Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos Professor Georgia Institute of Technology

Power System Modeling, Analysis
and Control

by:

A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
Professor
Georgia Institute of Technology

Copyright A. P. Meliopoulos, 1990-2006
Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 1, Meliopoulos

NOTICE

These notes may not be reproduced without the written consent of the author. The author
expresses his gratitude to all his colleagues and students, who have contributed to the
developement of these notes. I hope that proper credit has been given to works of others
who contributed in this field through the list of references. If any omission has occurred,
it is not intentional.

Dr. A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0250
Page 2 Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006

Acknowledgedments

The author was inspired to develop a Georgia Tech course on the subject from the IEEE
short course on Energy Control Center Design which he attended in 1977. Over the
years, work on several sponsored research projects have contributed to these
developments. Three projects were especially pivotal: (1) a multiyear project sponsored
by Westinghouse, (2) two NSF grants, one on hydrothermal coordination and another on
composite power system simulation, and (3) a multiyear research project on power
system reliability/security sponsored over the years by Georgia Power Company, PTI,
and EPRI. Special recognition is due to Professor Webb who was the primary architect
and project director of the multiyear research project sponsored by Westinghouse and
Professors Debs and Alford who were PIs in the same project. Under this project the
author has performed research on a variety of subjects including power flow analysis,
contingency analysis, optimal power flow, hydrothermal coordination, and multiphase
power flow analysis. Professors Chong, Debs, and Grigsby have inspired my work in
this area. Dr Chong's teaching of the graduate course EE6500, Introduction to
Management and Control of Energy Systems, introduced me to the many aspects of
optimization and large scale systems. Dr. Debs' teaching of the course EE6502, Control
and Operation of Interconnected Power Systems, introduced me to many aspects of
power system control and operation. In the period 1976-81 I was called upon to teach
EE6500, a course developed by Dr. Chong, which enhanced my understanding of
optimization methods and large scale systems. Since 1978 I have benefited from
collaboration with Professor Leo Grigsby during our teaching on power flow analysis in
the course Modern Power System Analysis. In the period 1980-83 I was called upon to
teach EE6502 which enhanced my understanding of power systems. This course was
originally introduced by Dr. Debs. During the years 1980-83, I further developed this
course by introducing new topics which constitute two thirds of this course as being
taught today at Georgia Tech. In 1983 I introduced a short course on control centers.
Later, I collaborated in the teaching of this short course with Dr. Debs. Professor
Contaxis is especially acknowledged for the many stimulating discussions and
collaboration during our Ph.D. research years and later during his visit to Georgia Tech.
I am also indebted to my many students, past and present, who have significantly
contributed to the research projects and course development. It is my pleasure to
recognize Professors Cokkinides, Feliachi, and Bakirtzis, my former Ph.D. students, for
their contributions during the development of the graduate course Real Time Control of
Power Systems. Drs Chao and Cheng have contributed to the topics of Optimal Power
Flow and Security Assessment through their Ph.D. work. I would like to thank my
present students, Fan Zhang and Feng Xia who contributed to the present manuscript
with their Ph.D. work and help in typing. Finally, I would like to thank PTI for giving
me the opportunity to work on their corrective scheduling program and Advanced
Control Systems for our cooperative effort in energy management system developments.
Copyright A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 1990-2006 Page 3

Guidance from the Past

The mechanicians of Herons School told us that the study of machines consists of
theoretical and practical part. The theoretical part includes the natural sciences while the
practical part consists of the engineering disciplines. They postulate that a necessary
condition for an able designer of mechanical devices is a solid background in both natural
sciences and practical skills.

Pappos of Alexandria (4
th
century A.D.)

DRAFT and INCOMPLETE

Table of Contents

from

A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control

Chapter 1 _____________________________________________________________ 6
The Modern Electric Power System ________________________________________ 6
1.1 Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 6
1.2 Power System Control Functions ___________________________________________ 9
1.2.1 Data Acquisition and Processing Subsystem______________________________________ 12
1.2.2 Energy Management/Automatic Generation Control Subsystem_______________________ 16
1.2.3 Security Monitoring and Control Subsystem______________________________________ 16
1.3 Major Elements of an Energy Management System___________________________ 20
1.3.1 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition________________________________________ 20
1.3.2 Computers_________________________________________________________________ 22
1.3.3 User Interface______________________________________________________________ 23
1.3.4 Applications Software________________________________________________________ 24
1.4 Hierarchical Structures __________________________________________________ 24
1.5 Automation and Control of Distribution Systems_____________________________ 27
1.6 The Impact of Legislation ________________________________________________ 28
1.7 Summary and Discussion ________________________________________________ 29

Chapter 1
The Modern Electric Power System

1.1 Introduction

The electrification of many processes through technological advances resulted in the
continuous development and evolution of the electric power system over the last one
hundred plus years. As an example, in the U. S. A. today, more than one third of energy
consumption is in the form of electric energy. The modern day electric power system is
responsible for generating, transmitting and delivering more than one third of the total
consumed energy. With this progress, the complexity of the system has grown. To
manage this complex system, monitoring, control and operation functions are computer
assisted. The systems for computer control of electric power systems have evolved as
computer and monitoring technology evolved. Throughout the years, these systems have
been named Control Centers, Energy Management Systems (EMS), Independent
System Operations, etc. The names reflect the changing emphasis in the functions of
these control centers. In this book, we will use the term Energy Management System.

