,

anastop@physics.upatras.gr


,
, .
. ( , )
. , ,
1950,
.
, ,
. ,
.
.
,
. : ( 3 ),
( 4 )
.

2013-14. . (. 1-3) ( ) (. 4-9) .
40% .
, 2014
X. A

 0.

ii

1
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Poisson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Liouville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4
1.4.5 . . . . . . . . .
1.4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 . . . . . .
2 A
2.1 K . . . . . . . .
2.2 . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 . . . . . . .
2.4 ; . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

3 B
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4 . . . . . .
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1
3.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

1
1
3
3
4
5
5
6
6
8
11
13
15
17
18

.
.
.
.

21
21
24
26
29

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

37
37
39
39
40
43
46
47
47
48
51
52

4
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1
4.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

57
57
57
58
59
59
61
61
62
67
67
68
69
70
71
72
73

5
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.2 . . . . . . .
5.1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.1
5.5.2 . . . . .
5.5.3 . . . . . . .
5.5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8.1 qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8.2 . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8.3 . . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

77
77
77
78
79
80
80
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
89
91
95
96
98
100
100
103
106

.
.
.
.

111
111
111
112
112

6
6.1 . . .
6.1.1 . . . .
6.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2
iv

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

6.3

6.4

6.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.3 . . . . . . . .
6.2.4 . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1 qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 Wigner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4.1 Wigner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.2 Kennard-Robertson. . . . . .
6.4.3 . . . . . . . . .

7
7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 . . . . . . . .
7.4 . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 . . . . . .
7.5.1 qubit . . . . . . . .
7.5.2 . . . . . . . . .
7.5.3 . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6
7.6.1 . . . .
7.6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7 . . . .
7.7.1 . . . . . .
7.7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7.3 . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

8
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.3
8.2.4 . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1 . . . . . . .
8.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1 qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . .
v

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

112
114
117
121
123
123
124
127
129
129
130
132

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

137
137
139
140
142
143
143
144
144
145
145
146
148
148
149
150

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

153
153
154
154
155
156
157
159
159
161
163
163
164
165

. ,
9
9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 K . . . . . .
9.2.1 . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.3 . . . . . .
9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.1 qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2 . . .
9.4 . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5.1 - . . .
9.5.2 - . .
9.5.3 . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.1 Hermite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.2.1 H .
.2.2 Laplace . . . .
.3 Laguerre . . . . . . . . . .

vi

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

169
169
172
172
172
173
175
175
177
177
181
182
183
184

.
.
.
.
.

189
189
190
190
190
192

 1

,
, .
.
, ,
.
, .

. ,
,
. ,
.

1.1

,
1687, 20
. .
1. .
t R
( )
x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) R3 ,
.
2. , ( ). N t N ri , i = 1, 2, . . . , N .
, ,
N ri (t).
3. . , ri (t) 2o
mi

d2 ri
= Fi
dt2
1

(1.1)

. ,

1.1:

mi i,
,
Fi i.
4. ,

Fi (rj ),
Fi =

(1.2)

j=i

Fi (rj ) j i.
o
Fi (rj ) = Fj (ri ).

(1.3)

N 3N .
, ri (0) r i (0)
ri (t) t R.
()
. t0
t (
).
1.1. Laplace

. , ,
,
,

 1.
.

.
P.S. de Laplace, (1801).

1.2
1.2.1

.
(, ) ,
,
.
, . ,
, .
N . 3 qa , a = 1, 2, . . . , 3N . q a
Q . qa
, Q = R3N .
i pi = mi r i . N
3 , pa . a
, pa
qa .
3N 3N
,
, .
,

= (q1 , p1 , . . . , q3N , p3N ).
= R6N
N ( ).
H :
R,
3N

p2a
+ V (q1 , q2 , . . . , q3N ),
H(qa , pa ) =
2m
a
a=1

(1.4)

V : Q R .
E .
.
,
. .

. ,

qa =

H
pa

pa =

H
qa

(1.5)

qa =

V
,
qa

(1.6)

(1.1), Fa =
V /qa .
E . (1.5)
H.
, (1.4),
.

1.2.2

Poisson

N
, F : R,
F (qa , pa ).
)
) (
( F
F
F H
F H

F =
qa +
pa =

= {F, H},
(1.7)
qa
pa
qa qa pa qa
a
a
Poisson F G
,
)
( F G
F G
{F, G} :=

.
(1.8)
qa qa pa qa
a
Poisson
{qa , qb } = 0
{pa , pb } = 0
{qa , pb } = ab ,
ab Kronecker
{
1 a = b
ab =
.
0 a = b

(1.9)
(1.10)
(1.11)

(1.12)

Poisson
1. {G, F } = {F, G} ()
2. {F, GH} = {F, G}H + {F, H}G ( Leibniz)
3. {{F, G}, H} + {{H, F }, G} + {{G, H}, F } = 0 ( Jacobi),
F, G H .
Poisson
.
4

 1.

1.2.3

Liouville

Liouville .
U , U . ,
,
.
[U ] U

[U ] :=
d3N qd3N p.
(1.13)
U

.
U t qa pa , t + t
qa = qa + tH/pa pa = pa tH/qa .

(qa , pa )
= 1.
(qa , pa )

(1.14)

o U t + t

(qa , pa ) 3N 3N

3N 3N
[U ]t+t =
d qd p =
d qd p
U
U (qa , pa )

=
d3N qd3N p = [U ]t .

(1.15)

,
. Liouville.
Liouville
. , .
,
.

1.3

. 19 ,
. Faraday Maxwell
, ,
.
, E B.
q F ( Lorentz)
F = q(E + v B),
v .
5

(1.16)

. ,
Maxwell
E =
B = 0
1 B
c t
(
)
1 E
B =
+j ,
c t
E =

(1.17)
(1.18)
(1.19)
(1.20)

, j c .
, = j = 0 Maxwell

2 E =

1 2E
.
c2 t2

(1.21)

E(x, t) = E0 eikxit ,

(1.22)

E0 , k . . (1.21)

= c|k|.

(1.23)

(1.22) . (1.17) = 0 k E0 = 0.
,
. E .

1.4

,
. .

o
, ,
.

1.4.1

. , . ,
o Lorentz- Heavyside,
: 0 = 0 = 1.
e = 0, 54 1013 m3/2 kg 1/2 /s.

 1.
, .
. , 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 6.
A = B = 5 6. {1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, {5},
{6}, A {1, 3, 5} B {5, 6}.
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
.
. . (
). .
.
A A = A,
A A A = A A = .
A B , A B = .
.
.
1.1 . 36 1 6.
= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),
(3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6),
(5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)}.
,
1. A = = {(6, 6)} (1 ).
2. B = = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} (2 )
3. C = = {(1, 5), (5, 1), (2, 4), (4, 2), (3, 3)} (5 )
4. D = = {(1, 6), (6, 1), (2, 5), (5, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3)} (6 )
5. ( ) ( )

(ne-grained) (coarse-grained).
.
. ,
,
32 . ,
, =
{1, 2, X}.

. ,

1.2: .

1.4.2

, ( )
. Prob
A Prob(A) [0, 1]. Prob(A)
A.
.
Kolmogorov
1. A, B , A B = ,
Prob(A B) = Prob(A) + Prob(B).
2. Prob() = 0.
3. Prob() = 1.

= 1 Prob(A),
Prob(A)

(1.24)

A .
B A. B A B B (A B) = A.
Kolmogorov
Prob(A B) = Prob(A) Prob(B)

(1.25)

B A.
,
Prob(A B) = Prob(A) + Prob(B) Prob(A B).
8

(1.26)

 1.
. A = A (A (A B), B = A (A (A B), C = A B
A B C = A B. 1 Kolmogorov, Prob(A B) =
Prob(A (A B)) + Prob(B (A B)) + Prob(A B), (1.26) (1.25).

= {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }, n . n pi = Prob({xi }), i = 1, . . . n,

{xi }.

n

pi = 1.
(1.27)
i=1

n pi

w = (p , p , . . . , p ).
1

(1.28)

Kolmogorov . ,
Prob({x1 , x3 }) = Prob({x1 }) + Prob({x3 }) = p1 + p3 .
f : R
= {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }.
pi ,
,

f : f := ni=1 pi f (xi ).

n- f : f n := ni=1 pi f (xi )n .
f f : (f )2 := f 2 f 2 .
1 2 , 1 = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }
2 = {y1 , y2 , . . . , ym }. ( 1.1, , 1 = 2 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.)
(xi , ya ), i = 1, . . . , n a = 1, . . . m. O
pia := Prob[{(xi , ya )}].
p1i p2a
m

1
(1.29)
pi =
pia = Prob({xi } 2 )
a=1

p2a =

pia = Prob(1 {ya }).

(1.30)

i=1

1 p2a
2 .
1 2 ,
1 2 .
p1i

1.2. 1.1. p = 1/36 36

. A, B, C D 1.1
1
2
1
5
6
1
Prob(A) = , Prob(B) =
= , Prob(C) = , Prob(D) =
= .
36
36
18
36
36
6

. ,


.
.
.
A, B , A B, Prob(A|B),

Prob(A|B) =

Prob(A B)
.
Prob(B)

(1.31)

1.3. 1.1
1.2. D = E =
Prob(D|E).
,
E = {(3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6),
(5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)}.
E 16 . (3,4) (4,3).
Prob(D|E) = 2/16 = 1/8. ,
D E = {(3, 4), (4, 3)},
Prob(DE) = 2/36 = 1/18. Prob(E) = 16/36 = 4/9. Prob(DE)/Prob(E) =
(1/18)/(4/9) = 1/8, .

P(A|B) = P(A), : B A.
P(A B) = Prob(A)Prob(B).
1.4. ( )
7. ,
;
. Ai 7 i , i = 1, 2, 3. 1.2,
7 16 , p(Ai ) = 1 61 = 56 . L
7, L = A1 A2 A3 .
125
.
, Prob(L) = Prob(A1 A2 A3 ) = Prob(A1 )Prob(A2 )Prob(A3 ) = (5/6)3 = 216
W L, Prob(W ) = 1 Prob(L) =
91
1 125
216 = 216 0, 42.
1.5. , 1 p
0 q = 1 p. .
N . Prob(n)
1 n ( 0 N n )

Prob(n) = pn q N n

10

N!
.
(N n)!n!

(1.32)

 1.
1.6. 1.4,
1 : p << 1 N . , N , = N p
.
n
Prob(n) =
n!

N!
(N n)!N n

)(

1
N

)n (
)
N
1
.
N

(1.33)

N , . (1.33) 1, 1 e .
Poisson,
Prob(n) =

n e
n!

(1.34)

Poisson , .

1.4.3

.
. , .
Kolmogorov .
= R,
x (.. ).
R.

Prob(A) =
dxp(x),
(1.35)
A

p(x) p : R+ , :

dxp(x) = 1. p(x) .
R
A : : {0, 1},
{
1 xA
A (x) =
(1.36)
0 x
/A
U R. . (1.35)

Prob(A) =

dxp(x)A (x).

f : R,

f : f := R dxp(x)f (x).

n- f : f n := R dxp(x)f (x)n .
f f : (f )2 := f 2 f 2 .
11

(1.37)

. ,
p(x, y) =
R2 , x y.

p1 (x) = dyp(x, y) p2 (y) = dxp(x, y)

(1.38)
x
y .
1.2.

. Kolmogorov, .
.
An , n = 1, . . . , , An Am = n = m,
Prob(
n=1 An ) =

Prob(An ).

n=1

, .
R,
U
[a, b]

.
. f : R R,
.
, , .
. , . 5 .
, Kolmogorov,
.

1.7. R
.
(xx0 )2
1
pGauss (x) =
e 22 ,
2 2

(1.39)

, x0 .

1 3 . . . (2n 1)
2n ax2
dxx e
=
(1.40)
a
(2a)n

2
dxx2n+1 eax = 0,
(1.41)

n a > 0.

12

 1.

1.3: () = .
.
(1.40, 1.41)
x = x0 ,

x = .

(1.42)

pLorentz (x) =

1
,
2
+ (x x0 )2

(1.43)

x0 .
x = x0 . x (x =
x2 = ).

1.4.4

1.4.2. .
,
, , , .
,
, .
1.

.
. 3
1,
1/(3 + 1) = 1/4. :
13

. ,

.
.
2.
, .
(
) . :
, .
,
. .
3.
.
,

.
.
.
, : .
.
1.
. , N
. , nA . A
nA /N . , N , nA /N Prob(A). (
.)

.
,
.
2. ,
.
Prob(A|B),
.
A B
Prob(A|B) = 1. B A.
B,
14

 1.
( ) A.
B A , Prob(A|B) = 1 ,
0 < << 1.
. ,
. ,
, ,
,
.
. ,
.
.
.
,
. , .
,
,
. .
(.. )
( )
.

1.4.5

(
) .
, .
,
.
,
.
N N .
. 1.2, = R6N .
N . , ( )
. ,

,
,
. .
15

. ,
,
,
. ,
. ,
,
. (
): , , 5m/s
10m/s.

=
=
=

: R+ ,
(q1 , p1 , q2 , p2 . . . , q3N , p3N )d3N qd3N p

(1.44)

d3N qd3N p.
, ,

d3N qd3N p (q1 , p1 , q2 , p2 . . . , q3N , p3N ) = 1.

(1.45)

= (q1 , p1 , . . . , q3N , p3N ) ,

(1.45) d() = 1, d = d3N qd3N p.

( ), Liouville

= {H, },
t

(1.46)

H .
. (1.45) t,
d/dt = 0,
(
)

+
qa +
pa = 0.
(1.47)
t
qa
pa
a
qa , pa (1.5) . (1.8) . (1.46).

Gibbs ,
,
T ,
can () = Z 1 e
16

H()
BT

(1.48)

 1.
kB Boltzmann, Z . (1.45),

H()

Z = de kB T .
(1.49)

dH()eH()
log Z
E =
=
,
H()

de

(1.50)

= 1/(kB T ).

1.4.6

,
() .
.
.
. , 6 .
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
.
, .
C
.

1. C C = , = ( )
2. C = ( ).
. .
( ) . F : R,

F () =

C (),

x ,

(1.51)

C C .
, F : R, C ,
C = { |F () = }.

(1.52)

:
F .
17

. ,

1.4: C
.

1.5

, .
1. . .
, ( ).
2. . F .
(1.52), F
.
3. . .
U ,

Prob(U ) = d()U ().

4. . , (1.5)
Liouville (1.46).
5. .
, . (1.31).
6. . 1 1, 2 2, 1 2
1 2 .
.
( R6 , R6 R6 = R12 .), ,
, , .

18

 1.

1.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2. , 14 ,
. . ;
3. , , . , .

. ( .)
( ) ;
4.
( )
( ). 5% 5
95%.
5 0,05. ; (
.)
5. X.
() 95% X 300 400 GeV .
() X 30% 70% .
() 2016 .
.

1.
( ). (1,2) (2,1)
.
, .

19

. ,
2. :

( ). (1,2) (2,1)
,
(2,2) .
, .
3. ;
1 2.
4. 6 50%,
.
(i) , (ii) , (iii) ;
5. .
p << 1
. t = 0 .
t, t >> ;
p(t), [t, t + t].
6. ( Brown).
. . t
t (x),
1 2 t
t
= D 2,
t
2 x

(1.53)

D .
() . (1.53)
]
[

1
(x x0 )2
t (x) =
0 (x0 ),
dx0 exp
2Dt
2Dt
0 t = 0.

(1.54)

() t = 0 x0 = 0,
x(t) x(t).

, . H. Goldstein,
(, 1980).
, . C.
Anastopoulos, Par cle or Wave: The Evolu on of the Concept of Ma er in Modern Physics (Princeton
University Press, 2008), . 1.-3. , . R. Dugas,
A History of Mechanics (Dover, 2011).
, . M. R. Spiegel, (,
).
, I. Hacking, An Introduc on
to Probability and Induc ve Logic (Cambridge University Press, 2001).
, . C. J. Isham,
Lectures on Quantum Theory (Allied Publishers, 2001), . 4.

20

 2
A
, . ,
,
. - ,
.

2.1

, ,
, .

.
C. N. Yang, Par cle Physics (Princeton University Press, 1961).

:
.
, . , .
.
.
.
. . ,
, ,
.
.
,
. . .
, .
, . : .
21

. ,
.
.
.
,
E . V
[, +] g(V, ),
g(V, ) . 1
g(V, ) =

8V 2
.
2 c3

(2.1)

() V [, + ]
(2.2)

() = g(V, )E.

E
m
H=

p2
1
+ m 2 q 2 .
2m 2

Z =

(2.3)
2
,

. (1.50)

E = 1

(2.4)

() =

8V 2 kB T
.
2 c3

(2.5)

(2.5)


d()
d 2
0

. , . () . 2.1.
. .
.
(Max Planck)
1900. -
(), . .
.
:
, . , , ,
22

 2. A

2.1: ( )
. ,
.

h

n
h, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. h
,
h
= 1.0545 1034 m2 kg/s.
,
. , pn
n
h (n )
pn =

enh
,
Z

(2.6)

Z=

=
enh

n=0

1 eh

(2.7)

(2.6) .

E =

h)enh
n=0 (n
Z

log Z =
.

e 1

(2.8)

()
() =

8V h
3
,
1)
2 c3 (eh

(2.9)

. . (2.9)
1 + h . (2.9)
. 2.2 . h
<< kB T , eh
(2.5).

, : ;
.
23

. ,

2.2: . (2.9) .
a b c.

2.2

(Albert Einstein), (1905)
.
...[ ]
. ,
,
, ,
, .

. , ; (
103 104 .) ,
.
, ,
E=h
.

(2.10)

. k
,
p=h
k.

(2.11)

, .
( 1925) .
.

,
A. Einstein, Ann. Physik 17, 132 (1905).

24

 2. A
. ,
19 .
,
, 20 .
Maxwell.

Compton, (1923).
,
. . (2.10) .
(2.11), ( , . 3)
=

2h
(1 cos ),
me c

(2.12)

, ,
( ) me
. . (2.12) ,
, .
Compton, .
,
. 2.1.
2.1.

2.3.
M (down converter).
.
(1012 1010 )
,
. (
) .
(beam spli er).
: 50% 50% 90o .
D0 , D1 , D2 , .
,
D0 ,
D1 D2 .
,
D1 D2 ,
D1 D2 . D0 D1 D0 D2 , D1 D2 . D1 D2

25

. ,

2.3: (. 2.1 ).
.

2.3

. 1895 Rntgen , 1896 J. J. Thomson H. Bequerel , 1900 . Rutherford F. Soddy
().
, , ,
.

(Rutherford) . H. Geiger .
Marsden, . 2.4. ,
90o .
.

, ( ) .
.
, ,
Coulomb,
.
K . Coulomb,
. ,
. (.
4) 1011 s .
.
(Niels Bohr),
.

26

 2. A

2.4: . .
, ,

.

,
.
.

.

( ).
,
. ,
, .
.
, ,
. ,
h
,
L = n
h, n = 1, 2, . . .

