LABORATORY: ELECTRONICS AND MODERN INSTRUMENTATION:

Unit 1: Introduction to Basic Electronic Comonents! Test and

Measurement Instruments
Introduction
In the designing of any electronic circuit, three most important considerations are:
(i) Circuit components like resistors, Capacitors, Transistors and Diodes.
(ii) Power sources like dc power supplies and signal generators
(iii) easurement and analysis instruments like multimeters and Cathode !ay
"scilloscope (C!").
This #nit deals with familiari$ation of %asic components like resistors, Capacitors and diodes,
followed %y introduction to a few instruments like multimetrs and C!". &t the end a few
e'periments related with C!" ha(e %een e'plained.
Basic Comonents: )asic components like capacitors, resistors, inductors, diodes, light
emitting diode (led) and transistors can %e di(ided into * categories: (i) Passi(e components like
resistors and capacitors and (ii) &cti(e components like diodes and transistors. The difference
%etween the a%o(e two categories is that acti(e components can generate energy whereas passi(e
components can not generate energy. In other words acti(e components can increase power of a
signal whereas passi(e components often cause the power to %e lost.
+ome components like resistors ha(e their (alues marked on them whereas others like
transistors do not ha(e any (alue marking %ut ha(e a type num%er on them. "ne has to refer to
datasheets to get to know the (alue of the unmarked component. )esides component (alues, they
are also characteri$ed %y their ratings for e.g. ma'imum current (alue that a component can
stand without %eing %urnt out.
,
Resistors: !esistors can %e of two types: fi'ed (alue resistors or (aria%le resistors. The
formula for resistance is gi(en %y: ! - . l / & where . is resisti(ity, l is length and & is area of
crossection. Different (alue resistors can %e manufactured %y changing the length and area of
crossection or the material itself which changes the resisti(ity. aterials generally used for
fa%rication of resistors are nichrome (01 2 3i and *1 2 Cr), constatntan (442 cu and 54 2
3i ) and anmganin (04 2 Cu and ,1 2 n and 6 4 2 3i). etals are not used as they ha(e a
(ery high temperature coefficient of resistance. Three main methods of fa%rication are (i) a sla%
or a rod of suita%le resisti(ity, (ii) aterial using thinner crossection and longer length. The
length is dou%led and then wound in such a way that inductance effects are cancelled out. (iii)
Thin films of material on insulating su%strate. 7ach resistor has a current carrying capacity.
Current more than the prescri%ed wattage may damage the resistor!
Colour Code for !esistors
Band colour
" its #alue
Band colour " its
tolerance
)lack - 1
)rown - ,
!ed - *
"range - 8
9ellow - 5
:reen - 4
)lue - ;
<iolet - =
:rey - 0
>hite - ?
:old - @ A 42
+il(er - @ A ,1 2
3o colour means *1 2
*
The first two %ands near an end indicate first * digits, digit corresponding to 8
rd
%and is the
power of ,1 to %e multiplied and fourth %and indicates tolerance as mentioned in the ta%le. !efer
fig ,, where %rown - ,, %lack - 1, red - * and sil(er - ,1 2 tolerance. Bence its (alue is
,1 ' ,1
*
C - , k C.
ost commonly used resistors in la% are fi'ed (alue resistors which e'ist for standard (alues
according to 7,*. "ther ranges are 7*5 and 750 !anges.
E1$ Ran%e: Ta%le , is for the (alues of resistors of 7,* range. Topmost row defines the %asic
(alue units of resistors in ohms. 7(ery following row is ,1 fold of the upper row.
Ta&le 1: Ta%le for 7,* range (alues of resistors.
