-

2010


1 ............................................................................................................... 3
1.1 : .......................................... 3
1.2 ....................................................................................... 4
1.3 - ............................................................................... 5
2 ............................................................................................................... 6
2.1 ................................................. 6
2.2 ................................................................. 7
2.3 ...................................... 10
2.4 ................................................ 13
2.5 ..................................................................... 14
2.6 ..................................... 15
2.6.1 ......................................................................................... 16
2.6.2 ........................................................................................... 16
2.6.3 ........................................................................................ 17
2.6.4 .......................................................................................... 18
2.6.5 ......................................................................................... 18
3 ............................................................................................................. 20
3.1 ............................................. 20
3.2 ................................................................................ 20
3.3 ......................................................................... 22
3.4 ......................................................................................... 24
3.5 .......................................................................... 26
3.6 ..................... 26
3.7 1 ............................................................ 27
3.8 ................................................................................ 27
3.9 ................................................. 29
3.10
............................................................ 30
3.11
................................................................. 33
3.12
............................... 33
3.13
..................................................... 34
3.14
................................................. 35
3.15
....................................... 36
3.16

37
3.17
- ......................................................................... 38
4 ............................................................................................................. 39
4.1 ........................................................... 39
4.2 .................................................... 39
4.2.1 ............................................................................. 40
4.2.2 ........................................................................... 42
4.2.2.1 ....................................................................... 42
4.2.2.2 ................................................................................... 43
4.2.3 ........................................................... 44
4.2.4 ........................................................................... 45
4.2.5 ........................................................................... 47
4.2.6 ................................................................................... 48
4.2.7 ................................................................................... 50

4.3 - ............................................................................. 52
5 ............................................................................................................. 54
5.1 ........................................................................................... 54
5.1.1 .............................. 55
5.2. ...................................................................................................... 56
5.2.1 ...................................................................................... 57
5.2.2 ...................................................................................... 60
5.2.3 ................................................................................... 62
5.2.4
......................................................................... 63
5.3. ......................... 66
5.3.1
............................................................................. 66
5.3.2
............................................... 67
5.3.3
....................................................................................... 71
5.3.4
................................................ 73
5.3.5
......................... 74
5.4 - ............................................................................. 76
6 ............................................................................................................. 77
6.1 : .......................... 77
6.2
................................................................................................... 77
6.3
................................................................................................... 81
6.4
....................................................................................................... 86
6.5 .......................................................................................... 89
6.6 ............. 90
6.7 .............................................................................. 92
6.7.1 ........................... 92
6.7.2 ........................................................... 95
6.8 -...................................... 100
6.9 - ........................................................................... 105
7 ........................................................................................................... 106
7.1 ........................................ 106

 1
1.1

,
, .

.
, 1500 m
.

.
.
, .
.


. ,
,

(, ).

.
,

.
12800 km.

.
(oblate spheroid).
43 km .


365 . ,

 .
(N2) (O2)
,
.
99% 30 km .

.
,
.

1.2

.
, 340 ..
.

, .

.

16 1643.


. 19
1920
Bjerknes. 1940

.
.
1949 ENIAC
(Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator) J. Charney, R. Fjortoft J. Von
Neumann 48- .
1911 L. F. Richardson 7

 . 1960
Tiros I
.
,
,
, ,
.

.
, , , ,
, .
, 16 ,
.
,
.

.

1.3

1.

2.

3.

4.

 2
2.1

(N2) 78%
(2) 21%. 2.1.1

.
80 km .
2.1.1: .

2
O2
Ar
Ne
He
CH4
H2
Xe

( )
78.08
20.95
0.93
0.0018
0.0005
0.0001
0.00005
0.000009

H2O
CO2
O3
CO
SO2
NO2
PM2.5, PM10

( )
0 4
0.034
0.000004
0.00002
0.000001
0.000001
0.00001

.

.

(N2+O22NO).

(CO2). ,
, CO2
.
CO2
( 0.034%).
, ,
, ,
. CO2
, CO2 .
6

 CO2
CO2 .
50 .
-2.1.1 CO2
20 ,
.
CO2 315 ppm 1950 1984 340
ppm.
, ,

.
CO2
1.5C 4.5C
.

-2.1.1: (ppm) CO2 Mauna Loa, Hawaii.

2.2

.
.
4%
,
. .
7

,

.
( ) ( ) ,

.
.
, ,

.
.
, .

.


.


.
:

m
V

(2.2.1)

m gr kgr V
cm3 m3.
1.2kg/m3.
.
,

(~29) (18).

 ,

, .

,
.
(, ).

.

.
() () ()
.

-2.2.1: .
The source of this material is the Cooperative Program for Operational Meteorology, Education, and Training (COMET) Website at http://meted.ucar.edu/ of the
University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) pursuant to a Cooperative Agreement with National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1997-2004
University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. All Rights Reserved.

. -2.2.1,
.

.
,

. ,
9

 (,
) .
.
,
15% 85%
.

