OCR AS MEDIA

STUDIES
ESSENTIAL WORD DICTIONARY
2009-2010
Introduction
This essential word dictionary aims to provide yo with invala!le
de"nitions #or AS $edia Stdies and a #ew #or the A% corse& The e'am
will re(ire yo to discss the technical) te'tal) cltral and instittional
aspects o# the varios #orms o# media and the de"nitions in this dictionary
cover all these areas&
*or most o# the terms in this dictionary) an initial de"nition is +iven
#ollowed !y an e'tension o# that de"nition& Those terms which are ,ey
concepts have !een mar,ed& There are also e'amples which will help to
illstrate the meanin+ o# the term& In many cases tips are inclded on
applications o# the term or isses yo shold !e aware o# in association
with its& Thro+hot the dictionary there are cross-re#erences to words
and phrases de"ned elsewhere which are shown in Italics&
Any essay which yo write drin+ the corse will need to inclde speci"c
media terms) sed accrately and appropriately& Read the de"nitions in
this dictionary care#lly and chec, the e'amples +iven in order to ma,e
sre that the term is appropriate to the s!.ects which yo are analysin+&
One +ood test o# this is to s!stitte yor e'ample #or the once listed in
the de"nition and chec, that it "ts the conte't&
This dictionary has !een written to #l"l the criteria o# AS $edia Stdies& It
only contains terms which yo mi+ht come across in the corse o# yor
stdies at this level& Some o# the terms sed will also relate to the A%
$edia Stdies corse& /se this dictionary to chec, yor ,nowled+e o#
terminolo+y and to ensre that yor essays and research are accrate and
comprehensive&
A #lly comprehensive and p-to-date $edia Stdies dictionary is availa!le
to prchase here0
http011www&hodderedcation&co&,1Title123454655774881ASALevel9$edia9
Stdies9Essential9Word9Dictionary&htm
%
Action match: #or e'ample) when a character or vehicle leaves the #rame on
the le#t) the same character enters the ne't shot on the ri+ht to maintain
continity&
Aria! shot0 a view #rom directly overhead to a:ord a clear view ; sometimes
sed to emphasi<e the spectacle& A crane shot is sally necessary to achieve
this =sometimes called a !ird>s eye shot?
Anchor "a!so #no$n as Anchora%&0 in semiolo+y any caption or ,ey
elements that "'es the meanin+ o# an ima+e and directs the viewer toward a
pre#erred readin+&
e&+& Newspapers se captions to anchor the meanin+ o# photo+raphs
Archt'p0 an o#ten- repeated character type or representation which is
instantly reco+nisa!le to an adience
Attituds( )!i*s and +a!us0 terms commonly sed when discssin+ the
adience #or media prodcts and the #actors in@encin+ the reception o# media
messa+es&
Attitdes are the positions people adopt in relation to a particlar isse)
e&+& Aein+ #or or a+ainst #o'hntin+&
Aelie#s are deeply held views) e&+& A !elie# in the principle o# hman
e(ality or a !elie# in Bod&
Cales represent the moral or ideolo+ical strctre within which !elie#s
and attitdes are #ormed) e&+& Aelie# in Christianity or Islam&
All these #actors a:ect the reception o# media te'ts& Research also
#ocses on the ways in which media content in@ences the #ormation)
representation and reprodction o# attitdes) !elie#s and vales&
Audinc0 key concept the +rops or individals tar+eted !y prodcers as the
intended consmers o# media te'ts& Owin+ to the wide availa!ility o# media
te'ts) the actal viewers) readers or listeners may not !e those ori+inally
tar+eted&
Adience stdies are sally strctred in terms o# +ender) a+e and social
and cltral !ac,+rond) and are concerned with the circmstances in
which media te'ts) are consmed and the natre and the conse(ences o#
this consmption&
The identi"cation o# an adience is a vital in+redient #or the sccess#l
prodction and mar,etin+ o# and media te't&
Considerations o# adience motivation and !ehavior are at ,ey #ocs o#
attention in !oth active and passive audience theories&
7
,CU "short *or -)i% c!os up.&0 a close p camera shot) particlarly o# an
actor>s #ace) showin+ prominent detail and #acial e'pression as a means o#
creatin+ intimacy and adience en+a+ement with the tho+hts and emotions o#
the character&
,'-!in0 the se o# the .ornalists name on a newspaper article or report&
Not all articles are attri!ted to a particlar .ornalist and a !y-line is
reco+nition o# an athor>s stats&
Circu!ar /arrati+: a narrative in which the story-line ends where it !e+an&
e&+& Groundhog Day =Darold Ramis) E227?) 12 monkeys =Terry Billiam) E22F?
C!os up "and +ariations&0 close ps) incldin+ e'treme) !i+ and medim close
ps) are sed to draw the viewer closer and to involve them in what is
happenin+G they also sed to o!serve reactions and emotions) sch is happiness)
elation or tension& These shot o#ten sed to privile+e the prota+onist over other
characters and position the adience with him or her&
C!osd T0t0 and media te't that is anchored in sch a way as to restrict the
nm!er o# ways in which it can !e interpreted&
e&+& An ima+e o# diseased ln+s with the caption HSmo,in+ Iills>
Composition: the arran+ement #ee o# visal elements within the #rame) #or
clarity) !alance or aesthetic .d+ement&
Connotation0 a meanin+ attri!ta!le to an ima+e !eyond the o!vios
denotational level&
Sch meanin+s may !e metaphorical) sym!olic or cltrally +enerated and
will vary line with the cltral !ac,+rond and attitudes, beliefs and
values o# the individal viewin+ the material&
e&+& An ima+e o# a red rose has connotations o# New La!or) or En+land)
or on a Calentine card can represent hot-!looded passion&
Contnt Ana!'sis0 a media research techni(e involvin+ systematic analysis o#
the contents o# a media prodct&
Content analysis is in the empirical tradition and involves testin+
o!serva!le evidence) #or e'ample) contin+ how o#ten a particlar
element appears in any media prodct&
e&+& The representation o# idealised #emale !eaty in the photo+raphs o#
#ashion ma+a<ines sch as Vogue can !e assessed #or ethnic and cltral
variation& Reslts can then !e sed to ar+e #or or a+ainst the
stereotyping o# a particlar +rop&
8
Continuit' Editin%0 an editin+ style that aims to present the te't in a linear and
chronolo+ical manner to emphasi<e the real-time movement o# the narrative and
to create a sense o# realism #or the viewer !y +ivin+ the impression o# continos
"lmin+&
Continity editin+ creates a narrative that appro'imates to the real
e'perience o# movin+ thro+h time) even tho+h screen time sally
covers a mch lon+er period& Adiences #eel com#orta!le with a linear
pro+ression that re@ects their everyday e'perience&
TIP the term Hcontinity> also applies to the avoidance o# errors in
se(ence or content) as when elements present in one scene are missin+
or altered in the ne't e&+& Gladiator =Ridley Scott) %555?) in which
$a'ims the +ladiator trns horse with his sword in his ri+ht hand in one
scene and emer+es #rom the trn with a sword in his le#t hand&
Con+ntions: the e'pected in+redients in a particlar type o# media te't&
Con+r%nc0 the comin+ to+ether o# new media Technolo+ies&
