Mechanical Engineering

ME 481
Vehicle Design
Fall 2000
Lecture Notes
By
Richard B. Hathaway, Ph.D., PE
Professor
Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering
Section 1
Energy Consumption
and
Poer !e"uirements in Design
2
Aerodynamics and Rolling Resistance
#E$E!%& F'!M(&%S ) %E!'D*$%M+C
Dynamic Pressure,
2
2
1
v P
d
=
Drag Force,
- .
2
1
2
RE f A v F
d
=
A C v F
d d
2
2
1
=
2
0
- . - 2 / 1 .
2
1
v v A C F
d d
+ =
%ero Poer
f(RE) A
V
(2)
= P
3

Cd 0 coe11icient o1 drag 0 air density ~ 1/2 2g3m

4
% 0 pro5ected 1rontal area .m
2
- f(RE) = Reynolds number
6 0 6ehicle 6elocity .m3sec- V0 0 headind 6elocity
ENGLISH UNITS
V
A
C
)
10
X (6.93 =
HP
3
d
-6
aero
where: A = area (f
!
) " = #elo$%y (&'H) (d = dra) $oeff%$%en
4
SI UNITS
|
|
.
|

\
|
(
(
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
W
kW
A C
V
(2)
= P
d
3
KW
1000
1
1000
4700
2 / 1
4
- . 87 2
0
2
V V V A
C
)
10
. (1 =
P d
-6
aero
+
P 0 poer .2- % 0 area .m
2
-
V 0 6elocity .8p9- V0 0 headind 6elocity
Cd 0 drag coe11icient 0 1/2 2g3m
4
#E$E!%& F'!M(&%S : !'&&+$# !ES+S;%$CE
E$#&+S9 ($+;S
3!"
V
W
C
=
HP rr rr
here, Crr 0 coe11icient o1 rolling resistance < 0 eight .l=s- V 0 6elocity .MP9-
S+ ($+;S
V #
C
)
10
(2.!2 =
P
V #
C

3600
9.$1
=
P
rr
3 -
rr
rr rr |
.
|

\
|
here, P 0 poer .2- Crr 0 coe11icient o1 rolling resistance
M 0 mass .2g- V 0 6elocity .8p9-
4
RA!"#E $%R!E RE&'"REMEN(.
Vehicles re"uire thrust 1orces> generated at the tires> to initiate and maintain motion/ ;hese 1orces
are usually re1erred to as tracti6e 1orces or the tracti6e 1orce re"uirement/ +1 the re"uired tracti6e
1orce .F- is =ro2en into components the ma5or components o1 the resisting 1orces to motion are
comprised o1 acceleration 1orces .Faccel 0 ma ? +o 1orces-> #radea=ility re"uirements .Fgrade->
%erodynamic loads .Faero- and chassis losses .Froll resist -/
F 0 Faero @ Froll resist @ Fgrade @ Faccel
0 .32- Cd % 6
2
@ Crr m g @ Aslope mBg @ m a
0 .32- Cd % 6
2
@ m gCCrr @ A slope @ a3gD
in S+ units,
% 0 1rontal area .m
2
- 6 0 6elocity .m3s- m 0 mass .2g-
Crr 0 coe11icient o1 roll resistance .$3$- usually approE /01F
Cd 0 coe11icient o1 aero drag 1or most cars /4 ) /7
A slope 0 !ise3!un 0 ;an o1 the roaday inclination angle
Steady state 1orce are e"ual to the summation o1 Faero @ Froll resist @ Fgrade
Fgrade resist Froll Faero + + =
%%
F
;ransient 1orces are primarily comprised o1 acceleration related 1orces here a change in 6elocity
is re"uired/ ;hese include the rotational inertia re"uirements .F+o
- and the translational mass
.Fma- re"uirements> including steady state acceleration/
VE9+C&E E$E!#* !EG(+!EME$;S/
;he energy consumption o1 a 6ehicle is =ased on the tracti6e 1orces re"uired> the mechanical
e11iciency o1 the dri6e train system> the e11iciency o1 the energy con6ersion de6ice and the
e11iciency o1 the storage system/ EEamples o1 the a=o6e might =est =e demonstrated ith the
1olloing/
Storage e11iciency,
% 1lyheel used 1or energy storage ill e6entually lose its total energy stored due to
=earing and aerodynamic losses/ % storage =attery may e6entually discharge due to
intrinsic losses in the storage de6ice/ ;hese losses can =e a 1unction o1 the A o1 the total
system capacity at hich the system is currently operating/ % li"uid 1uel usually has
eEtremely high storage e11iciency hile a 1lyheel may ha6e considera=ly les storage
e11iciency/ Hoth hoe6er ha6e the storage e11iciency a 1unction o1 time/
F
100
E
E E
Eff&'&e(') *+or,e
&(&+&a-
f&a(- &(&+&a-
%+ore
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = q
Con6ersion e11iciency,
%n internal com=ustion engine changes chemical energy to mechanical energy/ ;he
system also produces unanted heat and due to mo6ing parts has internal 1riction hich
1urther reduces the system e11iciency/ % storage =attery has an e11iciency loss during the
discharge cycle and an e11iciency loss during the charge cycle/ ;hese e11iciencies may =e
a 1unction o1 the rate at hich the poer is eEtracted/
100
E
P E
Eff&'&e(') Co(ver%&o(
f.e-
de-&vered f.e-
'o(v