,.1 C ,.* ,.4 ,.0 *.* *.= 8.8 8.? 5.= 4.; ;.0 0.* C
,1 C ,* . . . . ;0 0* C
,11 C ;01 0*1 C
,k ,.*k ;.0k 0.*k
,1k 0*k
,11k 0*1k
, ,.* ;.0D 0.*
,1 ,* ;0 0*
'aria&le resistors )esides the fi'ed (alue resistors, there also e'ist (aria%le resistors. The
resistance of (aria%le resistors can (ary in steps or continuously. Potentiometer is also an
e'ample of continuously (arying resistor
8
Secial urose resistors Eight dependent resistors (ED!) and thermistors are e'amples of
special purpose resistors. Thermistor is a resistor whose (alue depends on its temperature. It is
also called a heat sensor. ED! is a resistance whose resistance depends upon the amount of
light falling on it.
Caacitors
Capacitors are capa%le of storing charges. They are used for coupling ac signals from one circuit
to another and for freFuency selection etc. & capacitor consists of * metallic plates separated %y a
dielectric. The capacitance is defined as : C - Go Gr & / d, where & is the area of plates, d is
plates separation, Go is permitti(ity of free space and Gr is relati(e permitti(ity. &n important
parameter for capacitors is its (oltage handling capacity %eyond which the capacitor dielectric
%reaks down.
The (alue of a capacitor depends upon the dielectric constant (H - Go Gr.) of the material. There
are three main classes of capacitors: (i) 3on electrolytic or normal capacitors and (ii) electrolytic
capacitors and (iii) (aria%le capacitors. 3ormal capacitors are mostly of parallel plate type and
can ha(e mica, paper, ceramic or polymer as dielectric. In the paper capacitors two rectangular
metal foils are interlea(ed %etween thin sheets of wa'ed paper and the whole system is rolled to
form a compact structure. 7ach metal foil is connected to an electrode. In mica capacitors
alternate layers of mica and metal are clamped tightly together. !efer fig 8.
In electrolytic capacitor mostly a then metalAo'ide film is deposited %y means of electrolysis on
a'ial electrode. ThatIs how it deri(es its name. During electrolysis the electrode acts as anode
whose cathode is a concentric can. +ince the dielectric layer is (ery thin hence these reFuire
special precaution for their use: i.e. they ha(e to connected in the right polarity failing which the
dielectric %reaks down. )esides these fi'ed (alue capacitors we also ha(e (aria%le capacitors
whose (alue depends upon the area of crossection. They ha(e a fi'ed set of plates and a mo(a%le
5
set of plates which can %e mo(ed through a shaft. This mo(ement changes the area of o(erlap of
the two sets of plates which changes its capacity. !efer fig 8.
Colour and 3um%er code of capacitors. Different marking schemes are used for electrolytic and
nonAelectrolytic capacitors. Temperature coefficient is of minor importance in an electrolytic
filter capacitor, %ut it is (ery important in ceramic trimmers for attenuator use. "ne ne(er finds
temperature coefficient on an electrolytic la%el, %ut it is always present on ceramic trimmers.
(i) 7lectrolytic Capacitors: There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors: (i) &'ial
where the leads are attached to each end (**1JK in picture) and (ii) !adial where
%oth leads are at the same end (,1JK in picture) !efer fig 5.
4
(iii) 3onApolarised capacitors ( 6 ,JK): +mall (alue capacitors ha(e their (alues printed %ut
without a multiplier. Kor e'ample 1., means 1.,JK - ,11nK. +ometimes the unit is placed in
%etween * digits indicating a decimal point. Kor e'ample: 5n= means 5.=nK.
Capacitor 3um%er Code : & num%er code is often used on small capacitors where printing is
difficult: the ,st num%er is the ,st digit, the *nd num%er is the *nd digit, the 8rd num%er is the
power of ten to %e multiplied., to gi(e the capacitance in pK. &ny letters Lust indicate tolerance
and (oltage rating. Kor e'ample: ,1* means ,1 M ,1
*
pK - ,nK and 5=*N means 5=11pK -
5.=nK (N means 42 tolerance).