(2.13)

n (2.13) .
(2.13)
. 2 Coulomb me v 2 /r =
e2 /(4r2 ), r
v 2 = e2 /(4me r).

(2.14)

me vr = n
h, (2.14) r
rn =

4
h2 2
n.
me e 2

(2.15)

E = 12 mv 2 e2 /(4r) (2.14) E =
e2 /(8r). r . (2.15)
27

. ,

En =

E1
,
n2

(2.16)

E1 = e4 me /(32 2 h
2 ) 13, 6eV (n = 1). , (2.15) r1 = 0 ,
4
h2
0 =
0, 5 1010 m
2
me e

(2.17)

.
(3.40) .
, .
Em En , n m n < m.

(
)
1
1
h
m,m = Em En = E1

,
(2.18)
n 2 m2

Rydberg 1888.
, ,
.
.
, , ...
.
. ,
.
.
.
.
,
.
. , .
, .

, . , :
(20.3.1913). N. Bohr, Essays 1958-1962 on Atomic Physics and Human
Knowledge (Vintage Books, New York, 1963).

28

 2. A
n
.
( , ) n . En = En+1
En .

En
0, n ,
En

(2.19)

. (2.19) (En /En n1 )

(En /En n1 ).

2.4

, ,
.
1924 ,
(Louis de Broglie).
.
.
E = h
, . , .
.
[
] ,
-.
, .
:
( )
.
. , ,
[..] ,
.

,
.
k (. 2.2)
vg =

.
k

(2.20)

, m
v=

E
p
=
,
m
p

L. de Broglie, Nobel Lecture (12.12.1929)

29

(2.21)

. ,
2

p
E = 2m
. -
, vg = v. E = h
,
(2.20) (2.21)

p=h
k.

(2.22)

(2.22) = 2/|k|

= 2 .
(2.23)
|p|
.
2.2. .
vg
. A(x, t)

A(x, t) = dkA(k)eikxi(k)t ,
(2.24)
k. , A(k) -
k k0 . Taylor,

k = 0 + vg (k k0 ),

(2.25)

0 = (k0 ) vg = (/k)k=k0 . (2.24)

A(x, t) = ei(vg k0 0 )t

dkA(k)eikxivg t ,

(2.26)

|A(x, t)| = |A(x vg t, 0)|.

(2.27)

|A(x, t)|2 ,
(2.27) vg .

d (). ,
, ()
(. 2.3).
2.3. .

, d
. C. Davisson
L. Germer 1927 ( !)
(). -

30

 2. A
d (d 1010 m.)
, 1929 I. Estermann O. Stern
NaCl,
(). 1940, E. O. Wollan
C. Shull .
,
( o )
. 60
, Young
.
().
(), (),
() ().

C48 H26 F24 N8 O8
114 1.298 ().
( 5pm)
( 1nm)!

. ,
.

mP = h
c/G 2 108 kg (G ).
,
!
C. J. Davisson, Bell System Tech. J. 7 , 90 (1928)
I. Estermann and O. Stern, Z. Phys. 61, 95 (1930); I. Estermann, R. Frisch, and O. Stern, Z.
Phys. 73, 348 (1931).
C. Jnsson, Z. Phys. 161, 454474 (1961).
A. Zeilinger, R. Ghler, C. G. Shull, W. Treimer, and W. Mampe, Rev. Mod. Phys. 60, 1067
(1988).
D. W. Keith, M. L. Scha enburg, H. I. Smith, and D. E. Pritchard, Phys. Rev. Le . 61, 1580
(1988); O. Carnal and J. Mlynek, Phys. Rev. Le . 66, 2689(1991).
M. Arndt, et al., Nature 401, 680 (1999)
T. Jumann et al, Nature Nanotechnology 7, 297 (2012)

(. . 2.5),
19 (. 6).
.
, . ,
( ). , .
. ,
. , . ,
. .
31

. ,

2.5: . .
.

. .).

. ,
. .
10.000 ,
50.000 (. . 2.6). ,
.

.
, .
;
( ).
, . , :
,
, . ,
.
.

,
. .

.
.
[A Tonomura et al, American Journal of Physics
57, 117 (1989)] 1 103 s 1, 5 108 m/s.
150km 1, 5m. ,
.

32

 2. A

2.6:
Tonomura.
: ) 8 , ) 270 , ) 2000 , ) 60000
.

(
), , .
,
. .

1. , 19 . ;
2. .
. , . ;
3. . ;

1. L
( ) (/L)3
.
g(V, ) =

33

8V 2
,
2 c3

(2.28)

. ,
V = L3 .
2. (2.9) /T = b
b.
3. . (2.12) .
- E = c p2 + m2e c2 .
4. q a E
Larmor
dE
2q 2 a2
.
=
dt
3c3

(2.29)

r.
E = e2 /(8r). . (2.29)

dr
e4
=
.
3
dt
3c m2e r2

(2.30)

r(0) = r0
(r = 0)
=

m2e c3 r03
.
e4

(2.31)

r0 1010 m,
.
5. (2.21)

E = c p2 + m2 c2 p = mv/ 1 v2 /c2 ).
6. Young (. 2.7).
A1 (t, x) A2 (t, x).
d L -.
()
kd sin , k .
() A, I(y) = |A1 + A2 |2
(
2

I(y) = 4|A| cos

kd sin
2

)
,

(2.32)

y.
()

sin y/L.

34

 2. A

2.7: .

, . H. Kragh, (,
2004). . , (, ), .
1 .
Max
Jammer, The Conceptual Development of Quantum Mechanics, (2nd ed: New York: American Ins tute
of Physics, 1989).
B. L. van der
Waerden, Sources of Quantum Mechanics (Dover, 2007).

, www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/
laureates/1922/Bohr-lecture.html
, www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1929/broglie-lecture.html
- ,
P. Rodger, Physics World, September 2002 (. 15).
M. Arndt and A. Zeilinger, Physics World, March 2005.

Hitachi :
www.youtube.com/watch?v=PanqoHa_B6c
.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=vCiOMQIRU7I.

35

. ,

36

 3
B
,
, . , ,
.
.
, :
.
,
.

3.1

-. , .
. , . ,
.

W. Bragg, 1922.

. Bragg ,
.
(Werner Heisenberg).

nm = [E(n) E(m)]/
h

(3.1)

n m E(n) (
).
n. x(n, t).
The Robert Boyle Lecture 1921, Scien c Monthly 14, 158 (1922).
W. Heisenberg, Zeit. Phys. 33, 879, 1925.

37

. ,
, x(n, t) Fourier

x(n, t) =

xm (n, t)eim(n)t ,

(3.2)

m=

(n) n T (n)
n: (n) = 2/T (n).
x(n, t) ,
n,m = m(n) m n, . (3.2).
Maxwell,
.
, (3.1). x(n, t)
.

. , (3.1).
.
1.
, Anm
m n.
Anm Anm einm t ,

(3.3)

nm (3.1).
2. Anm ,
. 1 . a Anm , a2

Anl Alm ,
Bnm =
(3.4)
l

(3.3). (3.4) . . (
). , Anm
. .
3. Xnm x ,
Pnm p,

(Xnl Plm Pnl Xlm ) = ihnm ,

(3.5)
l

X P
XP P X = ih1.
38

(3.6)

 3. B
.
, .
, .

. , ( )
,
. .
, .
,
. , (Max Born)
Pascuale Jordan
(Paul Dirac) .

3.2

3.2.1
, , .
(Erwin Schrdinger),
.
, (t, x) = eikxit .
E =h
p = h
k E p
k ,

ih t
(t, x) (t, x)
E.

ih x
(t, x)
p.
2

p
E = 2m
(-) m,
(t, x)

ih

h
2 2 (x, t)
(x, t)
=
.
t
2m x2

(3.7)

(3.7) .
; O .
H=

p2
+ V (x)
2m
39

. ,
V (x) ,
2 2 (3.7) ( p2 )
h
2m x2
h
2 2
2m
x2

2m

+ V (x) .
( )
[
]
(x, t)
h
2 2
i
h
=
(3.8)
+ V (x) (x, t).
t
2m x2

.
,
[
]
(r, t)
h
2 2
=
+ V (r) (r, t).
(3.9)
i
h
t
2m

E = h
.

(r, t) = E (r)eiEt/h

(3.10)

. (3.9)
[
]
h
2 2

+ V (r) E (r) = EE (r).

2m

(3.11)

. (3.8), , (x, t) = E (x)eiEt/h

[
]
h
2 2

+ V (x) E (x) = EE (x).

(3.12)
2m x2

3.2.2

m , . (3.12)
V (x) = 12 m 2 x2 ,
]
[
h
2 2
1
2 2
+ m x E (x) = EE (x).

(3.13)
2m x2 2
, ,
.
, . (3.13)
(3.14)

lim (x) = 0.

(3.13)
m, h
,

h
. x = x/x , .
: x =
0

(3.13)

E + (2 2 )E = 0,
40

(3.15)

 3. B
,
=
>>

E
.
h

(3.16)

, . (3.15)
E 2 E = 0.

(3.17)

s = 12 2 , . (3.17) d2 E /ds2 + E = 0,
2
es es . . (3.17) e /2 ,
2
e /2 (3.14).
2
E . (3.15) () = e /2 uE (). . (3.15)
uE 2uE + (2 1)uE = 0.

(3.18)

. (3.18) Hermite. o 3.1,

Hermite (3.14),

1
=n+ ,
2

n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

(3.19)

. (3.18) n Hermite Hn (). Hermite,

. .

n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
)
(
[ m ]
m
2
n (x) = Cn exp
(3.20)
x Hn
x ,
2h
h

Cn . Cn n (x)
: dx|
phin (x)|2 = 1. Hermite (
) |Cn |2 2n n! x0 ,
1 ( m )1/4
.
Cn =
h
2n n!

(3.21)

n (x) 3.1.
( )
1
En = (n + )h.
2

(3.22)

. 12 h

.

41

. ,

3.1: (3.20)
n =

0, 1, 2, . . . , 7.

2
dx|n (x)|

= 1.

3.1. Hermite.
uE () = 0
uE () =

ak k ,

(3.23)

k=0

ak .
uE
uE () =

ak+1 (k + 1) k ,

uE () =

k=0

ak+2 (k + 1)(k + 2) k .

(3.24)

k=0

(3.18) ak
ak+2 =

2(k + 12 )
ak .
(k + 1)(k + 2)

(3.25)

, . (3.25) 2, a0 a1
ak . a0

2l
2l+1
a

.
1
l=0 2l
l=0 a2l+1
1
2 = n, n = 0, 1, 2, . . ., an+2 = 0 (3.23)
n . a0 = 1 a1 = 2
2
Hermite Hn (). E () = e /2 uE ()
(3.14).
, (3.23) .
k
2
, ak+2 /ak 2/k. , e l=0 a2l 2l
a2l = 1/l!. a2l+2 /a2l 1l , ak+2 /ak 2/k,

42

 3. B
2

(3.23). uE () e E ()
2
e /2 . (3.14) .
(3.14) 12 = n (3.22).

3.2.3

(3.11)
, V (r),
r = |r|.
(r, , ), r [0, ), [0, ]
[0, 2]. Laplace
(
)
(
)
1
1

f
1
2f
2
2 f
f= 2
r
+ 2
sin
+ 2 2
(3.26)
,
r r
r
r sin

r sin 2
f (r, , ).

E (r, , ) = R(r)Yml (, ),

(3.27)

Yml (, ) . R(r)
. l m l = 0, 1, 2, . . . m =
l, l + 1, . . . , l 1, l.
(
)
1
Yml (, )
1 2 Yml (, )
2 2 l
r Ym (, ) =
sin
+ 2
sin

2
sin
(3.28)
= l(l + 1)Yml (, ).
. (3.27) . (3.11) R(r)
(
) [ 2
]
h
2 d
h
l(l + 1)
2 dR(r)

(3.29)
r
+
+ V (r) R(r) = ER(r)
2mr2 dr
dr
2mr2
. (3.29) u(r) = rR(r) R(r).

[ 2
]
h2 d2 u(r)
h
l(l + 1)
+
+ V (r) u(r) = Eu(r)
(3.30)
2m dr2
2mr2
. (3.29)
V (r).
, . (3.12),
V (r) = V (r) +

h
2 l(l + 1)
.
2mr2

(3.31)

(3.30) u(r)
l , m.
(
) E (r) 0 . , E r = 0. , . (3.30)
u(0) = 0

lim u(r) = 0

43

(3.32)

. ,
Coulomb ,
Z .
, .

Ze2
V (r) =
,
(3.33)
4r
Z . m
me . ( , , . 2.)
. (3.30 (3.33) h
, me e,
, . . (2.17),
4
h2
(3.34)
me e2
= Zr/0 r, . (3.30)
)
(
2 l(l + 1)

u + +
u = 0.
(3.35)

2
0 =

2me E02
(3.36)
.
h
2Z 2
(3.32). 0, .
(3.35) 2 u = l(l+1), u = l+1 u = l .
(3.32),
.
||

, . (3.35) u + u = 0, u = e

, < 0.
u()

u() = l+1 e || f (),

(3.37)
=

. (3.35)
f + 2(l + 1

||)f + 2(1 (l + 1) ||)f = 0

(3.38)

. (3.38) (3.32) n > l || = n2 . 3.2. . (3.38)

(n l 1)- fnl (). Laguerre. .
, () n, l
m, n = 1, 2, 3, . . ., 0 l < n l m l,
( )
( )l
Z
Zr
Zr
n
r
e 0 fn,l
Ylm (, ),
(3.39)
nlm (r, , ) = Cn,l
0
0
Cn,l .
n

Z 2 e 4 me
,
(3.40)
En =
32 2 h
2 n2

44

 3. B

3.2: Rn,l (r) (3.39)

, n l.

3.2. (3.38)
f () = 0
f () =

ak k ,

(3.41)

k=0

ak .

f () =

k=0

ak+1 (k + 1)k k , f () =

ak k k , f () =

k=0

ak+1 (k + 1) k .

k=0

(3.38) ak

2[ ||(l + 1 + k) 1]
ak+1 =
ak .
(3.42)
(k + 1)(k + 2l + 2)

= 1, a = 0
k = k 1 ||(l+1+ k)
k+1

(3.41) k . n = l+k+1
>
l,
|| = n2 ,

(3.43)

n l 1.

(3.43), (3.42)
k ak+1 /ak = 2 ||/k.

f ()
exp[2 ||]. u()

l+1 e || (3.32)
. (3.32) (3.43)
(3.40).

45

. ,
Laguerre L
n , fnl () = L2l+1
(/n)

nl1
(
a0 =

L2l+1
nl1 (0)

n+l
nl1

)
(3.44)

fn,l ():
f1,0 () =
2
2
f3,0 () = 3(1 + 2 )
3
27

f2,0 () = 2(1 /2)

1
f3,1 () = 6(1 )
9

f2,1 () =
f3,2 () = .

(3.45)

,
nlm r2 sin drdd|nlm |2 = 1.
(
)3
Zr
2
(n l 1)! n
0
nlm (r, , ) =
e
n0
2n(n + l)!
(
)l
(
)
2r
2Zr
2l+1

Lnl1
(3.46)
Ylm (, ).
n0
n0

3.2.4

.
,
, .
, N
[ N
]
h

2 2
i (r1 , . . . , rN ) =
(3.47)
i + V (r1 , . . . , rN ) (r1 , . . . , rN ),
t
2m
i
i=1
mi V (r1 , . . . , rN ) .

.

.
.

. ,
.


. :
.
3. .
. .
1. i.
(x, t), .
.
46

 3. B
2. N , N .
Q = R3N N . , R3 .
3. . (r, t)
(3.9), (r, t) .

, .
3.3.
io 1926 .
,
. ,
, .

.

.
... .
:
, . :
, . ,
,
, ,
.

W. Heisenberg, Quantum theory and its interpreta ons, Quantum

theory and Measurement, eds. J. A. Wheeler and W. H. Zurek (Princeton University
Press 1983).

3.3
3.3.1

, , . : N t = 0, t N (t) = N0 et , .
- .

47

. ,
,
. .
.
n (x)
P i En . X
(x)

P (x) = i (x).
(3.48)
x
, , (3.6) . E

(x, t)xn (x, t)

Xmn =
dxm
(3.49)

Pmn =
dxm
(x, t)(i/x)n (x, t).
(3.50)

X(x)
= x(x),

. X P
(3.10), n (x, t) = n (x)eiEn t/h
mn
mn

,
Xmn (t) = Xmn (0)ei(Em En )t/h

,
Pmn (t) = Pmn (0)ei(Em En )t/h

(3.51)

(3.3).
, , ,
.
.

3.3.2

.
. . , .
,
. ,
x w,

(3.52)

w .

. .
, p = 2
h/.
,
h

p 2 .

(3.53)

w 0, 47/N A N A
. 2
1,45. w = 0, 3
. (3.54) xp > 2h
.

48

 3. B

3.3:
.
. , .
. .

(3.52) (3.53)
xp (2w)h h
.

(3.54)

(3.54) .
. x p
.
(3.54) ,
.
.
.
t. ,
t.
E = E
p = vp, v .
p
t x = vt, . (3.54)

Et > h

(3.55)

.
,
, (3.54) : x p
, x p .
x p
.

49

. ,
,
, . , .
, , . ,
.
,
.
.
, .
,
, , 3.4.
3.4.
(3.55).

. T .
, .
, m1 m2
(1) (2) E = (m1 m2 )c2 .

, E .
t . Et
.
. L. Rosenfeld
:
... .
, ,
. .
.
, , ,
....
.
,
, ,
. ,
. E
m : E = mc2 .
F = mg , m = F /g. pz
( ) F = p/T , T .
E = pz c2 /(T g).
,
W. Heisenberg, Physics and Philosophy (Prometheus Books, New York, 1999).

50

 3. B
.
, z z + z, T T + t ,
t/T = gz/c2 T . z , t
.
Et

pz c2 gzT
= pz z > h
,
Tg
c2

(3.56)

- . ().
Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scien st, P.A.
Schilp editor (Evanston 1949). Quantum theory and Measurement,
edited by J. A. Wheeler and W. H. Zurek. , . A. C. de la
Torre et al, Eur. J. Phys. 21, 253 (2000).

3.3.3

. , .
,
.
:
(x, t) (x, t) = |(x, t)|2
x t. , U R3
, Prob(U, t) U
t

Prob(U, t) =
d3 x|(x, t)|2 .
(3.57)
U

|(r, t)|2
.

d3 x|(x, t)|2 = 1.
(3.58)
(5.2) (3.9).
,
(
)

i
h
2 2

=
+
=
+V
t
t
t
h

2m
(
)
i
h
2 2
i
h 2

+

+V =
( 2 ),
(3.59)
h

2m
2m
. (3.9).
(3.59)

+ JS = 0,
t

(3.60)

ih
( ) .
2m

(3.61)

JS
JS =

51

. ,
U
I

Prob(U, t) =
d2 JS ,
t
U

(3.62)

U U . U = R3 U ,
( ).