= =q
/e'0a(&'a- +0er/a- 'o(v
q q q =
Dri6e system E11iciency,
Con6ersion o1 chemical or electrical to mechanical energy does not complete the poer
1lo to the heels/ Dri6e train ine11iciencies 1urther reduce the poer a6aila=le to
produce the tracti6e 1orces/ ;hese losses are typically a 1unction o1 the system design and
the tor"ue =eing deli6ered through the system/
100
P
P P
Eff&'&e(') #e'0a(&'a-
%o.r'e 1o2er
+ra'+&ve %o.r'e 1o2er
dr&ve /e'0

= =q
(
red red red dr&ve /e'0
q q q q //////
2 1
=
7
Reasona)le Efficiencies to use for cycle com*arisons
.E11iciencies shon are only approEimations-
- Electric Motor .Pea2- q 0 IFA
- Electric Motor E11iciency .%6g i1 1 spd ;rans- q 0 JFA
- Electric Motor E11iciency .%6g i1 CV;- q 0 IFA
- ;ransmission E11iciency
(0.9") =
1) - (R
q
- Hattery E11iciency .!egen- q 0 JF)8FA
- Hattery ? #enerator E11iciency .!egen- q = F0)FFA
- Hattery ? Motor E11iciency .%ccel- q 0 80A
- Solar Cell E11iciency q 0 1FA
- +C Engine .Pea2 E11iciency- q 0 40A
- Flyheel E11iciency
(Storage and Conversion Average) q = 70%
J
E+*erimental !oast Down esting
1- Per1orm a high speed and a lo speed test ith an incremental .~ F2m3hr- 6elocity change at
each 6elocity/
2)9igh Speed &o Speed
V
a1
0 70 2m3h V
a2
0
20 2m3h
V
=1
0 FF 2m3h V
=2
0 1F 2m3h
4- !ecord the times o6er hich the 6elocity increments occur/
;
h
0 4 sec ;
l
0 7 sec
4- Determine the mean speed at each 6elocity/
F- Determine the mean deceleration at each 6elocity/
7- Determine the drag coe11icient
J- Determine the coe11icient o1 rolling resistance/
8
0
k/ v v
v
3 a
=
+
=
2
1 1
1
0
k/ v v
v
3 a
=
+
=
2
2 2
2
%
0 k/
+
v v
a
3 a
3
1
1 1
1
=

=
%
0 k/
+
v v
a
3 a
3
2
2 2
2
=

=
- .
- . 7
2
2
2
1
2 1
v v
a a
A
/
'
d

=
- .
- .
10
2 / 28
2
2
2
1
2
2 1
2
1 2
4
v v
v a v a
'
rr

=
Section 2
<eight and <eight Factors in Design
I
,E"-H and R%A"%NAL "NER"A E$$E!(.
;hrust 1orce .F-> at the tire 1ootprint> re"uired 1or 6ehicle motion,
F 0 Faero @ Froll resist @ Fgrade @ Faccel 0 .32- Cd % 6
2
@ Crr m g @ Aslope mBg @ m a
F 0 .32- Cd % 6
2
@ m gCCrr @ A slope @ a3gD
in S+ units,
% 0 1rontal area .m
2
- 6 0 6elocity .m3s- m 0 mass .2g-
Crr 0 coe11icient o1 roll resistance .$3$- usually approE /01F
Cd 0 coe11icient o1 aero drag 1or most cars /4 ) /7
A slope 0 !ise3!un 0 ;an o1 the roaday inclination angle
+1 rotational mass is added it adds not only rotational inertia =ut also translational inertia/
r
a
=
k
/ = 4 =
d+
d
4 =
5
+&re
ve0&'-e
20ee- 'o/1
2
'o/1 & o o o
e
a
r

k
/
=
r
a

k
/ =
r
5
=
F
2
+&re
2 2
2
2
+&re
2
+&re
20ee-
& (

|
|
.
|

\
|
o
o 1
o 0 angular acceleration 2 0 radius o1 gyration t 0 time ; 0 ;or"ue m 0 mass
o 0 ratio =eteen rotating component and the tire
;here1ore i1 the mass rotates on a 6ehicle hich has translation>
a 6
/
1 7
r

k
=
F R
2
+&re
2 2
& + 8 r
-
|
|
.
|

\
|
o
2
F 0 F
aero
@ F
roll resist
@ F
grade
@ F
accel
0 .32- C
d
% 6
2
@ C
rr
<
t
@ Aslope <
t
@ <
t
a3g
| |
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

/
7
r

k
/
a 7 *-o1e 9 7
C
,
/
7
V
A C =
F +
2
+&re
2 2
r rr +
2
d
+&re
o
2
3
e 0 angular 6elocity o1 the component ;i 0 applied tor"ue to o6ercome inertia
+ 0 mass moment o1 inertia oheel 0 angular acceleration o1 the heel
a 0 translational acceleration o1 the 6ehicle
rtire 0 rolling radius o1 the tire .meters- ;heel 0 applied tor"ue at the heel
Fi 0 tracti6e 1orce at the tire 1ootprint to o6ercome inertia
Fi.r?t- 0 tracti6e 1orce at the tire 1ootprint re"uired 1or losses and translational and rotational inertia
10
;he PoerPlant ;or"ue is,
:
r