Capacitor Colour Code: +ometimes capacitors Lust show %ands like resistors when printing
is tough on them. The colours should %e read like the resistor code, the top three colour %ands
;
gi(ing the (alue in pK. The 5th %and and 4th %and are for tolerance and (oltage rating
respecti(ely. Kor e'ample: %rown, %lack, orange means ,1111pK - ,1nK - 1.1,JK.
&(aila%le <alues of Capacitors: Eike resistors capacitors are also a(aila%le for only
particular (alues. Kollowing are * series defined for capacitors
The 78 series (8 (alues for each multiple of ten) ,1, **, 5=, then it continues ,to,11, **1, 5=1,
,111, **11, 5=11, ,1111 etc.
The 7; series (; (alues for each multiple of ten) ,1, ,4, **, 88, 5=, ;0, ... then it continues ,11,
,41, **1, 881, 5=1, ;01, ,111 etc.
Inductors: Inductor is a component made %y a coil of wire which is wound on a core. It is
used to (ary the impedance of a circuit or for freFuency tuning. The (alue of an inductor depends
upon the total num%er of turns (3), area of crossection of the core (&) and length of the core
(l).The formula is E - Oo Or 3
*
& / l. Its unit is in Benry.
Diode: & diode is a single Lunction de(ice made of p and n type materials.. Its main function is to
rectify an ac signal although other special purpose diodes like $ener and ledIs are used for other
purposes. & normal diode comes in a %lack casing whereas a $ener diode has a transparent
casing. Their pictures and sym%ols are gi(en in fig. =.
=
"ther diodes may %e made %y a p type and n type materials or %etween a semiconductor and a
metal. If the Lunction is made %etween a metal and semiconductor then it is called a +chottky
diode whose application is in rectifying and nonArectifying contacts and +chottky de(ices. If the
pn Lunction is made %etween (ery hea(ily doped materials then it forms a Pener diode. These are
used for (oltage regulation in power supplies. and ha(e %reakdown (oltages which are (ery low.
The normal diode has a %reakdown (oltage of greater than ,11 <.
+ome of the diode specifications are: a'imum re(erse (oltage (<%r), rated forward current (If) ,
ma'imum forward (oltage drop (<f) and package style. Ta%le 8 gi(es some of the most
commonly used diodes with their specifications.
Ta&le (
De(ice
3um%er
aterial
used.
IK (m&) <K(<) <)!
(<)
"&?, :e 41 *., ,,4
In 5,50 +i ,11 ,.1 =4
In 5,5? +i ,11 ,.1 =4
I3 511= +i ,111 ,.; ,111
To test whether a gi(en diode is ".H. or not, a simple multimter test can %e performed which is
gi(en later in this unit.
0
Li%)t Emittin% Diode *LED+
EedIsare pn Lunction de(ices which emit light radiation when %iased in the forward direction.
The semiconductor material used for these Lunctions is a compound semiconductor like &l:a&s
whose %and gap corresponds to a particular wa(elength according to eFuation 7g - ,.*5 / Q
where 7g is the %and gap in e( and Q is the wa(elength in microns. (e.g. red R 1.= O hence
corresponding 7 g - ,.*5 / 1.= - ,.== e(). >hen the pn Lunction is forward %iased, the electrons
are e'cited to conduction %and and when they fall to the (alence %and, they gi(e out energy in
the form of radiation corresponding to the 7g of the material Con(entional ledIs are made from
the materials like &l:a&s, :a&lP, :a&sP, :aP and :a3 which emit !ed, green, orange, yellow
and %lue colours respecti(ely. EedIs come in a special transparent casing as shown in fig 0..Dual
colour ledIs are also a(aila%le where two Lunctions are encapsulated on the same chip. It has
three leads where cathode is common whereas normal ledsI ha(e two leads one for cathode and
other for anode. & (ery important precaution while using an led is the amount of current %eing
passed through it. Kor most leds the ma'imum allowa%le current is *1 m& %eyond which the led
can %urn out. Bence in most of the circuits a resistor is used to limit the current. +ome important
specifications %efore using an led are: E7D colour, peak wa(elength, (iewing angle, optical
power output, luminous intensity, forward current and forward (oltage.
