1

4. INTEGRATION

4.1 Introduction
When we differentiate
2
x with respect to x the derived function is 2x .
Conversely, given that an unknown function has a derived function of 2x , it is
clear that that the unknown function could be
2
x . This process of finding a
function from its derived function is called Integration and it is the opposite of
differentiation, i.e. it reverses the operation.

Clearly 2x is the derivative, not only of
2
x , but also of
2
x plus any constant. Thus
the result of integrating 2x , is not a unique function.

In a mathematical notation,

2
2 x dx x K = +

where

is the integration symbol

K is an any arbitrary constant, known as the constant of integration

the function 2x is called the Integrand

.....dx

means the integral of ......w.r.t. x

the variable x is called the variable of integration, i.e. we are integrating
with respect to that variable



2
x is called the Indefinite Integral or Anti-derivative

In general,
( ) ( )
d
f x dx f x K
dx
= +

2

4.2 Integration by Recognition
Integration is more a skill than a routine. In simple cases, if you can spot a
function, which differentiates to give your function, you have found the answer or
the integral.

(i) Integrating Powers
(a)
2 3
3 x dx x K = +

(b)
2 3
1
3
x dx x K = +

(c)
5 6
1
6
x dx x K = +

In general,

( )
( )
1
1
n n
d
x n x
dx
+
= + so ( )
1
1
1
1
n n
x dx x K n
n
+
= +
+

Exercise
1)
7
x dx

2)
4
x dx

3)
1
2
x dx

4)
2
3
x dx

5)
7
x dx

6)
3
x dx

7)
5
x dx

8)
3 2
x dx

(ii) Integrating Constant

( )
d
cx c
dx
= so cdx cx K = +

3

(iii) Integrating
n
cx ( power and constant combined)

( )
( )
1
1
n n
d
cx n cx
dx
+
= + so
1
1
n n
c
cx dx x K
n
+
= +
+

e.g. (a)
4 5
3
3
5
x dx x K = +

(b)
2 3 3
3
3
3
x dx x K x K = + = +

(iv) Integrating a Sum or Difference of Functions
Integration is distributive across addition or subtraction. Let ( ) f x and
( ) g x be functions and a constant; then

a) ( ) ( ) f x dx f x dx =



b) ( ) ( ) { } ( ) ( ) f x g x dx f x dx g x dx =




Example 1
(a)
( )
4 2
3 5 x x x dx +

(b)
3
2
2
2 1 x x dx
| |
+ +
|
\

(c) Integrate
1
2
2x x

+ with respect to x

Exercise
Integrate the following functions with respect to x
1)
2
1
4x
2)
2
2
1 x
x
+
3)
2
1 x x
x
+ +


4)
3 4
4 1 x x

+ + 5)
3 2
6 3 2 x x x

+ +


4

(v) Integrating ( )
n
ax b +
Let us consider the function ( ) ( )
4
2 3 f x x = + . The derivative of ( ) f x is
found by using substitution 2 3 u x = + such that ( )
4
f x u =
Hence, ( ) ( ) ( )
4 3
2 3 4 2 3 2
d
x x
dx
+ = +

In general,
( ) ( )( )( )
1
1
n n d
ax b n a ax b
dx
+
+ = + +

So, ( )
( )
( ) ( )
1 1
1
1
n n
ax b dx ax b K n
n a
+
+ = + +
+

Example 2
(a) ( )
( )( )
( )
6 7 1
3 8 3 8
7 3
x dx x K + = + +

(b) ( )
( )( )
( )
9 10 1
2 5 2 5
10 5
x dx x K = +

(c)
( )
( )( )
( )
7 8
1 1 1 1
2 3 2 3
1
3
1
8
x dx x K + = + +

Exercise
(1) ( )
2
2 1 x dx

(2) ( )
3
2 7x dx +

(3) ( )
1
2
4 1 x dx

(4)
( )
1
1 2
dx
x

(5)
( )
3
1
3 7
dx
x +

(6)
( )
3
2
2 1
dx
x +

(7) Integrate the function w.r.t. x
( )
3
3
1 2
2 1
x
x
+
+


5

4.3 Integration of Trigonometric Functions
( ) sin cos cos sin
d
x x xdx x K
dx
= = +

( ) cos sin sin cos
d
x x xdx x K
dx
= = +

( )
2 2
tan sec sec tan
d
x x xdx x K
dx
= = +

( ) sec sec tan sec tan sec
d
x x x x xdx x K
dx
= = +

( ) sec cos cot cos cot cos
d
co x ecx x ecx xdx ecx K
dx
= = +

( )
2 2
cot cos cos cot
d
x ec x ec xdx x K
dx
= = +

It can be shown by considering the corresponding differentiation, that, for
example,
cos sin xdx x K = +