2.3

B
S

(2.3.1)

B
(Newton-Nt) S (m2).
bar
100000Nt 1m2. bar

millibar, 1bar=1000mb. (SI)
Pascal (Pa)
1Nt 1m2. mb 100Pa 1mb,
:
1bar=1000mb=100000Pa=1000hPa
hectopascal (hPa) mb.
:
1013.25mb=1013.25hPa=101325Pa

. -2.3.1
, .
1000mb
10mb 100m . 15km
. ,
900mb 16km , 90mb 16km.

10

 9km, ,
300mb 70%
.

-2.3.1: (mb) (km).

.
.

.

10km.

.
6.5C 1000m ( 0.65C/100m).
2km 13C
.
,
Celsius (C) Kelvin (K). C
0 100. K
C :

K C 273.16

(2.3.2)

11

 , K, -273.16C.
Fahrenheit (F)
32F 212F.
F C :

5
C ( F 32)
9

(2.3.3)

.


.

.
.
.

(.. ).
,
.


( 2.3.2).

2.3.2: - (P-V)
.

12



.


.


. ,

2.4

,
. ,
.

.
,
,
.
.
:

P RT

(2.4.1)

(Kg/m3), R
287.05 JouleKg-1K-1 T (K).

.
.

13

2.5

.

50km. ,

.

.

:

PGFvertical g 0

(2.5.1)

PGF (Pressure Gradient Force) g

(-2.5.1).

1 dp
dp
g 0
g
dz
dz

(2.5.2)

(dp/dz) ()
(g).

-2.5.1: .
The source of this material is the Cooperative Program for Operational Meteorology, Education, and Training (COMET) Website at http://meted.ucar.edu/ of the
University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) pursuant to a Cooperative Agreement with National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1997-2004
University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. All Rights Reserved.

(2.4.1) (2.5.2) :

14

dP
g
g

dz d (ln P)
dz
P
RT
RT

(2.5.3)

(z=0)
z P0 Pz
T :

Pz P0e ( gz / RT )

(2.5.4)

( 2.3.1).
, :

z 0e ( gz / RT )
2.6

(2.5.5)

.

2.3, 6.5C/1000m ,
124km . 4 :
, , (2.6.1).

-2.6.1: (C) (km)

.
The source of this material is the Cooperative Program for Operational Meteorology, Education, and Training (COMET) Website at http://meted.ucar.edu/ of the
University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) pursuant to a Cooperative Agreement with National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1997-2004
University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. All Rights Reserved.

15

2.6.1
,

6.5C/1000m

0.65C/100m.

.
1500m
,
()
. 4
.
i.

, 1.5km
0.3-0.4C/100m.

ii.

, 1.5 6km
0.5-0.6C/100m.

iii.

, 6 9km
0.65-0.75C/100m.

iv.

, 9km
0.2-0.5C/100m.

,
3.

,
.

.
124km ,
.

2.6.2

, . -2.6.1,
16

 (
),
.
,
(30-40) .
0-30 14-17km ,
40-90 7-12km .

(>35m/s) (jet-stream).
.

( )
( ).
-70 -80C,
-55 -60C .

2.6.3

50km .
35km


(-2.6.1).
,

.
35-50km
, 50km
0C.
(3) ( ),
(0.2m<<0.3m),

.

17

 ,
.
,
, .

99.9% .

2.6.4

.
85km .
(~-80C)
.

85km.

-90C.

2.6.5
400km
( 2.6.5.1).

2.6.5.1: .

18

 , ,
700C.

<0.2m .

:
O2 + O + O


.
.
700C
1700C.

19

 3
3.1

.
,
.

.

3.2

,
( 2.4).

. :

pV mRT

(3.2.1)

p, V, m, T (Pa), (m3), (kgr)

( Kelvin, K=C+273.16) , R
. =m/V
, (3.2.1) :

p RT

(3.2.2)

(3.2.1) :

pa RT

(3.2.3)

=1/

. (3.2.1)
Boyle:
.

. , 1 Charles

.

20

 mole (mol) , M,
. , ,
1 mol , 18.015 gr. moles n m (gr) :

m
M

(3.2.4)

1 mol .
1 mol Avogadro:

N A 6.022 10 23 mol.
Avogadro,
.
R (3.2.1) .
R 1 mol
(R*). 8.3145 J K-1mol-1.
1 mol :

pV R *T

(3.2.5)

n moles :

pV nR *T

(3.2.6)

1 k
Boltzmann. NA R* :

R*
NA

(3.2.7)

n0
:

p n0 kT

(3.2.8)

pd ad
(3.2.3) :

p d a d Rd T

(3.2.9)

Rd 1 kg .
(3.2.4) Md (gr)
moles
. :

21

Md

m
i

(3.2.10)

m
i Mi
i

mi Mi (gr) i . 28.97.
R* 1 mol Md
(=28.97) , 1 gr
R*/Md, 1 kg :

R*
8.3145
Rd 1000
1000
287.05 JK 1kg 1
28.97
Md

(3.2.11)

. (3.2.3) :

ea R T

(3.2.12)

e a , R
1 kg .
Mw (=18.016) Mw
R* :

R 1000

R*
8.3145
1000
461.51JK 1kg 1
Mw
18.016

(3.2.13)

(3.2.11) (3.2.13) :

Rd M w

0.622
R M d

(3.2.14)

Dalton:

.