?
Transistors
Transistors are semiconductor de(ices used for applications like amplification of (oltages,
current and are also used in oscillator circuits and switches. ItIs a two Lunction and 8 terminal
de(ice made of three layers of n and p type materials. The three regions are emitter, %ase and
collector. They are of * types (i) pnp and (ii) npn. Their most important specifications are Ic,
<ce, hfe and Power rating. They come in different casings like T",0, T"?*C, and T"8? etc
:i(en %elow is a ta%le of most commonly used transistors with their specifications (appro'imate)
and casings. Datasheets from the companies can %e referred to to know the e'act specifications.
Code Structure
Case
st,le
IC
ma-!
'CE
ma-!
).E
min!
/tot
ma-!
Cate%or,
*t,ical use+
/ossi&le
su&stitutes
)C,1= 3P3 T",0 ,11m& 54< ,,1 811m> &udio, low power )C,0* )C45=
)C,10 3P3 T",0 ,11m& *1< ,,1 811m>
:eneral purpose,
low power
)C,10C )C,08
)C450
)C,10C 3P3 T",0 ,11m& *1< 5*1 ;11m>
:eneral purpose,
low power

)C,1? 3P3 T",0 *11m& *1< *11 811m>
&udio (low noise),
low power
)C,05 )C45?
)C,0* 3P3 T"?*C ,11m& 41< ,11 841m>
:eneral purpose,
low power
)C,1= )C,0*E
,1
)C,0*E 3P3 T"?*& ,11m& 41< ,11 841m>
:eneral purpose,
low power
)C,1= )C,0*
)C45=) 3P3 T"?*C ,11m& 54< *11 411m> &udio, low power )C,1=)
)C450) 3P3 T"?*C ,11m& 81< **1 411m>
:eneral purpose,
low power
)C,10)
)C45?) 3P3 T"?*C ,11m& 81< *51 ;*4m>
&udio (low noise),
low power
)C,1?
*38148 3P3 T"8? =11m& 51< 41 411m>
:eneral purpose,
low power
)K94,
)K94, 3P3 T"8? ,& 81< 51 011m>
:eneral purpose,
medium power
)C;8?
)C;8? 3P3 T"?*& ,& 01< 51 011m>
:eneral purpose,
medium power
)K94,
TIP*?& 3P3 T"**1 ,& ;1< 51 81>
:eneral purpose,
high power

TIP8,& 3P3 T"**1 8& ;1< ,1 51>
:eneral purpose,
high power
TIP8,C TIP5,&
TIP8,C 3P3 T"**1 8& ,11< ,1 51>
:eneral purpose,
high power
TIP8,& TIP5,&
TIP5,& 3P3 T"**1 ;& ;1< ,4 ;4>
:eneral purpose,
high power

*38144 3P3 T"8 ,4& ;1< *1 ,,=>
:eneral purpose,
high power

)C,== P3P T",0 ,11m& 54< ,*4 811m> &udio, low power )C5==
)C,=0 P3P T",0 *11m& *4< ,*1 ;11m>
:eneral purpose,
low power
)C5=0
)C,=? P3P T",0 *11m& *1< ,01 ;11m>
&udio (low noise),
low power

)C5== P3P T",0 ,41m& 01< ,*4 8;1m> &udio, low power )C,==
)C5=0 P3P T",0 ,41m& 51< ,*4 8;1m>
:eneral purpose,
low power
)C,=0
TIP8*& P3P T"**1 8& ;1< *4 51>
:eneral purpose,
high power
TIP8*C
TIP8*C P3P T"**1 8& ,11< ,1 51>
:eneral purpose,
high power
TIP8*&
Kig ? gi(es some of the transistors with the sym%ols. for npn and pnp. and fig ,1 illustrates some
of the casings. with the configurations for emitter , %ase and collector leads
,,
Inte%rated Circuits *IC+
Inte%rated Circuit *IC+ Today all electrical, electronic and computer parts ha(e ICIs in
them. Integrated circuit is a name gi(en to a package which can hold more than ,1 and up to
millions of electronic components. They can gi(e (arious functions like : (i) the function of a full
,*
microprocessor circuit (eg 0104), (ii) a memory chip, (iii) a (oltage regulator (E =014) or (i()
Can contain Lust ,1 &3D gates (eg E+=511). They come in a %lack %ench like casing with a
notch on one side and with electrical legs for connections, which are called pins. The si$e is
usually around , cm
*
M , cm
