ar0ing #hara#ter
and depth of national feeling in the Do"inions, and politi#ians o-ersea
to appre#iate the deli#a#ies of the European diplo"ati# situation, the
dependen#e of e-er0 part of the e"pire upon sea,po4er, and the
#o"ple.ities of an I"perial go-ern"ent 4hi#h has also to #onsider the
interests of hundreds of "illions of su!He#ts in India, in tropi#al
Afri#a, in the 8est Indies, and in the &a#ifi#, the Conferen#e 4ill
ha-e helped to foster the intelle#tual #onditions 4hi#h "ust underlie
an0 atte"pt at an i"perial superstru#ture.
For the hal#0on da0s of pea#e, prosperit0, and progress #an hardl0 !e
assu"ed as 0et, and not e-en the "ost distant and self,#ontained
Do"inions #an afford to ignore the "ena#e of !lood and iron. *o po4er,
indeed, is li9el0 to find the thousand "illions or so 4hi#h it 4ould
#ost to #on5uer and hold Canada, Australia, or outh Afri#a: !ut a
lu#90 raid on their #o""er#e or so"e undefended port "ight #ost "an0
"illions !0 4a0 of ranso". A sla#9ening !irth,rate is, "oreo-er, a
re"inder that e"pires in the past, li9e that of /o"e, ha-e #i-ili6ed
the"sel-es out of e.isten#e in the #o"petition 4ith ra#es 4hi#h !red
4ith pri"iti-e -igour, and had no #ostl0 standards of #o"fort. There
are su#h ra#es to,da0: the slu"!ering East has 4a9ened, and the tide
4hi#h flo4ed for four #enturies fro" 8est to East is on the turn. The
-i#tor0 of ;apan o-er /ussia 4as an e-ent !eside 4hi#h the great Boer
8ar sin9s into insignifi#an#e. Asiati#s, relie-ed !0 the Pax
#ritannica fro" "utual destru#tion, are eating the 4hites out of
the islands of the &a#ifi# and Indian >#eans, and threatening outh
Afri#a, Australia, and the 4estern shores of A"eri#a. *o ar"a"ents and
no treaties of ar!itration #an 4ard off their e#ono"i# #o"petition: and
it is not #ertain that their "0riads, ar"ed 4ith 8estern "oralit0 and
"ethods of 4arfare, 4ill !e al4a0s #ontent to refrain fro" turning
against Europe the "eans of e.pansion 4hi#h Europe has used 4ith so
"u#h su##ess against the". The British E"pire 4ill need all the 4isdo"
it #an #o""and, if it is to hold its o4n in the parlia"ent of reason or
the ar!itra"ent of 4ar.
Chapter #6
English De+ocracy
The "odern national state is the "ost po4erful politi#al organis" e-er
9no4n, !e#ause it is the #ons#ious or un#ons#ious agen#0 of a people<s
4ill. =o-ern"ent is no longer in England the instru"ent of a fa"il0 or
a #lass: and the onl0 real #he#9 upon its po4er is the #ir#u"stan#e
that in so"e "atters it a#ts as the e.e#uti-e #o""ittee of one part0
and is legiti"atel0 resisted !0 the other. 8ere there no parties, the
go-ern"ent 4ould !e a popular despotis" a!solutel0 un#ontrolled.
Theoreti#all0 it is o"ni#o"petent: parlia"ent?or, to use "ore
te#hni#al phraseolog0, the Cro4n in &arlia"ent?#an "a9e an0thing la4
that it #hooses: and no one has a legal right to resist, or authorit0
to pronoun#e 4hat parlia"ent has done to !e un#onstitutional. *o A#t of
&arlia"ent #an !e illegal or un#onstitutional, !e#ause there are no
funda"ental la4s and no 4ritten #onstitution in this #ountr0: and 4hen
people loosel0 spea9 of an A#t !eing un#onstitutional, all that the0
"ean is that the0 do not agree 4ith it. >ther #ountries, li9e the
Gnited tates, ha-e dra4n up a 4ritten #onstitution and esta!lished a
upre"e Court of ;udi#ature to guard it: and if the A"eri#an
legislature -iolates this #onstitution !0 an0 A#t, the upre"e Court
"a0 de#lare that A#t un#onstitutional, in 4hi#h #ase it is -oid. But
there is no su#h li"itation in England upon the so-ereignt0 of
parlia"ent.
This so-ereignt0 has !een graduall0 e-ol-ed. At first it 4as ro0al and
personal, !ut not parlia"entar0 or representati-e: and "edie-al 9ings
had to struggle 4ith the ri-al #lai"s of the !arons and the #hur#h. B0
#alling in the assistan#e of the people asse"!led and represented in
parlia"ent, the "onar#h0 triu"phed o-er !oth the !arons and the #hur#h:
!ut 4hen, in the se-enteenth #entur0, the t4o partners to this -i#tor0
5uarrelled o-er the spoils, parlia"ent and not the #ro4n esta!lished
its #lai" to !e the real representati-e of the state: and in the #ases
of trafford, Dan!0, and others it e-en asserted that lo0alt0 to the
9ing "ight !e treason to the state. The #hur#h, -an5uished at the
/efor"ation, dropped "ore and "ore out of the struggle for so-ereignt0,
!e#ause, 4hile the state gre4 "ore #o"prehensi-e, the #hur#h gre4 "ore
e.#lusi-e. It 4as not that, after 166$, it seriousl0 narro4ed its
for"ulas or do#trines, !ut it failed to enlarge the", and a larger and
larger proportion of English"en thus found the"sel-es outside its pale.
The state, on the other hand, e"!ra#ed an e-er,4idening #ir#le of
dissent: and !0 degrees &rotestant *on#onfor"ists, /o"an Catholi#s,
Iua9ers, ;e4s, Atheists, Boha""edans, !elie-ers, "is!elie-ers, and
un!elie-ers of all sorts, 4ere ad"itted to the fullest rights of
#iti6enship. tate and #hur#h #eased to #orrespond: one !e#a"e the
4hole, the other onl0 a part, and there #ould !e no serious ri-alr0
!et4een the t4o.