3.3

.
.
, ,

22


.

2.5.
( 3.3.1).
z z+z z,
z. gz,
g z.

-3.3.1: .

z z+z
. z z+z
p, 3.3.1.
p . p
p+p
.
p. ,
:

p gz
z0 :

p
g
z

(3.3.1)

23

 (3.3.1)
. z p(z)
:

p()

p( z)

dp gdz

p ( )0

p ( z ) gdz

(3.3.2)

(3.3.2) z
.
1.013x105 Pa=1013hPa=1
atm.
3.2, (=1/)
(3.3.1) :

gz p

3.4

(3.3.3)

.
1 Kgr .
J Kgr-1 m2s-2. Nt 1 Kgr
z g. (Joule)
1 Kgr z z+dz :
z

d gdz ( z ) gdz

(3.4.1)

,
.
(3.3.3) (3.4.1) :

d gdz dp

(3.4.2)

Z :

( z ) 1 z
Z
gdz
g0
g0 0

(3.4.3)

g0
(=9.81 m s-1).

24

 ( )
(..
). 3.4.1
z Z g0g.
-3.4.1: (Z) (g)
(z) .

z(km)

Z(km)

g(m s-2)

9.81

1.00

9.80

10

9.99

9.77

100

98.47

9.50

500

463.6

8.43

(3.3.1) (3.2.2) :

p
pg

z
RT
(3.4.1):

d gdz RT

dp
p

p1
p2 1 2 , :
2

p2

p1

d RT

p
dp
dp
2 1 R T
p
p
p
2

g0
:

Z 2 Z1

R p dp
T
g0 p p
1

(3.4.4)

Z2-Z1
p1 p2.

25

3.5

(T= ) (3.4.4) :

p
Z Z1
Z 2 Z 1 H ln 1 p 2 p1 exp 2
H

p2

(3.5.1)

RT
29.3 T
g0

(3.5.2)

.
(3.5.1) .
, ( ) .
(3.5.1)
p1 p2 T
.
,
.

3.6

. ,

,
. ().
(3.5.1) Z1=0 :

Z g H ln

p0
pg

(3.6.1)

g 0
. p0 :

Z
p0 p g exp g
H

g Z
p g exp 0 g

RT

(3.6.2)

26

3.7

, ,
.
2.3,
,

.

q (joule),
. w (joule).
q-w.
,
,
, q-w. :

q w u 2 u1

(3.7.1)

u1 u2
. :

dq dw du

(3.7.2)

dq , dw
du .
(3.7.1) (3.7.2)
. (3.7.2)
du. du

. q
w
.

3.8

dq
, 1 ,
T T+dT . dq/dT

27

 . ,
:

dq
cv

dT v const

(3.8.1)

(3.7.2) dq=du dw=pdV. :

du
cv

dT v const
u
:

cv

du
dT

(3.8.2)

u
, (3.8.2)
:
T2

u 2 u1 cv dT
T1

cp:

dq
cp

dT p const

(3.8.3)

.
w
.


. :

c p cv R

(3.8.4)

R (287 J K-1 Kg-1).

cv cp 717 1004 J K-1 .

28

3.9

( ) :

h u p

(3.9.1)

u , p .
(3.9.1)
(
)
. :

h c pT

(3.9.2)

h
0 T (K) . (3.4.2)
(3.9.2) :

dq d (h ) d (c pT )

(3.9.3)

(dq=0)
, 1 :

d (c p T ) 0

(3.9.4)

dz (3.4.1) :

g
dT

d
dz dry c p

(3.9.5)

d .
,
d . g=9.81 m s-1
cp=1004 J K-1 Kg-1 (3.9.5) d=0.0098 K m-1 9.8 K km-1
.
d

.

6-7 K km-1 .

29

3.10
(
)
d.

, ,
( 3.10.1(a)).
,

. ,
, .

.

. <d
( )
. , -d
.

3.10.1: (a) (<d) (b)

(>d) .

(
) .

30

 .

.
>d ( 3.10.1 (b)),

. ,

. ,
.

. (
1500 ) ,
, .
, ,
s.

, <s, =s >s .
d s
.

s d.

.
3.10.2, ,

(Lifted Condensation Level-LCL).
.
.
,
, 3.10.2.

, .

.
31

 (buoyancy).

(Level of Free Convection, LFC). LFC

.

3.10.2: (s<<d). s d
, . LCL
LFC .

, s<<d

LFC.
.

.

3.10.3: . T Td
, . .

32


. 3.10.3
.
. LCL
. ,

LCL .
,

3.11


p0=1000 hPa. :

p
T 0
p

R / cp

(3.11.1)

(3.11.1) Poisson. RRd=287.05 J K-1Kg-1

cpcpd=1004 J K-1 Kg-1 R/cp0.286.