F
=
5
+&re &
PP
+) 8 (r
4
;he speed o1 the 6ehicle in 2m3h is,
) (
r
:
RP#
= 0 k/
+&re
PP
4JJ / 0 3 - -
5
rtire 0 ;ire !olling !adius .meters- $ 0 $umerical !atio =eteen P/P/ and ;ire
11
WEIGHT PROPAGATION
+t might simply =e said that eight =egets eight in any designK
- $early all 6ehicle systems are a11ected =y a change in eight o1 any one component/
- Poer increases and3or per1ormance decreases are associated ith eight increases/
- L!ule o1 ;hum=M approEimations can =e made to predict the e11ects o1 eight increases/
For a-+er(a+e 1o2er %)%+e/% ('o(%&der&(, +0e 1o2er %)%+e/ a% a .(&+)
A< due to eight 0 22A E total eight increment
| |
*; *#
W W W = 22 / 1
mod
A< due to poer increase 0 4/FA E total eight E poer increment
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = 1 04F / 0 1
mod
P*;
P*#
3a%e
P
P
W W
Com=ining the a=o6e 1actors into a single e"uation,
| |
*; *#
P*;
P*#
3a%e
W W
P
P
W W +
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = 22 / 1 1 04F / 0 1
mod
12
Section 4
Poer ;rain Systems and E11iciencies
14
E$E!#* S;'!%#E in VE9+C&ES
+/ &+G(+D F(E&S .9eat Energy-
Fossil
$on)Fossil .%lcohol-
++/ #%SE'(S F(E&S .9eat Energy-
Fossil .largely-
$on)Fossil 9ydrogen
+++/ F&*<9EE&S .8inetic Energy-
Mechanical
+V/ 9*D!%(&+C .Potential Energy-
%ccumulator .Pressure> Volume-
P'<E! 0 G E P
V/ H%;;E!* .Electrical Energy-
#enerator recharging
Solar !echarging
+&/e
E:ER<= K4:E54C
= P;WER
4
2
1
= KE
2
e
-
7
14
ENERGY CONVERSION
+/ +$;E!$%& C'MH(S;+'$ E$#+$ES,
'tto cycle
Diesel cycle
Hrayton cycle
++/ EN;E!$%& C'MH(S;+'$ E$#+$ES,
Stirling cycle
Ra(k&(e ')'-e
+++/ MEC9%$+C%&,
Flyheel
9ydraulic motors
+V/ E&EC;!+C,
Electric motors
ENERGY STORAGE
+/ &+G(+D F(E&S,
@ &ong ;erm Storage Possi=le
@ 9igh Energy 3 <eight .Fuel ? System-
@ 9igh Energy 3 Volume
) !elati6ely &o Energy Con6ersion !atio
) many are Fossil Fuels 0O Finite Supply
) +mpractical to !eco6er 3 !egenerate
) 9igh %tmospheric Pollution
++/ #%SE'(S F(E&S,
@ &ong ;erm Storage Possi=le
@ 9igh Energy 3 <eight .1uel-
) &o Energy 3 <eight .system-
) +mpractical to !eco6er 3 !egenerate
) !elati6ely &o Energy Con6ersion !atio
) !elati6ely 9igh %tmospheric Pollution
1F
+++/ F&*<9EE&,
@ 9igh Energy Con6ersion !atio
@ 9igh ;ransient !egeneration Possi=le
@ ;otal on)demand Energy Con6ersion
@ Pero %tmospheric Pollution
) !elati6ely Short Storage
) +n1luences Vehicle Dynamic Heha6ior
+V/ 9*D!%(&+C,
@ &ong ;erm Storage Possi=le
@ 9igh Energy 3 <eight .storage-
@ 9igh ;ransient !egeneration Possi=le
@ 9igh Energy Con6ersion !atio
@ ;otal on)demand Energy Con6ersion
@ Pero %tmospheric Pollution
) CompleEity> Hul2> $oise
V/ Hattery,
@ !echarge 3o Fossil Fuels
@ ;otal on)demand Energy Con6ersion
@ &imited %tmospheric Pollution
) Finite Storage &i1e
) &o Energy 3 <eight
) &o Energy 3 Volume
) &o Energy Con6ersion !atio
17
Hybrid Vehicles Power System Matching
P!'H&EM,
+/ ;he 6arious poer systems pro6ide tor"ue and poer cur6es hich are considera=ly
di11erent in shape/
++/ ;he di11erent poer systems pea2 in e11iciency at di11erent speeds in their operating
range/
+++/ ;he di11erent poer systems pea2 in e11iciency at di11erent loads)speed points/
+n &ight o1 +> ++> and +++ a=o6e a method must =e de6ised to optimiQe or maEimiQe,
1/ ;or"ue 'utput
2/ Pea2 E11iciency
4/ ;ransition 1rom one Poer System to the other
or
Phasing in o1 the Second Poer System in a Parallel System/
% S;!%;E#* M(S; HE DEV+SED ;' P!'V+DE P!'PE! ;+M+$# 'F E%C9 S*S;EM
H%SED '$,
a/ Demand
=/ E11iciency
c/ Perception o1 the operator
d/ System State
) ;otal Energy !eser6e
) ;otal System Capacity
) Energy !e"uired 1or Completion o1 Mission
e/ Energy State o1 each +ndi6idual System
1J
Gearbox: Trans!ss!on
1/ Manual transmission,
;he types o1 manual transmission are,
Sliding mesh type
Constant mesh type
Synchromesh gear =oE
;he 6arious components o1 a manual gear=oE and their respecti6e design considerations are
listed,
Design considerations for shaft.
;here are 4 sha1ts in the gear=oE> namely, +nput or clutch sha1t> +ntermediate or lay
sha1t and 'utput or main sha1t/
- +nput or clutch sha1t,
Design consideration,
Shear and torsional stresses as ell as the amount o1 de1lection under 1ull load/ ;his
should not only =e designed 1or maEimum engine tor"ue> =ut also 1or a=sor=ing
tor"ues as high as 1i6e times the maEimum engine tor"ue hich can =e generated =y
Rclutch snappingS in the loer gear/
- +ntermediate or lay sha1t,
Design consideration,
Shear and torsional stresses should =e calculated/ %mount o1 de1lection should =e
calculated using the load on the internal gear pair> hich is nearest to the hal1 ay
=eteen the intermediate sha1t mounting =earings/ For sha1ts ith splines and
serrations> it is common to use the root diameter as the outside diameter in the stress
calculations/
- 'utput or main sha1t,
Design consideration,
Shear and torsional stresses should =e calculated/
#eneral e"uations,
1/ MaEimum shear stress 1or sha1t> 1
s
1or a solid circular sha1t,
here> d 0 diameter o1 sha1t ;or"ue in l=)in
18
4
17
d
5or>.e
f
%
t

