Napoleon, His Army and Enemies

Napoleon, His Army and Enemies : Napoleonic Battles : Uniforms : Maps : Tactics
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/[2012-05-21 12:37:23]
Napoleon, His Army and Enemies.
Campaigns - Battles - Strategy- Tactics - Commanders - Uniforms - Maps
Napoleon and his army were the dominant players of the Napoleonic Wars. The
long series of wars took place on a scale never before seen. French power rose
quickly, very quickly, conquering most of Europe; and collapsed after the
disastrous invasion of Russia (1812). Napoleon and his famous Grande Armee
"reshaped both Europe and the art of war. Swift marching, furious in the attack,
grimly enduring, high-hearted, stubborn in disaster, it still ranks among the few
greatest of the great. It also was many men of many different nations - many
heroes, not a few cowards, and the multitude who were neither but did their duty
as they saw it. Probably no armies in all history have fought such a variety of
enemies in so short a space of time as did the French soldiers under Napoleon
Bonaparte." (- Colonel John Elting, US Army) Napoleon and his army ultimately
suffered military defeat in the hands of the Austrian, Russian, British, and Prussian
armies.
Napoleon on his Imperial throne wearing his laurel leaf crown.
Painting by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres in 1806.
Our website has over 1,800 illustrations, maps, charts, articles about Napoleon's strategy and tactics,
about the French, Polish, Prussian, Austrian, Russian and British armies, the Royal Navy, their
organization, commanders, uniforms, orders of battles, books, clubs, reenactment groups, Major Sharpe
etc. "Napoleon, His Army and Enemies" is a massive work in progress. We make updates on a monthly
basis. There are several sections here that aren't yet complete but we strive to add new information all
the time. Here are some of the many articles you will find within the website: "The Battle of the
Nations", "So which are the best soldiers ?", "The Cowards at Waterloo", "The cruel war in Spain",
"Slaughter at Borodino", "The French Army", "The Russian Army", "The Austrian Army", "Napoleonic
Unifors", "Infantry, Cavalry and Artillery Combat and Tactics", web polls, humor and much more.
Amateur and professional enthusiasts donate their time and effort to collect and create content that is
shared here as a public service. If you would like to share your information, articles are invited.
Contributors: Csar Hernndez Ydice, Dr. Jean Cerino Badone, Dr. Dominique Buresi, A. Nuez and
G. Smith, Peter Hofschroer, Mark Townsend, Oliver Schmidt, Paolo Gerolla, Jan Kowalik, Jan
Wojciechowski, Nikolai Mozhak, Rmi B., Richard Lysiak, Pedro Castilla, M. Ayala, Thomas Mischak,
Andreas Hetzert, Erwin Muilwijk, Zbynio Olszewski (webmaster), J. Carvalho, Jason Seigers, James
Mitchell, Jr., Branislav Petrovic, and Janis Jaie.
What else you have to know ? Well, just few things:
1 - We do not sell anything, and we don't advertise.
2 - There are currently no plans to introduce a discussion forum to the site.
3 - Sorry but there are no plans to expand this site to cover wargaming.
Many thanks to those who sent suggestions, interesting tidbits, photos, illustrations, etc. If you would
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contact us at: (Please, no genealogy questions).
"My motto has always been:
A career open to all talents,
without distinctions of birth."
"... Be successful !"
- Napoleon
List of articles:
NAPOLEON
He has been the subject of more biographies to date
than any other human being except Jesus Christ.
.
. NAPOLEON'S TROOPS
"The army will never forget that under Napoleon's eagles,
deserving men of courage and intelligence were raised to
the highest levels of society. Simple soldiers became
marshals, princes, dukes and kings. The French soldier
had become an equal citizen by right and by glory."
French Army : Royal , Revolutionary , Imperial
"The attack was the natural way for Frenchmen to fight.
British beef and German sausage might create specialists
in the art of standing still under fire
but the mercurial Frenchman could not be so inhibited."
French Infantry
"It is well known with what gallantry the officers lead
and with what vehemence the [French] troops follow ..."
French Cavalry
They became most renowned for
their actions in large masses.
French Artillery
"There had been kings who had made artillery their hobby;
Napoleon was an artilleryman who made a hobby of
breaking and making kings."
French Guard Infantry
"One of the most celebrated
military formations in history."
French Guard Cavalry
"There is no temple without a God
and no throne without a Guard.'
But there are guards and Guards."
French Guard Artillery
"Its gunnery generally excellent, thanks to
the annual competitions at La Fere."
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Napoleon's foreign infantry :
The Irish Legion and the Polish Vistula Legion
The Swiss, Tirailleurs Corses, Tirailleurs du P
The Piedmontese and the infantry of Naples
Dutch and Belgians, Croats and Albanians
Bavarians, Saxons, Westphalians, Badeners
Wurttembergers and Hessians
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Polish Army: Strength, Organisation, Commanders
French Marshal Davout [The Iron Marshal]
supervised the creation of the Polish army.
"From ... the Peninsula to the depths of Russia,
Polish valour went on parade as never before."
Polish Infantry, Cavalry, and Artillery
The Poles were "Napoleon's staunchest allies."
Old Guard Lancers
"I proclaim you my bravest cavalry !"
Vistula Uhlans
The Picadors of the Hell
"Some of the most feared cavalry
in Napoleon's armies ..."
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Belgians in the French army
Every year approx. 10.000 Belgians were
conscripted to serve under the French colours.
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ALLIED ARMIES
"If the Cossacks attack during the night, it is to keep you awake, to wear you out
. . . If the Prussian cavalry attacks during the night, that is more serious . . .
If the Austrian cavalry attacks at night they probably have their infantry with them
... If the English cavalry understood war, they might be ... the most terrible in Europe
... (If you have ridden over them) the Austrian infantry throws down its weapons,
each soldier claims to be a Pole (France's closest ally), they obey you honestly.
The Prussian infantry throws down its arms, but will grab them up promptly
if they see help coming. The Russian infantry falls flat, lets you pass,
gets up, and starts shooting again." - Antoine De Brack
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Russian Army: Strength, Organization, Commanders
"The whole appearance of a Russian army denotes
hardihood and bravery, inured to any privations."
Russian Infantry
"Bullet's an idiot, bayonet's a fine chap."
Russian Cavalry
"As a horseman, the Russian regular cavalryman had no experience,
except in the schools. He was not born to the use of horses and he
had to learn both how to ride and how to care for them."
Russian Artillery
"The Russian artillery is of the most powerful description."
Russian Guards
"... a sight too magnificent to be described !"
Cossacks
"The French typically found the cossacks contemptible,
their tactics cowardly, their mounts ugly ...
French conceit came at a cost."
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Austrian Army: Strength, Organization, Commanders
"Though repeatedly defeated, it always rose again ..."
Austria was the most implacable of Napoleon's continental enemies:
Austria at war with France - 108 months
Prussia at war with France - 58 months
Russia at war with France - 55 months
Austrian Infantry.
"The great confusion of nationalities
is a serious evil [in Austrian infantry]."
Austrian Cavalry.
"Austrian cavalry was well mounted and generally good
but seldom operated effectively in mass."
Austrian Artillery
The Austrian gunners, recruited mostly from
the German provinces, has always stood high
.
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Prussian Army: Strength, Organization, Commanders
"Traditionally, Prussia was Soldaten und Beamtenstaat ,
a state of soldiers and bureaucracy, a state formed by and for war"
Prussian Infantry
"Forward ! Long live to the king of Prussia !"
Prussian Cavalry.
So great was its reputation that Napoleon
made a special point of warning his cavalry
in 1806 to beware of the Prussian cavalry.
Prussian Artillery
The artillery had been a neglected branch of
the army since the time of Frederick the Great.
Prussian Troops and Commanders.
"Waterloo - The German Victory."
"Just Don't Mention the Prussians."
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British Army and Navy: Strength, Organization, Commanders.
"Rule, Britannia! rule the waves ...."
British Infantry (The Invincibles).
"I consider the English infantry to be impregnable ..."
British Cavalry.
" ... the French soldiers were so struck with
the elegant dresses of the light dragoons .."
British Artillery
"Frames, caissons, barrels ... are remarkable
for the goodness of the materials, as well as
excellent workmanship."
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CAMPAIGNS & BATTLES
"If you had seen one day of war, you would pray to God
that you would never see another."
- Napoleon
Bonaparte's campaign in Italy, 1796
"In a fortnight he ... made his first move.
Five days later he had already
four times defeated the enemy."
Heilsberg 1807
"... the word 'butchery' occurs in many accounts of Heilsberg."
Somosierra 1808
The charge of "these gallant warriors ...
can hardly be paralleled in the annals of war."
Raszyn 1809
"It was a good defensive position..."
Corunna 1809
"Threatening Napoleons communications was as
dangerous as trying to snatch the prey from a lion."
Wagram 1809
"... the world was indeed ending."
Fuengirola 1810
"Come and take it !"
Albuera, 1811
"Oh Albuera, glorious field of grief !"
War in Spain and Portugal
Long and very cruel war.
Napoleon's Invasion of Russia, 1812
One of the most magnificient campaigns in military history.
Borodino 1812
The bloodiest battle of the Napoleonic Wars.
Campaign in Germany 1813
+ Dresden 1813
One of Napoleon's greatest victories.
Hagelberg 1813
Prussian and Russian irregulars
versus French line troops.
Dennewitz 1813
Marshal Ney, the Bravest of the Brave
is crushed by the Prussians.
Leipzig 1813 "Battle of the Nations"
The largest battle of the Napoleonic Wars.
Campaign of France 1814
"With a few thousand men, most of whom were inexperienced conscripts,
one saw him (Napoleon) face the armies of Europe."
La Rothiere 1814
Napoleon's first defeat on French soil.
Craonne 1814
The bloodiest battle of the Campaign of France in 1814
The Old and Young Guard in action.
Paris 1814
"No hostile army had reached Paris for 400 Years."
Hundred Days Campaign 1815
+ Quatre-Bras, Gilly, Charleroi
The beginning of Wellington's and Blucher's victorious campaign.
L i g n y 1815
Napoleon's last victory
Waterloo 1815
Napoleon's last battle
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STRATEGY & TACTICS
"Read over and over again the campaigns of
Alexander , Hannibal , Caesar , Gustavus ,
Turenne , and Frederic the Great . This is
the only way to become a great general ... "
- Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon's Strategy and Tactics.
Principles guiding the development of his plans.
Napoleon's favorites strategies and battle tactics.
Infantry Organization, Tactics and Combat (1)
Advantages and disadvantages of infantry columns.
3- 2- and 1-rank deep lines of infantry.
Infantry squares versus cavalry.
Infantry skirmishing.
Infantry Tactics and Combat (2)
Accuracy of musket fire in tests and in real combat.
Bayonet attacks and bayonet melees.
Cavalry Organization, Tactics and Combat (1)
Charge, melee, pursuit, casualties.
Frontal charges and flank attacks.
Heavy cavalry versus light cavalry.
Dismounted cavalry in combat.
Cavalry Tactics and Combat (2)
Hussars, the daredevils.
Lancers !
Artillery Organization, Tactics and Combat
Accuracy of artillery fire in tests and in real combat.
Good and bad positions for artillery.
The deadly oblique shot.
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ORDERS OF BATTLE
The Napoleonic Wars "were of a scale never before seen,
mainly due to the application of modern mass conscription.
French power rose quickly, conquering most of Europe;
the fall was also rapid, beginning with the disastrous
invasion of Russia... " - wikipedia.org
French Order of Battle - Spain 1811
French & Russian Order of Battle - Borodino 1812
French Order of Battle - Leipzig 1813
Russian, Austrian, Prussian and Swedish Order of Battle - Leipzig 1813
French Order of Battle - La Rothiere 1814
Allies Order of Battle - La Rothiere 1814
French Order of Battle - Waterloo Campaign 1815
Prussian Order of Battle - Waterloo Campaign 1815
British-German-Netherland Order of Battle - Waterloo 1815
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MISCALLENOUS
With few exceptions, the Hollywood version of battle evokes images
of the every man, fighting to death without asking any questions.
The "good guy" always win over the "bad guy". The movies obscure
the reality of battle that would put the "heroes" label in doubt.
Uniforms of the Napoleonic Wars
The uniforms worn during the Napoleonic Wars can be
considered as works of art on their own right. They
represent the most elaborate display of pomp in the
whole history of military dress.
Les Compagnies de Chasseurs des Regiments d'Infanterie.
About the Sardinian special units designed to fight the French
in the difficult terrain of the western Alps
French-British battles in the era of modern bayonet 1750-1815
The introduction of the bayonet eventually reshaped infantry tactics,
perhaps even more than did the conversion to the fusil. Never before
or since has an edged weapon had such impact on firepower."
The Cowards at Waterloo.
Performance and actions of the "sadly unreliable"
Netherland (Dutch-Belgian) troops in June 1815.
Napoleon's Old and Young Guard at Waterloo 1815.
"Cambronne was very much the rough spoken, hard as nails ex-ranker
- a soldier's soldier. For this reason perhaps 'Merde !' is the more likely
in the circumstances, the modern English equivalent being 'F*** off !"
Bonapartist refugees in Americas: USA, Mexico, Guatemala
The return of the Bourbons to power after Napoleon's second abdication,
provoked a wave of emigration from France.
The execution of Marshal Ney.
Feedback and Suggestions
Links
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The Napoleonic Wars are very popular among the video wargamers.
Here is from the "Total War": French versus Prussians.
Diorama of the Battle of the Nations (Leipzig) 1813.
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2001 - 5,555 visitors
2002 - 12,000 visitors
2003 - 19.990 visitors
2004 - 28.210 visitors
2005 - 51,400 visitors
2006 - 61,890 visitors
2007 - 121,456 visitors
2008 - 108,448 visitors
2009 - 139,853 visitors
2010 - 209,555 visitors
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Visitors by nationality in December 2011
(only top 10 countries):
1 . USA
2 . UK
3 . France
4 . Germany
5 . Poland
6 . Spain
7 . Italy
8 . Sweden
9 . Russia
10 Canada (and Australia)

Napoleon Bonaparte : Napoleone : Emperor : Empereur : Kaiser : Cesarz : Imperatore
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Emperor_Napoleon.htm[2012-05-21 12:37:31]
Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon Bonaparte, a citizen from Corsica, rose up to the
greatest heights based on personal merit and not on birth.
"Napoleon dominated the period from 1800 to 1815 so completely
that the era has become known as the Napoleonic Age."
- Col. John Elting, US Army
He has been the subject of more biographies to date
than any other human being except Jesus Christ.
Napoleon's childhood and parents.
Napoleon's brothers and sisters.
Napoleon's education.
Napoleon's health.
Napoleon's looks and height,
his nicknames, favorite foods, horses.
Napoleon's women.
Napoleon - the self-promoter.
Napoleon and Hitler.
Napoleon and Washington.
Napoleon - the soldier.
Napoleon's early military career and his first victory.
Napoleon's first campaign and the blitzkrieg in Italy.
Napoleon's strategy and tactics.
Napoleon's campaigns.
First Consul and Emperor.
Napoleon's charisma and popularity.
Napoleon's failures, mistakes and defeats.
Napoleon's death and funeral.
Napoleon's legacy.
"If you had seen one day of war, you would pray to God
that you would never see another."
- Napoleon
.
"Russia has Suvorov, England has Nelson
and Prussia has Frederick the Great.
The World has Napoleon."
~
"Napoleon is like the great pyramid,
he stands alone in a desert
and jackals piss at his feet
and writers climb up on him."
- Gustave Flaubert
Napoleon's childhood and parents.
"He would spend his childhood hating France,
the nation he would one day rule."
The family of Buonapartes lived originally in Tuscany, a pictoresque
region in Italy, just north-west of Rome. An officer named Ugo (or
Hugo) is mentioned in an act of 1122 as fighting beside Frederick the
One-Eyed, (ext.link) to subdue Tuscany. Ugo's nephew took the
surname Buonaparte, meaning "the good party". (The "bad party" were
the knights of the papal party.) But the "good party" lost power and
Buonapartes had to leave Florence. Ugo's descendants sailed to seek
their fortune in Corsica.
Thus the family of Napoleon Buonaparte lived in Corsica. After 26
years of struggle the independent Corsican Republic was formed in
1755 under the leadership of Paoli and remained sovereign until 1768.
He proclaimed that Italian was the official language of Corsica. In 1764
Corsica was purchased secretly by France from the Republic of Genoa.
After an announcement and brief civil war in 1768-69, Corsica was
incorporated into France in 1770.
The Bonapartes came from a minor Italian nobility (a Tuscan stock of
Lombard origin) and were rather wealthy family. They held most of
their property near Florence in Italy. When compared to the
aristocracies of France Napoleon's kin were poor and pretentious.
Carlo (Charles), the father of Napoleon, was secretary to Paoli during
the golden years of the republic. He was assessor of Ajaccio's Court of
Justice, and deputy to represent the Corsican interests in Paris. Carlo
was determined that his children be well educated. Soon after the
French conquest of the Corsica island, he embraced the new
government. Despite being honored with many titles, Carlo's
dissatisfied nature led him to embark in risky business enterprises that
ompromised the fortune of his family for years to come.
Napoleon's mother, Letitzia, was extremely shy to the point of
awkwardnesss.
But she was also a hard, austere woman, toughened by war. She was a
person for cleanliness and made her sons take daily baths. (Napoleon
did not mind this, but what he did mind was going to the church every
Sunday.)
Napoleon's parents, Carlo and Letitzia, had married for love and, after
Carlo's death, Letitzia had remained true to his memory. They had
many children. Joseph, their third child and the first to survive, was
born in 1768, Napoleon in 1769, and nine other children, six of whom
survived, in subsequent years: Lucien (1775); lisa (1777); Louis (1778);
Pauline (1780); Caroline (1782); and Jrme (1784).

