3G 02 Cellular

Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
National Sun Yat-sen University Institute of Communications Engineering

The Cellular Concept
System Design Fundamentals
2
Table of Contents
Frequency Reuse
Channel Assignment Strategies
Handoff Strategies
Prioritizing Handoffs
Practical Handoff Considerations
Interference and System Capacity
Power Control
Trunkingand Grade of Service
Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular Systems
TrunkingTheory
Frequency Reuse
4
Cellular System Design Considerations
To solve problems of spectral congestion and user
capacity.
Replacing a single, high power transmitter with many
low power transmitters.
Neighboring base stations are assigned different groups
of channels so that the interference between base
stations is minimized.
Available Channels are distributed throughput the
geographic region and may be reused as many times as
necessary.
With fixed number of channels to support an arbitrarily
large number of subscribers.
5
Concepts of Frequency Reuse
6
Cellular Networks and Frequency Reuse
One important characteristic of cellular networks is
the reuse of frequencies in different cells.
By reuse frequencies, a high capacity can be achieved.
However, the reuse distance has to be high enough,
so that the interference caused by subscribers using
the same frequency (or an adjacent frequency) in
another cells is sufficiently low.
To guarantee an appropriate speech quality, the
carrier-to-interference-power-ratio (CIR) has to
exceed a certain threshold CIR
min
which is 9 dB for
the GSM system.
7
Hexagons
Hexagonal cell shape has been universally adopted.
The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the
footprint and is determined from field measurements or
propagation prediction models.
Base stations can be placed at:
The cell center center-excited cells omni-directional
antennas.
The cell vertices edge-excited cells sectored directional
antennas.
8
Reuse Factor
Reuse Factor = i
2
+ij+j
2
; i,j are non-negative integers.
Due to the fact that the hexagonal geometry has exactly six equidistant neighbors
and that the lines joining the centers of any cell and each of its neighbors are
separated by multiples of 60 degrees, there are only certain cluster sizes and cell
layouts which are possible.
9
Co-channel Neighbor Cells
Move i cells along any
chain of hexagons.
Turn 60
o
counter-
clockwise and move j cells.
For example:
N=19: i =3, j =2;
N=12: i =2, j =2;
N=7; i =2, j =1;
11
FixedChannel Allocation
DynamicChannel Allocation
Hybrid Channel Allocation
Borrowed Channel Allocation
12
Fixed Channel Assignment
Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice
channels.
Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by
the unused channels in that particular cell.
Probability of blocking is high.
13
Dynamic Channel Assignment Strategy
Channels are not allocated to different cells permanently.
Each time a call request is made, the serving base station
requests a channel from the MSC.
The MSC allocates a channel to the requested cell following
an algorithm that takes into account the likelihood of future
blockingwithin the cell, the frequency of use of the candidate
channel, the reuse distanceof the channel, and other cost
functions.
MSC only allocates a given frequency if that frequency is not
presently in use in the cell or any other cell which falls within
the minimum restricted distance of frequency reuse to avoid
co-channel interference.
14
Dynamic Channel Assignment Strategy
MSC has to collect real-time data on channel
occupancy, traffic distribution, and radio signal
strength indications (RSSI) of all channels on a
continuous basis.
Reduce the likelihood of blocking at the expense of
increasing the storage and computational load.
15
Borrowing Strategy
Modified from fixed channel assignment strategies.
A cell is allowed to borrow channels from a
neighboring cell if all of its own channels are already
occupied.
The MSC supervises such borrowing procedures and
ensures that the borrowing of a channel does not
disrupt or interfere with any of the calls in progress in
the donor cell.
Handoff Strategies
17
Handoff / Handover
In a cellular network, the process to transfer the ownership of
a MS from a BS to another BS.
Handoff not only involves identifying a new BS, but also
requires that the notice and control signals be allocated to
channels associated with the new base station.
Usually, priority of handoff requests is higher than call
initiation requests when allocating unused channels.
Handoffs must be performed successfully and as infrequently
as possibleand be imperceptible to the uses.
18
Handoff / Handover
Handover Occasions
Bad signal quality on current channel
noise or interference
Traffic overload in current cell
load balancing
Handover Indicator: The parameters to monitor to
determine HO occasion
RSSI, in ensemble average sense.
Bit Error Rate (BER)/Packet Error Rate (PER), more accurate.
19
Handoff / Handover
Need to specify an optimum signal level to initiate
a handoff.
Minimum useable signal for acceptable voice
quality at the base station receiver is normally
taken as between -90 dBmto -100 dBm.
If is too large, unnecessary handoffs may occur.
If is too small, there may be insufficient time to
complete a handoff.
useable minimum handoff
Pr Pr