(3.63)
d3 x|(x, t)|2 = 0,
t

(5.2) .
,
( ) .
|(x, t)|2
, t. .
Prob(U, t) . . ,
t , |(x, t)|2 .
.

3.4

. (
) 5 Solvay , 1927,
.
,
: . .
. , ,
, 1927. M ,

. ,
.
Solvay
.
.
.
. .
, . ,
.
.

52

 3. B

3.4: .
W. Heisenberg, The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory (Dover, New York, 1949).

:
.
. ,
.
.

. . .
.
, , .
. (J. von
Neumann),
. ,
,
(Hilbert) .

. , ,
, .
,
.
P. Dirac, The Principles of Quantum Mechanics (Oxford University Press, 1930). J. von Neumann, Mathema sche
Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik (Berlin: Julius Springer, 1932).

53

. ,

6 . . 1.5. 3.1.
6 .
,
. ,
.
,
.

.
3.1:

H
H

1.
.
2.
.
3. x p .
4. - , .
5.
JS ;

1.
m V (r) = 12 m 2 r2 .
2. .
(3.47) m M r1 r2 .
V (r1 r2 ) .
rc m + M

54

 3. B
x = r1 r2
V (x),
=

Mm
.
m+M

(3.64)

.
3. m .
[ m
]
(x, t) = C(t) exp
(3.65)
[x q(t)]2 + ip(t)x/h
.
2h

(3.65)
q(t) p(t) .
4. ( )
2
ear a > 0; ,
( ) 1/ cosh(bx), b > 0;

. . 2.
,
. . , , . 5-6.
, . . ,
(, 1978).
J.
A. Wheeler and W. H. Zurek, Quantum Theory and Measurement (Princeton University Press, 1984).

, http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/
laureates/1932/heisenberg-lecture.html
, http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/
laureates/1933/schrodinger-lecture.html
, http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/
laureates/1954/born-lecture.html

55

. ,

56

 4

.
.

. , . .

h
= c = 1.

4.1
4.1.1

.
1. . : 1 (r, t) 2 (r, t) c1 1 (r, t) + c2 2 (r, t)
, c1 c2 . . i
.
2. , .
3. (3.50)
dx (x)(x) (x)
(x).
|(x)|2 .
.
,
. .
57

. ,

4.1.2

,
.
1. V C V
: , V + V ,
: C V
V ,
.
1. , , V ( + ) + = + ( + ).
2. , V + = + .
3. 0 V + 0 = , V .
4. V , V , + () = 0.
5. 1 , 2 C, 1 (2 ) = (1 2 ).
6. V , 1 = .
7. C , V ( + ) = + .
8. 1 , 2 C (1 + 2 ) = 1 + 2 .
2. V V
.
,
.
3. V .
4. V
, H (, )
.
C , , H, ( + , ) = (, ) + (, ). (
).
, H, (, ) = (, ) . ()
H, (, ) 0. (, ) = 0 = 0. ()
, .
1. : (, +
) = (, ) + (, ).

5. V : |||| = (, )
6. D(, ) , V : D(, ) = .
(0) V .

58

 4.

4.1.3

V . V ,
. V
Cn n.
Cn

1
2

=
...
n

(4.1)

, , Cn
(, ) =

i i .

(4.2)

i=0

, . 2, ,
(x).
.
7. V , .
, . 4.1. , V n V ,
V .
.
.

4.1.4

1. l2 = {
i , i = 1, 2, . . .}

, (, ) =
i=1 i i .

i=1

|i |2 <

2. L2 (R, dx)
(x) R (
dx|(x)|2 < )

(4.3)
(, ) =
dx(x) (x).

, L2 (R, dx) .
3. L2 (Rn , dn x) n . L2 (R3 , d3 x) .
59

. ,
4. L2 (U, d(x)) U Rn d(x).
(x)

d(x)|(x)|2 <
U

(, ) =
d(x)(x) (x).

(4.4)

5. , .
L2 (R), L2 (Rn ), .
6.
. , L2D ([0, a]) (x) [0, a]
Dirichlet : (0) = (a) = 0. (4.4) U = [0, a]
d = dx.
7. Q : L2 (Q).
8. V
, . : R V

dx((x), (x)) < , H. H

(1 , 2 ) = dx1 (x), 2 (x).

(4.5)
L2V (R).
4.1.
.
V .
8. {n |n = 1, 2, . . .} V
V . > 0,
< .
N n > N n
,
. , Cauchy,
.
9. Cauchy. {n |n = 1, 2, . . .} V
Cauchy > 0 N n, m > N
n m < .
Cauchy
V . , V R. n (x) = tanh(nx)/(1+x2 ) ,
sgn(x)/(1 + x2 ) x = 0, V .

.

60

 4.
10. V ,
{n V |n = 1, 2, . . .} Cauchy,
V .
,
,
.
11. {n |n = 1, 2, . . .} V
V . V > 0,
)| < .
N n > N |(n , ) (,
. .
, n (x) = sin(nx) L2 ([0, 2])
[0, 2]

(, ) =

dx(x) (x).

(4.6)

n n . (x) limn (n , ) = 0.
{n } 0
w-limn n = 0.

4.2

(4.7)

. .
1.
,
.

. ,

.
.
. 6 1
, .

4.2.1

1, .
, ;
. ,
. ,
, , .
. , ,
.
.

61

. ,
, (J.
W. Gibbs). , ()
,
.
.
, .
.
: .
. .
1 2 .
, 1 , 2 (
). .
: .

.

. , ,
.
.
, . .
.

4.2.2

. H. , H ,
+ ( C) . , ,
.
,
+ . ,
62

 4.

4.1: Mach-Zehnder
( ). + .

, ,
, .
:
.
+
.
E1
E2 , +
E1 E2 . +
E1 E2 .
Mach-Zehnder
. ,
,
.
Mach-Zehnder, 4.1.
Mach-Zehnder
(beam spli er).
( 50%) . , .
. ( )
. .
() (). (
45o ) 90o ( Snell).
i .
63

. ,

i ,

i .

(4.8)

, (4.8).
1
1
(i + ), ( + i ),
(4.9)
2
2

( , ) = ( , ) = 1 ( , ) = 0. 1/ 2
.
U . ( U

.) , 4.1
, 1
,
( + ) i2 ( ).
2
U :
Mach-Zehnder
.
. , .
, .
.
. ,
. , .
5e = 5 7e = 7 .
.
5e +7e ,
5e 7e.
,
.
. , .
:
. . 7
.


.

E. Schrdinger, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 124, 323 (1935). Quantum
Theory and Measurement, J.A. Wheeler and W.H. Zurek, eds. (Princeton University Press, New Jersey 1983).

64

 4.
(
): ,
12 ,
. ,
, .
, .
(
) .

, ....

. (.. ) ,
.
.
.

.
, , .
, Schrdinger .
(. . 4.2), ,
.
, . .

.
, , .
,
.
. . 8,
, , . ()
,
.
. ,
N . , (1015 Kg)
1012 amu .

65

. ,

4.2:
, . () , . . ()
. , , . ()
. ,
, ....(;)

.
. : .
4.2.
4.2. .
.
1. 1996, S. Haroche cole Normale Suprieure (),
= c1 + c2 , . 5-10
.
2. 1996, D. J. Wineland Na onal Ins tute of Standards and
Technology ()

Be+ (x) = [ (x x1 ) + (x x2 )]/ 2,

x = 0.
|x1 x2 | 80nm, -

, 4.2.

66

 4.
7nm,
( 0, 1nm).
.
3. 2000 2002 , Del () Stony
Brooke (), . A
. 1010 ,

103 ().
M. Brune et al, Phys. Rev. Le . 77, 4887 (1996).
C. Monroe et al, Science 272, 1131 (1996).
C. H. van der Wal et al, Science 290, 773 (2000)
J. R. Friedman et al, Nature 406, 43 (2002).
J. I. Korsbakken et al, EPL 89, 30003 (2010).

,
. : ( ) ,
, .
6, .

4.3

, : , , .

4.3.1

, H.
2. ( ) (, ) = 0,
+ 2 = 2 + 2 .

(4.10)

. + 2 = ( + , + ) = (, ) + (, ) + (, ) + (, ) = 2 + 2 .

3. ( Schwarz) |(, ) , = ,
C.
. = 0, . = 0 =
(,)
, . (, ) = (, ) (, )(, )/(, ) = 0,



2
2
 (, ) 2
2

 + 2 = |(, )| + 2 |(, )| .
= 
(, ) 
2
2
2 2 |(, )|2 Schwarz.
h = 0, = = (, )/(, ) C.

Schwarz 1
.
67

(,)

1,

. ,
12. (, ) ,
cos (, ) =

|(, )|
.

(4.11)

4. ( ) | | + + .

2
2
2
. (
+ )2) + 2 =( 2 +
(
) + 2 (, ) (, ) =
Re
(,)
|(,)|
2 1 2 1 0,
Schwarz. + + .
.

5. ( )
(, ) =

)
1(
+ 2 2 + i + i2 i i2 .
4

(4.12)

. .

4.3.2

13. {ei } (ei , ej ) = ij .

14. {ei } H .
(Cn ), o . .
15.
.
.
.
,
.
. , i
{ei } . (i {1, 2, . . . , n})
(i {1, 2, . . .}).
,

n
. i i=1 i=1 .
.

68

 4.

6. ( ) {ei } H, and
= i ci ei , ci C. ci = (, ei ).
. =

ej . , (, ej ) = i ci (ei , ej ) = i ci ij = cj .

i ci ei

7. (
Parseval) {ei } H
H, 2 = i |(ei , )|2 .
. =

i ci ei ,

2 = (, ) =

|ci |2 =

ci cj (ei , ej ) =

ci cj ij

|(ei , )|2 ,

6.

6
=

(, ei )ei .

(4.13)

H {ei } . . (4.13)
.
{ei } {da } H.
Uia = (ei , da ).

(4.14)

.
1. ei =
2.

4.3.3

Uia da ,

Uia Uja
= ij ,

da =

Uia
ei .

Uia Uib = ab . ( Uia .)

H1 H2 .
16. F : H1 H2
1. -- .
2. : F ( + ) = F () + F ().
3. : F () = H1 .
, ,
:
(F (), F ())H2 = (, )H1 .
69

(4.15)

. ,
17. .
.
H n {e1 ,
. . . , en } . n
H =
i=1 ci ei
H Cn , F () = (c1 , . . . , cn ). Parseval
.
n Cn .
H,
{e1 , e2 , . . .}
F : H l2 ,

F () = {c1 , c2 , c3 , . . .}

(4.16)

=
i=1 ci ei . Parseval .

l2 , .

.
. () .
,
.

( ) . , , ,
.

4.3.4

.
H1 H2 ,

c1
d1
d2
c2

H1

=
=
(4.17)
. . . H2 .
...
dm
cn
H1 H2

c1
...

cn

=
(4.18)

d
1

...
dm
. K .
70

 4.
8. Cn Cm = Cn+m .
9. 0 + 0 = H1 H2 .
H1 H2 .
10. ( .) {ei } H1
{oj } H2 , {ei 0, 0 oj }
H1 H2 .

, .
18. H1 H2 H1 H2 ,
H1 H2 , (1 1 ) + (2 2 ) =
(1 + 2 ) (1 + 2 ) (1 1 , 2 2 ) = (1 , 2 ) + (1 , 2 ).

4.3.5

19. V H H
. , V
C, + V .
. V , n V , V . V
.
V .
. . , .
20. Span(S) S H H
a ca a ( ), ca C
a S.
21. V V H
H (, ) = 0
V .
21 V = V . ,
V V = 0.
11. ( ) V H.
H = V + V , V V V V .
V V .

. {ei } V .
H
{wk }

= i (, ei )ei + k (, wk )wk . V = =
V .
(,
e
)e

i i
V
k (, wk )wk , = V + V .
i
V V = V + V .
V V = V V . V V , V V =
V V = 0.

10 11 H = V V .
71

. ,

4.3.6

. H

1
2

=
(4.19)
. . . H,
n
(4.2).
O H H
= (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) .

(4.20)

(, )H =
i i .

(4.21)

1. H
: H C,
H, (f ) = i i i H. H
H.

2. H . (4.19)
= (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) H .
(4.22)

( , )H = (, )H ,
, H.

H H
. , , H = H .
Riesz.
. . 4.3,
.
4.3.
22. H H H,
: H C,
( + ) = () + (),

(4.23)

, H C. H (1 +2 )() =
1 ()+2 () 1 , 2 H , H C.

|()|
= sup
.
(, )
H

72

(4.24)

 4.
, H
( 5).
12. ( Riesz) H,
H () = (, ) H.
. {ei } H. i = (ei ) i,

= i i ei . H, (, ) = i i (, ei ) = i (ei )(, ei ) =

( i (, ei )ei ) = (). .
() = (, )
H, (, ) = 0, H. = ,
= 0, , = .

4.4

Riesz ,
.
,
H ket |. ket
, .. , , . ,

| 4
ket. ket
1
1
|, + |/
2
2
4.2.
H bra |. Riesz,
bra ket.
| H ket |.
Riesz
H braket: |.
ketbra . (||) | = ||.
.
ket = = n 1.
bra = = 1 n.
braket = ( 1 n) ( n 1) = 1 1 = .
ketbra = ( n 1) ( 1 n) = n n = .
{en } |n, n = 1, 2, . . .
, ket. , (3.39) Schrdinger
|n, l, m.
73

. ,

| |n | =
n |nn|f .

1=
|nn|.
(4.25)
n

, o bra ket. , |H H |.
!! To (, ) | , .

, 5.6 . , .
5.6 .

1. ;
2. 1 . 100 .
. ,
1 1023 . ;
3.
. ;
4. : ,
,
. ;

x2 /x, (ii) 1/ x2 + 1,
5.

R;
(i)
e

(iii) eax , (iv)sin(x)/x, (v) 1/ |x|.

1. 0
2. ( ei )
;
[
]
2. qp (x) = C exp (x q)2 /(2 2 ) + ipx L2 (R), C .
() C, qp .

74

 4.
() (qp , q p ).
1

3. p (x) = 12 eipx 2 x . p > 0, = 0.

(p , p ). 0;

Hilbert , . C. J. Isham, Lectures on Quantum Theory

(Allied Publishers, 2001), . 2.
, . L. E. Ballen ne, Quantum Mechanics: a
Modern Development (World Scien c, 1998), . 8.
, . V. Scarani, Quantum Physics: A First
Encounter: Interference, Entanglement, and Reality (Oxford University Press 2006).
, . . ,
(, , 2008), . 1.
N. Young, An Introduc on to
Hilbert Space (Cambridge University Press, 1988) . 1-6 D. W. Cohen An Introduc on to Hilbert
Space and Quantum Logic (Springer, 1989) . 1-4.
, . A. J. Legge ,
Phys. Scr. 2002, 69 (2002) M. Arndt and K. Horberger, Nature Physics 10, 271 (2014).

D. J. Wineland, http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/2012/wineland-lecture.html
S. Haroche, http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/2012/haroche-lecture.html

75

. ,

76

 5

, .
: ,
, . , .
.

5.1
5.1.1

.
23. A H A : H H,
H, A(

+ A,

H A
+ ) = A
, H C.


. .
H
:= A
+ B,
H.
1. . (A + B)
= A,
C H.
2. . (A)
:= A(
B),

3. . (AB)
H.
.
1. H ,
1.
B
C,
(AB)
C = A(
B
C).
()
2. A,
B
C C, A(
B
+ C)
= AB
+ AC
3. A,
+ C)
A = B
A + C A.
().
(B
4. 1 1 = H, 1A = A1 = A
().
A.
77

. ,
5. 0 0 = 0 H, 0A = A0 = 0
A
A + 0 = A,

.
B,
AB
=B
A = 1,
A.
1

B A A .
, (AB)
1 =
13. ( .) A B
1
1
A .
B
.

24. A A,

(A, ) = (, A ), , H.
= cA + B
, A B

(cA + B)
c C.
=B
A .
14. ( ). (AB)

) = (B,
A ) = (, B
A ). (AB,
) = (, (AB)
),
. (AB,
) = (, B
A ) , H.
(, (AB)

{en } H
A
n , em ). =
Amn = (Ae
n cn en .

=
n=
n , em )em =
A
cn Ae
cn (Ae
(
Amn cn )em ,
(5.1)
n

n,m

. A

cm cm n Amn cn {en }. cn ,
Amn
.

Amn = m|A|n.

ket, bra
B
C)
(C B
A,
)
ket. , (A,

A|.

braket |C B

5.1.2

A H.
25. ( ). H
= a, a C, A A.

A ,
c1 + c2 , c1 , c2 H A .
a
Va . a.
A a , . , Va
. Va a.
78

 5.
26. (kernel) A

a = 0. ker(A).

= 0,
A . ( Af
= 0, f = 0). ker(A)
= {0}.
A1 Af
=
15. ( ). A A
a, An An = an , n = 1, 2, 3, . . ..

= a2 . n.
. n = 2, A2 = A(a)
= aA

5.1.3

A
27. A

A
.
H

= sup
A

(5.2)

(supremum) . (5.2) .
, ( )
. .
. .
I
H .
A B
= 0, A = 0.
1. A
= ||A,
C.
2. A
A
, H.
3. A
A
+ B.

4. A + B

B)

. H (A+
= A+
B
A+
B
(A+
B).
(5.2) .

A
B.

5. ( Cauchy-Schwartz.) AB

B,

. AB
A
A
H. (5.2)
.

1. (H = Cn ), n n. . Aij ,
i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n .
2. - . , x(x) = x(x) L2 (R) -.
2
0 (x) = ex /2 L2 (R).
L (x) = 0 (x L) L.

xL /X = X 2 +
2
79

. ,
, L. x
.
- .
. ,

2
2

x L (R) 1/ x + 1
x/ x2 + 1, .
3. DA - A H A . A .
A
), , H. ,
(A,

(x)
=
1/
x2 + 1, 0

x2
2
= e
/ x + 1, > 0.
(
x0 , ) lim0 (
x , ).
4. -
.
5. H B(H).

5.2
5.2.1

AA =
28. (normal) A,

A A.
16. ( ). A , A A
.

2 = ((A
= a. (A a 1)
a 1),

. A
(A a 1)) = ((A a1)(A
a 1), ) = ((A a 1)(A a1), ) = 0, (A a1) = 0.
A = a .

= supi |ai | ai
17. ( ) A , A

A.

2 = (A A,
). A A A (
. A
). 16, A A |ai |2
.
ai A.

O . , .

5.2.2

29. A A = A .
80

 5.
18. ( ) .

= a (A,
) = a(, ) (, A)
= a (, ). (, A)
=
. A
), a = a .
(A,

= a, A
= a ,
19. ( ) A , A
a = a , (, ) = 0.
) = a(, ) (A,
) = a (, ).
. (A,

= a (, ) a , (a a )(, ) = 0.
(, A)
a = a , .