. ,
.

3.12

mv .
w :

m
md

(3.12.1)

33


kg kg
. w 0.5-5 gr/kg
20 gr/kg .
,
.
mv ( )
q:

mv
w

mv m d 1 w

(3.12.2)

3.13

.
.
.
(3.2.12).
, .
,
( 3.13.1a).

( 3.13.1b)
.
es
.

3.13.1: (a) (b)

.
.

34

, 3.13.1

, esi
.
,
, es(T)> esi(T).
.
es esi
.

3.14
ws
mvs md
.

ws

mvs
md

(3.14.1)

ws

e
vs
s
d RvT

p es
Rd T

(3.14.2)

'vs
, 'd p .
(3.14.2) (3.2.14) :

ws 0.622

es
p es

(3.14.3)

p>>es

ws 0.622

es
p

(3.14.4)

(es) (T)
(ws)
(p). ws

35

,
.

3.15
RH

.

RH 100

w
e
100
ws
es

(3.15.1)

Td
.
ws
w.
p :

RH 100

ws (at temperature Td and pressure p )

ws (at temperature T and pressure p )

(3.15.2)

RH
(RH>50%) Td 1 C 5%

100 85
T5

RH. , RH=85%, Td T
Td=3 C. , RH 100 5T Td .

.
.
,
20 C,
22 C . ,

. 50%

.

36

 70%
20 C 30 C.

.
,

. ,
25 C
.

3.16

(Lifted Condensation
Level-LCL)
.
w
, ws
w LCL. , LCL
p
, ws p Td
( 3.16.1).

3.16.1:
, p, Td C.

37

 LCL 3.16.1,
. , , p

.

3.17 -
1.

500 m
945 hPa.
. =1.25 kgr/m3, g=9.81 m/s2.

2.

1000 hPa
1014 hPa.
8 km.

3.

(1000-500 mb)
273 .

4.

1000 500 hPa (a)
15C (b) -40C.

5.

0C
25C.
8 km 12 km
.
6.5C/km
.

6.

(p0) (T0) .
K km-1.

T
: z 0

p RT / g
1
p0

38

 4
4.1

.

,
( 4.1.1).
,

.

4.1.1: -
.

4.2

2
, m
F :

1
F
m

(4.2.1)

39

 ( )
.
:

Coriolis
(
).

4.2.1

g*,
,

2RA,
(s-1) RA
.
. :

g g * 2 RA
V

Coriolis 2 V .
.
(),
,
V . Coriolis
. GustavGaspard Coriolis 1835 .

, Coriolis
V :

FC fk V

(4.2.1.1)

40

 f 2 ( ) Coriolis, k

. k
. Coriolis
, ,
2V ( 4.2.1.1).

4.2.1.1: Coriolis (ms-2) .

Coriolis
. 4.2.1.2
()
.
:

2 rad day 1 7.292 10 5 s 1

day 23 56 .

4.2.1.2: .

41

4.2.2

, .

4.2.2.1

p(x)A
( 4.2.2.1.1).
-p(x+x)A. 2 (4.2.1) x-:

m x p( x x) p( x)A

4.2.2.1.1: x.

m = Ax
:

Ax

p( x x) p ( x)A a x

1 p ( x x) p ( x)

ax

lim
x 0

p( x x) p( x) 1 p
x

1 p 1 p 1 p

1
a PGF
i
j
k a PGF p
x
y
z

(4.2.2.1.1)

() .
.

:
42

a PGF gz g 0 Z

(4.2.2.1.2)

,
.
g
. 104
4
( 10-3 ms-2).

.



.


(1000, 850, 700, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 50 hPa)
.


:
p

p
n

p n
.

4.2.2.2

1
z

(4.2.2.2.1)

Nm-2.

43

 V ( 4.2.2.2.1).

V / z (=
). ,
Coriolis
( 1500 )
.

4.2.2.2.1: (u(z))
V.

s
Vs
. :

s C DVsVs

(4.2.2.2.2)

, CD

, Vs Vs
.

4.2.3
(4.2.1)
:

dV
a PGF FC F
dt

(4.2.3.1)

44

 dV/dt
.
PGF (4.2.2.1.1) FC (4.2.1.1)
:

1
dV
p fk V F

dt

(4.2.3.2)

du
1 p

fv Fx
x
dt

1 p
dv

fu Fy
y
dt

(4.2.3.2)

(4.2.2.1.2):

dV
fk V F
dt

(4.2.3.3)

(4.2.3.2)
, 0 , (4.2.3.3)
(), p 0 .

4.2.4

10 ms-1
105 s.
dV/dt ~10 ms-1 105 s 10-4 ms-2.
f~10-4s-1 10
ms-1 Coriolis FC~10-3 ms-2 .

.
, ,
, Coriolis FC
PGF. :

45

fk V
: k ( k V ) V
:

1
k
f

(
) Vg
:

Vg

1
k
f

(4.2.4.1)

ug
vg

1
f y

1
f x

(4.2.4.1)

Vg

1
f n

(4.2.4.1)

Vg n
( ) .