The state had to #ontend, ho4e-er, 4ith "ore su!tle and serious
atta#9s. This great De-iathan, as 7o!!es #alled it, 4as not at first a
popular institution: and it frightened "an0 people. The A"eri#an
#olonists, for instan#e, thought that its a!solute so-ereignt0 4as too
dangerous a thing to !e left loose, and the0 put so-ereignt0 under a
triple lo#9 and 9e0, gi-ing one to the Hudi#ature, one to the
legislature, and a third to the e.e#uti-e. >nl0 !0 the #o,operation of
these three 9eepers #an the A"eri#an people loose their so-ereignt0 and
use it to a"end their #onstitution: and so Healousl0 is so-ereignt0
#onfined that anar#h0 often see"s to reign in its stead. There 4as,
indeed, so"e e.#use for distrusting a so-ereignt0 #lai"ed !0 =eorge III
and the unrefor"ed British parlia"ent: and it 4as natural enough that
people should den0 its ne#essit0 and set up in its pla#e De#larations
of the /ights of Ban. o-ereignt0 of 7o!!es<s t0pe 4as a so"e4hat no-el
#on#eption: "en had not grasped its possi!ilities as an engine of
popular 4ill, !e#ause the0 4ere onl0 fa"iliar 4ith its e.ploitation !0
9ings and oligar#hs: and so #losel0 did the0 identif0 the thing 4ith
its a!uses that the0 preferred to do 4ithout it altogether, or at least
to #onfine it to the narro4est possi!le li"its. =o-ern"ent and the
people 4ere antagonisti#C the less go-ern"ent there 4as, the less har"
4ould !e done to the people, and so a general !od0 of indi-idualisti#,
laisse!"faire theor0 de-eloped, 4hi#h 4as e.pressed in -arious
De#larations of the /ights of Ban, and set up against the 3paternal
despotis"3 of the eighteenth #entur0.
These /ights of Ban helped to produ#e ali9e the anar#h0 of the first
Fren#h /e-olution and the re"edial despotis" of the ;a#o!ins and their
su##essor *apoleon: and the os#illation !et4een under,go-ern"ent and
o-er,go-ern"ent, !et4een indi-idualis" and so#ialis" has #ontinued to
this da0. Ea#h #oin#ides 4ith o!-ious hu"an interestsC the !lessed in
possession prefer a poli#0 of laisse! faire: the0 are all for
Di!ert0 and &ropert0, enHo0ing suffi#ient "eans for doing 4hatsoe-er
the0 li9e 4ith 4hat the0 are pleased to #all their o4n. But those 4ho
ha-e little to #all their o4n, and "u#h that the0 4ould li9e, prefer
strong go-ern"ent if the0 #an #ontrol it: and the strength of
go-ern"ent has steadil0 gro4n 4ith popular #ontrol. This is due to "ore
than a predator0 instin#t: it is natural, and e.#usa!le enough, that
people should !e relu#tant to "aintain 4hat is no affair of theirs: !ut
e-en staun#h Conser-ati-es ha-e !een 9no4n to pa0 /adi#al ta.es 4ith
#o"parati-e #heerfulness 4hen their part0 has returned to po4er.
=o-ern"ent 4as graduall0 "ade the affair of the people !0 the series of
/efor" A#ts e.tending fro" 1(+$ to 1((5: and it is no "ere a##ident
that this half,#entur0 also 4itnessed the politi#al e"an#ipation of the
British #olonies. *or "ust 4e forget the A#ts !eginning 4ith the repeal
of the Test and Corporation A#ts E1($(F and /o"an Catholi# E"an#ipation
E1($1F, 4hi#h e.tended politi#al rights to "en of all religious
persuasions. These and the Fran#hise A#ts "ade the 7ouse of Co""ons
infinitel0 "ore representati-e than it had !een !efore, and ga-e it its
#on#lusi-e superiorit0 o-er the 7ouse of Dords. *ot that the &eers
represent no one !ut the"sel-es: had that !een true, the 7ouse of Dords
4ould ha-e disappeared long ago. In realit0 it #a"e to e"!od0 a fairl0
#o"plete representation of the Conser-ati-e part0: and as a part0 does
not need t4o legislati-e organs, the 7ouse of Dords retired 4hene-er
the Conser-ati-es #ontrolled the 7ouse of Co""ons, and onl0 resu"ed its
proper fun#tions 4hen the Di!erals had a "aHorit0. 7en#e its "ost
indefensi!le #hara#teristi# as a e#ond Cha"!er !e#a"e its strongest
pra#ti#al !ul4ar9: for it enlisted the support of "an0 4ho had no
parti#ular -ie4s a!out e#ond Cha"!ers in the a!stra#t, !ut 4ere 9eenl0
interested in the predo"inan#e of their part0.
The restraint thus i"posed !0 the 7ouse of Dords upon popular
go-ern"ent #he#9ed the de-elop"ent of its po4er and the e.tension of
its a#ti-it0, 4hi#h 4ould naturall0 ha-e follo4ed upon the a#5uisition
!0 the people of #ontrol o-er the 7ouse of Co""ons and indire#tl0 o-er
the Ca!inet. >ther #auses #o,operated to indu#e dela0. The "ost
po4erful 4as la#9 of popular edu#ation: #onstitutional pri-ileges are
of no -alue to people 4ho do not understand ho4 the0 "a0 !e used, or
are so uni"aginati-e and ill,dis#iplined as to prefer su#h i""ediate
and tangi!le re4ards as a half,#ro4n for their -ote, a donation to
their foot!all #lu! or lo#al #harit0, or a gra#ious 4ord fro" an
interested lad0, to their distant and infinitesi"al share in the
dire#tion of national go-ern"ent. This parti#ipation is, in fa#t, so
"inute to the indi-idual -oter and so intangi!le in its operation, that
a high degree of edu#ation is re5uired to appre#iate its -alue: and the
Edu#ation A#ts of 1(%0 and 1((1 4ere indispensa!le preli"inaries to
an0thing li9e a real de"o#ra#0. A de"o#ra#0 reall0 edu#ated in politi#s
4ill e.press -ie4s strange to our ears 4ith an e"phasis of 4hi#h e-en
0et 4e ha-e little #on#eption.
