Parallel operating systems

Parallel operating systems are used to interface multiple networked computers to complete tasks
in parallel. The architecture of the software is often a UNIX-based platform, which allows it to
coordinate distributed loads between multiple computers in a network. Parallel operatingsystems are
able to use software to manage all of the different resources of the computers running in parallel,
such as memory, caches, storage space, and processing power. Paralleloperating systems also
allow a user to directly interface with all of the computers in the network.
A parallel operating system works by dividing sets of calculations into smaller parts and distributing
them between the machines on a network. To facilitate communication between the processor cores
and memory arrays, routing software has to either share its memory by assigning the same address
space to all of the networked computers, or distribute its memory by assigning a different address
space to each processing core. Sharing memory allows theoperating system to run very quickly, but
it is usually not as powerful. When using distributed shared memory, processors have access to both
their own local memory and the memory of other processors; this distribution may slow
the operating system, but it is often more flexible and efficient.

Advantages:
- Faster execution time, so higher throughput.

Disadvantages:
- More hardware required, also more power requirements.
- Not good for low power and mobile devices.
-High maintenance cost







Personal-Computer System

In personal computer, operating system provides GUI (graphical user interface) facility and user easily
access the operating system applications even without much knowledge of computer. Operating System
is responsible for coordinating the management and sharing of computer resources. The current
Windows operating system is the best graphical user interface to improve the menus in the Start
menu and click search for the Windows taskbar. This easy-to-use features allow customers to easily
with the device, simple instructions. This system is known as a very stable and is characterized by
high security protected. These are the anti-phishing filters that warn the user if an unauthorized
person tries to use the site. He has also e-mail, Windows Defender, which preventing suspicious
programs, advanced firewall, automatic backup and block encryption / decryption. This software
allows quick access to local networks and the Internet. High-speed data loading and unloading can
be achieved. Multimedia features such as video and audio is always a lot of Windows OS.The
biggest drawback of the Windows operating system, the demands on the IT system. You must have
a computer with a very large storage capacity, the need for graphics cards 128-256 MB free hard
disk space for a minimum of at least 20 GB of memory (RAM) 2 GB. Windows operating systems are
usually expensive. You may need to offer their latest software update, or to buy the new operating
system to keep pace with technological developments advances. Macintosh operating system called
Mac OS and less susceptible to infiltration and damage, such as malicious malware than Windows.
This system is only sold in computer stores, but it is used only for Apple computers. For this reason,
the Mac OS price is so high. The units equipped with the Linux operating system for stability and
durability to withstand long been known to use. This system rarely crashes. If this happens, usually,
it does not hurt their computer programs. You can even older devices, such as a Pentium 100, 16MB
RAM, and only 1 gigabyte. You can still use the outdated computer programs for various
applications are compatible with Linux. The safety devices are effective because the developers can
immediately correct deficiencies, the operating system can have. However, Linux has many
disadvantages. First, many people do not know this software. Therefore it will take some time to
learn how to act. Second, there are many programs for office software that runs on Linux. Third, we
need professionals to work in the computer operating system, he said.


Simple Batch System

In early days computer work was given on punch cards and then these punch cards behave as input to
the computer. These jobs or batch jobs were then executed by the computer one by one. So that
computers were called as batch computers or batch systems. The work done by batch systems are in
parts i.e. one job is processed then another job in the queue is processed and so on.