=
20
Illustration of a handoff scenario at cell
boundary
21
Illustration of a Handoff Scenario at Cell
Boundary
Figure (a) demonstrates the case where a handoff is not
made and the signal drops below the minimum
acceptable level to keep the channel active.
The dropped call event in figure (a) can happen when
there is an excessive delay by the MSC in assigning a
handoff or when the threshold is set too small for the
handoff time the system.
Excessive delays may occur during high traffic
conditions due to computational loading at the MSC or
due to the fact that no channels are available on any of
the nearby base stations.
22
Handoff / Handover
During handoff, it is important to ensure that the drop in
the measured signal level is not due to momentary
fading and that the mobile is actually moving away from
the serving base station.
The base station monitors the signal level for a certain
period of time before a hand-off is initiated.
The time over which a call may be maintained within a
cell, without hand-off, is called the dwell time.
23
Handoff in 1st Generation Cellular Systems
Signal strength measurements are made by the base
stations and supervised by the MSC.
Base station monitor the relative location of each user.
Locator receiver is used to determine signal strengths of
users in neighboring cells and is controlled by the MSC.
Based on the information from locator receiver, MSC
decides if a handoff is necessary or not.
24
Handoff in 2nd Generation TDMA Systems
Handoff decisions are mobile assisted.
In mobile assisted handoff (MAHO), every mobile
measures the received power from surrounding base
stations and reports the results to the serving base station.
MAHO enables the call to be handed over at a much
faster rate.
25
Handoff or Handover
Mobile Assistant Handover more efficient.
GSM:
MS monitors all BSs
MS reports the measurements to the BS
MSC makes decision
USDC (IS-54/136):
BSsmonitor all MSs.
When a MS is leaving the cell, the BS sends it a measurement order
The MS begins its measurement and reports
MSC makes the Handover decision.
26
Handover Algorithms (IS-95 vs. WCDMA)
Basic IS-95 handover algorithm uses
absolute thresholdalgorithm.
WCDMA handover algorithm users
relativethresholdalgorithm.
27
Absolute Threshold Handover
Th_Add
Th_Drop
Time
Eb/No
Neighbor
Set
Candidate
Set
Active
Set
Neighbor
Set
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
28
Basic IS-95 HO Algorithm
1. Pilot strength exceed T_Add. MS sends a Pilot Strength
Measurement Messageand transfers pilot to the Candidate Set.
2. BS sends a Handover Direction Message.
3. Mobile station transfers pilot to the Active Set and sends a
Hanover Completion Message.
4. Pilot strength drops below T_Drop. MS starts the handover drop
timer.
5. Handover drop timer expires. MS sends a Pilot Strength
Measurement Message.
6. BS sends a Handover Direction Message. MS moves pilot from
the Active Set to the Neighbor Set and sends a Handover
Completion Message.
29
Problems with Absolute Threshold
Algorithm
Some locations in the cell receive only weak
pilots (requiring a lower handover threshold).
Some locations in the cell receive a few strong an
dominant pilots (requiring a higher handover
threshold).
30
Relative Threshold HO
Strongest Pilot in Active Set
Ec/Io
Window_Add
Window_Drop
T_Drop T_Add
Time
MS_Ec/Io
MS AS
MS
AS_Th
AS_Th_Hyst
AS_Th_Hyst
31
Active vs. Monitored Set
Active Set (AS): User information is sent from all
these cells and they are simultaneously demodulated
and coherently combined.
Monitored Set (MS): Cells, which are not included in
the active set, but are monitored according to a
neighboring list assigned by the UTRAN.
32
Soft Handover Algorithm
(for Active Set limit = 2)
AS_Th -AS_Th_Hyst
AS_Rep_Hyst
AS_Th+ AS_Th_Hyst
Cell 1 Connected
CPICH 1
CPICH 2
CPICH 3
Time
Ec/No
T