and
( ) ( )
1
cos sin ax b dx ax b
a
+ = +

with similar results for the remaining trig integrals


Example 3
(a)
2
3sec 3tan xdx x K = +

(b)
1
sin 4 cos 4
4
d K = +

(c)
( ) ( )
2
3 3
4 4
1
cos 2 cot 2
2
ec x dx x K

+ = + +

(d)
1
cos 5 cot 5 cos 5
5
ec x xdx ec x K = +

(e)
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
1
sec 6 tan 6 sec 6
6
x x dx x K

= +

6

Exercise
Integrate the following expressions with respect to x
1) sin 2x 2)
( )
2
3cos 4x

3) 2cos 3 cot 3 ec x x

4)
2 2
sec 2 cos 4 x ec x 5)
2
sin
cos
x
x




4.4 Integration of Exponential Function
We already know that
( )
x x
d
e e
dx
=
Hence,
x x
e dx e K = +

Further, we have
( )
x x
d
ce ce
dx
= so,
x x
ce dx ce K = +

And,
( ) ( ) ax b ax b
d
e ae
dx
+ +
= thus,
( ) ( )
1
ax b ax b
e dx e K
a
+ +
= +

Example 4
Evaluate the following:
(i)
3
4
x
e dx

(ii)
4x
e dx

(iii)
5
2
x
e dx

(iv)
1
1
2
x
e dx

(v)
3 2
5
x
e dx
+

Exercise
Integrate the following expressions with respect to x

1)
2x
e 2) 3
x
e

3)
5 3
4
x
e



4)
x
e

5)
2
2
1
x
x
e
e
+ 6)
3 2
1
2
3
x x
e e

7

4.5 Integration of a Logarithmic Form
If the numerator is basically the derivative of the complete denominator, then
the integral is the logarithm of the denominator.
i.e.

( )
( )
( ) ln
f x
dx f x K
f x

= +

Example 5
Evaluate the following:
(i)
2
1
x
dx
x +

(ii)
4
4 1
dx
x +

(iii)
2
3 2
2
3 2
x x
dx
x x

(iv)
cos
1 sin
x
dx
x +

(v)
4
x
x
e
dx
e +

Exercise
Integrate the following expressions:
1) cot x 2) tan x 3)
cos
3 sin
x
x +


4)
2
sec
1 3tan
x
x
5)
3
4
1
x
x +
6)
1
ln x x


7)
1
x
x
e
e
8)
1
x












8

4.6 Integration of Trig Inverse Functions
Recall that
( )
2
1
arcsin
1
d
x
dx
x
=

( )
2
1
arccos
1
d
x
dx
x

( )
2
1
arctan
1
d
x
dx x
=
+


Thus,

2
1
arcsin
1
dx x K
x
= +

1
2
1
cos
1
dx x K
x

= +

2
1
arctan
1
dx x K
x
= +
+

Example 6
Integrate the following expressions with respect to x:
1)
2
1
1 x

2)
2
2
1 4x +
3)
2
3
1 9x


4)
2
1
1 16x +
5)
2
6
1 4x
6)
2
1
4 x +


7)
2
1
4 x




9

4.7 Integration by Substitution: u du
The following procedure below will help to integrate composite functions
1) Choose a substitution ( ) u g x = . Usually, it is best to choose the inner part of
a composite function, such as a quantity raised to a power

2) Evaluate the differential ( ) du g x dx = . Note any constant factor k of ( ) g x
that is not a factor of the given integrand