=
2/ %mount o1 de1lection,
here>
a 0 distance =eteen point o1 de1lection and 1irst support
= 0 distance =eteen point o1 de1lection and second support
e
1
0 total eight o1 sha1t @ gear at the point o1 de1lection
l 0 length o1 sha1t =eteen supports
Gears:
Current cars use 6arious 2inds o1 Synchromesh units> hich ensure a smooth gear change>
hen the 6ehicle is in motion/ ;he Synchromesh unit essentially consists o1 =loc2ing
rings> conical slee6es and engaging dog slee6es/
;he Synchomesh system is not "uic2 enough due to the pause in the =loc2ing ring
reaction in =ringing the to engaging components in phase/ Most racing cars> there1ore
use gear=oE 1itted ith 1acedog engagement system instead o1 a Synchromesh hich
pro6ides a "uic2er and more responsi6e gear change and a closer 1eel 1or engine
per1ormance/
Design consideration for gears.
- Engine speed 6s Vehicle speed graph is plotted 1or determining the gear ratios/
- Various important gear design parameters are calculated as 1ollos,
$ormal tooth thic2ness
;ooth thic2ness .at tip-
Pro1ile o6erlap
Measurement o6er =alls
Span measurement o6er teeth etc/>
<ith the input parameters =eing
$um=er o1 teeth
Module
9eliE angle
Pressure angle
Center distance
!e"uired =ac2lash
Faceidth and
Cutter details : addendum> dedendum> cutter tip radius> cutter tooth thic2ness at
re1erence line> protu=erance/
1I
- E
3 a
def-e'+&o( of A/o.(+
I
=
4
2 2
1
e
"ear!n#s:
Hearings ha6e to ta2e radial and thrust loading .hich is dependent on the heliE angle o1 gear
teeth- hen helical gears are used/ Hearings must =e capa=le o1 coping ith the loads that ill =e
encountered hen the transmission unit is in use/ Calculations can =e done =y straight1orard
1ormulas/
$!%%eren&!a' #ears:
;he 1unctions o1 the 1inal dri6e are to pro6ide a permanent speed reduction and also to turn the
dri6e round through I0
o
/ % Rdi11erentialS essentially consists o1 the 1olloing parts,
1/ Pinion gear
2/ !ing gear ith a di11erential case attached to it
4/ Di11erential pinions gears and side gears enclosed in the di11erential case/
Pinion and ring gears,
;he pinion and ring gear can ha6e the 1olloing tooth designs,
1/ He6el gears :
a- Straight =e6el
=- Spiral =e6el : ;eeth are cur6ed
More /uiet o*eration, )ecause, cur0ed teeth ma1e sliding contact."t is stronger, )ecause, more
than one tooth is in contact all times.
2/ 9ypoid gears ,
+n this> the centerline o1 the pinion sha1t is =elo the center o1 the ring gear/
Adva(+a,e? +t allos the dri6e sha1t to =e placed loer to permit reducing the
hump on the 1loor/
;erms used in gear design,
1/ Pitch circle,
%n imaginary circle> hich =y pure rolling action ould gi6e the same motion as the
actual gear/
2/ Pitch circle diameter,
;he diameter o1 the pitch circle/ ;he siQe o1 the gear is usually speci1ied =y the pitch
circle diameter/ +t is also called as pitch diameter/
4/ Pitch point,
;he common point o1 contact =eteen to pitch circles/
20
4/ Pitch sur1ace,
;he sur1ace o1 rolling discs> hich the meshing gears ha6e replaced> at the pitch
circle/
F/ Pressure angle or angle o1 o=li"uity,
;he angle =eteen the common normal to to gear teeth at the point o1 contact and
the common tangent at the pitch point/ +t is usually denoted =y |/ ;he standard
pressure angles are 14 T
0
and 20
0
/
7/ %ddendum,
;he radial distance o1 a tooth 1rom the pitch circle to the top o1 the tooth/
J/ Dedendum,
;he radial distance o1 a tooth 1rom the pitch circle to the =ottom o1 the tooth/
8/ %ddendum circle,
;he circle dran through the top o1 the teeth and is concentric ith the pitch circle/
I/ Dedendum circle,
;he circle dran through the =ottom o1 the teeth/ +t is also called root circle/
!oot circle diameter 0 Pitch circle diameter E cos |
here> | is the pressure angle/
10/ Circular pitch,
;he distance measured on the circum1erence o1 a pitch circle 1rom a point on one
tooth to the corresponding point on the neEt tooth/ +t is usually denoted =y p
c
/
Mathematically>
Circular pitch> p
c
0 tD 3 ;
here> D 0 Diameter o1 pitch circle ; 0 $um=er o1 teeth on heel
11/ Diametrical pitch,
;he ratio o1 num=er o1 teeth to the pitch circle diameter in millimeters/ +t is denoted
=y p
d
/ Mathematically>
Diametrical pitch>
here> ; 0 $um=er o1 teeth D 0 Pitch circle diameter
21
'
d
1 @
5
1
t
= =
12/ Module,
+t is ratio o1 pitch circle diameter in millimeters to the num=er o1 teeth/ +t is usually
denoted =y m/ Mathematically>
Module> m 0 D 3 ;
14/ Clearance,
;he radial distance 1rom the top o1 the tooth to the =ottom o1 the tooth> in a meshing
gear/ ;he circle passing through the top o1 the meshing gear is 2non as the clearance
circle/
14/ ;otal depth,
;he radial distance =eteen the addendum and dedendum o1 a gear/ +t is e"ual to the
sum o1 the addendum and dedendum/
1F/ <or2ing depth,
;he radial distance 1rom the addendum circle to the clearance circle/ +t is e"ual to the
sum o1 the addendum o1 the to meshing gears/
17/ ;ooth thic2ness,
;he idth o1 the tooth measured along the pitch circle/
1J/ ;ooth space,
;he idth o1 space =eteen to ad5acent teeth measured along the pitch circle/
18/ Hac2lash,
;he di11erence =eteen the tooth space and the tooth thic2ness> as measured along the
pitch circle/ ;heoretically> the =ac2lash should =e Qero> =ut in actual practice some
=ac2lash must =e alloed to pre6ent 5amming o1 teeth due to teeth errors and thermal
eEpansion/
1I/ Face o1 tooth,
;he sur1ace o1 the gear tooth a=o6e the pitch sur1ace/
20/ Flan2 o1 tooth,
;he sur1ace o1 the gear tooth =elo the pitch sur1ace/
21/ ;op land,
;he sur1ace o1 the top o1 the tooth/
22/ Face idth,
;he idth o1 the gear tooth measured parallel to its aEis/
24/ Pro1ile,
;he cur6e 1ormed =y the 1ace and the 1lan2 o1 the tooth/
24/ Fillet radius,
22
;he radius that connects the root circle to the pro1ile o1 the teeth/
2F/ Path o1 contact,
;he path traced =y the point o1 contact o1 to teeth 1rom the =eginning to the end o1
engagement/
27/ &ength o1 path o1 contact,
;he length o1 the common normal cut)o11 =y the addendum circles o1 the heel and
pinion/
2J/ %rc o1 contact,
;he path traced =y a point on the pitch circle 1rom the =eginning to the end o1
engagement o1 a gi6en pair o1 teeth/ ;he arc contact consists o1 to parts> i/e/>
.a- %rc o1 approach, ;he portion o1 the path o1 contact 1rom the =eginning o1
engagement to the pitch point/
.=- %rc o1 recess, ;he portion o1 the path o1 contact 1rom the pitch point to the
end o1 engagement o1 a pair o1 teeth/
24
Section 4
Hra2e System Design
+n con6entional hydraulic =ra2e systems the apply 1orce at the =ra2e pedal is con6erted to hydraulic
pressure in the master cylinder/ %pply 1orce 1rom the dri6er is multiplied through a mechanical
ad6antage =eteen the =ra2e pedal and the master cylinder to increase the 1orce on the master
cylinder/ 9ydraulic pressure is a typical 1orce trans1er mechanism to the heel =ra2e as the 1luid can
=e routed through 1leEi=le lines to the heels hile the heels under compleE heel motions/
M%S;E! C*&+$DE! P!ESS(!E .3o poer assist-,
d
AB
.
#.A
F
=
P
2
/'
1eda- 1eda-
/'
t
Poer assist may =e added to a con6entional hydraulic =ra2e system to assist the dri6er in =ra2e
apply/ Poer assist utiliQes a system hich may use air pressure> atmospheric36acuum pressure
hydraulic pressure or other means to apply direct 1orce to the master cylinder/
M%S;E! C*&+$DE! P!ESS(!E .3 poer assist-,
d
AB
F
7 )
.
#.A
F
(
=
A
F
=
P
2
/'
3oo%+er 1eda- 1eda-
/'
/'
/'
t
;he pressure 1rom the master cylinder is typically modi1ied =y a series o1 6al6es =e1ore reaching the
heel cylinders/ ;he 6al6es modi1y pressure to proportion pressure as a 1unction o1 eight trans1er>
6ehicle static load and load location> and the heel =ra2e characteristics/ Val6es may also =e placed
ithin these lines to pro6ide 1or anti)loc2 =ra2ing> traction control and3or ya sta=ility control/
;he modi1ied master cylinder pressure is deli6ered to a hydraulic heel cylinder hich utiliQes the
hydraulic pressure to create a mechanical apply 1orce/
<9EE& C*&+$DE! %PP&* F'!CE
| |
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
d
d