>ther o!sta#les to the o-erthro4 of the rule of laisse! faire
4ere the -ested interests of o-er,"ight0 "anufa#turers and landlords in
the "aintenan#e of that anar#h0 4hi#h is the logi#al e.tre"e of Di!ert0
and &ropert0: and su#h ele"entar0 "easures of hu"anit0 as the Fa#tor0
A#ts 4ere long resisted !0 "en so hu"ane as Co!den and ;ohn Bright as
ar!itrar0 inter-entions 4ith the natural li!ert0 of "an to dri-e
!argains 4ith his fello4s in sear#h of a li-ing 4age. There see"ed to
!e no idea that e#ono"i# 4arfare "ight !e 5uite as degrading as that
pri"iti-e #ondition of natural 4ar, in 4hi#h 7o!!es said that the life
of "an 4as 3nast0, short, !rutish and "ean,3 and that it "ight as
urgentl0 re5uire a si"ilar so-ereign re"ed0. The repugnan#e to su#h a
re"ed0 4as reinfor#ed !0 #rude analogies !et4een a per-erted Dar4inis"
and politi#s. Dar4in<s de"onstration of e-olution !0 "eans of the
struggle for e.isten#e in the natural 4orld 4as used to support the
assu"ption that a si"ilar struggle a"ong #i-ili6ed "en 4as natural and
therefore ine-ita!le: and that all atte"pts to interfere 4ith the
#onfli#t !et4een the 4ea9 and the strong, the s#rupulous and the
uns#rupulous, 4ere foredoo"ed to disastrous failure. It 4as forgotten
that #i-ili6ation itself in-ol-es a "ore or less #ons#ious repeal of
3*ature,3 and that the progress of "an depends upon the #on5uest of
hi"self and of his surroundings. In a !etter sense of the 4ord, the
e-olution of "an<s self,#ontrol and #ons#ien#e is Hust as 3natural3 as
the gratifi#ation of his ani"al instin#ts.
The -ie4 that ea#h indi-idual should !e left 4ithout further help fro"
the state to #ope 4ith his en-iron"ent "ight !e a##epta!le to landlords
4ho had alread0 o!tained fro" parlia"ent hundreds of In#losure A#ts,
and to "anufa#turers 4hose profits 4ere inflated !0 la4s "a9ing it
#ri"inal for 4or9"en to #o"!ine. The0 "ight rest fro" politi#al
agitation and !e than9ful for their #onstitutional gains: at an0 rate
the0 had little to hope fro" a legislature in 4hi#h 4or9ing "en had
-otes. But the "asses, 4ho had Hust se#ured the fran#hise, 4ere
relu#tant to !elie-e that the a#tion of the state had lost its -irtue
at the "o"ent 4hen the #ontrol of the state #a"e 4ithin their grasp.
The -ote see"s to ha-e !een gi-en the" under the a"ia!le delusion that
the0 4ould !e happ0 4hen the0 got it, as if it had an0 -alue 4hate-er
e.#ept as a "eans to an end. *or is it ade5uate as a "eansC it is not
suffi#ient for a nation !0 adult suffrage to e.press its 4ill: that
4ill has also to !e #arried into e.e#ution, and it re5uires a strong
e.e#uti-e to do so. 7en#e the re-ersal of the old Di!eral attitude
to4ards the ro0al prerogati-e, 4hi#h "a0 !e !est dated fro" 1(%$, 4hen
=ladstone a!olished the pur#hase of #o""issions in the ar"0 !0 "eans of
the ro0al prerogati-e, after the proposed refor" had !een reHe#ted as a
!ill !0 the 7ouse of Dords. *o Di!eral is li9el0 in the future to
suggest that 3the influen#e of the #ro4n has in#reased, is in#reasing,
and ought to !e di"inished3: !e#ause the prerogati-e of the #ro4n has
!e#o"e the pri-ilege of the people.
The Fran#hise A#ts had apparentl0 pro-ided a solution of the old
antithesis of Ban versus the tate !0 #o"prehending all "en
in the state: and the great -alue of those refor"s 4as that the0
tended to eli"inate for#e fro" the sphere of politi#s. 8hen "en #ould
-ote, there 4as less reason in re!ellion: and the antithesis of Ban
versus the tate has al"ost !een redu#ed to one of 8o"an versus the
tate. But representati-e go-ern"ent, 4hi#h pro"ised to !e ideal 4hen
e-er0 "an, or e-er0 adult, had a -ote, is threatened in -arious
5uarters. Its operations are too deli!erate and in-ol-ed to satisf0
i"patient spirits, and three alternati-e "ethods of pro#edure are
ad-o#ated as i"pro-e"ents upon it. >ne is the 3dire#t a#tion3 of
4or9ing "en, !0 4hi#h the0 #an speedil0 o!tain their o!He#ts through a
general or partial stri9e paral06ing the food suppl0 or other national
ne#essities. This is o!-iousl0 a dangerous and dou!le,edged 4eapon, the
adoption of 4hi#h !0 other se#tions of the #o""unit0?the Ar"0 and
*a-0, for instan#e, or the "edi#al profession?"ight "ean national
dissolution.
Another "ethod is the /eferendu", !0 4hi#h i"portant de#isions adopted
!0 parlia"ent 4ould !e referred to a dire#t popular -ote. This proposal
is onl0 logi#al 4hen #oupled 4ith the Initiati-e, !0 4hi#h a dire#t
popular -ote #ould #o"pel parlia"ent to pass an0 "easure desired !0 the
"aHorit0 of -oters: other4ise its o!He#t is "erel0 o!stru#ti-e. The
third "ethod is the supersession of parlia"ent !0 the a#tion of the
e.e#uti-e. The diffi#ulties 4hi#h Di!eral "easures ha-e e.perien#ed in
the 7ouse of Dords, and the i"possi!ilit0 of the 7ouse of Co""ons
dealing !0 de!ate 4ith the in#reasing #o"ple.ities of national
!usiness, ha-e en#ouraged a tenden#0 in Di!eral go-ern"ents to entrust
to their depart"ents de#isions 4hi#h tren#h upon the legislati-e
fun#tions of parlia"ent. The trend of hostile opinion is to regard
parlia"ent as an unne#essar0 "iddle"an, and to ad-o#ate in its stead a
sort of ple!is#itar0 !ureau#ra#0, a #onstitution under 4hi#h
legislation drafted !0 offi#ials 4ould !e de"anded, san#tioned, or
reHe#ted !0 dire#t popular -ote, and 4ould !e dis#ussed, li9e the
Insuran#e Bill, in infor"al #onferen#es outside, rather than inside,
parlia"ent: 4hile ad"inistration !0 a -ast ar"0 of e.perts 4ould !e
partiall0 #ontrolled !0 popularl0 ele#ted "inisters: for so#ialists
4a-er !et4een their faith in hu"an e5ualit0 and their trust in the
super"an. >thers thin9 that the "ilder "ethod of De-olution, or 37o"e
/ule all round,3 4ould "eet the e-ils #aused !0 the #ongestion of
!usiness, and restore to the Bother of &arlia"ents her ti"e,honoured
fun#tion of go-erning !0 de!ate.
