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Calculus I 5
Calculus I 5
1 : a > 0, n a 1
n
. 2 : n n 1
n
. 3 : xn > 0, xn x
n
np + a
xn
p1 + + a
. 4 : P (n) = a0
1n
p1 n + ap ,
Q(n) = b0 nq + b1 nq1 + + aq1 n + aq
P (n)
a0
p = q
Q(n) n b0
P (n)
0
p < q
Q(n) n
x1 ,
6x1
x2 ,
x3 ,
x2 ,
x3 ,
x4 , x5 ,
6x4
6x5
xn1 , xn2 ,
y1 ,
y2 ,
: k nk
x6 ,
x7 ,
x8 ,
x9 ,
x6 ,
x7 ,
xn3 , xn4 ,
y3 ,
y4 ,
6x8
x9 ,
...
...
x n5 , . . .
y5 ,
...
.1:
xn
x
: { n n 1}
yk = xnk
x
n
o
n2
n2 1
Bolzano Weierstrass
( ) A
. 2:
( )
x1 ,
6x1
x2 ,
x3 ,
x4 ,
x5 ,
x6 ,
x7 ,
x8 ,
x9 ,
x2 ,
x3 ,
6x4
6x5
xn1 , xn2 ,
y1 ,
y2 ,
: k nk
x6 ,
x7 ,
xn3 , xn4 ,
y3 ,
y4 ,
6x8
x9 ,
...
...
x n5 , . . .
y5 ,
k N
m N : {k m}
{nk m}
m N
k N : {m nk }
k m nk m
...
.1:
xn
x
: { n n 1}
yk = xnk
x
n
o
n2
n2 1
.1:
xn
x
: { n n 1}
:
n
xn
yk = xnk
x
n
o
n2
n2 1
o
x
nk > N ()
|xnk x| <
( ) A
Bolzano
Weierstrass
. 2
( )
:
I
I
x
n N, xkn : x
xkn x.
n
1
1
< xkn < x +
n
n
xn xn xn+1
xn xn xn+1
xn xn
. 1
xn xn sup{xk }kN
n
: xn xn+1 K. ,
` n `
xn = L R,
L = lim xk = max{x1 , x2 , . . . , xm }
k
. R 3 M = sup{xk }kN
( R !) sup
> 0, k N : m < xk m
xn n > k
xk xn m < m +
m < xn < m +
xn m
n
. 1
xn xn inf{xm }mN
n
. 2
xn
lim xnk = x xn xn x
n
.
xnk ( ) ,
x = sup {xnk }. x supremum
kN
xn xn xn+1
xn xn xn+1
xn
. 1: xn
xn sup{xk }kN
. 1: xn
xn inf{xm }mN
. 2: xn lim xnk = x xn
k
xn
n
1 n
I . xn = 1 +
n
n
X
n 1
1
n n(n 1) n(n 1)(n 2)
xn =
=
+
+
+
+
=
1
+
` n`
n
2!n2
3!n3
nn
`=0
n
n
X
n(n 1)(n 2) (n ` + 1) X 1
1
2
3
`1
=
=
1
1
1
1
`!
n
n
n
n
`! n`
1
1+
n
n
`=0
`=0
I xn+1 > xn
xn+1
`1
1
=
n+1
`=0
n
X
1
1
2
3
`1
=
1
1
1
1
+
`!
n+1
n+1
n+1
n+1
n+1
X
1
`!
1
1
n+1
1
2
n+1
1
3
n+1
`=0
1
(n + 1)n+1
k
1
n+1
n
X
1
I . yn =
`!
k
> 1
n
`=0
I yn+1 > yn
xn+1 > xn
I x n yn
I yn
xn
1
1
1
=
`1
`!
2 3 4`
2
1
1
1
xn < yn = 1 + 1 + + + +
=
2
3!
n!