F
7 )
.
#.A
F
( =
A
A
F =
d
P A P F
2
/'
2'
3oo%+er 1eda- 1eda-
/'
2'
/'
2
2' /' 2' /' 2'
2
4
t
;he heel cylinder mechanical 1orce is applied to the metal =ac2ing o1 the 1riction material/ ;he
1riction material> upon apply> is 1orced into contact ith the rotating =ra2e sur1ace creating the
1riction 1orces re"uired to decelerate the 6ehicle/ ;he 1riction 1orce 1rom the =ra2e 1riction material
24
acts at the mean radius o1 the =ra2ing sur1ace/ For an internal or eEternal eEpanding =ra2e the mean
radius o1 the =ra2ing sur1ace is the radius o1 the =ra2ing sur1ace/
For a dis2 =ra2e the mean radius .r
m
- o1 the =ra2ing sur1ace is
D+SC H!%8E ME%$ !%D+(S
;he heel tor"ue the =ra2e system creates during =ra2ing .;- is a 1unction o1 the heel cylinder
1orce .Fc-> the coe11icient o1 1riction =eteen the 1riction pad and the =ra2e sur1ace .-> the mean
radius o1 the =ra2ing sur1ace .rm-> the num=er o1 =ra2ing sur1aces .$-> and the multiplication 1actor
.e11ecti6eness 1actor- o1 the =ra2e .E-/
<9EE& ;'!G(E D(!+$# H!%8+$#
$Disc 0 23heel $Drum 0 13heel
Formal calculation o1 =ra2e energiQing 1actors are deri6ed 1rom e11iciency calculated 1rom dri6e
systems that employ rap angles/ +n a =ra2e system the shoes are discontinuous and the anchor pins
can =e located o11 the apply tangency point hich ma2es calculations more compleE/ ;he e"uations
=elo are those hich apply to continuous rap systems such as an eEternal =and =ra2e/ %n
internal shoe =ra2e is more compleE > hoe6er rough approEimations can =e made ith these same
e"uations/
e(er,&C&(,
e
5
5
(