, 4.2.4.1.

4.2.4.1: I Coriolis
.

Coriolis

46

 .
, (
)
,

( 4.2.4.2).

()

()

4.2.4.2: () ()
.

Coriolis
.

4.2.5
, Coriolis
dV/dt=0 4.2.5.1.

4.2.5.1: (PGF), Coriolis (F) (a)

(Vg) (b) (Vs).

47

 (PGF) , Coriolis (Fc)

Vs
, (F) .
Vg.
Vg Coriolis
.
. Vs Vg
PGF Vs
. , Fc
PGF
Vs, :

fVs a PGF cos

Fc a PGF Vs Fc / f
Vg a PGF / f .
Vs
Vg .
Ekman
.

4.2.6


. ,
dV/dt ,
V2/RT, RT
. (4.2.3.2),
, ,
:

V2
1 p
fk V
RT
n

(4.2.6.1)

48


(
4.2.6.1).

4.2.6.1: (PG), Coriolis (CO) (CE) (a)

(b) .

( 4.2.6.1a),
Coriolis , ,

-Coriolis.
(troughs), ,


.
( 4.2.6.1b) Coriolis
-
.
.

. (4.2.6.1)
V:

V 2 fRT V

RT p
0
n

(4.2.6.2)

V.
(4.2.6.2) V :
49

fRT 1

2
2

f 2 RT2 4

RT p
n

(4.2.6.3)

4.2.6.1 RT
.
:

f 2 R2

4 R p
0
n

4.2.6.1 4.2.6.3.
4.2.6.1:
.

R
p/n
+
+

PGF

Coriolis

+
+

PGF

Coriolis

PGF

p f 2

Coriolis

RT

n
4

p f 2

RT
n
4

PGF
Coriolis

, ,
.
!

4.2.7
p ,
T . (4.2.4.1)

:

(Vg ) 2 (Vg )1

1
k ( 2 1 )
f

(4.2.7.1)

50

(Vg ) 2 (Vg )1

g0
k ( Z 2 Z 1 )
f

(4.2.7.2)

(u g ) 2 (u g )1

g 0 ( Z 2 Z1 )
,
f
y

(v g ) 2 (v g )1

g 0 ( Z 2 Z1 )
f
x

(4.2.7.2)

(Vg2-Vg1)

(Z2-Z1).
.
(3.5.1)

:

R p
VT (Vg ) 2 (Vg )1 ln 1 k (T )
f p2

(4.2.7.3)

T .
,

p1
ln
p2

uT (u g ) 2 (u g )1

R T

f y

vT (v g ) 2 (v g )1

R T p1

ln
f x p2

(4.2.7.3)

.
4.2.7.1 ,
(
)
.

( 4.2.7.1).

51

 4.2.7.1:
() ( ), ()
( ).

,
( 4.2.7.1).


.

. 850
mb 850-500 mb
(4.2.7.3)
500 mb.

4.3
1.

-
(25/10/2006,
00UTC) =450km BC=120km.
X Y
45N . =1.25 kgr/m3.

52

2.

50km ,
50mb/100km.
20N.
.

3.

m/s
1mb/100m

500km. =10-3gr cm-3 f=10-4 sec-1.

4.

30 ,
0.75 1 .

250 hPa.
R=287 J deg-1 kg-1, =7.29 x 10-5 s-1.

5.

40
km h-1 10C
100 km.
.

: V T .

53

 5
5.1

1500 km,
.

.
,


( 5.1.1).

5.1.1: , ,
, (: C. Donald
Ahrens).

: )
)
. :

54

 :
.
,
.

. ,

. ,

.
:
.
: .

5.1.1

.
P (Polar),
T (Tropical).
, c (continental
) P T.
,
m (maritime ) P T.
cP ,
mT.
(cP) (cA
continental arctic), (mT)
(mE maritime equatorial).
(
),
. 5.1.1
.

55


.
.
.

(cumuliform)

.
, ,
.
.
,

.
(stratiform), ().
5.1.1:

(P)

(T)

cP

Continental

, , ,

(c)

cT

mP

mT

Maritime

s,

(m)

5.2.

.
,

.
( )
, , .

56

 , .

. ,
.
2- . ,
,
.
, .

5.2.1: ,
. (: C.
Donald Ahrens).

5.2.1

.
, :
,
C, C D
C L.
.

5.2.1

.
( ) ,

57

 .
( )
. , 5.2.1.
C , ,
, .
,
.

5.2.1.1:
. (: C. Donald Ahrens).

5.2.1.1.

, ,
,
.

. ,

. , ,

58

 .
, , ,
.

5.2.1.2:
(, , ) (: http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu).

( )
, 5.2.1.2.
,
( )
. ,

(cumuliform) Altocummulus Altostratus (Ac As), , ,
Cummulus Cummulonimbus (Cu Cb),
. ,
( cumulonimbus
Cb) cirrostratus (Cs) cirrus (Ci),
. ,
,
, .
,
(Cu).
5.2.1.2

59

, .
, ,
( 25 ), 1:50. ,
50 km ,
1 km.