*
. !efer to the picture. Its name is always written on top which
contains a few letters with numerals, according to its type, make and company. Kor e'ample an
IC with name E+ =511 would mean E+ series with &nd gates, E=5,C A m&=5,C is an
operational amplifier (opamp). Datasheets can %e referred to, to know the details of pin
configurations and make etc. The pins are usually read starting from left of notch and going
anticlockwise as shown in picture for 444 timer IC.
.a&rication of an IC is a highly sophisticated and e'pensi(e process reFuiring clean rooms and
(ery e'pensi(e eFuipments like photolithography, metalli$ation and diffusion etc. )ut %ecause of
their %ulk manufacture and reFuirement the cost of each IC is (ery low.
Instruments:
Multimeters: & multimeter is an instrument which measures electrical parameters such as &C or
DC (oltage, current, and resistance. !ather than ha(ing separate meters, a multimeter com%ines a
,8
(oltmeter, an ammeter, and an ohmmeter. The two main kinds of a multimeter are analog and
digital. !efer fig ,1. & digital multimeter has an ECD screen that displays the (alue of the
parameter %eing measured. while in an analog multimeter display, a needle mo(es through a
graduated scale. Topmost scale is usually for resistance and the readings increases from right to
left while other scales readings increase from left to right. &nother name for an analog
multimeter is <oltA"hmAilliammeter (<"). 7ach type of meter has its ad(antages and
disad(antaged. >hen used as a (oltmeter, a digital meter is usually %etter %ecause its resistance
is much higher, , or ,1 , compared to *11 C for an analogue multimeter for a similar range.
"n the other hand, it is easier to follow a slowly changing (oltage %y watching the needle on an
analogue display. ost modern multimeters are digital and traditional analogue types are
%ecoming o%solete
)lock diagram of a <" is gi(en in fig. ,,
,5
<oltage measurement %y multimeter: Kor the case of a <", a $ero adLustment has to %e
made e(ery time the multimeter is to %e used. To do the $ero adLustment, set the mode selection
kno% in resistance mode. Connect the two leads to positi(e and common terminals respecti(ely
and short the leads. The needle should mo(e to e'treme right to the last reading on the ohms
scale. If it stops %efore or goes %eyond then the $ero adLustment kno% has to %e rotated
(clockwise or anticlockwise) such that the needle rests at the last reading on the right end of the
%ar on the ohms scale. +u%seFuently, to measure (oltage, the multimeter has to %e first set in &C
or DC mode. &fter selecting a suita%le range defined %y the uppermost limit of the e'pected
(alue, the range kno% has to %e set. 3e't connect the common (gnd) terminal through a lead
(%lack) to the gnd of the circuit and the red lead to the point where (oltage is to %e measured. Kor
the case of an analogue multimeter, if the needle goes the wrong way the leads ha(e to %e
re(ersed or if the needle doesnIt mo(e at all the range has to %e changed. To find the (alue of the
(oltage, read the num%er from that scale that matches the range %eing used. In a digital
multimeter, if ,. is displayed then the range has to %e increased..