19 ,
{en } .
- .
, Va .
. , .

. Cn , A det(A a1) = 0, a. n
, n . n .
Cn .

5.2.3

30. (unitary) U U = U 1 .
20. () U || = 1.

= = 1. 1 = U

. U
. o U
, U

U

1
2
. = || = 1.

17, U = 1 P .

21. ( ) {ei } {ei }. U ei = U ei , i.

. U

=
U
(, ei )ei .

, ,
U

U
, ) = (U
, U
) =
(U
(, ei )(, ej ) (ei , ej ) =
(, ei )(ej , ) = (, )
i,j

U
= 1. U
U
= 1
U

22. ( )
.
1 U
2 (U
1 U
2 ) = U
1 U
2 U
U

. U
2 1 = U1 U1 = 1.

H
, H
U (H). U n = U (Cn ) U = U (l2 ).
81

. ,

5.2.4

31. P P 2 = P .
23. 0 1.
. 15 , P = , 2 = ,
= 0 = 1.

17, P = 1 P .
H ( = 1),
P P = (, ) H .
P = ||. P
.

n n S = {e1 , . . . , en }.. PS

PS = i=1 (, ei )ei H. PS

. PS = ni=1 |ii| .
. .
24. ( ) ( ) V
H PV , o. ,
V PV
PV = V , V H V
11. V
PV = 1 PV .
P V1 1 P .

5.1.
5.1.
, , ( ) .
,
/ . ,
(, , ) .
A . . (1.36) . ,
1. A. A = 1 A .
2. A B. AB = A B .
3. A, B , A B = .
A B = 0.
4. A AB. AB = A +B
A B .
5. A B, A B = A .
A, B
A, B .
,

82

 5.
.
A .
, (
) .
(),
(, , ).
, .
.

.
:
( C) = (A ) ( C).

. .
.
.
( )
/, .
1. V , V . PV =
1 PV .
2. VA
VB , A VA
VB . PVA PVA = PVB PVA = PVA .
3. A A .
VA VB . , VA VB
0 .
4.
VA VB
: PVA PVB = PVB PVA .
PV1 PV2
PV1 + PV2 PV1 PV2 .
,

.
G. Birkho and J. von Neumann,
Annals of Mathema cs, 37, 823 (1936).

5.2.5

) 0
32. A (A,

H. A , A 0.
25. ( ) -.
) =
. A a < 0, (A,
a(, ) < 0. .

83

. ,
0, A + B
0.
26. () > 0 A 0, B
. .

A B,

33. ( ) A B,

A B 0.
A A 0.
27. A,

) = (A,
A)
= A
2 0.
. , (A A,

5.3

A,

An = AA . . . A,
n .
(5.3)

hn (x) = nk=0 ck xk , n , ck ,

hn (A).
. , . ,
.
, x
f (x) = e hn (x) = nk=1 xk /k!, n .

f (A)
f : R R.
. , fn (x) = (1 + tanh(nx))/2 n 0
{
0 x<0
.
(x) =
(5.4)
1 x>0
,
gn (x) =

1
(fn (x a) + fn (b x))
2

(5.5)

[a,b] (x) [a, b] R.

f :
f (A)
R C .
.
.

: eA =

1 n
n=1 n! A .

: U (A)
U R.

n A.

A:
84

 5.
A A 0. 27,
A,

:= A A.

|A|
=
15 hn (x), hn (A)
= a.
hn (a), A
.
28. ( ) A = a, f (A)
f
A

= f (a).
f (A)

(5.6)

A . R f (x) = g(x)h(x),

= g(A)h(
A).

f (A)

(5.7)

, .
eix eix = 1 (eiA ) = eiA A , eiA
.

, A .
2U = U , U (A)
, f (x) = g(x) , = g(A).

: f (A)
1. (1 x)1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . . |x| < 1,
||A||
< 1,
A,
1 = 1 + A + A2 + A3 + . . . .
(1 A)
+i

2. eix = lim0

+i

iA

dei
x

A,

+i

= lim

(5.8)

+i

1 .
dei ( A)

(5.9)

1 . (5.9) (resolvent) ( A)

A.

5.4

[A,
B]
:= AB
B
A.

34. A B
,
29. ( ) A B
B]
.
C = i[A,
B
A)
= i(B
A AB)
= i[B,
A]
= C.

. C = i(AB

85

. ,
30. ( )
.
1] = 0.
1. [A,
B]
= [B,
A].

2. [A,
B
+ C]
= [A,
B]
+ [A,
C].

3. [A,
B
C]
= [A,
B]
C + B[
A,
C].

4. [A,
[B,
C]]
+ [C,
[A,
B]]
+ [B,
[C,
A]]
= 0. ( Jacobi)
5. [A,
31. ( BakerCampbellHausdor.)
(
)
1
1
1
B

e e = exp A + B + [A, B] + [A, [A, B]] [B, [A, B]] + . . . .

2
12
12


+ 1B
2 + 1 B
3 + . . .) =
. C = log[eA eB ]. eA eB = (1 + A + 21 A2 + 3!1 A3 . . .)(1 + B
2
3!
+ 1 (A2 + B
+ 3AB
2 + B
3 ) + . . ..
2 + 2AB)
+ 1 (A3 + 3A2 B
1 + (A + B)
2
6

log(1 + x) = x 21 x2 + 13 x3 + . . . C.
.
A B
.

32. ( )
A

+ [A,
B]
+ 1 [A,
[A,
B]]
+ 1 [A,
[A,
[A,
B]]]
+ ....
eA Be
=B
2!
3!
sA

. esA Be
Taylor s = 0.

s = 1. Taylor B.

[A, ]. .

x p P ] = i. ,
(3.6), [X,
o L2 (R, dx x(x) = x(x) p = i(x)/x, L2 (R, dx).

n1 .
[
xn , p] = inX

(5.10)

f (x) Taylor
[f (
x), P ] = if (
x).

(5.11)

[
x, f (
p)] = if (
p).

5.5

. , . .
86

 5.
,
().
.
,
, .

5.5.1

. .
A CN . an , n = 1, 2, . . . , N .
|n, |n ei |n.
N

N N |n C ,
1 = n=1 |nn|. ,
A =

an |nn|.

(5.12)

n=1

Aij = i|A|j,
|n
(un )i = i|n, (5.12)
Aij =

an (un )i (un )j ,

(5.13)

n=1

.
A CN
. K , K < N .
5.1.2, an , n = 1, 2, . . . , K Vn ,
an . Dn Vn

K
- , n=1 Dn = K.
Pn Vn
A.
33. ( .)

Pn A,
K
1.
n=1 Pn = 1 ( )
2. Pn Pm = Pn nm ( ).
. n, Dn |n, in , in = 1, 2, . . . , Dn
Vn , n, in |n, jn = in jn . Vn

|n, in n, in | = Pn .
(5.14)
in

19, n, in |m, jm = 0 n = m. Pn Pn = 0 n = m,
.

87

. ,

|n, in
CN : K
n=1 Dn = N .

Dn
K

|n, in n, in | = 1,

(5.15)

n=1 in =1

. (5.14) .

(. . 1.4.6),
. 5.7. (
)
.
, (5.13)
A =

K
Dn

an |n, in n, in | =

n=1 in =1

an Pn .

(5.16)

n=1

28 f ,
=
f (A)

f (an )Pn .

(5.17)

n=1

.
34. ( ) A an Pn ,
1. O .
2. . (5.16).
3. f : R R . (5.17).

1. C3 , . . 5.8.1.
2. C3 /

2 0
0
1 3i .
A = 0
0 3i 1
det(A 1) = 0,
( + 2)(2 2 8) = 0,
= 2 = 4.
= 4

0
1
|4 = i
2
1

88

 5.
= 2

c1
c2 ,
ic2
c1 , c2 C, V2 .
V2


1
0
1
| 2, a = 0
| 2, b = 1 .
2
0
i
= 4

0 (
0
0
0
) 1
1
P4 = |44| = i 0 i 1 = 0 1 i .
2
2
1
0 i 1
= 2
P2 = | 2, a2, a| + | 2, b2, b|


1 (
0 (
) 1
)
= 0 1 0 0 + 1 0 1 i
2
0
i

1 0 0
= 0 21 2i .
1
0 2i
2
A

1 0

A = (2) 0 12
0 2i

0
i
2
1
2

0 0 0
+ (4) 1 0 1 i .
2
0 i 1

eiAx . (5.17)

1 0 0
0 0 0
1

eiAx = e2ix 0 21 2i + e4ix 0 1 i .

2
1
0 i 1
0 2i
2

5.5.2

. ,
, .
p = i/x L2 (R, dx).
k (x) = eikx pk = kk , , . . ,

. ket |k p|k = k|k,
.
89

. ,

ket |k. , , ket |k
.

1. , (A)
(A)
A ( )
A.
( ). ket
|k , .
5.2.
2. ,
ket . 5.3.
, , , p = i/x L2 (R, dx)
.
5.2.
A H
35. (A)
A 1 .
.
, A 1
1. A (A).
, .
2. x
L2 (R, dx). x
1 (x).
(x) (x )1 . ,
x = . , = R + iI ,

|(x)|2
1
1
2
(
x ) = dx

dx|(x)|2
(5.18)
(x R )2 + 2I
|I |2
(x)
x = R . ||(
x )1 || = |I |1 ,
1
(
x ) I = 0. (
x) = R.
= x2 L2 (R, dx). (k) Fourier
3. H

1)1 (x) =

(x). H(x)
= dkeikx k 2 (k), (H

ikx 2
1
dke
(k ) (k). 0 k
1)1 - 0,
. , (H
+

(H) = R .

(A),
1. A p (A)
(A
(point spectrum) . p (A),

1)1 V , V o

A.
A
2. (absolutely con nuous spectrum) c (A)

(A) (A

90

 5.

. c (A)
1)
(A
1)1 .
V H

(A
1)1 V .
.
2 , (x )1 (x) R
() = 0.
, (x) (x)
() = 0 (x) = (x) (x)
[ /2, + /2] .
2 = dx|(x)|2 < c2 , c |(x)|.
2 < ,
(x )1 (x) .
(x )1 (x) . x

.

3. (singular spectrum) s (A)
. , .
= p (A)
c (A)
s (A).

4. (A)
. , A
H, Hp Hc
Hs Ap , Ac As ,
.

5.5.3

.
p = ix H = L2 (R, dx).

1
1
2
fk, (x) = eikx 2 x ,
2

(5.19)

> 0. , ket
|k, . ket |k

1
dx
2
k| = lim k, | = lim eikx 2 x (x)
(5.20)
0
0
2
| H. ,
braket k|
1
ikx

(x): (k) = 2 dxe

(x).
(5.20) .
lim0 (ix fk, kfk, ) = 0.
lim (
p k 1)|k, = 0,

(5.21)

p|k = k|k.

(5.22)

. (5.22)
, . (5.21).
91

. ,

, k, |k , = (k k ),

1 2
e 4 .
() =
4

(5.23)

()
1. () = () 0.
2. lim0 () = 0 = 0. lim0 (0) = .

3. d () = 1. lim0 d n () = 0, n.
4. f (),

lim df () () = f (0).
0

(5.24)

To () 0, ()
. i , ,
.
36. (x),

dxf (x)(x) = f (0)

(5.25)

f 0.
(5.25) .
(5.23). (5.23) ,
. ,
.
lim

0 ( 2

= (x).
+ x2 )

(5.26)

, (5.24)
35. ( .)
1. (x) = (x).

. dx(x)f (x) = dy(y)f (y) = (0) = dx(x)f (x).

f , .

2. (g(x)) =

(xxi )
i |g (xi )| ,

xi g(xi ) = 0.

. U1 dx[g(x)]f (x) U1 x1
y = g(x) 1-1 . y,
dy = g (x)dx = g (g 1 (y))dx.

f (g 1 (y))
f (g 1 (0))
f (x1 )
1
dy(y) 1
= 1
=
=
dx(x x1 )f (x).
|g (g (y))|
|g (g (0))|
|g (x1 )|
|g (x1 )| U
U1

92

 5.
x = xi

dx[g(x)]f (x) =
|g (xi )|1 dx(x xi )f (x)
i

f , .

3. (ax) =

1
(x).
|a|

. 2 f (x) = ax.

4.

dkeikx = 2(x).

1
k2
2
. dkeikx 2 k = e 4 = 2 (x), . (5.23). 0.

, o k, |k ,
0,
k|k = (k k ).

(5.27)

5.3.
. 4.3.6 H H C. Riesz 1-1
.
,
. .
4.1.3 1-1 . .
H H ,
H .
Riesz H = H
H .

(5.28)

|k
. , H = L2 (R)
, |x|a
a > 0. (x) ,

f dx(x)f (x) = f (0),

(5.29)
C.
.
(, H, )
(rigged Hilbert space).

.
36. ( .) |, | L2 (R),

dkk n |kk| = |
pn |,
93

(5.30)

. ,
n = 0, 1, 2, . . ., |k (5.20).

. . (5.20) k| = (2)1/2 dxeikx (x).

n
I =
dkk |kk| = dkdxdx k n (x )eik(x x) (x)

dk

=
dxdx k n eik(x x) (x )(x).
2
35.4,

dk n ikx
dk ikx
n
k e = (ix )
e = (ix )n (x).
2
2

I = dxdx (ix )n (x x) (x )(x). ,

I = dxdx (x x )(ix )n (x )(x) = dx(ix )n (x)(x)

= dx (x)(ix )n (x) = |
pn |.

(5.30) |, | L2 (R),

dkk n |kk| = pn , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
(5.31)

(5.31)

dk|kk| = 1.

2. n = 1 p: dkk|kk| = p.

3. hn (k), dkhn (k)|kk| = hn (

p)
1. n = 0, :

4.
f

dkf (k)|kk| = f (
p)
34, .
|pp| ,
36.
f U U R,

PU = U (
p) =
dk|kk|,
(5.32)
U

( ) U .
PU
1. PU1 PU2 = PU1 U2 .
2. U1 U2 = 0, PU1 + PU2 = PU1 U2 .
3. PR = 1.
PU U R (Projector-Valued-Measure, PVM).
94

 5.

5.5.4

.
A . : H Hc Hd , Hc Hd
.
A
36
.
, . ,
.
R, A.
c (A)

U c (A) PU = U (A),
.
1. PU1 PU2 = PU1 U2 .
2. U1 U2 = 0, PU1 + PU2 = PU1 U2 .
3. PR = 1.
PU
. (5.32).
P , ,
P = P[,+]

(5.33)

0. P , |kk|
, .

1 =

A =

=
f (A)

dP

(5.34)

P d

(5.35)

f ()P d.

(5.36)

1. x
L2 (R, dx)

x
= dxx|xx|,

(5.37)

ket |x
x|x = (x x ).

(5.38)

x ket |
x x = (x x
).
(x)
(x) = x|.

95

(5.39)

. ,
|k
1
x|k = eikx .
2

(5.40)

2. ket | (x) = x|, (k) = k|. , p (x): p(x) =

i
x ,

p| = dkkk||k,
(5.41)
p (k) : p(k) = k(k).
. .
,
.

= p2 L2 (R, dx) h
= dP ,
3. h
0
1
P = (|kk| + | kk|) ,
2
k =

(5.42)

|k ket .

4. L2 (R3 , dx1 dx2 dx3 ) |x1 , x2 , x3 ,

(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x1 , x2 , x3 |.

(5.43)

x1 , x2 , x3 |x1 , x2 , x3 = (x1 x1 )(x2 x2 )(x3 x3 ).

x
i =

d3 xxi |x1 , x2 , x3 x1 , x2 , x3 |.

Px1 x1

Px1 = dx2 dx3 |x1 , x2 , x3 x1 , x2 , x3 |.

(5.44)

(5.45)

Px2 Px3 .
o . - r
, r|r = r|r, r|r = 3 (r r ).

5.6

37. A H

T rA =
n|A|n,
n

n H.
96

(5.46)

 5.
37. .

. |n T r .

n |A|n
n |nn|A|mm|n

T r A =
n

n m,n

=
m|nn|A|m
=
n|A|n
= T rA.
m,n

38.
= T rA + B,
C.
1. T r(A + B)
. .

= T r(B
A).

2. T r(AB)
.
=
T r(AB)

n|AB|n
=

n|A|mm|
B|n

A|m

A).

m|B
= T r(B

3. T r(||) = |.
. T r(||) =

n n||n

= |1| = |.

4. P N - T rP = N .

. P N
i=1 |ii|, |i
N

. T rP = i=1 i|i = N .

5. A = n an Pn , T rA = n an Dn , Dn =
T rPn .
. .

. . , PU = U dk|kk|. ,

T rPU =
dkk|k =
dk(0) = .
U

5.4. Hilbert-Schmidt
HHS H. ,
.
B

38. ( Hilbert-Schmidt) A,
B
= T r(AB
).
A,

||A||HS = T r(A A).

HS < , A Hilbert-Schmidt.
||A||

97

(5.47)

(5.48)

. ,
Schwarz Hilbert-Schmidt
)|2 T r(A A)T
r(B
B).

|T r(AB

(5.49)

Hilbert-Schmidt,
A B
.

A A =
n an Pn ,

HS =
A
Dn |an |2 ,
(5.50)
n

Dn = T rPn .
17 Hilbert-Schmidt
HS A.

(. 21) A
, ,

tr = T r|A|,

(5.51)

A.
A
tr
|A|
.

A,
tr =
A

Dn |an |.

(5.52)

xi x21 + x22 + . . . x2n (|x1 | +

|x2 | + . . . |xn |)2 ,
tr A
HS A

5.7

(5.53)

, , . 1.4.6.

C , .
:= C C

(5.54)
= 1.

f : R,

(5.55)
f (x) =
(x). x .

(5.54) (5.55)
.
1. A H f : R.
2. A f .
98

 5.
3. A C .
4. H .
.
2. A H . , o
A,

A.
, (ne-grained). ,
. (coarse-grained).
A1 . ,
A2 , A3 , ([Aa , Ab ] =
0, a, b = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N ), |n

Aa |n = a,n |n.

(5.56)

|n N - (1,n , 2,n , . . . , N,n ).

.

,
. .
, .
,

. ,
x L2 (R, dx), (
x) = R, n
,
1
1
n = [(n ), (n + )],
(5.57)
2
2
n Z. n xn = n.
.

Pn =
(5.58)
dx|xx|
n

Pn =
dx|xx| =
n

dx|xx| = 1,

dx|xx| =

n n

(5.59)

Pn Pm = mn Pn .
99

(5.60)

. ,

2
. . ,
,
.
,
,

.

A A = n an Pn , Pn

. ,
Q,

|q. Pn
Pn ] = 0
|q + |q q = q . [Q,
A]
= 0. Q
[Q,
.
.
;

; , . , :

.
.
.
. , , , .
. , , .

