A

Seminar Report
On
GLOBAL POSITOINING SYSTEM
Submitted in partial fulfillment of
the Bachelor of Engineering Degree
of the University of Rajasthan, Jaipur
L!"# DE$# #%S&#&U&E '(
E%)#%EER#%) * &E+,%'L')-
+,#.%# L/R 0RJS&,%1
Session: 2005-2006
Guided by: Submitted by:
Mr Pranay Jain Brij Mohan
B.E. VIII Sem. (I. T)

CERTIFICATE
Thi i to !erti"y that Mr. Brij Mohan tudent o" "ina# year$ I%&ORMATIO%
TECHNOLOGY En'ineerin' ha ubmitted hi Seminar report on GLOBAL
POSITIONING SYSTEM. The eminar (or) and report i in partia# "u#"i##ment "or the
a(ard o" *+e'ree in I%&ORMATIO% TE,-%O.OG/ En'ineerin'0 by the 1ni2erity o"
Rajathan$ 3aipur. The (or) done by him i 'enuine and ha not been ubmitted any(here
e#e "or the a(ard o" any other de'ree or dip#oma.
Mr. Ajay Khunteta
(Head of Dept., I.T. En.
L.I.E.T., A!"ar#
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am greatly thankful to my seminar guide Mr Pranay Jain Infor$at%on
Te&hno!oy Engineering Department, who inspired me to present my
seminar on Global Position System.
He helped and encouraged me in every possible way. he knowledge
ac!uired during the preparation of the seminar report would definitely
help me in my future ventures.
I would like to e"press my sincere gratitude to #r $ranay %ain,
&ecturer, Department of Information Technology & computer, for finding out
time and helping me in this seminar.
I would also thank all the teachers of our Department for there help in
various aspects during the seminar.

+ate: Brij Mohan
&ina# /ear
Infor$at%onTe&hno!oy

CONTENTS
4. Introduction
2. G.P.S. Basics
2.1.Geoositionin! " Basic concets
2.2.GPS# comonents and basic $acts
2.%.GPS ositionin! tye
%. &or'in! o$ GPS
%.1.Calculatin! a osition
%.2.GPS Error
%.%.(educin! GPS error
%.).*ccuracy o$ GPS
%.+.&,at s,ould be 'no-n be$ore ac.uirin! GPS recei/er
). GPS *lications
+. 0uture o$ GPS Tec,nolo!y
Biblio!ra,y

Introduction
'($)* technology is a great boon to anyone who has the need to
navigate either great or small distances. he (lobal $ositioning )ystem
'($)* is a burgeoning technology, which provides une!ualled accuracy
and fle"ibility of positioning for navigation, surveying and (I) data
capture. his wonderful navigation technology was actually first
available for government use back in the late +,-.s. he (lobal
$ositioning )ystem '($)* is a radio based na/i!ation system that
gives three dimensional coverage of the Earth, /0 hours a day in any
weather conditions throughout the world. he technology seems to be
beneficiary to the ($) user community in terms of obtaining accurate
data upto about +.. meters for navigation, metre1level for mapping,
and down to millimetre level for geodetic positioning. he ($)
technology has tremendous amount of applications in (eographical
Information )ystem '(I)* data collection, surveying, and mapping.
he first ($) satellite was launched by the 2.). 3ir 4orce in early
+,-5. here are now at least /0 satellites orbiting the earth at an
altitude of about ++,... nautical miles. he high altitude insures that
the satellite orbits are stable, precise and predictable, and that the
satellites6 motion through space is not affected by atmospheric drag.
hese /0 satellites make up a full ($) constellation. he satellites orbit
the Earth every +/ hours at appro"imately +/,... miles above the
Earth. here are four satellites in each of 7 orbital planes. Each plane
is inclined 88 degrees relative to the e!uator, which means that
satellites cross the e!uator tilted at a 88 degree angle. he system is
designed to maintain full operational capability even if two of the /0
satellites fail.
he ($) system consists of three segments9 +* he space segment9
the ($) satellites themselves, /* he control system, operated by the
2.). military, and :* he user segment, which includes both military
and civilian users and their ($) e!uipment.
he ($) system is passive, meaning that the satellites continuously
transmit information towards the Earth. If someone has a ($) receiver
they can receive the signal at no cost. he information is transmitted
on two fre!uencies9 &+ '+8-8.0/ #H;*, and &/ '+//-.7. #H;*.
hese fre!uencies are called carrier waves because they are used
primarily to carry information to GPS recei/ers. he more information
a receiver measures the more e"pensive the unit, and the more
functions it will perform with greater accuracy. <hen one receiver is
tracking satellites and obtaining position data, the information received
has traveled over +/,... miles and has been distorted by numerous
atmospheric factors. his results in accuracy of about /8 meters.