. ,
.
,
(. nimbostratus)
. ,
,
.

( squall line). ,
,
.

5.2.2
, ( )
,

.
,

( 5.2.2.1).
,
, (
5.2.2.2.). , ,
. 10
( ).
, .

60

 , ,
1:300.

5.2.2.1: .
(: http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu).

5.2.2.2:
(, , ) (: http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu).

5.2.2.2.
( 1000 1500 km),
cirrus (Ci).
. cirrus (Ci)
cirrostratus (Cs).
(halo)
. ,
(altocumulus Ac altostratus As).

61

, (~600 km )
(nimbostratus Ns).
Ns ( 300 - 400 km )
, , . ,
, ,
, ,
.
.

. ,
, /
/ Stratus (St) .,
,

. .
,

. ,
, stratocumulus (Sc)
(~4 km).

5.2.3
.
,
,

.
, 5.2.1 (
).
,

. ,
,

62


.
5.2.1
(cP) (mP).
, .

,
.
,

( 5.2.3.1).

5.2.3.1: ,
(mP) .
(: C. Donald Ahrens).

, .
.

5.2.4
,
, ,
.
63

 , ,
, .
,
.
( 5.2.1
C . L).


.
. ,
,
.
5.2.4.1.

.
, C C
.
(
). ,
.

.
,
.
5.2.4.2. .
, ,

.
,
5.2.4.2.
.

64

 5.2.4.1: . ()
(b) (c).
(: http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu).

65

 5.2.4.2: . ()
(b). ()
. (c)
(: : http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu).

, ()

5.3.
5.3.1
,

.
, ,
.

(
).
. (
-4.2.2.2) ,

66

 ( 5.3.1.1).
,
, , ...

( 5.3.1.2).
( ) 30-50
km/h.

5.3.1.1: ,
(). 4 hPa (:
C. Donald Ahrens).

5.3.1.2:
(: C. Donald Ahrens).

5.3.2
(Vilhelm
Bjerknes, Jacob Bjerknes, Halvor Soldberg Tom Bergeron)
.

.
.
, .

67

 , ,
.
5.3.2.1.

5.3.2.1:
. , .
L . (: C. Donald
Ahrens).

5.3.2.1.a
,
.
( ),
( ) .
,
.
. ,
,
. , , , , , .

.

68

 , ,
(
5.3.2.1.b).
,
.
.
( ), (
).
,
-,
, ,
.
, .
,
(. 5.3.2.1.c).
,
.
,
.

.
, )

, )
)

.
,
,
, ( 5.3.2.1.d).

.
, ,
(.
69

5.3.2.1.e).
.
,
, (. 5.3.2.1.f). ,
12-24
. , 2-3 .
.
(2, 3 ), ,
(5.3.2.2). ()
, ,
, .
, ,
.

5.3.2.2: (: C. Donald Ahrens).

70

5.3.3
,


.
( ),
(. 5.3.3.1).

(

).

5.3.3.1: ,
(). 4 hPa
(: C. Donald Ahrens).

, ,
.

,
(. 5.3.3.2).

71

 5.3.3.2:
(: C. Donald Ahrens).

,
.
.
(
)
.
:
1. , .

.
2. ,
,
(, ).
3. , ,
,
.
4. ,
, .
,
:
, . ,

: .
72


.

2-3 km .
(, ..)
.
.
,
.
.

5.3.4

,
.
(ridges) (troughs) ( 5.3.4.1).

. ,
, .
V
.
, , .
5.3.4.1. ...

. 500 hPa
,
( 5.3.4.1.). ( )
,
,

. 500 hPa
.

73

()

()
5.3.4.1: () (L)
(H). . () (500
hPa) . , .
(: C. Donald Ahrens).

5.3.5

,
.
5.3.5.1.
( ),
.
(
) .
() ,
.

( 5.3.5.1).
( )
. ,

74


.

.
,
( ),
.

5.3.5.1:
, (: C.
Donald Ahrens).

,


(convergence) (divergence) .
.
5.3.5.2,
.
,
,
.
.
.
.

75

 5.3.5.2: ,
(: C. Donald Ahrens).

5.4
1.

-
,
.

2.

3.

4.

5.

.
, ,
.

;

76

 6
6.1

,
, .
,
. , 100
0.01 ,
0.005 (
10-5). 100%
.

. ,
,
.
2.6 105 ,

.
,
, .
-
.


,
.

.

6.2

Maxwell
. , Maxwell ,

77

 , ,
.
.
,
.
( 6.2.1). (
).
, ,
c ( c 3 108 ms 1 ).
8.3
150 10 6 ,
.

6.2.1: .
'
.

(c), (f)
() ,
:
c f

(6.2.1)

(, , ..),
.
, 1900 Planck,
.
.
, /
, / ""
78

 .
(f)
(E).

