THE NUCLEUS

THE NUCLEUS
The nucleus is the headquarters of the cell.
The nucleus is the headquarters of the cell.
It
It is the
most obvious organelle in any eukaryotic cell and
appears as
a large dark spot in
a large dark spot in
EUKARYOTIC
EUKARYOTIC
cells.
cells.
It controls all cell activity.
It controls all cell activity.
The Nucleus is a membrane-
enclosed organelle which house
most of the genetic information
and regulatory machinery.
FUNCTIONS
1. It stores the cell's hereditary material, or
DNA.
2. Site of DNA replication
3. Site of DNA transcription to mRNA
4. Ribosomal formation
- Nucleolus: RNA & protein required for
ribosomal synthesis
5. It coordinates the cell's activities, which
include growth, intermediary metabolism,
protein synthesis, and cell division by regulating
gene expression
1- Chromatin
2- Nucleoplasm
3- Nucleolus (concentrated area of
chromatin, RNA and proteins)
STRUCTURE
The contents of the nucleus are enclosed
by a complex nuclear envelope.
Included within the nucleus are:
nuclear
pores
chromatin
nucleolus
nuclear
envelope
The NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
The nuclear envelope completely
encloses the nucleus and separates the
cell's genetic material from the
surrounding cytoplasm, serving as a
barrier to prevent macromolecules from
diffusing freely between the nucleoplasm
and the cytoplasm.
The NE consists of two cellular membrane, an
inner and an outer membrane, arranged
parallel to one another and separated by 10 to
50 nanometers (nm).
The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with
the membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER).
The space between the membranes is called the
perinuclear space or intermembrane space and is
continuous with the RER lumen.
The inner surface of the NE is bound to a thin
filamentous network (lamins polypeptides) called the
nuclear lamina.
It provides mechanical support to the NE and sites
for attachment for chromatin fibers.
THE NUCLEAR PORE
The nuclear pores are the gateways across which
movement of RNAs and proteins takes place
between the nucleus and cytoplasm in both
direction.
Proteins synthesized in the cytoplasm cross the
nuclear envelop to initiate replication and
transcription of genetic material. Similarly, mRNA,
tRNA and ribosomal subunits built in the nucleus
cross through the nuclear pores to the cytoplasm.
The pore is 100 nm in total diameter and consists of
around 100 proteins which allows the free passage
of small water-soluble molecules while preventing
larger molecules, such as DNA and proteins.
nuclear
pores
nucleus
The nucleus of a typical mammalian cell has
about 3000 to 4000 pores throughout its
envelope.
Each pore contains a donut-shaped, eightfold, ring shaped structure at a
position where the inner and outer membranes fuse.
Attached to the ring is a structure called the nuclear basket that extends
into the nucleoplasm, and a series of filamentous extensions that reach
into the cytoplasm.
Both structures serve to mediate binding to nuclear transport proteins.
The entry and exit of large molecules to or from the cell nucleus is tightly
controlled by the nuclear pore complexes.
Low molecular weight solutes
Diffuse freely
Macromolecules
Regulated
Protein import to nucleus
Nuclear localization signal (NLS)
Nuclear Transport

Protein involved in nuclear transport

Although small molecules can enter the nucleus without
regulation, macromolecules such as RNA and proteins
require association with karyopherins receptors :
1. Importins
Cytoplasm to nucleus
2. Exportins
Nucleus to cytoplasm
Import example - nucleoplasmin
Step 1. Protein containing NLS binds soluble NLS
receptor importin at the cytoplasmic side
Step 2 Importin:NLS protein complex transports to
cytoplasmic filaments
Step 3. Cytoplasmic filaments bend toward nucleus
Step 4. Change in conformation of transporter
Step 5. Inside the nucleus, Importin:NLS protein
complex interaction with Ran-GTP causes
a conformational change in the importin that causes
dissociation
Nuclear export roughly reverses the import process; in the nucleus, the
exportin binds the cargo and Ran-GTP and diffuses through the pore to
the cytoplasm, where the complex dissociates.
Nuclear Export
The nucleoplasmis a highly viscous liquid
that surrounds the chromosomes and
nucleoli. Nucleotides and enzymes are
dissolved in the nucleoplasm.
NUCLEOPLASM
NUCLEOLUS
:
The prominent structure in the nucleus is the
nucleolus.
It produces ribosomes, which move out of the
nucleus and take positions on the ER (rough)
where they are involve in protein synthesis.
Chromatin is the complex of DNA and protein
(histones) found in the eukaryotic nucleus,
that makes up chromosomes.
CHROMATIN
The structure of chromatin varies
significantly between different stages of
the cell cycle, according to the requirements
of the DNA
chromosome
chromatin
Single chromosome can only be
visible during M phase
centromere
P arm
Q arm
Based on the position of
their centromeres,
chromosomes are
assigned a long arm and a
short arm.
The shorter arm of the
chromosome is known as
the p, or petite arm, from
the French word for
" small." The longer arm is
known as the q, or queue
arm, from the word
meaning a line of people.
In the International System for Cytogenetic
Nomenclature (ISCN) scheme, the numbering
system for a chromosome begins at
its centromere.
Chromosomal regions that are present on the
short arm will begin with the designation p,
whereas regions on the long arm will begin
with q.
The regions are named p1, p2, etc., on the
short arm and q1, q2, etc., on the long arm.
The numbers assigned to each region get
larger as the distance from the centromere to
the telomere increases.
The packaging of DNA into
chromosomes involves several
orders of DNA coiling and
folding.
The packaging of DNA into chromosome
includes histone proteins and non histone
proteins
The 30 nm chromatin fibers gather into larger
supercoiled loops of thick fibers which are
attached to a protein scaffold.
Each of these loops contains approximately
100 kb of DNA.
In non-dividing cells there are two types of
chromatin euchromatin and hetrochromatin.
Euchromatin: is a lightly packed form of chromatin
that is rich in gene concentration, and is often under
active transcription. It is found in both eukaryotes and
prokaryotes.
TYPES OF CHROMATIN
Hetrochromatin:
Heterochromatin is a tightly packed form
of DNA. Heterochromatin is inactive and
remains compact during interphase.
Hetrochromatin plays a role in gene
regulation and the protection of the
integrity of chromosomes, attributed to
the dense packing of DNA, which makes
it less accessible to protein factors that
bind DNA or its associated factors.