&arlia"ent has alread0 had to delegate legislati-e po4ers to other
!odies than #olonial legislatures: and #ount0 #oun#ils, !orough
#oun#ils, distri#t #oun#ils, and parish #oun#ils share 4ith it in
-arious degrees the tas9 of legislating for the #ountr0. The0 #an, of
#ourse, onl0 legislate, as the0 #an onl0 ad"inister, 4ithin the li"its
i"posed !0 A#t of &arlia"ent: !ut their de-elop"ent, li9e the
"ultipli#ation of #entral ad"inistrati-e depart"ents, indi#ates the
latest, !ut not the final, stages in the gro4th and spe#iali6ation of
English go-ern"ent. A #entur0 and a half ago t4o e#retaries of tate
4ere all that =reat Britain re5uired: no4 there are half,a,do6en, and a
do6en other depart"ents ha-e !een added. A"ong the" are the Do#al
=o-ern"ent Board, the Board of Edu#ation, the Board of Trade, the Board
of Agri#ulture, 4hile "an0 su!,depart"ents su#h as the &u!li# 7ealth
Depart"ent of the Do#al =o-ern"ent Board, the Ban9rupt#0 Depart"ent of
the Board of Trade, and the Fa#tor0 Depart"ent of the 7o"e >ffi#e, ha-e
"ore 4or9 to do than originall0 had a e#retar0 of tate. It is
pro!a!le, "oreo-er, that depart"ents 4ill "ultipl0 and su!di-ide at an
e-er,in#reasing rate.
All this, ho4e-er, is "erel0 "a#hiner0 pro-ided to gi-e effe#t to
pu!li# opinion, 4hi#h deter"ines the use to 4hi#h it shall !e put. But
its -er0 pro-ision indi#ates that England e.pe#ts the state to,da0 to
do "ore and "ore e.tensi-e dut0 for the indi-idual. For one thing the
state has largel0 ta9en the pla#e of the #hur#h as the organ of the
#olle#ti-e #ons#ien#e of the #o""unit0. It #an hardl0 !e said that the
Angli#an #hur#h has an arti#ulate #ons#ien#e apart fro" 5uestions of
#anon la4 and e##lesiasti#al propert0: and other #hur#hes are, as
!odies, no !etter pro-ided 4ith #reeds of so#ial "oralit0. The Eighth
Co""and"ent is ne-er applied to su#h genteel delin5uen#ies as "a9ing a
false return of in#o"e, or defrauding a rail4a0 #o"pan0 or the #usto"s:
!ut is reser-ed for the grosser offen#es 4hi#h no "e"!er of the
#ongregation is li9el0 to ha-e #o""itted: and it is left to the state
to pro-ide !0 4arning and penalt0 against negle#t of one<s dut0 to
one<s neigh!our 4hen one<s neigh!our is not one indi-idual !ut the su"
of all. It 4as not !0 an0 e##lesiasti#al agitation that so"e hu"anit0
4as introdu#ed into the #ri"inal #ode in the third de#ade of the
nineteenth #entur0: and the protest against the !lind #ruelt0 of
e#ono"i# laisse! faire 4as "ade !0 adler, haftes!ur0, /us9in,
and Carl0le rather than !0 an0 #hur#h. Their 4ritings and spee#hes
a4o9e a #ons#ien#e in the state, 4hi#h !egan to insist !0 "eans of
legislation upon hu"aner hours and #onditions of la!our, upon de#ent
sanitation, upon a standard of pu!li# edu#ation, and upon pro-ision
!eing "ade against fraudulent dealings 4ith "ore helpless fello4,"en.
This pu!li# #ons#ien#e has ine-ita!l0 pro-ed e.pensi-e, and the e.pense
has had to !e !orne either !0 the state or !0 the indi-idual. *o4, it
"ight ha-e !een possi!le, 4hen the e.pense of these ne4 standards of
pu!li# health and #o"fort !egan to !e in#urred, to pro-ide !0 an heroi#
effort of so#ialis" for a perpetuation of the indi-idualisti# !asis of
so#ial dut0. That is to sa0, if the state had guaranteed to e-er0
indi-idual an in#o"e 4hi#h 4ould ena!le hi" to !ear his share of this
e.pense, it "ight also ha-e i"posed upon hi" the dut0 of "eeting it, of
pa0ing fees for the edu#ation of his #hildren, for hospital treat"ent,
for "edi#al inspe#tion, and so forth. But that effort 4as not, and
perhaps #ould not, in the e.isting #ondition of pu!li# opinion, !e
"ade: and the state has therefore got into the ha!it of pro-iding and
pa0ing for all these things itself. 8hen the "aHorit0 of "ale adults
earn t4ent0 shillings or less a 4ee9, and possess a -ote, there 4ould
!e no raising of standards at all, if the0 had to pa0 the #ost. 7en#e
the state has !een #o"pelled step !0 step to "eet the e.pense of
!urdens i"posed !0 its #ons#ien#e. Free edu#ation has therefore
follo4ed #o"pulsor0 edu#ation: the de"ands of sanitar0 inspe#tors and
"edi#al offi#ers of health ha-e led to free "edi#al inspe#tion, "edi#al
treat"ent, the feeding of ne#essitous s#hool #hildren, and other
pie#e"eal so#ialis": and, ignoring the histori#al #auses of this
de-elop"ent, 4e are e"!ar9ed on a 4ord0 4arfare of so#ialists and
indi-idualists as to the a!stra#t "erits of antagonisti# theories.