5.8
5.8.1

qubit

o C2
- . C2
.
,
.
.
1. |0 |1.
|0, |1 .
100

 5.
2. C2 (
).
3.
. ,
R L.
|L, |R
, .
qubit, ,
.
qubit .
Pauli
C2
A = a0 1 +

ai
i,

(5.61)

i Pauli,
(

1 =

0 1
1 0

(
,
2 =

0 i
i 0

(
,
3 =

1 0
0 1

)
.

(5.62)

Pauli
1. (
i )2 = 1.
2.
1
2 = i3 ,
2
1 = i3 .
3.
2
3 = i1 ,
3
2 = i1 .
4.
3
1 = i2 ,
1
3 = i2 .

i
j = 1ij + i

ijk
k ,

(5.63)

k=1

ijk

ijk

(i, j, k) = (1, 2, 3)
1
1 (i, j, k) = (1, 2, 3)
=

0 i, j, k .

(5.64)

qubit B. Schumacher, , [Phys. Rev. A51, 2738

(1995)].

101

. ,

A = a0 1 + i ai
i a+ = a0 + |a| a = a0 |a|,
|a| = a a.
|a+ =

a1 ia2
|a| a3

,
2|a|(|a| a3 )
(
)
1
|a| + a3
.
|a =
a1 ia2
2|a|(|a| a3 )

(5.65)

1
P = |a a | =
2

ai
1

i
|a|
i

)
.

(5.66)

B qubit
n=

a
.
|a|

(5.67)

R3 , S 2 . a0 , |a| .

n qubit i=1 ni
i , n
Pauli
= (
1 ,
2 ,
3 ), (5.61)
A = a0 1 + a ,

(5.68)

1
P = (1 n ) .
2

(5.69)

(5.66)

, (5.63)
(a )(b ) = a b + i(a b) ,

(5.70)

ab=

a i bi

(5.71)

i=1

(a b)k =

3
3

ijk ai bj

i=1 i=1

= (a2 b3 a3 b2 , a3 b1 a1 b3 , a1 b2 a2 b1 ).
102

(5.72)

 5.

qubit,
( )
( )
0
1
,
,
1
0

(5.73)

( ).
|0 |1 , | |+. 0 1
(0 1 ) bit,
1/2. 0 1.

+
,
(
)
(
)
1
0 1
0 0

+ = (
1 + i
2 ) =
(5.74)

= (
+ ) =
.
0 0
1 0
2
|0 |1

+ |0 = |1
+ |1 = 0

|0 = 0
|1 = |0.

(5.75)
(5.76)

+ 0 1
1 0.

.
1. (
)2 = 0.
2.
+
+

+ = 1.
3. [
+ ,
] =
3 .
4. [
3 ,
] = 2
.

5.8.2
. 3.2.2
Schrdinger , () = 0.
.
L2 (R, dx) ( ) x

[
x, p] = i.
p = i x

= 1 p2 + 1 m 2 x2 .
H
2m
2

(5.77)

|n En =
H
1
(n + 2 ), n = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
(5.77)
.
103

. ,

a
=

m
i
x +
p,
2
2m

(5.78)

a
.
.
(5.78)
[
a, a
] = 1
1
= (
H
a a
+ ).
2

(5.79)
(5.80)

(5.79) a
a
. 5.80
N
=a
H
a
, .

] = a
[
a, N

] =
[
a , N
a .

(5.81)

|n = n |n N
. (5.81)
N
|n
a
N
|n = (n 1)
a|n
a
N
|n = (n + 1)
a |n.

(5.82)
(5.83)

a
|n a
|n N
1 |n.
a
a
.
, |,
N
| =
|N
a|2 0.
(5.82) n ,
.
a
N
|n n = 0 n = 0. |0
N
|n = n|n, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .,
a
|0 = 0. , N
n = n.
|n a
|0.
|n = (n + 1).
. n|
aa
|n = n|[
a, a
] + a
a
|n = n|1 + N

a
|n = n + 1|n + 1,
(5.84)

(
a )2
(
a )n
a

|n 2 = . . . = |0.
|n = |n 1 =
n
n!
n(n 1)
n|
a a
|n = n

a
|n = n|n 1.
104

(5.85)

(5.86)

 5.

a
a
.
1. a
.

. a
0. |, a
| = 0, n|
a | = 0,
n 1| = 0, n = 1, 2, . . .. |
, .

a
|w = w|w |w, w = 0. 0|
a = 0, 0 =

0|
a w = w0|w, 0|w = 0.
1|
a = 0|, 1|w = w1 0|w = 0. ( 2|
a 1|,
2|w = 0 n|w = 0. |w,
|w = 0.

2. a
|z = z|z, z C
|z = e

|z|2
2

n n

|z|2 z (
zn
a)
2
|n = e
|0.
n!
n!
n=0
n=0

(5.87)

. |z
=
|z =
z|z .
n=0 cn |n. a

n
(5.86) cn+1 = cn z/ n + 1, cn = c0 z / n!. c0

1 = z|z =

c20

|z|2n
z m z n
2

m|n = c0
= c20 exp(|z|2 ),
n!
n!m!
n=0
m=0 n=0

(5.88)

c0 = exp( 21 |z|2 ).

|z . (5.87) .

1. z|
am a
n |z = (z )m z n m, n = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
. a
.

1
2
2. n|z = e 2 |z| z n / n!.

. , n| = 0|
an / n!.

3. z|z = e 2 |z|
1

2 1 |z |2 +z z
2

. z|z = exp( 12 |z|2 12 |z |2 )

exp[ 21 |z|2 12 |z |2 + z z ].

4.

d2 z
|zz|

m=0 z

n=0

n
n!m! = exp( 12 |z|2 21 |z |2 )
n=0 (z z ) /

m z n m|n/

= 1, d2 z = dxdy z = x + iy, x, y R.

.
2

d z
d2 z
2

Imn :=
n|zz|m =
z n z m e|z| .

n!m!
z = rei r 0 [0, 2],
2

i(mn)
Imn =
de
0

(5.89)

rdr
2

rm+n er .
n!m!

m = n 2. , Inn =
ds n s
= 1, s = r2 . Imn = mn .
0 n! s e

105

. ,
4 . z.

2
2
dz
dz
| =
|zz| =
(z)|z,
(5.90)

(z) = z|.
, A
,

2
dz

A|
=
(5.91)
(z)A|z.

,

z (x) = x|z

|z, z = m/2
q + i/ 2m p, q
p
.
a
|z = z|z
dz
= m(x q) + i
p,
dx

(5.92)

z (x) =

( m )1/4

m(x
q )2
+i
px
2

(5.93)

. (3.20) q eipx .

5.8.3

. 3.2.3
2
= 1 2 Ze r1
H
2m
4

(5.94)

L2 (R3 , d3 x) . (3.39) |n, l, m , n, l m, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .,

H
0 l < n m = l, l + 1, . . . l 1, l. En = E1 /n2
n. Pn n
Pn =

n1
l

|n, l, mn, l, m|,

(5.95)

l=0 m=l

|n, l, m .
, En ,
T rPn =

n1
l

l=0 m=l

1=

n1

(2l + 1) = n(n 1) + n = n2 .

l=0

106

(5.96)

 5.
En H,
. , . (3.35)
u() .
, . (3.35) u + u = 0,

. (3.35). u() = ei .
p,l,m (r, , ), r
p,l,m

eipr
Ylm (, ),
r

(5.97)
2

p
p (, ) E = 2m
.
p E .
p p,l,m
eipr /r p,l,m eipr /r.
(5.97) |p, l, m

p, l, m|p , l , m = (p p )ll mm .

(5.98)

(5.94)
=
H

E1
n=1

P +
2 n

l=0 m=l

dp

p2
|p, l, mp, l, m|.
2m

(5.99)

1.
() , .
() .
() .
() .
() .
2. . ;
3. ; (i) (cosh x), (ii) (3x2 + 1), (x4 1);
4. ; (i) (
2 )1927 , (ii) (1 2 3 )2004 .
. 5. A B

+B
A,
(iii) B
AB,
(iv) B
AB
A.

; (i) [A, B], (ii) AB

1.
+
qubit.

2. eiA A = i ai
i C2 .

107

. ,

5.1: Qubit Mach-Zehnder.

3. Mach-Zehnder . 5.1 qubit.
| = cos |0 + sin |1, D1
D2 ;

2 0
0
4. A = 0 1 1 C3 , > 0.
0 1 1
() .

U = [0, 2].
() eiAt U (A)

1 0
0 0

= 0 1 1 0 , > 0.
5. H
0 1 1 0
0 0
0 1
() .

U = [0, ].
() eiHt U (H)
(a, b) = eiax+bp .
6. x
p L2 (R, dx) U
(a1 , b1 )U
(a2 , b2 ) U
(a, b) U
(x).
7. H = L2D ([0, a], dx) (x)
[0, a] (0) = (L) = 0.
() (x) Fourier.

H, p2 .
() p = i x

() x
.

() n (x) = 2/a sin(nx/a), n = 1, 2, . . . ,

|n.
= n |nn|;
() K
n a

Hilbert , . C. J. Isham, Lectures on Quantum

Theory (Allied Publishers, 2001), . 3, 7. R. Shankar, Principles of Quantum Mechanics (Kluwer,
1994), . 1.

108

 5.
, . . ,
(, 2008), . 5-6. , . , (, ,
2008), .2.
, N. I. Akhiezer and I. M. Glazman, Theory of Linear
Operators in Hilbert Space (Dover, 1993). , N. Young, An Introduc on to Hilbert Space (Cambridge
University Press, 1988) . 7-8.

109

. ,

110

 6


. , . ,
. ,
.

6.1
6.1.1

. 3
. ,
(x) ( )
|(x)|2 x.
.
.
(x) L2 (R, dx)
. , Prob(U )
U R
(

|x|| = |

Prob(U ) =
U

)
dx|xx| | = |PU |,

(6.1)

PU U .
, .
3. |
Prob(U )
A.
U R
Prob(U ) = |PU |.
111

(6.2)

. ,

6.1.2

1. (6.2) | ei |.
(ei ) .
. | + | | + ei |.
2. A - |n, n = 1, 2, . . ..
, , , |n.
pn |n

pn = |n||2 .

(6.3)

A :
3. A
= |A|.

(6.4)

. A = n an Pn |A|
= n an |Pn | = n an pn = A.

4. A A =

d||,

p() = |||2

(6.5)

5. A A
2.
(A)2 = A2 A

6.2

(6.6)

. 5.2
. H
.
.

6.2.1

.
A,
n . pi , i
= 1, 2, . . . , n i
. ni=1 pi = 1.

w A = (p1 , p2 , . . . , pn ).
qi

w B = (q1 , q2 , . . . , qn ).
112

 6.
,
, 1
. ,
pi + (1 )qi ,

w =
w A + 91 )
wB

(6.7)

(6.7) 0 1 .

, . n
e i,

e 1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0),
e 2 = (0, 1, . . . , 0), . . . ,
e n = (0, 0, . . . , 1).

(6.8)

e i , . , .

w = (p1 , p2 , . . . , pn )

w =

pi
e i,

(6.9)

i=1

.
(.. ) n
pi .
.
n .
pi i = 1, . . . , n,

w = (p1 , p2 , . . . , pn ).

: i pi .

. k ,

w r = (pr,1 , pr,2 , . . . , pr,n ),

(6.10)

k r = 1, 2, . . . , k. r ,
r=1 r = 1,

w mix =

w r.
r

(6.11)

r=1

, r Nr
,
k
N =
r=1 Nr .
r = Nr /N ( Nr ).
113

. ,
, . (6.8).
.

w
. (6.9) .
.

6.2.2

. ,
.
.

H. .
. .
|a wa .
A
. Prob(U )
a |PU |a
U (A)
, wa
(
)

Prob(U ) =
wa a |PU |a = T r PU ,
(6.12)
a

wa |a a | T r = 1.

39. ( ) H
T r = 1.
.
.
, .

39. ( ) . =

n wn Pn , 0 wn 1 Pn .
. , T r . .
, wn 38,
wn 1.
, .

114

 6.

40. ( ) n 0 = i = 1
n

=
1 n i . ,
i=1 i
=

(6.13)

i i .

i=1

.
. 26. ,
T r =

i T ri =

i = 1.

i=1

i=1

40. = ||
|.
41. .
41. ( ) 2 . .

. wn
. 0 wn
Pn
2
1, wn wn 0, n (wn wn2 )Pn 0, 2 0.

wn = wn2 n, wn = 0 wn = 1. D 1 = n wn T rPn ,
wn , , 1
. = || | .

42. ( ) CN N 2 1 .
(2N 2) .

. N N . 2 = + (2 )/2 - .
, N 2 1 . CN , N 1
, 2(N 1) .

42. ( ) C
= N 1 1.

(6.14)

6.1 : Shannon von Neumann .

6.1. Shannon von Neumann

( )
( ).

Shannon
Shannon.

N
w = (p1 , p2 , . . . , pN ) . Shannon

115

. ,

I[
w] =

pi log pi .

(6.15)

i=1

1.
e i , . (6.8), I[
e i ] = 0.

2. Shannon I[ w ] = log N
, pi = N 1 , i = 1, . . . , N .

3. Shannon :
k w r ,
r = 1, 2, . . . k 0 r 1 r=1 r = 1. ,
I[

r
w r]

r=1

r I[
w r ].

(6.16)

r=1

Shannon .

von Neumann
,
von Neumnn S[
],
S[
] = T r(
log ).

(6.17)

von Neumann ,
wn

S[
] =
wn log wn .
(6.18)
n

Dn Dn
.

1. , , S[
] = 0.
2. CN , von Neumann
= N 1 1, .
log N .
, S[U
U
] = S[
3. U
].
4. von Neumann :
r ,
k
r = 1, 2, . . . k 0 r 1 r=1 r = 1.
S[

1 k]

r=0

k S[
k ],

r=0

von Neumann .

116

(6.19)

 6.
von Neumann
. , ,
.

SL [
] = 1 T r2 .

(6.20)

( 2 = ), = N 1
1 CN , SL [
] = 1 1/N .

6.2.3

, 1 3.
1. H
.
.
N1 1 , N2
2 , .

i = Ni /N , N =
i Ni .

=
i i .
(6.21)
i

3.

A.

Prob(U ) U (A)

(
)
Prob(U ) = T r PU .
(6.22)

1.
|n ( ),
nn = n|
|n.

(6.23)

2. |n |m
.

Schwarz |n |n.
-
|n|
|m|2 n|
|nn|
|n,

(6.24)

|mn |

nn mm .

117

(6.25)

. ,
3. ,
x L2 (R),
p(x) = x|
|x.

(6.26)

(6.25) . ,

|x|
|y| x|
|xy|
|y.

(6.27)

4. A = n an Pn

=
A
Prob(n)an = r
an T r(
Pn )
n

= T r

)
an Pn

= T r(
A).

(6.28)

5. , . |
| H. ,
, .. | = 12 (| + |). :
= ||.

(6.29)

| | ,
=

1
(|| + ||) .
2

(6.30)

.
. ,
x,
1
1
p1 (x) = |x||2 + |x||2 + Re (|xx|)
2
2

(6.31)

1
1
p2 (x) = |x||2 + |x||2
2
2

(6.32)

. (6.31),
. 6.1. .
6. ( ).
.
. ,
118

 6.
.
. . 6.2.1
, .
, .
,
. , . , . , qubit,
C2 . 6. , ,
.
;
,
| . , .
.
, .

,
. ,

;
, . , Gleason. 6.2.
Gleason, .
, . .
Gleason,
. . || | .
A.

A,
6.2. Gleason
Gleason
H

H.

119

. ,

6.1: (x) = (2 2 )1/4 exp[(x L/2)/(4 2 ) +

ikx] (x) = (2 2 )1/4 exp[(x + L/2)/(4 2 )] L2 (R).

L. (x)
k. p1 (x) p2 (x) ,
, . (6.31) (6.32). () L/ = 0, 5, () L/ = 2,
() L/ = 4. L/,
. (6.31) .
. Thomson ,
.
Thomson .
.
. ,
.
P
P , . (6.2).
() .
43. H P H (P ) [0, 1],
1. (
0) = 0.
2. (
1) = 1.
3. P

Pi , P = Pi ,

(P ) =
(Pi ).
(6.33)
i

.
, Gleason ().

120

 6.
43. ( Gleason) 2,
,
(
)
(P ) = T r P ,
(6.34)
P H.
Gleason
() .
. ,
( ),
.
A. M. Gleason, 1957, J. Math. Mech. 6, 885 (1957).
R. Cooke, M. Keane and W. Moran,
Math. Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 98, 117 (1985)

6.2.4

. 4,
. .
, ,
, ,
. (6.22).
. , ,
, .
.
. ;
. ; ,
. , (.. )
, .
,
. , .
,
.

. ,
.
. (
) ( ).
.
121

. ,
6.3
.
, . ,
.
6.3.
. ( )
. ,
, . ...

W. Heisenberg, Physics and Philosophy (Prometheus Books, New York, 1999).

...
: ... - .
.

R. Penrose, The Road to Reality (Knopf, 2005)

. . ,
.

. Einstein, J. Franklin Ins tute 221, 349 (1936).

,
.
, 3-
...
;

M. Born, Nobel lecture, 1956.

,
,
.

J. B. Hartle, Am. J. Phys. 36, 704 (1968).

... , ....
, , . .
: -

122

 6.
.

A. Peres, Quantum Theory: Concepts and Method (Kluwer, 2002)

6.3
6.3.1

qubit

T r
i = 0, o C2
T r = 1
1
= (1 + r ),
(6.35)
2
(r1 , r2 , r3 ).
ri Pauli .
1
1
i = T r(

i ) =
rj T r(
j
i ) =
rj ij T r1 = ri ,
(6.36)
2 j
2 j
. (5.63).
. 5.8.1, (6.35) 12 (1|r|),
|r| 1. C2

B2 = {(r1 , r2 , r3 )|r12 + r22 + r32 1}.

2 = |r| = 1,
, B2 . qubit
Bloch.
Bloch | C2
)
(

i
cos 2 ei
| = sin |0 + cos e |1 =
,
(6.37)
sin 2
2
2
, [0, ] [0, 2]. (6.36)
r
r = || = (sin cos , sin sin , cos ).

(6.38)

| |.
| Bloch: ( = 0),
r = (0, 0, 1). | (6.37),
1
1

= (1 + cos ) = (1 + r r ).
(6.39)
2
2
2
||| = 0 r r = 1, Bloch. 6,2.
Bloch.
A = a0 1 + a C2 .
, P , (5.66). (6.35), p
a
1
(6.40)
p = (1 r m) ,
2

m = a/|a| A.
|||2 = cos2

123

. ,

6.2: Bloch. ,
.
.

6.3.2

Wigner

. 1.4.5, .

H. ,
.
Wigner, - , ()
, () ( ).

Wigner, , :
. , , ,
.
, Wigner . L2 (R)
= R2 x p .
x p L2 (R) |x, |k
.
44. Wigner W (x, p)
124

 6.