T

T
Event A
Add Cell 2
Event B
Replace Cell 1 with Cell 3
Event C
Remove Cell 3
33
Intersystem Handoff
Intersystem handoff happens when a mobile moves from
one cellular system to a different cellular system.
The MSCsinvolved in the two cellular systems are
different.
Compatibility between the two MSCsmust be
determined.
34
Prioritizing Handover
Guard Channel Concept : Use reserved guard channel
for handover.
Disadvantage: Reducing the total carrier traffic.
Queuing of Handover Requests: To prevent forced
termination by queuing the request.
Queuing of handoffs is possible due to the fact that there is a
finite time interval between the time the received signal level
drops below the handoff threshold and the time the call is
terminated due to insufficient signal level.
35
Practical Handover Consideration
Problem 1: Simultaneous traffic of high speed and low
speed mobiles.
Small cell high speed mobile frequent handoff
large cell Reduce capacity
Solution: Umbrella Cell - Cell Split or Hierarchical Cell
Structure
By using different antenna heights and different power levels,
it is possible to provide large and small cells which are co-
located at a single location.
Small cell for low speed mobile
Large cell for high speed mobile
Need Strength Detection and Handoff control.
36
The Umbrella Cell Approach
37
Practical Handover Consideration
Problem 2: Cell Dragging
Caused by pedestrian users that provide a very strong signal to
the base station.
Often occurs in an urban environment when there is a line-of-
sight (LOS) radio path between the subscriber and the base
station.
As the user travels away from the base station at a very low
speed, the average signal strength does not decay rapidly and
the received signal at the BS may be above the handoff
threshold, thus a handoff may not be made.
Creates a potential interference and traffic management
problem.
Solution: Careful arrangement of handoff threshold and
radio coverage parameters.
38
Handoff Control Parameters
6~12 dB (AMPS) 0~6 dB (GSM)
Typical time to make a handoff once the signal
level is blow the handoff threshold : 10 sec (AMPS)
1~2 sec (GSM)
The faster handoff process supports a much greater
range of options for handling high speed and low speed
users and provides the MSC with substantial time to
rescue a call that is in need of handoff.
useable minimum handoff
Pr Pr

=
39
Handoff Miscellaneous
Intra-frequency Handoff: handoffs in the same
system and carrier.
Inter-frequency Handoff: handoffs between same
systems and different carriers.
May be used for handoff between different cell layers of
the multi-layered cellular network, when the cell layers use
different carrier frequencies.
Inter-system Handoffs: handoffs between different
systems.
Inter-frequency and inter-system handoffs may be
used for coverage or load balancing reasons.
40
Frequency Utilization with WCDMA
Frequency
Power
5.0-5.4 MHz
5.0-5.4 MHz
4.2-5.0 MHz
4.2-5.0 MHz
Operator band 15 MHz
3 cell layers
Another UMTS
operator
Another UMTS
operator
Uplink: 1920-1980 MHz
Downlink: 2110-2170 MHz
41
Intra-Frequency Handoff
Hard Handoff: assign different radio channels during a
handoff.
Soft Handoff: the ability to select between the
instantaneous received signals from a variety of base
stations.
Soft handoff exploits macroscopic space diversity provided by the
different physical locations of the base stations.
Softer Handover: A mobile station is in the overlapping
cell coverage area of two adjacent sectors of a base
station.
Interference and System Capacity
43
Interference
The major source limiting cellular system capacity
comes from interferences (as oppose to noise).
Interference has been recognized as a major
bottleneck in increasing capacity and is often
responsible for dropped calls.
Major Types of Interference:
Co-Channel Interference
Adjacent Channel Interference
Intra-Cell Type
Inter-Cell Type
44
Co-channel Cells and Interference
In a given coverage area, there are several cells that use the
same set of frequencies. These cells are called co-channel
cells.
The interference between signals from co-channel cells is
called co-channel interference.
Unlike thermal noise which can be overcome by increasing
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), co-channel interference
cant be overcome by simply increasing the carrier power
because an increase in carrier power increases the interference
to neighboring co-channel cells.
To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cells must be
physically separated by a minimum distance.
45
Hexagon
R r =
2
3
R
r
2 2
( ) 3 3
Cell Area 6 2 3
2 2
r R
R r
= = =
R r =
2
3
R
46
Hexagon
A cell centered at (u,v)
v
u
v u y
u u x
rj ri v u
o
o
+ = + =
= =
=
2
) 30 sin(
2
3
) 30 cos(
) 2 , 2 ( ) , (
i=3
47
Distance between (u
a
, v
a
) and (u
b
, v
b
)
For special case (distance from origin)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2
2
2 2
2 2 2
( ) ( )
3 3