It is "ainl0 a !attle of phrases, in 4hi#h fe4 pause to e.a"ine 4hat
their opponents or the0 the"sel-es "ean !0 the epithets the0 e"plo0. In
the sense in 4hi#h the indi-idualist uses the ter" so#ialist, there are
hardl0 an0 so#ialists, and in the sense in 4hi#h the so#ialist uses the
ter" indi-idualist, there are pra#ti#all0 no indi-idualists. In realit0
4e are all !oth indi-idualists and so#ialists. It is a 5uestion of
degree and not of dog"a: and "ost people are at heart agreed that so"e
e#ono"i# so#ialis" is re5uired in order to pro"ote a #ertain a"ount of
"oral and intelle#tual indi-idualis". The defe#t of so,#alled e#ono"i#
indi-idualis" is that it redu#es the "ass of 4or9ers to one dead le-el
of #o""on po-ert0, in 4hi#h 4ages, instead of in#reasing li9e #apital,
!arel0 9eep pa#e 4ith the rise of rent and pri#es, in 4hi#h "en o##up0
d4ellings all ali9e in the sa"e "ean streets, pursuing the sa"e routine
of la!our and sa"e tri-ial round of rela.ation, and in 4hi#h there
see"s no possi!ilit0 of se#uring for the indi-idual ade5uate
opportunities for that de-elop"ent of his indi-idualit0 !0 4hi#h alone
he #an render his !est ser-i#e to the #o""unit0.
That ser-i#e is the #o""on end and o!He#t to4ards 4hi#h "en of all
parties in English histor0 ha-e stri-en through the gro4th of #ons#ious
and #olle#ti-e a#tion. A #o""unist has "aintained that 4e are all
#o""unists !e#ause 4e ha-e de-eloped a #o""on ar"0, a #o""on na-0, and
a #o""on national go-ern"ent, in pla#e of the indi-idualisti# for#es
and Hurisdi#tions of feudal !arons. 8e ha-e, indeed, nationali6ed these
things and "an0 others as 4ell, in#luding the #ro4n, the #hur#h, the
ad"inistration of Husti#e, edu#ation, high4a0s and !04a0s, posts and
telegraphs, 4oods and forests. E-en the 7ouse of Dords has !een
#onstrained to a!andon its independen#e !0 a pro#ess a9in to that
"edie-al peine forte et dure, !0 4hi#h the o!stinate indi-idualist
4as, 4hen a##used, #o"pelled to surrender his an#ient i""unit0 and
su!"it to the #o""on la4: and this #o""on #ontrol, 4hi#h #a"e into
!eing as the nation e"erged out of its di-erse ele"ents in the
thirteenth and fourteenth #enturies, and slo4l0 gathered for#e as
it reali6ed its strength under the Tudors, has attained fresh "o"entu"
in the latest ages as the state step !0 step e.tended to all sorts and
#onditions of "en a share in the e.er#ise of its po4er.
This is the real English #on5uest, and it for"s the #hief #ontent of
English histor0. It is part of the triu"ph of "an o-er the for#es of
nature and o-er hi"self, and the t4o ha-e gone hand in hand. An English
state #ould hardl0 e.ist !efore "en had "ade roads, !ut it #ould no
"ore e.ist until the0 had a#hie-ed that great -i#tor0 of #i-ili6ed
go-ern"ent !0 4hi#h a "inorit0 agrees for the sa9e of pea#e to su!"it
to the greater nu"!er. tea" and rail4a0s and telegraphs ha-e pla#ed
further po4ers in the hands of "en: the0 ha-e #on5uered the land and
the sea and the air: and "edi#al s#ien#e has !uilt up their ph0si5ue
and pa-ed the 4a0 for e"pire in tropi#al #li"es. But 4hile he has
#on5uered nature, "an has also #on5uered hi"self. 7e has ta"ed his
#o"!ati-e instin#ts: he has redu#ed #i-il strife to politi#al #o"!ats,
restrained national #onfli#ts !0 treaties of ar!itration, and su!dued
pri-ate 4ars to Hudi#ial pro#eedings: it is onl0 in partiall0 #i-ili6ed
#ountries that gentle"en #annot rule their te"per or !end their honour
to the !ase ar!itra"ent of Husti#e. 7e loo9s !efore and after, and
forgoes the gratifi#ation of the present to insure against the
a##idents of the future, though the e.tent to 4hi#h the #o""unit0 as a
4hole #an follo4 the e.a"ple of indi-iduals in this respe#t re"ains at
the "o"ent a test of its self,#ontrol and sense of #olle#ti-e
responsi!ilit0.
8hether this gro4th of po4er in the indi-idual and in the state is a
good or an e-il thing depends on the #ons#ien#e of those 4ho 4ield it.
The po4er of the o-er,"ight0 su!He#t has generall0 !een a t0rann0: and
all po4er is distrusted !0 old,fashioned Di!erals and philosophi#
Anar#hists, !e#ause the0 ha-e a traditional suspi#ion that it 4ill fall
into hostile or uns#rupulous hands. But the for#es of e-il #annot !e
o-er#o"e !0 laisse! faire, and po4er is an indispensa!le 4eapon
of progress. A po4erless state "eans a helpless #o""unit0: and anar#h0
is the 4orst of all for"s of t0rann0, !e#ause it is irresponsi!le,
in#orrigi!le, and #apri#ious. 8ea9ness, "oreo-er, is the parent of
pani#, and pani# !rings #ruelt0 in its train. o long as the state 4as
4ea9, it 4as #ruel: and the hideous treason,la4s of Tudor ti"es 4ere
due to fear. The 4ea9 #annot afford to !e tolerant an0 "ore than the
poor #an afford to !e generous. Ce#il thought that the state #ould not
afford to tolerate t4o for"s of religion: to,da0 it tolerates hundreds,
and it laughs at treason !e#ause it is strong. 8e are hu"anitarian, not
!e#ause 4e are so "u#h !etter than our an#estors, !ut !e#ause 4e #an
afford the lu.ur0 of dissent and #ons#ientious o!He#tions so "u#h
!etter than the0 #ould. &oliti#al li!ert0 and religious freedo" depend
upon the po4er of the state, inspired, #ontrolled, and guided !0 the
"ind of the #o""unit0.