=
|
2
1
or
E(er,&C&(, :;:
e
5
5

= 1
2
1 |
;1 0 tension on the apply side ;2 0 tension on the anchor side
0 coe11icient o1 1riction pad to sur1ace | 0 rap angle in radians
H!%8E ;*PE E$E!#+P+$# F%C;'! .approEimate-
Disc
~ 0/J : 0/8
&eading);railing drum
~ 2/F
Dou=le &eading
~ 4/F
Dual)ser6o
~ F/0
Hra2e linings all ha6e Ledge codesM 1or 1riction> compound and 6endor identi1ication/ %n eEample
might =e FF)20)%H/ FF identi1ies the 1riction coe11icient and the 20)%H identi1y the compound and
6endor respecti6ely/ ;he 1olloing ta=le identi1ies the coe11icient o1 1riction 6alues/ ;he 1irst letter
in the code pro6ides in1ormation as to the moderate .normal- temperature characteristics> the second
letter pro6ides in1ormation as to the high temperature characteristics o1 the lining/
2F
2
2 2
& o
/
r r
r
+
=
/ 1ad 2' 2
r E : F 5 =
Edge &etter Code Friction coe11icient
C
s 0/1F
D
0/1F s s 0/2F
E
0/2F s s 0/4F
F
0/4F s s 0/4F
#
0/4F s s 0/FF
9
O 0/FF
P unclassi1ied

;he =ra2ing 1orce a6aila=le at the tire)to)road inter1ace is the heel tor"ue di6ided =y the rolling
radius o1 the tire/
<9EE& H!%8+$# F'!CE
H!%8+$# F'!CE !EG(+!ED F'! % S;'P
;he =ra2ing 1orce re"uired at each 1ront heel> i1 the =ra2es are properly propotioned> is,
,
a
2
D
0
,
a
W 7
W
=
F
F
3rakeF
(

|
.
|

\
|
;he =ra2ing 1orce re"uired at each rear heel> i1 the =ra2es are properly propotioned> is,
,
a
2
D
0
,
a
W -
W
=
F
R
3rakeR
(

|
.
|

\
|
27
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
+
/
1ad 2'
+
2
3
r
r
E : F
r
5
F
| | | |
|
|
.
|

\
|
)
`

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
+
/
1ad
2
/'
2'
3oo%+er 1eda- 1eda- 3
r
r
E :
d
d

F
7 )
.
#.A
F
( F
2
&+M+;+$# H!%8+$# F'!CE,
;he limiting =ra2ing 1orce o6er hich heel slide ill occur at each 1ront heel is,

road - +&re
F
3rake
2
)
D
0
W 7
W
(
=
F
F
;he limiting =ra2ing 1orce o6er hich heel slide ill occur at each rear heel is,

road - +&re
R
3rake
2
)
D
0
W -
W
(
=
F
R
+1 the =ra2es are properly proportioned the =ra2ing 1orce maEimum is,