:
E h f

(6.2.2)

, h ( Planck), 6.63x10-34 Js.

, ,
,
.

()
, .

( )
( 6.2.2).
. (
)
, 1/10
-.

6.2.2: .
.

79

 ,
. ,
, ( 6.2.1)
.
, ,
,

.

. , ,
1% ,
0.39 m ( ) 0.76 m ( ).

10-2 m 102m, .

, 50% (>0.7 m), 40%
(0.4-0.7 m) 10%
(<0.4 m). <0.3 m
10 km,
,
,
(remote sensing)
.
6.2.1:
(Kondratiev, 1969).

(m)
0.390 0.455
0.455 0.405
0.485 0.505
0.505 0.550
0.550 0.575
0.575 0.585
0.585 0.620
0.620 0.760

80

(m)
0.430
0.470
0.495
0.530
0.560
0.580
0.600
0.640

6.3

.
( ) ,
(f+df) .

:
)
(radiant flux),
(Js-1 W). 3.91x1026
W.
)
, ,
(irradiance), Wm-2.



(.. 1 m2) (.. 1 s).

6.34 x 107 Wm-2.
) ( )

. S.
: 4ERH2 4Sd 2 , =6.34x107 Wm-2, RH 7.0 x10 8 m
d 1.5 x1011 m -
( 6.3.1).

6.3.1: .

81

 S S ERH2 / d 2 .
S 1380 Wm-2.

SR2 , R (6.37x106m).
, ,

( SR2 ) /(4R2 ) S / 4 350Wm 2 .

5.78 x 1018 Joules 10-

)
, , .
:

E E d

(6.3.1)

) ,
,
. ,
, ,
.
) [, +d],
, ..
.
, :

A A d

(6.3.2)

,
.
,
~5800,
288.
.

, : )
82

 ) ,
. , ,
, ( A = 1) ,

.


--:
1.
.
2. , E * ,
( Stefan-Boltzmann).
E * T 4

(6.3.3)

=5.67 10-8 (Wm-2K-4) Stefan-Boltzmann.

3. E * ( E *

dE *
) ,
d

, Planck:
E *

c1
expc 2 / T 1

(6.3.4)

h Planck, c1 =3.74 10-16 Wm2 c 2 =1.44 10-2 m.

, ,
, 6.3.4
:
E * c15 exp c 2 / T

(6.3.4)

Planck ,
.
6.3.2 ( Planck)
.
: )
) ,
( ),
Stefan Boltzmann.

83

 6.3.4 ,
, :

m axT 2897.8

(6.3.5)

mK. 6.3.5 Wien.

6.3.2 :
Wien , ,
.
.

6.3.2:
.

, , 6.3.3.

Planck, 6000 ,
0.475 m,
Wien 6100.63 . ,
.

max , .
Wien
,

, . ,
4 m (
~0.5 m),
4 m. ,
84

 10 m ( 6.3.4).

(shortwave radiation, ),
-
(longwave radiation, ).

6.3.3: ( ).
.

()
6.3.4: : ) )
.
.

85

()

H
.
( ) ,
(emissivity),

E E*

(6.3.6)

. ,
' ,
, , 0 1
.
.
Kirckhoff, :

(6.3.7)

, Kirckhoff
,
. ,
.

6.4

.
17%.

,
( 0.44 0.70 m). ,

(<0.37

m)

0.29 m.
, ,
. (3) ,
, ,
0.22-0.35 m,
86

 (0.12-0.16 m). ,
(~2%).
CO2, ,
2 2. ,
. , ,
. (..
0.63 0.69 m), (2.7
4.3 m), (0.72-0.74, 0.82-0.84, 0.930.96, 1.13 1.42 m), 2 0.25-0.70 m
0.4 m.
, ( )
.
,
. ,
.

,
.

.
, .
:

, (
) .

.

87

 .

.
,
,
.

, (
),
.
,
.
.

.
. ,
( ).

.
: )
.
.
2 :
O2 hv O O, ( <242.4 nm)

(6.4.1)

h .

)
.
,

. ,
< 100 nm.

88

) 300nm 2
(). 200
300 nm ,
. 200 300 nm
40 km.
) 200nm, 2
,
( 80 km) .
O2 hv O O , ( <242.4 nm)

(6.4.2)

) 150nm
, , ..:
NO hv NO e ( <134.1 nm)

(6.4.3)

O2 hv O2 e

( <102.6 nm)

(6.4.4)

O hv O e

( <91.0 nm)

(6.4.5)

N hv N e

( <85.2 nm)

(6.4.6)

) 100-150 nm
, ()

( ~70 km
).
) 2 <127 nm,
. 2
()
:
N 2 hv N 2 , ( <127 nm) N 2 2 N

6.5

(6.4.7)

170 370nm.
(3).

89


( ).

.

. 3
2, 20km , 100km.
2 :
O2 hv 2O , 100< (nm) < 242.4

(6.5.1)

,
3, :
O O2 M O3 M
(6.5.2)
( ), .
,
,

. 3
.
3
.
: () :
O O3 2O2

(6.5.3)

() :
O3 hv O2 O , 100<(nm)<300

(6.5.4)

(6.5.4)
.