1
W (x, p) =
2

y
y
dyx |
|x + eipy .
2
2

(6.41)

Wigner Weyl-Wigner,
A FA (x, p)

1
y
y
FA (x, p) =
dyx |A|x
+ eipy .
(6.42)
2
2
2
44. Weyl-Wigner

= dpF ( x + x , p)eip(xx ) .
x|A|x
A
2

(6.43)

. . (6.43) . (6.42) .

45. Wigner
.

1. dpW (x, p) = x|
|x.

. ,

2.

dpeipy = 2(y).

dxW (x, p) = p|
|p.

dkdk ikxik x
x|
|x = dkdk x|kk|
|k k |x =
e
k|
|k
2
ket |k.
(
)

iy(p k+k
)
2
W (x, p) =
dkdk
dye
ei(kk )x k|
|k
2
(2)

1
k + k i(kk )x
=
dkdk (p
)e
k|
|k .
2
2
K =

k+k
2

(6.44)

= k k, . (6.44)

1
W (x, p) =
dKd(p K)eix K /2|
|K + /2
2

1
=
dp /2|
|p + /2eix .
(6.45)
2

x, dxeix = 2(), .

=
46. T r(
A)

dxdpW (x, p)FA (x, p).

. . (6.41) (6.42).

dxdpW (x, p)FA (x, p) = dxdx x|

|x x |A|x
= T r(
A).

46 Wigner
.

125

. ,

6.3: Wigner (6.49) L/ = 10. , Wigner

x p . () p = 0, () p = /L, () p = 1, 5/L () p = 2/L.
, Wigner p x: () x = 0, () x = , ()
x = 2, 8 () x = L/2.

Wigner
2 1/4

q,p (x) = (2 )

[
]
(x q)2
exp
+ i
px ,
4 2

(6.46)

q p .
(1.40)
W (x, p) =

1 (xq2)2 22 (pp)2
e 2
.

(6.47)

Wigner (6.47) .
Wigner
]
1 [
(x) = q,p (x) + q ,p (x) ,
2

(6.48)

. p = p = 0 q = L/2 =
q ,
L.
[
( )]
2
L 2
2
(x L
2)
1 22 p2 (x+ 22 )
pL

x2
2
2
2
2
W (x, p) = e
e
+e
+ 2e
cos
.

(6.49)

L >> cos(pL/2) 1 Wigner

. (6.49) 6.3.
Wigner,
.

126

 6.

6.4: Bloch qubit

[Braczyk et al, New J. Phys. 14, 085003 (2012)]. 150 .
.

6.3.3

.

.
( ) .

qubit. . 6.3.1, qubit r R3 |r| 1. ri
Pauli
i .
i .
, .
Pauli : qubit.
. ( )
.

. :
( ) .
( r qubit)
. . 6.4.
.
(.. )
.

127

. ,

6.5: Wigner
|0+|n, |n .
Wigner,
.
. Wigner. [M. Ho einz et al,
Nature 459, 546 (2009)]

.
Wigner . 6.4.
Wigner 6.5.
, . ,
.
, ,
. ,
.

, .

, .
6.4.
A
x
p ,
A = x
cos + p sin ,

(6.50)

. , x
p ,
.
|a, A , fa, (x).

128

 6.
A
i sin

dfa,
+ cos xfa, = afa, .
dx

(6.51)

fa, (x) =

i cot 2
a
2 x +i sin x

,
(6.52)
2| sin |

a, |a , = dxfa,
(x)fa , (x) = (a a ).

A

p (a) = a, |
|a, = dxdx fa, (x)x|
|x fa, (x )
(6.53)
X = (x + x )/2 y = x x

a
1
p (a) =
dXdX /2|
|X + /2ei( sin X cot )y
2| sin |

1
a
=
dXW (X,
X cot ),
| sin |
sin
. (6.41).
Wigner Fourier

1
1
iaz
p (a) =
dzp (z)e
,
W (x, p) =
dudveiux+ivp W (u, v).
2
2

(6.54)

(6.55)

W (u, v) = p tan1 (v/u)

)
u2 + v 2 .

(6.56)

p (a)
Wigner (6.56).
. ().
Wigner ().
K. Vogel and H. Risken,Phys. Rev. 40, 2847 (1989).
D. T. Smithey,M. Beck,M. G. Raymer, and A. Faridani, Phys. Rev. Le . 70, 1244 (1993).

6.4
6.4.1

Wigner

Wigner
, : ,
Wigner , .
. ,
x|
|x , , p|
|p. Wigner
, :
x|
|x p|
|p. Wigner
, .
, ;
129

. ,
. ,
, .
Wigner.

. A = n an Pn B
=

m bm Qn .
,
p(an , bm )
. , an bn ,

m)
p(an , bm ) = T r(
Q

p(an , bm ) = T r(
Pn )

(6.57)

p(an , bm )

.
p(an , bm ) = T r(
Anm )
Anm .
consistent ,

m
Anm = Q
Anm = Pn .
n

(6.58)

(6.59)

qubit, ,
C2 qubit . n m , 1 2.
(6.59) A11 + A12 = P1 . A1m

A1m Pn Pn , A1m = 0 A1m = P1 . ,

[A1m , P1 ] = 0. [A2m , P2 ] = 0. P2 = 1 P2 , [A2m , P1 ] = 0.
m = A1m + A2m (6.59) [Q
m , Pn ] = 0, [A,
B]
=
Q
0.
() A B
.
. :
, ,
.

6.4.2

Kennard-Robertson.

, ,
.
130

 6.

47. ( Kennard-Robertson) A B
. A B ,
1  ( )
(A)(B) T r [A, B] 
2

(6.60)

= B
= 0. ,
. A

A, B B . (5.49)
A =

A B,
2
(
)
(
) 
2 T r(
 .
(A)2 (B)2 = T r A2 T r B
AB)

(6.61)

, A B
, (6.61) .
(6.61),
= T r(
B})
+ T r(
B])

2T r(
AB)
{A,
[A,

(6.62)

. ,

2
2
1 

2
 = CAB
B])
 .
AB)
+ T r(
[A,
T r(
4

(6.63)

B}
A
B
A B.

CAB = 12 {A,
(6.61)
2
(A)2 (B)2 CAB

2
1 
B])
 ,
[A,
T r(
4

(6.64)

(6.60).

x p, . (6.60)
1
xp .
2

(6.65)

(6.65) (3.54) . Kennard

Robertson (6.65)
. x p
. (3.54) x p
. (6.65), x p
,
.
.
(6.65) |z . (5.87).
(5.78)
1
(
a+a
)
x =
2m

m
p = i
(
aa
).
2
131

(6.66)

. ,
,
1
z|
x|z =
(z + z )
2m

m
z|
p|z = i
(z z )
2
1
z|
x2 |z =
z|
a2 + a
2 + 2
a a
+ 1|z
2m
1
=
(z 2 + z 2 + 2|z|2 + 1)
2m
m
2
z|
p |z =
z|
a2 + a
2 2
a a
1|z
2
m 2
=
(z + z 2 2|z|2 1).
2
(x)2 =

6.4.3

1
2m

(p)2 =

m
,
2

(6.67)
(6.68)

(6.69)

(6.70)

xp = 12 .

.
, .
Mach-Zehnder 4.3., |1 |2
.
D1 1 D2 0.
4.3.
, .
|1 ,
|, .
| |1 |0
: 1| = 2| = 0.
,
1. D1 |D1 = 21 (|1 |),
2. D2 |D2 = 2i (|1 + |).
|1,
D1 |1|D1 |2 = 41 .
D2 |2|D2 |2 = 41 .
a 12 .
()
.
Elitzur Vaidman [A. Elitzur and L. Vaidman, Vist. Astr. 37,
253 (1993)], P. G. Kwiat, H. Weinfurter, T. Herzog,
A. Zeilinger, and M. A. Kasevich, Phys. Rev. Le . 74, 4763 (1995).

132

 6.

6.6: () . D2 . ()
, (
). ,
D2 .

133

. ,
N
, . , . A
B ,
A B .
Mach - Zehnder .
. 4.3.. , 4.3..
( 12 ).
1. D1 12 1 + 12
.
2. 21 0 +
.

1
2

1
2

1
4

1
4

5
8

3. D2 12 0+ 12 14 = 18 .
, .
.
,
() ,
.
. 25% .
1 ,
. 18 N .
, 23
31 . 18 + 13
1
= 16 , 13 .
8
( )
. .
.
D2 , .
.

1.
.
2. qubit
| = cos |0 + sin |1 = cos2 |00| + sin2 |11|;
3. .
.
4. Kennard-Robertson (. . 3.3.2).

134

 6.
5. .
t
w(x) .
t
w(p)

.
t;
6. qubit.
A
3 50%
1 50% -1.
1
50% 1 50% -1.
; , , , .
7. , , , . ; ,
;

1 0 i
1. = 14 0 1 1
i 1 2

1 0 0
A = 0 3 0 , > 0.
0 0 1
;
2. C3 (
1).

0 1 0
0 i 0
1 0 0
1
1
J1 = 1 0 1 J2 = i 0 i J3 = 0 0 0 .
2
2
0 1 0
0 i
0
0 0 1
J1 = J2 = 0. J3 = .
() a = 1 .
() .
() a = 0 a = 21 .
3.
x|
|y = C exp(ax2 by 2 + 2cxy).
() C.
() a, b, c .
;
()
x2 ,
p2 Cxp . (6.64);
() ;
4. d(
1 , 2 ) 1 2 , ||
1 2 ||HS .

135

. ,
() d(
1 , 2 ) 1 1 2 = 0.
() d(
1 , 2 ) .
() d(
1 , 2 ) C2 .

, . C. Cohen-Tannoudji, B Diu and F. Laloe,

Quantum Mechanics I, Complement EIII .
, . C. J. Isham, Lectures
on Quantum Theory (Allied Publishers, 2001), . 5.1, 6.1, 9.2.
, . B. Mielnik, Comm. Math. Phys.
9, 55 (1968). , E. G. Beltrame and G. Cassinelli, The Logic of Quantum Mechanics (Cambridge
University Press, 2010).
Wigner, . N.L. Balazs, Phys. Rep. 104, 347 (1984).
, . G. M. D Ariano, M. G. A. Paris, and M. F. Sacchi, Advances in Imaging and
Electron Physics 128, p. 205 (2003) [quant-ph/0302028].

136

 7


.
,
. T,
Lindblad,
.

7.1

3, , .
, Anm .

Amn (t) = ei(Em En )t Amn (t),

(7.1)

En () .
, (x1 , . . . , xN )
N ,
1

2i + V (x1 , . . . xN ).
i
=
(7.2)
t
2m
i
i=1
. 3.3.2 . .

1
=
2i + V (x1 , . . . xN )
H
(7.3)
2m
i
i=1
L2 (R3N , d3N x) N
H|n

. o H
= En |n.

H i t | = H|

|(t) = Ut |(0),
137

(7.4)

. ,

Ut = eiHt

(7.5)

, . A .
= Ut A(0)
Ut .
A(t)
(7.6)

Amn = m|A|n,
|m |n H
.
,
(7.5).
, .
1. .
| Ut | , .
,

=
wi |i i |,
(7.7)
i

|i . |i |i Ut |i ,
Ut Ut .

(t) = Ut (0)Ut .

(7.8)

2. . Ut , .
= Ut A(0)
A(t)
sv .
0

t = 0. A =
n an Pn
t. an
Prob(an , t) = T r(Ut 0 Ut Pn ).
(7.9)
(7.9) tr(
t Pn ) t = Ut (0)Ut t . T r[
0 P (t)],

P (t) = Ut Pn Ut Pn . ,
,
.
. ,

4. ,
eiHt |(t) =

, (
eiHt |(0), t o H
) .
= an Pn (t)
A(t)
n
.

138

 7.

1. . (7.5)
= iU t U 1 = iU 1 U t .
H
t
t

(7.10)

2. (7.8) ,

i

(t)
(t)],
= [H,
t

(7.11)

von Neumann.
, von Neumann
A ( )
i

A(t)
A(t)],

= [H,
t

(7.12)

. (7.6) t.
3. Ut
() Ut+t = Ut Ut
() Ut = Ut
() U0 = 1.

.
, Stone,

, t = 0, eiHt ,

H.

7.2

H
,
. , . , () .
, .

.
139

. ,
, 1. H
. ,
,
,
. .
2. , , .

, .
, . ,
,
, .
3. . .
.
.
.

,
. , ,
, .
.
. .
. 7.1.

7.3

, t
. .
,
.
. 3 .
( ),
: . ,
T,

eiHt TeiHt = T + t1.

(7.13)
2

p
, H = 2m
er
, r . ,
. 3, ,
.

140

 7.

.
7.1: H
() ( ). ()
.
-, ( ) ( ) ()
( ) . . () (.. ). ()
.
.

141

. ,
. (7.13) T ,
.
48. ( Pauli) T . (7.13), .
H
= i1. T
. t . (7.13) 0, [T, H]

iaH = H
a1, a R. |E (
. (5.10) eiaT He
E,
) H
iaT |E = (H
a1)|E = (E a)|E,
He

E a. a eiaT |E H
, E E a .
, ,
. T .

7.4

. , F
,
{F, H} = 0,

(7.14)

H . (1.7)
F = 0.
.
. , H
,
Q
H]
= 0,
[Q,

(7.15)

(7.14).
H]
= 0.
, [H,
.
,
c1 |E1 + c2 |E2 , |c1 |2 + |c2 |2 = 1, |c1 |2
E1 |c2 |2 E2 .
Y ,
.
Q]
= 0, Q(t)

[H,
.
.
Q
. ,

.
.
Q
142

 7.
,

Q
= q Pq , Pq ,
Q.
q
q.
.. 4.2. .
,
. , N
N N = N . (
.)

7.5
7.5.1

qubit

= a .
qubit H

. 5.8.1, H E+ = |a| E = |a|,

a
). Ut = eiHt
P = 21 (1 |a|
1
a
1
a
Ut = ei|a|t (1 +
) + ei|a|t (1
)
2
|a|
2
|a|
a
= cos (|a|t) 1 i sin (|a|t)
.
|a|
|0 = |0. t,
(
)
a3
a1 ia2

Ut |0 = cos (|a|t) i sin (|a|t) |0 i

sin (|a|t) |1.
|a|
|a|

(7.16)

(7.17)

t
3 .

a21 + a22 2
sin (|a|t)
|a|2
a2
Prob(1, t) = |0|Ut |0|2 = cos2 (|a|t) + 32 sin2 (|a|t) .
|a|
Prob(+1, t) = |1|Ut |0|2 =

(7.18)
(7.19)

.
, ,
.
, .
,
.
,
( ).
.
,
.

143

. ,

7.5.2

=
H
a a
,

a
a
.
a
. (5.10),
a
(t) = eiHt a
eiHt = a
(1 it +

(it)2
+ . . .) = eit a
.
2

(7.20)

. (7.20) |z
eiHt a
eiHt |z = zeit |z.

(7.21)

| = eiHt |z, a
| = zeit |, | a
zeit . | |zeit .

eiHt |z = |zeit .

(7.22)

. 5.8.2,
.

7.5.3

m .
O L2 (R, dx).
= 1 p2 , p = i .
H
2m
x
|0
|t = eiHt |0 .

t (x) := x|t 0 (x) := x|0

t (x) = x|eiHt |0

iHt

=
dx x|e
|x x |0 = dx Gt (x, x )0 (x ),

(7.23)

Gt (x, x ) = x|eiHt |x ,

k2

iHt
e
= dkei 2m t |kk|,
|k .

k2
dk i k2 t+ik(xx )

i 2m
t

e 2m
Gt (x, x ) = dke
x|kk|x =
2
144

(7.24)

(7.25)

(7.26)

 7.
. (7.26) k k . , t (t i) > 0,
0.

[
]
1
m(x x )2

Gti (x, x ) = (
(7.27)
) exp i 2(t i) ,
t
2 + i 2m

m i m(xx )2
Gt (x, x ) =
e 2t .
2it

7.6
7.6.1

(7.28)

. ,
Schrdinger

| = H(t)|,
t

(7.29)

|(t) = U (t, t0 )|(t0 ), t0 .

U (t, t0 )

U (t, t0 ),
U (t, t0 ) = H(t)
t

(7.30)

U (t0 , t0 ) = 1.
(7.30)
U (t, t0 ) = 1 +

(i)n

n=1

dt1
t0

t1

tn1

dt2 . . .
t0

1 )H(t
2 ) . . . H(t
n ),
dtn H(t

(7.31)

t0

t: n-
(7.31) (n 1)-

iH(t).

i t dsH(s)
U (t, t0 ) T e t0
, T
, . (7.31),
( me-ordered) .

=H
0 + V . O(t)
= eiH 0 t eiHt
H
,
i

t,
Ot = V (t)O
t
145

(7.32)

. ,
iH
0t
V (t) = eiH0 t H
.
0e
(7.30), V (t)
. O(t)

= T ei
O(t)

t
0

dsV (s)

(7.33)

V ,
(7.31) .

7.6.2

Qubit
qubit . ,
= (1 +
H
3 ) + gf (t)
+ + gf (t)
,
(7.34)
2
> 0 g .
(7.34) , , (|0) (|1)
f (t).
U (t, t0 ) (7.34)
. (7.30)
,
. ,
.
5 . 5.1. 0 + V ,
(7.34) H
(
)

1
0
0 =
H
(1 +
3 ) =
0 1
2
(
)
0
f
(t)

.
V = gf (t)
+ + gf (t)
= g
(7.35)
f (t) 0
U (t, t0 ) U (t). ( t0 = 0.)
= eiH 0 t U (t)
O(t)
i

O(t) = V (t)O(t),
dt

(7.36)

+ + f (t)eit
].
V (t) = eiH0 t V eiH0 t == g[f (t)eit

(7.37)

0,
(7.37) . (5.10), [H
] =
.
|g| << ,
(7.31),
t

O(t)
1 i
dsV (s) = 1 ig[u(t)
+ + u (t)
]
0
(
)
1
igu(t)
(7.38)
=
,
igu (t)
1
146

 7.
t
u(t) = 0 dsf (s)eis .

(
0t
iH

U (t) = e
(
=

O(t)

eit 0
0
1

)(

eit
igu(t)eit

igu (t)
1

1
igu(t)
igu (t)
1

(7.39)

. ,
t =
H
a a
+ f (t)
a + f (t)
a .

(7.40)

a
:
a
(t) = U (t)
aU (t),

(7.41)

U (t) 7.31.
. (7.12)
ia(t)

=
a(t) + f (t)1

(7.42)

. (7.42) -
a
eit -. ,
a
(t) = b(t)eit , . (7.42)

b(t)
= ieit f (t)1,

(7.43)

b(t) = K(t)1,

dseis f (s).

K(t) := i

(7.44)

a

U (t)
aU (t) = eit (
a + K(t)1),

(7.45)

. (7.45) |z
U (t)
aU (t)|z = eit (z + K(t))|z,

(7.46)

U (t)|z a
eit (z +
K(t)), |eit (z + K(t)).
U (t)|z = |eit (z + K(t))
147

(7.47)

. ,

7.7

4,
.
. .