2
)
D
0
W -
W
(

2
)
D
0
W 7
W
(
=
F
road - +&re
R F
3r
2
maE

(
(
(

+
(
(
(

r - +
+o+
r - +
r f 3rake

W
= )
W
7
W
( = F
maE
2J
Section 4
Suspension Design Considerations
28
ENPE!+ME$;%& DE;E!M+$%;+'$ 'F ;9E S;!(C;(!%& +$;E#!+;*
'F VE9+C&ES
- Vehicle sti11ness is an important parameter hich in1luences ride "uality> handling properties>
and 6ehicle aesthetics/
- Vehicle sti11ness determines the "uality o1 1it o1 many eEternal panels and the interaction o1
the sur1ace panels as uni1orm and asymmetric loads are applied/
- !oad noise transmission and dynamic response is in1luenced =y the 6ehicle sti11ness/
- Vehicles typically are called upon to meet de1lection criteria in design/
a- meeting de1lection criteria ill esta=lish designs that inherently meet stress related
criteria/
=- Chassis design ill re"uire the engineer assure that 2ey de1lection limits are imposed
1or critical locations on the chassis> 1rame and =ody/
c- Vehicles modeled to meet crash standards may also meet de1lection standards in the
design process/
d- %ll measuresU de1lection> stress and yield> and impact must =e 6eri1ied in the design
process/
STI((NESS IS )EAS*RE$ IN A N*)"ER O( )O$ES.
a- Tors!ona' r!+#!+!&, is commonly used as measure o1 the o6erall sti11ness "uality/
1/ Fundamentally this is a measure o1 the de1lection that occurs i1 all the load
ere place on diagonally opposite tires o1 the 6ehicle/ %s de1lection occurs in
this mode the "uality o1 1it o1 the sur1ace components on the =ody is altered/
2/ ;orsion o1 the chassis also occurs due to the di11ering roll sti11ness o1 the 1ront
and rear suspension systems/
=- H-bea!n# is used to determine the 1leEural sti11ness o1 the chassis/
1/ =asically =ending a=out the roc2er panels o1 the 6ehicle/
2/ measured as 1leEure along the longitudinal aEis o1 the 6ehicle as a 6ertical
load is applied at speci1ic locations along the longitudinal aEis/
4/ Vertical de1lection o1 the chassis is measured at critical points/
4/ ;his mode may in1luence glass =rea2age and a11ect ride "uality/
c- Co.' 'oa+!n# is the term used to de1ine the sti11ness as it might =e 6ieed =y the
operator/
1/ ;his sti11ness criteria is esta=lished such that the operator does not percei6e
eEcessi6e de1lection o1 the steering column and related interior components/
2I
d- Rear en+ bea!n# is a term used to de1ine =ending due to the 1rame L2ic2)upsM that
are present in rear heel dri6e and dependent rear suspension 6ehicles/
1/ ;his is measured ith the 1rame supported and eight added to the rear
eEtremities o1 the 6ehicle at or near the rear =umper location/
2/ ;he measure as to assure ade"uate sti11ness as the 1rame as shaped to
allo clearance 1or rear aEle mo6ement/
- % parameter that is commonly used to esta=lish the sti11ness is the 1re"uency o1 the system/
- Minimum 6alues are alays 1ar a=o6e those anticipated in the suspension 1or sprung
and un)sprung natural 1re"uencies/
- ;his usually sets minimum 6alues at approEimately 1F 9Q hile most current designs
ill eEceed 20 9Q/
- &oad 1actors are the percentage o1 the maEimum torsional rigidity the 6ehicle might see in
ser6ice hich is the maEimum diagonal moment/
&oad Factor Determination/
1/ !aise the 6ehicle and place the cali=rated Pero re1erenced scales under each
heel/ Veri1y the tires are properly in1lated/
2/ !ecord the eight at each heel location/
4/ Determine the load 1actor =y
a/ ta2ing the sum o1 the eights on the le1t and right 1ront suspensions
and multiplying the sum =y T the heel trac2/
=/ ta2ing the sum o1 the eights on the le1t and right rear suspensions and
multiplying the sum =y T the heel trac2/
c/ ta2ing the smaller o1 a and = and it is to =e called a load factor of one.
d/ ;ypically V to T load 1actor> incrementally applied> ill =e used to
esta=lish the torsional rigidity 1or the chassis/
40
ANA/YSIS o% (RONT S*SPENSION /OA$S
0(OR $ESIGN1
&%;E!%&
CC'!$E!+$# @ +MP%C;D
&'$#+;(D+$%&
CH!%8+$# @ +MP%C;D VE!;+C%&
CS;%;+C @ +MP%C;D

H!%8+$#, Cuse 1)2 g =ra2ing load-
| | D;A@ @=:A#4C D;A@ *5A54C D
3
+ =
2
2

(

|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
=
D
0
a /
D
-
W D
r
3


(

|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
=
D
0
,
a
W
D
-
W D
r
3

here> h 0 C/# 9eight & 0 <heel =ase l
r
0 C/#) !ear aEle
VE!;+C%&, Ctotal is commonly considered as 4g loadD
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
=
D
0
,
a
W W
D
-
V
r
2
4
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=
D ,
0 a , -
W V
r
2
4