Why batch systems are used?
As batch systems load less stress on processor and involve less user interaction so that is why we can
use batch system in current days also. Another advantage of batch systems is that the large repeated
jobs are given to the system and we dont have to interact with computer to tell the system that you have
to do that job after finishing that job. Old batch systems were not interactive i.e. the user interaction was
not involved when the job is running. Now in modern batch systems we have interactions also. For
example we can set the timer on the job and when the specific time comes then computer send message
to the processor that time is over. This helps us to avoid too many errors and makes us easy to debug.
Best practice in using batch systems
The batch systems are used by large organizations and also large jobs are done in sequence by the
system. So it is best practice to divide the big job into small parts and run them so it is easy to debug the
job when error comes. You can also set timer on computer for each job so you can check and interact
with job to check and debug errors.
Advantages of batch processing systems
Here are some advantages of batch systems:-
Repeated jobs are done fast in batch systems without user interaction.
You dont need special hardware and system support to input data in batch systems.
Best for large organizations but small organizations can also benefit from it.
Batch systems can work offline so it makes less stress on processor.
Processor consumes good time while processing that mean it knows which job to process next. In real
time systems we dont have expectation time of how long the job is and what is estimated time to
complete it. But in batch systems the processor knows how long the job is as it is queued.
Sharing of batch system for multiple users.
The idle time batch system is very less.
You can assign specific time for the batch jobs so when the computer is idle it starts processing the
batch jobs i.e. at night or any free time.
The batch systems can manage large repeated work easily.
Disadvantages of batch processing systems
Computer operators must be trained for using batch systems.
It is difficult to debug batch systems.
Batch systems are sometime costly.
If some job takes too much time i.e. if error occurs in job then other jobs will wait for unknown time.
Examples of batch systems
1.Payroll system
Batch systems are ideal for making payrolls. The salaries of employees can be printed at the end of
month by the batch systems. So the statements can be made easy by using batch systems.
2.Bank statements
At the end of month the bank makes statements for each account holder. So these bank statements can
be made easily by batch systems at the end of month.

Multiprogramming
When two or more programs are residing in memory at the same time, then sharing the processor is referred to the
multiprogramming. Multiprogramming assumes a single shared processor. Multiprogramming increases CPU
utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute.
Following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming system.

Operating system does the following activities related to multiprogramming.
The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.
This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the job in the memory.
Multiprogramming operating system monitors the state of all active programs and system resources using memory
management programs to ensures that the CPU is never idle unless there are no jobs
ADVANTAGES
High and efficient CPU utilization.
User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.
DISADVANTAGES
CPU scheduling is required.
To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.

Time-sharing operating systems
Time sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a particular computer
system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time
which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing. The main difference between
Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems,
objective is to maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems objective is to minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so frequently. Thus, the
user can receives an immediate response. For example, in a transaction processing, processor execute each user
program in a short burst or quantum of computation. That is if n users are present, each user can get time quantum.
When the user submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.
Operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of a time.
Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have been modified to time-sharing systems.


Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are following
Provide advantage of quick response.
Avoids duplication of software.
Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Timesharing operating systems are following.
Problem of reliability.
Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
Problem of data communication.

Network operating System
Network Operating System runs on a server and and provides server the capability to manage data, users, groups,
security, applications, and other networking functions. The primary purpose of the network operating system is to
allow shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a
private network or to other networks. Examples of network operating systems are Microsoft Windows Server 2003,
Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.
The advantages of network operating systems are following.
Centralized servers are highly stable.
Security is server managed.
Upgrades to new technologies and hardwares can be easily integrated into the system.
Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.
The disadvantages of network operating systems are following.
High cost of buying and running a server.
Dependency on a central location for most operations.
Regular maintenance and updates are required.

Distributed operating System
Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real time application and multiple users. Data
processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly to which one can perform each job most efficiently.
The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as high-speed buses or
telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. Processors in a distributed
system may vary in size and function. These processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are following.
With resource sharing facility user at one site may be able to use the resources available at another.
Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue operating.
Better service to the customers.
Reduction of the load on the host computer.
Reduction of delays in data processing.
Real Time operating System
Real time system is defines as a data processing system in which the time interval required to process and respond
to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. Real time processing is always on line whereas on line system
need not be real time. The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated
information is termed as response time. So in this method response time is very less as compared to the online
processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a processor or the flow of
data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated application. Real-time operating system
has well-defined, fixed time constraints otherwise system will fail.For example Scientific experiments, medical
imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, and home-applicance controllers, Air traffic
control system etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
HARD REAL-TIME SYSTEMS
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems secondary storage is
limited or missing with data stored in ROM. In these systems virtual memory is almost never found.
SOFT REAL-TIME SYSTEMS
Soft real time systems are less restrictive. Critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks and retains the priority
until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-time systems.For example, Multimedia,
virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers etc.