, . ,
.

7.7.1

, . .
.
a . a H
,
. a .
: (i)

, (ii) wa 0
a . wa

: a wa = 1.
, wa
Ua = eiH .
t t,
t t+ =

wa U a Ua .

(7.48)

t = ||. (7.48), T r2t+ ,

2




wa
wb = 1.
wa wb |Ua Ub |
(7.49)
T r2t+ =
a

a,b

Cauchy-Schwartz Ub | and Ua |. Ub | = ei Ua |
a b. | Ua .
| Ua , Ua = Ub
a b. T r2t+ = 1 , . , (7.48)
.
,
.
(, , ),
.

148

 7.

7.7.2

(7.48)
a . H
a = H
0 + Va ,
a H
0 H
,
Va
,
.

a wa Va = 0,
.
.
0 H
= H
0 + wa Va V = Va wa Va ,
, H
0
a
a
a
V , wa V = 0.
H
0
a
a
a

a 1 H
a2 2 .
Ua 1 iH
2
2 , (7.48)

0 , t ] + 2 2
t+ = t i[H
wa (Va a Va Va2 Va2 )
a

2 2
2 ).
(H0 + H
(7.50)
0
2
,
0. , , ,

wa . . , (
)
. 0 ,
- .
H 0 := 2
. . (7.50)

0 , ] +
= i[H
ga (Va a Va Va2 Va2 ),
(7.51)
t
a

ga = wa > 0.
(7.51) Lindblad. .
1. 0 , t (7.51)
t 0.
2. (7.51) 0 = Mt [
0 ], Mt
. Mt Ms = Mt+s ,
t, s 0.
149

. ,

7.7.3

Lindblad ,
.
M
M [
],
1. M [
1 + (1 )
2 ] = M [
1 ] + (1 )M [
2 ] 0 1. ( )
2. T r(M [
]) = T r = 1. ( )
3. 0 M [
] 0. ( )
.
, M .
.
.

49. ( Choi) M

H. Aa H, a Aa A = 1,
M [
] =

Aa Aa

(7.52)

(7.52) Kraus M Aa
Kraus. , Krauss
. Aa

Kraus M
Ba :=
Oab Ab

Krauss, Oab c Oac

Ocb = ab .

(7.48) Kraus Aa = wa Ua .

=
1. qubit H
3 , > 0, 0
(t = 0). t A = 1 ,
; 0 .
2. C3 .
|1, |2, |3, E1 = 0, E2 = , E3 = 3, > 0.
(t = 0)
2
1
0 = |+ + | + | |,
3
3

(7.53)

| = 12 (|1 2|2 + |3). t

A = k|+ a+ | k| a |, k > 0. ,
;

150

 7.
0 3. C3 . H
|0, |1, |2, E0 = 0, E2 = E3 , > 0.
|0. t = 0
,
V = X
= |01| + |10| + |02| + |21|
X

(7.54)

t, ,
. ;
=
4. m , H

p2
2m .

()
[
]
x2
2 1/4
0 (x) = (2 )
exp 2 + ipx ,
4
> 0 p . t (x) t.
() t.
t << 1/(m 2 ) t ;
5. , -
E = v|p|, v .
0 = 1
6. qubit . H
2 3 ,
, + ,
V =
1 w = 12 .
() Lindblad.
() Lindblad t 0 .
() ;
7. , V =
3 .
;
8. Lindblad

T r2 0.
t
9. Lindblad .
A .
10. , U
.
U

, . C. Cohen-Tannoudji, B Diu and F. Laloe, Quantum

Mechanics I, Complement FIII , GIII C. J. Isham, Lectures on Quantum Theory (Allied Publishers,
2001), . 6.4, 7.1.
, . H. D. Zeh, Time in Quantum Theory, in Compendium of Quantum
Physicis - Concepts, Experiments, History and Philosophy, ed. by F. Weinert, K. Hentschel, D. Greenberger,
B. Falkenburg (Springer 2009).
, . H. P. Breuer and F. P.Petruccione (Oxford
University Press, 2007).

151

. ,

152

 8

, . ,
. , . , .

8.1

. ,

.

( ) ( ).
.
.
p(x).
, F
G. C
F , (F (x) = ) D
G (G(x) = ).
F

Prob() =
p(x) = dxC (x)p(x)
(8.1)
C

.
G, Prob(, ) C D ,

Prob(, ) =
p(x) = dxC D (x)
C D

(8.2)
= D (x) [C (x)p(x)] .
153

. ,
Prob(|)

C (x)p(x)
Prob(, )
Prob(|) =
= D (x)
.
(8.3)
Prob()
Prob()
Prob(|)

C (x)p(x)/Prob(). , .
.
p(x), F ,
(8.4)

C (x)p(x)/Prob().

8.2
8.2.1

5.7.
A =
.

n an Pn B =
m bm Qm , an bm Pn Qm . |. .
5. |,
A an

|; an =

Pn |

(8.5)

|Pn |

.
Pn = |nn|, |n,
| |, an = |n.

(8.6)

bm an


m |; an = |Pn Qm Pn | .
Prob(bm |an ) = ; an |Q

|Pn |

(8.7)

an bm
m Pn |.
Prob(an , bm ) = Prob(bm |an ) Prob(an ) = Pn Q
154

(8.8)

 8.
:
m ] = 0 n m, [A,
B]
= 0.
Prob(an , bm ) = Prob(bm , an ) [Pn , Q
(8.2),
.
.

8.2.2

5
.

wi |i i |
=
(8.9)
i

5 |i . .
5. , A an

(an ) =

Pn Pn
.
T r(
Pn )

Prob(an |bm ) bm
an
Prob(bm |an ) =

m Pn Pn )
T r(Q
,
T r(
Pn )

(8.10)

Prob(an , bm )
m Pn Pn ) = T r(Pn Q
m Pn )
Prob(an , bm ) = T r(Q

(8.11)

(8.11) .

Ut = eiHt
H
.
t1 t2
m Ut2 t1 Pn Ut1 Ut Pn )
Prob(an , t1 ; bm , t2 ) = T r(Ut2 t1 Q
1

(8.12)

5
,
. . . 6.2.4, .
.
5.
A an ,
(an ) =

Pn Pn
.
T r(
Pn )
155

(8.13)

. ,

8.2.3

. . .
N p(x).
N Prob() Prob(),
p (x) = C (x)p(x)/Prob().

(8.14)

( N ) (8.14) Prob(),

p (x) =
Prob()p (x) =
C (x)p(x) = 1 p(x) = p(x).
(8.15)

,
.
,
. an
N Prob(an ) , Prob(an ),

(an ) = Pn Pn /Prob(an ).

=
Prob(an )
(an ) =
Pn Pn ,
n

(8.16)

(8.17)

.
, .
.
.
. :
,
.
, ; .
: = U U
U .
50. (
)

U U = n Pn Pn .
. .
= n Pn Pn = ||. T r((
)2 = 1.

156

 8.

T r(
)2 = n ||Pn ||2 . 1
n = k |Pk | = 1 |Pn | = 0, | Pn .. |, T r((
)2 = 1
.

8.2.4

, .
;
, ,
. , .
. 2.3, ,
, .
, .
,
. .
, , .

( ), . ,
.

.
:
, , .

.
.
, ,
.
, .
, , :

157

. ,
. Lorentz.
,
.
, . , (8.11),
. .

.
,
- .
, . ,

: - .
1980
.
8.1.
[...] ,
. : .
. .
,
. . . .

E. Wigner, Princeton (1976), J. A. Wheeler and W.

H. Zurek, Quantum Theory and Measurement (Princeton University Press, 1984).

,
.[...] ,

. , ,
, .
U R.
.
, .
,
U R.

W. Nagourney, J. Sandberg and H. Dehmelt, Phys. Rev. Le . 56, 1699 (1986).

158

 8.

8.1: Paul .
. r0 z0 .
,
21 .

R. Penrose, The road to reality (Knopf, 2005).

8.3
8.3.1

, . ,

. Paul, .
8.1 . (
Paul, . 8.2).
8.2. Paul
Paul 8.1.
U V (t) = V0 cos(t). ,

=

[U + V0 cos(t)](r2 2z 2 + z02 )
,
r02 + 2z02

(8.18)

r0 z0 8.1.
m

mr = e.

159

(8.19)

. ,
(8.18)
d2 x
+ [a1 2b1 cos(2 )]x = 0,
d 2
d2 y
+ [a1 2b1 cos(2 )]y = 0,
d 2
2
d z
+ [a2 2b2 cos(2 )]z = 0
d 2

(8.20)
(8.21)
(8.22)

= 12 t
a1 = a2 =

8eU
2 (r02 + 2z02 )

b1 = b2 =

4eV0
.
2 (r02 + 2z02 )

(8.23)

, .
x, y , z ,
. .
u
+ [a 2b cos(2 )]u = 0,
Ma hieu.
|a| < |b| << 1. , Ma hieu

u( ) = f ( ) + v( ),

(8.24)

u( ) = f ( ) + v( ),
f ,
v(t)
f ( )
d2 f
2b cos(2 )v = 0
d 2

(8.25)

Ma hieu, f = 12 bv cos(2 ).
f u = f + v, Mathieu
[
]
d2 v
ab
2
2
+
a

cos(2
)
+
b
cos
(2
)
v = 0,
(8.26)
d 2
2
v( ) .
2
2
[a ab
2 cos(2 ) + b cos (2 )]
cos(2 ).
d2 v
b2
+ (a + )v = 0,
2
d
2

(8.27)

( ) a+b2 /2 > 0.
. (8.23) x y
( a1 > 0), z
eV0
> 1.
U 2 (r02 + 2z02 )

(8.28)

(8.28), .

. 8.2.
160

 8.

8.2: .

8.3: Ba+ .
,
|1. |1 .
.
( 8.3).

8.3.2

|1 |2, 8.4.

o |1 |2 .
|2 |0 |1 |0. |2
( ).
161

. ,

8.4:
|1 |2.

, = E2 E0
= E1 E2 .
|1 |0. |1 |2, . |2
.
|2 |0, . ,
|1 |2 |2 |0, .
8.5.
|1 |2 |2
. ,
.

,

8.5. ,
( ) .
,
.
, , -
.
. .
,
.
162

 8.

8.5: 8.5.
|1 ,
|1 |2.
. Ba+ 493nm
650nm.

8.4
8.4.1

qubit

qubit, = m , n m
A = n B
A
. . (5.66), P Q

B
1
P = (1 n )
2

= 1 (1 m ).
Q
2

(8.29)

P
. (8.11), P Q
. (8.11). ,
2 2 .
P Q
P+ P+ Q
P+ .
P
P+ P+ . P Q
P+ Q
P . ,
P+ = P+
P+ Q
P = P ,
P Q
163

(8.30)
(8.31)

. ,
o .
. (8.30) T rP+ = 1,
P+ ) = T r(P 2 Q

= T r(P+ Q
+ ) = T r(P+ Q )
] 1
1 [
= T r (1 + n )(1 m ) = (1 n m),
4
2

(8.32)

(5.70) T r
i = 0.
,
1
= (1 n m).
2

(8.33)

= 12 (1 + r ).
, (8.11),
(
) 1
(8.34)
Prob(a = +1, b = 1) = T r P+ = (1 n m)(1 + r n)
4
(
) 1
Prob(a = 1, b = 1) = T r P = (1 n m)(1 r n)
(8.35)
4
. (8.34) (8.35)
: , m n.
Prob2 (b = +1) +
.
Prob2 (b = +1) = Prob(a = +1, b = +1) + Prob(a = 1, b = +1)
1
=
[1 + (n m)(r n)].
2

(8.36)

, b = +1

+ ) = 1 (1 + r m)
T r(
Q
2

(8.37)

, . 8.4.2, .

8.4.2

,
.

, A = n an Pn
= bm Q
m , an bm
B
m
m .
Pn Q
, b1 . , Prob(an |b1 ) b1
164

 8.
. (8.10), b1
.

1 Pn )
Prob(an , b1 )
T r(
Pn Q
Prob(an |b1 ) =
.
=
1 Pn )
Pn Q
n Prob(an , b1 )
n T r(

(8.38)

. (8.38) b1
.
1 Q
1 = ||
Q
, = ||, (8.38)
||Pn ||2
Prob(an |b1 ) =
.
2

n ||Pn ||

8.4.3

(8.39)

H.

P ,
P .
|, P | = |.
P
t.
P . (8.12), Prob(P , N ) N

SN,t |,
Prob(P , N ) = |P Ut P Ut . . . Ut P Ut P | = |SN,t

(8.40)

SN,t = (P Ut P )N , t = N t. N

t , . eiHt 1 iHt/N
,
P t/N )N .
St := lim (P iP H
N

(8.41)

P St . ,
P t/N )N = eiP H P t .
St = lim (1 iP H
N

(8.42)

St . |
P | = |, St St | = |.
(8.40),
Prob(P , t) = lim Prob(P , N )
N

(8.43)

P
t
Prob(P , t) = |St St | = | = 1.
165

(8.44)

. ,
, P . ,
P .

. .

1. .

2. |E H
E. t . ()
;

1. Qubit |0
1 ,
2

3 . +1 ;
=
2. qubit H
1 . t = 0

| H
A =
3 . A t.
() .
()
A +1. .
3. 1, C3 . J1
J3 ,

0 1 0
1 0 0
1
J1 = 1 0 1 J3 = 0 0 0 .
(8.45)
2
0 1 0
0 0 1
J3 +1.
()
( ).
() .
() 0 J3 .
= m, m
4. qubit H
. qubit |+
3
|+ .
M. Fischer, B. Gu rrez-Medina, and M. Raizen, Physical Review Le ers 87, 040402 (2001).

166

 8.
t P )N
() St = limN (P U
.
() |+
, .
() t
;

, . C. J. Isham, Lectures on Quantum Theory (Allied Publishers,

2001), . 8.3. , L. E. Ballen ne, Quantum Mechanics: a Modern Development (World Scien c,
1998), . 9.
J. A. Wheeler and W. H. Zurek, Quantum Theory and Measurement
(Princeton University Press, 1984).
. R. E. March, Int. J. Mass. Spect. 200, 285 (2000). . H. J. Carmichael, Quantum Jump Experiments in Compendium of Quantum Physicis
- Concepts, Experiments, History and Philosophy, ed. by F. Weinert, K. Hentschel, D. Greenberger, B.
Falkenburg (Springer 2009).

H. Dehmelt, http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/
laureates/1989/dehmelt-lecture.html
W. Paul, http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/
laureates/1989/paul-lecture.html
, . B. Misra and E.C.G. Sudarshan, J. Math. Phys. 18, 756 (1977)
W. Joos, Quantum Zeno Eect in Compendium of Quantum Physicis - Concepts, Experiments, History
and Philosophy, ed. by F. Weinert, K. Hentschel, D. Greenberger, B. Falkenburg (Springer 2009).

167

. ,

168

.
.
Bell, ,
. , : -, -
.

9.1

. .

1
1
2
2
m
Cn

=
(9.1)
...
... C
n
m
nm
( )ij = i j , i = 1, 2, . . . , n j = 1, 2, . . . , m.

1 1 2 1 . . . n 1
1 2 2 2 . . . n 2

(9.2)
=
...
... ... ...
1 m 2 m . . . n m
Cn Cm

r

(k) (k) ,

k=1

169

(9.3)

. ,
r- (k) Cn (k) Cm , k = 1, 2, . . . , r r
. , k r , ,
. (9.1). Cn Cm

( , )Cn Cm = (, )Cn (, )Cn

(9.4)

(9.3) . ,
((1) (1) + (2) (2) , ) = ((1) , )( (1) , )
+ ((2) , )( (2) , ).

(9.5)

(9.3) n m,
Cn Cm Cnm n m ,
Cn Cm = Cnm .

(9.6)

H1 H2 ,
H1 H2 . , 9.1.
,

. H1 H2 rk=1 |k |k ,
|k H1 |k H2 , ,
)
)( r
( r
r
r

l |k l |k .
|k |k =
l | l |
(9.7)
l=1

k=1 l=1

k=1

| | H1 H2 . | | |,
.
|n H1 |i
H2 , |n,
i = |n |i H1 H2 .
| H1 H2 | = n,i an,i |n, i,
an,i = n, i|
H1 H2

1 =
|n, mn, m|.
n,m

9.1.
F (S) S.
F (S) ,
|s 11 s
S. Dirac
, S ket.
, S n , F (S) = Cn .
H1 H2 |1 |2 . -

170

(9.8)

(9.9)

 9.
H1 H2 (|, |).
F (H1 H2 )
=

ci (|i , |i ) = c1 (|1 , |1 ) + c2 (|2 , |2 ) + . . . + (|r , |r )

(9.10)

i=1

ci C.
F (H1 H2 )

ci (|i , |i )2 =

r
r

ci cj j |i j |i .

(9.11)

i=1 j=1

i=1

(9.11) ,
F (H1 H2 ), = 0.
F (H1 H2 ) = 0.
, []
F (V1 V2 ) = 0.
| | + ,

(9.12)

= , []
. [] [],
[], F (H1 H2 ),
H1 H2 []
.
[(|, |)] | |
H1 H2 .

H2 .
A H1 B
H1 H2 |i |i
A B
i

i B|
i .

A|
(A B)
|i |i =
(9.13)
i

C D)
= AC B
D.

(A B)(

(9.14)

: ,
. .
B
H1 H2 A

.
H1 H2
X

X =
i Ai Bi , Ai H1 Bi
H2 .
|n |i H1 H2 |n, i =
|n |i H1 H2 . ,

=
i
T r(A B)
n, i|A B|n,
n,i

n|A|n

171

= T r(A)T
r(B)

i|B|i

(9.15)

. ,

9.2
9.2.1

, .
1 2 . ,
1 (q1 , p1 ) .
2 .
(q1 , p1 ) (q2 , p2 )
. o
(q1 , q2 , p1 , p2 ), 1 2 .
1 2 . . . n i
.
,
1
H1 H2 H
1
2

H2 . En |n1 H1 En |n2
2 . ,
H

H H,
1
2

En + En n n .
.

=H
1 1 + 1 H
2 , |n, n = |n |n ,
H = H1 H2 H
n = H
1 1|n, n + 1 H
2 |n, n H
1 |n 1|n + 1|n H
2 |n
H|n,
= En1 |n, n + En2 |n, n = (En1 + En2 )|n, n .

(9.16)

|n, n , H1 H2 .
.
6. H
H1 H2 . . . Hn Hi .

9.2.2

1. . Cn .
() 2(n 1). ,
4(n 1). 2
Cn Cn = Cn
2n2 2, 2n2 2 4(n 1) = 2(n 1)2
.
2. 1 (x), (x R C)
2 (y) R (y
172

 9.
R C), (x, y), (x, y) R2 C.
L2 (R, dx) L2 (R, dy) = L2 (R2 , dxdy). ,
L2 (Rn , dn x) L2 (Rm , dm y) = L2 (Rn+m , dn xdn y).