41
&%;E!%& Ccommonly considered as 2g load D
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=
D ,
0 a , -
W D
r
-
42
$R%N ('(PEN("%N L%AD(
%P #"E,.
F
&
E M
PS%
0 0
0 = +
% FH D* E* *F
r F ' F 3 F d F
( ) 3 F r F ' F
d
F
E* % FH D* *F
+ =
1
(

+ = - . - . ' 3
0
a
' r
d
F
F
%
FH
*F
E F
9)&at
0 0
F
(C9
@ F
SH
: F
&C9
: F
&%;
0 0
F
&C9
0 F
(C9
@ F
SH
) F
&
E F
9)&ong
0 0
F
(S
: F
&S
@H
F9
0 0 or H
F9
0 F
&S
) F
(S
44
Pro5ected Steer %Eis .PS%-
FSH
d
F&C9
(pper Hall Woint to PS% .=-
Scru= !adius .rs-
&oer Hall Woint to PS% .c-
F(S
F&S
S
Hra2ing Force 9oriQontal .HF9-
&ateral Force .F&%;-
F(C9
$R%N ('(PEN("%N L%AD(
("DE #"E,.


F
(S

F
&S


E M
H
0 0
a F 0 F
FH E*
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
a
F F
FH E*
E F
N
0 0
F
(S
: F
&S
@ H
F9
0 0
F
&S
0 F
(S
@ H
F9
|
.
|

\
|
+ = 1
0
a
F F
FH D*
44
h
SH
&H
(H
HF9
a
$R%N ('(PEN("%N L%AD(
REAR #"E,.
E M&H 0 0
F(CV h tan | @ F(C9 h @ FSH e @ F& a : V .rs @ c- 0 0
o sin
EC ECV
F F =
o cos
EC ECH
F F =
( )
( ) 0
a F e F ' r V
F
D *F %
EC
o | o cos tan sin +
+
=
( ) ( )
D EC %
FH
DCH
F F ' 3
0
a
' r
d
F
F +
(

+ = o cos
E FV 0 0
V : F&CV @ F(C 0 0
F&CV 0 V @ F(C sin o
4F
F
(C

V
F&C9
FSH
&H
F(CV
F
(C9
o
|
F
&
(H
F&HV
e
h
SUMMARY
|
.
|

\
|
+ = 1
0
a
F F
FH D*
(

+ = - . - . ' 3
0
a
' r
d
F
F
%
FH
*F
( )
( ) 0
a F e F ' r V
F
D *F %
EC
o | o cos tan sin +
+
=
( ) ( )
D EC %
FH
DCH
F F ' 3
0
a
' r
d
F
F +
(

+ = o cos
F&CV 0 V @ F(C sin o
'PPER !%NR%L ARM
F
(FM
F
(&F

1
F
(C
g F
(S
FEDR
F
(!9
F
(C
lu

F
(C
47
E M
(FP
0 0
F
(C
.1- @ F
(S
.lu- : F
(&!
.1@g- 0 0
F
(&!
0 F
(C
.1- @ F
(S
.lu- C+n the direction o1 F
(C
D
1@g
E F
%N+S
0 0
F
(&F
@ F
(&!
0 F
(C
F
(&F
0 F
(C
) F
(&!

;o determine F
(F9
and F
(!9
the geometry and the understanding that all loads pass through (H
can =e used,
g3 lu 0 F
(!9
3 F
(&!
F
(!9
0 F
(&!
.g-
lu
FEFH 7 FERH = FE*
F
(F9
0 F
(S
: F
(!9
LOWER CONROL ARM
CSpring 1orce and =ump stop 1orce need =e determinedD

F&S

i
F&C
5

FH F&CV
FSP
l=
ls F&C9


| ll
4J
LOGARITHMIC !CR!M!"T
&ogarithmic decrement can =e used to eEperimentally determine the amount o1 damping present in a
1ree 6i=rating system/
For damped 6i=ration the displacement .E- is eEpressed as e"uation 1/
( ) |
e

7 - 1
e
X =
(+
2
+ -
(
Sin
;he logarithmic decrement is then de1ined as the natural log or the ratio o1 any to successi6e
amplitudes as shon in e"uation 2/

=
2
1
ln o
( )
( ) |
t e

|
e

o
t e
e
7 ) 7
+
( - 1
e
7
+
- 1
e
=
d 1 (
2
) 7 + ( -
1 (
2
+ -
d 1 (
1 (
Sin
Sin
ln
E"uation 2 can =e reduced to e"uation 4 =ased on the 1act that the 6alue o1 the sines are e"ual 1or
each period at t 0 t1@t
d
/
e
=
e
e
=
d (
d 1 (
1 (
) 7 + ( -
+ -
t e

t e
e
o ln ln
t e
o
d (
=
Since the damped period is

e
t
t
2
(
d
- 1
2
=
e"uation 4 can =e reduced to e"uation F/
48

t
o
2
- 1
2
=
;here1ore the amplitude ratio 1or any to consecuti6e cycles is as shon in e"uation 7/
e
=

2
1
o
+t can also =e sho that 1or n cycles the 1olloing relationship eEists

(
1
=
(
0
ln o
4I