The EMS concept comprises hardware and software for the purpose of monitoring and
controlling the power system. Typically, the function of monitoring is fully automated.
Control functions, however, are either automated or manual. Energy Management
Systems have evolved from the traditional dispatcher's office. The dispatcher had in his
reach supervisory equipment. Based on his experience, he would monitor the supervisory
equipment and will control the system appropriately. The control was manually executed
upon communication between the dispatcher and local operator (for example, plant
operator). As size and complexity of the system grew, this approach was not adequate. A
number of incidents indicated that the security of the system, defined as the ability to
operate in synchronism under possible random disturbances, cannot be guaranteed with
this simple approach. Out of this need, a comprehensive and integrated approach to
monitor and control a power system has emerged.

Advances in computers and power system hardware provided new possibilities. As
technology evolved so did the energy measurement system. A modern energy
management system is characterized with:

1. The dispatch operation has been replaced with the fully digital Automatic
Generation Control (AGC). The AGC integrates the dispatch function with the
load frequency control, power interchange control problem, and varying degree of
power system optimization functions.
2. System security functions (monitoring and control) have been integrated in a
hierarchical control scheme.
3. Advanced economy scheduling functions are an integral part of the system,
including access to the power markets, if available.


Mimic Board
Consoles
Display / Control Interface
Redundant
Computers
CIOC's
Communication
Links
Remote
Terminal
Units
Sensors & Controls
OASIS
ICCC

Figure 1.1 Typical Configuration of an Energy Management System
Hardware

The hardware required for the new approach are illustrated in Figure 1.1. The sensors and
controls are located in the field and collect data. For example, a sensor can be a
wattmeter, a voltmeter, a breaker status device, etc. These data are collected at the
Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) which are normally hardwired to the sensors and
controls. Then, the data are transferred through communication channels to
Communication Input/Output Controllers (CIOCs) located normally in a central location.
There the data are transferred to the computers. Computer programs evaluate the data and
display them on CRTs, dynamic mimic boards or computer generated projections of
system displays. The operator can visualize the operation of the system by looking at the
displays.

In a modern energy management system, a computer (automatically or on dispatcher
command) can issue commands which are transferred through the CIOCs,
communication links, and RTUs to the survey points for execution. This configuration
and function is illustrated in Figure 1.2.

RTU
Contact Inputs
Analog Inputs
Contact Outputs
Analog Outputs
Master
Station
Data
Commands

Figure 1.2 Basic SCADA System Configuration

The hardware configuration of Figure 1.1 provides the possibility of controlling and
operating the system in a rather sophisticated manner. The next sections provide a
qualitative review of the objectives and approaches utilized in the control of a modern
power system.

1.2 Power System Control Functions

The operation of an electric power system is characterized with a number of control
functions. Some of them are automatic and others require operator initiation. Consider,
for example, a single unit power plant as in Figure 1.3. One can recognize a number of
control loops:

(1) The Voltage Control Loop. The objective of this control loop is to regulate the
voltage at the terminals of the generator. It consists of the voltage regulator and
exciter system. Inputs to this control loop are the reference voltage V
ref
, which may
be selected by the system dispatcher or automatically by computers (VAR
dispatch), and the actual voltage at the terminals of the generator V
g
.

(2) The Power System Stabilizer (PPS) Loop. The objective of this control loop is to
slow down the oscillations of the generator following a disturbance. It consists of a
feedback system which injects a stabilizing signal into the exciter system. Feedback
quantities may be: frequency, f, real power, P
g
, etc.


(3) The Primary Automatic Generator Control Loop. The objective of this control loop
is to regulate the real power output and the speed of the generator. It consists of the
speed regulator (governor) of the prime mover. It uses feedback of the generator
speed (or frequency) and the real power output of the generator.

Prime
Mover
G
Exciter
V
g
P
g
f
PSS
D(s)
Governor
G(s)
L(s)
V
ref
P
g
f
P
g
f
K(s)
P
sched
Bias
B
f
f
sched
f
-
+
+
+
+ -
+
-
+
+
-
Tie
Line
Tramsmission
System
and Load

Figure 1.3 Schematic Representation of Control Schemes for a Generating
Unit

(4) The Secondary Automatic Generation Control Loop. The objective of the
secondary automatic generation control loop is to regulate the net interchange, unit
real power output, and speed (frequency). It consists of a feedback system which
injects a signal into the speed regulator (governor). The signal, refered to as the
Unit Control Error (UCE), is constructed from measurements of frequency,
interchange schedule, unit real power output, etc. Reference quantities for this
control loop are: (a) Scheduled interchange of real power, P
sched
, (b) Scheduled
frequency, f
sched
, and (c) Scheduled unit real power output, P
des
. This control loop
uses integral feedback of frequency and therefore regulates the system real time
(integral of frequency).

