It is known that particles in solids, liquids & gases are

in a state of constant motion.

This is called the kinetic theory of matter.
In liquids, particles are moving more freely than in
solids and in gases they move more freely than in
liquids.
Particles in a gas such as ammonia (NH
3
) spread very
quickly through the air in a classroom. This process
of a gas spreading through another gas is called
diffusion. This occurs in liquids as well.
Movement in solids, liquids and gases
Motion of molecules in gases
1
All matter consists of minute particles in constant,
random motion.
In solids, particles are close together & exhibit
vibratory motion.
In liquids & gases, particles further apart & freer to
move. Particles can vibrate, spin & move from place to
place. Diffusion can take place.
In gases, spaces between particles are large & can
thus be compressed. Molecules bump into each other
& walls of container thus creating a pressure that
acts in all directions.
2
Molecules in a sample of gas particles all move at
different speeds.

The average speed of the sample of gas particles
remains constant for a certain temperature.

Average kinetic energy E
k
T.
Particles moving at different speeds,
but having the same average E
k
.
Movement of gas particles
3
Solid
particles
close
together
with
vibratory
motion
Gas particles far apart,
move with higher
velocities & fill the
container with their
movement.
Exert pressure inside
container.
Liquid
particles further
apart, move
more easily &
move from
point to point in
liquid.
Exert pressure
4
Ideal gases are imaginary gases where the
particles:
1. Are identical in all ways
2. Occupy no volume
3. Exert no forces on each other (except
during collisions)
4. Collide with perfectly elastic collisions in
which energy is conserved.
As pressure is increased,
volume of an ideal gas can
decrease to 0 volume!
Ideal gas always
obeys gas laws
under all conditions.
Gas laws
5
Real gases deviate from the behaviour of ideal
gases at very low temperatures and very high
pressures where they tend to become liquids.

Most of the time, real gases behave like ideal
gases.

The real gases that behave closest to the ideal
gas model are He and H
2
.
Ideal vs real gases
6
In order to fully describe and study a gas, we
need to refer to the mass, volume, pressure
and temperature of the gas.

To see how they relate to one another, we
need to keep 2 variables constant and then
see how the one changes as we vary the
other.
7
You are surrounded by millions of air particles all the
time the atmosphere.
They exert a pressure in all directions even on you!
This pressure is called the
atmospheric pressure.
In view of the fact that this
pressure has always been
there you do not notice it
at all.
8
Using a bicycle pump, pull out the plunger, put your
finger over the hole at the bottom & then push the
plunger in as far as you can.
As the pressure increases, so the volume decreases
because the same number of particles are now in a
more confined space & they are bumping each other &
the walls of the container more frequently resulting in
an increased pressure in the pump.
Double the pressure is experienced when vol. is halved.
Pressure, volume & temperature
9
The unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa).
1 Pa occurs when 1 N acts on 1 m
2
surface area.
This is a small value & we usually use kilopascals
(kPa) instead. 1 kPa = 1000 Pa.
Atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa at sea level.
A Bourdon gauge is used to measure gas pressure.
How gauge works
Bourdon gauge
10
The apparatus is used to inves-
tigate the relationship between
p and V for a fixed number of moles of a gas at a
constant temperature.
Robert Boyle
1627 -1691
Volume vs pressure
11
Air trapped
in tube A.
Bourdon
guage.
Air pumped
in.
Oil
reservoir
.
Air causes
increased
pressure.
12
Vol (V)
in cm
3
Pressure
(p) in kPa
1/V pV
58,0 100 0,017 5800
48,3 120 0,023 5800
36,3 160 0,027 5800
29,0 200 0,034 5800
24,2 240 0,041 5800
20,7 280 0,048 5800
19,3 300 0,107 5800
These are typical values using the Boyles law
apparatus
13
volume
pressure
The shape of the curve reminds one of a
hyperbola. If this is the case, the equation
would be pV = k. Pressure is inversely
proportional to volume of a fixed mass of gas.
Drawing the graph for
these numbers you get:
Boyle's Law ..
Animated click
here
14
As the curve could be something other than
a hyperbola, we can check as follows:
If pV = k
V =
1
/
p
k
A graph of V vs
1
/
p
would therefore indicate
a straight line through the origin (compare
y = mx).
As a straight line is obtained it means the
original graph was a hyperbola therefore
pV = k .
15
volume
1
/
pressure