#oreover, the department of Defense 'the agency running the ($)*
degrades receiver accuracy by telling the satellites to transmit slightly
inaccurate information. his intentional distortion of the signal is called
Selecti/e */ailability ')3*. <ith )3 turned on and one receiver is
used, the greatest accuracy a user can e"pect is +.. meters.
o improve the accuracy of ($), differential, or =elative $ositioning can
be employed. If two or more receivers are used to track the same
satellites, and one is in a known position, many of the errors of )3 can
be reduced, and in some cases eliminated. Differential data can be
accomplished using common code or carrier data '&+ or &/*. he most
accurate systems use differential data from a ($) base station that
continually tracks twelve satellites and transmits the differential data
to remote units using a radio link. <ith these systems centimeter
accuracy and real1time navigation is possible.
3ll of these features make it a very desirable and useful technology for
a mirid of activities including )earch and =escue, 3viation and >autical
navigation, hiking, hunting, camping, fishing, and many more. 3ll of
these various ($) users have uni!ue needs which re!uire different
levels of understanding and skill in using this technology.
he =ussian government has developed a system, similar to ($),
called (&?>3)). he first (&?>3)) satellite launch was in ?ctober
+,5/. he full constellation consists of /0 satellites in : orbit planes,
which have a 70.5 degree inclination to the earth6s e!uator. he
(&?>3)) system now consists of +/ healthy satellites. (&?>3)) uses
the same code for each satellite and many fre!uencies, whereas ($)
which uses two fre!uencies and a different code for each satellite.
Ga#i#eo i Europe5 !ontribution to the ne6t 'eneration G#oba# %a2i'ation Sate##ite Sytem
(G%SS). 1n#i)e G7S$ (hi!h i "unded by the pub#i! e!tor and operated by the 1.S. Air
&or!e$ Ga#i#eo (i## be a !i2i#8!ontro##ed ytem that dra( on both pub#i! and pri2ate
e!tor "or "undin'. The er2i!e (i## be "ree at the point o" ue$ but a ran'e o" !har'eab#e
er2i!e (ith additiona# "eature (i## a#o be o""ered. Thee additiona# "eature (ou#d
in!#ude impro2ed re!eption$ a!!ura!y and a2ai#abi#ity. +ei'n o" the Ga#i#eo ytem i
bein' "ina#i9ed and the de#i2ery o" initia# er2i!e i tar'eted "or :;;<.
G. P. S. B*SICS
GEOPOSITIONING ## B*SIC CONCEPTS
@y positioning we understand the determination of stationary or
moving obAects. hese can be determined as follows9
+. In relation to a well1defined coordinate system, usually by three
coordinate values and
/. In relation to other point, taking one point as the origin of a local
coordinate system.
he first mode of positioning is known as point positioning, the second
as relative positioning. If the obAect to be positioned is stationary, we
term it as static positioning. <hen the obAect is moving, we call it
kinematic positioning. 2sually, the static positioning is used in
surveying and the kinematic position in navigation.
GPS # COMPONENTS *N1 B*SIC 0*CTS
he ($) uses satellites and computers to compute positions anywhere
on earth. he ($) is based on satellite ranging. hat means the
position on the earth is determined by measuring the distance from a
group of satellites in space. he basic principles behind ($) are really
simple, even though the system employs some of the most high1tech
e!uipment ever developed. In order to understand ($) basics, the
system can be categori;ed into
0I2E lo!ical Stes
riangulation from the satellite is the basis of the system.
o triangulate, the ($) measures the distance using the
travel time of the radio message.
o measure travel time, the ($) need a very accurate
clock.
?nce the distance to a satellite is known, then we need to
know where the satellite is in space.
3s the ($) signal travels through the ionosphere and the
earth6s atmosphere, the signal is delayed.
o compute a positions in three dimensions. <e need to
have four satellite measurements. he ($) uses a
trigonometric approach to calculate the positions, he ($)
satellites are so high up that their orbits are very
predictable and each of the satellites is e!uipped with a
very accurate atomic clock.
T,e Control Se!ment
he Bontrol )egment consists of five monitoring stations 'Bolorado
)prings, 3scesion Island, Diego (arcia, Hawaii, and CwaAalein Island*.
hree of the stations '3scension, Diego (arcia, and CwaAalein* serve
as uplink installations, capable of transmitting data to the satellites,
including new ephemerides 'satellite positions as a function of time*,
clock corrections, and other broadcast message data, while Bolorado
)prings serves as the master control station. he Bontrol )egment is
the sole responsibility of the DoD who undertakes construction,
launching, maintenance, and virtually constant performance
monitoring of the ($) satellites.
he D?D monitoring stations track all ($) signals for use in controlling
the satellites and predicting their orbits. #eteorological data also are
collected at the monitoring stations, permitting the most accurate
evaluation of tropospheric delays of ($) signals. )atellite tracking data
from the monitoring stations are transmitted to the master control
station for processing. his processing involves the computation of
satellite ephemerides and satellite clock corrections. he master
station controls orbital corrections, when any satellite strays too far
from its assigned position, and necessary repositioning to compensate
for unhealthy 'not fully functioning* satellites.