1
= 1 + 1 + 12 + + n1 <
2
1
< 1+
1 =3
1 2
I xn e yn e
e e
n
n
k
X
1
1
2
3
`1
I n,k =
1
1
1
1
`!
n
n
n
n
`=0
I n,k xn e
n,k yk
n
I yk e
lim yk = e e
k
I e = e !
lim
1
1+
n
n
X
1
=
k!
k=
I
I
I
n
n
1
1
1
n
1
1
2
2
2
n
n
n
nn
1
n
1 2
1
n
n e1
1
=
n
n
1
1+
nn
k
ek
kN
1+
n
n
n
k
1+
ek/`
n
`n
n
1+
= e = sup {eq , q Q, q }, > 0
n
I 1
I
I . xn =
1
1+
n
n
, xn+1 > xn
n
X
1
, yn+1 > yn
I . yn =
`!
`=0
I xn yn
I yn
xn
I xn e yn e
e e
n
n
k
X
1
1
2
3
`1
I n,k =
1
1
1
1
`!
n
n
n
n
`=0
I n,k xn e
n,k yk
n
I yk e
lim yk = e e
k
n
1
P
1
I e = e ! lim 1 +
=
n
n
k=0 k!
n
1
e1
n n
k n
ek
I 1+
n n
k n
ek/`
I 1+
n
`n
n
I 1+
e = sup {eq , q Q, q }, > 0
n
n
I
CAUCHY
n
o
xn Cauchy
> 0 N () :
n > m > N ()
|xn xm | <
n
o
n
o
xn x xn Cauchy
n
n
o
n
o
xn Cauchy xnk x xn x
k
n
o
n
o
xn Cauchy xn x
n
n
o
n
o
xn Cauchy xn x
n
n
o
n
o
xn Cauchy xn x
n
n
o
n
o
xn xn Cauchy
.
,
|xn xm | >
1 1
1
+ + +
2 3
n
1
1
1
xn = 1 + 2 + 2 + + 2
2
3
n
xn = 1 +
|xn+1 xn | < k|xn xn1 | k < 1 ! xn
xn Cauchy
CAUCHY
n
o
xn Cauchy
> 0 N () :
n > m > N ()
|xn xm | <
n
o
n
o
xn x xn Cauchy
n
n
o
xn x
n
n>m
n
xn
|xn x| <
0
0 > 0 N 0 (0 ) = N 2 :
|xn xm | < 0
n
o
xn Cauchy xnk x
k
n
o
xn x
n
xn Cauchy
xnk x
k
> 0 N1 () :
n > m > N1 ()
|xn xm | <
> 0 N2 () :
k > N2 ()
|xnk x| <
n
o
0 = 2 N 0 (0 ) = max N1 (), N2 () n > nk > N 0 (0 )
|xn x| |xn xnk | + |xnk x| < 2 = 0
n
o
0 > 0 N 0 (0 ) > 0 :
xn x
0
0
0
n
n > N ( )
|x xn | <
n
o
n
o
xn Cauchy xn x
n
n
o
xn Cauchy
Bolzano
xn
n
o
n
o
xn Cauchy xn x
n
xn
,
n
o
xn Cauchy
|xn xm | >
1 1
1
+ + +
2 3
n
xn = 1 +
.
x2n xn =
1
1
1
n
1
+
+ +
>
=
n+1 n+2
n+n
n+n
2
xn = 1 +
1
1
1
+
+ + 2
22 32
n
.
1
1
1
+
+ + 2
(m + 1)2 (m + 2)2
n
1
1
1
m(m+1)
+ (m+1)(m+2)
+ + n(n1)
=
1
1
1
1
1
= m m+1 + m+1 m+2 + + n1 n1
1 1
= m
+1
1 + + n1
6 1 n1
m+1
m+1
m+2
1
1
= m
n1 < m
:
> 0 N () =
xn xm =
Cauchy
I R
I Q
1
. x1 = 2, xn+1 = 2 xn +
2
xn
xn Q xn
2 6 Q
Q
Cauchy /
R.