,4
!esistance easurement: To measure resistance in a circuit, first the power supply is to %e
turned off (or disconnected) otherwise the multimeter might get damaged. 3e't, select a range on
the multimeter and touch two metal points in the circuit. If the needle doesnIt mo(e or goes all
the way to the end of the scale, select another range. "ne can not use this method to measure the
resistance of a resistor in the circuit %ecause there may %e other paths %etween the nodes of a
resistor. "ne leg of a resistor must %e disconnected from the circuit to make sure that the only
path %etween the two pro%es is through that resistor. To measure the resistance of a resistor,
select the range on the meter that might %e closest to the right (alue and use the pro%es to touch
either side of the resistor. If the right range is selected then the needle will %e somewhere
%etween the left and the right end of the scale. To find the (alue of the resistor, read the num%er
from the scale that matches the range you are using.
#ETI7T7! T7+T "K DI"D7+
"ne can know whether a specific terminal of a diode is n or p %y measuring the resistance with
multimeter. To do so keep the multimeters in resistance mode connect its positi(e lead to the
anode of diode and negati(e lead to its cathode. During the test, the multimeter passes current
through the diode and the diode gets forward %iased. It thus indicated (ery low resistance of the
order of ,11 . If the leads are now re(ersed than the diode gets re(erse %iased and offers (ery
high resistance of the order of . This can %e read in the multimeter again. If a diode reads
(ery low resistance in the forward as well as re(erse %ias then it is shorted. "n the other hand if
it reads high resistance in the forward as well as re(erse %ias then it is open.
.UNCTION 0ENERATORS
,;
Kunction :enerators are instruments capa%le of generating an ac signal of any freFuency (R
,11B$ S hundreds of kB$), (oltage(R, m( S *1<) and (arious forms (e.g. sine wa(e, +Fuare
pulse, +aw tooth wa(e, Triangular wa(e or noise wa(eform). They also pro(ide a continuously
(aria%le dc offset, (aria%le duty cycle. They are usually of * types: (i) analog and (ii) Digital.
+ome of the front panel controls of a typical function generator are:
, Power +witch Kor switching o%n the power supply
* Digital Display This is a 5 digit freFuency meter
8 "KK+7T This kno% is for adding a dc (oltage to the output signal
5 &mplitude This does the continuous adLustment of output (oltage
,=
4 +peed This is for setting wo%ulation speed
; >idth This kno% is for setting the wo%ulation width
= KrFuency This kno% is for selecting the freFuency range from 1.8 B$ to 8B$ in
decade steps.
0. +weep "n This is a push %utton for acti(ating internal sweep
? ode +election Push )utton for triangular, sine +Fuare etc.
,1 )3C connector This is a 41 C output )3C connector
,, A*1 d%, A *1 d%& push %utton control for A*1 d% attenuation. >hen %oth %uttons are
pushed then a total of 51 d% attenuation is got.
Cat)ode Ra, Oscilloscoe *CRO+
C!" is an instrument which is used to measure (oltages that change with time and to display the
wa(eforms in real time mode. There is a graphical scale present on the screen which is used to
calculate the (oltage or freFuency (alue. & (ery important specification of a C!" is its
%andwidth which gi(es the ma'imum freFuency of a signal which a C!" can measure. & simple
oscilloscope consists of a cathode ray tu%e, a (ertical amplifier, a time %ase, a hori$ontal
amplifier and a power supply. Kig ,* shows the %lock diagram of a C!". CathodeAray tu%e is a
(acuum tu%e in which a %eam of electrons is produced and focused onto a fluorescent screen.
The electronsI kinetic energy is con(erted into light energy as they collide with the screen. It is
an essential component of tele(ision recei(ers, computer (isual display units, and C!". )etween
,0
the electron gun and the screen are two pairs of metal plates : (i) Bori$ontal Deflection Plates
and (ii) <ertical deflection plates. These are dri(en %y Bori$ontal Deflection system and <ertical
deflection system respecti(ely.