Dast of all, through this po4er "an has a#5uired faith, not in
"ira#ulous inter-ention, !ut in his #apa#it0 to 4or9 out his o4n
destinies !0 "eans of the 4eapons pla#ed in his hands and the do"inion
put under his feet. 7e no longer !elie-es that the 4ea9est "ust go to
the 4all, and the helpless !e tra"pled under foot in the "ar#h of
#i-ili6ation: nature is no longer a "ass of ins#ruta!le, iron de#rees,
!ut a treasur0 of for#es to !e ta"ed and used in the rede"ption of
"an9ind !0 "an: and "an9ind is no longer a "o! of !lind -i#ti"s to
pani# and passion, !ut a "ore or less orderl0 host "ar#hing on to "ore
or less definite goals. The indi-idual, ho4e-er, #an do little !0
hi"self: he needs the strength of union for his her#ulean tas9s: and he
has found that union in the state. It is not an engine of t0rann0, !ut
the le-er of so#ial "oralit0: and the fun#tion of English go-ern"ent is
not "erel0 to e"!od0 the organi6ed "ight and the e.e#uti-e !rain of
England, !ut also to enfor#e its #olle#ti-e and #oordinating
#ons#ien#e.
Chronological Ta*le
B.C. 55. ;ulius Caesar<s first in-asion of Britain.
A.D. '+110. /o"an o##upation of Britain.
'105%%. &eriod of Anglo,a.on #oloni6ation and #on5uest.
51%66'. Con-ersion of the Anglo,a.ons to Christianit0.
61%6(5. *orthu"!rian supre"a#0.
6(5($5. Ber#ian supre"a#0.
(0$(+1. E#g!erht esta!lishes 8est a.on supre"a#0.
(55. Danes first 4inter in England.
(%(. &ea#e of 8ed"ore !et4een Alfred and the Danes.
100 EJF. Death of Alfred.
100 EJF1%5. Ed4ard the Elder, Athelstan, and Edgar. /e#on5uest of the Danela4.
1%(101+. Ethelred the Gnread0. /eturn of the Danes.
1016. Ed"und Ironside.
101610+5. Canute.
10'$1060. Ed4ard the Confessor and the gro4th of *or"an Influen#e.
1066. 7arold and the Battle of 7astings. 8illia" I.
106610%1. The *or"an Con5uest. u!"ergen#e of the Anglo,a.ons.
10(510(6. Do"esda0 Boo9. The alis!ur0 >ath.
10(%1100. 8illia" II.
110011+5. 7enr0 I and the !eginnings of an ad"inistrati-e s0ste". The E.#he5uer and Curia $egis.
11+5,115'. 8tephen and Batilda. The period of !aronial independen#e, i%e., anar#h0.
115'11(1. 7enr0 II restores order, #ur!s the "ilitar0 po4er of the !arons !0 s#utage E1151F, the
Assi6e of Ar"s E11(1F, and the su!stitution of s4orn in5uest for the ordeal and trial !0 !attle, and their
Hurisdi#tion !0 the de-elop"ent of the ro0al #ourt of Husti#e through assi6es of Clarendon,
*ortha"pton, et#. Tea#hes the people to rel0 on their Hudg"ent. /estrains the sheriffs, and atte"pts to
li"it e##lesiasti#al Hurisdi#tion !0 the #onstitutions of Clarendon E116'F. Iuarrel 4ith Be#9et.
11(11111. /i#hard I. Crusade and 4ars in Fran#e.
11111$10. ;ohn<s t0rann0. Doss of *or"and0 E1$0'F. Iuarrel 4ith the #hur#h and !aronage. Tries to
retrie-e his position !0 spirited foreign poli#0. Defeated at Bou-ines E1$1'F and for#ed to sign Bagna
Carta E1$15F.
1$161$%$. 7enr0 III. Beginnings of national go-ern"ent under De Burgh. *a-al -i#tor0 E1$1%F. Alien
do"ination of 7enr0<s fa-ourites pro-o9es !aronial resistan#e. =ro4th of nati-e 4ealth and influen#e,
and of an English part0 in the Barons< 8ar E1$5(1$65F. i"on De Bontfort. To4nsfol9 su""oned to
&arlia"ent.
1$%$1+0%. Ed4ard I, the first English 9ing sin#e the *or"an Con5uest. E"ergen#e of the English
people, their language, national 4eapons, to4ns, #o""er#e. The Bodel &arlia"entE1$%5, 1$15F.
Confir"ation of the #hartersE1$1%F. *ational resistan#e to the &apa#0, and national enterprises against
8ales and #otland.
1+0%1+$%. Ed4ard II. The relapse of Bonar#h0. Baronage !e#o"ing peerage. Tho"as of Dan#aster.
1+$%1+%%. Ed4ard III. =ro4th of nationalis" in religion, politi#s, literature, trade, and 4ar. The
Co""ons ta9e the #onstitutional lead a!andoned !0 the peers. Dollard0 and hostilit0 to the &apa#0.
De#a0 of "anorial s0ste"C e"an#ipation of -illeinsC gro4th of industr0 and to4ns.
1+%%1+11. /i#hard II, /e-olt of the peasants and artisans E1+(1F. Tries to e"an#ipate hi"self fro"
the #ontrol of the peers, and is deposed.
1+111'1+. 7enr0 I) and the Dan#astrian d0nast0. /e-olt of the &er#ies E1'0+F. 7enr0<s trou!les 4ith
o-er,"ight0 su!He#ts.
1'1+1'$$. 7enr0 ) see9s es#ape fro" do"esti# trou!les in foreign 4ar.
1'15. Battle of Agin#ourt. Treat0 of Tro0es E1'$0F.
1'$$. 7enr0 )I. /i-alr0 !et4een Beaufort and =lou#ester leads to gro4th of Dan#astrian and @or9ist
fa#tions, and these 4ith lo#al anar#h0 produ#e the 8ars of the /oses E1'551'(5F.
1'61. Ed4ard I) se#ures the throne, and in 1'%1 defeats !oth the Dan#astrians and 8ar4i#9 the Aing,
"a9er.
1'(+. /i#hard III.
1'(5. 7enr0 )II and the 7ouse of Tudor.
1'(%. >rgani6ation of the tar Cha"!er to repress disorder and o-er,"ight0 su!He#ts. Dia6 dou!les the
Cape of =ood 7ope.
1'1$. Colu"!us dis#o-ers 8est Indies.
1'161'1%. Ca!ot dis#o-ers *e4foundland and Da!rador.
1501. 7enr0 )III.
151$15$1. 8olse0.
15$115+6. The /efor"ation &arlia"ent. The su!"ission of the Clerg0, A#ts of Annates, Appeals
E15+$,15++F and upre"a#0 E15+'F.
15+6. uppression of the Bonasteries and &ilgri"age for =ra#e.
15+1. A#t of i. Arti#les.