R= Cauchy- Q
Constructive
Peano
m
N
Cauchy-
Axiomatic
, ,
m
R
1-hereditary
m
N
. (Stolz)
an
`
bn n
n
P
bk > 0
bk
k=1
n
P
xn
k=1
xn x
x
n
n
n
1 + 2 + 3 3 + n n
n
n
n
1 + 2 k + 3 k + nk
1
kN
n k + 1
nk+1
p
xn+1
` n |xn | `
xn n
n
..
lim
n5 3n3 + 8 = 1
n
P
k=1
n
P
k=1
ak
bk
(Stolz):
an
`
bn n
n
P
bk > 0
k=1
:
an
`
bn n
m
P
bk
n
ak
k=1
n
P
bk
k=1
(` ) bk < ak < (` + ) bk
n
P
(` )
n
P
n
P
bk <
k=m+1
n
P
ak < (` + )
k=m+1
n
P
bk
k=m+1
m
P
n
P
n
P
bk <
ak <
ak + (` + )
bk
k=1
k=m+1
k=1
k=m+1
o k=1
nP
n
n
m
m
P
P
P
bk + (` )
bk <
ak (` )
ak <
k=1
k=1
k=1
k=1 o
nP
m
m
n
P
P
<
ak (` + )
bk + (` + )
bk
k=1
k=1
nk=1
o
n
m
m
ak + (` )
k=1
<
m
P
ak (`)
n
P
bk
k=1
k=1
ak (`+)
n
P
bk
m
P
bk
k=1
bk
k=1
k=1
n
P
+ (` ) <
ak
<
bk
k=1
+ (` + )
k=1
lim
nP
m
k=1
ak (` )
n
P
m
P
k=1
bk
k=1
lim
bk
nP
m
k=1
+ (` )
ak (` + )
n
P
bk
n
P
lim k=1
n
n P
m
P
k=1
bk
ak
bk
k=1
+ (` + )
k=1
n
n
P
bk = +
lim
n k=1
n
P
k=1
n
n P
(` ) lim
ak
bk
(` + )
k=1
n
P
k=1
n
P
k=1
ak
bk
:
p
xn+1
` n |xn | `
xn n
n
:
|xn+1 |
`
|xn | n
> 0
m > N1 ()
N1 () > 0 :
|xm+1 |
`<
<`+
|xm |
|xm |
(`+)m
n = m + k > m
|x
|x
n
m
m
(` )n (`)
m < |xn | < (` + )
m
(`+)
q
q
p
|xm |
|xm |
n
|xn | < (` + ) n (`+)
(` ) n (`)
m <
m
q
q
p
|xm |
|xm |
n
n
(` ) lim
lim
|xn | (` + ) lim n (`+)
m
m
(`)
n
n
n
p
(` ) lim n |xn | (` + )
n
p
n
|xn | `
n
n
o
xn
n
n > N (R)
xn > R
xn +
n
xn n
n
o
xn
n
n > N (R)
xn < R
xn xn Cauchy
xn 0 {xn }nN
n
C > 0 : n
3
|xn | < C
|a| < 1 an 0
n
() xn 6= 0, | xxn+1
| k < 1
n
n
xn 0
n
xn x xnk x
n
(Bolzano-Weierstrass): ( )
xn xn sup{xk }kN
n
xn
lim xnk = x xn
k
xn x
n
lim
10
11
(Stolz):
1+
x`
P
x n
= ex =
n
`=0 `!
an
`
bn n
bk > 0
n
P
k=1
bk
p
xn+1
` n |xn | `
xn n
n
n
P
k=1
n
P
k=1
ak
bk
Sn =
n
P
ak ,
k=1
Sn S S
n
SN Cauchy
n=1
k=1
ak
P
n
ak <
|Sn Sm | =
k=m+1
an an 0
n
:
P
an 0
an
n
P
1
. an =
0
n n
n=1
1
n
P
|ak |
k=1
(Comparison test)
|bn | an ,
n=1
an
bn
n=1
0 an bn ,
n=1
an =
n=1
bn =
(Ratio test)
an
n=1
an+1
<1
lim
n
a
n
an+1
>1
lim
n
an
an+1
=1
lim
n
an
(Root test)
an
n=1
1
2
p
lim n |an | < 1
n
p
lim n |an | > 1
n
p
lim n |an | = 1
n
an
an bn . lim
= ` 6= 0
n bn
n=1
bn
an
n=1
an
an bn . lim
= 0
n bn
n=1
bn
n=1
an
(Condensation test)
0 < an+1 < an :
o
n P
o
n P
2k a2k
an
n=1
k=1
P
1
p>1
np <
n=1
p>1
n=2
1
n(ln n)p
<
(Alternating Series
Test)
0 < an+1 < an an 0 :
n
n P
o
(1)n+1 an
n=1
(1, 2, . . . , k, . . .) (1 , 2 , . . . , k , . . .)