In
the (ertical deflection system, the (ertical amplifier is dri(en %y an e'ternal (oltage (the (ertical
input) that is to %e measured. The amplifier has (ery high input impedance, typically one
megohm, so that it draws only a tiny current from the signal source. The amplifier dri(es the
(ertical deflection plates with a (oltage that is proportional to the (ertical input. The gain of the
(ertical amplifier can %e adLusted to suit the amplitude of the input (oltage. & positi(e input
(oltage %ends the electron %eam upwards, and a negati(e (oltage %ends it downwards, so that the
(ertical deflection of the dot shows the (alue of the input. The hori$ontal deflection system
,?
consists of a time %ase circuit which is an electronic circuit that generates a ramp (oltage (saw
tooth wa(eform) . !efer fig. ,8.
This is a (oltage that changes continuously and linearly
with time. >hen it reaches a predefined (alue the ramp is reset. >hen a trigger e(ent is
recogni$ed the reset is released, allowing the ramp to increase again. The time %ase (oltage
usually dri(es the hori$ontal amplifier. Its effect is to sweep the electron %eam at a constant
speed from left to right across the screen, then Fuickly return the %eam to the left in time to %egin
the ne't sweep.
CRO controls 1rom t)e 1ront anel
*1
, Intensity This kno% controls the %rightness of the trace %y adLusting the num%er of
electrons emerging from the gun
* Kocus This control is for making the trace on the screen sharper. It is connected
to the anode of the electron gun whose (oltage collimates the electron %eam.
8 <ertical Position T Bori$ontal Position Through these controls the %eam can %e
positioned at (aria%le (ertical or hori$ontal positions as desired. These kno%s apply a dc (oltage
to the (ertical and hori$ontal deflection plates.
5 < / Di(. This control is used to control the (oltage sensiti(ity. This is internally
connected to an attenuator of the (ertical system. It determines the (oltage reFuired %y the
(ertical plates to deflect the %eam (ertically %y one di(ision.
*,
4 Time / Di( This determines the time taken for the spot to mo(e hori$ontally across
one di(ision of the screen when the sweep is generated %y triggering process. The signal which is
fed to the (ertical deflection plates pro(ides the triggering to the wa(eform. 7ach position of the
time/ di( kno% is applica%le for a particular freFuency. This determines the hori$ontal sensiti(ity
of the o%ser(ed signal.
; Trigger +ourceThis selects the source of the trigger to %e applied to the saw tooth
wa(eform. There are usually three possi%le sources (i) Internal: This is mostly used for all
applications. The (ertical signal applies the triggering signal. (ii) Eine: This is generally used
when the (oltage to %e measured is related to the line (oltage. This selects the 41B$ line (oltage.
(iii) 7't. In this case an e'ternal signal is applied to trigger the saw tooth wa(eform./
= +lope This determines whether the time %ase circuit responds to the positi(e or negati(e
slope of the triggering wa(eform.
0 Ee(el This determines the amplitude le(el on the triggering wa(eform which can
start the sweep
? &C, DC, :3D: This selects the coupling mechanism for the input signal to the
C!". In dc mode the (ertical amplifier recei(es %oth ac and dc components of the input signal.
In ac mode the coupling capacitor %locks all dc components and displays only pure ac wa(eform.
In gnd configuration, the input signal is grounded and one gets a straight line. To measure the dc
component of any signal (ac or dc), one has to switch from ac to dc mode and o%ser(e the
(ertical shift of the wa(eform. The amount of (ertical shift in (olts gi(es the corresponding dc
component.
**
,1 MA9 mode: In this mode of operation. two signals are superimposed at right angles on
each other. The saw tooth time %ase circuit is disconnected from the hori$ontal deflection plates
and the e'ternal signal which s fed to channel two is gi(en to time %ase instead. Bence if two
sine wa(es are fed to two channels respecti(ely then the electron %eam will undergo deflection
according to right angle superposition of two sine wa(es. It will trace lissaLous figures.