Since the electric power system is a dynamic system, the control loops should be
designed so that the system is steered to desired operating conditions with minimal
oscillations, and minimal control effort to avoid excessive wear of equipment. Thus the
transfer functions E(s), D(s), R(s), L(s), and G(s), indicated in Figure 1.3, must be
selected to meet performance objectives and to track desired operating conditions in a
smooth manner..

ENERGY/ECONOMY
FUNCTIONS SUBSYSTEM
DATA AQUISITION AND
PROCESSING SUBSYSTEM
SECURITY MONITORING
AND CONTROL SUBSYSTEM
Load Forecast
Unit Commitment
Economic
Dispatch
Economic
Interchange
Evaluation
Automatic
Generation
Control
Optimal
Power Flow
Security
Dispatch
Environmental
Dispatch
Emergency
State
Emergency
Controls
VAR
Dispatch
Security
Monitoring
Normal
State
Contingency
Analysis
Insecure
State
Preventive
Controls
Extremi s
State
Restorative
Controls
External
Equivalents
Parameter
Estimation
Network
Topology
State
Estimation
Displays
SCADA
Measurements

Figure 1.4 Functional Diagram of a Modern Energy Management System

It is obvious that the controls associated with a generating unit are numerous and
complex. Complexity is minimized with the utilization of a hierarchical structure. For
example, at a higher level, the reference points for the generator control loops are decided
such as unit output, P
des
, interchange power, P
sched
, etc. At this level, economy and
security of the system is the overriding consideration. Then, the mentioned local control
loops are charged with the task of tracking the reference points. The higher level is
performed at a central location, the energy control center. Depending on the
sophistication of the particular energy management system, the reference points may be
automatically selected by computers or by operators. For example, the reference for the
real power output of a unit may be automatically selected by computers based on a real
time economic dispatch. Others, for example the frequency reference, may be selected at
another central location for a large number of interconnected power systems based on the
deviation of the integral of the frequency from an accurate time reference. All of these
require that the system conditions are continuously monitored. The monitoring task
consists of data acquisition and state estimation. This higher level control scheme for a

typical energy management system is illustrated in Figure 1.4. The functions of a typical
control center can be grouped into three distinct groups resulting in the three subsystems:
(a) the data acquisition and processing subsystem, (b) the energy management/automatic
generation control subsystem, and (c) the security monitoring and control subsystem. The
three subsystems are illustrated in Figure 1.4. A brief description is given next.

1.2.1 Data Acquisition and Processing Subsystem

The objective of the data acquisition and processing subsystem is to obtain an accurate
(as much as possible) estimate of the operating state of the system. This is achieved with
a large number of Remote Terminal Units (RTU) and associated communication network.
The system is known as SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition). The
remote terminal units collect analog measurements (i.e. voltage magnitude, power flows,
etc.) and status variables (i.e. status of breakers, switches, etc.) and transmit this data to
the computers of the energy management system via the communication network. There,
the topology of the network is formed (network configurator) and the state of the system
is constructed (on-line power flow or state estimation). The results are displayed in
whatever user interface media exist at the energy management system, i.e. computer
monitors, mimic boards, projection systems, etc..

The Data Acquisition and Processing Subsystem comprises a set of software which
process the data collected by the SCADA system. This data is utilized in two ways.
Status data (circuit breaker status, interrupt switch status, transformer tap setting, etc.) are
utilized to form the system configuration and model. The software which uses the status
data for the purpose of computing the system configuration and model is known as
system network configurator. Typically, this software is executed only when a change
in status data occurs. All other data (analog measurements) is utilized to compute the
best (in some sense) estimate of the operating state of the system. Two approaches are
used in practice: (1) use of an on-line power flow, or (2) use of a state estimator.

G1 G2
AutoBank
500kV/230kV
AutoBank
500kV/230kV

(a)

SG1 SG2

(b)

Figure 1.5. Network Configurator
(a) Breaker Oriented Model
(b) Bus Oriented Model

The task performed by the system configurator is illustrated in Figure 1.5. The
information received through the SCADA system determines the status of the breakers.
The system configurator uses prestored information and the breaker/switches, etc., status
to determine a 'bus oriented model', i.e., what circuits are connected to what bus and how
much power is injected at a bus. This task is illustrated in Figure 1.5. The bus oriented
model can be also utilized by other applications programs.