T,e Sace Se!ment
he )pace )egment consists of the Bonstellation of >3D3)3= earth
orbiting satellites. he current Defense Department plan calls for a full
constellation of /0 @lock II satellites '/+ operational and : in1orbit
spares*. Each satellite contains four precise atomic clocks '=ubidium
and Besium standards* and has a microprocessor on board for limited
self1monitoring and data processing.
)atellite orbits.
here are four satellites in each of 7 orbital planes. Each plane is
inclined 88 degrees relative to the e!uator, which means that satellites
cross the e!uator tilted at a 88 degree angle. he system is designed
to maintain full operational capability even if two of the /0 satellites
fail. hey orbit at altitudes of about +/..., miles each, with orbital
periods of +/ sidereal hours 'i.e., determined by or from the stars*, or
appro"imately one half of the earth6s periods, appro"imately +/ hours
of :1D position fi"es. he satellites are e!uipped with thrusters which
can be used to maintain or modify their orbits. he ne"t block of
satellites is called @lock II=, and they will provide improved reliability
and have a capacity of ranging between satellites, which will increase
the orbital accuracy.

Satellite Si!nals
($) satellites continuously broadcast satellite position and timing data
via radio signals on two fre!uencies9 &+ '+8-8.0/ #H;*, and & /
'+//-.7. #H;*. hese fre!uencies are called carrier waves because
they are used primarily to carry information to ($) receivers. he
radio signals travel at the speed of light '+57,... miles per second*
and take appro"imately 7E+..ths of a second to reach the earth.
he satellite signals re!uire a direct line to ($) receivers and cannot
penetrate water, soil, walls or other obstacles. 4or e"ample, heavy
forest canopy causes interference, making it difficult, if not impossible,
to compute positions. In canyons 'and Furban canyonsF in cities* ($)
signals are blocked by mountain ranges or buildings. If you place your
hand over a ($) receiver antenna, it will stop computing positions.
wo kinds of code are broadcast on the &+ fre!uency 'BE3 code and $
code*. BE3 'Boarse 3c!uisition* code is available to civilian ($) users
and provides )tandard $ositioning )ervice ')$)*. 2sing the )tandard
$ositioning )ervice one can achieve +8 meter hori;ontal accuracy ,8G
of the time. his means that ,8G of the time, the coordinates you
read from your ($) receiver display will be within +8 meters of your
true position on the earth. $ '$recise* code is broadcast on both the &+
and &/ fre!uencies. $ code, used for the $recise $ositioning )ervice
'$$)* is available only to the military. 2sing $ code on both
fre!uencies, a military receiver can achieve better accuracy than
civilian receivers. 3dditional techni!ues can increase the accuracy of
both BE3 code and $ code ($) receivers.
T,e 3ser Se!ment
he user segment is a total user and supplier community, both civilian
and military. he 2ser )egment consists of all earth1based ($)
receivers. =eceivers vary greatly in si;e and comple"ity, though the
basic design is rather simple. he typical receiver is
composed of an antenna and preamplifier, radio signal microprocessor,
control and display device, data recording unit, and power supply. he
($) receiver decodes the timing signals from the 6visible6 satellites
'four or more* and, having calculated their distances, computes its
own latitude, longitude, elevation, and time. his is a continuous
process and generally the position is updated on a second1by1second
basis, output to the receiver display device and, if the receiver display
device and, if the receiver provides data capture capabilities, stored by
the receiver1logging unit.
GPS POSITIONING T4PES
*bsolute Positionin!
he mode of positioning relies upon a single receiver station. It is also
referred to as 6stand1alone6 ($), because, unlike differential
positioning, ranging is carried out strictly between the satellite and the
receiver station, not on a ground1based reference station that assists
with the computation of error corrections. 3s a result, the positions
derived in absolute mode are subAect to the unmitigated errors
inherent in satellite positioning. ?verall accuracy of absolute
positioning is considered to be no greater than 8. meters at best by
3ckroyd and &orimer and to be H +.. meter accuracy by the 2.).
3rmy Borps of Engineers.
1i$$erential Positionin!
=elative or Differential ($) carries the triangulation principles one step
further, with a second receiver at a known reference point. o further
facilitate determination of a point6s position, relative to the known
earth surface point, this configuration demands collection of an error1
correcting message from the reference receiver.