The island of Corsica, Napoleon's birthplace.
Napoleon was born in Ajaccio, on August 15, 1769. Letitzia and Carlo
could not possibly have imagined the significance of that birth. Little
could they have realised that their son would become a hero of France
and the man who ultimately would become master of most of Europe.
The house in which he was born became the National Bonaparte
Museum. The museum contains furniture of the period, weapons,
portraits and family documents. "The visit starts on the second floor
with a historical evocation of Corsica in the 18th century, and is
followed by an introduction to members of the family: Charles and
Letizia in the first room, Napoleon, his brothers and sisters in the
second room." (- www.napoleon.org)
Napoleon was born just few months after Corsica had been defeated by
the French. (The Battle of Ponte Novu.) He would spend his childhood
hating France, the nation he would one day rule. "I was born when
[Corsica] was perishing. Thirty thousand Frenchmen spewed on to our
shores, drowning the throne of liberty in waves of blood... The cries of
the dying, the groans of the oppressed and tears of despair surrounded
my cradle from the hour of my birth." Napoleon never forgave his
father for betraying his Corsican heritage. He would later say harshly
that Carlo was rather "too fond of pleasure."
His mother had little time for her children's training. His father gave
them little attention; and Napoleon, "obstinate and curious,"
domineering over his brothers and companions, ran wild. At nine
years of age he was a wilful child, unkempt and untrained, pale, almost
without instruction. Then it was that he was suddenly transplanted
from his free life to an environment foreign in its language.
As a representative of the Corsican parliament, Carlo travelled to
France. There, he saw the splendor of the French court in all its
majesty, and he worked to secure one of his sons (Napoleon) Napoleon
a scholarship to Brienne, a military school. To enter the school at
Brienne, it was necessary to be able to read and write French. A
preparatory school was necessary. The place settled on was Autun, and
there in January 1779, Carlo arrived with two of his sons, Joseph and
Napoleon.
Other events of 1769:
April British explorer, Captain James Cook, arrives in Tahiti.
May Charles III of Spain sends missionaries, who found missions
in San Diego and San Francisco and begin the settlement of California,
USA.
June Daniel Boone, first begins to explore the present-day Kentucky,
USA.
September Massive droughts in Bengal, which eventually lead to the
Bengal famine of 1770. The famine kills 10 million people, a third of
the population, in the worst natural disaster in human history in terms
of lives lost. The Maharajah of Mysore forces the British to agree a
treaty of mutual assistance in view of the famine, but the British East
India Company increases its demands on the Bengali people to keep
profits up.
Undated - James Watt demonstrates the first steam engine, an
invention which
inaugurates the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain.
Comment from one of our visitors, Jocelyn Tremblay; "You indicate that Britain was the
first to use steam
engine but in reality it was not. France did it before Great Britain. Expansion and
condensation (alternate
piston movement) were pioneered by Salomon de Caus between 1614-1620. He was skilful
especially in
hydraulics. He made several remarkable inventions and suspected the power of the vapor.
He describes
a steam machine, contructed a device that throw steam water jet and was the first to
believe that steam
could move cars. The marquis Worcester, to whom them English allots this discovery, did
nothing but
borrow it from him. First steam engine with piston was made by Denis Papin in late
1600s.
Undated - The Russo-Turkish War of 17681774 rages on. It was a
conflict that
brought Southern Ukraine, Northern Caucasus, and Crimea within the
orbit of
the Russian Empire. This made Russia really big.
Carlo (Charles) Buonaparte 1746-85,
father of Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon never forgave his father for betraying his Corsican heritage.
He would later say harshly that Carlo was rather "too fond of pleasure."
The King of France and the aristocracy (from the hilarious "History of
The World" :-)
When Napoleon was born, France was ruled by the King and the aristocracy. For the year
1789
Franois Bluche gives a figure of 140,000 nobles. Gordon Wright gives a figure of 300,000
nobles.
With a total population of 28 million, this would represent merely less than 1 %. The
Revolution
got rid off the king, and removed the benefits of caste and priviledge. Napoleon was
against the
king, the aristocrats, and the clergy, and for this reason they became his sworn enemies.
.
"Whatever may be the position in life of a parent,
it is his duty to share his crust with his children."
- Napoleon
Napoleon's brothers (4) and sisters (3).
With the death of his father, Napoleon became
the head and the protector of the family.
With the death of his father, Napoleon became the head and the
protector of the family, and he acted in that capacity with dedication.
For example once he assumed command of the Army of the Interior, he
sent his mother 50,000 louis in coin and paper. For Joseph he got an
appointment as consul in Italy, for Lucien a post commissioner with
the Army of the North. Louis became Napoleon's aide de camp. Jerome
was sent to a good boarding school.
In 1804, the year of Napoleon's coronation, Napoleon decided that his
wife Josephine should share in his imperial dignity, and therefore that
she should be both anointed and crowned. However his brother Joseph
set himself on being appointed Napoleon's heir, but since Joseph's
children were both girls, Napoleon did not wish the title to go to
Joseph. Joseph, the eldest, was hurt and did not hide it.
Napoleon would have preferred Lucien; Lucien, however, would not
break his union with Madame Jouberthon, an irregular marriage which
Napoleon had never accepted; the two brothers quarrelled over this
and Lucien in a huff went off to live in Italy. Napoleon's next brother
was Louis, but he was suffering from an obscure blood disease and
already a partial invalid. Napoleon wanted to adopt Louis' son, but
Louis objected to being passed over and made a scene.
According to Vincent Cronin Napoleon's sisters were just as tiresome.
For example, he granted the title of 'Highness' to the wives of Joseph
and Louis, whereupon his sisters Caroline and Elisa became angry.
They wanted the title of 'Highness' too. Annoyed but exhausted
Napoleon finally gave in and gave them the title.
Joseph (Giuseppe), the oldest brother.
Napoleon had doubts about Joseph's military aptitude.
Napoleon's mother after having had the sadness of losing first a boy,
then a girl, gave birth to a healthy son, Joseph (Giuseppe). Whereas
Napoleon was full of energy and curiosity, Joseph was quiet and
composed. He had good nature and would share his toys with other
boys without asking a return. The rowdy Napoleon liked to take on his
older brother. The parents thought that Joseph had the makings of a
priest, while Napoleon was more likely to have the gift for soldiering.
He married Julie Clary in 1794 in France. They had had three
daughters. In 1795 Joseph was a member of the Council of Ancients
where he used his position to help Napoleon overthrow the Directory.
Joseph was quietly intelligent man and a qualified lawyer. In 1806
Joseph was given military command of Naples, and shortly afterward
was made king by Napoleon, to be replaced after 2 years by his sister's
husband, Murat, when Joseph was made king of Spain in August 1808,
soon after the French invasion. He reluctantly left Naples and arrived
in Spain. The rest of his reign was tenuous and constantly warring with
Spanish guerrillas. He never established complete control over the
country. Joseph's army was defeated by Wellington's British-Spanish-
Portuguese army at Vittoria. In 1814 Schwarzenberg defeated Joseph at
Paris.
Lucien (Luciano).
He held genuinely revolutionary views, which led to an abrasive
relationship with Napoleon. (He renamed himself Brutus and came to
oppose many of Napoleon's imperial ideas). "Napoleon made him
Minister of the Interior under the Consulate, which enabled Lucien to
falsify the results of the plebiscite but which brought him into
competition with Joseph Fouch, the chief of police, who showed
Napoleon a subversive pamphlet that was probably written by Lucien,
and effected a breach between the brothers. Lucien was sent as
ambassador to the court of Charles IV of Spain, where his diplomatic
talents won over the Bourbon royal family and, perhaps as
importantly, the minister Manuel de Godoy." (- wikipedia.org 2009)
Lucien attempted to sail to the United States to escape his situation but
was captured by the British and spent four years under house arrest in
Britain. As he got off the ship in England, he was greeted with cheers
and applause by the crowd, which saw him as anti-Napoleon.
The government permitted him to settle comfortably in the English
countryside. Napoleon, viewing this as treasonous behaviour, had
Lucien omitted from the Imperial almanacs' listing the Bonapartes
from 1811 onward. Napoleon was furious thinking Lucien had
deliberately gone to Britain. Lucien returned to France following his
brother's abdication in April 1814.
Jrme, the youngest brother.
Jerome was good-looking, cocky and spoiled show-off. "As a naval
ensign Jerome had deserted his ship in America to marry Elizabeth
Patterson, a Baltimore girl of Irish origin. The young couple sailed for
Europe, Elizabeth convinced that she would win round Napoleon 'by
the enchantment of my beauty.' But she never got a chance to show
Napoleon her Grecian nose and pretty ringlets. Napoleon refused to
admit the marriage was valid - since Jerome was under age - berated
his brother with deserting the colours ... While Miss Patterson was
bundled off to Camberwell, where she gave birth to a son, and then
returned to Baltimeore, the richer by 60,000 francs a year from
Napoleon's civil list, Napoleon married Jerome to Catherine, the shy,
sweet daughter of the King of Wurttemberg - marriages were key
feature of his imperial policy - and placed him on the new-made
throne of Westphalia." (Cronin - "Napoleon Bonaparte - an intimate
biography" pages 264-265, publ. 1972)
Napoleon made Jerome the king of Westphalia (northwestern
Germany) in 1807. Jerome enjoyed his kingship. Napoleon made
Jerome an allowance of 5 million francs. (For the King of Prussia's civil
list was 3 million, and the Austrian Kaiser's 2,5 million.) In his stable
Jerome kept 200 horses and 90 carriages. To his mistresses he gave
diamonds, and "to all who came his way 25 jeromes the coin bore his
image. It was no surprising that soon Jerome ran up 2 million francs of
debts !
In 1812 Jrme commanded part of the Grand Army marching towards
the Russian front. Because he failed miserably with maneuvering
against Russian flank Napoleon reprimanded him. Angered Jrme
returned to Westphalia. He led a small force in 1813 when his kingdom
was being threatened by the Prussian and Russian armies. The Allies
captured Kassel and declared the Kingdom of Westphalia dissolved.
This ended his kingship and he then fled to France. In 1815 Jerome
commanded a single infantry division. At Waterloo Jerome's division
failed to capture Hougoumont.
Louis (Luigi).
Louis was unusually scrupulus boy. He served with Napoleon in Egypt
and was made general by the age of 25, although he himself felt that he
had risen too far. Upon his return to France, he was involved in
Napoleon's plot to overthrow the Directory. After becoming first
consul, Napoleon arranged a marriage for Louis to Hortense de
Beauharnais, the daughter of Josephine and Napoleon's stepdaughter.
Napoleon made him the king of Holland in 1806 (in Dutch: Lodewijk
Napoleon). Louis introduced more humane criminal code and himself
reviewed every death sentence. He also persuaded Napoleon to
withdraw French troops. Louis declared that he was Dutch and
renounced his French citizenship. He also forced his court and
ministers (mostly supplied by Napoleon) to speak only Dutch. When
the Dutch protested that Napoleon's continental embargo was ruining
them, Louis turned a blind eye to their importation of English goods.
Napoleon was angry and called him "a Dutchman, a dealer in cheese"
but the Dutch liked him and nicknamed as "good King Louis".
In 1810 Louis was removed by Napoleon from the Dutch throne.
(Louis, in his annoyance, wrote to the Kaiser of Austria asking for help
to restore his kingdom ! Austria published Louis' petulant letter and
Napoleon exploded, "Stop whimping. Put yourself at the head of
100,000 men and win back your kingdom." But Louis preferred to
nurse his grieviances.) Louis finally returned to France in 1813.
After the death of his elder brother Joseph, Louis was seen by
Bonapartists as the rightful Emperor of the French, although he took
little action himself to advance the claim. His son was the future
Emperor Napoleon III (ext.link).
Pauline, his favorite sister.
She was christined Maria-Paola, however, she was popularly known as
Paoletta. Pauline was soft-hearted and charming. Napoleon married
Pauline to General Leclerc in French-occupied Milan in 1797. In 1801
Napoleon willed to restore French authortity in Saint-Dominique, and
so organised an expedition under the command of Lecler. Pauline
joined her husband. The climate however was taking its toll on
Pauline's health. She could no longer walk and was compelled to a
reclining position for several hours a day. She
In 1806, Napoleon made his sister sovereign Princess and Duchess of
Guastalla. Pauline fell into temporary disfavor with her brother because
of her hostility to Empress Marie-Louise, Napoleon's second wife. But
when Napoleon's fortune failed, Pauline showed herself more loyal
than any of his other sisters and brothers. After Waterloo Pauline
moved to Rome, where she enjoyed the protection of Pope Pius VII.
Caroline.
Caroline was worldly, ambitious and power-hungry. She fell in love
with Murat, one of her Napoleon's generals, and they married in 1800.
Caroline became Grand Duchess of Berg and Cleves in 1806 and Queen
of Naples in 1808.
Caroline was jealous of Josphine and her children, as she felt
Napoleon favoured them over his Bonaparte relatives. Caroline
continuously plotted against Josphine. "It was Caroline who arranged
for Napoleon to take a mistress, lonore Denuelle, who duly gave
birth to his first illegitimate child. This had the desired effect of
establishing that Josphine was infertile as Napoleon showed he was
clearly capable of siring children." (- wikipedia.org 2009)
Elisa.
Elisa excelled as an administrator and was fond of arts. Elisa and her
husband were given the principality of Lucca. She founded two large
libraries and a medical college. Louisa made Lucca a musical centre,
with the famous Niccol Paganini (ext.link) as her court virtuoso. In
1808 Napoleon promoted his sister to be Grand Duchess of the
Departments of Tuscany.
.
If you want a thing done well,
do it yourself."
- Napoleon
Napoleon's education.
"I know it already, sir."
When Napoleon was 5 years old, he was sent to am mixed day school
run by nuns. From the nuns Napoleon went to a boys' day school run
by a certain Father Recco. He learned to read and write in Italian, for
French innovations did not touch the schools. He learned arithmetic
and this he liked very much.
Napoleon was 9 years old when he entered the school at Autun. Abbe
Chardon, the head of the primary department of the school, writes
about the young Napoleon, "... thoughtful character. He was interested
in no one, and found his amusements by himself. He rarely had a
companion in his walks. He was quick to learn, and quick of
apprehension in all ways. When I gave him a lesson, he fixed his eyes
upon me with parted lips; but if I recapitulated anything I had said, his
interest was gone, as he plainly showed by his manner. When reproved
for this, he would answer coldly, I might almost say with an imperious
air, 'I know it already, sir.'"
When he went to Brienne in France, Napoleon left his older brother
Joseph behind at Autun. To Napoleon France must have seemed its
complete opposite to the mountainous, small and poor Corsica. A
population of 25 million, one of the largest in the world, France
enjoyed a high standard of living and exported almost twice as much
as they imported. French furniture, jewelry and dresses graced houses
from Spain to Russia. French language was the language of educated
Europe, the great universal language that Latin has once been. In
coming to this country Napoleon had entered the centre of European
and western civilization and culture. (ext.link)
In military school in Brienne.
In school Napoleon hated singing and dancing.
He loved mathematics, geography and history
(in 1781 was awarded a prize for mathematics)
Brienne was a small town in Champagne, a region of forrests and
ponds. The military school in Brienne was underfunded so could not
afford to engage top-class teachers, was the lowest rank of all ten
military schools and had the lowest student enrollment. There was a
strict dress code (blue coat with red facings). The typical menu
contained soup, roast meat, salad and dessert. According to Frank
Lynn "Latin was studied for moral example ... German was taught
because it might be useful in a future war, history, georgraphy, and
mathematics for their use in topography and so on." Less attention was
paid to France's recent defeats than to past victories. The best pupils
were selected for the artillery and engineers, and the mediocre ones for
the infantry and cavalry.
In school Napoleon enjoyed the stories about
famous military leaders like Caesar (see picture --
>). "From the story of his assassination boys were
meant to draw the moral that Caesar was a tyrant
and Brutus the champion of liberty; but
Napoleon concluded that Caesar was a great man
and Brutus a traitor." (- Frank Lynn)
Napoleon heard a sermon in which the priest
said that Caesar was in hell. Napoleon was
scandalized to learn that "the most virtuous man
of antiquity would burn in hell for not having practised a religion he
knew nothing about."
One day Napoleon had broken some rule and the master on duty
imposed the usual punishment: the boy was to wear dunce's clothes
and to eat his dinner kneeling down by the refractory door. With the
pupils watching, Napoleon came in, tense and staring straight ahead,
dressed no coarse homespun.
"Down on your kneees sir !"
At the command young the boy was seized by sudden vomiting and
then shouted "I'll eat my dinner standing up, not on my knees. In my
family we kneel only to God." The master on duty tried to force him
but without much success. Finally the headmaster intervened and
cancelled the punishment. From the first day the atmosphere was
rather hateful to the boy. His older comrades were French, and it was
the French who had subdued his Corsica. Napoleon was surrounded
by students who were the children of nobles and have nothing in
common with this poor foreigner. In Corsica he had been near the top
socially; now he suddenly found himself near the bottom.
While there were boys from overseas, including at least 2 English boys,
Napoleon was the only Corsican. But he did something quite
exceptional. He conquered his conquerors. Napoleon's response to
bullying was insulting his fellow pupils, which led to fisticuffs. The
taunts were followed by counter-taunts.
In school Napoleon hated: fencing, singing and dancing. He liked
geography and history. One of his favorite books was Jerusalem
Delivered by Tasso, an epic of the Crusaders. But he never mastered
French language and spoke with an Italian accent. Napoleon however
was brilliant in mathematics (in 1781 was awarded a prize for
mathematics). Napoleon also read all he could about navy and artillery.
He had grown up beside the sea and dreamed to be a sailor. A taste for
mathematics often goes with a liking for the artillery, navy, and the
technical arms. Britain and France were at war at that time, and it was
being fought at sea; moreover the French admiral de Grasse (ext.link),
was actually enjoying some notable successes against the British navy.
Along with few other cadets, Napoleon even slept in a hammock and
dreamed about sea and warships.
The end of the naval war between France and Britain made the young
boy thinking about entering the British naval college at Portsmouth as a
cadet. He wanted to see some military action and the British warships
were often busy. (There were many Frenchmen serving in foreign
armies and navies.) His parents however strongly disapproved his plan
to be a sailor.
Bonaparte's snowball fight at Brienne, by Boules de Neige
"The climax of Bonaparte's career at Brienne was in 1784, when he directed a
snowball fight between two evenly divided branches of the school with such
effect that one boy had his skull cracked and the rest were laid u p for weeks
from their wounds." ( John Bangs - "Mr Bonaparte of Corsica")
Young Napoleon at his desk.
He "has distinguished himself by his application to mathematics;
is passably well up in history and geography; is behind hand in
his Latin." - de Keralio, an inspector at Brienne school
.
In military academy in Paris.
The atmosphere in the academy was of a garrison town
and it pleased the young Napoleon. He was an excellent
student and graduated earlier than normal.
At the end of 5 years Napoleon was promoted to the military school at
Paris.
The choice of pupils for this school was made by an inspector,
Chevalier de Keralio. He was particularly pleased with Napoleon, and
named him for promotion in spite of not yet being of the age required
by the regulations. Keralio wrote, "... he has passed his fourth
examination; good constitution, excellent health; submissive character,
frank and grateful; regular in conduct; has distinguished himself by his
application to mathematics; is passably well up in history and
geography; is behind hand in his Latin. Will make an excellent sailor.
Deserves to be sent to the school in Paris."
Paris was a city of great wealth and also of great poverty. There
Napoleon felt much the provincional; he was seen "gaping in all
directions with just the expression to attract a pickpocket." :-)
The academy, Ecole Militaire, was the prestigious royal military school
founded by King Louis XV in 1750-51. This is the French equivalent to
the West Point Military Academy (ext.link) in the United States,
established in 1802. The 15 years-old Napoleon found everything very
lavish. For example the classrooms were papered in blue with gold
fleurs-de-lys and there were curtains at the windows. The dormitory
was heated and his jug and wash-basin were of pewter. The meals
were very tasty. The masters were well paid.
Many of the students were of significantly higher level of French
nobility than he had found at the school at Brienne. The first thing he
did in Paris was to buy a book Gil Blas, a novel about a penniless
Spanish boy who rises to become secretary to the Prime Minister.
Napoleon once remarked on his frugal lifestyle in the early years:
"Do you know how I managed ? By never entering a cafe or going into
society; by eating dry bread and brushing my own clothes so they
might last the longer. I lived like a bear, in a little room, with books for
my only friends and when, thanks to abstinence, I had saved up a few
crowns, I rushed off to the bookseller's shop and visited his coveted
shelves ... These were the joys and debaucheries of my youth."
"Life (in the academy) was much more like real army life. It pleased
Napoleon that lights-out and reveille were signalled by the beating of
drums and the atmosphere was that of a garrison-town. In winter the
150 cadets, graduates from the 12 provincial academies, took part in
attacking and defending Fort Timbrune, a reduced but exact facsimile
of a fortified town. Napoleon, because of his wish to join the navy, was
placed in the artillery class, where he studied hydrostatics, and
differential and integral calculus.
One day Napoleon was on the parade ground, drilling with his long
and unwieldy musket. He made a mistake, whereupon the senior
cadet, whoi was instructing him, gave him a sharp rap over the
knuckles. This was contrary to regulations. In a fury Napoleon threw
his musket at the senior cadet's head - never again, he swore, would he
receive lessons from him. His superiors, seeing that they would have to
handle this new cadet carefully, gave him another instructor,
Alexandre des Mazis." (Cronin - "Napoleon Bonaparte, an intimate
biography" pp 40-41)
Napoleon enjoyed mathematics and geography but was rather poor at
sketching plans of fortifications and so hopeless in German language
that he was usually dispensed from attending classes. In general
however he was an excellent student and one of those who passed the
tests for admission into the artillery. Napoleon came 42nd in the list of
48 who received commissions, but most of the others had spent several
years in the school. He passed out after only one year. Napoleon was
then commissioned second lieutenant in the artillery in the regiment of
La Fre. Garrisoned at Valence, Napoleon continued his education,
reading much, in particular works on strategy and tactics.
Almost 5 years ago Napoleon had arrived in France as an Italian-
speaking foreign boy. Now he was a Frenchman and an officer of the
King. It was during his year in Paris that his father, Carlo, died of a
stomach cancer, leaving his family in straitened circumstances.
Napoleon, although not the eldest son (Joseph was the oldest),
assumed the position of head of the family.