The analog measurements are used to determine the operating condition of the system.
For a better understanding of the mathematical model which describes the operating
condition of the system, we use Tinney and Dommels classification of the various
variables in a power system into state variables, and control variables. We also
recognize that there is a number of externally determined variables (exogenous) such as
the electric loads. A definition of these variables follows:

Electric Power Demand Variables. These consist of all externally determined real and
reactive load demands. These variables will be denoted with the vector d. The electric
power demand variables change as the time progresses.

Control Variables. These consist of all quantities that can be independently manipulated
by the system dispatcher or by existing control loops to satisfy system objectives.
Examples of control variables are:

1. Voltage magnitude at certain buses. For example, generation buses, buses
connected to regulating transformers, or buses with synchronous condensers, etc.
2. Real power generation at all generation buses. Note that the slack bus needs to be
excluded.
3. Tap settings of transformers.
4. Switch status of capacitor and/or reactor banks (open/close).
5. Other controls such as FACTS devices, etc.


The control variables will be denoted with the vector u.

State Variables. The state variables are defined as the minimum set of variables, the
knowledge of which will enable the computation of all relevant quantities of interest,
such as circuit flows, generating unit reactive power output, etc. The state variables will
be denoted with the vector x. It is important to recognize that for a specified set of
demand and control variables, the state variables are uniquely determined from the
system model.

With above definitions it is quite easy to explain how the data collected with the SCADA
system are used to develop a mathematical description of the system operating state.
This task can be achieved with procedures of varying degree of sophistication. In the
early days of development, on-line power flows were used which were later replaced
with state estimation models. A brief description of these models follows.

Interconnection
G1
MW Flow Measurement
MVAR Flow Measurement
Transformer Tap Measurement
T1
G2
T2
T1
Interconnection
L1
L2
L3
4
3
2
1
5
6
kV Measurement

Figure 1.6 Illustration of Measurements Necessary for an On-Line Power
Flow

On-Line Power Flow. The on-line power flow uses measured electric loads, the network
configuration, measured generating unit power outputs, and measured tie line flows, and
the bus oriented model from the network configurator for the purpose of computing the
system state variables. Specifically, the state variables are related to the control and
demand variables with the power flow model of the system (power flow equations).
Solution of these equations will yield the state variables x, thus providing the operating
conditions of the system. The procedure of selecting the required measurements of
demand and control variables and subsequent solution of the power flow is known as the
on-line power flow. Figure 1.6 illustrates a set of measurements necessary for an on-line
power flow of a small system.

The on-line power flow has the disadvantage that if one measurement of a control
variable or a demand variable is in error, the entire power flow solution will be in error.
In other words, there is no capability to detect and reject measurement error. This
problem is addressed by the state estimator.
State Estimation. Measurements are usually corrupted with errors for a variety of
reasons: sensor inaccuracies such as potential and current transformers, instrument error,
communication error, etc. For these reasons it is important to take more measurements
than the minimum required to determine the system state (redundant measurements).
Then, the statistical theory of state estimation is utilized to compute the best estimate of
the system state. In the process, some of the measurement errors will be filtered out.

State estimation employs a stochastic model of the system to filter out measurement
errors, communication errors, etc. The solution is in terms of an expected value of the
system state with computable error margins. The importance of this stochastic approach
lies in the ability to address issues of measurement errors and other factors of uncertainty
like those arising from modeling inaccuracies.

An important issue in state estimation is the issue of system observability. Loosely
speaking, system observability is defined as the ability of the state estimator to determine
the system state from the available measurements. In a real time environment, some
measurements may be corrupted or lost (due to the loss of an RTU for example). In such
cases, some part of the system may not be observable. This issue will be further
addressed in Chapter 7.

The state estimation is an alternative to on-line flow. Another alternative would be to
measure the system state directly. Technology for this purpose has been already
developed by the use of synchronized measurements with the Global Positioning System.
The global positioning system consists of a large number of satellites which provide a
timing and positioning signal. A receiver anywhere on earth can translate this signal into
a clock output with accuracy better than one microsecond and position of the receiver
with accuracy better than one meter. The clock signal is used to perform synchronized
measurements from which both magnitude and phase can be extracted. This technology is
available but presently is not widely used due to the cost associated with the replacement
of older generation sensors and meters with the new technology. It is used for specific
applications.


1.2.2 Energy Management/Automatic Generation Control Subsystem

This subsystem manages the energy generation, controls the frequency and the power
transactions (net interchange) of the system, and optimizes the operation of the system.
There is a hierarchical structure within this system. An example of functions within each
level is provided below:

Level 1: Load Forecasting
Unit Commitment
Economy Purchases

Level 2: Economic Dispatch
Economic Interchange Evaluation
Optimal Power Flow
Transfer Capability

Level 3: Automatic Generation Control
- Frequency Control
- Power Transaction (Interchange) Control
- Inadvertent Power Flow Control

The economic importance of the energy management system is enormous. Because of the
fact that the power system tries to supply a changing electric load characterized with
uncertainty, many long and medium term scheduling functions are driven by parameters
which possess considerable uncertainty. Thus probabilistic approaches are typically used
for level 1 functions. Level 2 and 3 functions are deterministic using the results of level 1
functions as directives.