Differential1mode positioning relies upon an established control point.
he reference station is placed on the control point, a triangulated
position, the control point coordinate. his allows for a correction
factor to be calculated and applied to other moving ($) units used in
the same area and in the same time series. Inaccuracies in the control
point6s coordinate are directly additive to errors inherent in the satellite
positioning process. Error corrections derived by the reference station
vary rapidly, as the factors propagating position errors are not static
over time. his error correction allows for a considerable amount of
error of error to be negated, potentially as much as ,. percent

G7S SET17 B.O,= +IAGRAM
&O(5ING O0 GPS
C*6C36*TING * POSITION
3 ($) receiver calculates its position by a techni!ue called satellite
ranging, which involves measuring the distance between the ($)
receiver and the ($) satellites it is tracking. he range 'the range a
receiver calculates is actually a pseudo range, or an estimate of range
rather than a true range* or distance, is measured as elapsed transit
time. he position of each satellite is known, and the satellites transmit
their positions as part of the FmessagesF they send via radio waves.
he ($) receiver on the ground is the unknown point, and must
compute its position based on the information it receives from the
satellites.
Measurin! 1istance to Satellites
he first step in measuring the distance between the ($) receiver and
a satellite re!uires measuring the time it takes for the signal to travel
from the satellite to the receiver. ?nce the receiver knows how much
time has elapsed, it multiplies the travel time of the signal times the
speed of light 'because the satellite signals travel at the speed of light,
appro"imately +57,... miles per second* to compute the distance.
Distance measurements to four satellites are re!uired to compute a :1
dimensional 'latitude, longitude and altitude* position.
In order to measure the travel time of the satellite signal, the receiver
has to know when the signal left the satellite and when the signal
reached the receiver. Cnowing when the signal reaches the receiver is
easyI the ($) receiver Aust FchecksF its internal clock when the signal
arrives to see what time it is. @ut how does it FknowF when the signal
left the satelliteJ 3ll ($) receivers are synchroni;ed with the satellites
so they generate the same digital code at the same time. <hen the
($) receiver receives a code from a satellite, it can look back in its
memory bank and FrememberF when it emitted the same code. his
little FtrickF allows the ($) receiver to determine when the signal left
the satellite.
Using the Distance Measurements to Calculate a Position
?nce the receiver has the distance measurements, it6s basically a problem of
geometry. If it FknowsF where the four satellites are, and how far it is from
each satellite, it can compute its location through triangulation
4) he ($) receiver Flocks onF to one satellite and calculates the
range to be +/,... miles. his fact helps narrow the receiver
location down, but it only tells us that we are somewhere on a
sphere which is centered on the satellite and
has a +/,... mile radius.
:) >ow, consider that the receiver picks up a signal from a second
satellite and calculates the range between the receiver and the
satellite to be +.,... miles. hat means we are also somewhere
on a sphere with a +.,... mile radius with the second satellite at
the center. <e must, therefore, be somewhere where these two
spheres intersect. <hen the two spheres intersect, a circle is
formed, so we must be somewhere on that circle.
:* If the receiver picks up another satellite, say at ++,... miles
away, another sphere is formed, and there are only two points
where the three spheres intersect.
1eterminin! t,e co#ordinates 76at86on! Grid9

Grid Systems wo most common grid systems in use are the &atitude
&ongitude '&atE&ong* grid and the 2niversal ransverse #ercator '2#*
grid.
he 2# grid is a metric grid system based on 7. grid ;ones around
the globe and a set of values n meters from reference points of the
grid.
3ny grid consists of the reference points, units of measurement, and
some designation of direction to clearly identify a position.


he hori;ontal, K a"is and the vertical, L a"is are the reference points.
he &atE&ong grid consists of all the same elements. he a"es are the
e!uator running in an eastEwest circle around the globe, and the $rime
#eridian which is a line running north and south through (reenwich.
here are two uni!ue things about this grid in that it is spherical
instead of flat and the units of measurement are 3>(2&3= 'degree,
minutes, seconds*.


In this grid system, we deal with a sphere where the reference a"es
are two circles. ?ne is around the center of globe at the e!uator, and
the other running vertical or >orth and )outh at the $rime #eridian.


&ike in the K1L graph, a point is defined by given distance in degrees,
East or <est of the $rime #eridian, and in degrees, >orth or )outh of
the E!uator. @ut if we only use degrees, we would not be very accurate
because one degree of longitude or latitude at the a"is is e!ual to
appro". 7. miles. herefore, the circle needs to be divided into smaller
components to give more accurate coordinates. herefore, the de!ree
is further divided into 7. smaller segments called minutes, which in
turn is further divided into 7. seconds.