e&+& Television is now di+ital and interactive) with the potential #or E555
channels and with technolo+y availa!le to download and store
pro+rammesG television can also !e sed #or !an,in+ and shoppin+G
Internet we! cams allow #or visal interaction !etween sersG msic can
!e downloaded and !rnt onto CDs and mo!ile phones can ta,e and send
pictres and access the Internet&
Cop'0 the written content o# a newspaper or ma+a<ine as s!mitted to the
editor #or inclsion in a "nished prodct&
Cra) Shot0 a type o# shot which involves the camera !ein+ placed in a con"ned
space&
e&+& A shot ta,en #rom inside a cp!oard is the s!.ect opens the
cp!oard door&
Cran Shot0 a type o# shot in which a camera is positioned on a specially
desi+ned crane) which can !e raised and lowered and will&
A crane shot is a hi+h-an+le shot !t the versatility o# the e(ipment
allows a director to start a shot #rom a hi+h-an+le and then swoop down
toward the s!.ect at +rond level&
Crosscut0 a type o# movin+ ima+e edit that involves a series o# cutaways and
ct !ac,s #rom one se(ence o# narrative action to another ta,in+ place
simltaneosly&
e&+& The closin+ scenes o# The Godfather III !rancis !ord "oppola, 1##$%
involve cttin+ !etween "ve parallel&action narrative se(ences) incldin+
F
a sta+e opera which provides the msical !ac,drop to the whole scene&
The reslt is to raise the level o# dramatic intensity and tension&
Cuta$a': a !rie# shot that momentarily interrpts the main action o# a "lm !y
showin+ a related action) o!.ect or person) not necessarily part o# the main
scene) !e#ore cttin+ !ac, to the ori+inal shot&
O#ten "lmed #rom the point o# view o# one o# the characters) a ctaway
provides visal relie#) eases transition #rom one shot to another) !rea,s p
a se(ence and provide in#ormation on or hints at impendin+ chan+es&
'eaction shots are sally edited as ctaways& See crosscut&
Dp 1ocus0 a camera techni(e that allows o!.ects !oth near and #ar #rom the
camera to !e in #ocs at the same time&
Dmo%raphics0 in#ormation concernin+ the social stats) class) +ender and a+e
o# the poplation&
(udience pro)les se demo+raphic in#ormation) the !est-,nown system
!ein+ the AACE scale&
Dnotation0 the "rst and simplest level o# meanin+ o# an ima+e&
e&+& A pictre o# a rose represents the rose @ower and reminds the viewer
o# the real thin+&
Dia!o%u0 that which is spo,en !y actors1presenters&
Di%sis: the story-line or narrative which incldes the whole "ctional world
created !y a media te't&
Di%tic Sound: sond +enerated within a "lm narrative&
Non-Die+etic sond is otside the narrative sch as an orchestra playin+
rosin+ msic drin+ a !attle scene&
e&+& The sond o# traJc in a scene involvin+ a road&
Disso!+0 a type o# movin+ ima+e editin+ where one ima+e slowly dissolves into
another&
Dominant Ido!o%'0 the !elie# system that serves the interests o# the dominant
rlin+ elite within a society) +enerally accepted as common sense !y the
ma.ority and reprodced in mainstream media te'ts&
Dominant ideolo+y esta!lishes a he+emonic position in society which is
rein#orced !y media representations and is conse(ently diJclt to
challen+e&
The term derives #rom a $ar'ist theory and is addressed in detail in the
wor, o# Bramsci) Althsser and Dall&
6
Drama Documntar'0 a television docmentary that ta,es the #orm o# a drama
!ased on actal events) ths !lrrin+ the distinction !etween "ction and reality
and attractin+ a wider adience !y raisin+ the entertainment vale o# the
content
e&+& *loody +unday =Charles $cDo+all and Kimmy $cBovern) Basli+ht
Lrodctions) %55%) Channel 8?
E2cts0 #or the idea that the media have in@ence over people and can play a
role in chan+in+ their !ehavior& The s++estion that people>s !ehavior is
in@enced or altered =either directly or indirectly? as a reslt o# e'posre to
media is descri!ed in terms o# Hmedia e:ects>
E!!ipsis0 the removal or shortenin+ o# elements o# a narrative to speed p the
action&
Empath': the a!ility to share the emotions or point o# view o# a +rop or
individal&
Empathy involves reco+ni<in+ shared e'perience rather than sympathisin+
#rom a detached position&
Dman interest .ornalism) #eatre writin+ and reality television o#ten
involve emotionally identi#yin+ the reader1writer with the s!.ect) with the
intention o# there!y sstainin+ adience interest&
Encod0 the process o# constrctin+ the media messa+e in a #orm sita!le #or
transmission to a receiver or target audience&
Encodin%3Dcodin% Mod!0 model devised !y Start Dall to e'plore the ways
in which the meanin+s o# media te'ts can vary in line with their circmstances o#
prodction and consmption&
Eni%ma Cod0 a narrative strctre that involves the creation o# riddles or
pro!lems to !e solved !y the resoltion&
Sspense and horror +enres se eni+ma to retain the attention o# an
adience&
Esta)!ishin% shot0 the shot =sally wide or lon+?) o#ten sed at the start o# a
pro+ramme or "lm) a new section o# a pro+ramme or at the start o# a new scene
to esta!lish the relationship !etween the set1location and the characters and to
show the whole view&
E'!in Match0 a type o# editin+ that maintains the eyeline or level when
cttin+ #rom a character to what>s the character sees&
The e:ect o# the edit is to create a sense that what the camera sees is
what the character sees&
3
1ad: a type o# movin+ ima+e editin+ where the ima+e +radally #ades and
disappears) leavin+ a white or !lac, screen&
1ish E' 4ns0 a camera lens o# short #ocal len+th with a wide "eld o# vision)
sally prodcin+ a circlar ima+e&
1!ash)ac#0 a scene in a "lm which disrpts the chronolo+ical narrative !y +oin+
!ac,ward in time to recall past events&
1ramin%0 the process o# selectin+ what is to !e #ramed !y a particlar "lm shot)
#or e'ample) characters) settin+ and icono+raphy&
Across a scene) #ramin+ determines how the action is perceived !y the
adience& It incldes sch elements as !ac,+rond detail) li+htin+ sorce
and the emphasis +iven to speci"c characters within a shot&
*ramin+ can determine how the adience perceives character relations in
terms o# dominance and s!mission and the wei+htin+ +iven to each
character& *or e'ample) a #ore+ronded character can !e seen as
dominant where is a character in the !ac,+rond appears less important&
5ndr0 psycholo+ical and cltral aspects o# !ehavior associated with
masclinity and #emininity) ac(ired thro+h social sociali<ation) in accordance
with the e'pectations o# a particlar society&
'epresentations o# +ender increasin+ly challen+ed traditional concepts o#
masclinity and #emininity&
Birl power) lanched as a mar,etin+ device #or the +pice Girls in the early
E225s) created new role models have a certain yon+ women) re.ectin+
the traditional passive #emale role&
Traditional mascline trades o# violent a++ression) se'al promiscity and
hi+h levels o# alcohol consmption are increasin+ly represented withot
+ender distinction) and #emale representations in "lm made challen+e or
s!verted traditional #emininity and #emale roles e&+&,ill *ill- Vol. 1 and ,ill
*ill Vol. 2 =Mentin Tarantino %557) %558? and Tomb 'aider =Simon West)
%55E?