2 2 2 2

(2 ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
ab a b a b
a b
a b a b
a b a b a b a b
a b a b a b a b
D x x y y
u u
u u v v
u u v v u u v v
r i i j j i i j j
= +

= + +

= + +

= + +

2 2
2 D r i j ij = + +
Hexagon Distance
48
Hexagonal Cluster
Hexagonal Cluster
Each cluster is surrounded by six similar clusters with the
same orientation
Each cluster has a total area equivalent to what can be
called a super-hexagon
view a cluster as a hexagon
2 2
2 D r i j ij = + +
49
Super-Hexagon Concept
D=Frequency Reuse Distance
( )
( )
2
2
2 2
'
2
2 3 '

2 3

Cluster Size
Super Hexagon
Cell
D
R
A
N
A
R
r
i j i j
=
=
=
= + +
=
D
R
50
Co-Channel Reuse Ratio
The signal to co-channel interference ratio is independent of the
transmitted power and becomes a function of the radius of the
cell (R) and the distance between centers of the nearest co-
channel cells (D).
Co-channel Reuse Ratio Q : The spatial separation between co-
channel cells relative to the coverage distance of a cell.
N R
N r
j i j i r D
3
2
2
2 2
=
=
+ + =
N
R
D
Q 3 = =
R r =
2
3
51
CO-Channel Reuse Ratio
Small Q Small N Large Capacity
Large Q Large N Small Level of Co-Channel Interference
52
Co-Channel Signal to Interference Ratio (SIR)
SIR: Signal to Interference Ratio.
Consider only first tier interference.
Assuming all interfering BSs are equal-distance.
=
=
0
1
i
i
i
I
S
I
S
N R 3
0
0 0
1
( 3 )
Worst Case SIR=
n n n
t
i n
n
t i
i
PR R N
i D i
Pd

=
=
Example: i
0
=6, n=4
N=3 SIR=11.3 dB
N=7 SIR=18.7 dB
n
r
d
d
P P
=
0
0
(Mobile)
53
7-Cell Co-channel Signal to Interference
Ratio
An approximation of the exact geometry.
54
7-Cell Co-Channel Signal to Interference
Ratio An Approximation
2( ) 2( ) 2
n
n n n
S R
I D R D R D