his give small enough increment on the surface of the Earth, one
second gives the distance of around +.. feet, much higher level of
accuracy. he coordinates for a given location is the intersection of the
#eridian of &ongitude, East or <est of the $rime #eridian and the
parallel of &atitude, >orth or )outh of the E!uator. r
GPS E((O(
here are many sources of possible errors that will degrade the
accuracy of positions computed by a ($) receiver. he travel time of
($) satellite signals can be altered by atmospheric effectsI when a
($) signal passes through the ionosphere and troposphere it is
refracted, causing the speed of the signal to be different from the
speed of a ($) signal in space. )unspot activity also causes
interference with ($) signals. 3nother source of error is measurement
noise, or distortion of the signal caused by electrical interference or
errors inherent in the ($) receiver itself. Errors in the ephemeris data
'the information about satellite orbits* will also cause errors in
computed positions, because the satellites weren6t really where the
($) receiver FthoughtF they were 'based on the information it
received* when it computed the positions. )mall variations in the
atomic clocks 'clock drift* on board the satellites can translate to large
position errorsI a clock error of + nanosecond translates to + foot or
..: meters user error on the ground. #ultipath effects arise when
signals transmitted from the satellites bounce off a reflective surface
before getting to the receiver antenna. <hen this happens, the
receiver gets the signal in straight line path as well as delayed path
'multiple paths*. he effect is similar to a ghost or double image on a
D set.
Geometric 1ilution o$ Precision 7G1OP9
)atellite geometry can also affect the accuracy of ($) positioning. his
effect is called (eometric Dilution of $recision '(D?$*. (D?$ refers to
where the satellites are in relation to one another, and is a measure of
the !uality of the satellite configuration. It can magnify or lessen other
($) errors. In general, the wider the angle between satellites, the
better the measurement. #ost ($) receivers select the satellite
constellation that will give the least uncertainty, the best satellite
geometry.
($) receivers usually report the !uality of satellite geometry in terms
of $osition Dilution of $recision, or $D?$. $D?$ refers to hori;ontal
'HD?$* and vertical 'DD?$* measurements 'latitude, longitude and
altitude*.3 low D?$ indicates a higher probability of accuracy, and a
high D?$ indicates a lower probability of accuracy. 3 $D?$ of 0 or less
is e"cellent, a $D?$ between 8 3>D 5 is acceptable, and a $D?$ of ,
or greater is poor. D?$ or ime Dilution of $recision refers to satellite
clock offset.
Selecti/e */ailability 7S*9
)elective 3vailability, or )3, occurred when the DoD intentionally
degraded the accuracy of ($) signals by introducing artificial clock and
ephemeris errors. <hen )3 was implemented, it was the largest
component of ($) error, causing error of up to +.. meters. )3 is a
component of the )tandard $ositioning )ervice ')$)*, which was
formally implemented on #arch /8, +,,., and was intended to protect
national defense. )3 was turned off on #ay +, /....
0actors t,at a$$ect GPS
here are a number of potential error sources that affect either the
($) signal directly or your ability to produce optimal results9
Number o$ satellites # minimum number re.uired 9
Lou must track at least four common satellites 1 the same four
satellites 1 at both the reference receiver and rover for either D($) or
=C solutions. 3lso to achieve centimeter 1level accuracy, remember
you must have a fifth satellite for on1the fly =C initiali;ation. his
e"tra satellite adds a check on the internal calculation. 3ny additional
satellites beyond five provide even more checks, which is always
useful.
#ultipath 1 reflection of ($) signals near the antennae9
#ultipath is simply reflection of signals similar to the phenomenon of
ghosting on our television screen. ($) signals may be reflected by
surfaces near the antennae, causing error in the travel time and
therefore error in the ($) positions.
Ionosphere 1 change in the travel time of the signal9
@efore ($) signals reach your antenna on the earth, they pass through
a ;one of charged particles called the ionosphere, which changes the
speed of the signal. If your reference and rover receivers are relatively
close together, the effect of ionosphere tends to be minimal. 3nd if you
are working with the lower range of ($) precisions, the ionosphere is
not a maAor consideration. However if your rover is working too far
from the reference station, you may e"perience problems, particularly
with initiali;ing your =C fi"ed solution.
Troos,ere # c,an!e in t,e tra/el time o$ t,e si!nal:
roposphere is essentially the weather ;one of our atmosphere, and
droplets of water vapors in it can affect the speed of the signals.
he vertical component of your ($) answer 'your elevation* is
particularly sensitive to the troposphere.
Satellite Geometry # !eneral distribution o$ t,e satellites:
)atellite (eometry or the distribution of satellites in the sky effects
the computation of your position. his is often referred to as
$osition Dilution of $recision '$D?$*.
$D?$ is e"pressed as a number, where lower numbers are
preferable to higher numbers. he best results are obtained when
$D?$ is less than about -.$D?$ is determined by your
geographic location, the time of day you are working, and any site
obstruction, which might block satellites. Lou can use planning
software to help you determine when you6ll have the most satellites
in a particular area.
<hen satellites are spread out, $D?$ is &ow 'good*.
<hen satellites are closer together, $D?$ is High 'weak*.
Satellite ;ealt, # */ailability o$ Si!nal:
<hile the satellite system is robust and dependable, it is possible
for the satellites to occasionally be unhealthy. 3 satellite broadcasts
its health status, based on information from the 2.). Department of
Defense. Lour receivers have safeguards to protect against using
data from unhealthy satellites.