$asclinity is represented increasin+ly as so#t or am!ivalent& $en can
otcry) show a:ection #or !a!ies and tal, a!ot their #eelin+s openly) or
characteristics traditionally associated with #emininity& $ales are also
shown as ncertain a!ot their +ender identity) e&+& !ight "lub =David
*incher) E222?
5ndrd Consumption0 the way that +ender a:ects or consmption o#
media te'ts&
4
Ann Bray s++ested =E22%? that women pre#er open-ended narratives)
sch as soap operas) whereas men pre#erred closed narratives with a clear
resoltion) #or e'ample) police dramas& The concept o# =women>s "ction?
=Christine Bera+hty) E22E? involves identi#yin+ characteristics and media
te'ts that appeal to women&
e&+& Soap operas attractin+ lar+e #emale adiences have stron+ #emale
leads) deal with personal relationships in the domestic sphere and contain
an element o# escapism&
5nr: key concept a cate+ory o# media prodcts classed as !ein+ similar in
#orm and type&
*ilm) ma+a<ine) newspaper and television are all media +enres& Types o#
"lm) ma+a<ine) newspaper and television pro+ramme are also +enres&
Westerns and msicals are "lmed +enres) li#estyle ma+a<ines are a
ma+a<ine +enre) ta!loids and !roadsheets a newspaper +enres) sitation
comedies) crime dramas and soap operas a television +enres&
Benres operate alon+side narrative constrctions in line with the adience
e'pectations) #or e'ample) ma+a<ines o# a particlar +enre are e'pected
to contain a speci"c ,ind o# narrative discorse&
Benres can !e #rther divided into s!+enres&
5nr Thor': an e'planation o# the role played !y +enre in di:erentiatin+
media te'ts and ali+nin+ adiences&
Benre theorists consider the relationship !etween adiences) media te'ts
and media prodcers and the ways in which +enres) particlarly in "lm)
can !e sed !y prodcers to tar+et speci"c adience +rops) with
predicta!le e'pectations o# adience nm!ers and responses&
e&+& In e'plainin+ their appeal to adiences) Richard Dyer =E237? ar+es
that the +enres a pleasra!le !ecase they o:er escapist #antasies into
"ctional worlds which remove the !oredom and pressres o# reality& De
sees these worlds as topian) o:erin+ the adience a!ndance) ener+y)
e'citement) spontaneity and commnity-none o# which are present in their
everyday lives&
6ad-On Shot0 #or a type o# shot in which the action comes directly toward the
camera&
Dead-On shots are o#ten sed in war or action movies to enhance the
sense o# involvement and e'citement o# the adience) #or e'ample)
char+in+ cavalry may !e directed at the camera&
e&+. /aterloo =Ser+ei Aondach,) E235?
6i%h an%!0 to provide a view #rom a!ove the s!.ect=s?) o#ten ma,in+ the
s!.ect loo, vlnera!le) isolated or powerless& This is sometimes com!ined with
a crane shot into a closer shot o# the s!.ect=s?&
2
6ospita! Drama0 a television +enre centred on hospitals and the lives o#
hospital sta: and patients&
Dospitals have always !een a poplar settin+ #or television drama and
romance) the "rst Aritish series !ein+ ATC>s 0mergency /ard 1$ =E2F3-
63?
E&+& /&S& 0') /I "asualty and spin-o: 1olby "ity
TI7 Since the operation o# the National Dealth Service is a sensitive
s!.ect politically) hospital dramas o#ten contain a stron+ social action
elements where #ndin+ isses) mana+ement styles) shorta+es)
malpractices and a ran+e o# other political) social and economic concerns
relatin+ to hospitals and the medical pro#ession are hi+hli+hted) !oth #or
the entertainment vale and also as a means o# encora+in+ p!lic
de!ate&
6')rid0 a cross !etween one "lm +enre and another&
E&+& !rom Dusk till Dawn =Ro!ert Rodri+e<) E226? starts as a crime drama
and !ecomes a vampire movie&
Icon0 a si+n resem!lin+ the thin+ in represents&
An icon can also !e an ima+e representative o# an ideolo+y or reli+ion&
Icons were ori+inally reli+ios paintin+s o# Christ and the Cir+in $ary and
treated as sacred o!.ects&
E&+& A photo+raph&
TI7 o# a p!lic "+re who) havin+ achieved the ltimate in a particlar
"eld) has !ecome the #ocs o# mass adoration is also called on icon) e&+&
Lop icons sch as Iylie $ino+e or $adonna&
Icono%raph'0 the distin+ishin+ elements) in terms o# props and visal details)
which characterise a genre&
Benres are said to !e reco+nisa!le thro+h their characteristic
icono+raphy&
E&+& The icono+raphy o# +an+ster "lms inclde smart sits) +ns and #ast
cars) while Westerns have horses) do<en locations) clap!oard hoses and
men in hats&
Ido!o%'0 key concept o# a set o# attitudes, beliefs and values held in common
!y a +rop o# people and cltrally reprodced within that commnity to sstain
its particlar way o# li#e&
Ideolo+ies can !e descri!ed as dominant) s!servience) or opposition all
dependin+ on their stats within a society&
E&+& Capitalism) Commnism) Christianity and Islam&
E5
TI7 Ideolo+y is present in all media te'ts& Yo can e'plore it !y assessin+
the attitdes) !elie#s and vales within the te't and the assmptions made
a!ot what the viewer or reader thin,s and #eels&
Incidnta! music0 the se o# msic to pnctate #or a speci"c events or action)
or to provide a sond !ac,+rond&
Indpndnt0 a media or+anisation or activity that is not connected to a ma.or
company&
Institution0 key concept any o# the or+anisations responsi!le #or the
prodction) mar,etin+) distri!tion or re+lation o# media te'ts&
Instittions are !siness and social strctres that prodce media te'ts
and re+lates and strctre media activities& I# they are collectives within
which individals are encora+ed to wor, toward a common +oal and to
develop wor,in+ practices !ased on assmptions a!ot the aims and
ethos o# the instittion& Instittions assmed shared vales o# all
employees and have a stats and power relationships with other
instittions and the wider p!lic&
E&+& AAC) S,y) CNN) Aritish Aoard o# *ilm Classi"cation&
Intracti+0 media te'ts which o# adiences the opportnity to choose) respond
or shape the te't in some way&
Intrt0tua!it'0 the practice o# deli!erately incldin+ re#erences to one te't in
the narrative o# another) either as homa+e to the te't re#erred to or as a device
intended to en+a+e the interest o# the adience !y appealin+ to their prior
,nowled+e and e'perience o# media te'ts&
Interte'tality can +enerate levels o# meanin+ #or the viewer and anchors
a crrent te't within te'ts o# similar or related +enre&
*or e'ample) ,ill *ill Vol. 1 =Mentin Tarantino) %557? ma,es many
re#erences to Westerns) +an+ster and Kapanese Samrai "lms&
8ump cut: increasin+ly sed in TC adverts) the .mp ct occrs when two shots
are shot #rom appro'imately the same position) and one immediately #ollows
another when the te't is edited& It appears to the adience that part o# the
action is missin+& The .mp ct can !e sed to create e'citement and tension&
9' Concpt0 any o# the core concepts on which a media stdies pro+ramme
#ocses) speci"cally audience, genre, ideology, institutions, language, narrative
and representation.