Ecole Militaire (Military Academy) in Paris.
The royal military school in Paris was founded by King Louis XV in 1750 but did not open
until 1760.
The Comte de Saint-Germain reorganised it in 1777 under the name of School of Young
Gentlemen
which accepted the young Napoleon in 1784-85. The academy stands at the opposite end
of the
Champ-de-Mars from the famous Eiffel Tower.
Napoleon was not a modest individual, he was not a peacemaker,
and he was not morally clean. But the other political leaders
were no better. For example Russian monarch, Alexander, was
implicated in the murder of his father. The presidents of USA,
Washington and Jefferson owned slaves.
Napoleon's health.
In 1814, after the Russian, Austrian and Prussian troops took Paris,
Napoleon had taken some poison that he always carried with him.
Caulaincourt called for help, including the Emperor's doctor Yvan.
Napoleon, vomiting and in tremendous pain, asked the doctor to
give him more poison to finish the job. The doctor refused.
According to the Inspector of Military School at Brienne, Mr Keralio,
when Napoleon was in school his physique was good and his health was
"excellent."
In 1797 "Bonaparte was rather slight and emaciated-looking; his face,
too, was very thin ... " (- Madame de Rmusat)
Working 18 hours a day was not unusual, and on campaign, he was
known to go for days at a time with little or no sleep. During the
campaign in Eastern Prussia and Poland in 1806-07 Napoleon was so
tired that several times he fell asleep while sitting in the chair. He
would later complain that he had not removed his boots for 14 straight
days ! It afected his health and physical strength, a key element in
maintaining a clear focus for mental activity. "He passed half the day in
the saddle or in his carriage, made all dispositions for his great army,
and then dictated to his aide-de-camp 10, 12, 14 or more long letters."
(- Baron von der Goltz)
According to Delderfield, during the disastrous campaign in Russia in
1812, Napoleon's health deteriorated "to a degree that clouded his
judgement." He was suffering from dysuria and a dry cough and loss
of voice. His personal physician, Mestivier, described Napoleon as
having a "persistant dry cough, difficult irregular breathing, his urine
came only in drops and with pain and was thick with sediment."
In addition, there were indications of oedema of the chest and fevers.
Following the battle of Borodino (his bloodiest battle), Napoleon
continued to have throat and cough problems, leaving him speechless.
His urinary problems also continued throughout the campaign.
Napoleon also gained weight.
"He is fat" wrote Captain Ross in 1815. Napoleon's corpulence I believe
resulted - in part - from larger and richer meals. His second wife,
Marie-Louise, liked rich food. Vincent Cronin writes, "Some doctors
suppose a premature failure of the pituitary gland (Kemble) or a
tumour of the pituitary region (Hillemand). In either case Napoleon
would have manifested a marked change of character, sleepiness, and
lack of will. I see no signs of such a falling off. On the contrary,
Napoleon had never been more energetic than in 1813 and 1814."
"The post mortem report was signed by Shortt, Arnott, Burton, Mitchell
nd Livingstone. Antommarchi signed a separate report. More than 2
years later Surgeon Henry, who had been present at the post-mortem,
wrote another report for Hudson Lowe (B.M. Add. MS. 20, 214 f 200).
In it he says that the penis and testicles were 'very small'. This has been
used by Kemble, Hillemand, and others for a theory of sexual
infantilism, and therefore as evidence for a pituitary failure. (ext.link)
It is important to see Henry's statement in context. It was Henry who
wrote the official report signed by Shortt, etc., though he himself, being
then only Assistant Surgeon, did not sign it, and the official report
makes no mention of small genitalia. Napoleon would presumably
have tried to hide any deficiency in this respect, had it existed. But in
1814 at Vauchamps he stood nude in sight of a detachment of troops,
and we know from a report of Montchenu, the Emperor commissioner,
that as late as 1819 Napoleon, stripped to the skin, bathed in one of the
pools in his garden with Montholon.
When we turn to the rest of Henry's report, we find that he has a
tendency to find almost everything small: Napoleon's hands are small,
so are his feet, so is his bladder, so is his heart. And there is a revealing
incident in Henry's autobiography, where he goes out of his way to put
Napoleon in a poor light." (Cronin - "Napoleon Bonaparte, an intimate
biography pp 467-468, publ. in 1972)
Some Frenchmen have sought an excuse for the defeat at waterloo by
claiming that Napoleon was unwell. The favorite theory is
hemorrhoids. (ext.link) But the only evidence for this specifically is a
statement by Dr Barral in 1900 that King Jerome Bonaparte had told
him that Napoleon was suffering from this ailment at waterloo. But
Jerome had by then been dead 40 years. He died in 1860. Against this,
there is a statement by L Marchand, Napoleon's valet, that the Emperor
did not suffer from hemorrhoids on Elba, at Waterloo, or on St. Helena.
In 1814, after the Russian, Austrian and Prussian troops took Paris,
Napoleon had taken some poison that he always carried with him. He
said "I did my best to get killed in the battle of Arcis-sur-Aube," and
now he chosen poison. Caulaincourt called for help, including the
Emperor's doctor Yvan. Napoleon, vomiting and in tremendous pain,
asked the doctor to give him more poison to finish the job. The doctor
refused.
In 1818 Napoleon had an attack of the liver disease which was
prevalent in the island of St Helena.
In 1819 a very painful disease of the stomach made him unable to eat.
In 1821 Napoleon's health began to fail rapidly and he died in May. His
physician, Francesco Antommarchi, led the autopsy which found the
cause of death to be stomach cancer. Napoleon's father had died of
stomach cancer though this was seemingly unknown at the time of the
autopsy. Antommarchi found evidence of a stomach ulcer and it was
the most convenient explanation for the British who wanted to avoid
criticism over their care of the Emperor. A 2007 study found no
evidence of arsenic poisoning in the relevant organs and stated that
stomach cancer was the cause of death.
PS.
Napoleon was not the only leader with health issues.
From the age of 17 to almost the end of his life, George
Washington had recurrent attacks of malaria. Washington, the
father of United States was never a father. He was infertile.
Washington also suffered from smallpox and it took him two
years to recover fully (and smallpox infection play great role in
infertility in men.) In 1755 Washington developed dysentery and
was so ill that he had to tie pillows to his saddle in order to ride
his horse.
Julius Caesar, the legendary Roman military leader, had
episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. The
claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians
by a claim of hypoglycemia.
Winston Churchill's health was fragile, as shown by a mild heart
attack he suffered in 1941 and also in 1943 when he contracted
pneumonia. Most historians reject the commonly held belief that
Churchill was an abuser of alcohol. Perhaps "abuser" is a too
broad a word. Professor W. Kimball maintains that Churchill
was not an alcoholic -"no alcoholic could drink that much!"- but
"alcohol dependent."
Prussian General von Blucher's health was never very good.
Michael Leggiere writes, "An alcohol-induced schizophrenia
caused wild and eccentric behavior. At times Blucher startled
the household by shouting and smashing furniture as he
engaged an invisible foe. He frequently begged his servants to
smite his head with a hammer, claiming that it was made of
stone. According to Hermann von Boyen: 'He actually believed
that he was pregnant with an elephant ... he imagined that his
servants, bribed by France, had heated the floor of his room to
burn his feet. Therefore, when sitting, he kept his legs raised
above the floor or he would walk on the tips of his toes.' .... The
old hussar battled insanity as well as venereal disease,
alcoholism, and an ulcerated urethra. ... When hostilities began
between France and Austria on 9 April 1809, Blucher's health
recovered with the prospect of war."
In September 1852, the famous General Arthur Wellesley, Duke
of Wellington, was seized with a wild epileptic fit, became
speechless, and died.
"He who hazards nothing,
gains nothing."
- Napoleon
Napoleon's looks and height, his nicknames, favorite foods, horses.
"There he sat on his white horse ... with a small hat on his head, and
wearing the famous dust-grey cloak, ... so insignificant-looking that
no one would have recognized the personage as the mighty Emperor ...
before whom even monarchs must bow" - Adam, the famous painter,1809
In 1797 "Bonaparte was rather slight and emaciated-looking; his face,
too, was very thin, with a dark complexion. His profile was very
prominent. His looks and expression were earnest and powerful; his
black, unpowdered hair hung down evenly over both shoulders in
wide, lengthy tresses-oreilles de chien ..."
In 1800 (?) Chateaubriand saw him as "His smile is friendly and
winning ... There is nothing of the charlatan in his appearance, nothing
theatrical or artificial...." According to Doctor Corvisart Napoleon's
"teeth were fairly good ..." His face was often lighted up by a beautiful
smile. Amongst familiars his laugh was loud and mocking.
But "he utterly lacked patience to do anything whatever with his own
hands." (- Madame de Rmusat)
Russian officer, Dennis Davidov, saw Napoleon in 1807. "None of the
portraits that I had seen bore the least resemblance to him. Believing
them, I had supposed that Napoleon sported a rather large hooked
nose, dark eyes and dark hair - in a word, the true Italian facial type. In
fact, his face was slightly swarthy, with regular features. His nose was
not very large, but straight, with a very slight, hardly noticeable bend.
The hair on his head was not black, but dark reddish-blond; his
eyebrows and eyelashes were much darker than the colour of his hair,
and his blue eyes, set off by the almost black lashes, gave him a most
pleasing expression.
Finally, no matter how many times I had occasion to see him, I never
noticed those frowning eyebrows with which the portrait-pamphleteers
endowed him. ... But what was peculiar to him alone was a nobility of
bearing and an urbane, martial air, which undoubtedly was derived
from the habit of commanding men and a consciousness of moral
superiority. No less remarkable were the ease and frankness of his
approach, his natural dexterity and the quickness of his movements."
Another Russian officer, Baron von Lowenstern, saw the Emperor in
1809.
"Finally, I was able to see this man !
I really must say that as I approached him, in no way did he make the
impression on me that I had anticipated. I found him more corpulent
that he is usually portrayed. His gait was hardly gracious, his manner
lacking honour".
Napoleon was "rather what we call pot-bellied ... He is very sallow,
with light grey eyes, and rather thin, greasy-looking brown hair, and
altogether a very nasty, priestlike-looking fellow. ... his manners are by
no means good, and his voice very harsh and unpleasing." ( - Capt.
Ross, commander of the Northumberland, British ship-of-the-line)
.
.
Napoleon's height.
In 1802 a doctor called Corvisart said Napoleon was 5 foot 2 inches by
the French measurement, which equates to about 5 foot 6.5 in British.
Napoleon's autopsy report states that he was about 5 foot 6.5 inches
British. Well known painter, Mr Benjamin West, thought "him 5 feet 7
inches high."
In fact, Napoleon was actually slightly taller than the average
Frenchman of early 19th century. Because Napoleon was often
surrounded by the very tall grenadiers of the Old Guard it gave the
impression of him being smaller.
So let's say Napoleon was 168-169 cm tall. The average height of French
line infantryman in that time was about 165 cm, while for the greandier
of the Old Guard was 180 cm tall. The minimum heights in the army of
the Kingdom of Italy were: 162.5 cm in the line infantry. The Swedish
infantryman was 166 cm tall.
Lieutenant-General Jonathon Riley of the US Army writes, "There is no
doubt too that Napoleon exercised enormous personal charm, or
magnetism, which may have been a sub-set of his strong will,
reinforced by the habit of constant command. This is seemingly at odds
with his personal appearance and habits.
He is described as being short, but in fact he was slightly above the
average height for a French man at the time: 1,68 metres, or 5 feet 6
inches in imperial units. In later life, he ran to fat and this may have
made him appear shorter; he was too, often accompanied by grenadiers
of his guard, who were invariably 6 feet tall or more. The lampoons of
Gillray and Cruikshank, portraying him as Little Bony may also partly
account for the myth of his short stature." (Riley - "Napoleon as a general"
p 198)
British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, was about the same height
as Napoleon.
Churchill was 5 feet 7 inches (170 cm) while Napoleon was 5 feet 6.5
inches (168.5 cm).
Napoleon's diet and favorite foods.
White bread is for softies
brown bread is for soldiers.
The food he ate as a boy came largely from his parents' land. Bread was
home-made from corn ground in the mill. The milk was goat's milk,
the cheese a creamy goat's cheese called bruccia. There was plenty of
excellent oil olive and fresh fish, but not much meat. Napoleon took
rather little interest in any food except black cherries, (ext.link) these he
liked extremely.
When Napoleon went to school his mother would give him a piece of
white bread for his lunch. On the way he exchanged it with one of the
soldiers for brown bread. When mother scolded him, Napoleon replied
that since he was going to be a soldier he must get used to soldier's
rations, and anyway he preferred brown bread to white.
The typical menu in the military school in Brienne contained soup,
roast meat, salad and dessert.
Napoleon ate nothing before the battle of Marengo in 1800. He was a
long way from his supply wagons, and the quartermaster (Dunand)
could find only 3 eggs, some tomatoes, crayfish, and a small hen. It was
served with garlic, oil and a saucepan. Using his bread ration, Dunand
first made a panade with oil and water. Napoleon insisted on having
this simple dish over and over again for good luck, and objected to any
changes.
During his flight from Russia in 1812, Napoleon stopped at a small
Polish town Sejny. He was very hungry and ate a lot. The Emperor was
particularkly pleased with carrot with mutton cutlets.
Usually Napoleon ate alone in 10 minutes. Dinner was more formal but
only slightly longer. Few times a year he ate in public, served by his
court officials. In 1813, 1814 and 1815 he ate richer meals. His second
wife, Marie-Louise of Austria, liked rich food.
Napoleon's horses.
According to J.F. Lozier, Napoleon owned approx. 150 horses during
the course of his life. Napoleon preferred Arab horses though he often
had to make do with other mounts. His horses were schooled by
Jardin, who accustomed them to every kind of object. "He even went so
far as to drive pigs and dogs between their legs." (Georges Blond - "La
Grande Armee" publ. in 1995)
List of names of some of his horses include: Austerlitz, Artaxercs,
Babylonien, Cid, Conqurant, Extrme, Euphrate, Kurde, Montevideo,
Sheikh, Sahara, Triomphant, Tamerlan.
- Dsire was one of the horses ridden at Waterloo.
- Intendant was a Norman horse mainly used for parades and
reviews
because of his graceful nature during such ceremonies.
- Marengo was one of the horses ridden at Waterloo.
His skeleton is kept at the National Army Museum in London.
- Roitelet was an English-Limousin chestnut, it was ridden
in 1813 at Ltzen and in 1814 at Arcis-sur-Aube.
- Styrie was ridden by Bonaparte at Marengo in 1800.
- Tauris was a gift from Tsar Alexander of Russia and was ridden in
1812 by Napoleon
at Smolensk, Borodino,during his entrance in Moscow, and during the
retreat from Russia.
In 1814 being brought to Elba, and in 1815 it was ridden from Golf-
Juan to Paris.
- Vizir it was a gift from the Sultan of Turkey in 1805
and one of the Napoleon's favorites. In 1815 Napoleon brought it
with him to Saint-Helena. It now resides - stuffed - in the Muse de
l'Arme in Paris.
Napoleon's nicknames.
Napoleon's nickname was Little Corporal and has nothing to do with
his height. His height was recorded as 5 feet 2 inches in French feet,
making him an average man of the 19th century. After the battle of
Lodi the French troops gave him the affectionate nickname Le Petit
Corporal "The Little Corporal" because he sighted a cannon, usually it
was job for an corporal.
Other nicknames:
- Le Tondu - The Baldy, by his soldiers.
For example: Vive le petit tondu, merde pour le roi ! (Long live little baldy,
s**t to the king !)
- Le Patron - The Boss , by his soldiers
- For some Prussians he was The Horse Thief of Berlin.
- The French Royalists nickanamed him That Corsican Orge.
- The English called him Boney.
Our favorite is The Usurper. :-)
.
"Fortune is like a woman
if you miss her to-day ,
think not to find her to-morrow."
- Napoleon
Napoleon's women.
Napoleon was late for the wedding as he was
working on plans for the upcoming campaign
and lost track of the time.
The first thing Napoleon noticed in a woman was not her breasts but
her hands and feet. If her hands and feet were small, he was prepared
to find her attractive, but not otherwise. The second quality he sought
was feminity.
There were several women in Napoleon's life.
Soon after arriving in Valence the 16-years old Lieutenant Napoleon
became attracted to Caroline du Colombier (ext.link) the daughter of
one of the local gentry. Napoleon fell in love and called her Emma. Too
young and too poor, the officer was not very eligible and Caroline
seems to have treated him with disdain. In 1805 he paid a vist to her as
Emperor. In the end of his life Napoleon recalled his first flirtation. "It
will scarcely be considered credible, perhaps, but our whole business
consisted in eating cherries together."
From 18 to 25 Napoleon was leading so busy life that he had little if
any time for girls. The money his fellow officers spent on courting
Napoleon spent on books. While stationing in Marseilles he courted
Desiree Clary (ext.link) sister of his older brother Joseph's wife.
Desiree's father was a textile millionaire and politically was a royalist.
She was brunette, with large dark-brown eyes. Napoleon called her
Eugenie for he did not like the name Desiree, with its suggstion of
physical desire. Napoleon loved music and enjoyed listening to her
singing. However when he went to Paris they drifted apart. (She
eventually married General Bernadotte.)
The pretty and witty Elonore Denuelle (ext.link) was married to a
former army captain, Revel-Honore. Her husband was arrested for
fraud three months into the marriage, and sentenced to 2 years in
prison. In 1806 the couple was granted a divorce. Shortly afterward she
became a mistress to Napoleon, an arrangement set up by his sister
Caroline, and in less than a year their illegitimate son, Lon, was born.
He was Napoleon's first illegitimate child, and proof that Napoleon
was capable of fathering a child, establishing that his wife, Josphine
(read below), was infertile.
Josephine, his first wife.
The marriage was opposed by his family.
Josephine came from the island of Martinique. Her
family had been involved in producing sugar from
their plantation and they owned slaves. When
Josephine was 15 years old she married vicomte
Alexandre de Beauharnais. They had 2 children,
Hortense and Eugene. Alexandre was executed in
Paris in 1794 and his wife was likely to meet the same
fate, but the timely fall of Robespierre and the end of
the Terror saved her life.
Josephine was a charming woman and became the
mistress of Barras. It brought her into the high circles of French society.
Barras soon wished to relieve himself of what he saw as a rather
expensive plaything. When young Napoleon met Josephine he fell in
love and wanted to marry her. Josephine however was reluctant at
first, unsure that this young general would provide her with the life-
style to which she had become accustomed.
The marriage was opposed by his family. Especially his mother felt that
her son was marrying beneath his status. Josephine was previously
married, with 2 kids, and little money. Barras however encouraged
Napoleon and Josephine, and they were married in 1796. Napoleon
was late for the wedding as he was working on plans for the upcoming
Italian campaign and lost track of the time.
Josephine was not a pillar of chastity. She was fond of the young and
popular general and perhaps somewhat in love, but she had not yet
reconciled herlself to a life of monogamy with him. After the campaign
in Egypt Napoleon had returned to France determined to divorce
Josephine. He ordered her belongings to be removed. She, on the other
hand, was determined to save their marriage. In 1809 Napoleon told
Josephine that he was going to get their marriage annulled. Josephine
fainted, then wept and pleaded, to no avail. After fourteen years,
Josephnie passed out of Napoleon's life.
Josephine was 6 years older than Napoleon.
Countess Walewska.
"Marie, my sweet Marie, ...
Love me my pretty one ..."
During one of his campaigns, Napoleon met the pretty
Countess Marie Walewska. Her father died from
wounds received in the battle of Maciejowice. Marie
was married to a man 49-years old. He was a rich
regional governor.
"On New Year's Day 1807 Napoleon passed near
Kiernozia [sic] on his way to Warsaw. ... She went to
meet him, dressed in peasant style, and as his carriage
passed handed him a bunch of flowers. 'Welcome,
Sire, a thousand times welcome to our land ...' As the
coachman whipped up the horses, Napoleon turned to
Duroc. 'This girl is perfectly charming - equisite."
(Cronin - "Napoleon Bonaparte, an intimate biography")
The Emperor met her again at a ball in Warsaw and
was fascinated by her youthful fire. Patriotic friends of
Marie tried to push her into becoming his mistress, which at first she
refused to do, but although still married she finally yielded in the hope
of inducing Napoleon to treat Poland equitably.
Marie was 16 (17) years younger than Napoleon.
"Their affair was passionate." (- wikipedia.org 2009)
"I want no one but you. ...
Marie, my sweet Marie,
my first thought is of you ...
Love me my pretty one, and
hold your bouquet tight !"
- Napoleon to
Marie Walewska
In 1810 Marie Walewska gave birth to Napoleon's son,
Alexander. In 1814 Marie took her son and secretly
visited Napoleon in Elba. Napoleon was delighted with
Alexander and played hide-and-seek with the boy.
At fourteen Alexander refused to enter the Russian
army (after the Napoleonic Wars Poland was occupied
by Russia), escaping to London and thence to Paris,
where the French government refused to extradite him
to the Russian authorities. After the fall of the
November Uprising in 1831 he took out letters of naturalization in
France and entered the French army. In 1855 Walewski succeeded
Drouyn de Lhuys as minister of foreign affairs, and acted as French
plenipotentiary at the Congress of Paris next year.
In 1807 Napoleon and Tsar Alexander signed the Tilsit Treaty (on picture above).
That year the French Emperor also met Countess Walewska. The video above is in
French language and it contains fragments of Polish movie "Napoleon and Marie"
(Napoleon i Marysienka)
.
Marie-Louise of Austria, his second wife.
"Tactfully Napoleon commanded pictures of his Austrian
victories removed from all palace walls."
In the end of 1809 Napoleon had asked his ambassador to Russia to
send him a report on Tzar Alexander's sister, Anna. "Start from the
principle that what is needed are children." Napoleon then told
Caulaincourt to ask the Tzar for Anna'a hand. The Parisians became
excited about the coming union of "Rome and Byzantium" and
Napoleon had been counting on speedy acceptance. But the Russians
replied that the discussion of Anna's marriage must wait 2 years, until
she was eighteen. Napoleon was offended.
Meanwhile, Metternich of Austria had taken the initiative in
suggesting the Archduchess Marie-Louise. "On 6 February 1810
Napoleon sent Eugene to the Austrian ambassador to ask the hand of
the Emperor Francis' 18-years old daughter. The request proved not
unwelcome. ... Napoleon was delighted. ... Tactfully he commanded
pictures of his Austrian victories removed from all palace walls."
(Cronin - "Napoleon Bonaparte an intimate biography")
Archduchess Marie-Louise of Austria (German: Erzherzogin Marie
Louise von sterreich) had blue "slanting cat eyes, a rosy complexion"
and liked rich food (chocolate, cream, lobster). She feared ghosts and
could not go to sleep without candles burning. She loved sex and on
her wedding night, delighted with Napoleon's performance invited him
"to do it again."
On 20 March 1811, Marie Louise gave birth to a
son, Franois-Joseph-Charles Bonaparte. Napoleon
was absolutely delighted. The young boy was also
known as "The Eaglet." Napoleon declared him his
heir-apparent. Three years later, the French Empire
to which he was heir collapsed, and Napoleon
would have liked to abdicate the throne in favour
of his son, but Tzar Alexander of Russia disagreed.
Marie-Louise did not know what to do next.
Vincent Cronin writes, "Catherine of Wurttemberg had stood by
Napoleon's brother Jerome, despite parental opposition, and Augusta
of and Bavaria did not desert Prince Eugene.
But Marie-Louise lacked the spunk of the these two, and of Marie
Walewska. She had been sent to take the waters to Aix, and with her
had gone her new aide-de-camp, General Count Neipperg. Before they
left, Metternich gave Neipperg, orders slyly to disuade Marie Louise
from all idea of going to Elba. This Neipperg was half-French, half-
Austrian. He had lost an eye in battle, and with a black silk patch over
the scar he had the air of a pirate. But also he had charming manners
and a good singing voice. he had already enticed one married woman
away from her husband, and in September he set to work a second
time."
In 1815 Napoleon abdicated in favour of his son, whom he had not seen
since his exile to Elba. The Allies however were against this idea. Thus
after 1815 Franois-Joseph-Charles Bonaparte lived in Austria.
After Napoleon's death, Marie-Louise married the pirate-looking
General von Neipperg. The couple had three children. "Napolon
claimed at one point to prefer Marie Louise to his first wife Josphine
de Beauharnais; while he had loved Josphine, he claimed, he had not
respected her, whereas with Marie Louise, there was 'Never a lie, never
a debt' presumably a reference to Josephine's rumoured extramarital
affairs and reputation as a spendthrift." (wikipedia.org 2009)
.
"To attach no importance to public opinion,
is a proof that you do not merit its suffrage."
- Napoleon
"What is the government? Nothing,
unless supported by public opinion."
- Napoleon
Napoleon - the self-promoter.
"In Napoleon's lifetime, such self-promotion
was not nearly so widespread: kings and emperors
did not stand for election or commission public
opinion polls" - David Markham
"In the media-centered times in which we live, we take for granted
advertising and propaganda associated with political campaigns. Self-
promotion has become science, and consultants are paid large sums of
money to promote one candidate or another.
In Napoleon's lifetime, such self-promotion was not nearly so
widespread: king and emperors did not stand for election or
commission public opinion polls ! Napoleon, however, realised the
value of such activities and was quick to use them to promote his rise
to power. His proclamations, bulletins and letters to the government
were all written with his own interests in mind. Before him, perhaps
only Caesar with his Commentaries had fully understood the power of
the written word.
By the time of Lodi in 1796, Napoleon had also realised the value of
image control beyond the written word and was encouraging the
production of prints, statues and medallions promoting his image and
his achievements. His Italian and Egyptian campaigns became, in the
eyes of the public, crusades of good against evil, those of an
enlightened heroes against the barbarians. There was some truth in this
made the images all the more believable. Napoleon never lost his
understanding of the importance of what today we call 'spin
control.'(Markham - "Napoleon's road to glory" pp 12-13)
"To lie like a bulletin" became a proverbial saying in France. The
bulletins, and the manufacture of his legend, complicated the task of
the historians from the outset of Napoleon's first campaign. For
example Napoleon gave a version of his first speech to the Army of
Italy, which read: "I will lead you into the most fertile plains in the
world. ... you will find there honour and glory and riches. Soldiers of
Italy, will you fail in courage or constancy ?" No official record of this
speech exists, and, in fact, Napoleon's first order of the day was in
sober and conventional language.
Napoleon was well supplied with books and newspapers at St Helena,
and spent much of his time in dictating his memoirs. They are
disappointing monument to his genius: mostly accounts of his earlkier
campaigns, written in a dull, impersonal style, altogether lacking in the
characteristic tone of his bulletins, proclamations and conversations.
The records of his conversations kept by his companions at St Helena
were much more valuable than his formal 'memoirs.'
For Napoleon public opinion was very important. Once he said "Public
opinion is a mysterious and invisible power, to which everything must
yield. There is nothing more fickle, more vague, or more powerful; yet
capricious as it is, it is nevertheless much more often true, reasonable,
and just, than we imagine. ... To attach no importance to public
opinion, is a proof that you do not merit its suffrage."
.
"Good people must be protected
and persuaded by gentle means,
but the rabble must be led by terror."
- Napoleon
"I should have conquered the world."
- Napoleon
Napoleon and Hitler.
"It is tempting to compare him
with the dictators of a later age ... "
- Felix Markham
Historians of Napoleon are apt either to be fascinated into adulation by
his personality or repelled by the spectacle of the many soldiers
sacrificed to his ambition. Wrote Felix Markham "It is tempting to
compare him with the dictators of a later age, such as Hitler, but the
comparison is really misleading. Napoleon did not owe his rise to
power to the arts of a demagogue or a party-manager (though he was
no mean exponent of the art of propaganda), but to his transcendent
ability as a military leader and as a ruler. Such a combination of
qualities can hardly be paralleled in the modern world; and he is more
akin to the world conquerors of ancient times, who were his
inspiration." (For example Julis Caesar amd Alexander the Great).
Napoleon was not particularly cruel, wicked or vindictive; his sins
were on the heroic scale - the sins of pride. Even his enemies admitted
that he waged war according to the accepted standards of his age.
There were however few times that Napoleonic troops behaved really
bad. In 1799 they captured Jaffa, a strongly fortified city and one of
Syria's main mercantile centres. The French ransacked it and killed
scores of local inhabitants.
(From wikipedia.org : "According to some sources, the French messengers who brusquely
told the city of Napoleon's ultimatum had been arrested, tortured, castrated and
decapitated, and their heads impaled on the city walls. This harsh treatment led Napoleon,
when the city fell, to allow his soldiers 2 days and nights of slaughter and rape. He also
executed the Turkish governor Abdallah Bey. Bonaparte no longer wished to honour the
promises of his adopted son Eugene de Beauharnais that prisoners' lives would be spared
and ordered that a large part of the Ottoman prisoners (according to some sources around
2,440, according to others 4,100, many of them Albanians, be shot or stabbed to death with
bayonets. Napoleon's eulogists later wrote of this decision: "For, to keep in submission so
considerable a number of prisoners, it would have been necessary to detach guards for
them, which would have severely diminished his army's numbers; and if he had allowed
them to leave free men, it was reasonable to fear that they might swell the ranks of
Ahmed al-Jazzar's troops.")
Arguably the best Russian commander of all times, Fiedlamarshal Suvorov, is linked
with two of the crueliest episodes of that times. The first is the massacre of 26,000 Turkish
soldiers and civilians of Izmail in the Danube delta. Suvorov's troops suffered almost 33 %
casualties in storming of Izmail and the survivors revenged themselves in a horrible way.
The second massacre took place in Poland. Suvorov's troops stormed Warsaw's
bridgehead, Praga, and massacred 12,000 civilians. Engelhardt wrote: "Every conceivable
form of violent death had been perpetuated on every yard of ground as far as the Vistula,
while the river bank itself was piled with heaps of the dead and dying ..." It was seen as a
revenge for the earlier near annihilation of the Russian garrison in Warsaw during the
Warsaw Uprising in April 1794, where about 4,000 Russian soldiers died. Years later
Suvorov described this as calculated act, which spared blood over the long term by
shocking the rest of the Poles into laying down their arms.
In 1812, Arthur Wellesley (Wellington) attempted to take Badajoz in Spain. The attacks
were pressed with great gallantry, but repeatedly beaten back. Finally, at the cost of some
5,000 casualties, Wellington had succeeded in taking Badajoz. With the town taken,
discipline disappeared and the city was subjected to 2 days of pillage, murder and rape by
the British survivors.
Hitler was no military tactician, and he won no battles as a commander.
This is in contrast not only to Napoleon, but also to Frederick the Great, Suvorov,
Wellington, General Lee, King Sobieski, and others. Hitler however was a
political/military strategist as strategy is an area shared by political and military
leadership. He made several excellent moves and some very poor (for example the
infamous "stop" order at Dunkirk, and his "no retreat" policy in Russia). Hitler was a
successful military leader, after all he conquered half of Europe in lightning speed. But he
was also a leader who - in the end- was thoroughly defeated (as were several other
strategists).
Napoleon and Hitler invaded Russia.
That's true, but there were many others who did it too. For example the Mongols invaded
Rus' in 1200s and occupied for nearly three centuries. The Poles took Moscow in early
1600s and even held the Kremlin for a short period of time (a feat never accomplished by
the Germans).
On similarities between Hitler and Napoleon ...
Quote from www.time.com : "Napoleon started for Moscow on June 24 (1812). Adolf
Hitler started on June 22, (1941)." Answer: Most of the invaders started their campaigns
against Russia in spring or early summer. This is when the grass is green and good for
horses and there is plenty of time before the harsh Russian winter comes. Only fool would
start the campaign in autumn or winter (regardless if one uses horses or tanks).
Hitler hated Jews.
A distinctive feature of his antisemitism was that it was formulated as conspiracy theory.
This went hand in hand with the 'stab-in-the-back' theory, that is, with the view that
Germany had not been defeated on the battlefields of World War 1 but had been brought
down by Communist subversives on the home front. It was assumed that Jews were
Communists. Despite his ranting against Jewish bankers, businessmen, and very wealthy
people Hitler saw the Jews as the 'biological root' of Comunism.
The ascendancy of Napoleon proved to be an important event in Jewish emancipation
from old laws restricting them to ghettos, as well as the many laws that limited Jews'
rights to property, worship, and careers. All the states under French authority applied
Napoleon's reforms. After Waterloo, the counter-revolution restored discriminatory
measures in many countries. Pope Pius VII re-established the ghettos and imposed the
wearing of a yellow hat and the Star of David. The return of the King of France was
equally accompanied in 1815 by the massacre of Mamel;ukes (Muslim troops) who had
served Napoleon, in Marseille.
Article: "Napoleon and the Jews" ->> (ext.link).
Germany under Adolf Hitler, maintained concentration camps throughout the territories it
controlled. The term was borrowed from the British concentration camps of the Anglo-
Boer War in Africa. (Most of the Boers descended from Dutch calvinists.) The Boer War
concentration camp system was the first time that a whole nation had been systematically
targeted, and the first in which some whole regions had been depopulated. Over 25,000
women and children were to perish in these camps.
In 1940s millions of prisoners died in the German concentration camps through
mistreatment, disease, starvation, overwork or were executed as unfit for labor. More than
6,000,000 Jews died in them, usually in gas chambers, although some were killed in mass
shootings. After 1942, many small subcamps were set up near factories to provide forced
labour. The camps became sites for horrific medical experiments: eugenics experiments,
freezing prisoners to determine how exposure affected pilots, and experimental and lethal
medicines were all tried. Female prisoners were routinely raped and degraded in the
camps.
Pictures of concentration camp ->> (ext.link)
There were no concentration camps under Napoleon. Some of his enemies however did
some very bad things. For example the French prisoners captured in the battle of Baylen
(where the Spanish troops routed the French) were crowded aboard dismasted Spanish
warships or pontons. They died at a rate of 20 a day ! The British authorities decided to
strand the prisoners on the island of Cabrera. Between May 1809 and Dec 1809 approx.
1700 prisoners had died. Throughout 1810 to 1812 more prisoners arrived on the island to
replace those who died. Of the 12,000 men who had been imprisoned, anywhere from
4,000 to 10,000 (the later figure including those who had died at Cadiz) had died. Tom
Holmberg writes "Perhaps placing Cabrera in the context of the treatment of prisoners of
war in general during the Napoleonic wars and in other wars would help the reader judge
the significance of Cabrera. While Cabrera doesn't match the genocidal brutality of the
Holocaust, it rivals Andersonville or concentration camps of the Boer War."
Article: Review of "The Prisoners of Cabrera" ->> (ext.link)
This is said that Adolf Hitler admired Napoleon.
In 1940, during his sightseeing tour of Paris, Adolf visited Napoleon's tomb to salute him.
According to British tabloid DailyMail "Hitler stood for a long time gazing down at his
hero, his cap removed in deference. He was said later to have described this moment as
'one of the proudest of my life'. The next day, during his official sightseeing tour of Paris,
Hitler again visited Napoleon's tomb to salute him." (www.dailymail.co.uk article "The
French Fuhrer: Genocidal Napoleon was as barbaric as Hitler, historian claims." - by
Christopher Hudson)
Actually Hitler adimred several great people, not just Napoleon.
For example Frederick the Great (Friedrich der Groe, nicknamed the "Old Fritz") was one
of Hitler's favorites. Fredrick is considered as one of the greatest tactical geniuses of all
time, especially for his usage of the oblique order of battle. Even more important were his
operational successes, especially preventing the unification of numerically superior
opposing armies and being at the right place at the right time to keep enemy armies out of
Prussian core territory. He also modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and
promoted religious tolerance throughout his realm. Frederick patronized the arts and
philosophers. (Napoleon saw the Prussian king as a genius; after Napoleon's defeat of the
Fourth Coalition in 1807, he visited Frederick's tomb in Potsdam and remarked to his
officers, "Gentlemen, if this man were still alive I would not be here".)
Hitler also admired Richard Wagner, the German composer.
Wagner put to music many of the old Germanic myths and legends glorifying a united
mankind under Germanic rule. Wagner was anti-semitic and Hitler identified with those
prejudices and biases, and extolled the superiority and virtues of the Germanic Aryan race.
Wagner pioneered advances in musical language, such as extreme chromaticism and
quickly shifting tonal centres, which greatly influenced the development of European
classical music.
.
" All men are equal before God :
wisdom, talents, and virtue are
the only difference between them."
- Napoleon
"For the stability of the Government,
the people should have a considerable
voice in the elections."
- Napoleon
"There is no strength without justice."
- Napoleon
Napoleon and Washington.
"... when George Washington died Napoleon ordered the army
into mourning for 10 days, and made a speech eulogizing
one who had put his country's freedom on a sure basis."
- Vincent Cronin
Chapter under construction ...
War undoubtedly fascinated and intoxicated Napoleon's mind ...
At the beginning of 1814 he made a remarkable statement:
"I am not afraid to admit that
I have waged war too much."
- Felix Markham, p 74
Napoleon - the soldier.
"There is no doubt that Napoleon was physically brave ..."
- Lieutenant-General Jonathon Riley, US Army
"The first quality of a leader, and inseparable from military leadership
at any level, is courage - both physical and moral courage. War is
supremely dangerous and competetive, as Clausewitz reminds us:
'Primarily the element in which the operations of war are carried out is
danger; but which is the first in danger ? Courage.'
Therefore, the greatest moral strength in war is gained by those with
the greatest courage. The general can never be, in J F C Fuller's words,
just a 'prompter in the wings, but a key actor in the drama. He must
experience danger.' This is because: 'War is, or anyhow should be, an
heroic undertaking: for without heroism it can be no more than an
animal conflict. ...
There is no doubt that Napoleon was physically brave - 'death
overtakes the coward, but never the brave until his hour has come,'he
said, and examples of his courage will be cited from Arcola to Lutzen.
Nor did he have any difficulty with decisions which would lead to the
death of thousands. Indeed, he was almost indifferent to individual
suffering: 'What are the deaths of a million men to me ?' he is qoted as
saying. It is astonishing that his troops forgave this: success was,
perhaps, more important in those days than compassion."
(Riley - "Napoleon as a general." pp 6-7)
At Toulon (1793) Napoleon personally led his men in the assault on the
field earthworks guarding the city. During one of the attacks he
received a bayonet wound.
At Arcola (1796) he led the assault troops in action on the bridge.
Storming bridges under heavy enemy's fire was always one of the most
dangerous military actions. Napoleon's horse was wounded, and he
found himself in the waters by the bridge. He was essentially helpless
but his brother Louis and friend Marmont pulled him out and the
French carried the day. Napoleon always considered this to have been
one of his most dangerous moments.
At Lutzen (1813) "... Napoleon incurred the greatest danger on the field
of battle. He exposed himself constantly leading the defeated men of
the III Army Corps back to the charge." (- Marshal Marmont)
At La Rothiere (1814) Napoleon made a personal tour of the field and
had exposed himself recklessly to artillery fire in order to animate his
wavering young troops.
At Arcis sur Aube (1814) a "smoking" shell fell near Napoleon. It killed
his horse, "which dragged the Emperor to the ground amid a cloud of
dust and smoke. He got up without a wound, mounted another horse
and rode off to align the other battalions of the Guard." (Houssaye -
"Napoleon and the campaign of 1814" pp 251-252, publ. in London 1914) The
troops loved his calmness under fire.
Napoleon at Arcole (1796)
Napoleon always considered this to have been
one of the most dangerous moments of his life.
~
Napoleon's early military career and his first victory.
Napoleon's contribution to the victory over the British-Spanish corps
at Toulon was decisive. In the age of 24 he was promoted to general.
Napoleon graduated from the academy in 1785 and was commissioned
second lieutenant in the artillery. in the regiment of La Fre.
Garrisoned at Valence, Napoleon continued his education, reading
much, in particular works on strategy and tactics. He also wrote Lettres
sur la Corse (Letters on Corsica), in which he revealed his feeling for
his country. When in 1789 the National Assembly allowed Paoli to
return to Corsica, Napoleon asked for leave and in September joined
Paolis group. But Paoli had little sympathy for young Napoleon,
whose father had deserted his cause and whom he considered to be a
foreigner. Disappointed, Napoleon returned to France, and in 1791 he
was appointed first lieutenant to the 4th Regiment of Artillery.
In 1791 Napoleon got leave to go back to Corsica again. He got himself
elected to lieutenant colonel in Corsican army. Napoleon's battalion
participated in unsuccessful expedition against Sardinia. (ext.link)
Napoleon's name was removed from the French Army rolls for absence
without leave. He returned and went straight to Paris where he
vigorously protested. Meanwhile France declared war against Austria,
and his offense was forgiven. He obtained not only his reinstatement
but advanced to captain !
Captain Napoleon however did not rejoin his regiment but instead he
returned to Corsica, where Paoli was exercising dictatorial powers and
preparing to separate Corsica from France. Napoleon, however, joined
the Corsican Jacobins, who opposed Paolis policy. When civil war
broke out in Corsica in 1793, Paoli had the Buonaparte family
condemned to perpetual execration and infamy, whereupon they all
fled to France. Napoleon rejoined his artillery regiment.
Young Napoleon Bonaparte
His name was removed from the French Army rolls for absence without leave.
Napoleon returned and went straight to Paris where he vigorously protested.
He obtained not only his reinstatement but advanced to captain !
In 1793, the French republican troops had taken the city of Marseille
but were halted before Toulon, where the royalists had called in
British-Spanish forces. With the commander of the artillery wounded,
Napoleon got the post through the commissioner to the army, Antoine
Saliceti, who was a Corsican deputy and a friend of Napoleons family.
Allies forces at Touln consisted of approx. 21,000 British, Spanish and
(French) royalist troops. They were supported by 12 British ships-of-
the-line and several smaller vessels. The 24-years old Napoleon with
his artillery destroyed several ships anchored in Toulon's harbor. He
also bravely led his men in the assault on the field earthworks
guarding the city. During one of the attacks he received a bayonet
wound. The British-Spanis troops were forced to sail away. In the age
of 24 he was promoted to brigadier general.
The siege of Toulon was a great military victory for the Revolutionary
government in Paris and it marked Napoleon's entry into the limelight.
He was praised by many politicians and military men and his name
was mentioned in the important newspaper Moniteur in December
1793.
Napoleon's siege of Toulon, by Onfray de Breville Job.
He personally led his men in the assault on the field earthworks guarding the city.
During one of the attacks he received a bayonet wound. Napoleon with his artillery
also destroyed several English ships anchored in Toulon's harbor. The British were
forced to sail away.It was his first victory and he was promoted to brigadier general.
In February 1794 Bonaparte was appointed commandant of the artillery
in the French Army of Italy. But when Robespierre fell from power
and the news reached Nice, Napoleon, regarded as a protg of
Robespierre, was arrested on a charge of conspiracy and treason. He
was freed in September but was not restored to his command.
The following March he refused an offer to command the artillery in
the Army of the West, which was fighting the counter-revolution in the
Vende. The post seemed to hold no future for him, and he went to
Paris to justify himself. Despite his efforts, Napoleon was unable to
obtain a satisfactory command, because he was feared for his intense
ambition. Then he was removed from the list of generals, the reason
given was his refusal to serve in the Vende campaign.
On 3 October, royalists in Paris declared a rebellion against the
National Convention. One of the leaders of the Thermidorian Reaction,
Paul Barras knew of Bonaparte's military exploits at Toulon and gave
him command of the improvised forces in defence of the National
Convention. The aggressive mob outnumbered Napoleon's forces so
that the members of the Convention were issued arms. Napoleon
ordered a young cavalry officer, Joachim Murat, to obtain a cannon.
Cannon can be the great peacemaker, the great equalizer, especially
when fired at close range. Napoleon's small force used the cannon to
repel the attackers on 5 October 1795. The insurgents were swept from
the street and the soldiers defeated the royalists' last stand at St. Roch.
By 6 PM it was all over. Approx. 1,400 royalists died and the rest fled.
Napoleon had cleared the streets with "a whiff of grapeshot" and then
dispatched troops to disarm Paris and restore order. It was one of the
most decisive moments of his military career and earned Napoleon
sudden fame and the patronage of the new Directory. The young
Bonaparte was promoted to Commander of the Interior and given
command of the Army of Italy.
Napoleon (right, mounted) famously dispersed a Royalist mob
on the streets of Paris with a "whiff of grapeshot". It was
one of the most decisive moments of his military career.
"Bonaparte's reception by the troops
was nothing short of rapturous.
It was well worth seeing how
he talked to the soldiers..."
- de Rmusat
Napoleon's first campaign and the blitzkrieg* in Italy.
"Bonaparte is not known for any striking feat ..."
- General Colli, chief of staff of the allied armies
On the night of 20-21 June 1791, King Louis XVI made an unsuccessful
attempt to flee from France. This provoked a crisis in the army.
"Interpreting their sovereign's action as a repudiation of the Revolution,
the officers began to abandon their posts, some resigning from military
service and others crossing the frontier to swell the ranks of the emigre
armies. Emigration confirmed the soldiers' doubts about the officers'
patriotism and provoked a new wave of mutinies. ... Emigration and
indiscipline fed each other as the army descended into a state of
chaos." (Blaufarb - "The French Army 1750-1820" p 85)
Because the leaders of Europe (kings and princesses) would not accept
the Revolution, seeing it as a grave threat to their own position, a series
of wars began. Especially Austria was hostile toward the Revolutionary
France. Marie-Antoinette came from Austria and had been the Queen
of France and had eventually been begeaded by the Revolutionaries.
War brings the need for more troops and additional officers and
generals. War also produces casualties in need of replacement. It was a
perfect time for the young and ambitious officers. But it was also a very
dangerous time. Most of the generals and officers were nobles, and
they became persona non grata as the Revolution proceeded. Many left
the country for Britain, Russia and elsewhere, while some were given
an appoitment with the 'national razer', a nickname given to the
guillotine. (See picture below.)
Guillotine at work
The guillotine was a device used for carrying out executions by decapitation.
It consists of a tall upright frame from which a heavy blade is suspended. This
blade is raised with a rope and then allowed to drop, severing the victim's head
from his or her body. The crowds marveled at the machines speed and precision.
In such turbulent and very bloody times Napoleon took the command
of the Army of Italy. Italy was not unified as we know it today, but
divided into a number of independent kingdoms. The most important
of these to the French was Piedmont, whose king had allied himself
with the Austrians.
It was Napoleon's first campaign as army commander. The motives for
his appointment were political. By placing him in command of the
Army of Italy, Bonaparte was being relegated to obscurity. Of the
French Republic's 13 field armies, the army in Italy was the most
neglected. It was in horrible condition when Bonaparte arrived.
Bonaparte's army lacked sufficient cavalry and artillery and his
infantry was weakened by detachments sent to guard the coast against
British and Sardinian navies. The French soldiers were chronically
unpaid and short of everything: uniforms, shoes, greatcoats, bayonets,
ammunition etc. They kept themselves alive by plundering the French
and Italian countryside.
"In Italy the outlook for France seemed desperate. The French army of
Italy was unshod, clothed in rags, half-starved. It lacked transport; it
had no money. Under the stress of privations its discipline was
beginning to fail. Its experienced commander, Scherer, though he had
won in the autumn the battle of Loano, declared himself helpless
unless he could be supplied with reinforcements, provisions, and
funds. But the Directory was penniless; it could not create transport
out of nothing nor raise troops in a country exhauseted by the
exactions of the Terror. The Directors risked the hazard of giving the
command to the young general, Bonaparte, who had confidence in
himself, and had rendered some service in the suppression of a
dangerous riot." (Wilkinson, Spenser - "The French army before Napoleon;
lectures delivered before the University of Oxford ..." p 9)
Article: "Bonaparte's blitzkrieg* in Italy, 1796.
In 1796 he wasted no time puting Austrians to the sword in Italy. After
series of quick victories at Montenotte, Mondovi, Arcola and Rivoli he
became a force to be reckoned with. He had delivered glory beyond
expectation to France and enemy's generals got a cold sweat over his
presence in battles.
* - blitzkrieg from German means "lightning war" a strategy of quick and decisive short
war
to deliver a knock-out blow to an enemy before it could fully concentrate. It includes deep
thrusts
into the enemy strategic depths and very rapid movements of troops.
Napoleon and his troops crossing the Alps.
Young Bonaparte's campaign in Italy was a masterpiece.
"In a fortnight he was ready for the field and made his first
move. Five days later he had already 4 times defeated the
Austrians . Then he turned upon the Sardinians , who in
another 5 days were in helpless retreat on Turin."- - - - - -
Wilkinson, Spenser - "The French army before Napoleon;
lectures delivered before the University of Oxford" p 9-10
.
"Never interrupt your enemy
when he is making a mistake."
- Napoleon
Napoleon's campaigns and battles.
"The Napoleonic Wars had a profound military impact."
- wikipedia
"Napoleon was happiest with force; his character, views, ambitions, and
ambience did not lend themselves to accomodation, other than as a short-
term device. He was in a position not only to act as an innovative general,
but also to control the French military system and to direct the war effort.
Enjoying greater power over the French army than any ruler since Louis
XIV, Napoleon was in many respects also more powerful than Louis. His
choice of commanders was not constrained by the social conventions and
aristocratic alignements that affected Louis, and both armies and
indivudual military units were under more direct governmental control
than had been the case with the Bourbons. Furthermore, Napoleon was
directly in command of the leading French force throughout the wars of
his reign. French resources were devoted to the military with a
consistency that the Revolutionary government had lacked. ...
He won close to 50 battles in his career, inlcuding the largest, most
complex engagements hitherto seen in the gunpowder age. Napoleon's
will to dominate was both personal and a continuation of that of the
revolution. It ensured that peace treaties were imposed, and that, once
they were made, the French sought further benefits, while their defeated
opponents felt only resentment and a determination to reverse the
settlement. This, in turn, led to further conflicts. ... Although French
propaganda presented Napoleon as always in favour of peace, the
Napoleonic regime celebrated power, not least the power of victory, as in
Baron Gros' battle paintings ...
The Napoleonic system and psyche required force."
(Black - "From Louis XIV to Napoleon: the fate of a great power" pp 180-182)
Ave Caesar !
"He won close to 50 battles in his career, inlcuding
the largest, most complex engagements hitherto seen
in the gunpowder age." - Jeremy Black
The wars between 1805 and 1815 are called the Napoleonic Wars. They
were a series of campaigns fought between France under the Napoleon
and a number of European nations. They followed on from the War of the
First Coalition in the 1790s and engaged nearly all European nations in a
war, a war that also spilled over into Egypt and both Americas.
The Napoleonic Wars had a profound military impact.
Until the time of Napoleon, European states employed relatively small
armies, made up of both national soldiers and mercenaries. During the
wars warfare was to change and move towards modern warfare leaving
behind forever the idea of war as a sport of kings and moving towards
the concept of Total War and the nations in arms. For example during the
Seven Years' War of 17561763, few armies ever numbered more than
150,000. By contrast, the French army peaked in size in the 1790s with 1.5
million men enlisted. "Little wonder that population growth in France fell
dramatically, resulting in a relative decline of its population throughout
the 19th century, at a time when England, Germany, and Prussia were
having their largest population explosion ever." (- Marc Raeff)
Campaign of 1805 and under construction
and the battle of Ulm. under construction
Battle of Austerlitz. under construction
Campaign of 1806-1807 and
and the battle of Heilsberg.
Campaign of 1809 and
and the battle of Wagram.
War in Spain and Portugal
The bloodiest battle - Borodino 1812
Campaign in Germany in 1813 and
and the battle of Dresden
Battle of the Nations - Leipzig
Campaign of France 1814 and
and the battle of La Rothiere
Battle of Paris 1814
Hundred Days Campaign 1815 and
and the battle of Quatre Bras 1815
Battle of Waterloo (La Belle Aliance)
Not Russia, Great Britain, Prussia, and Austria could defeat him alone.
They didn't even dream about it. It required combined forces of all the
countries, many bloody campaigns and numerous coalitions to remove
him from power. The Allies got their ears beaten down over their socks
many times. In 1805 Napoleon made a mug of Austrian general Mack, in
1807 he dummied Russian commander Bennigsen, in 1809 the British
under general Moore fled before him to the sea. In the flight the Brits lost
their shoes, their ox-carts full of wounded and dying were abandoned by
the roadside. "The track was littered for mile after mile with discarded
equipment and knapsacks, and the forlorn dead and dying."
(Haythorntwaite - "Wellington's Infantry (1)" p 36)
In 1805 British mothers would tell their children at night, 'If you don't say
your prayers, Boney will come and get you.' There was considerable relief,
then, when Admiral Nelson defeated the Spanish and French navy at
Trafalgar.
Napoleon scared the living daylights out of the European rulers. Their
armies and best generals were defeated, their countries were conquered,
their capitols were captured. Within just few years he ruled the entire
France and half of the European Continent as no other man in history.
France became the first world power, in 1812 it had 134 Deparetments.
Among them the department of Leman, with Geneva as capital, the
department of Rome, capital Rome, the department of the Zuyder-Zee,
capital Amsterdam, and the department of the Lower Elbe, capital
Hamburg. She had counted as vassals states the kingdoms and duchies of
Italy, Spain, majority of Germany and Poland.
When in 1809 Spanish victory over a French general at Baylen sent
shockwaves across Europe, and had battered French prestige, infuriated
Napoleon acted swiftly. He activated all his troops in Germany and called
up conscripts from the classes of 1806-1810. These actions produced sober
second thoughts all around Europe. Austria moderated her language and
her armament, Prussia signed a peace treaty on French terms, Russia was
happy to renew her treaty of alliance and mutual defence with Napoleon.
Battle of Borodino 1812, from the movie "War and Peace".
"Of all my 50 battles, the most terrible was
the one I fought at Moscow (Borodino)"
- Napoleon
Napoleon
He scared the living daylights out of the European rulers.
Their armies and best generals were defeated, their countries
were conquered, their capitols were captured. Within just
few years he ruled the entire France and half of Europe.
.
Wellington when asked who he thought
was the greatest general answered:
"In this age, in past ages,
in any age, Napoleon."
Napoleon's strategy and tactics.
He was an innovative general and the best in the field until
the attrition of over a decade of conflict caught up with him.
"In his generalship, Napoleon was fired by the desire to engage and win. He
confronted grave problems, not least the number and fighting quality of his
opponents, the difficulty of establishing their positions, let alone intentions,
the primitive communications of the period, and the need to raise the
operational effectiveness of his conscripts. In response, Napoleon developed
an effective military machine, even as he undermined it by the strains of
near-continuous warfare, and eventually overwhelmed it in 1813-14 by
failing to end a multifront struggle. Able, even in 1813-14, to adapt rapidly
to changing circumstances, Napoleon had a remarkable ability to impose his
will upon war." (Black - "From Louis XIV to Napoleon: the fate of a great power"
pp 180-182)
Napoleon's tactic blew off the doors, boot, roof and bonnet, the whole
bloody lot. During 1805-1811 Allies commanders were left sprawling on the
floor as Napoleon jigged away in celebration. He created new countries and
made kings, and would have brought the house down if the Russians and
harsh winter had not finished his half-million strong Grand Army.
Napoleon's tactics and strategies are studied in many military schools and
academies around the World. This is the best testimony to his military and
political greatness and his genius.
Article: "Napoleon's strategy and tactics."
Table of contents:
-- Napoleon's strategy
-- Napoleon's battle tactics
-- Napoleon's defeats
-- Clausewitz and Jomini on Napoleon
Napoleon - Summit Of Greatness - Austerlitz
Napoleon by Wojciech Kossak
"Napoleon was fired by the desire to engage and win." - Jeremy Black
He created new countries and made kings, and would have brought the house down
if the Russians and harsh winter had not finished his half-million strong Grand Army.
.
"The word 'impossible' is not in my dictionary."
- Napoleon
"The main thing about Napoleon,
is that he thought big....
He was outthinking his opponents
at any given level."
- Christopher Duffy,
British military historian
Napoleon as First Consul and Emperor.
"To many historians, Napoleon's years as First Consul were
the finest of his career. During this time he instituted many
of the important reforms of his tenure as leader of France."
- David Markham
In February 1800, by a vote of 3 million to 1,500, the people of France
confirmed him as First Consul when they ratified the new constitution.
According to David Markham, Napoleon brought many things, and
certainly the thing that made all others possible, was stability in
France. Paris was quiet. It is during this period, the Battle of Marengo
excepted, his reign was known more for its domestic accomplishments
than its military glory. At St.Helena he told Las Cases, "I closed the gulf
of anarchy and cleared the chaos."
He also restored financial integrity to the government.
Before Revolution almost all the wealth was concentrated in the clergy
and nobility. But almost all the taxes were levied on everybody else !
During the Revolution the situation had continued to be chaotic and
the economy was barely functional. Before Napoleon became First
Consul the debt had become intorelable, reckoned at 3 times the
national treasury. Napoleon raised millions of francs from bankers
(domestic and foreign) and reformed the entire tax system. He also
established the Bank of France. These changes gradually led to the
elimination of all debt, eliminated high interest rates for loans, brought
stability and put France on sound financial footing. Inflation was
eliminated and he never had to devalue his currency. Thus Napoleon
not only solved the short-term problems but also established the
foundation of long-term financial stability.
Napoleon worked hard and he expected others to work equally hard.
Working 18 hours a day was not unusual, and on campaign, he was
knownb to go for days at a time with little or no sleep.
He assembled many talented minds in the service of France. He almost
always abided with the majority vote, though he was not required to
do so. He used to say, "Gentlemen, explain to me your views; and I
shall see whether the plans which you propose are better than my
own." Jean Rapp writes, "Napoleon, whatever his detractors may say,
was neither overbearing nor obstinate in his opinions. He was eager to
obtain information and he wished to hear the opinions of all who were
entitled to hold any. Among the members of the Council, the wish top
please him sometimes superseded every other consideration; but when
he perceived this, he never failed to restore the discussion to its proper
tone."
"The Consulate, and later the Empire, may seem to some to have been
strong centralised rule, but compared to previous governments they
were reigns of freedom. They gave France a government of regular,
scientific and civilised administration in place of near anarchy.
Sacrifices of liberty were balanced by gains in equality and safety and
in the restoration of economic stability.
Libert did not have the importance then that it does in the Western
democracies of today. Censorship, for example, was widespread and
accepted throughout Europe, as governments were determined to
reduce public criticism of their policies. In any event, liberty is
dependent on equality and safety for its very existence. Napoleon
established the principle of popular sovereignty through the repeated
use of the plebiscite." (Markham - "Napoleon's road to glory" p 95)
"Napoleon was totally committed to the provision of equality in the
18th-century meaning of the word, namely equality of opportunity. He
believed that every man could rise as far as his ability could carry him,
and it was the state's job to give its citizens the ability to do just that.
His oft quoted belief that 'in every soldier's knapsack is found a
Marshal's baton' represented his attitude in civil as well as military
spheres. In civilian life, he defended the rights of peasants and emigres
alike and granted all men the opportunity to excel. He initiated the
Legion of Honour, which reinforced the idea that all men could rise as
far as their talents would take them. He removed the benefits of caste
and priviledge, granted religious freedom and established a new
economic order.
These actions sent terror into the hearts of the monarchs of Europe ... "
(Markham - "Napoleon's road to glory" p 96)
The royalists dreamed about bringing back the emigres, the monarchy,
and the king. They wished to return to their old properties, but many
of the properties had been confiscated by the state and then sold to the
middle class. The royalists hated him and would continue to be thorn
in his side.
They would attempt to kill him.
Education was very important to Napoleon and during the Consulate
he spent more on it than on almost anything else. He wrote, "One of my
great objectives was to render educationb accessible to everybody. ...
All my exertions were directed to illuminating the mass of the nation,
instead of brutifying them by ignorance and superstition." He would
open more than 300 secondary schools and 30 lycees (6-year term of
study). There were also private schools and religious schools, they both
shared a significant amount of the esponsibility for education.
Emperor Napoleon
During his reign there were introduced numerous changes and reforms:
- men were allowed to enter any trade, craft, profession they chose
- women gained property rights beyond what they had before
Against strong objections he promoted the jury system.
The elaborate coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame in 1804, blessed
by the Pope in person, marks a further stage in the reaction of the
Napoleonic regime against the principles of the Revolution. It is true
that he was crowned "Emperor of the French" and not "King of France"
and the term "French Republic" remained on the coinage until 1808;
but the court ceremonial of the ancien regime was revived and the
imperial nobility created. Felix Markham writes, "In 1808, a regular
hierarhy of titles was established - Prince, Duke, Count, Baron and
Knight; thei titles were to be hereditary, if they were supported by an
income adequate to the rank. Napoleon had deliberately selected
Lefebvre for the first hereditary dukedom, in order to siften the blow to
the principle of equality: for Lefebvre was an old veteran of the
Republic, plebian in origin and married to a former washerwoman.
Napoleon viewed the creation of an imperial nobility as an act of
policy, intended to efface the prestige of the old noblesse, to promote a
fusion of the new and the old aristocracies, and to attach everybody of
importance to his person and his fortunes. ...
Napoleon was obsessed with the problem of making his dynasty
legitimate and permanent. ... It was for this purpose that he sacrificed
and divorced Josephine, to whom he was genuinely attached, and
married the Austrian Archduchess Marie Louise (1810), the niece of
Marie Antoinette. The birth of the King of Rome (1811) gave him
immense satisfaction ..."
According to Vincent Cronin Napoleon wished to combine the rights of
man with all that was best in Old French law, the latter being in two
distinct kinds; customary law, practised in the north, Roman law in the
south. When looking for experts to do the spade work, Napoleon chose
two from each region. Napoleon said: "I give you 6 months to make me
a Civil Code, by which he meant a draft outline. This was then debated
in the Council of State, with Napoleon presiding at 57 sessions, more
than half the total. Napoleon found himself at one with the lawyers on
most essentials: equality of all before the law, and end to feudal rights
and duties, involability of property, freedom of conscience, freedom to
choose one's work, and these principles were codified.
Napoleon agreed with the Revolutionary principle that marriage was a
civil act, but he wished young people to enter into it responsibly. He
was against girls as young as 15 or 16 being married to older men.
(And there were proposals for girls to marry at 13 and boys at 15 !)
Napoleon and the Council of State drafted the 2,000 articles of the
Code Civil between July and December 1800. But Napoleon found that
opposition did not end here. The Tribunate raised objections to the first
chapters devending civil rights, and only in 1804, when the term of
office of many in the Tribunate had expired, was Napoleon able to get
the Code passed and published in March.
To implement the Code Civil Napoleon instituted a new official, one in
each departement, to whom he gave the name prefect. The prefect was
responsible for transmiting the law and Government orders to the
society. Napoleon himself chose the prefects, but he had to choose from
the lists of notabilities drawn up by the electorate. Having appointed
them, Napoleon left the prefects on a loose rein. "It is my wish" he wrote
"that France should enjoy as much freedom as possible".
The Emperor gave France a new criminal code and the judges to
administer it. The jury system had been introduced under the
Revolution - probably an import from England. Napoleon thought very
well of it, but the Council of State did not. In 1808, against Napoleon's
wishes, the Council suppressed the jury which decides whether there is
or is not a case against the accused and replaced it by a chamber of
arraignment, one to each court of appeal.
The Empire was to endure only 10 years, but the ideas behind it were
to survive down to the present day. The Code Napoleon and the
principle of self-government became part of the fabric of continental
Europe, and no king was ever to dare restore the feudal privileges
which Napoleon had abolished.
"Anyone who was not alive in the time of Napoleon
cannot imagine the extent of the moral ascendency
he exerted over the minds of his contemporaries."
- a Russian officer
Napoleon's charisma and popularity.
The impression which he made by his presence, can be
described by no other term that that of grandeur.
'So it is, that I, who fear neither God nor devil,
tremble like a child at his approach." - General Vandamme
To be able to rise to power in France, to build such a large army and
empire over such a very very short amount of time and to have such an
influence over such a wide area, is nothing short of brilliant ! Napoleon's
meteoric rise shocked not only France but all of World. Even in countries
such as Germany, Austria, Russia and Britain, which frequently were his
adversaries, Napoleon has remained an admired figure, if sometimes
grudgingly.
"It is fair to point out that a number of people helped him rise, it is equally
valid to mention that he was sent on his downward spiral by the treachery
of others. If one thinks of the activities of Talleyrand, Fouche, Augereau
and Marmont, the point becomes clear. The latter's title of duc de Raguse
brought a new verb, ragueser (betray) to the French language for a little
while; it having a similar connotation to the Norvegian 'Quisling' from the
Second World War." (Markham - "Napoleon's road to glory" p 14)
Another such person is Bourrienne, Napoleon's former secretary. He claimed that Napoleon
once said that "friendship is only a word." Now Bourrienne embezzled 0.5 million francs from
Napoleon, had to be posted abroad, where he embezzled a further 2 millions, and finally had
to be dismissed the service. After Napoleon's abdication he rallied to the French royalists. In
order to help pay his debts he decided to publish his Memoirs. After his Memoirs appeared a
group of writers published a book entirely devoted to correcting Bourrienne's claims.
The very name, Napoleon still enthralls.
Napoleon was an extraordinary man but a self-made man. Ever since this
towering genius conquered Europe, he has been endlessly debated,
compared, and made an icon. It was Napoleon himself who helped to
create this legend, and of course, the legend lives on. The events of his life
fired the imaginations of great writers (some 250,000 volumes in all since
Napoleon's death !) and film makers, whose works have done much to
create the Napoleonic legend. He has been the subject of more biographies
to date than any other human being except Jesus Christ.
Napoleon was a charismatic battle captain. He imposed his genius and
personality on his army and inspired his troops, veterans and recruits,
Frenchmen and foreign alike, with fierce pride, loyalty and devotion. The
impression which he made by his presence, can be described by no other
term that that of grandeur. When a military band serenaded the Emperor,
they vested their patriotic air with the essence of their hearts and souls -
for this man seemed the very embodiment of the cause for which they
happily risked their lives.
As the Emperor on horseback reviewed the regiments, the troops greeted
him with mounting enthusiasm. The shouts of the soldiers, thousands
upon thousands of them even drowned out the music of the regimental
bands, whose members were playing their hearts out, sounding the
glorious marches of the Empire. Everyone made an effort to get close
enough to see HIM. The infantry raised their shakos aloft on the points of
their bayonets, the cavalry brandished their sabers and lances. From every
section of the battlefield arose a mighty roar: "Vive l'Empereur !"
The troops were practically delirious.
In 1812 Napoleon stopped in front of Italian Officer Calosso, and said few
words to him. The brave Colosso wrote about that special day: "Before
that, I admired Napoleon as the whole army admired him. From that day
on, I devoted my life to him with a fanaticism which time has not
weakened. I had only one regret, which was that I only had one life to
place at his service."