.e2 e-eriments related 2it) CRO:
O&3ecti#e To measure (oltage and freFuency of an ac signal
<oltage measurement To measure the (oltage of an ac wa(eform, connect the ac signal
from signal generator to C!" channel , such that a sta%le wa(eform such as that of fig ,5. is
displayed. Bere <pp is the peak to peak (oltage and <m is the ma'imum (oltage.
*8
+uppose (olts / di( is at ,< scale then <pp - 5 di( ' , < - 5<
and <m - *di( ' ,< - *<.
The effecti(e (alue is < effec - < rms- <m M 1.=. - ,.5 <
If an ac (oltmeter is connected across the signal it will gi(e the same (alue i.e.,.5<.
KreFuency easurement The distance co(ered %y one wa(e in fig. ,5 , gi(es the time period
(T) of the wa(eform.
+uppose time / di( kno% is at , ms scale then T - *di( ' , ms - * msec.
Bence freFuency (K) - , / T - , / *msec - 1.4 kB$ - 411 B$.
O&3ecti#e To measure freFuency ratio and measure phase difference of * wa(eforms using
lissaLous figures.
EissaLous Kigures
*5
>hen a particle is influenced %y two simple harmonic motions which are at right angles to each
other then it traces a cur(e called lissaLous figure. Kor the case of a C!", when the time %ase of
the C!" is not applied to the hori$ontal (M) plates, any wa(eform can %e applied across these
plates. If different sine wa(es are applied to the M and 9 plates, a stationary pattern is traced %y
the electron %eam. This pattern depends on the ratio of the freFuencies of the two wa(es ( i.e. ,:
,, ,:*, ,:8 or ,:5 etc.) and the phase difference %etween the two wa(es. The freFuency ratio of
,:, gi(es a circular pattern if the signals (i) ha(e the same amplitudes and (ii) are ?1 out of
phase. & phase difference of 54
o
produces an ellipse, and $ero phase difference produces a
straight line inclined at an angle determined %y the magnitudes of the two signals.
easurement of KreFuency !atio
Kor measurement of freFuency ratio refer to circuit of fig. ,4 , where two sine wa(es are applied
to the two channels and "scilloscope is kept in MA9 mode
*4
The freFuency ratio is determined %y the num%er of loops of the pattern touching a (ertical line
at the edge of the pattern and the num%er of loops touching a hori$ontal line at the edge of the
pattern. The reason for this is that an integral num%er of sine wa(es on the hori$ontal deflection
plates are completed in the same time that an integral num%er of sine wa(es are completed on the
(ertical plates. If T( and Th are the time periods of (ertical and hori$ontal input sine wa(es
respecti(ely then
,
*
= = =
V
H
H
V
f
f
line horizontal touching loops of Number
line vertical touching loops of Number
T
T
where fB and f< are the freFuencies of hori$ontal and (ertical signals respecti(ely. In fig. ,; ,
lissaLous figures for (arious freFuency ratios are drawn.
*;
easurement of Phase Difference
Kor measurement of Phase difference %etween * wa(es, connect the circuit as in fig. ,= .and
operate the C!" in MA9 mode.
*=
The phase difference is determined %y measuring ratio of the ma'imum 9 intercept to the
intercept made on 9 a'is. !efer Kig ,0, where 9, is the ma'imum 9 intercept and 9* is the
intercept on 9 a'is. Bence if Phase difference %etween the * wa(es is U, then
+in U - 9* / 9,. Therefore U - +in
A,
9* / 9,
*0
Kigure ,? illustrates some more patterns of lissaLous figures for (arious (alues of phase
differences.
Re1erences
,. 7lectronic Instrumentation and easuremenmt TechniFues, 8
rd
7dition, %y
>.D.Cooper and &.D. Belfrick, PBI
*. http://acept.la.asu.edu/courses/phs,,1/e'pmts/e'p,8a.html
*?