1.2.3 Security Monitoring and Control Subsystem

Security of an electric power system is loosely defined as the ability of the system to
withstand major disturbances without losing synchronism. The security of the system is a
very complex concept. Experience accumulated over the years indicates that the security
of the system can be only insured by continuous monitoring and control of the system.
Security control comprises the integration of a number of automated and manual control
operations, such as:

* Automatic generation control,
* Economic dispatch,
* Generation rescheduling,
* Voltage control,
* Coordination with neighboring utilities, and
* Load control.

The integration of all these functions is incorporated in the security monitoring and
control subsystem. A hierarchical control scheme is typically employed. The functions of
this subsystem can be grouped into two classes: (1) Security monitoring, and (2) Security
controls. A qualitative analysis of these functions is given here. Later in Chapter 11,
system security is addressed in greater detail.

Security Monitoring: For the purpose of explaining the security monitoring function, it
is expedient to classify the infinite number of possible operating conditions of a power
system in terms of security. For this purpose observe that the power system should
satisfy the following requirements:

(1) Operating constraints such as: limits on system frequency, limits on bus
voltage magnitude, limits on circuit loading, etc. Any attribute of system
component, such as loading of a circuit, reactive power generated by a unit,
etc. can be expressed as a function of the system state and controls, i.e.
(x,u). Then, the operating constraints are expressed as a set of inequality
constraints
h

(x,u) b or h(x,u) 0 where h(x,u)= h h (x,u) - b

(2) Load constraints which simply express the fact that any customer switching
into the system must be served. They are represented with a set of equality
constraints, i.e. the power flow equations:

g(x,u) =0

In terms of above expressions, the operating states of a power system are classified into
(DyLiacco [5], [52], Fink[70]): (l) secure, (2) normal but insecure or vulnerable, (3)
emergency, (4) extremis, and (5) restorative as follows:

(1) Secure: All load and operating constraints are satisfied for the systems and
for any foreseeable and probable contingency.

(2) Normal But Insecure: All load and operating constraints are satisfied for the
present system, but not for one or more foreseeable (and probable)
contingencies.

(3) Emergency: All load constraints are satisfied, but one or more operating
constraints are violated.

(4) Extremis: One or more load constraints are violated, and one or more
operating constraints are violated.

(5) Restorative: All operating constraints are satisfied, but one or more loads
are disconnected.

Most of the time the operating state of the system is normal (secure or vulnerable). In
this case, security monitoring involves the analysis of whether the operating state of the

system is secure or vulnerable. For this purpose, a security assessment must be
performed at appropriately selected time intervals. Security assessment involves
contingency ranking and contingency analysis.

Contingency Ranking is the procedure by which the critical contingencies of the system
at a given time are determined. The importance of this issue can be appreciated by
recalling that the number of possible contingencies is very large. Fortunately, however,
the number of contingencies which may cause system problems (critical contingencies) is
small.

Contingency Analysis refers to the problem of determining the circuit flows and bus
voltages for a system contingency. Contingency analysis is typically applied to a set of
contingencies determine by the contingency ranking algorithm.

Security Controls: The overall objective of system operation is to steer the system in
such a way as to operate in a secure state at every instant of time. This objective is
achieved most of the time. Occasionally, however, the system deviates from secure
operation. In this case, controls are exercised to return the system operation to a secure
state. Depending on the type of insecurity, different controls must be exercised. These
controls are characterized as preventive, corrective, emergency, and restorative. The
following general definitions apply:

Preventive Controls are actions which bring a normal but vulnerable operating
state to a secure state.

Corrective Controls are actions which bring an emergency operating state to a
normal state (secure or vulnerable).

Emergency Controls are actions which bring an emergency operating state to a
restorative or extremis state.

Restorative Controls are actions which bring a restorative operating state to a
normal state (secure or insecure).

All these controls shall be referred to as security controls. A summary of operating states
and security controls is illustrated in Figure 1.7.

NORMAL and SECURE
System Optimization
Transition Due to Disturbances
Transition Due to Control Action
Emergency
Controls Emergency
Controls
Corrective
Controls
Restorative
Controls
Restorative
Controls
Preventive
Controls
D,O
D,O
NORMAL but
VULNERABLE/INSECURE
Optimization/Security
D,O
RESTORATIVE
System Security
D,O
EXTREMIS
System Security
D,O
EMERGENCY
System Security

Figure 1.7 Power System Operating States
(after DyLiacco, Fink)