Captain of 4th Dragoons, Musee l'Armee.
In 1815 , shortly after Napoleon's return from Elba to Paris , the dragoons
were reviewed by the Emperor. The first rank faced right about, and both
ranks raised their swords and crossed them over the head of Napoleon.The
Emperor bent his head laughingly and finished the inspection under the
canopy of steel.
Even the enemies were fascinated with him. Captain Mercer of the British
Royal Artillery admitted that deep down he "had often longed to see
Napoleon, that mighty man of war - that astonishing genius who had
filled the world with his renown." "Anyone who was not alive in the time
of Napoleon cannot imagine the extent of the moral ascendency he exerted
over the minds of his contemporaries.," wrote a Russian officer, adding
that every soldier, whatever side he was on, instinctively conjured a sense
of limitless power at the very mention of his name..." German officer von
Wedel agreed, "The aura of his greatness subjugated me as well, and
giving way to enthusiasm and admiration, I like the others, shouted Vive
l'Empereur !" (Zamoyski - "Moscow 1812" p 85, publ. by HarperCollins, UK)
"He knew how 'to speak to the soul' of his officers and men. Partly he
used material rewards and incentives - titles, medals, awards; partly he
resorted to deliberate theatrical meausures to bend men to his will; but
above all there was the sheer power of personality or charisma that
emanated from his large, grey eyes which so many of his contemporaries
described.
He was a master of man-management.
The least word of praise was treasured unto death by the recipient; the
slightest rebuke could reduce a hardened grenadier to tears. Ministers and
marshals wondered at the breadth of his intellect; ordinary citizens and
soldierly became willing propagators of his legend. "He had been a soldier
all his life, climbing from sous-lieutenant to emperor, so the professional
bond with his troops was profound. To his veterans 'emperor' was a
military rank above 'general' or 'marshal'. Soldiers never addressed him as
'Your Majesty' or 'Sire' but always 'Mon Empereur'. He seldom forgot a
face, never a kindness." (Mark Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion" p 77)
Almost everyone admired his abilities and application, for no subject
seemed beyond his powers. His memory appeared limitless, as did his
capacity for applied hard work. This combination of qualities set him
apart from other men, and accounts in large measure for their willingness
to accept his will, and even die in execution of his orders. 'So it is', recalled
the war-hardened General Vandamme, 'that I, who fear neither God nor
devil, tremble like a child at his approach." (David Chandler: "Waterloo - the
hundred days" pp 39-40)
There were also those who disliked him. Klemens Metternich of Austria
never succumbed to his charm, and describing Napoleon's character as
consisting of egotism and nepotism. Talleyrand of France appeared to
have been deferential in public, but unimpressed in private and made
several derogatory remarks to the Tzar of Russia. Sir Hudson Lowe of
Great Britain remained unmarked by Napoleon's appeal. And there were
those who hated him, with the French royalists leading the pack.
Napoleon and his marshals, by Meissonier.
In 1812 Napoleon stopped in front of Italian Officer Calosso, and said few words to him.
The brave Colosso wrote about that special day: "Before that, I admired Napoleon as the
whole army admired him. From that day on, I devoted my life to him with a fanaticism
which time has not weakened.
I had only one regret, which was that I only had one life to place at his service."
Napoleon in Egypt
Napoleon is Worshipped in a Chinese Temple
"Before that [the meeting with Napoleon in 1812],
I admired him as the whole army admired him.
From that day on, I devoted my life to him
with a fanaticism which time has not weakened.
I had only one regret, which was that I only had
one life to place at his service."
- Italian officer Colosso
Napoleon's defeats, mistakes and failures.
"Nevertheless, when all was said and done,
he remained a giant surrounded by pygmies;
his reputation survived his fall, for his
basic greatness was inviolable."
- David Chandler, British historian
After the long string of incredible victories between 1796 and 1809
Napoleon believed he could do everything. He lost sight of reality. It is
especially visible in his last campaigns. The invasion of Russia in 1812
is one of the most common examples for this argument.
Another example is the Continental System of blocking Great Britain.
David Markham writes, "While the system was actually working to
some degree and might conceivably have driven the British to peace, it
was a long shot. The costs and dangers to France should have been so
obvious, that ot does, show some lack of realism on his part."
The Fountainbleau Decree of 1810 caused great popular unrest, with its
special courts for trying cases of contraband and orders for the public
burning of English manufactured goods. If Napoleon had been
successful in Russia in 1812, he would no doubt made a supreme effort
to bring England to her knees by the Continental System. As it was, the
system was more or less abandoned in 1813.
Napoleon made several military and political mistakes :
fighting on several fronts at once.
his invasion of Russia resulted in the loss of half-million
of his best troops and 1,000 cannons. After that disaster he
never regained his greatness. (Napoleon believed that after
a few quick battles , he would bring Tzar Alexander to his
knees. Then Napoleon also decided that if he took Moscow
the Russians would ask for peace.
However, when he eventually occupied Moscow, the Tsar
still did not surrender. He could not surrender because if he
did, he would be assassinated by the nobles.)
the severity of Napoleon's terms to Prussia undermined
the security of the peace
his policy towards England contemplated nothing short
of her total ruin.
his aggression raised Tirol, Calabria, Portugal and Spain
as fresh enemies
As a commander, Napoleon was becoming predictable, and his
enemies were beginning to appreciate the counter-measures and use
them against him. Increasingly he refused to face up to reality and
suppressed all traces of criticism.
"Nevertheless, when all was said and done, he remained a giant
surrounded by pygmies; his reputation survived his fall, for his basic
greatness was inviolable." (David Chandler - "Waterloo - the hundred
days" p 41)
Napoleon's defeats:
- 1809 Aspern-Essling [1]
Although he would later claim a victory, the Emperor had
sufferred his first major defeat. He lost out to the determined
Austrians under Archduke Charles.
After Essling, Napoleon's position was one of extreme anxiety.
The news of the reverse spread like wildfire throughout Europe
offering every encouragement to his enemies.
- 1812 Beresina
Napoleon lost 25,000 killed, wounded, and prisoners. The
Russians lost 20,000. Additionally at least 10,000 Frenchmen
were masacred by Cossacks,while another 20,000 died in the
freezing river or were crushed to death in the panic to cross -
the bridges. Only few thousands managed to escape . In this
situation the Russians became the undisputed masters of the
battlefield . ( Some pro - French authors consider Beresina as
French victory).
- 1813 Leipzig [2]
Napoleon withstood Allies assaults and then counterattacked.
Meanwhile another army (under Bennigsen) attacked his flank.
It forced Napoleon to abandon his strongpoints and withdraw
his army closer to Leipzig. Then he was surrounded & crushed.
In terms of casualties and political & strategical results it was
probably Napoleon's greatest defeat.
- 1814 La Rothiere
While he exchanged blows with the Russians to his front , the
Austrians, Bavarians and Wirtembergians attacked his flanks.
Napoleon retreated, it was his first defeat on French soil.
- 1815 Waterloo
While Napoleon attacked the British-Netherland army (under
Wellington), part of the Prussian army (under Blucher) attacked
his flank. Napoleon was crushed.
One of prominent French historians , Adolphe Thiers , wrote
"Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire". It was impossible for him
to write about Waterloo(La Belle Alliance, Mont St.Jean)without
announcing the defeat of Napoleon. But Mr Thiers takes you by
surprise when he comes to the rout of the French , for they have
been everywhere victorious. The French troops are defeated but
the Prussians too had been defeated. The French retire that they
may not be cut off.
[1]
The defeat at Aspern-Essling is explained by Loraine Petre. "For the defeat of Essling the
Emperor had himself to blame. He had certainly been careless in his preparations for the
crossing [of the Danube River], once more a result of his unbounded pride and his
contempt for his enemy. He had been amply warned of the dangers of a sudden rise of the
Danube, the fate of the Austrian bridge at Mauthausen should have warned him of the
dangers to a bridge of boats from barges and other masses floated down the rapid stream.
Yet he trusted his army to a single bridge of boats without any protection by stockades, or
by boats cruising about to arrest such floating masses above the bridge. His information
regarding Charles' position seems to have been bad and to have led him not to expect
serious resistance immediately after the passage. Even on the morning of Essling, his
cavalry had failed to detect the advance of the whole Austrian army. Essling was the first
great success of an Austrian army against Napoleon in person. ... There is no clearer proof
that Napoleon realised his own rashness in the first crossing than the infinite care which
he bestowed on his preparations for the second, and the perfection with which they were
carried out." (Petre - "Napoleon at War" pp 261-2, publ. 1984)
[2]
"In the autumn of 1813, the Allies adopted a strategy of not letting any one of their three
armies face Napoleon alone. Should the master place himself at the head of his troops,
then the Allied army facing him was to withdraw, while the other advanced. While
Napoleon was chasing air, the opportunity was taken to bring certain of his marshals to
battle and defeat them individually." (- Peter Hofschroer)
It worked wonders. In August Marshal Oudinot's corps was trashed at Gross Beeren,
Marshal MacDonald was defeated at Katzbach, and General Vandamme at Kulm. In
September Marshal Ney was routed at Dennewitz.
Napoleon's famous hat
"The last time they (army veterans) saw him was on the field of battle.
The past came back in such a sudden and overwhelming tide
when they saw the coffin approach, that struck dumb with grief,
they fell on their knees and stretched out their hands towards it,
while tears rolled silently down their scarred visages."
Napoleon's death and funeral.
"Amid the pomp and funeral splendor of that day, nothing moved
the Parisians more than the appearance of these old soldiers as
they stood on each side of the entrance of the church to receive
the body of their old commander."
Instead of surrendering to the Russians or the
Austrians (his second wife came from Austria)
Napoleon chose to surrender to the British.
Thus he avoided being sent to the remote and
very cold Siberia (ext.link) and was exiled to the
island of Saint Helena in the Atlantic Ocean.
(See map -->)
The island was strongly garrisoned by British
troops and by the local St.Helena Regiment,
with naval shipping circling the island. Sir
Hudson Lowe was appointed by and directly
reported to Lord Bathurst, the Secretary for War
and the Colonies, in London. Hudson Lowe
won praise from two Prussian generals, Blcher
and Gneisenau, for his gallantry and judgment in the campaign of
1814. He was chosen to bear to London the news of the first abdication
of Napoleon in April 1814. Wellington however had different opinion
about Sir Lowe. The Duke wrote, that Sir Lowe was "a very bad choice;
he was a man wanting in education and judgement. He was a stupid
man, he knew nothing at all of the world, and like all men who knew
nothing of the world, he was suspicious and jealous."
"Sir Hudson Lowe, Sir Hudson Low,
By name, and ah! By nature so
As thou art fond of persecutions,
Perhaps thou'st read or heard repeated,
How Captain Gulliver was treated,
When thrown among the Lilliputians.
They tied him down - these little men did -
And having valiantly ascended
Upon the Mighty Man's protuberance,
They did so strut ! - Upon my soul,
It must have been extremely droll
To see their pigmy pride's exuberance !"
- Thomas Moore, 1816
In 1818, the British newspaper The Times reported a false rumour of
Napoleon's escape and said the news had been greeted by spontaneous
illuminations in London. There was sympathy for him in the British
Parliament: Lord Holland gave a speech which demanded the prisoner
be treated with no unnecessary harshness. There were plots to rescue
Napoleon from captivity including one from Texas, where exiled
soldiers wanted a resurrection of the Napoleonic Empire in America.
There was even a plan to rescue him with a submarine. For Lord
Byron, Napoleon was the epitome of the Romantic hero, the
persecuted, lonely and flawed genius.
In 1821 however his health began to fail rapidly and he died in May.
His last words were, "France, army, head of the army, Josphine."
Napoleon's physician, Francesco Antommarchi, led the autopsy which
found the cause of death to be stomach cancer. Napoleon's father had
died of stomach cancer though this was seemingly unknown at the
time of the autopsy. Antommarchi found evidence of a stomach ulcer
and it was the most convenient explanation for the British who wanted
to avoid criticism over their care of the Emperor. A 2007 study found
no evidence of arsenic poisoning in the relevant organs and stated that
stomach cancer was the cause of death.
(By the way, in 1814, after the Russian, Austrian and Prussian troops
took Paris, Napoleon had taken some poison that he always carried
with him. He said "I did my best to get killed in the battle of Arcis-sur-
Aube," and now he chosen poison. Caulaincourt called for help,
including the Emperor's doctor Yvan. Napoleon, vomiting and in
tremendous pain, asked the doctor to give him more poison to finish
the job. The doctor refused.)
In 1840, Louis-Philippe, King of the French obtained permission from
the British to return Napoleon's remains to France. Numerous veterans
were waiting in the Hotel des Invalides. These lads dressed in the old
uniforms came to receive him. "Amid the pomp and funeral splendor
of that day, nothing moved the Parisians more than the appearance of
these old soldiers as they stood on each side of the entrance of the
church to receive the body of their old commander. The last time they
saw him was on the field of battle. The past came back in such a
sudden and overwhelming tide when they saw the coffin approach,
that struck dumb with grief, they fell on their knees and stretched out
their hands towards it, while tears rolled silently down their scarred
visages."
One of the officers of the Old Guard, Noisot, had erected at his own
expense a bronze monument to Napoleon. According to Mark Adkin
he arranged to be buried standing up a few yards "so that he could
continue to stand guard for eternity." When the Emperor died many
refused to believe it. Rumours said Napoleon had landed at Ostend.
"Where are you going ?" asked the wife of a veteran when he pulled on
his grenadier uniform. "To him !" was the instant response. (Adkin -
"The Waterloo Companion" p 415)
Henri Lachoque writes: "For this ceremony ... the surviving Grumblers
[nicknames of the Old Guard] took out of their wardrobes whatever the
moths had spared of their old regimentals. ... Tottering, lame, shuffling
their feet, the Grumblers took their places behind the hearse. The
crowd saw them and saluted. ... Two marines in full dress, General
Duchand, Loubers in his uniform ... and some Polish lancers were
there. All wore in their buttonholes a spring of laurel from the wreaths
on the Emperor's coffin. Veterans came from Belgium and the
Rhineland."
In 1814 Emperor Napoleon bid farewell to the soldiers of his battle-hardened Old Guard.
Tears trickled down their cheeks and they struggled to maintain composure when he said:
"Soldiers of my Old Guard: I bid you farewell. For 20 years I have constantly
accompanied you on the road to honor and glory. ... Do not regret my fate ...
Adieu, my friends. Would I could press you all to my heart."
At these words General Petit waved his sword in the air and cried Vive l'Empereur !
which
was rapturously echoed by the whole Guard. But when Napoleon was leaving not one of
the
old warriors was able to utter a sound. They watched in mournful silence, some cried.
Napoleon's last hour.
The Emperor's last words were, "France, army,
head of the army, Josphine." (his first wife)
Funeral of Napoleon.
Napoleon's tomb in Paris
In a codicil to his will, written in exile at Longwood in April 1821,
Napoleon had expressed a wish to be buried "on the banks of the
Seine River, in the midst of the French people." For more info read
"The return of the ashes." (ext. link)
.
"A great European federative system alone can be
favourable to the development of civilisation."
- Napoleon
Napoleon's legacy.
"We need a European code, a European court of appeals,
a universal currency, a uniform system of weights and
measeres, a code of laws. I must forge the peoples of
Europe into one people." - Napoleon Bonaparte
Estimates of Napoleon's place in history differ widely. He was beyond
doubt one of the greatest military leaders in history and dominated his
times so completely that European history between 1800 and 1815 is
commonly described as the Napoleonic era. But his legacy is mixed.
As a result of the Napoleonic conquests, the Code Napoleon was
introduced into a number of European countries, notably Belgium,
where it is still in force. It also became the model for the civil codes of
Quebec Province, Canada, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, some Latin
American republics, and the state of Louisiana. Today, many of the
current legal structures of nations that defied Napoleon are based on
the concepts of his Civil Code. Considered to be his greatest legacy,
Napoleons Civil Code assured the spread of the ideals of the French
Revolution long after the end of his rule.
"My motto has always been:
A career open to all talents,
without distinctions of birth."
"... Be successful !"
- Napoleon
Napoleon's legacy is also the modernising of Paris, the official
promotion of religious tolerance, the current French legal and
educational systems, and the European Union, to name but a few
Napoleonic initiatives. After Napoleon there was no turning back:
- feudalism was dead. (Feudalism, system of financial and judicial
privileges for the aristocracy, was common in Europe at the beginning
of Napoleon's reign, and was practically non-existent at the end.
Serfdom was abolished even in countries allied with Napoleon, like
Duchy of Warsaw.)
- society was secularized, the educational system was improved
- the modern nation state replaced the dynastic state
- the bourgeoisie became the new class of privilege and status
Napoleon also:
- encouraged industrialization, and sponsored the sciences and arts
- granted freedom of worship for all denominations
- brought the smallpox vaccination to the continent
- encouraged the use of gas lighting
- opened careers to talented people, not caring if they were peasant
or noble (Without Napoleon, meritocracy, a relatively unpopular
concept during his time, would not have acted to transform societies
and unleash the tremendous creative power of individuals born to
"lower social classes".)
- instituted the metric system, which has had a profound influence
on the world
Outstanding American generals, such as Ulysses S. Grant, Winfield
Scott, and Robert E. Lee (ext.link) gained much of their expertise from
studying Napoleonic warfare.
The negative impacts:
- he left France bankrupt, and her overseas colonies lost
- he sought to suppress slave revolt in Haiti
- 10 years of wars and several million people dead throughout
Europe
Napoleon can be accused of failing to create a long lasting peace, but
the study of his enemies and their policies prove there were other
guilty parties: Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia. All of the European
powers sought expansion as an end in itself. History proves that
although Britain declaimed so loudly against Napoleon's grasping
spirit, she has since acquired more territory than she ever charged him
with conquering.
Did Napoleon secure the "triumph of the Revolution," as Thiers put it,
or, on the contrary, "were the principles of the Revolution ... perfectly
forgotten during his reign," as Michelet claimed. Historians who have
attempted to make sense of the Napoleonic legacy are confronted with
a regime whose actions often seem contradictory. Napoleon boasted of
having ended the Revolution in France, even as he endeavored to
spread it abroad. His rule was monarchical in all but name, but, master
of the plebiscite, he invoked the national will as the source of his
legitimacy. Through his famous Code, he consolidated the basic legal
framework of the Revolution, even as he routinely violated the
fundamental civil liberties proclaimed in 1789 - freedom from arbitrary
detention, freedom of the press, and others. Given the ambiguous
legacy, it is understandable that recent scholars of the regime have
resorted to ambiguous formulations in attempting to characterize it.
According to Jean Tulard, Napoleonic society was a fragile
compromise, wavering between "a return to the past, a continuation of
the present, or a preparation for the future." For Martyn Lyons, the
regime embodied a "contradictory mixture of the ancient and the
modern." And Louis Bergeron concluded that, "paradoxically,
Napoleon was both behind and ahead of his time, the last of the
enlightened despots and a prophet of the modern state." (Blaufarb -
"The French Army 1750-1820")
"Europe thus divided into nationalities freely formed and free
internally,
peace between States would have become easier: the United States of
Europe
would become a possibility." - Napoleon
After the American War of Independence the vision of a United States of Europe
similar to the United States of America was shared by several notable Europeans
including Marquis de Lafayette of F r a n c e and Tadeusz Kosciuszko of Poland.