Si!nal Stren!t, # <uality o$ Si!nal 9
he strength of the satellite signal depends on obstructions and the
elevation of the satellites above the hori;on. o the e"tent it is
possible, obstructions between your ($) antennae and the sky
should be avoided. 3lso watch out for satellites which are close to
the hori;on, because the signals are weaker.
1istance $rom t,e (e$erence (ecei/er :
he effective range of a rover from a reference station depends
primarily on the type of accuracy you are trying to achieve. 4or the
highest real time accuracy '=C fi"ed*, rovers should be within
about +.1+8 Cm 'about 71, miles* of the reference station. 3s the
range e"ceeds this recommended limit, you may fail to initiali;e and
be restricted to =C float solutions 'decimeter accuracy*.
(adio 0re.uency 7(09 Inter$erence:
=4 interference may sometimes be a problem both for your ($)
reception and your radio system. )ome sources of =4 interference
include9
=adio towers
ransmitters
)atellite dishes
(enerators
?ne should be particularly careful of sources which transmit either
near the ($) fre!uencies '+//- and +8-8 #H;* or near harmonics
'multiples* of these fre!uencies. ?ne should also be aware of the =4
generated by his own machines.
6oss o$ (adio Transmission $rom Base 9
If, for any reason, there is an interruption in the radio link between a
reference receiver and a rover, then your rover is left with an
autonomous position. It is very important to set up a network of radios
and repeaters, which can provide the uninterrupted radio link needed
for the best ($) results.
4ollowing is the list of possible sources of ($) error and their general
impact on positioning accuracy.

(E13CING GPS E((O(
Is there a way to cancel out the errors and get better than +8 meter
accuracyJ he answer is yes, but the level of accuracy depends on the
type of e!uipment used.
1i$$erential Correction
Differential correction is a method used to reduce the effects of
atmospheric error and other sources of ($) positioning error
'differential correction cannot correct for multipath or receiver errorI it
counteracts only the errors that are common to both reference and
moving receivers*. It re!uires, in addition to FrovingF ($) receiver, a
($) receiver on the ground in a known location to act as a static
reference point. his type of setup is often called a GPS base station
or re$erence station. )ince the base station FknowsF where it is, it
can compute the errors in its position calculations 'in reality, it
computes timing errors* and apply them to any number of moving
Error source Potential error Tyical error
Ionosphere 8.. meters ..0 meters
roposphere ..8 meters ../ meters
Ephemeris data /.8 meters . meters
)atellite clock drift +.8 meters . meters
#ultipath ..7 meters ..7 meters
#easurement noise ..: meters ..: meters
otal M +8 meters M +. meters
receivers in the same general area. his re!uires that the base and
rover receivers FseeF the same set of satellites at the same time. he
base station, depending upon how it is configured, can correct moving
($) receiver data in one 'or both* of two ways.
+* In the first method, called real1time differential correction or
real1time differential ($) 'D($)*, the base station transmits 'usually
via radio link* error correction messages to other ($) receivers in the
local area. In this case, the positions read on ($) receiver while
collecting data, are the corrected positions.
/* he second method, called post1processed differential
correction, is performed on a computer after the moving receiver data
are collected. <hile one is out in the field collecting data, the positions
heEshe read on hisEher moving ($) receivers are uncorrected. It is not
until heEshe takes hisEher rover files back to the office and process
them using differential correction software and data from the base
station file, that heEshe get corrected positions. he base station file
contains information about the timing errors. his information allows
the differential correction software to apply error corrections to the
moving receiver file during processing. )ince the base and rover
receivers have to FseeF the same set of satellites at the same time, the
base file has to start before the rover file starts, and end after the
rover file ends 'a base station is normally set up to track all satellites
in view, insuring that it will FseeF at least the four satellites that the
moving receiver is using to compute positions*.
*CC3(*C4 O0 GPS
he accuracy that can be achieved using ($) depends on the type of
e!uipment used, the time of observation, and the positions of the
satellites being used to compute positions. In general, recreational and
mapping grade receivers using BE3 code without differential correction
are accurate to between 8 and +8 meters. #ost mapping and
recreational grade receivers with differential correction can provide
from about + to 8 meter accuracy. )ome receivers use what is called
Fcarrier1smoothed codeF to increase the accuracy of the BE3 code. his
involves measuring the distance from the receiver to the satellites by
counting the number of waves that carry the BE3 code signal. hese
receivers can achieve +. cm to + meter accuracy with differential
correction. Dual fre!uency survey grade receivers using more
advanced network survey techni!ues can achieve centimeter to
millimeter accuracy.
here are four basic levels of accuracy 1 or types of solutions 1 that can
be obtain with real1time ($) mining system9
3utonomous 3ccuracy +8 1 +.. meters
Differential ($)
'D($)*
3ccuracy ..8 1 8 meters
=eal1ime
Cinematic 4loat
'=C 4loat*
3ccuracy /.cm 1 + meter
=eal1ime
Cinematic 4i"ed
'=C 4i"ed*
3ccuracy +cm 1 8 cm
($) satellites broadcast on three different fre!uencies, and each
fre!uency 'or career wave* has some information or codes on it.