These ,ey concepts provide a systematic strctre #or the stdy o# the
media and media prodcts and provide terms o# re#erence in any media
assi+nment or pro.ect& Any analysis o# the media topic shold !e related
to the ,ey concepts where appropriate&
EE
4an%ua% key concepts0 the particlar codes sed within di:erent media to
convey messa+es to adiences&
This incldes the content) theme and prpose o# a print-!ased te't) its
layot and desi+n) the se o# written lan+a+e and o# photo+raphy and
illstration&
With the movin+ ima+e) lan+a+e involves icono+raphy) mise en scene)
se o# li+htin+) color) editin+ and monta+e techni(es&
Cisal lan+a+e involves selection and constrction #rom paradi+ms to
prodce synta+m>s e&+& a poster) photo+raph or "lm&
4inar /arrati+0 a se(ential narrative with a !e+innin+) a middle and an end-
in that order&
Linear narratives provide a strai+ht#orward) se(ential representation o#
events leadin+ to a sin+le resoltion& As sch) easily accessi!le to
adiences and are the dominant #orm in mainstream media
representations&
TI7 Linear narrative are increasin+ly challen+ed !y the non- linear) which
is more re@ective the random e'periences o# li#e and the comple'ity
involved in the viewers constrction o# meanin+) e&+& 2ost 1ighway =David
Lynch) E223?&
4on% Shot: a distance shot where the camera is a lon+ way #rom the s!.ects
!ein+ "lmed&
A lon+ shot can !e e:ective as an esta!lishin+ shot that sets the scene #or
the action and roles in the viewer&
E&+& The openin+ o# Ditchcoc,>s Lsycho =E265? is a lon+ shot pannin+
across a city& This slowly trans#orms into a 3oom thro+h the window o# a
hotel room) then to an internal shot o# the room and its occpants&
4on% ta#0 each time a shot is recorded it is called a ta,e& A lon+ ta,e is one
that is allowed to remain #or a lon+ dration !e#ore it is ct&
4o$-An%! Shot: a shot where the camera approaches a s!.ect #rom !elow
eye level&
A Low-An+le shot can emphasi<e the si<e o# the o!.ect !ein+ "lmed and
add to a point o# view perspective&
E&+& In a Tom and 4erry cartoon) the mose>s Low-An+le view o# the cat
presents the cat as a towerin+) threatenin+ monster&
Ma! 5a:0 term sed !y Lara $lvey in her essay HCisal Lleasres and
Narrative Cinema> =E23F? to descri!e what she saw as the male point o# view
adopted !y the camera #or the !ene"t o# an assmed male adience&
E%
$lvey view the practice o# the camera lin+erin+ on women>s !odies as
evidence that women were !ein+ viewed as se' o!.ects #or the
+rati"cation o# men& She ar+ed that the central active characters in "lms
are male and that the male adience identi"es with them in their viewin+
o# the passive #emales& Women in the adience are also positioned !y the
narrative to identi#y with the male +a<e and see the world thro+h male
eyes&
$lvey>s essay was h+ely in@ential in the development o# #eminist "lm
stdies&
TI7 $lvey>s approach owes mch to *redian psycholo+y& The
ar+ments can !e challen+ed !y simply pointin+ ot that not all central
heroic characters in "lms are male& Also) $lvey denies the e'istence o# a
H#emale +a<e>) which has en.oyed physically attractive men in "lms #rom
the earliest days o# cinema) with stars ran+in+ #rom Rdolph Calentino to
Arad Litt& Lastly) chan+es in the representation o# women have reslted in
#ndamental challen+es to stereotypical +ender roles since $lvey>s essay
was written e&+& ,ill *ill Vol. 2 =Mentin Tarantino) %558?