The Emperor of the French: the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
(+ some cool rock music)

Video describes the impact of the French Revolution and N a p o l e o n
on the French army and European military (from Discovery Education)
Sources and Links.
Recommended Reading.
Black - "From Louis XIV to Napoleon: the fate of a great power"
Blaufarb - "The French Army 1750-1820"
Chandler - "Waterloo - the hundred days"
Cronin - "Napoleon Bonaparte, an intimate biography"
Delderfield - "The Retreat from Moscow"
Kircheisen - "Napoleon New York" publ. 1932
Lyons - "Napoleon Bonaparte and the legacy of the French Revolution"
Markham - "Napoleon's road to glory"
Felix Markham - "Napoleon and the awakening of Europe" first publ. 1954
McLynn - "Napoleon: a biography"
Riley - "Napoleon as a general"
French army from Louis XIV (The Sun King)
to Emperor Napoleon and Napoleon III.
ENTRY PAGE
French Army 1600-1900 : Arme Franaise : Franzsische Armee : armia francuska
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/FRENCH_ARMY.htm[2012-05-21 12:37:46]
French Army from Louis XIV (the Sun King)
to Emperors Napoleon and Napoleon III
French military success provided a model of standardization and
professionalism followed by many European armies and leaders.
French military expertise was often sought by other nations.
"The attack was the natural way for Frenchmen to fight.
in the art of standing still under fire
but the mercurial Frenchman could not be so inhibited."
Griffith - "Military Thought ..."
"France had been an aggressive neighbor..."
- Colonel John Elting, US Army
The French invaded Sardinian provinces of Savoy and Nice.
They captured Mainz and raided German Frankfurt. In 1793
they invaded Holland, in 1800 Bavaria, and conquered Italy
in 1805 demolished Austria, in 1806 routed the fearsome
Prussia, defeated Russia in 1806 and 1807, invaded Spain
and Portugal, in 1812 invaded Russia and took Moscow, in
1823 invaded Spain again, in 1825 Senegal, in 1830 Algier
and so forth.
Introduction.
King Louis XIV's (Sun King) Army.
- - - - Strength of the army.
- - - - Officers and privates.
- - - - Uniforms and weapons.
- - - - End of the Spanish military supremacy
- - - - and inauguration of a long period of
- - - - French military predominance.
- - - - The era 1610-1715 was an age of
- - - - warfare thoroughout.
- - - - (Great victories and painful defeats).
The Royal Army of 1700-1790.
- - - - Seven Years' War 1756-63:
- - - - Prussia humiliates France.
- - - - Wars in Africa, Asia, America,
- - - - and the loss of Canada.
- - - - French-American victory in America.
The Revolutionary Army.
"Era of constant warfare."
.
.
.
Emperor Napoleon's Army.
"Half of Europe was under the Napoleonic yoke."
- - - - - - 1803-1807 (Glory Years)
- - - - - - France rout Austria and Russia in 1805,
- - - - - - smash Prussia in 1806, and defeats Russia
- - - - - - again in 1807.
- - - - - - 1808-11 (Wagram and Peninsula)
- - - - - - 1812 (Invasion of Russia)
- - - - - - "I have no army any more!"
- - - - - - 1813 (New Army. Campaign in Germany)
- - - - - - 1814 (Campaign of France)
- - - - - - 1815 (Waterloo Campaign)
The Royal Army is Back.
Invasions of Spain, Senegal and Algeria.
Establishment of the elite Foreign Legion.
Emperor Napoleon III's Army
- - - - - - Weapons: modern needle rifles,
- - - - - - first machine guns and more.
- - - - - - Prussia humiliates France again :
- - - - - - battles of Gravelotte/St.Privat and Sedan 1870
- - - - - - "The English fleet can't protect Paris"
French military slang.
(Napoleonic Wars)
General Delzons with Napoleonic infantry in the bloody battle
of Malo-Yaroslavetz. Russia 1812. Picture by Avierianov.
Introduction.
"... the French soldier is everywhere acknowledged
to be the first for elan and movement"
- Lamartine in Chamber of Deputies
Conceptions about French military prowess go back for several centuries, but they first became
prevalent during the reign of Louis XIV, the Sun King. It was then when French military
hegemony both inspired and angered many Europeans. A series of coalitions formed against
France in the late 17th and early 18th century, but all failed in their stated objectives of rolling
back the extensive French territorial conquests.
French success provided a model of standardization and professionalism followed by many
European armies and leaders, who regarded the likes of Turenne and Vauban as the foremost
military men of the age.
During the reign of Napoleon in the early 19th century, France reached the height of its power.
By 1807, after spectacular triumphs at Austerlitz, Jena and Friedland, many Europeans believed
the French were almost invincible. The French Empire was eventually defeated, but memories
about the Napoleonic Wars lingered.
Until World War I, many commanders and nations throughout the world hoped to reproduce
Napoleon's lightning campaigns. Several military leaders, often styled themselves after the
erstwhile French Emperor and hoped to emulate his triumphs.