k nk N : max {1 , 2 , . . . k } < nk
bm = am
P
an
n
P
bn .
n
a11
a21
a31
a41
a12
a22
a32
a42
a13
a23
a33
a43
a14
a24
a34
a44
amn = `
m,n=0
P
P
amn = `
m=0
n=0
Sn =
n
P
ak ,
k=1
Sn S S
n
SN Cauchy
n=1
k=1
ak
P
n
|Sn Sm | =
ak <
k=m+1
an an 0
n
.
Cauchy
> 0, N () : n > N ()
an 0
n
:
P
an 0
an
n
. an =
1
0
n n
n=1
1
n
P
|ak |
k=1
.
{ }
(
> 0,
> 0,
k=m+1
n
X
k=m+1
|ak | <
)
n
X
ak <
k=m+1
(Comparison test)
|bn | an ,
n=1
an
bn
n=1
() :
P
n
a <
n > m > N ()
k=m+1 k
n
n
X
X
|bk |
ak
an
n=1
> 0,
k=m+1
> 0,
k=m+1
N () :
n
P
k=m+1
|bk | <
bn
n=1
0 an bn ,
n=1
an =
n=1
bn =
n=1
an =
n
X
k=1
bk
n
X
k=1
ak > R
n=1
bn =
n
P
k=1
ak > R
(Ratio test)
an
n=1
an+1
<1
(i) lim
n
a
n
an+1
>1
(ii) lim
n
an
an+1
=1
(iii) lim
n
an
(i)
an+1
= c < 1 = 1c , n0 :
2
n
an
lim
n > n0
1c
an+1 < (c +
) |an |
2
|an | <
c+1
2
n
an0
n
c+1
2
P
<1
( )
|an | .
c+1
2
n
an+1
f1
= f > 1 =
(ii)
lim
, n0 :
2
n a
n
n > n0
f1
an+1 > (f
) |an |
2
|an | >
f+1
>1
2
f+1
2
n
an0
n
f+1
2
an
(Root test)
an
n=1
p
(i) lim n |an | < 1
p n
(ii) lim n |an | > 1
n
(iii) lim
p
n
|an | = 1
P
n
an
(Condensation test)
0 < an+1 < an :
n P
o
n P
o
an
2k a2k
n=1
k=1
.
S2k+1 1 = a1 + (a2 + a3 ) + (a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 ) +
{z
}
| {z } |
2
4
+ (a8 + a9 + a10 + a11 + a12 + a13 + a14 + a15 )
|
{z
}
8
++
+ a2k + a2k +1 + a10 + a2k +2 + + a2k+1 1
{z
}
|
k
2
a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + 8a8 + + 2k a2k = Tk
Tk S2k+1 1
Sn
Sn .
Tk
a1
=
+ a2 + 2a4 + 4a8 + + 2k1 a2k
2
2
a1 + a2 + (a3 + a4 ) + (a5 + a6 + a7 + a8 ) +
++
+ a2k1 +1 + a2k1 +2 + + a2k = S2k
Sn S2k
Tk .
P
1
n=2 n ln n
P
1
2
n=2 n(ln n)
P 1
r > 1,
r
n=1 n
r 1
(Alternating Series
Test)
0 < an+1 < an an 0 :
n
n P
o
(1)n+1 an
n=1
.
Sn =
n
P
(1)k+1 ak
k=1
n
n
P (1)n
ln n
n
P
(1)n sin
n
n
P
an
n
P
bn .
n
.
:
(1, 2, . . . , k, . . .) (1 , 2 , . . . , k , . . .)
k nk N : max {1 , 2 , . . . k } < nk
:
S` = |a1 | + |a2 | + + |a` | ,
bm = am Tk Snk . Snk
Cauchy
Tk
Cauchy, .
,
.
X
X
Tk Snk
lim Tk lim Snk
bn
an
k
an bn ,
X
X
an
bn
n