15'%155+. Ed4ard )I and the &rotestant /efor"ation.
15'1. First A#t of Gnifor"it0 and Boo9 of Co""on &ra0er. Aett<s
re!ellion.
155$. e#ond A#t of Gnifor"it0 and Boo9 of Co""on &ra0er.
155+155(. Bar0 and the /o"an Catholi# rea#tion. panish #ontrol in England.
155(. Eli6a!eth.
1551. The Eli6a!ethan settle"ent of religion.
1560. Eli6a!eth assists the #ots to e.pel the Fren#h.
156(1561. Flight of Bar0 Iueen of #ots into England, and re!ellion of the northern earls.
15%0. &apal e.#o""uni#ation and deposition of Eli6a!eth.
15%1. /idolfi<s plot.
15%$. E.e#ution of *orfol9 and e.tin#tion of English du9edo"s. Beginning of the Dut#h /epu!li#.
Bassa#re of t. Bartholo"e4.
15%%15(0. Dra9e sails round the 4orld.
15(%. E.e#ution of Bar0 Iueen of #ots.
15((. panish Ar"ada.
15111601. Con5uest of Ireland.
1600. Foundation of East India Co"pan0.
160+. ;a"es )I of #otland and I of England.
160%. Foundation of )irginia.
160(. &lantation of Glster.
16$0. ailing of the Ba0flo4er.
16$+. /e,#reation of du9edo"s. Bassa#re of A"!o0na.
16$5. Charles I.
16$(. &etition of /ight.
16$1. First British #apture of Iue!e#.
16$116'0. The LEle-en @ears< T0rann0.M
16+(16+1. *ational Co-enant. Bishops< 4ar in #otland.
16'0. The Dong &arlia"ent.
16'$. First Ci-il 8ar.
16'(. e#ond Ci-il 8ar.
16'1. The Co""on4ealth. A!olition of "onar#h0 and the 7ouse of Dords.
1650,1651. *a-igation A#ts and Dut#h 8ar.
165+. The &rote#torate. First Cro"4ellian #onstitution.
165%. e#ond Cro"4ellian #onstitution.
165(. Cro"4ell<s death.
1660. The /estoration. Charles II.
166$. The last A#t of Gnifor"it0.
166'. 8ar 4ith the Dut#hC #on5uest of *e4 *etherlands
166%. Fall of Clarendon. The Ca!al ad"inistration.
16%0. Treat0 of Do-er.
16%$. De#laration of Indulgen#e.
16%+. Dan!0. The Test A#t.
16%(. Titus =ates< &lot.
16%1. 7a!eas Corpus A#t.
16(1. Charles II<s triu"ph o-er the 8higs.
16(5. ;a"es II. Bon"outh<s and Arg0ll<s re!ellions.
16((. The /e-olution. 8illia" III and Bar0.
16(1. Bill of /ights. Toleration A#t.
1610. Battle of the Bo0ne.
161'. Ban9 of England esta!lished.
1616. The 8hig &unto.
1%01. A#t of ettle"ent.
1%0$. Anne. 8ar 4ith Fran#e.
1%0'. Capture of =i!raltar. England !e#o"es a Bediterranean po4er.
1%0%. A#t of Gnion 4ith #otland.
1%0(. Capture of Binor#a.
1%0(1%10. 8hig "inistr0.
1%101%1'. Tor0 "inistr0.
1%1+. &ea#e of Gtre#ht.
1%1'. =eorge I and the 7ano-erian d0nast0.
1%$11%'$. 8alpole<s ad"inistration. E-olution of the Ca!inet and &ri"e Binister. =ro4th of i"ports
and e.ports,
1%$%. =eorge II.
1%+1. 8ar 4ith pain.
1%'11%'(. 8ar of the Austrian u##ession. Cli-e in India.
1%561%6+. e-en @ears< 8ar.
1%5%. Battle of &lasse0.
1%51. Capture of Iue!e#.
1%60. =eorge III.
1%6'1%%1. In-entions !0 Ar94right, 7argrea-es, and Cro"pton. Beginning of the Industrial
/e-olution.
1%65. =ren-ille<s ta"p A#t.
1%%0. Dord *orth &ri"e Binister. Captain Coo9 sur-e0s Australia and *e4 Kealand.
1%%'. The Iue!e# A#t.
1%%6. De#laration of A"eri#an Independen#e. Ada" "ith<s Wealth of ations.
1%%(1%%1. Fran#e and pain Hoin the A"eri#ans.
1%(0. The 3Ar"ed *eutralit0.3 8arren 7astings sa-es India.
1%(1. Fall of @or9to4n.
1%($. )olunteer "o-e"ent In Ireland. Irish parlia"entar0 independen#e.
1%(+. A"eri#an Independen#e granted.
1%('. &itt &ri"e BinisterC his India Bill.
1%((. Con-i#t settle"ent in Australia.
1%(1. Fren#h /e-olution.
1%11. The Canadian Constitutional A#t.
1%1'. The L=lorious First of ;une.M
1%15,1%16. Con5uest of the Cape and of Ce0lon.
1%1%. Battles of t. )in#ent and Ca"perdo4n.
1%1(. Battle of the *ile. Irish re!ellion.
1%11. 8ellesle0 in India. Capture of eringapata". &artition of B0sore and the Carnati#.
1(00. Gnion of =reat Britain and Ireland. ei6ure of Balta.
1(01. Battle of Copenhagen.
1(0$. &ea#e of A"iens.
1(0+. Battles of Ass0e and Argau". Defeat of the Bahrattas.
1(05. Battle of Trafalgar.
1(06. e#ond #apture of the Cape.
1(0(1(1'. &eninsular 8ar.
1(10. Capture of Bauritius.
1(1$1(1'. 8ar 4ith the Gnited tates.
1(1'. Corn Da4s passed.
1(15. Battle of 8aterloo.
1($0. =eorge I).
1($5. 7us9isson<s Tariff /efor".
1($%. Battle of *a-arino.
1($(. Corn Da4s re-ised.
1($(1($1. /epeal of Test A#t. /o"an Catholi# E"an#ipation.
1(+0. 8illia" I). 8higs return to po4er.
1(+$. First /efor" A#t. /epresentati-e =o-ern"ent esta!lished in *e4foundland.
1(+'1(+5. /efor" of the &oor Da4 and Buni#ipal #orporations.