Video describes the impact of the French Revolution and N a p o l e o n
on the French army and European military (from Discovery Education)

La Marche vers la Gloire! from Sergei Bondarchuk's movie
(thousands of extras, unbelievable)

French air force in 21st century: the famous fighter jets Mirage
(one of the most beautiful military videos ever made.)
~
King Louis X I V (The Sun King) and His Mighty Army.
Under King L o u i s XIV France became World power.
France's cultural influence had never been so profound
and French language spread across Europe.
Under King Louis XIV "The Sun King" the French army had been the world's finest army.
Military service represented a living of sorts for the French nobility and gentry, a source of
prestige. The classification of 'French' infantry denoted troops recruited from men born and
raised in France. These regiments were called infanterie francaise as opposed to the mercenary
infantry recruited elsewhere. Recruiting parties went to towns and villages looking for likely
volunteers, inducing them to enlist with the usual promises wines, money, fast women, and
glory.
Louis' wars were great conflicts, mobilizing huge armies for long periods of time.
Richelieu classed war as 'an inevitable evil' but 'absolutely necessary'; it was, in short, a fact of
life. [In 1624, Louis XIII elevated ... Cardinal Richelieu to the powerful position of first minister.
Richelieu harbored a strong and lasting desire to increase French prestige by toppling the
Spanish. He saw France encircled on her land borders by Hapsburg holdings; Spain to the
south, the Spanish Netherlands to the north, and a string of territories belonging to Spain and
her Allies running from the Netherlands down through Italy, what was known at the time as
the Spanish Road ...] (Lynn- "Giant of the Grand Siecle: The French Army" pp 13-14)
The French army led by de Turenne and Conde won numerous battles until decades later
Eugene of Savoy and Duke of Marlborough broke their reputation but not their spirit.
"The glare of Napoleonic brilliance outshone the radiance of the Sun King.
The Napoleonic Wars have probably attracted more attention from 19th and 20th century
readers than any other period of French military history. Library shelves groan under the
weight of works on the campaigns of Napoleon, yet to my knowldge the only complete history
of the campaigns of Louis XIV was written in the first half of the 18th Century ... The Section
historique of the French general staff, which operated between 1899 and 1914, provides one
measure of the military's interests; it published 80 volumes on the Revolutionary and
Napoleonic Wars but only 6 specialized studies dealing with the reign of Louis XIV.
After all, the emperor had marched his armies across Europe, from Lisbon to Moscow, while
Louis' forces ventured less far from home. Napoleon's wars were short and decisive, brought to
a hea in climatic battles, at least until the debacle of 1812 (Invasion of Russia), while Louis'
conflicts dragged on as long, indecisive, and costly wars of attrition. In short, there seemed to
be more to be learned from a study of Napoleon's military genius. To this day, war colleges
dissect the Ulm-Austerlitz and Jena-Auerstadt Campaigns, but they have little interest in the
siege-dominated wars fought by Louis' great generals." (Lynn - "Giant of the Grand Siecle: The
French Army")

