CONTENTS Linear motion Acceleration Free falling bodies Rotational movement Centripetal force Periodic motion Vibration Velocity ratio, mechanical advantage Dynamics Power Energy Newton’s laws of motion Gyroscopic principlesKINEMATICS (The study of motion) LINEAR MOTION This is motion in a straight line and it is important to understand the difference between speed and velocity. These have already been stated respectively as being scalar and vector quantities Consider a body (figure 1), moving from A to B (distance in metres) in a time (seconds). DISTANCE TRAVELLED (s) Fig. 1 LINEAR MOTION Average speed is defined as the distance travelled by a body along the path of its motion divided by the time taken. Thus if the curved path AB is denoted by ‘s’ and the time taken is ‘. distance travelled time taken. » then average speed 1 s = m/s rau If the distance travelled is the same in successive intervals of time then the speed is said to be constant. Speed, as a scalar quantity possesses magnitude only, velocity however being a vector quantity possesses both magnitude and direction. In figure 1, although the distance travelled by the body is ‘s’ along the curved path from A to B, the displacement is a straight line from A to B. If %¢ is the displacement, then since average velocity is defined as the displacement divided by the time taken. displacement x/tm/s Time taken */¢ 7 Average velocity = Its direction is along AB and its sense is from A to B.‘The following examples should reinforce the difference between speed and velocity. Example 1. A helicopter leaving point ‘A’ travels due east, a distance of 18km. It then makes a 90° turn and continues its journey due north to point B, a further 40km, The whole journey from A to B taking 15 minutes. Determine (a) The average speed for the whole journey. (b) The average velocity. DISPLACEMENT, km Blew VECTOR DIAGRAM total distance covered total time taken average speed = 58x10" m 15x60 s total displacement b) locity (b) average velocity ens Total displacement AB ¥40? +18? using Pythagoras theorem V1600+324 = 43.86km _ 43.8610? m Average velocity = 8 ° 15x60 5 = 48, m/s and since TAN @ = opposite adjacent40 18 = 2.22 thn 8 = 65.8 average velocity = 48.7 m/s acting from A to B at 65.8° N of B, Note. The compass reading on the aircraft (and hence the aircraft heading) would be read as 65.8 degrees. Travelling due east the heading would be 90°, travelling due south it would be 180° and travelling due west it would be 270°, When a body moves in a straight line then the calculation of speed and velocity will be the same Example 2. An aircraft travels from one DME marker to another, a distance of 88km (about 50 miles) in 15 minutes. (DME = Distance Measuring Equipment, a ground based radio navigation aid.) total distance covered total time taken Average speed 88x10* 15x60 m/s = 97.7 m/s (about 218 mph) In this example the displacement would be the same as the distance covered and so the magnitude of the average velocity would also be 97.7 m/s. However, for it to qualify as a vector quantity the direction (from A to B) must also be stated. ACCELERATION Acceleration is defined as ‘the rate of change of velocity’ or ‘the change of velocity in unit time’, change of velocity In terms of a formula, acceleration (a) 7 time initial velocity in m/s final velocity in m/s ifu and v then acceleration= = Y_"/s the units would be ““ (ie metres per second per second) 8 m Can be written as “> or m/s? or ms? (metres per second squared) s Ifa body is slowing down, or decelerating, the value of v will be less than u, resulting in a negative value of acceleration. The following equations relate to acceleration, velocity etc: From at=v-u or vsutat Equation 1 The second equation is derived from the graphical representation of acceleration, often referred to as a velocity-time diagram. For a body accelerating uniformly, the velocity-time diagram would be as shown in figure 2. VELOCITY (mis) 4 UNIFORM ACCELERATION, pa DSSS © n° ““~o9n } t TINE (600s) Fig. 2 VELOCITY-TIME DIAGRAM The shaded area is that of a trapezium whose area is calculated from the equation: ¥% (sum of parallel sides) x perpendicular distance between them = vv + ultConsidering the units, we have = x8. As the ‘s’ on the top line cancels with the ‘s’ on the bottom line, it leaves ‘m’ the units of distance. That is, the shaded area represents the distance travelled during the acceleration. The symbol given to distance is ‘s’. Do not confuse this with the