Mastr Shot0 a camera shot sed at the !e+innin+ o# a se(ence to esta!lish
the component elements and relationships in sch a way as to allow the
adience to ma,e sense o# the action #ollows&
Mdia accss0 descri!es the de+ree o# ease with which citi<ens can !e seen
and1or heard in the media) respond to the media and !e provided with a dialo+e
with instittions) and the opportnities evident #or people to prodce media te'ts
themselves and #or them to !e distri!ted&
Mdia !an%ua%0 an m!rella term that descri!es the ways in which adiences
read media te'ts thro+h nderstandin+ #ormal and conventional strctres =#or
e'ample) the +rammar o# "lm editin+?& $edia literacy descri!es or a!ility to
read and write in this e'tended sense o# lan+a+e&
Mdia Studis 2;00 a response to we! %&5) proposed !y Bantlet =%553? ) in
which the role o# online ser-+enerated content and sharin+ is seen as
#ndamental to how we nderstand media adiences&
Mdiation0 the means !y which) thro+h the se o# representation) a media
or+anisation and its employees stand !etween an event and the p!lic>s
perception o# that event&
$ediation involves the process o# constrctin+) interpretin+ and editin+
material in accordance with the re(irements o# the chosen medim o#
commnication&
TI7 It is se#l to remem!er the term indicates other media chan+e events
!y reportin+ and representin+ them&
mis n scn "1rnch *or -put in th pictur3scn&0 the arran+ement !y a
"lmma,er o# everythin+ that is to !e inclded in a shot or #rame&
E7
This incldes settin+s) props) decor) li+htin+) actors) characters)
positionin+ and all other technical elements which contri!te to the loo, o#
the scene and create its distinctive (ality and nity&
Mod o* Addrss: in narrative stdies) the way in which media te'ts tal, to an
adience&
In adiovisal te'ts) this can !e in the #orm o# a voiceover where an
nseen narrator addresses the adience& The narrator cold !e one o# the
te'ts characters and provide insi+ht into what occrs on screen s&
In "lm noir) the private detective>s voice o#ten provides a rnnin+
commentary on the action) #rom his perspective&
TI7 #ans o# the clt movie *lade 'unner =Ridley Scott) E24%? dispte which
o# the two versions o# the "lm) one with lead character Dec,ard>s =Darrison
*ord? o:-screen narration and one withot) is the most sccess#l&
M7 <: Compter So#tware pac,a+e which allows a ser to convert a msic CD
trac, into a compter "le and post it on the Internet #or downloadin+ !y others&
The implication o# $L7 and other similar so#tware) #or e'ample) Windows
$edia Adio =W$A?) is that msic can !e downloaded #ree o# char+e&
We!sites sch as Napster were created solely #or the prpose o# allowin+
#ree msic downloads that came p a+ainst copyri+ht law& Le+al action !y
msic p!lishin+ companies a+ainst Napster) which created the "le
sharin+ system in E222) #orced the company to close in %55E& It re-
lanched in %557 as a le+al service char+in+ #or msic&
The development poses a pro!lem #or the artist and the msic indstry as
copyri+ht law is !ein+ !ro,en Anthony them ma,es any money #rom the
practice&
MT= "Music T!+ision&0 worldwide msic television channel #onded in the
/SA in E24E and owned !y Ciacom&
$TC operates in E76 territories) reachin+ over 755 million hoseholds) and
has varios versions sch as $TC Erope) $TC $andarin) $TC India) $TC
Nordic and $TC Astralia& The company claims that it is sensitive to
worldwide cltral and msical diversity& In spite o# this claim) critics
ar+e that its prime concern is to deliver se the adiences to advertisers
and that it promotes essentially Western consmer vales&
Mu!ti mdia0 the te't created in a variety o# media&
/arrati+: key concept the storyline and strctre o# a media te't&
Narratives all stories helped to shape and e'plain all aspects o# or lives
#rom earliest in#ancy& They are part o# the ways in which we ma,e sense
o# the world and provide reassrance in the #ace o# the dan+ers and
contradictions o# everyday e'perience&
Narratives are strctred within genres) which provide #ramewor,s o#
e'pectation) predicta!ility and otcome&
E8
/arrati+ Thor': a type o# thin,in+ that see,s to e'plain narrative strctres
and their relationship to wider cltral and +enre-related #actors&
Narrative theorists see, to deconstrct narratives in order to identi#y their
common characteristics and component elements) e&+& Todorov) Levi-
Strass) Aarthes) Lropp&
/arro$ castin%0 the tar+etin+ o# a small) care#lly de"ned social +rop #or a
media prodctG the opposite o# !roadcastin+&
$ltichannel television allows #or narrow castin+ in line with viewer
interest) e&+& The Distory Channel
/%otiatd Radin%0 a readin+ o# a te't which assmes that no a!solte
meanin+ e'ists and that meanin+ is +enerated and ne+otiated !y what the
reader !rin+s to the te't in terms o# attitudes, values, beliefs and e'perience&
The term is part o# Start Dall>s encoding5decoding model alon+ with
dominant and oppositional readin+s&
TI7 a ne+otiated readin+ emphasises the position o# the s!.ect or
adience mem!er&
/ich Mar#tin%0 the tar+etin+ o# a small !t si+ni"cant +rop o# consmers
with a media prodct directed speci"cally at their interests&
E&+. 2iving !rance ma+a<ine is directed at people who have a speci"c
interest in the *rench way o# li#e) in holidayin+ in *rance and who may
have a second home there&
/oddin% Shot0 see 'eaction +hot
/ot crossin% th !in: see 16$&degree rule.
O*com0 the p!lic !ody responsi!le #or re+latin+ the television) radio and
telecommnications media in Aritain&
O#com replaced the Independent Television Commission) the Aroadcastin+
Standards Concil) the Radio Athority and the Radio Commnications
A+ency nder the terms o# the %557 Commnications Act&
O#com>s remit does not crrently inclde the AAC&
Complaints to O#com a!ot media content tend to !e a!ot o:ence
cased !y lan+a+e) se'al portrayal and violence) where the re+lator is
particlarly concerned to monitor the 2&55 L$ watershed) and also
reli+ios o:ence) accracy and impartiality& The re+lator p!lishers
EF
re+lar O#com Aroadcast Alletins with details o# complaints) the
responses o# !roadcasters and conclsions&
1>0? ru! "a!so #no$n as -not crossin% th !in.&0 the "lmma,in+ role o#
placin+ the camera in a E45N relationship with the "lmed s!.ect to ensre
narrative continity&
Oppositiona! Radin%0 a readin+ o# a media te't that re.ects the ideolo+ical
positionin+ and apparent meanin+ intended !y the prodcers o# the te't and
s!stittes a radical alternative&
7an0 camera action involvin+ +ently movin+ the camera E45Nacross the s!.ect
matter in a hori<ontal plane&
7ara!!! Action0 the narrative techni(e o# showin+ two or more scenes
happenin+ at the same time !y cttin+ !etween them&
E;%; The closin+ scenes o# The Godfather 7art III =*rancis *ord
Coppola) E225?