King Louis XIV, The Sun King
(from French movie Louis XIV Versailles par Rossellini 1966)
From the age of 12 L o u i s spent a great deal of time with his troops .
Only advancing years forced him to forgo such activity . Louis never
commanded a battle in the open field , though he came close to doing
so at Heurtbise in 1676.He was excellent organizer and administrator
.
Strength of French army in 1600-1760.
In the end of XVII century, European warfare
pitted collosal armies against one another -
armies that dwarfed those of the past.
According to John A. Lynn in the end of XVII century, European warfare pitted collosal armies
against one another - armies that dwarfed those of the past. France boasted the greatest of these
Goliaths, a force that totaled as many as 420,000 soldiers, at least on paper. The Dutch War high
attained 279,610 men. This combined 219,000 infantry with 60,360 cavalry, while 116,000 of the
total served in garrisons. A financial etat dating from the 1690s gives a detailed accounting of
343,300 infantry and 67,300 cavalry, not including officers. After war the strength of the army
sharply decreased and numerous regiments had been disbanded. The size of individual French
armies in the field varied. During the Dutch War the average size of army in battle rose to
24,500 men.
Growth of the French army 1600-1760
Time period
Theoretical
peace high
Theoretical
war high
(1610-15) 10,000 55,000
Thirty Years' War (1635-1648) ? 200,000
War of Devolution (1667-8) ? 134,000
Dutch War (1672-8) ? 279,600
Nine Years' War (1688-1697) ? 420,000
War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) 145,000 380,000
War of the Austrian Succession (1740-8) 145,000 390,000
.
Uniforms and Weapons.
In 1685 was issued order prescribing
particular colors for regiments. For 88
regiments of infantry it was gray and
for 14 royal and princely regiments it
was blue.
The dress of the soldiers was standardized. Musketeers were more likely to wear simply a loose
coat and broad brimmed hat. The infantrymen and officers wore stocking and shoes rather than
boots, unless the officers were mounted. Durign the reign of Louis XIV the most prominent
piece of military clothing became the justaucorps, a coat reaching to the knees, decorated with a
row of buttons down the front. Cavalry wore heavy tall bots and spurs, while dragoons wore
shoes and gaiters to allow them to move more freely on foot. Cavalry were likely to adorn
themselves more elegantly than infantry. Instead of regimental and national uniforms,
regiments and entire armies declared their allegiance by wearing emblems or tokens stuck in
the hatband or some other convenient place.
In 1685 was issued order prescribing particular colors for regiments, blue for the Guard and the
royal regiments, red for the Swiss regiments and gray-white for regular French infantry. In 1690
was prescribed color for each regiment; for eighty eight regiments it was gray with red reverses
and for fourteen royal and princely regiments it was blue. Although the army would seem to
have adopted uniforms for regular regimens during the Nine Years' War, the first regulation
detailing the fabric, color, and cut of uniforms in detail appeared in 1704.
The infantry was armed with muskets, fusils and pikes. Musket was the basic weapon, while
fusil became the standard firearm by 1700. There was no shortage of weapons, the army may
have been bootles, shoeless and very hungry but they had firearms and gunpowder.
According to wikipedia.org "Uniform dress became the norm with the adoption of regimental
systems, initially by the French army in the mid XVII century. Earlier, some Swedish infantry
had been issued with standard coloured dress under Gustavus Adolphus (hence his "yellow" or
"blue" regiments)."
.
Privates and officers.
France was 'always filled with an idle and seething
[aristocratic] youth, ready to undertake anything,
and who seek to exercise their valor regardless of
the expense.'
"The most common method of recruitment in wartime, recolage, relied neither upon personal
contacts of officers in their home provinces not upon compulsion organized by royal officials,
but upon the labor and lure of recruiting parties dispatched to the towns and cities of France.
When a recruiting party arrived in a town, the officer in charge had first to secure permission
from the local authorities, who might be highly reluctant to grant it. Once given the right to
proceed, recruiters advertised their presence. Recruiters' drums must have been a common
sound in the larger towns ... After a dramatic drum roll, the recruiter addressed those attracted
by the racket, urging the young men to sign up ... Recolage was open to many abuses, and
military authorities did little to stop them, save for issuing pious words. Liquor played more of
a role than simply solemnizing a contract. Many a recruiter got his prey drunk, before springing
the trap." (Lynn, pp 358-9)
Recruiters not only grabbed men off the streets, they sometimes invded private homes and
churches to kidnap male inhabitants ! On average, the French soldiers enlisted during the
Thirty Years' War at the age of 24. Approx. 55 % of Louis' soldiers were between the ages of 20
and 30. The king did not set height requirements, except for the Guard. The average height of
French soldier was 5'3" (or English 5'7") and was in that time an average height. In comparison,
the average American soldier during the Civil War was 5'8" tall.
In combat the French officers led from the front, braving the same dangers that their men faced.
There was honor to be won on the battlefield - honor to be won at any price. Like Louis XIV,
his officer corps pursued gloire. According to John A. Lynn the quest to attain glory by publicly
fulfilling the demands of honor explains the undeniable taste for war on the part of the French
aristocracy. A 1601 Guide des courtesans noted: 'I hear our young nobility murmur against the
peace which limits them from displaying what they have of good in their souls. They can
appease their warrior ardors by taking themselves, with the leave of their prince, to some just
war outside their country.' Louis XIV noted the enthusiasm of nobles to raise units to serve
him.
The French repeatedly claimed a suppossedly rare and special fighting spirit for their nobility.
Vauban considered that French officers were 'the best in the world' and that 'all the nation loves
war and takes up the profession of war every time that it finds in it some promise of elevation
and of the ability to subsist with honor.
Lisola, a Spaniard (and enemy of France), described France as 'always filled with an idle and
seething [aristocratic] youth, ready to undertake anything, and who seek to exercise their valor
regardless of the expense.' But the aristocracy's code of honor assumed a strictly hierachical
society and disregarded the lower classes as unworthy. Officers seemed to expect deferences
and turned to violance to punish those who refused to grant it. For example, several subaltern
officers of artillery ran amok in Grenoble in 1694 and attacked passerby, eventually, a crowd
cornered them and killed two in the final fray.
The soldiers were expected to embrace obedience and display courage out of desire to avoid
coercion if they could not be inspired by higher appeals. Troops that had behaved disgracefully
were punished by executing soldiers drawn by lot from the offending unit. The army was
better paid than under Louis XIII. The consequences of lack of pay went beyond the privations
of individual soldiers and officers. Pushed to its extreme, lack of pay inspired mutiny. In 1635
the French army mutined and sacked Tirlemont, massacring its inhabitants. The war with Spain
was filled with countless acts of mutiny on a small scale in which troops simply went on
rampage.
Composition of the French army in 1716
Rank urban (%) rural (%)
infantry
corporals
privates
34
42
66
58
dragoons
corporals
privates
43
38
57
62
cavalry
corporals
privates
23
28
77
72
.
End of the Spanish military supremacy in Europe and
inauguration of a long period of French military predominance.
Even after demobilization, Louis XIV's army remained large and skilled,
in Turenne and Conde, now back in French service, he probably had the
best field commanders in Europe.
A Spanish invasion in 1636 threatened Paris and years of indecisive campaigns followed.
Richelieu died in 1642, and Louis XIII died in the next year, passing the throne to his 4 years old
son, Louis XIV. A few days later the French army won a victory of major proportions at Rocroi.
At Rocroi the French led by Duke d'Enghien defeated the hated Spaniards.
The Spaniards were top dogs in Europe in terms of military tactics and performance.
General Cordoba reorganized the Spanish army at the end of the 15th and early 16th centuries,
into a tactically unique combination of modern and medieval combined arms centered around
infantry. This emphasis on the infantry was the result of Spain's great dependence on mules in
daily life, which in turn resulted in an inability to raise large cavalry forces (like in France,
England, Poland and elsewhere). General Fernndez, developed the tercio to increase the
effectiveness of infantry against every manner of opposing infantry while remaining
impervious to the dangers of a cavalry charge. The Spanish tercio (ext.link), consisting of
professional soldiers with superior discipline and great fighting spirit, were well known on the
European battlefield for their near-invincibility in combat during the 16th and 17th centuries.
The formation was often feared by enemy troops because of the legendary determination of its
soldiers in combat its reputation was fully established at the Battle of Pavia (1525), in which
the French king was captured.
During the Thirty Years War the Spanish tercio formations began to suffer some defeats to more
linear formations led by the Swedish king-general, Gustavus Adolphus. Yet throughout its
history the tercios form and composition was never static as it evolved to meet the new
challenges. Tercio formations employed by well trained troops with good cavalry support,
continued to win major battles, White Mountain (1620), Fleurus (1622), Breda (1624),
Nrdlingen (1634), and Thionville (1639).
It was not until the Rocroi (1643) that the tercios reputation for invincibility in major battles was
shattered. Even then, the Rocroi defeat was precipitated by the collapse of the supporting
cavalry rather than the failure of the tercios themselves. (wikipedia.org)
King Louis XIV enjoyed a great military inheritance as he began his personal reign. Even after
demobilization, his army remained large and skilled, in Turenne and Conde, now back in
Frencgh service, he probably had the best field commanders in Europe. "A young king with a
lust for glory would not let such a fine military instrument grow dull from disuse. ... Louis
plotted to chastise the Dutch and continue his acquisitions of Spanish lands. He carefully
isolated the Dutch from their allies and struck in 1672. This Dutch War, 1672-8, began with an
invasion, masterfully supported and supplied by Louvois ... Louis intended to defeat and
humble the Dutch so as to force them to give him a free hand in the Spanish Netherlands, but
he failed." (Lynn, - pp 16-17)
The Dutch War 1672-8 was also called the Franco-Dutch War. The British were France's ally,
having fought already two wars against the Dutch. For the British, this war became the Third
Anglo-Dutch War. (However, in 1674 the British switched alliances and fought for the Dutch.)
Battle of Rocroi (in Italian)
The Battle of Rocroi in 1643 was the first major defeat of the Spanish army in a century,
although some historians have noted that German, Walloon, and Italian troops actually
surrendered first, while the Spanish infantry cracked only after repeated cavalry charges.
The French carried out a huge cavalry encirclement, sweeping behind the Spanish army
a n d smashing their way through to attack the rear of the Spanish cavalry that was still
in combat with the reserves. The Battle of Rocroi put an end to the supremacy of Spanish
military doctrine and inaugurated a long period of French military predominance.
The King and Cond, by Jean Leon Gerome.
Conde is regarded as one of the best generals in world history,
whose masterpiece, the Battle of Rocroi in 1643, is still studied
by students of military tactics and strategy.
The architect of the victory at Rocroi was Cond (see picture above).
The one failure of his generalship was in the Spanish Fronde, and, in this, everything united to
thwart his genius; only on the battlefield itself was his leadership as conspicuous as ever. That
he was capable of waging a methodical war of positions may be assumed from his campaigns
against Turenne and Montecucculi, the greatest generals opposing him.
But it was in his eagerness for battle, his quick decision in action, and the stern will which sent
his regiments to face the heaviest losses, that Cond is exalted above all the generals of his time.
Upon Conds death, Louis XIV pronounced that he had lost "the greatest man in my
kingdom." In 1643 his success at the Battle of Rocroi, in which he led the French army to an
unexpected and decisive victory over the Spanish, established him as a great general and
popular hero in France. Together with Turenne he led the French to victory in the Thirty Years'
War.
During the Fronde (civil war in France in 16481653), he was courted by both sides, initially
supporting Mazarin; he later became a leader of the princely opposition. After the defeat of the
Fronde he entered Spanish service and led their armies against France. He returned to France
only after the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, but soon received military commands again.
Cond conquered the Franche-Comt during the War of Devolution and led the French armies
in the Franco-Dutch War together with Turenne. His last campaign was in 1675, taking
command after Turenne had been killed, repelling an invasion of an imperial army. Conde is
regarded as one of the premier generals in world history, whose masterpiece, the Battle of
Rocroi, is still studied by students of military tactics and strategy.
Another great military leader was Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne.
He was born in 1611. As a boy he showed a marked partiality for history and geography, and
especial admiration of the exploits of Alexander the Great and Caesar. He devoted himself to
bodily exercises and at the age of 14 he went to learn war in the camp of his uncle, Maurice of
Nassau. In 1630 Turenne left the Netherlands and entered the service of France. In 1638, serving
under Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, he directed the assault on Breisach (the strongest fortress on
the upper Rhine), which surrendered in December. He had now gained a reputation as one of
the foremost of the younger generals of France, and Richelieu next employed him in the Italian
campaign of 16391640. In 1639 Turenne fought in the famous rearguard action called the battle
of the "Route de Quiers". In 1642 he served as second-in-command of the French troops which
conquered Roussillon. In 1643 Turenne took Trino and gained the rank of Marshal of France.
In 1644 Turenne began the campaign by crossing the Rhine River, and joining his army with an
army under the great Cond. The four famous campaigns which followed brought to an end
the Thirty Years' War. The battle of Freiburg against Franz von Mercy's Bavarians proved the
chief event of the first campaign, after which the French successfully besieged Philippsburg.
Turenne then opened the campaign of 1645 with a strong forward movement, but Mercy
surprised and defeated him at Mergentheim. Conde's army again joined Turenne's army and in
the very bloody battle of Allerheim killed Mercy and defeated his Bavarians. In 1646 Turenne
obtained more successes, and, by separating the Austrians from the Bavarians, compelled
Elector of Bavaria to make peace. In 1647 Turenne marched into Luxembourg, but soon received
orders to switch to the Rhine, for in 1648 Bavaria had returned to her Austrian alliance and had
taken up arms again. Turenne made a brilliant campaign, crowned by the decisive action of
Zusmarshausen. Troops subsequently wasted Bavaria with fire and sword.
In the third war of the Fronde, Turenne and Cond stood opposed to each other.
Turenne displayed the personal bravery of a young soldier at Jargeau, the skill and wariness of
a veteran general at Gien, and he practically crushed the civil war in the Battle of the Faubourg
St Antoine and in the re-occupation of Paris. He still needed to deal with Cond, however, and
the long campaigns gave ample scope for the display of scientific generalship on the part of
both the famous captains.
In 1653 Turenne captured Rethel, Sainte-Menehould and Mouzon, while Cond succeeded at
Rocroy.
In 1656 Turenne suffered defeat at Valenciennes in the same way as he had beaten Cond at
Arras.
The war eventually concluded in 1657 with Turenne's victory at the Battle of the
Dunes near Dunkirk, in which a corps of English veterans (ext.link) sent by Oliver
Cromwell (see picture =>) played a notable part; a victory which, followed by
another successful campaign in 1658, led to the peace of the Pyrenees in 1659.
In 1667 Turenne directed the famous Promenade militaire in which the French
overran the Spanish Netherlands. Soon afterwards Cond, now reconciled with the
king, rivalled Turenne's success by the rapid conquest of Franche Comt, which brought to an
end the War of Devolution in February 1668.
In the Dutch War of 1672 Turenne accompanied the army commanded by the king which
overran the Dutch United Provinces up to Amsterdam. The Dutch opened the dikes and
flooded the country round Amsterdam. This measure checked Turenne, whom the king had left
in command. News of this event roused half of Europe to action, and the war quickly spread to
Germany. Turenne fought a successful war of manoeuvre on the middle Rhine while Cond
covered Alsace.
In 1673 Turenne penetrated far into Germany, and forced the Great Elector of Brandenburg to
make peace; later in the year, however, the famous imperial general Montecucculi completely
out-manoeuvred Turenne: Montecucculi evaded his opponent, joined the Dutch and the the
city of Bonn. In 1674, however, Turenne won the battle of Sinzheim, which made him master of
the Palatinate. Under orders from Paris the French wasted the country far and wide.
In the autumn the allies advanced against Turenne's army, and though they again
outmanoeuvered Turenne, the action of the neutral city of Strasbourg occasioned his failure by
permitting the enemy to cross the Rhine by the bridge at that place. The tactical victory at
Enzheim followed; but it hardly affected the strategic situation.
The marshal now made the most daring campaign of his career.
A swift and secret march in winter of 1675 from one end of the Vosges Mountains to the other
took the allies by surprise. Sharply following up his first successes, Turenne drove the enemy to
Turkheim, and there inflicted upon them a heavy defeat. In a few weeks he had completely
recovered Alsace. In the summer he once more faced Montecucculi, and after the highest
display of "strategic chess-moves" by both commanders, Turenne finally compelled his
opponent to offer battle at a disadvantage at Salzbach. There, one of the first shots fired killed
him.
His body, taken to St Denis, was buried with the kings of France. Even the extreme
revolutionists of 1793 respected it, and, while they ignominiously reburied the bodies of the
monarchs in a mass grave, they preserved the remains of Turenne until 1800, when Napoleon
had them removed to the church of the Invalides at Paris. Napoleon recommended to "read
and re-read" the campaigns of Turenne as one of the great captains. (source: wikipedia.org)
Turenne.
Vicomte de Turenne - one of France greatest commanders of all times.
As a boy he devoted himself to bodily exercises and at the age of 14 he went to learn war.
He was a simple and honorable military man, a protestant (ext.link), endowed with much tact;
but in the world of politics he was helpless in the hands of a skilful intriguer.
He spent his life with the troops ; he knew how to win their affection ; he tempered a severe
discipline with generosity , and his men loved him as a comrade no less than they admired
him as a commander.
His characteristics: strategic caution , logistic accuracy , constancy under all circumstances .
And , unlike his great rival Cond, who appeared as brilliant in his first battle as in his last,
he improved day by day. Napoleon said of him that,his genius grew bolder as it grew older.
Great battles he avoided as his armies were only medium size but costly. He waged war
like a chess master. "His genius best represents the art of war in the 17th century." (- wikipedia)
Conde versus Turenne.
The civil war in France was memorable chiefly for the battle of the Faubourg St.Antoine, in
which Cond and Turenne, two of the leading generals of the age, measured their strength. The
army of Conde was only saved by being admitted within the gates of Paris. The Parisians
turned the cannon on Turenne's army. Thus Cond, who as usual had fought with bravery, was
saved, and Paris underwent a new siege. This ended in the flight of Cond to the Spanish army,
and thenceforward, up to the peace, he was in open arms against France, and held high
command in the army of Spain. Cond's fully developed genius as a commander found little
scope in the cumbrous and antiquated system of war practised by the Spanish, and though he
gained a few successes, and manoeuvred with the highest possible skill against Turenne, his
disastrous defeat at the Dunes near Dunkirk (1658) led Spain to open negotiations for peace.
The Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, which ended the Franco-Spanish War, pardoned Cond
and allowed him to return to France.
.
The era 1610-1715 was an age of warfare throughout.
Great victories and devastating defeats.
The era 1610-1715 was an age of warfare throughout.
After war broke out in Europe between France and England in the 1680s, the two nations
regularly sent expeditions to raid and capture each other's fur trading posts in America. In
March 1686, the French sent a raiding party under des Troyes over 1300 km to capture the
British Hudson Bay Company's posts along James Bay. (HBC is the oldest commercial
corporation in North America and is one of the oldest in the world.) The French appointed
Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, who had shown extreme heroism during the raids, as commander
of the company's captured posts. In 1697, d'Iberville commanded a French naval raid on the
company's headquarters at York Factory.On the way to the fort, he defeated the ships of the
Royal Navy in the Battle of the Bay, the largest naval battle in the history of the North
American Arctic.
In 1693 at the
famous battle
of
Neerwinden
(also called
Battle of
Landen)
Marshal
Luxembourg
led 75,000
men in
victory over
William III of
England's
50,000 men
protected by
field
fortifications.
The French
assaulted the
allied
position three
times before
their cavalry penetrated the allied defenses. The French surprising the British and Allies in the
act of maneuvering, rode over every body of troops they met, and nothing remained for the
Allies but a hurried retreat.
Casualties were heavy: 9,000 French and 19,000 British and Allies were killed, wounded and
taken prisoner. Luxembourg captured so many British and Allies flags that he could make a
"tapestry" with them inside the Notre-Dame cathedral in Paris. For this reason he was
nicknamed le Tapissier de Notre-Dame. Several flag trophies of the colonial period are still
displayed in the St. Louis-des-Invalides' church.
"The War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-14, proved to be the longest and most exhausting
war of Louis' personal reign. The Duke of Marlborough, perhaps England's greatest general, led
British forces, while Prince Eugene of Savoy, an excellent general in his own right, commanded
the main Imperial armies. For years, the French could not find a winning commander, and
disaster followed didaster. At the Battle of Blenheim (ext. link) 1704, the allied team of generals
so devastated the French army before them that the French would not again venture deep into
Germany.
At the battle of Turin (see picture -->) in
1706, Eugene essentially drove the French
out of Italy, while Marlborough and
Eugene won battles at Ramilles (ext.link)
1706, and Oudenarde, 1708, that secured
the Spanish Netherlands for the Allies. ...
In September of that year [1709] at the
battle of Malplaquet (ext.link) Villars
(90,000 men) confronted Marlborough and
Eugene (100,000-120,000 men). Although
the French lost that battle, they retired in
good order and inflicted such great casualties that Marlborough would not again face the
French in the open field." (Lynn, - p 19)
Villars then defeated the Allies at Denain (ext. link) in 1712 and captured number of cities and
fortresses along the Rhine River. It was a bloody battle. Eugene of Savoy with 100,000 men
intended to force a battle with Villars' 120,000 troops. However, the sudden withdrawal of
English troops, led to the allied army being halted. Villars took advantage to launch a bayonet
attack on a portion of Eugene's army. Chaos filled the scene. The attack however, was repulsed
by the reserves. The French counterattacked, pushing the Allies into the river. The Allies
suffered 18,000 casualties, the French 5,000.
"The Three Musketeers" directed by Stephen Herek (USA/UK/Austria 1993)
They're Scoundrels,Playboys,Outlaws. The Greatest Heroes Who Ever Lived.
In 1 6 0 0 , King of France Henry IV formed the Musketeers, an elite force to serve as his guard.
They had a strict code of ethics that they lived by and were held to be the most renown fighters
of their day. W i t h o u t Dumas' great tale of the Three Musketeers, this group of military men
would have doubtless faded into history. Their motto is "One for all, and all for one."
The Three Musketeers continues,after a century and a half of continuous publication,to define the
genre of swashbuckling romance and historical adventure. In "Great Foreign Language Writers",
Barnett Shaw wrote "Two hundred years from now , you can be sure that at any given moment,
someone, in some far-off place, will be reading "The Three Musketeers."
The Royal Army of 1700-1790.
Although under the careless and timid King Louis X V
France maintained the largest standing army in Europe
it slumped into slow decay.
The 18th century saw France remain the dominant power in Europe, but begin to falter largely
because of internal problems. The country engaged in a long series of wars, such as the War of
the Quadruple Alliance, the War of the Polish Succession, and the War of the Austrian
Succession.
The Royal Army was a typical 18th century force. The ranks were filled with mercenaries,
volunteers, adventurers and others. The discipline was harsh (a soldier who struck an officer
had his offending hand chopped off before he was hanged) and the morale low. The Royal
Army used linear tactics, copied from Prussian system.
In 1780s reaction reigned supreme over the French military administration. In 1781 the courtiers
extorted from Segur, the Minister of War, against his will, a royal decree to the effect that every
candidate for a commission must satisfy the court genealogist that he was possessed of 16
quarters of nobility ! The effect of this was to shut the doors of the army in the face of the rising
middle class.
The first 20 years of Louis XV were generally peaceful, a marked contrast to the war-like
disposition of Louis XIV (Sun King). France had a population of 25 million and maintained the
largest standing army in Europe. It consisted of the following trops:
Guard cavalry (> 2,500 men)
- - - Life Guards 4 companies (x 350-420 men) on black horses
- - - Life Guards of the King of Poland 2 companies (x 75 men) on bays
- - - [Queen of France was a Polish princess, whose father and king, was exiled in 1737.]
- - - Gendarmes of the Guard 1 company (x 220 men) on bay horses
- - - Lighthorse of the Guard 1 company (x 220 men) on bay horses
- - - Horse Grenadiers of the Guard 1 company (x 140 men) on bays
- - - Musketeers of the Guard 2 companies (x 240 men) on blacks and greys
Guard infantry (> 10,000 men)
- - - French Guards 6 battalions (x 1100 men)
- - - Swiss Guards ? battalions
- - - Other troops
Cavalry
- - - gendarmes: 16 small companies
- - - heavy cavalry: 60 regiments (incl. 3 German, 1 Irish, 1 Belgian)
- - - carabiniers: 5 regiments (called brigades)
- - - dragoons: 17 regiments
Infantry
- - - in 1740: 155 battalions (x 540 men) = 83,700
- - - in 1747: 227 battalions
- - - in 1750: 172 battalions
- - - in 1762: 187 battalions (x 630 men) = 117,810
- - - The battalions were formed in infantry re g i m e n t s.
- - - Only the senior regiments had more than 1 battalion.
- - - "Until 1718 each battalion had 1 grenadier and 14 fusilier companies,
- - - this was then reduced to 1 grenadier and 8 fusilier. This was raised
- - - again to 15 companies in 1734, then dropped to 13 companies from
- - - 1749. In 1756 the number of companies was raised to 17 per battalion."
- - - (Chartrand - "Louis XV's Army (2) French Infantry." p 5)
- - - The company had approx. 40 men. In 1757 each field battalion going
- - - on campaign in central Europe received a light-calibre cannon with
- - - limber and 3 horses.
Militia
- - - Provincial Militia 100-120 battalions (x 600 men)
- - - Coast Guard Militia
- - - Bourgeois Militia
- - - The Provincial Militia was drafted for garrison duty but they were
- - - also used as army reserves and considered part of the royal forces
- - - and listed as such in the army registers.
.
The Seven Years' War (17561763)
"The inglorious performance of French arms
in the wars of the mid eighteenth century -
particularly in the disastrous Seven Years' War
sent shockwaves through French society."
"At the time of the Seven Years' War the constitution of the royal
army was as heterogeneous as that of the France which maintained it.
There were, first of all, a number of regiments of household troops
doing duty at the palaces, and of French and of Swiss Guards. ... A
quarter of the regiments were composed of foreigners, Germans,
Swiss, Scots, Irishmen, and Flemings, and these were governed by the
military laws and customns of their own countries.
The ranks of the French regiments were filled by voluntary enlistment,
that is by the wles of the recruiting sergeants and the temptations of
bounty. The recruits were engaged for 8 years on a pay of six or eight
sous a day, from which deductions were made for provisions and
clothing. They were drawn from among the less fortunate of the
poorer class, the idlers of the towns, and the unemployed of town and
country. ...
After the Seven Years' War the Duc de Broglie said one day that the
principal cause of the mistakes which he had seen committed was the
complete ignorance of the officers, from the sub-lieutenants to the
lieutenants-generals, of the duties of their position and of the details
of which they ought to be masters. Most of the officers were as
extravagant and luxurious, even in the field, as they were ignorant,
too ready to satisfy their inordinate wants by plunder, and thus to set
to their men an example of indiscipline which, when it was followed,
they were unable to repress.
Yet in spite of this and other elements of weakness, the army of the Seven Years' War, when
commanded by good soldiers, had proved capable of rapid movements, of complicated
evolutions, and of prolonged endurance. Its failures were due not so much to the defects of its
organization, equipment, and training, as to the lack of unity of command. In the 18th century
the French state was the French monarchy, and the King himself the main-spring of the
machine. If it was to work the King must give the impulse. But Louis XV was there to enjoy
himself, and he handed over the State to those who amused or distracted him - during the
Seven Years' War, chiefly to Madame de Pompadour. ...
Ministers and generals were appointed, not for their aptitude to administer France or to
command armies, but according to their attitude toward the lady at the head of affairs. In 6
years the armies were commanded by 6 generals, only one of whom, the Marechal de Broglie,
understood his business, and his success was rewarded, first by the division of his command
and then by his dismissal and exile.
The first effect of this system was to destroy the discipline of the army, which could have no
confidence in commanders, the causes of whose appointment were no secret, and whose
incompetence was manifest. Even those officers who knew their business were aware that their
career depended not upon success but upon favour. The army became a hotbed of intrigue, and
great strength of character was required to enable an officer in any position of responsibility to
be guided solely by his sense of duty." (Wilkinson, Spenser - "The French army before Napoleon;
lectures delivered before the University of Oxford ..." pp 84-88)
The Prussian army in that time enjoyed reputation as one of the best trained, the most
disciplined, and one of the best led (Frederick the Great, Zieten, Seydlitz and other generals).
The Prussians wore simpler dress than the French army with its many lackeys, cooks,
courtesans, actors and chaplains, friseurs and valets, chests full of perfumes, hair nets, sun
shades and parrots.
In 1757 at Rossbach the Prussian army (22,000 men) under Frederick the Great defeated the
French and German armies (54,000 men) under Marshal Prince de Soubise. About 3,500
Prussian horsemen had defeated an entire army of two combined European superpowers.
Frederick was heard to say "I won the battle of Rossbach with most of my infantry having their
muskets shouldered." Casualties: 550 Prussians and 5,000 French and Germans !
Battle of Rossbach 1757 (from videogame Total War)
54,000 French and Germans were routed by 22,000 Prussians!
"The inglorious performance of French arms in the wars of the mid 18th century - particularly
in the disastrous Seven Years' war - sent shockwaves through French society. Nowhere was the
humiliation of defeat felt more sharply than in the army. There, the perception of military
decline prompted reformers to enact a series of profesionalizing measures which transformed
the French army."
The Seven Years War sparked genuine progress in military.
And it was in France most particularly that substantive developments occurred. Merely noting
the contributions of the various individuals involved gives some idea of the scale and scope of
the reforms undertaken by the French. Thus, Marshal de Broglie, a veteran commander of The
Seven Years' War, developed the idea of the division as an administrative and tactical
formation and introduced the use of light infantry and skirmish tactics into the French service.
Jacques de Guibert, scion of a military family, wrote extensively on tactics, proposing reliance
not on column or on line, but rather a series of flexible tactical formations, each suited to
particular circumstances. De Guibert supported the idea of light infantry and skirmish tactics
and advocated reform of the artillery and the establishment of permanent divisions. He also
advanced the revolutionary notion that all citizens were liable for military service. Jean Baptiste
de Gribeauval, a seasoned gunner, sparked and sponsored a total reorganization and reform of
the French artillery upon attaining the lofty status of Inspector General of that arm. He
promoted the redisign of guns and carriages, standardized calibers, and introduced new
approaches to tactical deployment. To foster increased professionalism and reliability de
Gribeauval secured the replacement of the customary civilian contractor gunners with trained
soldiers. (- Loraine Petre)
Pierre Joseph de Bourcet, a seasoned campaigner and military educator, wrote extensively on
organization and strategy, advocating the permanent division of armies into self-contained,
relatively large subordinate bodies of all arms capable of undertaking limited independent
operations for short periods. He suggested that in this fashion an army of considerable size
could advance with great speed, agility, and flexibility, for each body of the army - corps
d'armee - could move along parallel routes of march toward the same objective, while
remaining within supporting distance of the balance of the army.
Jean du Teil and his brother Jean-Pierre, both gunners, advocated increased mobility on the
battlefield, the use of artillery as an offensive arm, to prepare and support infantry attacks, and
sounder preparation of officers.
None of these changes came easily.
Most of the reformers believed that France's weakness was not merely the result of the
inadequacy of her military institutions, but was due also to her antiquated political, social, and
economic institutions. So most of them supported the Revolution when it came in 1789. In the
process of rebuilding France, the Revolutionary government put the finishing touches on the
military reforms.
Seven Years' War: French versus Prussians.
(from well done videogame Total War)
.
Wars in Africa, America, and the loss of Canada.
France's weakness in America was in numbers
there were only 80,000 French colonists.
In contrast there were 1,500,000 British colonists.
Nothing that any European powert ever did in the Americas prior to our own century equaled,
for drama, what Spain did in its initial strikes at Mexico and Peru. The treasures these two
countries yielded wre not be easily matched. The French, British and the Dutch came a little late
to the New World party. Having found no Mexico and no Peru they were not troubled by the
sense of letdown that the Spanish felt.
In the late 17th and much of the 18th century, the colonial powers (Spain, Britain, and France)
fought a series of wars for control of America: King William's War (1689-97), Queen Anne's
War (1702-13), King George's War (1744-48), and the French and Indian War. They are usually
referred to en masse by the name of the last war; bestowed from the Anglo-American
perspective.
The whole american continent, with the exception of the few British colonies on the east cost
and Spanish holdings in the south was claimed by France as 'New France.' By 1663 France out
of a population of 16 million, approx. double the size of England which sent out 40,000 settlers
to New England, had provided Canada with only 2,500 settlers (!). Most of these were confined
to three small settlements: Quebec, Montreal and Three Rivers.
Map : Territory and population of
--------- French colonies (blue)
--------- British colonies (red)
--------- Spanish colonies (yellow)
As the 17th century drew to a close the
French were filled with a sense of
accomplishment. They could contemplate a
colony stretching along the St. Lawrence for
a couple of hundred miles as well as other
smaller settlements in Acadia, Cape Breton,
Isle de St. Jean and Terre-Neuve. In
addition French explorers had penetrated
into the distant recesses of the continent,
writing as they did so a chapter in
exploration that ranks with the greatest.
Great figures of New France "that emerged
into the white light of historical importance"
began with Cartier and Champlain and
included La Salle, Talon, Frontenac and
Laval. They found in Canada the chances
and the challenges to match their talents
and characteristics and they used these to
open a vast new continent and create a
great new country - Canada. (W.R.Wilson - "Early Canada Historical Narratives -La Belle Province")
With strategic points along the St.Lawrence River in Canada, and the Great Lakes, and along
the Mississippi River down to New Orleans, France could throw a noose around the British
and Spanish colonies. The British westward expansion was frustrated by chain of French forts,
trading posts and the Indian tribes manipulated by France.
France's weakness was in numbers, there were only 80,000 colonists. In contrast there were 1,5
mln British colonists. Essentially a land power, France fought in America at great disadvantage.
Once the conflict began, the resources she could commit were limited; the logistical problems
were insuperable. Second, the French themselves saw the war as one to be won or lost in
Europe. Almost the totality of the French army was committed in Germany. There the
maximum effort was made and there the government sought victories and conquests.
The French in North America concentrated on the Ohio Valley already penetrated by the British
fur traders. The Indians of the region incl. Delawares, Mingos, Shawnee and Ottawas were
visited by French officers, priests, traders and officials. War parties of Indians and wild
Canadian bushrangers were soon organized. Many British settlers were tomahawked, scalping-
knifes were used in every opportunity. The Indians were infected with scalp-fever as never
before and the British traders were quickly expelled.
British troops tried to establish a fort on Ohio but were chased off in 1754 by the French who
promptly erected Fort Duquesne on the site so conveniently cleared. The number of skirmishes
between the French and Indians and the British from Virginia increased. Great Britain and
France decided that more troops should be sent to America.
French officer Coulon is the only military opponent to force George Washington to surrender.
On July 3, 1754, Coulon's troops attacked Fort Necessity. By evening, the British had asked
for terms of surrender. The following day, the British left in haste. So quickly did they leave,
that Washington left behind his journal in his abandoned luggage.
More information on Coulon is on wikipedia
"On 6 July 1755 an Indian scout reported to Cpt. Contrecoeur ... commandant of Fort Duquesne,
that a huge body of British was approaching. This was Braddock's column, it consisted of 1,200
redcoats with engineers and artillery, some Virginian 'bluecoats' under George Washington,
and much baggage and impedimenta. ... 300 axmen carved a track for it through the
wilderness. Cpt. Contrecoeur had but a few companies ... and some militia - tough forest
fighters, but no match for redcoats trained to European standards. ... The French had about 800
Indians with about 36 French officers scattered among them - many greased and painted like
their allies - incl. particularly the gallant Cpt. de Beaujeu and the guerilla, Langlade. They were
supported by 72 men of the Compagnies Franches and some 140 militiamen. ...
In minutes the British were driven back like bewildered cattle, unable to see the enemy who
were firing into their ranks from behind thick cover. ... Braddock fell shot through the lungs ...
he had already had 4 horses shot under him. ... Only about 23 officers and 460 men escaped
alive and able to walk, out of 1,450 odd. The wounded were abandoned..." (Martin Windrow -
"Montcalm's Army")
The struggle for Fort Ticonderoga was long and bitter. The fort controlled both commonly used
trade routes between the English-controlled Hudson River Valley and the French-controlled
St.Lawrence River Valley. The first Battle of Ticonderoga happened in 1758, when General
Abercrombie of the British Army attempted to subdue the fort with 16,000 men. They were
soundly defeated by a mere 4,000 French soldiers. In 1759, the fort was finally captured by the
British under General Amhurst. There were more successes for the British. They ambushed
several French vessels at sea and captured 400 soldiers and sailors.
In May 1756 the war was formally declared. France however was still focused on central
Europe (especially on the warlike Prussia) and the war in America was regarded as a sideshow.
The French troops in America were led by Marquis Montcalm, a short man with a great
predatory beak of a Roman nose. He was one of these rare generals whose men love him as
well as respecting him. Montcalm's army numbered 2,500 regular troops. A French battalion
had 500 men in 10 companies. (Due to sickness some battalions had only 200-300 men.)
Montcalm had also small number of engineers and gunners. There were also 1,850 in local
troops in garrisons, forts and sea ports. These men however were under the Governor and
were not always placed at Montcalm's disposal. Third category of troops was militia. Approx.
4,000 militiamen were employed in transporting and supplying the regular and local troops.
Fourth category were Indians and coureurs de bois, backwoodsmen, (picture, ext.link) they were
employed for scouting and patrol work. Their knowledge of the forest and guerilla warfare
were admirable.
Marquis de Duquesne who became governor-general of New France in 1752, had used
Shawnee, Ottawa, and Delaware Indians to harass and hold back British attempts to trade or
settle in the Ohio valley. Other tribes, including the Iroquois Confederacy, assisted the British.
The French small war parties played bloody havoc with British settlements along the border.
These parties consisted of coureurs de bois, Indians, few militiamen and local troops, and were
led by officers of the regular army. The coureurs-de-bois gloried in their physical prowess,
fought in the Indian manner, travelled by canoe and snowshoes, and wore dearskin and
moccasins.
The war parties raged virtually unchecked and scalp-hunting for bounty wa sthe order of the
day. The British responded with their own guerillas; Rogers' Rangers and the ruthless Iroquis
warriors. Their operations took deep into French Canada.
The year of 1756 brought with it William Pitt of Great Britain. His leadership, and France's
continued neglect of the North-American theater, turned the tide in favor of the British. The
French were driven from many frontier posts such as Fort Niagara and Fort Louisbourg. The
Battle of the Plains of Abraham gave Quebec City to the British. In April 1760 a French force
(2.600 regulars and some militia) under Chevalier de Lvis defeated British corps (3.800
regulars and artillery) commanded by General Murray at Sainte Foy. The battle was notably
bloodier than the more known in the English-speaking countries Battle of the Plains of
Abraham of the previous September, with 833 French casualties (killed and wounded) to 1,182
British (killed, wounded and captured). Three-quarters of the officers of the Fraser Highlanders
(78th) were killed or wounded. This makes the Battle of Sainte-Foy one of the bloodiest
engagements ever fought on Canadian soil.
Though the war in North America ended in 1760, when de Vaudreuil surrendered Montreal,
indeed all of Canada to Britain, the war officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris
in 1763. The treaty resulted in France's loss of all its North American possessions east of the
Mississippi.
France regained the Caribbean islands of Guadelupe and Martinique, which had been occupied
by the British. The economic value of these islands was greater than that of Canada at the time,
because of their rich sugar crops. On the whole, however, there was little interest in Canada,
Voltaire disdainfully dismissed as "several acres of snow." The British provided medical
treatment for the sick and wounded French soldiers and French soldiers were returned to
France aboard British ships with an agreement that they were not to serve again in the present
war.

Monongahela 1755: French and Indians defeat the British.
"In minutes the British were driven back like bewildered cattle,
unable to see the enemy who were firing into their ranks from
behind thick cover. ... Braddock fell shot through the lungs ...
Only about 23 officers and 460 men escaped alive and able to walk,
out of 1,450 odd. The wounded were abandoned..."-Martin Windrow