Security controls can be applied in many different ways depending on the operating
philosophy of the particular company. Operating philosophies for an electric power
system have undergone an evolutionary change. In this process, many control functions
have been automated while others still rely on operator action. Obviously, an automated
function, once set, is independent of human action (except for override action). Such
functions are: (1) Automatic Generation Control , (2) Economic Dispatch, (3) Load
Shedding, etc. Other control actions rely on operator action. Typically, security controls
fall in this category. Obviously, the practices of the operators of one power system may
differ from those of another system. To understand the differences, it is important to
study the operation of a power system. Figure 1.7 illustrates the possible operating states
and controls of the real time operation of a system. The objective of the operator is to
maintain normal operating state which is characterized with satisfaction of operating and

load constraints. A normal operating condition is further characterized as secure or
vulnerable depending whether a single abnormal event (such as the outage of a unit or
tripping of line) will not or will cause the violation of some operating or load constraints.
In this sense then, an operator may try to operate the system in a secure normal state
always or may allow the system to operate in a vulnerable normal state. This results to
two distinct operating philosophies which shall be called predictive and non-predictive.
While the advantages of the predictive operating philosophy are obvious, it is
economically expensive and practically complex to be applied.

Emergency conditions are typically characterized with abnormal voltages or overloaded
(congested) power lines or both. Recent trends (deregulation, independent operation)
have resulted in operating patterns that often generate congested lines and therefore
emergency conditions. In this case one of the security controls is to alleviate the
congested conditions. A common terminology used for this case is congestion
management.

1.3 Major Elements of an Energy Management System

From the design point of view, an Energy Management System comprises four major
components:

1. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) System
2. Computers
3. User Interface
4. Applications Software.

An integral part of an EMS is the power system dispatchers that have the responsibility
of op[erating the system. Many control functions require human input or authorization.
This means that the system dispatcher must take many decisions in the course of
operating the system. The issue of what control functions require human
input/authorization and what are fully automated (closed loop control) is a moving target
driven by technological advances. It is also dependent upon the management decisions.
In subsequent paragraphs, the components of an EMS will be briefly described.

1.3.1 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

SCADA system stands for Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition system. As the
name implies, it consists of two subsystems. The supervisory control subsystem consists
of hardware which (a) display at a central location (energy management system EMS)
the status of circuit breakers and voltage regulating devices (tap-changers, capacitors,
generator voltage regulators, etc.); (b) allow remote tripping of breakers, changes of
transformer tap, etc. In most cases, supervisory control is a manual function, i.e., the
dispatcher at the control center will initiate a command to open/close a breaker, etc.
The data-acquisition subsystem consists of: remote terminal equipment for interfacing
with power system instrumentation and control devices; interfaces with communication
channels; and master station equipment for interfacing with the system control center.
The local equipment communicate with the energy management system via dedicated or
non-dedicated communication channels. Communication media have evolved over the
years, from telephone circuits to microwave to fiber optic links. Analog data is scanned
periodically, typically every one second to a few seconds. Each scan is triggered by the
EMS at the prescribed interval by using a request to all remote stations to send in data.
Data is received at the energy management system in a random order.

Status data is also processed in the same way as analog data except that there are two
ways of reporting status changes. The first way is to send in all status information from
all remotes at the required intervals regardless of whether or not there has been a change.
This approach requires a software routine at the EMS to check each new status with the
old status to determine any changes. Considering the very large number of status points
that is monitored in a power system, this approach represents a sizable computational
burden. The second way is to send status data from the remote only when there has been
an actual change of status. Normally the system operates in a quasi-steady state mode. If
there are any status changes, only certain number of stations are involved. For this
reason, the second method results in a better overall system response.

It is important to note that advances in hardware, software and communications have
revolutionized the way the SCADA system operates. The technology is in a fast pace
evolution. It is not uncommon today to have a SCADA system which comprises
subsystems of old technology and subsystems of newer technologies.

Independently of system configuration, SCADA system manufacturer and computer
configuration, the end result of the SCADA system function is to collect a set of system
data every sampling period. The data consist of:

* Breaker status
* Disconnect switch status
* Transformer tap setting
* Real power (MW) flow measurements
* Reactive power (MVAr) flow measurements
* Voltage magnitude (kV) measurements
* Phase of voltage measurements (synchronized measurements)

A simplified view of a SCADA system is illustrated in Figure 1.8.

At the energy management system, the data is processed with software which: (1) initiate
the collection of data and place them in the data base, (2) error-checking, (3) conversion
to engineering units, (4) limit-checking, and (5) generate a reliable system model which
is interfaced with application programs. In summary, the Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition System generates a filtered set of data for each data collection cycle. The
filtering of the data and the generation of a reliable system model will be examined in
detail in Chapter 7.