&+ Bareer &/ Bareer
+, cm
wavelength
/0 cm wavelength
+8-8.0/ # H; +//-.7 # H;
BE3 Bode $ Bode
>avigation
>avigation
#essage
P Code : =eserved for direct use only by the military
C/A Code : 2sed for rougher positioning
4or )ingle fre!uency use only &+ career is used
4or Double fre!uency, &+E&/E&: career is used
he navigation message 'usually referred to as the ephemeris*
tells us where the satellites are located, in a special coordinate
system called <()150. If you know where the satellites are at
any given time, then you can compute your location here on
earth.
&,y (e$erence Station=
3s is different levels of accuracy in ($) positions, one must have a
reference receiver, which is stationary, and a rover, which can be
mobile or stationary.
he ($) reference station normally operates continuously, /0 hours a
day. he coordinates of this station must be known before we can
begin using ($) on any of our machines. 4irst a proper site for the
reference station is to be selected, and then a ($) survey is performed
to obtain the known coordinates. his is usually done as part of the
installation, either by the installation team or other !ualified personal.
?nce it is installed, the ($) reference station can perform two
functions simultaneously9
=eceive data from the satellites
@roadcast ($) data to the rovers in the mine
?ne reference station can support unlimited rovers. he primary
constraint may be distance, because accuracy may suffer if one is
working too far from the reference station. his ma"imum distance will
vary with the accuracy re!uirements and environment.
)electing the =eference )tation
)ome of the features of a good reference site are9
Blear Diew to the )ky
$ro"imity to your <orking 3reas 9 his is both a ($) issue and
a radio issue. =emember, = K is generally limited to about
+.1+8 Cm '71, miles* for reliable initiali;ations, due primarily
of potential errors from the ionosphere. herefore, one should
select a reference site that is within about +.1+8 Cm of where
rovers is e"pect to work.
3bsence of =4 Interference 9 ry to place the reference station
away from sources of radio interference, which arise from
radio towers, transmitters, television or other satellite dishes,
high1voltage power lines, and any other obvious source of
interference.
#inimal )ources of #ultipath 9 #ultipath at the reference site
can cause inaccurate answers or interfere with the rover6s
ability to initiali;e.
Bontinuous 3B E DB $ower )ource
)table 3ntennae #ount9 >ot only the monument should be
stable, but also the ($) antennae itself should be secure and
stable to minimi;e the movement.
3ccessibility of the station
=eference )tation E!uipment9
($) receiver
($) antenna
=adio and antenna, $ower supply, N Bables
(adios
<e have seen that each ($) rover must receive information from the
reference station to achieve accurate positions. o maintain constant
communication between your reference station and rover, you need
these items at the reference station and at each rover9
=adio
=adio 3ntenna
Bables
he radios are cabled directly into the ($) receiver. $ower may be
provided to the radio through the ($) receiver. 3t the reference site,
($) data is broadcast through the radio. 3t the rover site, the
reference ($) data is received by the radio and routed into the rover
receiver, where it is processed together with rover6s ($) data the rover
radio can also draw power from the ($) receiver.
=epeater =adios9 If, for any reason, the reference station transmission
cannot reach the rovers, then we must use one or more repeaters. 3
repeater relays the data from reference or another repeater. he
ma"imum number of repeaters that can be used depends on type of
radio. =epeaters differ from reference and rover radios in two
important ways9 they must have their own source of power, and they
can be moved as the needs change. he radios draw very low power,
but they re!uire uninterrupted power. @ecause repeaters may need to
be moved to accommodate needs, batteries or compact solar power
units are normally used. 4re!uency and @andwidth9 #ost radios
used in ($) fall within one of the following fre!uency ranges9
+8.1+-0 #H; 'DH4*
0.718+/ #H; '2H4*
,./1,/5 #H; 'spread spectrum*
he lower1fre!uency radios '+8.1+-0 #HO* tend to have more power,
due to design and legal issues 'not $hysics*, However, the bandwidth,
which determines the amount of data can be transmit, is narrower in
these lower ranges 'also due to design, not physics*.
In the nominal 08. #H; and ,.. #H; ranges, the bandwidth is wider.
(adio (an!e
o guarantee steady, uninterrupted transmission over the radio, one
should be aware of some of the factors that affect the radio6s effective
range.
3ntenna Height9 raising the radio antenna is the easiest and
most effective way to increase range.
3ntenna design9 radiating patterns vary, depending on the
antenna design.
Bable length and type9 radio signals suffer loss in cables, so
keep the length to a minimum.
?utput power9 doubling output power does not double your
effective range.