7arod'0 the imitation o# one media te't !y another #or comic e:ect&
E&+& *la3ing +addles =$el Aroo,s) E238? parodies all the
icono+raphic) narrative and character #eatres o# the Western
+enreG scary movie =Ieenan Ivory Wayans) %555? parodies the
horror +enre&
7astich0 a media te't made p o# pieces #rom other te'ts or o# imitations o#
other styles&
The term is o#ten sed to descri!e an nori+inal) derivative te't that
it can !e sed positively i# the pastiche involves a deli!erate
homa+e to other wor,s&
7atriarch'0 male domination o# the political) cltral and socioeconomic system&
/nder patriarchy) male perspectives and male achievements are
valed and rewarded at the e'pense o# the #emale& *emale
contri!tions to society are i+nored and women are cltrally and
economically invisi!le) !ein+ de"ned solely !y the relation to men&
Latriarchy is an important assmption !ehind some #eminist "lm
criticism) which sees the male domination o# "lm discorse is
evidenced in the male ga3e&
7r to 7r: the sharin+ o# media material !etween two parties in an e(al
relationship&
E6
7!asur0 a motivatin+ #actor in the consmption o# media te'ts&
Lleasre has o#ten !een i+nored !y researchers see,in+ to e'plain the
motivation o# adiences that is re@ected in the uses and grati)cation
theory and is an increasin+ #eatre o# the appeal media prodcts have in a
hedonistic) sel#-+rati#yin+ and consmption-orientated cltral
environment&
7!ot0 those elements o# a media te't that convey in#ormation a!ot the
narrative&
Llot in#ormation incldes character detail and !ehavior and e'planations
o# the corse o# events thro+h time&
7oint-o*-=i$ Shot "7O=&0 a camera shot ta,en #rom the position o# the
s!.ects) sed to enhance a sense o# realism and adience involvement in the
action&
7op Cu!tur0 te't which are consmed !y a wide ran+e o# people) as opposed to
a smaller +rop that is seen as an eliteG they tend to !e descri!ed as Hpoplar>
and this implies a lesser cltral stats or vale&
7op Music0 technically) any msic that re@ects poplar cltre !t sally
applied to the development o# roc, and roll #rom the E2F5s to its present widely
diverse variations&
7ositionin%0 the locatin+ o# a media prodct in a mar,etplace with re+ard to
adience and socio economic) political and cltral #actors&
*ive television was position to aim at a Hmodern mainstream> yon+
adience and this was re@ected in its presentation o# news pro+rammes
and its choice o# presenters&
The Daily 08press newspaper has recently shi#ted its political positionin+
away #rom New La!or in order to adopt a stance more critical o#
+overnment
7ost 7roduction: the editin+ sta+e) where material is maniplated sin+
so#tware and trans#ormed into a "nished media prodct&
7rimar' Rsarch0 research nderta,en thro+h direct interview with a sorce
or !y direct access to ori+inal) nmediated docments or ima+es&
7rota%onist0 the leadin+ character in the te't&
Racism0 practices and !ehavior involvin+ social and economic discrimination)
!ased on the #alse assmption that one particlar ethnic +rop or race is
cltrally and !iolo+ically in#erior to another&
E3
Concerns have !een e'pressed a!ot the role played !y the media in
sstainin+ and rein#orcin+ race stereotypes&
Start Dall "rst raised concerns a!ot ne+ative representations o# !lac,
people on Aritish television in E23E and has since investi+ated
representations o# !lac, people in period "lms) identi#yin+ three types0
#aith#l happy slaves) primitive and cnnin+ natives and clowns or
entertainers& Dall sees sch ne+ative stereotypes as rein#orcin+ dominant
ideolo+y !y ma,in+ slavery and colonialism appear accepta!le #or and !y
invitin+ !lac, people themselves to accept the he+emonic position e&+&
Gone /ith The /ind =Cictor *lemin+) E272?
Ala'ploitation "lms have also !een accsed o# rein#orcin+ ne+ative
stereotypes&
In spite o# mlticltral initiatives and the e'pansion o# ethnic minority
representation and ethnic television pro+rammin+) some critics ar+e that
racism is still instittionalised in the Aritish $edia and the positive
chan+es are to,en and nominal&
TI7 the ne+ative reaction o# ta!loid newspapers to asylm see,ers cold
!e said to have a hidden racist a+enda since the ma.ority o# those see,in+
asylm are !lac, or Asian&
Ra:or Edit0 a style o# movin+ ima+e editin+ which involves a sharp ct #rom one
scene to another&
Raction Shot "a!so #no$n as -noddin% shot.&: the shot devised #or an
interview !etween two people) sally showin+ an interviewer respondin+ to the
interviewee>s answers !y noddin+ or reactin+ in some way&
Ra!ism0 a "lm and television style that attempts to represent the real world&
Concepts o# realism are +overned !y reco+nisa!le codes and conventions
which chan+e over time& Alac, and white newsreel ima+es o# the E275s
and World War Two carried stron+ messa+es and) as "lmed Hreality>) de"ne
a period in which they were constrcted& Rare color #oota+e o# the same
period shoc,s the viewer with its sense o# immediacy and newness)
ma,in+ the events in #resh and the passin+ .st li,e the present&
In the "lm +chindler9s 2ist =E227?) Spiel!er+ chose classic monochrome
"lm and a E275s1E285s treatment style to replicate the Hrealism> o#
newsreels he remem!ered #rom his yoth& The only color ima+e is o# a
yon+ +irl in red) a sym!olic victim representin+ the whole holocast&
TI7 Remem!er that "lm ima+es are never Hreal>) they are only ever
representations o# the real&
E4
Rcption Thor'0 an active adience theory which sees the adience as !ein+
actively en+a+ed in the interpretation o# media te'ts rather than as passive
consmers&
Adiences decodes media te'ts in ways that relate to the social and
cltral circmstances and individal e'perience& Reception theory ses
(alitative and ethno+raphic methods sch as +rop interviews and
participant o!servation&
In $orley>s E245 :ationwide stdy :ationwide was an evenin+ news
pro+ramme? he #ond that an adience>s response to media te'ts was
in@enced !y #amily) class and edcational #actors& De showed the
di:erent +rops interpreted the same te'ts in di:erent ways dependin+ on
their !ac,+rond and level o# involvement with the s!.ect matter& *or
e'ample) a +rop o# mana+ement trainees saw the pro+rammes items on
trade nions as !ein+ !iased towards the nions) whereas a +rop o#
wor,ers saw the same items as !ein+ anti-nion&
$orley>s approach is important !ecase it com!ines semiolo+ical and
sociolo+ical approaches& Semiolo+ical stdy involves the idea o# directed
preferred readings o# media te'ts) while sociolo+ical stdy is concerned
with how a+e) se') race) class) +ender) se'ality and disa!ility may
determine the readin+ o# a te't&
The approach is also ,nown as adience stdies or new adience research
and in the E225s was associated with the wor, o# David Ac,in+ham& Dis
research concldes that even !y the a+e o# seven children have !ecome
s,illed readers o# media te'ts and a a!le to interpret) challen+e and re.ect
media messa+es) incldin+ advertisin+&
TI7 this research can !e sed to challen+e e;ects theory models which
ar+ed that adiences) particlarly children) are a:ected ne+atively !y
media content&
Rprsntation: key concept o# the process where!y the media constrct
versions o# people) places and events in ima+es) words or sond #or transmission
thro+h media te'ts to an adience&
Representations provide models o# how we see +ender) social +rops)
individals and aspects o# the world we all inha!it& They are ideolo+ical in
that they are constrcted within a #ramewor, o# vales and !elie#s&
Representations are there#ore mediated #or and re@ect the vale systems
o# their sorces& No representation is ever real) only a version o# the real&
E2
The representations are part o# cltral mytholo+y and re@ect deep-seated
vales and !elie#s e&+& O# sch places as the north o# En+land) Scotland
and America&
TI7 representation is the ,ey to many media de!ates and is sally
descri!ed as !ein+ positive or ne+ative) dependin+ on the view o# the
+rop !ein+ represented& Achievin+ positive representations =versions o#
themselves that they a+ree with and approve o#? has !een a +oal o#
minority +rops who have criticised the perceived ne+ativity o# media
stereotypes) e&+& homose'als) ethnic minorities) reli+ios minorities)
disa!ility +rops and women&
Schdu!in%0 the strate+ic positionin+ o# media te'ts within !roadcastin+ time&
Di+ital television is increasin+ly disrptin+ this approach) since viewers can
choose more easily than !e#ore when to watch&
Smio!o%' "a!so #no$n as -smiotics.&0 the stdy o# si+ns&
Semiolo+ical provides a system #or deconstrctin+ and analysin+ visal
and movin+ ima+es and #or e'plainin+ the wider cltral choice and
com!ination patterns that +enerate cltral meanin+&
It assmes that all commnication codes are ar!itrary and that there is no
lo+ical reason why we se a particlar si+n& $eanin+ is seen as derivin+
#rom the creator o# the si+n) the reader o# the si+n and the natre o# the
si+n itsel#&
Sria!0 the television or radio narrative the present daily or wee,ly episodes)
with mltiple sets o# recrrin+ characters and parallel story lines) where each
episode lin,s to the ne't and closre is rare&
E&+& A soap opera is a continin+ serial withot an end&
Sris0 a television or radio narrative that presents sel#-contained wee,ly
episodes) sin+ a recrrin+ set o# characters&
E&+. !riends =E228-%558?