6.6

( ), . -
(scattering-diffusion)

, ,
, (reflection)
90


0.7 m.
.
,
.

:
)
,
.
.
)
,
.
.
) ,

.
) ,

.
)
(
) .

60% , , ..
. ,

,
.

91

6.7

- 70% .
, ,
.
.
200-300
( ) .
,
0.85 0.99 (
).
, ,
0.9.

6.7.1

0.9.
(2 2)
CO2,
3. 5 8 m
, 8 13.0 m.
13.0 17 m CO2,
24 m. 7 14 m
9.7 m 3. , 3

9.7 m .
,
( ,
). 6.7.1.1

,
.

92

 6.7.1.1:
.

,


.

0.3 mm.
200 m, ,
.

6.7.1.2.
irckhoff,

,
.
( 0
1). 14 C
( ,
, 0.9 0.95,
), ,
, ,

93

 (7<<14 m), .
(7<<14 m) 6.7.1.2.
(,
<7m >14m), ,

. ,


CO2 .

-60 C. , <7 m >14 m
-60 C,
6.7.1.2. , ,
,
14 C -60 C.
6.7.1.2 .

6.7.1.2: .
,
14 C -60 C.

, ,
.
,
6.7.1.2. ,

94


.
( )
(),

.

6.7.2

(4m
m )
.

: )
( ), )

, , )
,

.
.
1
.
, ,
, .
, .

.
,
( )
E 2 T04 , ( Kelvin).

.

95

,
6.7.2.1
E1 E 2 T04

(6.7.2.1)

,
, 6.7.2.1,
(
)
, .
,
E T 4

. , ( )
'
,
.

6.7.2.1: . ) , )
. ,
'

. T0 T0
, .

E E1 T 4 , ()
(1)
. , E1 T04
96

 T T0 .
. ,
T1 ,
. :

E2 E1 E T04 T04 2T04

(6.7.2.2)

E2 T14

(6.7.2.3)

(6.7.2.2) (6.7.2.3) :
2T04 T14

(6.7.2.4)

:
1

T1 (2) 4 T0 1.19T0
, T=293 (20

(6.7.2.5)

C), T1 348 (75

C). ,

.

.

,


. .


( 6.7.2.2). ,

( ). ,
( ),
.

.

97

 -19C.
() :
( )
( )
S 1380W

m2

( SR2 ) /(4R2 ) S / 4 350W

m2

6.3).

(=albedo)

E1 (1 A) 350W

m2

238W

m2

=0.31. , ,
( H 2O, CO2 , ..)
6.7.2.1, :

T04 238W

m2

T0 2540 K (190 C )

(6.7.2.6)

, ,
:

T14 2T04 T1 1.19 2540 K 3030 K ( 300 C )

(6.7.2.7)

, , ,
7-14 m, 15 0C. ,

-19C, 15 0C.
.
,
.
(
)
, ( ),

.
,
.
( ),

98



.

. ,
.
()
, ,
.

()

()

6.7.2.2: : )
) .

,
CO2,
.
CO2
. , CO2
0.8 ppm (parts per million) , 360
ppm. 100 15%.
( 6.7.2.3).
,

( ( 6.7.2.4),
), ( ,
) ,
.

99

 6.7.2.3: 1000 .. 2000

.

6.7.2.4:
1881 2001.

6.8

. ,
, .


, .

100

 (S)
1380 Wm-2,

(SR2).
, 345 Wm-2.
,
.
,
,
.
( <35)
(>35), 6.8.1. 6.8.2. ,
, ,
,
,
( 6.8.3).

.

6.8.1: .

101

 6.8.2:
1987.

6.8.3:
.

.
,
.
( )
albedo .

102

 albedo
~31%.
6.8.4. 100 .
100 .
albedo

'
.
, 100
- 19
, , , 51
, 24 ( 20 4
) 6
. 117
. 111
(CO2, H2O ..) 6
.
( ) 64
96
( ). ,

(23 /, )
(7 /, ).
51
( , ) ,

( ).
-

15 C, .
, ,

. ( 6.8.1
6.8.3) .
103

 6.8.4: .
6.8.1: .

100

100

20

64

100

6.8.2: -.

: +

51
96

:
:

117
7

147

:
:

23
147

6.8.3: .

: +

: (, 3, 2,
)
:
:
:

111

64

19

96

7
23
160

160

104

6.9

1. 6.2.1,
: ,
;
2. 3.91x1026 W,
()
; (
= 7.0 x10 8 m ).
3. 6.34 x10 7 Wm 2 ,
7.0 x10 8 m , - 1.50 x1011 m
6.37 x10 6 m ,
1s ;
4. 0.475 m
. .
;
: Wien ( 6100 ).

5. ,

70% ( S =
1380W/m2 , = 6.37 x10 6 m , Stefan-Boltzmann
=5.67 10-8 W/m2K4).

105

 7
7.1

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