The volume of a given mass of gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure exerted on it,
provided the temperature is constant.
N.B.
Definition:
Volume is directly
proportional to the
reciprocal of
pressure or
V i/p
16
From the defining relationship between
pressure and volume, we get the equation
derived from this relationship:
p
1
V
1
= p
2
V
2
Since p
1
V
1
= k and p
2
V
2
= k then:
Boyles law equation.
17
Take note that the conditions for Boyles law
stated in the previous formulation are:
1. The quantity of gas remains constant.
2. The temperature remains constant.
If pV = k, what would the unit of measurement
for k be?
Explain the answer in terms of the units of
measurement for p and V.
Relationship P, V & T
18
pV
p
As p increases, V decreases
proportionally so that pV = k
constant for real gases at
atmospheric temperatures and
pressures.
low
medium
high
p
1/ V
Boyles law graphs for
different temperatures.
19
What happens when a
cannon is fired?
The exploding gunpowder
causes the gas to expand
rapidly and thrust the cannon
ball into the air at high
velocity.
This principle can be used in rockets, car engines,
power station turbines & hot air balloons.
20
R
u
l
e
r

Drop of Hg in capillary tube
Thermometer
Ice cubes
Air trapped
in tube
Record the volume of the air
column below the Hg as the
temperature rises & record the
values.
As the temperature increases, so the volume also
increases & we need to study this relationship
between volume & temperature.
This is known as Charles law of volume. 21
Volume in cm
3
Temp. in
0
C
38,0 -5
39,0 0
39,5 5
40,0 10
40,5 12
43,0 30
44,5 40
45,0 45
45,9 50
49 70
Now draw
the graph to
illustrate the
relationship.
22
V
o
l
u
m
e

V
o
l
u
m
e

-273
0
C
Temperature
0
0
C 100
0
C
Drawing the graph
gives a straight line
but not through
the origin.
This temperature has been given the value of 0 K and is
called absolute zero. The kelvin temperature scale has
developed from this relationship.
1 K = 1
0
C, so a temp of 0
0
C = 273 K & 100
0
C = 373 k
We can say V T (in K) V
1
/T
1
=V
2
/T
2
0 K
273 K 373 K
If we now extrapolate the graph, we find it
intersects at -273
0
C.
23
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

-273
0
C
Temperature
0
0
C 100
0
C
Drawing the graph
gives a straight line
but not through
the origin.
We can say p T (in K)& thus
0 K
273 K 373 K
If we now extrapolate the graph, we find it
also intersects at -273
0
C.
2
2
1
1
T
p
T
p

This is known as Guy Lussacs law.
Gay Lussac's law
24
Lord William Thomson Kelvin
1824 -1907
From this relationship we get the
above equation.
V
1

T
1
V
2
T
2
=
Combining the p-V, the p-T and the
V-T relationships, we then get:
p
1
V
1
p
2
V
2
T
1
T
2
=
This is known as the general gas equation.
N. B. v & P may be in any units, but T must be in kelvin.
Charles and Gay-Lussac's Law
Animated click here
P T V relationships
P V & T
25
To convert one temperature to the other or
vice-versa, we use the following equation:
Temp in kelvin = 273 + temp in celsius
T = 273 + t
A temp of 50
0
C is thus:
T = 273 + (-50
0
C)
= 223 K
Now try converting the following:
20
0
C 150
0
C 70 K 200 K
Conversion of Celcius to Kelvin temperatures
26
When describing a gas, sometimes we refer to S.T.P.
This is standard temperature & pressure.
These standard conditions are:
Standard pressure = 100 kPa & (1 Atm pressure)
Standard temperature = 0
0
C or 273 K
Now try some problems & calculations on the gas laws.
Special processes of an ideal gas click here
Molecular Model for an Ideal Gas
27
We can combine the 3 gas law equations and
get the following ideal gas law equation:

pV = nRT
Pressure must be in pascals
Volume in m
3
&
Temperature in kelvin (K)
The universal gas constant (R) has the
value of 8,31 JK
-1
mol
-1

28
The behaviour of gases deviates from Boyles
law at low temperatures and high pressures.
p
1
/
V

V
T
Explain the deviations in the two graphs.
29
30
p
T
0
Explain the deviation above.
p
1
T
1
and p
2
T
2
p
1
/T
1
= p
2
/T
2
31
Ideal gas
He
H
2
N
2
pV
p
Consider the above graphs and explain
the similarities and the differences.
Deviations for real gases