=
+ + +
( ) ( )
4 4
4
1
2 1 2 1 2
S
I
Q Q Q

=
+ + +
55
Adjacent Channel Interference
Adjacent channel interference results from imperfect
receiver filterswhich allow nearby frequencies to leak
into the passband.
Adjacent channel interference can be minimized through
careful filtering and channel assignments.
Channels are allocated such that the frequency
separation between channels in a given cell is
maximized.
56
Near-Far Effect
A nearby transmitter (which may or may not be of
the same type as that used by the cellular system)
captures the receiver of the subscriber.
Alternatively, the near-far effect occurs when a
mobile close to a base station transmits on a channel
close to one being used by a weak mobile. The base
station may have difficulty in discriminating the
desired mobile user from the close adjacent channel
mobile.
Power Control
58
Power Control for 2G Cellular Systems
Power levels transmitted by subscriber unit are under
control by the serving base stations.
Power control is to ensure that each mobile transmits the
smallest power necessary to maintain a good quality link
on the reverse channel.
Power control not only helps prolong battery life for the
subscriber unit, but also dramatically reduces the reverse
channel S/I in the system.
59
Power Control in 3G (WCDMA)
Tight and fast power control is perhaps the most
important aspect in WCDMA in particular on the
uplink. Without it, a single overpowered mobile
could block a whole cell.
Near-Far problem of CDMA: A MS close to the base
station may be overpowered and block a large part of
the cell.
Power control in WCDMA:
Open-loop power control
Close-loop power control
Inner-loop power control
Outer-loop power control
60
Open Loop Power Control in WCDMA
Attempt to make a rough estimation of path loss by
measuring downlink beacon signal.
Disadvantage: Far too inaccurate, because fast fading is
essentially uncorrelated between uplink and downlink,
due to the large frequency separation of uplink and
downlink band of the WCDMA FDD mode.
Open-loop power control is used in WCDMA to provide
a coarse initial power setting of the MS at the beginning
of a connection.
61
Outer Loop Power Control in WCDMA
To adjusts the target SIR setpoint in the BS according
to the individual radio link quality requirements,
usually defined as BER or FER.
The required SIR for FER depends on the mobile
speed, multipathprofile, and data rate.
Should the transmission quality is decreasing, the
Radio Network Controller (RNC) will command the
Node B to increase the target SIR.
Outer loop power control is implemented in RNC
because there might be soft handover combining.
62
Base station performs frequent estimates of the
received Signal-to-Interference Ratio (SIR) and
compares it to a target SIR.
If the measured SIR is higher than the target SIR, the base
station will command the MS to lower the power.
If SIR is too low, it will command the MS to increase its
power.
The power control is operated at a rate of 1500 times
per second.
Inner-loop Power Control in WCDMA
Uplink
63
Inner-loop Power Control in WCDMA
Downlink
Adopt same techniques as those used in uplink.
Operate at a rate of 1500 times per second.
There is no near-far problem in downlink.
Purposes for downlink closed-loop power are:
Provide a marginal amount of additional power to MS at
the cell edge as they suffer from increased other-cell
interference.
Enhancing weak signals caused by Rayleigh fading at low
speeds when other error-correcting methods (interleaving
and error correcting codes) doesnt work effectively.
Trunking and Grade of Service
65
Trunking System
Trunking system: A mechanism to allow many user to
share fewer number of channels.
Not every user calls at the same time.
Penalty: Blocking Effect.
If traffic is too heavy, call is blocked!!
Small blocking probability is desired.
There is a trade-off between the number of available
circuits and blocking probability.
66
Grade of Service (GOS)
Erlang: The amount of traffic intensity carried by a
channel that is completely occupied.
For example, a radio channel that is occupied for 30
minutes during an hour carries 0.5 Erlangsof traffic.
Grade of Service (GOS) is a measure of the ability of a
user to access a trunkedsystem during the busiest hour.
GOS is typically given as the likelihood that a call is
blocked, or the likelihood of a call experiencing a delay
greater than a certain queuing time.
67
Definitions of Terms Used in Trunking
Theory
Set-up Time: The time required to allocate a radio
channel to a user.
Blocked Call: Call which cant be completed at
time of request, due to congestion.
Holding Time: Average duration of a typical call.
Denoted by H (in second).
Traffic Intensity: Measure of channel time utilization,
which is the average channel occupancymeasured in
Erlangs. This is a dimensionless quantity and may be
used to measure the time utilization of single or
multiple channels. Denoted by A.
68
Definitions of Terms Used in Trunking
Theory
Load: Traffic intensity across the entiretrunkedradio
system, measured in Erlangs.
Grade of Service (GOS): A measure of congestion
which is specified as the probability of a call being
blocked (ErlangB), or the probability of a call being
delayed beyond a certain amount of time (ErlangC).
Request Rate: The average number of call requests
per unit time. Denoted by second
-1
.
69
Computation of GOS
A
u
=H
A
u
: each user generate a traffic intensity of A
u
Erlang
: average number of call request per unit time for each
user.
H : average duration of a call.
A=UA
u
A: Total offered traffic intensity.
U: Total users in a system.
A
c
=UA
u
/C
C : #of channels in a trunckingsystem
A
c
: traffic intensity per channel
70
Computation of GOS
There are two types of trunkedsystems:
No queueingfor call requests:
for every user who requests service, it is assumed there is no setup time
and the user is given immediate access to a channel if one is available.
If no channels are available, the requesting user is blocked without
access and is free to try again later.
Called blocked calls cleared.
GOS: ErlangB formula determines the probability that a call is blocked.
A queue is provided to hold calls which are blocked.
If a channel is not available immediately, the call request may be
delayed until a channel becomes available.
Called blocked calls delayed.
GOS: ErlangC formula gives the likelihood that a call is initially
denied access to the system.
71
Blocking Probability -- ErlangB Formula:
There are infinite number of users.
Call requests are memoryless; both new and blocked users
may request a channel at any time.
Service time of a user is exponentially distributed
Traffic requests are described by Poisson model.
Inter-arrival times of call requests are independent and
exponentially distributed.
GOS
k
A
C
A
blocking
C
k
k
C
= =
=0
!
!
] Pr[
AMPS cellular system is designed
for a GOS of 2% blocking.
Trunked Systems with no Queuing for
Call Requests blocked calls cleared
72
ErlangC Formula the likelihood of a call is initially
denied to access a channel:
+
= >
1
0
!
1 !
] 0 Pr[
C
k
k
C
C
k
A
C
A
C A
A
delay
) ) ( exp( ] 0 Pr[
] 0 | Pr[ ] 0 Pr[ ] Pr[
H t A C delay
delay t delay delay t delay
> =
> > > = >
Trunked Systems with Queuing for Call
Requests Blocked Calls Delayed
73
The average delay D for all calls in a queued system is
given by:
The average delay for those calls which are queued is
given by:
A C
H
delay D
> = ] 0 Pr[
A C
H
Trunked Systems with Queuing for Call