(9.17)

3. .
1
H1 H
H2 H2 . H1 H2 . ,
,

Leibnitz
Ut = eitH1 eitH2 A.
i

1 eitH 1 eitH 2 + eitH 1 H
2 eitH 2
Ut = H
t
1 1 + 1 H
2 )Ut .
= (H

(9.18)

Ut , Ut i t
Ut = H
=H
1 1 + 1 H
2.
H

9.2.3

H = H1 H2 | |, | H1
| H2 .
. , .

.
H1 H2 . |i H1
|n H2 . |i, n = |i |n
H1 H2 .
1 H1
2 H2 ,

i1 , n|
|i2 , n
i1 |
1 |i2 =
n

n1 |
2 |n2 =

i, n1 |
|i, n2 .

(9.19)

1 = T rH2 2 = T rH1 . 1 2
1 2 . = ||,
| , | |,
: 1 = || 2 = ||.
,
. 6.1.
9.2,
.

173

. ,
9.2.
| H1 H2 ,
, .
(. 9.2.3) | H1 H2 , 1 2 , . (9.19), .
| ,
|. von
Neumann 1 , . 6.1. ( von Neumann 2 .) Sent |.
Schmidt. | H1 H2

N

| =

ai |i |i ,

(9.20)

i=1

ai > 0 , |i ,i = 1, 2, . . . , N
H1 |i ,i = 1, 2, . . . , N
H2 . N
H1 H2 Schmidt |. , N = 1
| N > 1, | .
Schmidt, 1 2 |,
1 =

|ai |2 |i i |

(9.21)

|ai |2 |i i |.

(9.22)

i=1

2 =

i=1

Sent [|] = S[
1 ] = S[
2 ] =

a2i log(a2i ).

(9.23)

i=1

1 U
2 U

| U1 U2 |. ,

.
| Schmidt, . (9.20),
1 1 U
.
1 = U
1

(9.24)

von Neumann 1 U
,
S[U
1 U
2 |] = Sent [|].
Sent [U

(9.25)

174

 9.

9.3
9.3.1

qubit

qubit. H =
C C2 .
2

H.
1
| = (|1, 0 |0, 1)
2
1
| = (|1, 1 |0, 0) .
2

(9.26)
(9.27)

.
(9.19) qubit
1|
1 |1 = 1 0|
1 |0 = 1, 1||1, 1 + 1, 0||1, 0
1|
1 |0 = 1, 1||0, 1 + 1, 0||0, 0,

(9.28)

2 .
(9.28) | |

1
2
1
1|
2 |1 = 0|
2 |0 =
2

1|
1 |1 = 0|
1 |0 =

+|
1 | = 0.

(9.29)

+|
2 | = 0.

(9.30)

1 = 2 = 21 1.
4 | | qubit (
Bloch).
1 2
, | |
.

A = m
= n qubit, m n
qubit B

. A B.
1

A P = 2 (1 m ) B
= 1 (1 n ). A B
oi Pa Q
b , a = 1
Q
2
b = 1.
, Prob(a, b) a qubit b
b ).
Prob(a, b) = T r(
Pa Q
175

(9.31)

. ,
b ,
, Pa 1 1 Q
qubit .
Prob(a, b) = | | . (9.26).

1(
b |0 + 0|Pa |01|Q
b |1

1|Pa |10|Q
Prob(a, b) = |Pa Qb | =
2
)
b |1 0|Pa |11|Q
b |0 .
1|Pa |00|Q
(9.32)

1
1
1
0|P |0 = (1 m3 ) 1|P |1 = (1 m3 ) 0|P |1 = (m1 + im2 )
2
2
2
1
1
|0 = (1 n3 ) 1|Q
|1 = (1 n3 ) 0|Q
|1 = 1 (n1 + in2 ),
0|Q
2
2
2
. (9.32)
1
Prob(+, +) = Prob(, ) = (1 m n)
4
1
Prob(+, ) = Prob(, +) = (1 + m n)
4

(9.33)
(9.34)

Cor(m, n) qubit
A = m qubit
= n
B

Cor(m, n) = T r(
A B).

(9.35)

= | |
. (9.26).
Cor(m, n) =

1(
+ 0|A|01|

1|A|10|B|0
B|1
2
)

0|A|11|

1|A|00|
B|1
B|0

(9.36)

Cor(m, n) = m n.

(9.37)

B

. (9.37) . A

= P+ Q
+ + P Q
P+ Q
P Q
+,
A B

(9.38)

Cor(m, n) = Prob(+, +) + Prob(, )
Prob(+, ) Prob(, +),
(9.34) (9.37)
176

(9.39)

 9.

9.3.2

R, L2 (R). r
H = L2 (R) L2 (R) . . . L2 (R) = L2 (Rr ).
a
i a
i H, i = 1, 2, . . . , r,
a
i = 1 1 . . . a
. . . 1
a
i = 1 1 . . . a
. . . 1

(9.40)
(9.41)

a
i a
j
[
ai , a
j ] = ij 1,

(9.42)

i = a
N
i a
i
i.
|n1 , n2 , . . . , nr H.
r

a
i
|n1 , n2 , . . . , nr =
|,
ni
i=1

(9.43)

| = |0, 0, . . . , 0 , .

=
H

r a
i a
i ,

(9.44)

i=1

i .
( r
)

1 , n2 , . . . , nr =
H|n
ni i |n1 , n2 , . . . , nr .

(9.45)

i=1

(9.45) i /j , i = j
. , .
, r ,
r
N , N =
i=1 ni . N
N r 0
N . N
n ,
(N + r 1)!
.
(N 1)!r!

9.4

(9.46)

(J. Bell)
. ,
.
177

. ,
.
qubit
m qubit, m .
. qubit , . . A = m
f [m](), , m ( )

+1 1 ( A).
qubit,
1 qubit 2 qubit,
f1,2 [m] : 1,2 {+1, 1}, qubit.
qubit qubit . qubit 1 m1 qubit
2 m2 . N qubit, k- ak {1, 1}
qubit bk {1, 1} qubit.

Cor(m1 , m2 ) =

N
1
ak bk
N k=1

(9.47)

Cor(m1 , m2 ) qubit,
m1 m2 . (9.47)
N , .
qubit 1 2 ,
(1 , 2 ) (1 , 2 ) 1 2 .
N , (9.47)

Cor(m1 , m2 ) = d1 d2 (1 , 2 )f1 [m1 ](1 )f2 [m2 ](2 ).

(9.48)
qubit,
qubit :
.
. ,
,
.
4 4 .
1. m1 m2 Cor(m1 , m2 ).
2. m1 n2
Cor(m1 , n2 ).
178

 9.
3. n1 m2
Cor(n1 , m2 ).
4. n1 n2
Cor(n1 , n2 ).

= Cor(m1 , m2 ) + Cor(m1 , n2 ) + Cor(n1 , m2 ) Cor(n1 , n2 ).

(9.49)

4 (
(1 , 2 ),

= d1 d2 (1 , 2 )(1 , 2 ),
(9.50)

= f1 [m1 ]f2 [m2 ] + f1 [m1 ]f2 [n2 ] + f1 [n1 ]f2 [m2 ] f1 [n1 ]f2 [n2 ].

(9.51)

= f1 [m1 ](f2 [m2 ] + f2 [n2 ]) + f1 [n1 ](f2 [m2 ] f2 [n2 ]).

(9.52)

f2 [m2 ] f2 [n2 ] 2, 0 +2. ,

f2 [m2 ] + f2 [n2 ] = 2, f2 [m2 ] f2 [n2 ] = 0,
f2 [m2 ] + f2 [n2 ] = 0, f2 [m2 ] f2 [n2 ] = 2.
, |f2 [m2 ] f2 [n2 ]| = 2, |f2 [m2 ] f2 [n2 ]| = 0.

|| |f1 [m1 ]||f2 [m2 ] + f2 [n2 ]| + |f1 [m1 ]||f2 [m2 ] f2 [n2 ]|
= |f2 [m2 ] + f2 [n2 ]| + |f2 [m2 ] f2 [n2 ]| = 2.

(9.53)

, . (9.49),
,
|| 2,

(9.54)

.
. . .
Cor(m1 , m2 ) . (9.35).
| H,

= |m1 m2 + m1 n2
+ n1 m2 n2 n2 |.
179

(9.55)

. ,
|+ , E. (9.26), , . (9.37),
= m1 m2 m1 n2 n1 m2 + n1 n2 .

(9.56)

.
m1 = (1, 0, 0) m2 = (cos , 0, sin )
n1 = (0, 0, 1) n2 = (cos , 0, sin ),
.
, . (9.56) || = 2| sin + cos |.

||max = 2 2 > 2,
(9.57)
= /4. .
Bell ,
.,
1. qubit .
. (
)
. .
2. . , .
,
. .
3. .
Bell . ( ).
Bell

.
8.3.
,
, .
,
.
. .[....]
, . . -

180

 9.
,
, ,
, ,
.
.
.
,
. Lorentz
. .
- .
,
,
.
.
, ,
.
, .

J. Bell, Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics (Cambridge University

Press, 1989).

Bell
A. Aspect 80. . 7.1. qubit .
m1 n1 m2 n2
.
.
( ,
)
. ,
,
.

.

9.5

,
.
A. Aspect, P. Grangier, and G. Roger, Phys. Rev. Le . 47, 460 (1981). A. Aspect, J. Dalibard, and G. Roger, Phys. Rev.
Le . 49, 1804 (1982).

181

. ,

9.1: Bell .
: . m, n: ,
. A : .
E: , .

9.5.1

- ,
. ,
.
, () B(). HA
H.
, .
H HB .

=
Si Ti ,
(9.58)
i

. H

Ca C ,
(9.59)
a

Ca H a Ca Ca = 1 Kraus
(. 50).
Ca Kraus
HA .
HA HB , Kraus Ca 1.
182

 9.
,

=
(Ca 1)
(Ca 1) =
(Ca 1)(Si T) (Ca 1)
a

Ca Si Ca Ti .

(9.60)

,
.

Y = un Pn HB .

HA HB , B
1 Y = n yn (1 Pn ).
(
)

T r[Ca Si C ] T r(Ti Pn )
Prob(n) = T r[
(1 Pn )] =
a

(
T r Si

)
Ca Ca

T r(Ti Pn ) =

]
[
T r(Si ) T r(Ti Pn ) ,

(9.61)

B Kraus Ca ,
.
, , .

9.5.2

.
. ,
.
.
. | H. |e (
.) U
H H,
U | |e = | |.

(9.62)

| .
|1 |2 , (9.62).

1 |2 = (1 |2 )2 ,

(9.63)

1 |2 = 0 1 |2 = 1. . ( U )
.
, .
183

. ,

9.5.3

.
, () (), qubit |+ , . (9.27). qubit A
HA qubit
H qubit |+ AB .
qubit, qubit C,
HC , |C = |0C + |1C , .
qubit |+ AB |C ,
|+ AB |C =

1
[|+ AC (|0B + |1B )
2
+| AC (|0B |1B )
+ |+ AC (|0B + |1B )
+| AC (|0B |1B )] .

(9.64)

qubit ( C) | AC , | AC . (9.64)
, 14 .
, qubit

|+ AC (|0B + |1B ),
|+ AC (|0B + |1B ),

| AC (|0B |1B ),
| AC (|0B |1B ).

(9.65)

.
1. |+ AC , .
2. | AC ,
U =
3 qubit .
3. |+ AC ,
U =
1 qubit .
4. |+ AC ,
U =
2 qubit .
, ,
qubit qubit A qubit B.
qubit B qubit C .
() C
. .

1. |C ,
.
184

 9.

9.2: .
2. .
.

.
3. qubit C B,
. - .
4.
qubit. .
1993
1997 . qubit . 2004
. ,
qubit 143 km 2012 .
C. Benne , G. Brassard, C. Crepeau, R. Jozsa, A. Peres and W. Woo ers, Phys. Rev. Le . 70, 1895 (1993).
D. Boschi, S. Branca, F. De Mar ni, L. Hardy, and S. Popescu, Phys.Rev.Le . 80, 1121 (1998).
D. Barre , et al, Nature 429, 737 (2004); M. Riebe, et al , Nature 429, 734 (2004).
X. S. Ma et al, Nature 489, 269 (2012).

185

. ,

1. , .
.
2. , 32 .
6 ;
3.
;

1. qubit
1 qubit
3 qubit,
|+ , |+ |
2. qubit. ,
1
(|1, 0 + ei |0, 1
2

|p =
p|1, 1 + 1 p|0, 0.
| =

,
A = 2i (
1
2
2
1 ).
3. Cor(m, n) (9.26,9.27).
4.

|p = p|1, 1 + 1 p|0, 0
qubit.
5.
=

1
1 +
2
2 +
3
3
qubit.
6. qubit
1
| = (|1, 0 + ei |0, 1).
2
= 1 1
3 . t1
H
3 1+ 12 2 1
2

1 qubit t2
1 qubit.
.
7. qubit
(
)
=
H
3 1 + 1
3 + g
1
1
2
,

eiHt .

186

 9.
8. qubit,
1
| = (|0, 0, 0 + |1, 1, 1)
2

1

2
3 .

, . C. J. Isham, Lectures on Quantum Theory (Allied

Publishers, 2001), . 8.4, 9.3. Mi
L. E. Ballen ne, Quantum Mechanics: a Modern Development (World Scien c,
1998), . 20.
, ,
A. Shimony, Bells Theorem, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013),
E. N. Zalta (ed.),
http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2013/entries/bell-theorem/.
scholarpedia, S. Goldstein et al., Scholarpedia, 6(10), 8378
(2011).
http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Bell's_theorem.
, . N. David
Mermin, Is the moon there when nobody looks? Reality and the quantum theory, Physics Today, April
1985, p. 38.
, . R. Horodecki et
al, Rev. Mod. Phys. 81, 865 (2009).
- T. Sudbury,
Nature 362, 586, (1993). wikipedia .
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_teleportation.

187

. ,

188



.1

Hermite

Hermite Hn (x) n
Hn (x) = (1)n ex

dn x2 /2
e
,
dxn

(.1)

n = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
Hermite
H0 (x)
H1 (x)
H2 (x)
H3 (x)
H4 (x)
H5 (x)
H6 (x)

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

1
2x
4x2 2
8x3 12x
16x4 48x2 + 12
32x5 160x3 + 120x
64x6 480x4 + 720x2 120.

(.2)
(.3)
(.4)
(.5)
(.6)
(.7)
(.8)

Hermite .

2
1. : Hm (x)Hn (x)ex dx = mn 2n n! ().
2. : Hn (x) = (1)n Hn (x).
3. : Hn+1 = 2xHn 2nHn1 .
4. : Hn = Hn+1 2xHn
Hermite Hermite
y 2xy + 2ay = 0.
(.9)

. (.9) y = k=0 ak k
ak+2 =

2(k a)
,
(k + 2)(k + 1)

(.10)

a = n n = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
Hermite.
189

. ,

.2

.2.1

(x1 , x2 , x3 )
2 =

2
.
2
x
i
i=1

(.11)

ya (x), a = 1, 2, 3.
ya

=
xi
xi ya
a=1
3

(.12)

(.11)
(
)
3
3

yb f
ya
.
f=
xi ya xi ba
i=1 a,b=1
2

(.13)

o y = (r, , ),
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = r(sin cos , sin sin , cos ).
Jai = xi /ya
x1 x1 x1

sin cos r cos cos r sin sin

r

x2
x2
2
= sin sin r cos sin r sin cos
J = x
r

x3
x3
x3
cos
r sin
0
r

r
. (.13)

ya
,
xi

(.14)

(.15)

1
sin
sin cos 1r cos cos r sin

1
cos
= sin sin 1r cos sin r sin

1
cos
r sin
0

J 1

(.16)

. (.13)
(
)
(
)
1
2f
1

f
1
2
2 f
f= 2
,
(.17)
r
+ 2
sin
+ 2 2
r r
r
r sin

r sin 2

.2.2

Laplace

1
= 2
r
2

(
)
)
2 f
r
+ S 2 ,
r

(.18)

(
)

1 2f
sin
+ 2

sin 2

(.19)

S 2

1
=
sin

190

 .
S 2 .
Y (, ) S 2 ,
S 2 Y (, ) = aY (, ).

(.20)

Y (, ) = g()h()
(
)
sin
1 2h
g
=
sin
a sin2 .
(.21)
h 2
g

. (.21) ,
, b. h ,
d2 h
b = 0.
(.22)
d2

. (.22) h() = e b , h() = h( + 2), b = m2 , m = 0, 1, 2, . . ..

. (.22)
hm () = eim .

(.23)

. (.21) g()
(
)

g
sin
sin
+ a sin2 g = m2 g.
(.24)

= cos Legendre
(
)
m2
2

(1 )g 2g + a
g = 0.
(.25)
1 2
Legendre = 1,
a = l(l + 1), l = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . |m| l.
Legendre Plm ()
(1)m
dl+m 2
2 m
2
(1

)
( 1)l ,
2l l!
d l+m
m 0, m
(l m)! m
Plm () = (1)m
P ().
(l + m)! l
Legendre
Plm () :=

P00 () = 1
P10 () =
P11 () = (1 2 )1/2
1 2
P20 () =
(3 1)
2
P21 () = 3(1 2 )1/2
P22 () = 3(1 2 )
1
P30 () =
(5 2 3)
2
3
P31 () =
(1 5 2 )(1 2 )1/2
2
P32 () = 15(1 2 )
P33 () = 15(1 2 )3/2 .
191

(.26)

(.27)

(.28)
(.29)
(.30)
(.31)
(.32)
(.33)
(.34)
(.35)
(.36)
(.37)

. ,
Legendre

dPlm ()Plm
() =

2(l + m)!
ll .
(2l + 1)(l m)!

(.38)

S 2 l(l + 1)
Ylm (, ) = Cl,m Plm (cos )eim ,

(.39)

m = l, l + 1, . . . , 1, 0, 1, . . . , l 1, l. l
(2l + 1) Ylm (, ).
Ylm (, ) S 2 . Cl,m
. (??)

dYlm (, )Ylm
(, ) = ll mm

sin d

(.40)

Cl,m =

(2l + 1 (l m)!
4 (l + m)!

(.41)

(.18)
r
2

(
)
1
Yml (, )
1 2 Yml (, )
=
sin
+ 2
sin

2
sin
= l(l + 1)Yml (, ),

Yml (, )

(.42)

.3

Laguerre

Laguerre Ln (x)
xy + ( + 1 x)y + ny = 0,

(.43)

n . .

Ln (x)

(
k

(1)

k=0

n+
nk

xk
,
k!

(.44)

dxex Ln (x)Lm (x) =

192

(n + + 1)
.
n!

(.45)

 .
Laguerre
L0 (x) = 1
L1 (x) = x + + 1
( + 2)( + 1)
x2
L2 (x) =
( + 2)x +
2
2
3
2
x
(
+
3)x
(
+
2)( + 3)x
L3 (x) = +

6
2
2
( + 3)( + 2)( + 1)
+
.
6

193