S0ism0 representations that discriminate on the !asis o# se') especially a+ainst
women) which is seen to derive #rom an sstain patriarchy.
Some #eminists wold see any media representation o# women con"rmed
a stereotype as se'ist) #or e'ample) the display o# women>s !odies as se'
o!.ects in HLads $a+s> #or the entertainment o# men&
%5
TI7 in a post #eminist environment) challen+es are lanched at
representations o# men that showed them as se' o!.ects or as !ein+
hmiliated at the hands o# women&
S!o$ motion0 sed in the editin+ process to slow down the action #or emotional
or comic e:ect&
Si%n0 a term to descri!e the com!ination o# the si+ni"er and the si+ni"ed) where
the si+ni"er is the physical o!.ect and the si+ni"ed is the mental concept or
meanin+ that the si+ni"er conveys&
A photo+raph o# a rose ma,es the viewer thin, o# the @ower
There are di:erent cate+ories o# the si+n to e'plain the relationship with
what is descri!ed as their o!.ect&
Si%ni@r0 the physical o!.ect sed to represent a mental concept&
E&+& The word Htree> represents the physical o!.ect) the tree) as an idea in
the mind o# the reader& The Ei:el Tower si+ni"es) or represents) the idea
o# Laris&
Soap Opra0 a continos) episodic serial on radio or television !ased on
commnity li#e&
Ori+inatin+ #rom the /&S& radio series o# the E275s that was sponsored !y
soap powder company) Hsoaps> have +rown to !ecome one o# the most
poplar television #orms worldwide&
E'tensive stdies have !een done on the natre o# soap operas) incldin+
the se o# realism or #antasy) character representation) adience appeal
and scriptwritin+ techni(es& They are seen as addictive !y many
viewers) !t the pressre o# sstainin+ storylines can render scraps and
characters increasin+ly nrealistic&
In Aritain) soaps +arantee a re+lar adience and are increasin+ly sed
#or this prpose !y rival television channels& *or e'ample) 1ollyoaks
e'panded #rom twice wee,ly showin+s to !ein+ schedled "ve ni+hts a
wee, to help secre an early evenin+ adience&
TI7 not all soap operas are lanch sccess#lly& The AAC lost lar+e sms
o# money with a #ailed soap opera called 0l Dorado =E22%-7? !ased in the
"ctional Spanish holiday resort o# Los Aarcos&
Socia! Ra!ism0 the representation o# characters and isses in "lm and
television drama in sch a way as to race serios nderlyin+ social and political
isses&
%E
Social realism involves a drama-docmentary treatment in the sense that)
while the characters may !e "ctional) the conte'ts and circmstances in
which they are placed represent social realities&
The "lms are sally shot in a natralistic way) avoidin+ the se o#
sophisticated editin+ and treatments and sometimes +ivin+ the impression
that the camera is simply recordin+ events as they ta,e place& There is
o#ten little se o# non&diegetic sond&
E&+& The "lms o# Aritish director Ien Loach) ,0+ =E235? and +weet +i8teen
=%55%?
So*t *ocus: in ima+es) the se o# a special lens or "lter to create a ha<y li+ht
arond the s!.ect&
So#t #ocs shots are associated with the romantic or sentimental treatment
o# s!.ect matter&
Sound E2cts0 enhanced sond added to a "lm or television pro+ramme drin+
post prodction&
Sond e:ects are desi+ned to complement the visal content o# a "lm and
hei+htened the adience>s e'perience&
In horror or +an+ster "lms) melons slashed with ,nives are o#ten sed to
represent the sond o# a !ody !ein+ sta!!ed&
Sp!it Scrn0 an editin+ techni(e which involves the cinema screen !ein+ split
into two or more parts to allow the showin+ o# events that are ta,in+ place at the
same time&
Split screen editin+ has !een sed since the earliest "lms) e&+& :apoleon
=A!el Bance) E2%3? sed a triple-screen split&
E&+& 'un 2ola 'un =Tom Ty,wer) E224?
Strot'p0 the social classi"cation o# a +rop o# people !y identi#yin+ common
characteristics and niversally applyin+ them in an o#ten oversimpli"ed and
+eneralised way) sch that the classi"cation represents vale .d+ements and
assmptions a!ot the +rop concerned&
E&+& The Hdm!> !londe) the Hmean> Scotsman&
Su)Acti+ Shot0 a type o# shot in which the camera is positioned as i# loo,in+
at the world thro+h the s!.ect>s eyes&
E&+& The openin+ title se(ence o# Ta8i Driver =$artin Scorsese) E236?
shows the world thro+h the eyes o# driver Travis Aic,le =Ro!ert De Niro?