Requests Blocked Calls Delayed
74
Erlang B Chart
75
Erlang C Chart
76
Trunking Efficiency
Trunking Efficiency is a measure of the number of users
which can be offered a particular GOS with a particular
configuration of fixed channels.
The way in which channels are grouped can
substantially alter the number of users handled by a
trunkedsystem.
From Table 3.4, for GOS=0.01
10 trunkedchannels can support 4.46 Erlangs.
Two 5 trunkedchannels can support 2x1.36=2.72 Erlang.
10 trunkedchannels support 64% more traffic than two 5
channel trunks do.
Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems
78
System Expansion Techniques
Adding New Channels
Frequency borrowing
Cell Splitting
Sectoring / Sectorization
Change of Cell Pattern
Coverage zone
79
Cell Splitting
Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested
cell into smaller cells, each with its own base station and
a corresponding reduction in antenna height and
transmitter power.
Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system
since it increases the number of times that channels are
reused.
80
Cell Splitting
Cell splittingsmall cells (microcells)
Same
service
area
More cells in the service area, more capacity.
81
Cell Splitting
Cell Splitting
(Hot Spot)
82
Transmit Power for Split cell
The transmit power of the split cell must be reduced.
For example, if new cell radius is half of that of old cell
and the path loss exponent n = 4:
n
t r
R P P