?bstructions9 @uildings, walls and even the machines can
block or interrupt radio transmission. he repeaters should be
carefully used to help minimi;e the effect of obstructions.
&,at s,ould be 'no-n be$ore ac.uirin! a GPS (ecei/er=
@efore ac!uiring ($) e!uipment, it is important to clearly define the
needs in terms of accuracy level re!uired and end results e"pected.
Do one simply want to be able to navigate in the woods, or want to
map out points, lines and areas that can be differentially corrected and
imported into a (I) 'a computer mapping system*J, Do real1time
differential ($) is needed for any reasonJ
I 4> meter a!!ura!y 'ood enou'h? I" o$ one doen0t ha2e to (orry about di""erentia#
!orre!tion. I" one (ant to ma)e a map "rom the data$ i 48> meter a!!ura!y u""i!ient$ or
ub8meter a!!ura!y i re@uired "or the app#i!ation? Remember that more a!!urate
e@uipment i more e6peni2e. In addition$ !onider the need "or durabi#ity and (eather
reitan!e$ and detai# u!h a (hether or not an e6terna# antenna !an be !onne!ted to the
re!ei2er$ and it i9e$ (ei'ht and uitabi#ity "or the method o" ur2ey (e.'.$ (i## it be ued
in a ba!)pa!)$ mounted on a 2ehi!#e$ or !arried in ?).
GPS *PP6IC*TIONS
(lobal $ositioning )ystems is in fact is available to users at any
position worldwide at any time. <ith a fully operational ($) system, it
can be generated to a large community of likely to grow as there are
multiple applications, ranging from surveying, mapping, and navigation
to (I) data capture.
here are countless ($) applications, a few important ones are
covered in the following passage.
)urveying and #apping
he high precisions of ($) carrier phase measurements, together with
appropriate adAustment algorithms, provide an ade!uate tool for a
variety of tasks for surveying and mapping. 2sing D($) methods,
accurate and timely mapping of almost anything can be carried out.
he ($) is used to map cut blocks, road alignments, and
environmental ha;ards such as landslides, forest fires, and oil spills.
3pplications, such as cadastral mapping, needing a high degree of
accuracy also can be carried out using high grade ($) receivers.
Bontinuous kinematic techni!ues can be used for topographic surveys
and accurate linear mapping.
>avigation
>avigation using ($) can save countless hours in the field. 3ny
feature, even if it is under water, can be located up to one hundred
meters simply by scaling coordinates from a map, entering waypoints,
and going directly to the site. E"amples include road intersections,
corner posts, plot canters, accident sites, geological formations, and so
on. ($) navigation in helicopters, in vehicles, or in a ship can provide
an easy means of navigation with substantial savings.
=emote )ensing and (I)
It is also possible to integrate ($) positioning into remote1sensing
methods such as photogrammetry and aerial scanning, magnetometry,
and video technology. 2sing D($) or kinematic techni!ues, depending
upon the accuracy re!uired, real time or post1processing will provide
positions for the sensor which can be proAected to the ground, instead
of having ground control proAected to an image. ($) are becoming
very effective tools for (I) data capture. he (I) user community
benefits from the use of ($) for location data capture in various (I)
applications. he ($) can easily be linked to a laptop computer in the
field, and, with appropriate software, users can also have all their data
on a common base with every little distortion. hus ($) can help in
several aspects of construction of accurate and timely (I) databases.
(eodesy
(eodetic mapping and other control surveys can be carried out
effectively using high1grade ($s e!uipment. Especially when
helicopters were used or when the line of sight is not possible, ($) can
set new standards of accuracy and productivity.
#ilitary
he ($) was primarily developed for real time military positioning.
#ilitary applications include airborne, marine, and navigation.
FUTURE OF GPS TECNOLOGY
@arring significant new complications due to )E3 ')elective 3vailability*
from D?D, the ($) industry is likely to continue to develop in the
civilian community. here are currently more than 8. manufacturers of
($) receivers, with the trend continuing to be towards smaller, less
e"pensive, and more easily operated devices. <hile highly accurate,
portable 'hand1held* receivers are already available, current
speculation envisions ine"pensive and e!ually accurate 6wristwatch
locators6 and navigational guidance systems for automobiles. However,
there is one future trend that will be very relevant to the (I) user
community, namely, community base stations and regional receive
networks, as ($) management and technological innovations that will
make ($) surveying easier and more accurate.
3lso IN1I* in the future will do use this technology, not only in the
field of Defense, but also in civilian community as this is not a scientific
lu"ury but is the need of future.
@ibliography
4. www.montana.eduEplacesEgps
:. 2nderstanding ($)
his document provides a verbal e"planation of the (lobal
$ositioning )ystem by Diana Booksey
A. ($) )ystems )egments
3n article by 2) >aval ?bservatory
B. #easuring ($) 3ccuracy
Introduction to the (lobal $ositioning )ystem for (I) and
=3DE=)E
>. www.gisdevelopment.net