%%
as he views the streets thro+h the rain on his windscreen& The ima+e is
!lrred and distorted) as is his view o# the world&
Suprimpos0 the appearance o# writin+1sym!ols or ima+es on top o# an ima+e
so that !oth are visi!le at once) increasin+ the amont o# in#ormation the viewer
has in one shot&
Suspns0 in the "lm and television adience) the creation o# a #eelin+ o#
tension and anticipation&
The sspense involves in#ormation concernin+ characters or otcomes o# a
"lm !ein+ concealed #rom an adience to +enerate #eelin+s o# e'citement
and srprise&
Tar%t Audinc0 the intended adience #or a media prodct&
When prodcin+ a media te't #or mass consmption) identi"cation o# the
tar+et adience is essential so the media instittions can assess the li,ely
response to the prodct and the investment ris,s involved&
The Aloc,Aster movie titanic =Kames Cameron) E223? was care#lly
cra#ted to appeal to a ran+e o# adiences) with its +eneric mi'tre o#
disaster movie) historical reconstrction) action movie and romance& To
this was added a hit sin+le theme son+ !y Celine Dion& In spite o# costin+
O%55 million to prodce) it +rossedOE !illion at the !o' oJce) a record at
the time&
TI7 the tar+et adience is not always the actal adience #or a te't) e&+&
children nder the a+e o# EF watchin+ a EF or E4 rated "lm when their
parents are at&
Trrstria!0 analo+e !roadcasts #rom land-!ased transmitters as opposed to
ca!le or satellite di+ital transmissions&
T0t0 any constrcted media prodct or piece o# commnication) whether print
or adio visal) which can !e analysed and deconstrcted&
Thm0 the ,ey passa+e o# msic lin, to the s!.ect matter1style o# the "lm or
pro+ramme which helps to create the mood&
Thr 7oint 4i%htin%0 a li+htin+ techni(e involvin+ actors !ein+ lit #rom three
points0 A main sorce =or ,ey li+ht?) the sorce "llin+ shadows ="ller li+ht? and a
sorce !ac,li+htin+ the actors =!ac, li+ht?
Ti!t: a camera movement that involves movin+ the camera vertically p and
down #rom a "'ed position&
Trac#in% Shot0 a camera shot in which the camera moves alon+ rails to #ollow
the s!.ect&
%7
When the rails are replaced !y a movin+ plat#orm on wheels) the shot is
called the dolly shot&
Trans%rssi+0 a practice which transcends conventional approaches and either
s!verts these e'istin+ ways o# wor,in+ or challen+es their vale&
Tun0 a melody sed) particlarly in TC) #or the theme tne and thro+hot the
pro+ramme to rein#orce its identity&
T$o shot0 o# two people) sally a medim close p or medim shot& The shot
shows the spatial relationship o# the two people) who are o#ten in conversation&
This is commonly sed in TC soaps&
Up!oad0 #or trans#errin+ in#ormation or material #rom a compter to an online
networ,&
Uss and 5rati@cation Thor': an active adience theory that #ocses on
Hwhat people do with the media> rather than what the media does to people)
ar+in+ that adiences are #ree to pic, and choose #rom a wide ran+e o# media
prodcts to satis#y their own needs&
Individals may see,0 diversion in the #orm o# escape #rom reality) the
emotional release or pleasreG personal relationships thro+h
companionship and socia!ility) sin+ ,nowled+e o# television characters to
interact with othersG personal identity and a sense o# sel# thro+h
identi#yin+ as mem!ers o# a particlar adienceG srveillance thro+h
"ndin+ ot a!ot the world and the events that a:ect them&
TI7 altho+h se#l as an active theory) it assmes that adience needs
are identi"ed are met !y the media and nderestimates the media>s role
in +eneratin+ those needs in the "rst place&
=oic o+r0 the se o# a voice) over ima+es) perhaps as an introdction) a
lin,in+ narrative device #or or to comment on action& O#ten sed in docmentary&
=risimi!itud0 seemin+ to !e li,e or to !e connected to the real&
The term is important in many media +enres !ecase it determines
the level o# adience en+a+ement and willin+ness to en+a+e in
sspension o# dis!elie#&
TI7 contemporary war "lms need to convey a sense o#
verisimilitde to !e credi!le& Reconstrctions o# Second World War
!attle scenes) with special e:ects !llets @yin+ arond the heads o#
the actors) are now seen as more real than newsreel #oota+e o# the
actal events) e&+& Savin+ Lrivate Ryan =Steven Spiel!er+) E224?
%8
=rtica! Int%ration0 the mer+er or ta,eover o# companies operatin+ at
di:erent sta+es o# the prodction1distri!tion process&
Total vertical inte+ration +ives a company control o# a prodct #rom raw
materials to distri!tion&
E&+& In media Indstries) the ta,eover !y newspaper owner o# the
distri!tion service and retail otlets sch as newsa+ents wold !e
vertical inte+ration&
=o0-pop: Hvoice o# the people> ; the +atherin+ o# opinion on a topic #rom
ordinary people representin+ a cross-section o# a commnity&
B) 2;00 the second phase o# the Internet) where the #ocs shi#ts #rom people
receivin+ in#ormation and services to people creatin+ an sharin+ material&
B Mdia: ordinary people decidin+ that they want to create media) thro+h
easily accessi!le technolo+ies sch as !lo++in+) di+ital video) pod castin+ and v-
lo++in+) wi,is) Yo T!e and aspects o# Second Li#e&
Bhip 7an0 a very #ast pan !etween two or more characters all points o# interest&
De +ives the impression camera has !een Hsrprised> !y activity and is sed in
the place o# a more conventional c or shot1reverse shot&
Bid shot0 this can !e sed as an esta!lishin+ shot o# a set or location or to
show a lar+e crowd o# people& They can also emphasi<e the isolation o# a sin+le
"+re&
Bip0 a movin+ ima+e editin+ techni(e that involves one ima+e wipin+ another
o: the screen&
Coom3R+rs Coom: the ad.stment o# the camera lens to allow the operator
pro+ressively to move in close o: or to pll away #rom the s!.ect&
%F
#1URT6ER STUDD RESOURCES 1OR AS MEDIA&
www&media,&com ; se#l #or any media research related to /I instittions&
www&!roadcast&now&com ; we!site o# !roadcastin+ trade ma+a<ine&
www&mediawee,&co&, ; we!site o# trade ma+a<ine #or +eneral media&
www&"lmedcation&or+&, - e'cellent "lm stdy resorces&
www&discover&co&,1NET1NEWS - +lo!al newspaper access #acility&
www&a!er&ac&,1media - se#l academic site #rom the /niversity o# A!erystwyth&
www&media<oo&co&, ; interestin+ discssions on contemporary /I media&
www&theory&or+&, ; David Bantlett>s e'cellent cltral stdies and research
we!site& Chec, ot the $edia Stdies %&5 section&
www&media,&com1directory - a +ateway to we!sites o# all the main media
instittions&
www&lon+roadmedia&com ; !e inspired !y some +reat media stdents> prodction
wor, on the site
www&commedia&or+&, ; se#l #or media access research&
www&o#com&or+&, ; the re+latory !ody #or !roadcast media and
telecommnications&
www&screendaily&com ; we!site o# international trade ma+a<ine #or the "lm
indstry&
www&newmediastdies&com ; se#l #or p-to-date #acts and "+res) sch as
+lo!al Internet sa+e statistics&
www&indymedia&or+&, ; e'cellent #or research on media access&
www&media&+ardian&co&, ; essential #or instittions and adiences&
www&a!c&or+&, ; o:ers pdated circlation "+res ; essential #or instittions
and adiences&
%6
While we need a whole day as media may!e one day ne't wee, postpone the
date tor mana+YIrc shold have (ite complicated !y the an hor !t Ryan
re+ion #or P o# room in Erope and the
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