1
boundary] cell old at [
n
t r
R P P

) 2 ( boundary] cell new at [
2
boundary] cell old at [ boundary] cell new at [
r r
P P =
16
1
2
t
t
P
P =
83
Sectoring
The technique for decreasing co-channel interference
and thus increasing system capacity by using directional
antennas is called sectoring.
The factor by which the co-channel interference is
reduced depends on the amount of sectoring used.
#of antenna , #of handover , trunkingefficiency
84
Sectoring
85
Sectoring
86
Chang of cell Pattern
N=7, C
T
/7 channels per cell N=3, C
T
/3 channels per cell
high SIR low SIR (by-product)
87
A Novel Microcell Zone Concept
88
A Novel Microcell Zone Concept
Any channel may be assigned to any zone.
When a mobile travels from one zone to another, there is
no handover.
A given channel is active only in a particular zone.
Thus interference is reduced and capacity is increased.
Without the degradation in trunkingefficiency.
89
Summaries of Improving Capacity in
Cellular Systems
While cell splitting increases the number of base stations
in order to increase capacity, sectoring and zone
microcellsrely on base station antenna placements to
improve capacity by reducing co-channel interference.
Cell splitting and zone microcell techniques do not
suffer the trunkinginefficiencies experienced by
sectored cells, and enable the base station to oversee all
handoff chores related to the microcells, thus reducing
the computational load at the MSC.
Trunking Theory
91
Introduction
There are two major classes of trunkedradio systems:
Lost Call Cleared (LCC)
Lost Call Delayed (LCD)
Lost Call Cleared system
Queueing is not provided for call requests.
When a user requests service, the user is given immediate
access to a channel if one is available.
If no new channels are available, the call is blocked without
access to the system. The user is free to try the call again later.
Calls are assumed to arrive with a Poisson distribution.
The time between successive calls is exponentially distributed.
The ErlangB formula describes the grade of service (GOS) as
the probability that an user will experience a blocked call.
92
Introduction
Assumed that there are infinite number of users.
Assume that all blocked calls are instantly returned to an
infinite user pool, and may be retried at any time in the future.
Lost Call Delayed system:
Queues are used to hold call requests that are initially blocked.
When a channel is not immediately available, the call request
may be delayed until a channel becomes available.
The ErlangC formula gives the likelihood that all channels are
in use. It is also necessary to know the probability of how
long the cal must be delayed before a channel is available.
The GOS is measured by the probability that calls will have
delayed greater than t seconds.
Assume that all calls in the queue are eventually serviced.
Erlang B Formula
94
Basic Assumptions
Call requests are memoryless, implying that all users,
including blocked users, may request a channel at any
time.
The probability of a user occupying a channel (call the
service time) is exponentially distributed.
Traffic requests are described by a Poisson distribution
which implies exponentially distributed call inter-arrival
times.
Inter-arrival times of call requests are independent of
each other.
There infinite number of users and there are finite
number of channels available in the trunkedpool.
95
Derivation of Erlang B
Consider a system with C channels and U users.
Let be the total mean call arrival rate per unit time for the
entire trunkedsystem (average number of call requests per unit
time over all channels and all users).
Let H be the average call holding time (average call duration).
If A is the offered load for the trunkedsystem, A=H.
The probability that a call requested by a user will be blocked is
given by:
Pr[Blocking]=Pr[Noneof the C channels are free]
Calls arrive according to the Poisson distribution:
( ) ( ) { } ( )
Pr for = 0, 1, 2...
!
n e
a t a t n n
n
+ = =
96
a(t) is the number of call requests (arrivals) that have occurred
since t = 0.
The Poisson process implies that the time of the nth call arrival
and the interarrival times between successive call requests are
mutually independent.
The interarrival timesbetween call requests are exponentially
distributedand mutually independent, and the probability that the
interarrival time will be less than some time s is given by
Pr(
n
s)=1-e
-s
, s0 where
n
is the interarrival time of the nth
arrival and
n
=t
n+1
-t
n
, where t
n
is the time at which the nth call
request arrived.
The probability density function for
n
is:
( )
, 0.
n
n n
p e

=
97
For every t 0 and0
where O() is the probability of more than one call request
arriving over the time interval and is a function ofsuch that
The probability of n arrivals in seconds is given by:
( ) ( ) { } ( )
( ) ( ) { } ( )
( ) ( ) { } ( )
Pr 0 1
Pr 1
Pr 2
a t a t O
a t a t O
a t a t O