abbreviation for seconds. Alyeuyt Equation 2 The third equation is obtained by substituting Equation 1 into Equation 2 ie s = %4llutat) + ujt s= %[2u + at}t ut tYat! Equation 3 The fourth and final equation of this set is obtained by re-arranging Equation 1 and Equation 2 and then multiplying them together. ie from Equation 1 v—u=at and from Equation 2v +u= e (veuliytu) = Bat you? = 2as Equation 4 Example, A large aircraft has a take-off velocity of 59m/s (about 132 mph). It starts from rest and accelerates uniformly for 30 seconds before becoming airborne. (a) What is the value of the acceleration in m/s?? (b) What take-off distance is required? (a) u=0 v=59 m/s t= 30 seconds a=? using= 1.97 m/s? (b) using s = 4(u + vjt ¥4(0 + 59)30 = 885m FREE FALLING BODIES Between all masses there is a natural force of attraction. This force depends mainly on the size of the two masses involved and their distance apart (called Newton's universal law of gravitation. Sir Isaac Newton English physicist 1642 ~ 1727). When one of the masses is the Earth, then its large mass produces a large force of attraction between it and other masses on or near its surface. This force, known as a ‘gravitational force’ will cause bodies, entering its sphere of influence, to accelerate towards the earth. A body falling freely from a great height will initially be accelerated but will gradually lose this acceleration until it falls with constant velocity, ie zero acceleration. This is known as the body’s terminal velocity and depends, amongst other things, on air resistance (drag force) The body will continue to accelerate will the force of attraction is greater than the drag force, but drag increases as the square of speed. When the drag force eventually reaches the same value as the force of gravity the body has reached its Terminal Velocity. For a streamline shape such as a bomb this is about 1000mph (1600km/h), for a human body it is about 100mph (160km/h) However, for most general calculations related to free falling bodies, air resistance is ignored and the body is considered as falling in a vacuum, where its acceleration is uniform having a value of 9.81 m/s?, ie an increase of velocity of 9.81m/s every second. Gravitational acceleration is given the symbol ‘2’. ‘The preceding equations 1 to 4 may be used to solve problems involving free falling bodies by substituting ‘g’ for ‘a’ in the previous equations. Example. An aircraft ejector seat is projected vertically upwards, rising freely, after the initial explosive charge has been fired. The initial velocity of the seat is 40m/s as it leaves the aircraft, Determine (a) The maximum height that the seat will reach. (b) The time taken to reach this height (ignore air resistance).g=-9.81 (deceleration) (a) v2 = u? + Qgs, 0 = 40? + (2 x-9.81)s = 407 8S a2ga7 7 8lSm (b) veutgt 0=40-(9.81}t 40 pepepiie Rarer ete : gar ~ +1 seconds ROTATIONAL MOVEMENT A linear distance is measured in metres (m). However, when a body moves in a circular path its angular distance is measured in ‘radians’. A radian is the angle produced when the radius of the circle is drawn around its circumference. ARC LENGTH (0) CIRCLE LN Fig. 3 THE RADIAN The number of radians in a circle is 2x radians (since m = 3.142 then there are just over 6 and each one is about 57°)Angular distance may be envisaged as ‘wedges’ and a body moving in a circular path would move through a number of these wedges. The number moved through would provide a measure of the angular distance the body had moved. In figure 4, a circle is divided into six to roughly represent its division into radians (rads). Consider the movement of two points ‘a’ and ‘b’, moving in a circular path from OX, to OY. Both will move through the same number of wedges and hence through the same number of radians, here, approximately 4. Fig. 4 THE CIRCLE WITH RADIANS The symbol given to angular distance, is the Greek symbol 0 (theta). If the time taken to move through this angular distance is now considered, then this allows for the angular velocity ‘a’ {omega} to be calculated: 0 rads tos Angular acceleration is defined as the rate of change of angular velocity and is given the symbol a (alpha). If : = initial angular velocity (rad/s) and o2 = final angular velocity (rad/s) Again, as with linear motion, it is useful to have a set of equations for solving problems of angular motion. The format of these is identical to those of linear motion, only the symbols have changed. o2=o1 + at Equation 1