3) Rewrite the integrand in the form ( )
du
f u
k


4) Evaluate the resulting integral in terms of u

5) Then substitute to obtain an anti-derivative in terms of x


Example 7
a) 2 1 x dx

b) 2 1 x x dx

c)
2 3
5 x x dx +

d)
2
sin 3 cos3 x x dx

e)
3
cos sin x x dx

f)
2 3
sin x x dx

g)
2
sec x
dx
x

h)
ln x
dx
x

i)
2
2
1
x
dx
x +

10

Exercise
(1)
( )
2
2
12 1 x x dx +

(2) 5 x dx +

(3)
( )
2
3
3
3
2 2
x
x

(4)
2
6

1
t
dt
t +

(5)
( )
1
3 2
3

9
t
dt
t +

4.8 Integration by Parts
Many products cannot be expressed in the form ( )
d
f u
du
and so cannot be
integrated by u du method. A different approach is required. Let us look again
at differentiating a product uv where uand v are both functions of x,
i.e.
( )
d du dv
uv v u
dx dx dx
= +

Isolating one of the product on the RHS, gives

( )
du d dv
v uv u
dx dx dx
=

Now
du
v
dx
can be taken to represent a product, which is to be integrated w.r.t. x
Thus,
( )
du d dv
v dx uv dx u dx
dx dx dx
=


i.e.


du dv
v dx uv u dx
dx dx
=

*NB


11

Remark
Care must be exercised in the choice of the factor to be replaced by v
The aim is to ensure that
dv
u
dx
is simpler to integrate than
du
v
dx
.



Example 8
a)
x
xe dx

e)
1
cos xdx

b)
2
ln x xdx

f) cos x xdx

c) ln xdx

g)
2
sin x xdx

d)
2 x
x e dx

h) cos
x
e xdx

Exercise
1)
( )
2
1
x
xe
dx
x +

2)
2x
xe dx

3)
x
x
dx
e

4)
2
cos 2 x xdx

5) arctan xdx

6)
2
sin
x
e xdx

12

4.9 Integration as a process of Summation
Consider the area bounded by the x axis , the lines x a = and x b = and, the
curve ( ) y f x = that is continuous for a x b




There are several ways in which the area can be estimated; One way, that we are
going to use is to split the area into thin vertical strips and treat each strip as being
approximately rectangular.



The sum of the areas of the rectangular strips then gives an approximate value for
the required area. The thinner the strips are, the better is the approximation.

Note that every strip has one end on the x-axis, one end on the curve and two
vertical sides, i.e. they all have the same type of boundaries



Figure 1
Figure 2
13



Consider a typical element bounded on the left by the ordinate through a general
point ( ) , P x y :
The width of the strip, represents a small increase in the value of x
and can be called x .

Also, if A

represents the area up to the ordinate through P then
The area of the strip represents a small increase in the value of A
and can be called A

The area of the strip is approximately that of a rectangle of width x and length
y .
Hence, for any strip A y x Eqn (1)

So, summing the areas of all the strips from to x a x b = =

i.e.
x b
x a
total area A
=
=
=



x b
x a
total area y x
=
=

As x gets smaller the accuracy of the results increases until, in the limit,


0
lim
x b
x
x a
total area y x

=
=



Thus Eqn (1) above can be rewritten as
A
y
x

14

Taking limit:
0
lim
x
A
y
x

=

But
0
lim
x
A
x

is
dA
dx
so,
dA
y
dx
= ,

Hence, A ydx =

The boundary values of x defining the total area are x a = and x b = thus the

b
a
total area ydx =

Concluding integration is a process of summation.


4.10 Definite Integral
The expression
b
a
ydx

is called the definite integral; where a and b are called

boundary values or limits of the integration. Whenever, a definite integral is
calculated, the constant of integration disappears.

Example 9
(a)
2
2
0
x dx

(b)
5
1
3 1 x dx +

(c)
2
0
2sin xdx

(d)
( )
4
2
1
1
3
dx
x +

(e)
2
0
cos xdx

(f)
1
2 3
0
1 x x dx +

(g)
1
0
x
xe dx

15

4.11 Properties of Definite Integrals
(i) If f is defined at x a = , then ( ) 0
a
a
f x dx =

(ii) If f is integrable on [ ]
, a b , then ( ) ( )
a b
b a
f x dx f x dx =



(iii) If a c b < < , then ( ) ( ) ( )
b c b
a a c
f x dx f x dx f x dx = +



(iv) ( ) ( )
b b
a a
kf x dx k f x dx =

where k

(v) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
b b b
a a a
f x g x dx f x dx g x dx ( =

, provided that and f g
are integrable on
[ ]
, a b



4.12 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
If a function f is continuous on the interval [ ]
, a b , then

( ) ( ) ( )
b
a
f x dx F b F a =

Where F is any function such that ( ) ( ) F x f x = for all x in
[ ]
, a b