+ = = +
+ = = +
+ =
( )
0
lim 0
O

=

( ) ( ) { } ( )
Pr
!
n e
a t a t n
n
+ = =
(A)
98
The user service time is the duration of a particular call that has
successfully accessed the trunkedsystem.
Service times are assumed to be exponentially distributedwith
mean call duration H, where =1/H is the mean service rate.
The probability density function of the service time is
where s
n
is the service time of the nth call.
This trunkingsystem is called an M/M/C/C queueing system. The
first Mdenotes a memorylessPoisson process for call arrivals,
the 2nd Mdenotes an exponentially distributed service time, the
first C denotes the number of channels available, and the last C
indicates a hard limit on the number of simultaneous users that
are served.
( )
n
s
n
p s e

=
99
Consider a discrete time stochastic process {X
n
|n=0, 1, 2,} that
takes values from the set of nonnegative integers, so that the
possible states of the process are i=0,1, 2, . The process is
said to be a Markov chain if its transition from the present state i
to the next i+1 depends solely on the state i and not on previous
states.
At time k, the number of calls (occupied channels) N
k
in the
system may be represented as N
k
= N(k), where N is a discrete
random process representing the number of occupied channels.
The transition probability P
i,j
, which describes the probability of
channel occupancies over a small observation interval, is given
by
{ }
, 1
Pr |
i j k k
P N j N i
+
= = =
100
Using Equation (A) and letting 0, we obtain:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
, 1
, 1
,
1
1 1
0
1
, 1, 1
oo
ii
i i
i i
i j
P O
P O i
P O i
P O i
P O j i j i j i

= +
= +
= +
= +
= +
101
At steady state, we have theGlobal Balance Equation:
As a result, we have:
1
,
n n
P n P n C
=
0
1
C
n
n
P
=
=
1
2
0
1 2 1 0
0 0 0
1 1
0
0
1 1

2 2
1 1
! 1 1
! !
1
1
!
n n
n i
n
C C
n n i
i i
n
C
n
P P n
P
P P P P
P P P P n P P
n i
P
n

= =
=
=

= = =

= = = =

=

102
The probability of blocking for C trunkedchannels is:
The total offered traffic is A=H=/. The Erlang B formula
which gives the probability of blocking can be obtained by:
0
0
1
! 1
!
1
!
C
C
c
n
C
n
C
P P
C
n
=

= =

0
1
!
1
!
C
c
C
n
n
A
C
P
A
n
=
=

Erlang C Formula
104
Derivation of Erlang C
Assumption: if an offered call cant be assigned a channel, it
is placed in a queue which has an infinite length.
The ErlangC formula is derived by assuming that the trunked
system is a M/M/C/D queue, where C denotes the maximum
number of simultaneous users and D is the maximum number
of calls that may be held in the queue for service.
105
From the state diagram:
1 1
1 1
0
0
1
for for
1
for for
1

!

1 1

!
k k k k
k k k k
k
k
k
k C
P k P k C P P k C
k
P C P k C P P k C
C
P k C
k
P
P k C
C C

= =

= =

106
( )
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
Since =1, we have:
1 1
1 ...... .... 1
!
1 1 1
1 1
! !
1

1 1 1
! !
1
k
k
C
C C
k k
C
k C
k k c
k C
C
k
P
P
C
C
P
k C C
P
k k
C

=
+
+

= =
=

+ + + + =

+ + =

=

+

107
[ ]
0
0
0
channels are busy
1 1
!
1 1
!
1 1
1
!
1
r k
k C
k
k C
k C
C k C
k C
k C
C
P C P
P
C C
P
C C
P
C C
C
=
=

=

=

= <

108
Substituting for P
0
[ ]
1
0
1
0
1
! 1
channels are busy
1
1 1 1
! !
1
1
! 1
!
C
r
k C
C
k
C
C k
C
k
C
P C
C
k k
C
C
C k
=

=

+

=

+

109
With A=/=H, the Erlang C formula is given by:
[ ]
1
0
Pr channels are busy
! 1
!
C
k
C
C
k
A
C
A A
A C
C k
=
=

+

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Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.

National Sun Yat-sen University Institute of Communications Engineering

Trunked Systems with Queuing for Call

Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.

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