1(+%. Iueen )i#toria. Ba#9en6ie and &apineau<s re!ellions in Canada. =reat Boer Ltre9.M
1('0. Anne.ation of *e4 Kealand.
1('11('6. &eel<s Free Trade poli#0.
1('$. /epresentati-e go-ern"ent in Australia.
1('6. Corn Da4s repealed.
1('(. /esponsi!le self,go-ern"ent In Canada, *e4 Bruns4i#9, and *o-a #otia.
1('1. /epeal of the *a-igation A#ts.
1(5$. /esponsi!le go-ern"ent de-eloped In Australia and *e4 Kealand.
1(5+. /epresentati-e go-ern"ent in Cape Colon0.
1(5'1(56. Cri"ean 8ar.
1(55. /esponsi!le go-ern"ent in *e4foundland. 1(56. /epresentati-e go-ern"ent in *atal.
1(5%. Indian Butin0.
1(5(. Transferen#e of India to the Cro4n.
1(6%. Disraeli<s /efor" A#t. Federation of the Do"inion of Canada.
1(61. Disesta!lish"ent of the Irish Chur#h. >pening of the ue6 Canal.
1(%0. Co"pulsor0 edu#ation.
1(%$. A!olition of pur#hase in the ar"0 !0 e.e#uti-e a#tion. /esponsi!le go-ern"ent in Cape Colon0.
1(%6. Iueen pro#lai"ed E"press of India.
1(%61(%%. /usso,Tur9ish 8ar. Dual #ontrol esta!lished in Eg0pt. Anne.ation of the Trans-aal.
1((1. Trans-aal granted independen#e.
1(($. British ad"inistration of Eg0pt !egins.
1((5. Fall of Ahartou". =ladstone<s /efor" A#t. Anne.ation of Bur"a.
1((%. Triple Allian#e of =er"an0, Austria, and Ital0.
1((1. Esta!lish"ent of Count0 Coun#ils.
1(10. Free Edu#ation. Fran#o,/ussian entente. /esponsi!le go-ern"ent in 8estern Australia.
1(1+. /esponsi!le go-ern"ent in *atal.
1(1'. Esta!lish"ent of distri#t and parish #oun#ils.
1(15. ;a"eson /aid.
1(161(1(. /e#on5uest of the udan.
1(11110+. The =reat Boer 8ar.
1100. Esta!lish"ent of the Australian Co""on4ealth.
1101. Ed4ard )II.
110'. /usso,;apanese 8ar.
1105. Anglo,;apanese allian#e.
1106,110%. /esponsi!le go-ern"ent granted to the Trans-aal and >range /i-er Colonies.
1101. The Gnion of outh Afri#a.
1110. =eorge ).
1111. As5uith<s &arlia"ent A#t. Capital of India transferred fro" Cal#utta to Delhi. Beginnings of
*ational Insuran#e.
%i*liography
;. /. =reen<s 'hort (istory of the )nglish People EBa#"illanF, and C. /. D. Flet#her<s *ntroductory
(istory of )ngland, ' -ols. EBurra0F, !oth e"inentl0 reada!le in -er0 different st0les, illustrate the
di-erse "ethods of treat"ent to 4hi#h English histor0 lends itself.
Bore ela!orate sur-e0s are pro-ided !0 Dong"ans< Political (istory of )ngland, 1$ -ols. Eedited !0 8.
7unt and /. D. &ooleF, and Bethuen<s (istory of )ngland, % -ols. Eedited !0 C. >"anF.
The student of Constitutional 7istor0 should !egin 4ith F. 8. Baitland<s +ectures on Constitutional
(istory ECa"!ridge Gni-ersit0 &ressF, and for a #o"pendiu" of fa#ts "a0 use Bedle0<s Constitutional
(istory of )ngland EBla#94ellF.
&eriods #an !e studied in greater detail in?;. /. =reenC ,he Ma-ing of )ngland and ,he Con.uest of
)ngland EBa#"illanF. Free"anC orman Con.uest, 6 -ols., and William $ufus, $ -ols. E>.ford
Gni-ersit0 &ressF. *orgateC )ngland under the /ngevins, $ -ols., and &ohn +ac-land EBa#"illanF.
/a"sa0C +ancaster and 0or-, $ -ols. FroudeC (istory of )ngland, 15$115((, 1$ -ols. EDong"ansF.
=ardinerC (istory of )ngland, 160+16'$, 10 -ols.: Civil War, 16'$16'1, ' -ols.: Commonwealth
and Protectorate, 16'11656, ' -ols. EDong"ansF. Ba#aula0C (istory of )ngland, 16(51%0$
EDong"ansF. De#90C (istory of )ngland, 1%1'1%1+, % -ols.: *reland, 1%1'1(00, 5 -ols.
EDong"ansF. pen#er 8alpoleC (istory of )ngland, 1(151('6, 6 -ols. 7er!ert &aulC (istory of
Modern )ngland, 1('61(15, 5 -ols. EBa#"illanF. Borle0C +ife of Gladstone, $ -ols. EBa#"illanF.
English Constitutional 7istor0 is detailed in?tu!!sC Constitutional (istory to 1234, + -ols. E>.ford
Gni-ersit0 &ressF. 7alla"C Constitutional (istory, 1'(51%60, + -ols. EBurra0F. Ers9ine Ba0C
Constitutional (istory, 1%601(60, + -ols. EDong"ansF. AnsonC +aw and Custom of the Constitution, +
-ols. E>.ford Gni-ersit0 &ressF. Di#e0C Custom of the Constitution EBa#"illanF.
For E##lesiasti#al 7istor0 see tephens and 7unt<s (istory of the Church of )ngland, % -ols.
EBa#"illanF: for Colonial 7istor0, eele0<s )xpansion of )ngland EBa#"illanF, and ,he #ritish
)mpire Eed. &ollard: Deague of the E"pireF: for E#ono"i# and Industrial 7istor0, Cunningha"<s
Growth of *ndustry and Commerce, + -ols.: Ashle0<s )conomic (istory, $ -ols. EBa#"illanF, and
To0n!ee<s *ndustrial $evolution: for s9et#hes of "o-e"ents and !iographies, see Ba#aula0<s )ssays
EDong"ansF, tu!!<s +ectures on Mediaeval and Modern (istory E>.ford Gni-ersit0 &ressF, and
&ollard<s 5actors in Modern (istory EConsta!leF.