RTU
Communication
Link with Control
Center
G2 G1
MW Flow Measurement
MVAR Flow Measurement
kV Measurement
Disconnect Switch Status
Breaker Status

(a)

RTU
Contact Inputs
Analog Inputs
Contact Outputs
Analog Outputs
Master
Station
Data
Commands

(b)

Figure 1.8 Simplified View of a SCADA System
(a) Survey Points
(b) SCADA System Configuration

1.3.2 Computers

The brain of the Energy Management System is the computer. The computer is vital for
the operation and control of the system. Since computers fail as any other equipment,
redundant computers are used. A basic redundant configuration is conceptually illustrated
in Figure 1.9. Computer A is the primary computer which performs the real time
monitoring and control of the system. Computer B is the secondary computer which
remains in a backup-ready position. In case of failure of Computer A, a failover
procedure is automatically initiated. There are many variations of this arrangement which
are driven by the tremendous advancements in computer hardware. Today computer
hardware permit the sharing of memory, open system operation and the parallel operation
of multiple computers on shared data. These advances have resulted in high reliability
levels of computer hardware. Advances in software engineering have also impacted the
functions of the EMS computers. In general, EMS computers may perform the following
functions:

1. Real time functions (monitoring and control)
2. Support of the user interface
3. Run operating studies
4. Maintenance, testing, and development of new functions
5. Simulation studies for operator training.

Computer
A
Computer
B

Figure 1.9 Dual Computer Configuration

Computer capabilities have been steadily increasing. At the same time, the amount of
data to be processed and the system model is also increasing. In addition, the need for
new applications that will support todays operating needs of power systems is also
increasing. The speed of computer and the efficiency of the software should provide a
system with practical response times. While for many applications the response times are
satisfactory, there are applications for which improved efficiency and response times are
desirable. The recent trends towards energy management systems in the names of
Independenmt System Operator and Regional Transmission Organizations have increased
the size of the system to be controlled. As these trends continue, improved methods for
large scale system methods will be needed to meet desirable response times.

1.3.3 User Interface

The user interface comprises hardware and software. The hardware consists of:

1. Consoles, CRTs, Flat Panel Displays
2. Recorders/Loggers

3. Dynamic Wall Board Display.
4. Computer generated projections of system displays.

Software consists of information retrieval and display functions. Human engineering is
an essential part of these software. Much effort has been expended in improving user
interface. Recent technology advances have facilitated progress. Today's user interfaces
are extremely sophisticated encompassing full graphics, fast response, selectable level of
detail, and color coding. One of the most recent developments in this area are
visualization and animation methods to display the operating conditions of the system
and especially visualization techniques of the security status of the system.

1.3.4 Applications Software

Applications software are all computer programs which are utilized in the control and
operation of a power system. Depending on the needs of a particular system, applications
software may vary. A comprehensive list of applications software is listed in Table 1.1. It
should be mentioned that a particular power system may not need all applications
software listed in Table 1.1. For example a utility without hydro generation does not need
a hydrothermal coordination program. It is important to note that recent trends and
legislation towards deregulation will certainly impose the need for additional applications
software for example power transaction monitoring and evaluation, etc.

Table 1.1 List of Possible Applications Software

On Line Power Flow
Economic Dispatch
State Estimation
Security Assessment
Pollution Monitoring and Evaluation
Interchange Scheduling and Evaluation
Simultaneous Transfer Capability
Congestion Management
Unit Commitment
Load Forecasting
Optimal Power Flow
VAR Dispatch
External System Equivalents
Hydrothermal Coordination
Supply Side Load Management
Power Bid Evaluation

1.4 Hierarchical Structures

The multiplicity and complexity of control functions in a power system necessitates a
multi-level hierarchical structure of the entire control scheme. The organization of the
various levels may depend on the structure and composition of the specific utilitity and
whether the system operates as an vertically integrated system or as part of an open
power market.

Figure 1.11 illustrates in a conceptual manner a typical EMS structure for a vertically
integrated electric power system. At the lower level, the Regional Dispatch Center
(RDC) is the lower level decision maker. The RDC has the capability to send the
following control commands, automatically or manually: (a) To power plants: Scheduled
power and scheduled voltage or reactive power, and (b) To substations: Position of
breakers, switches, transformer taps, etc.

System Power
Production and
Control
(SPPC)
Operations
Coordination
Office
(OCO)
Regional
Dispatch
Center
(RDC)
Substation
Power Plant
Power Plant
Controls
P
sched
f
sched
ACE
V
sched
UCE
V
exc

Figure 1.11 Conceptual Hierarchical Structure of an Energy Management
System

The RDC receives orders from the Operations Coordination Office (OCO) which dictates
the total generation and scheduled frequency for each region. The OCO also receives
directives from the System Power Production and Control Center which may dictate unit

commitment, hydro utilization, etc. It should be clear that within this scheme, a higher
level decision is passed along to a lower level system. The system that receives the
decision will operate in such a way as to track the control direction.

Figure 1.12 illustrates the operation of the system in an open power market. Note that the
Energy management System takes the form of an Independent System Operator. The
energy management system operates on the offered bids and bilateral contract and
schedules the operation of the system accordingly. The operating rules for this
organization are determined by concensus of all parties involved, utilities, independent
power producers, consumers and legislators. Once the rules of the market have been
established, all the players have to abide by these rules. Such a system has its hidden
risks. This has been demonstrated with the failure of the California ISO (2000/2001). In
this book, we focus on the technical aspects of the power system operation.
Occassionally, references are made to the open market operation paradigm. The reason
for this approach is the fact that the open market operation is in its infancy, there are
several approaches and, at this point in time, noone knows what the preferred rules of
operation will be.

ACE
1
ACE
2
ACE
3
Control
Area 1
Control
Area 2
Control
Area 3
Utility Generator
Independent Power Producer
Power Wheeling
Power Meter
Frequency Meter
ISO

Figure 1.12 Conceptual View of an Energy Management System in an Open
Power Market Environment

1.5 Automation and Control of Distribution Systems

The reviewed hardware, software, and procedures for power system control and operation
are almost exclusively applied to the generation and transmission system, i.e. the bulk
power system. The importance of the bulk power system justifies the cost and personnel
training requirements of Energy Management Systems. Traditionally, distribution
systems have not been implemented with centralized control hardware.

Recent developments in load management, distributed generation, automation of
distribution operations, and possible retail wheeling has ignited interest in the
development of distribution management systems. Conceptually, the approaches and
hardware are similar. Practically, both hardware and control philosophies must be
different because of the differences in the operation of transmission and distribution
systems. Some key points are:

First, the objectives of a distribution management system are somewhat unique:

(a) Survey and control points may include customers. The rights and desires of customers
must be observed.
(b) The extent and detail of distribution systems necessitates an accurate geographical
modeling approach provided by present Geographical Information System (GIS)
technology.
(c) Typical unique functions of the distribution management system are: (1) Provide
automation of distribution control functions, i.e., capacitor switching, (2) Provide
capability of load management and automatic meter reading procedures, (3)
Accommodate control requirements of distributed (customer owned) generation
sources, and (4) Fault location, isolation and restoration.
(d) The cost of hardware must be low. Otherwise, the investment cannot be justified.

Second, the data acquisition and processing subsystem is a necessary component for a
Distribution Management System as it is for the EMS. However, because a distribution
system may operate in unbalanced conditions and single phase circuits may exist, the
processing of the data for the purpose of establishing a reliable model for the distribution
system is much different. Specifically, it is necessary to use three phase instrumentation
and the distribution system model may include three phase circuits as well as single
phase circuits. Thus applications software must include multiphase power flow and/or
multiphase state estimation.

Present developments are concerned with the mentioned key points. There are many
Distribution Automation and Control products that are continuously evolving as the
technology evolves. The methods and approaches to distribution automation and control
are beyond the scope of this book.

1.6 The Impact of Legislation

The electric power industry has been subjected to regulation since its early days. The
majority of electric power companies in the United States are investor owned utilities,
regulated by local and federal regulatory agencies. In many countries the electric power
industry is nationalized. Recent trends have resulted in the deregulation of the electric
power industry in many countries. In the United States, deregulation and open markets
have been implemented in certain regions. Because of the recent failure of the
deregulation experiment in California, the involvement and authority of regulatory
agencies has increased for the intended purpose of avoiding future failures. The process
of deregulation is a dynamic one. It is difficult to predict the final outcome. It is certain
that legislation will be always a major factor. In this respect, it is important to mention
the major legislative acts that affected the operations of an electric power system. Table
1.2 lists the major legislative acts in the past 70 years in the United States.

Table 1.2 Major Legislative Acts in the Last 70 Years United States

PUHCA 1935 (Public Utility Holding Company Act)
PURPA 1978 (Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act)
Clean Air Act - 1990
Energy Policy Act - 1992
Orders 888 & 889 - 1996
CECA 1998 (Comprehensive Electricity Competition Act)
Order 2000

Details on this legislations can be found in the literature. By far, the Energy Policy Act of
1992 has had the most impact paving the way for open markets.

1.7 Summary and Discussion

An overview of a modern Energy Management System has been presented. Emphasis
was placed on the basic structure of an EMS. The design of an EMS evolves as
technology advances: computers become faster and more powerful, display hardware
improve in resolution and capability, microcontrollers dominate the design of Remote
Terminal Units, etc. In the past couple of decades, we have experienced a tremendous
progress in SCADA and computer hardware. Yet, central to the success of an EMS is the
software for the overall coordination and optimization of power system operation. The
rapid advances in hardware technology have been mediated with slow progress in
software development for coordination and optimization of large scale systems. Much
work remains to be done in this area. One hopes that developments and progress will
continue in both hardware and software in a coordinated way. This book is focused on
the concepts and objectives which drive the developments of Energy Managements
Systems.


1 BTU =1055.05585 J oules
BTUs Quad
15
10 1 =
Joules calorie 187 . 4 1 =
BTUs therm 000 , 100 1 =


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