Battle of the Plains of Abraham: British defeted the French.
For the French, the scene of military operations was not limited to America.
It actually stretched from India - "where Pierre Andre, bailli de Suffren, won some of the most
impressive victories of the war near the end of hostilities - to Africa, where a French expedition
succeeded in recovering Senegal, from the English in late January 1779; from the Caribbean, the
most crucial region for French interests at that period, to Nova Scotia, which throughout the
war remained a potential area for French operations; and from North America, where the
French hoped to alternate the employment of West Indian garrisons during appropriate
seasons, to Europe, where a cross-channel operation against England continued to attract
continental strategists. The last of the Old regime's projects for an invasion of Britain
(anticipating Napoleon's plans by a quarter of a century) was a Franco-Spanish project that
antedated Spain's entry into the war against England in July 1779. Typically, the extensive
preparations for this attack were frustrated by Spanish slowness, disease, and weather." (Scott -
"From Yorktown to Valmy" pp 5-6)
In 1809 a Portuguese-British naval squadron took French Guiana for the Portuguese Empire.
With the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1814 the region was handed back to the French.
.
French-American victory in America.
British Prime Minister resigned after
receiving news of the defeat at Yorktown.
The British signed the Treaty of Paris,
recognizing the United States.
In 1780, comte de Rochambeau was given the command of French troops sent to join the
American colonists under George Washington fighting the Kingdom of Great Britain. He had
four regiments for his expedition to America:
- Soissonnais Infantry Regiment (40th Line Infantry Regiment in 1790s)
- Bourbonnais Infantry Regiment (13th Line Infantry Regiment in 1790s)
- Saintonge Infantry Regiment (82nd Line Infantry Regiment in 1790s)
- Royal Deux-Ponts, a German unit in the service of France (99th Line in 1790s)
Each regiment was allowed to take 1,000 men "chosen among the most robust." Additionally
Rochambeau had a small mixed unit consisting of infantry, hussars and gunners called
Lauzun's Legion, and part of the Regiment of Auxonne Artillery. The total strength of
Rochambeau's corps was approx. 5,000 men ready for combat. None of the men had
volunteered to fight for American Independence; indeed, they were at sea for weeks before
being informed of their destination. They cheered as they were happy that they were not bound
for the West Indies, whose inhospitable climate had been deadly to tens of thousands of their
comrades
Rochambeau's corps (8 battalions and few squadrons) was somehow neglected by the French
government from military point of view. In comparison in March 1781 a powerful French fleet
departed from Brest, it was composed of 190 warships, transports and merchantmen, whose
destinations included West Indies, South America, Africa and Indian Ocean.
Even in the New World, North America ranked behind the Caribbean in French priorities. For
example, to Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Santo Dominque were sent 29 battalions to join the
19 battalions already garrisoning those islands. The French military activities beyond United
States forced Britain to extend her own military efforts considerably, thereby contributing to the
American cause - a contribution only few Americans appreciated, however.
The American rebellion became a global war, and the French monarchy entered the last phase
of its rivalry with England. In their conception - and consequently their strategy - of the war
against Britain, French and American authorities had entirely different approaches. In contrast
to the Americans, the French did not conceive of this conflict as a war waged solely for US
independence; for them, the stakes involved the balance of power in Europe and in the
European-dominated world. As far as Americans were concerned, the struggle was confined to
North America.
The Battle of Yorktown was a victory by a combined American and French force led by
Washington and Marquis de Lafayette, and the French under Rochambeau over the British
army. A formal surrender ceremony took place on the morning following the battle. Cornwallis
refused to attend out of pure embarrassment, claiming illness. News of Yorktown was greeted
with joyous celebration throughout the United States and France. In Boston were
demonstrations and fireworks. King Louis XVI ordered all bishops of his kingdom to have Te
Deum celebrations in the churches. American Congress thanked Rochambeau.
British Surrender at Yorktown 1781 to the French and Americans.
Picture by Keith Rocco, United States.
The French commander is in white uniform, the American in dark blue.
Both are mounted. According to legend, the British forces marched to
the fife tune of "The World Turned Upside Down," though no real evidence
of this exists. (-------) News of Yorktown was greeted with joyous celebration
throughout USA and France. In Boston were demonstrations and fireworks.
~
The Revolutionary Army (1790 - 1799)
Revolutionary France had been the first to adopt
the principle of universal conscription,
according to which all young men of draft age
were subject to being called up.
The French Revolution was a political
upheaval of world importance in France
that began in 1789. On July 14 the Bastille
in Paris was stormed. (See picture ->) This
event is considered the beginning of the
French Revolution.
During the course of the Revolution,
France was temporarily transformed from
an absolute monarchy, where the king
monopolized power, to a republic of free
and equal citizens. The effects of the
French Revolution were widespread, both
inside and outside of France. The more
moderate American Revolution, (picture, ext.link) in comparison, was much less influential
upon the world of its time - even if it was more successful and less bloody.
In 1792, every able-bodied Frenchman was declared liable for military service, and National
Guard was formed. Revolutionary France had been the first to adopt the principle of universal
conscription, according to which all young men of draft age were subject to being called up; in
fact, however, a system of drawing names was in place, and as a result, only the minority of
those eligible were enrolled every year.
Even though entering the draft lottery was theoretically required of all male citizens,
malfunction exemptions, favors and bribes - together with every man's perfectly legal right to
buy a replacement if he could afford one - guaranteed that the burden of conscription fell
principally upon the country and town folks. Nevertheless, the army considered itself as
representative of the entire society.
In the beginning the new French armies, composed of demoralized regulars and untrained
volunteers, refused to face the disciplined Austrian army and were more dangerous to their
own officers than to the enemy. The victory at Valmy stimulated the French morale, then the
Jacobin fanatics infused the French soldiers with something of their own demonic energy.
Untrained but enthusistic volunteers filled the ranks. In the spirit of liberty and equality, the
volunteers elected their officers, and discipline all but disappeared.
"In the summer of 1790, the army was rocked by a wave of troop mutinies that shattered the
officers' authority and set in motion a series of events that would ultimately destroy the
National Assembly's carefully constructed military constitution. Ironically, it was the officers
themselves who had given the first examples of insubordination in mid-1788 during the royal
government's attempt to dissolve the parlaments. ... In the spring of 1790, insubordination
returned to the army with a vengeance. This new burst of disturbances was characterized by
increasingly direct confrontations between soldiers and officers. Most incidents were provoked
by disputes over pay which, the soldiers claimed, had been illegaly withheld from them." (
Blaufarb - "The French Army 1750-1820" pp 75-77)
Lazare Carnot, de facto minister of war in the ruling Committee of Public Safety,
became the Organizer of Victory. He established a general staff to facilitate planning
and coordination for the armies; he set up a nationwide semaphore telegraph system,
permitting more rapid communications; and he created the first unified engineering
corps.
Lacking time to train the vast masses of conscripts and volunteers, Carnot fostered the
amalgame, which used the Royal Army as the hard core around which new regiments were
formed, thereby greatly facilitating the implementation of the new tactics; the recruits could be
used in line and as skirmishers, where discipline and training were more important than elan.
Everything was in short supply, so the armies did without tents, trains, and similar
impedimenta, learning to live off the land, and were thus able to move more rapidly than their
foes. Carnot was also ruthless. Trusting no one, he used a system of political commissars, to
keep an eye on the reliability of generals.
Success was the only criterion for rank.
Napoleon was a product of his times.
"On 1 Jan 1791 the infantry was reorganised into 104 line regiments and 12 chasseur battalions
(light infantry). A report to the Assembly noted that these units were woefully under-strength.
Initially the Assembly wanted to bring the standing army up to full strength and raise
battalions of National Guardsmen as its reserve. However, many politicians distrusted the
army after the mutinies of 1790, the widespread desertion and the inability of officers to control
their men ...
Consequently, on 21 June (the day after the King's failed attempt to flee France) and on 22 July
1791, the formation of 185 battalions of gardes nationaux volontaires was ordered." (Crowdy -
"French Revolutionary Infantryman 1791-1802" p 8)
On the night of 20-21 June 1791, King Louis XVI made an unsuccessful attempt to flee from
France. This provoked a crisis in the army. "Interpreting their sovereign's action as a
repudiation of the Revolution, the officers began to abandon their posts, some resigning from
military service and others crossing the frontier to swell the ranks of the emigre armies.
Emigration confirmed the soldiers' doubts about the officers' patriotism and provoked a new
wave of mutinies. ... Emigration and indiscipline fed each other as the army descended into a
state of chaos." (Blaufarb - "The French Army 1750-1820" p 85)
Perhaps 2/3 of the officers of the Royal army had fled the country to
escape guillotine. The replacement of emigre officers began in 1791 when
the Assembly authorized generals to make emergency nominations. The
guillotine, also referred to as "The National Razor",was a device used for
carrying out executions by decapitation. It consists of a tall upright
frame from which a heavy blade is suspended. This blade is raised with
a rope and then allowed to drop, severing the victim's head from his or
her body. The crowds marveled at the machines speed and precision. :-)
Battalions of National Guard volunteers were formed in three successive
levies between 1791 and 1793. The first battalions were raised in
response to King's flight. In 1791 the National Assembly called upon the
departments to raise battalions to maintain internal order and defend
the frontiers from expected invasion. "Two structural differences - the
organization of the battalions along territorial lines and the designation of their officers by
election - distinguished the volunteers from the regular army and lent their cadres particular
characteristics. ... Officials who tried to shuffle volunteers between the companies could face
stiff resistance." (Blaufarb - "The French Army 1750-1820" p 101)
During 1793-1796, the infantry was reorganized into demi-brigades, each with 1 battalion of old
soldiers and 2 battalions of volunteers, in the hope of combining regular steadiness with
volunteer enthusiasm. Initially, the result was that each element qcquired the other's bad
habits. There was no time to drill the disorerly recruits into the robot steadiness and precision
demanded by linear system. (Esposito, Elting - "A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic
Wars")
The rapid conversion of these masses of recruits into efficient fighting units was a problem.
The reign of Terror left a bitter legacy of fratricidal hatred which swept across France in the
weeks following Robespierre's demise. Armed with the law of 1795, which authorized the
officials to dismiss personnel who had participated "in the horrors committed under the
Tyranny" the Thermidorean representatives-on-mission began to purge the army of its most
pronounced "terrorists."
In troops hard-hit by campaign losses and political actions, it was not uncommon to find large
groups of officers promoted two steps in the hierarchy - from sergeant to lieutenant in a single
day ! Some claimed that this process would only "increase the number of idiots" and give the
Republic officers "unworthy of commanding free men."
"It had been obvious for some time that firm action was needed to give the army a cost-efficient
and militarily sound organization. Sonsequently, as its last act, the Thermidorean Committee of
Public Safety approved a drastic consolidation of under-strength units and a corresponding
reduction of officer strength. ... The 952 existing battalions were to be consolidated into 140 new
demi-brigades of 3 battalions each. As a result 532 battalions were to be dissolved ... A similar
consolidation of the cavalry was to eliminate 145 squadrons, reducing their number from 323 to
178. ... The impact on the officer corps was profound. ... The climate of professional insecurity
created by the second amalgame would dominate the mentality of the officer corps for the
duration of the Republic." (Blaufarb - "The French Army 1750-1820" pp 142-143)
The French Revolutionary Wars
(NOTE: the amount of fighting for this
short period is simply unbelievable.)
Wars of the First Coalition (17921797)
1792
Prussians take the French fortresses of Longwy and Verdun.
Battle of Valmy. Although the battle was a tactical draw ,
it gave a great boost to French morale. The monarchy was
formally abolished as the First Republic was declared.
1793
The French army was driven out of Belgium.
1794
The French invasion of Piedmont (northern Italy) failed.
During the invasion of Spain the French took San Sebastin.
The French won at Fleurus and re-occupied all of Belgium
and the Rhineland.
At sea, the French navy succeeded in holding off a British
attempt to interdict a vital convoy from the United States.
1795
England's attempt to reinforce the rebels in the Vende
failed.
1796
Two French armies advanced into Bavaria. But then one of
the
armies was defeated by Archduke Charles of Austria, and
both
armies were forced to retreat back to France.
In Italy however the army led by Napoleon was very
successful.
The royalist rebellion in the Vende was brutally crushed.
An attempt to land an invasion force in Ireland was
unsuccessful.
1797
Wars of the Second Coalition (17981801)
1799
Russian-British invasion of the Netherlands.
The British however retreated after a stalemate.
Russian-Austrian invasion of Italy. Suvorov defeats
every
French general sent against him. Then the French rout
the
Russians (under Korsakov) in Switzerland.
1800
Narrowly avoiding defeat, Napoleon defeated the
Austrians
at Marengo and reoccupied northern Italy. Moreau
defeated
Austrians at Hohenlinden. Austria again sued for peace.
1801
Nelson's surprise attack on the Danish fleet in
Copenhagen.
1802
Great Britain signed the Treaty of Amiens and
recognising
French conquests.
.
.
.
Archduke Charles of Austria was unable to stop Napoleon
from
invading the Tyrol, and the Austrian government sued for
peace.
1798
The French take Malta from Britain.
French invasion of Egypt. Napoleon wins at the Pyramids.
British navy under Nelson destroy the French navy at the
battle of the Nile.
French invasion of Switzerland.
French troops deposed the Pope.
In Belgium people revolted against the French occupation.
The French navy fought an undeclared war against USA.
.
.
.
.
.

La Rvolution Franaise (Storming of the Bastille)

1792 Aux Armes Citoyens: Austrian cavalry versus French infantry
(Une vido qui retrace la guerre sanglante
de la Rvolution Franaise en 1792.)
.
.
.
.

The (French) army will never forget that under Napoleon's eagles,
deserving men of courage and intelligence were raised to the highest
levels of society. Simple soldiers became marshals, princes, dukes
and kings. The French soldier had become an equal citizen by right
and by glory.
Emperor Napoleon's Army (1804 - 1815)
"During the reign of Napoleon ... France reached the height of its power.
By 1807 , after spectacular triumphs at Austerlitz , Jena , and Friedland ,
many Europeans believed the French were invincible. The French Empire
was eventually defeated, but memories about the Napoleonic Wars lingered.
Until World War I, commanders and nations throughout the world hoped
to reproduce Napoleon's lightning campaigns." - wikipedia.org 2005
Napoleon's Grande Armee is one of the greatest armies in history.
John Elting writes, "Certain of mankind's greatest armies have passed like meteors, bursting out of
chaos to storm across our history into enduring legend. Some have left us more than a proud
tradition; others, a changed world. To the cadenced thunder of their drums they pass, to the lilting
of forgotten trumpets, riddled standards high above the Great Captains who shaped and led them:
the pikes and muskets of Gustavus Adolphus' tautly disciplined Swedes and Scots, Oliver Cromwell
amidst his Ironside horsemen and redcoat infantry,: George Washington's tattered, hard-bitten
Continentals; Napoleon's Grande Armee; the lean butternut ranks of Robert Lee's Army of Northern
Virginia; George Thomas' indomitable Army of the Cumberland. Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps and
George Patton's Third Army were of their lineage.
The Grande Armee was the trenchant instrument with which Napoleon reshaped both Europe and the
art of war. Swift marching, furious in the attack, grimly enduring, high-hearted, stubborn in
disaster, it still ranks among the few greatest of the great. It also was many men of many different
nations - many heroes, not a few cowards, and the multitude who were neither but did their duty as
they saw it. Probably no armies in all history have fought such a variety of enemies in so short a
space of time as did the French soldiers under Napoleon Bonaparte."
France had been aggressive neighbor, and other nations (especially Russia, Austria Prussia, and
Britain), were willing enough to see her weakened. The European powers formed alliance and
France was forced to dramatically strengthen her army. Conscription was the solution. Generally
speaking, under the empire 100.000 conscripts were called annually, which meant that about 1 name
in 7 was drawn. The last conscripts to join their units en masse were those of 1814, whose call-up
had been advanced to the preceding year. (Barbero - "The Battle" p 20, 26)
Conscription allowed the French to form the Grande Armee, what Napoleon called "the nation in
arms", which successfully battled European professional armies. Under Napoleon many new
regiments were formed, the discipline and morale greatly improved. The troopers were well
dressed, fed, armed to teeth and very eager to fight. In 1805 the French army was the largest and the
most powerful in Europe and in the World. The Napoleonic period (1805-1813) saw France's
influence and power reach immense heights.
But gone were the republican days "when any officer under the rank of major had had to hoof it
with his men. For the top brass alone the famous Parisian coach builder Gros-Jean has built no fewer
than 300 carriages ... Colonel Count Francois Roguet of the 1st Grenadiers... has brought with him 6
servants, 12 horses and two wagons filled with his personal effects, among them books and a great
many maps." (Austin - "1812: The March on Moscow" p 49)
Napoleonic soldiers "... identified their own fortunes with those of Napoleon. To be in the service of
Napoleon was a way of life for many young men. Their memoirs are not punctuated neither with the
floggings which characterize the memoirs of British soldiers (Morris, Costello and many others) nor
with running the gauntlet as it was in the Russian army." For example during British retreat to
Coruna (1808) 2 stragglers were awarded with 100 lashes each, while a third man who grumbled at
the punishment was awarded 300 lashes. Nightfall prevented the punishmant from being carried
out, but the following day the grumbler was given his lashes.
The discipline of the French troops was more relaxed not only during peacetime but also during a
war. Certainly, seeing the French army on the march seems to have been an unique experience. In
1805 (Ulm-Austerlitz Campaign) a French officer with the Bavarian corps attached to the French
army, described its progress:
Ulm taken and negligently occupied, the army of Bonaparte, the victorious army, was disbanded, and appeared
to me no longer anything but an army in rout; but in rout in advance instead of retreat. This torrent took the
direction of Vienna, and henceforth there was nothing but an 'arrive qui peut' by roads full and encumbered.
Our German corps alone marched like regular troops.
This impression of organised chaos is confirmed by the recollections of a pastor who saw in
Germany advancing to attack in 1796. Compared to the Austrian army, he said: One did not see so
many wagons or so much baggage, such elegant cavalry, or any infantry officers or horseback below the rank of
major. Everything about these Frenchmen was supple and light - movements, clothing, arms, and baggage.
The lack of conventional discipline and order, indeed the army's general scruffiness and air of
destitution, seems to have led its enemies (especially the Prussians and Austrians) seriously to
underestimate its fighting potential.
The morale of the army grew by the second as the word of Napoleon's presence swept across the
battlefield. In May 1813 at Lutzen Napoleon passed amongst his young troops, allowing them to see
he had arrived and electryfying them with his presence. Cries of "Vive l'Empereur !" rang out in the
ranks. Even the wounded cried "Vive l'Empereur !" as they lay awaiting the hour of their death. The
105th Line Regiment was noted for its fanaticism; during the Belgian Campaign, the soldiers had
assaulted and demolished a newly constructed house decorated with paintings of the Bourbon lillies
and the local authorities had been obliged to arrest the owner in order to calm the soldiers' fury.
Under Napoleon the French had the burning, aggressive desire to be in the thick of the action, a
desire which gave rise to an attitude which scorned as une tactique si peu brillante the refusal by
Wellington or Kutuzov to give battle without the likelihood of victory. The prolonged avoidance of
the head-on clash was conduct alien to the temperament of the French soldiers.
The men under Napoleon had the worthy desire to distinguish themselves in a violent action. De
Rosnay joined the army in 1799 and within few months participated in several battles, could count 5
wounds and became captain. At Austerlitz he received his 8th wound, a shattered arm. In 1813, with
11 wounds, a musket ball lodged under his eye and citations for bravery he was promoted to general
in the Young Guard ! In 1806 a sergeant of 5th Hussar Regiment, man of truly martial appearance
had his arm shattered by a Prussian cannon-ball. His uniform was covered in blood but he didn't
cease telling the cavalry "Come on ... the Prussians are not all that bad !" Another hussar, Guindey,
received a frightful cut across his face before he killed the Prince of Prussia in an one-on-one fight
with just one thrust to his chest.
When in 1807 at Eylau Russian cavalry and Cossacks surrounded the horse grenadiers of Napoleon's
Guard and called for surrender, Gen. Lepic responded: "Take a look at these faces and see if they
want to surrender !" Then he shouted to his lads "Follow me !" and set off at the gallop back through
enemy lines. In March 1814 a major of horse grenadiers, battle hardened veteran, was wounded at
the battle of Craonne. He had his foot carried away by a cannon-ball and the surgeon had to
amputate his leg. During the extremely painful operation, "which he bore with great courage, the
man called out "Vive l'Empereur!" and lost consciousness. In June 1812 the French engineers began
to raise the pontoon bridge across the Niemen River. At the sight of the crossing, a small group of
Polish uhlans spurred their mounts forward into the river, hoping to seize the honor of being the
first to be on Russian soil. Unfortunately, the current proved too swift and they were quickly swept
downstream , engulfed by the water. As the uhlans slipped beneath its waters they were clearly
heard to cry: "Vive l'Empereur !"
Marshal Oudinot had 32 wounds, of which he only considered 19 to have been grave enough to be
worth mentioning in his etats de service. General Houchard had been wounded 48 times (!), General
Achard 28, Rapp 26 and Grouchy 25. Colonel Chipault of the 4th Cuirassiers had received 56 sabre
cuts in 1807 at Heilsberg.
The bravest men and the most talented officers and generals were awarded and/or promoted to a
higher rank. There was a saying in Napoleonic Army "There is a Marshal's Baton in every soldier's
Knapsack." There was no longer the impassable barrier between those who commanded and those
who obeyed. "Before the Revolution, an officer candidate had had to produce a certificate showing
four generations of noble ancestors, whereas now anyone could be an officer, provided he could
read and write. Among the National Volunteers, officers were chosen by the unusual method of
election by the soldiers. Those who came to prominence as a result included Joubert, one of the
heroes of Italy, and there were many others of similar ilk who rose to the highest ranks. Among the
regulars, the removal of social barriers meant that NCOs could be promoted, which was not
unknown in other armies, but was certainly rare. In France it became commonplace.
In this shake-up there were some men who had been sergeants for years who quite suddenly
became generals, and proved to be good ones (like Massena) and also, perhaps more surprisingly,
noble officers who were stripped of their rank but re-enlisted as common soldiers and worked their
way up again (Lasalle being one example). The results of this innovation were variable, at first.
Favouritism and corruption were just as common then as they have always been where some men
wield power and others seek advancement, so promotion was not always on merit. In particular, the
highest ranks were often given to those who were the loudest in support of the government of the
moment. Notwithstanding, the cream mostly floated towards the top, a process that was partly
assisted in 1793-4 by the drastic measure of removing the heads of generals who were deemed to
have failed. ....
Before the Revolution the odinary soldier usually joined out of desperation, had nothing to gain
from war apart from a little plunder, and everything to lose - which was still the case in most
European armies. But in the Revolutionary army the ordinary soldiers were the other part of the
new equation, and if the officers were a different breed of men, so were the troops. As the
Revolution progressed, there was an influx of people who would not previously have chosen to be
soldiers, most of whom went into the infantry. They came into the army either by volunteering, or
through conscription." (Boycott-Brown - "The Road to Rivoli")
The French army will never forget that under Napoleon's eagles, deserving men of courage and
intelligence were raised to the highest levels of society. Simple soldiers became marshals, princes,
dukes and kings. The French soldier had become an equal citizen by right and by glory.
Napoleon's soldiers however were not angels. They got drunk (quite often), sometimes they robbed
the civilians or raped the Spanish nuns. The chasseurs had a interesting way of obtaining alcohol
when they wanted it. "There is no brandy left. Who's going to catch a goddam ?" - and the chasseurs
would take turns to capture an English soldier with his supply of alcohol "he always carried." Gen.
Lasalle asked Emperor when he will get command of the Guard cavalry. Napoleon replied: "When
Lasalle no longer drinks, no longer smokes and no longer swears..."
The wars ended and the veterans returned to their homes. They looked like some old ruffians grown
gray in blood and violence and scowling on all the world. After Napoleonic Wars, one of the officers
of the Old Guard, Noisot, had erected at his own expense a bronze monument to Napoleon.
According to Mark Adkin he arranged to be buried standing up a few yards "so that he could
continue to stand guard for eternity." When the Emperor died many refused to believe it. Rumours
said Napoleon had landed at Ostend. "Where are you going ?" asked the wife of a veteran when he
pulled on his grenadier uniform. "To him !" was the instant response. (Adkin - "The Waterloo
Companion" p 415)
Napoleon's troops with captured enemy's Colors
.
The Glory Years 1803-1807
The French Grand Army demolished the
armies of the powers of Europe.
Their victories were easy and decisive;
Ulm, Austerlitz, Jena and Friedland.
During the early period of Empire (1803-1807) Napoleon's army reached its peak. Following the
breakdown of the Peace of Amiens Napoleon took the opportunity to assemble an Army of the
Ocean Coasts along the English Channel in preparation for an invasion of Great Britain. Approx.
100,000-150,00 troops (of total 450,000) gathered in training camps for 18 months and went through
intensive training and maneuvers on large scale. "Soldiers spend an initial month relearning
individual and platoon maneuvers; then 2 days a week are occupied with battalion drill and 3 with
divisional maneuvers. On Sunday, entire corps assembled for drill while twice a month large-scale
maneuvers are staged complete with live musket and cannon fire at targets. The soldiers are honed
to a fine degree of discipline and training that persists as long as the veterans of the Grande Armee
survive." (Arnold - "Crisis in the snows" p 10)
The remaining 300,000 were spread along the long borders, busy with occupying Hanover, Italy etc.
These troops fought in some small engagements like Maida etc.
The top class troops from Boulogne Camps and those occupying Hannover were put together and
formed a new army that would soon become legendary - the Grand Army (Grande Armee). These
troops had had close to 3 years of training and drill. Approx. 1/3 were veterans of at least 6 years'
service. According to de Segur the old-timers could easily be recognized "by their martial air.
Nothing could shake them. They had no other memories, no other future, except warfare. They never
spoke of anything else. Their officers were either worthy of them or became it. For to exert one's
rank over such men one had to be able to show them one's wounds and cite oneself as an example."
They stimulated the new recruits with their warlike tales, so that the conscripts brightened up. By so
often exaggerating their own feats of arms, the veterans obliged themselves to authenticate by their
conduct what they've led others to believe of them.
'Even though a large part of the troops there were veterans, they began with a month of "refresher"
training in the schools of the soldier and of the company. Then came 2 days of battalion and 3 days
of division drill every week; on Sunday the entire corps drilled - infantry, cavalry, and artillery
together. That training well absorbed, there were large-scale maneuvers twice a month. There was
also much target practice; artillerymen were sometimes able to use British warships as moving
targets. Davout added practice in night fighting and firing. (Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" p 534)
Napoleon also cleaned out the 'deadwood from among his officers', approx. 170 generals (too old, or
simply incompetent) were retired. It left him with such talented generals like Massena, Davout,
Lannes, St. Cyr or Suchet.
In 1803 the French army had 89 regiments of line infantry, numbered 1st-112th. Twenty three
numbers were vacant: 31, 38, 41, 49, 68, 71, 73, 74, 77, 78, 80, 83, 87, 89, 90, 91, 97, 98, 99, 104, 107,
109, 110. (The majority of vacant regiments were due to yellow fever and casualties suffered on San
Domingo.) The light infantry was made of 26 regiments.
In 1804 Napoleon had 2 horse carabinier, 12 cuirassier, 30 dragoon, 24 chasseurs, and 12 hussar
regiments. There were also several foreign troops and the elite Imperial Guard.
The soldiers of Boulogne Camps outmarched and outfought every opponent.
This is not surprising that Napoleon was very proud of his army. In 1805 after the victory at
Austerlitz he wrote: "Soldiers ! I am pleased with you. On the day of Austerlitz you have justified
what I had expected of your intrepidity. You have decorated your Eagles with an immortal glory
...in two months the Third Coalition is conquered and dissolved." (After Austerlitz, Tsar of Russia
Alexander was extremely depressed. He dismounted "and sat on the damp ground beneath a tree,
where he covered his face with a cloth and burst into tears." (Chritopher Duffy - "Austerlitz")
Victory at Ulm, 1805.
Through rapid marching, Napoleon conducted a large wheeling maneuver that captured an
Austrian army under General Mack at Ulm. Napoleon had surrounded the Austrians and three days
later Mack surrendered with 30,000 men. Some 20,000 escaped, 10,000 were killed or wounded, and
the rest made prisoner. About 6,000 French were killed or wounded.
At the surrender, General Karl Freiherr Mack von Leiberich offered his sword and presented himself
to Napoleon. The Ulm Campaign is generally regarded as a strategic masterpiece.
Victory at Austerlitz, 1805
It was one of Napoleon's greatest victories, effectively destroying the Third Coalition. Austerlitz
Campaign profoundly altered the nature of European politics. In three months, the French had
occupied Vienna, decimated two armies, and humbled the Austrian Empire. These events sharply
contrast with the rigid power structures of the 18th century. Austerlitz set the stage for a near-
decade of French domination on the European continent. Napoleon wrote to Josephine, "I have
beaten the Austro-Russian army commanded by the two emperors. I am a little weary...." Tsar
Alexander perhaps best summed up the harsh times for the Allies by stating, "We are babies in the
hands of a giant."
Victory at Jena, 1806.
Jena cost Napoleon 5,000 losses, but the Prussians had a staggering 25,000 casualties. On the same
day, further north at Auerstadt, Marshal Davout defeated the main Prussian army. Napoleon did not
believe that Davout's single Corps had defeated the Prussian main body unaided, and responded to
the first report by saying "Tell your Marshal he is seeing double", a reference to Davout's poor
eyesight. As matters became clearer, however, the Emperor was unstinting in his praise.
The decisive defeats suffered by the Prussian army a mere 19 days after its mobilization resulted in
Prussia's elimination from the Fourth Coalition. The Prussians were scatterred all across the country
and the remainder of the campaign was a mopping-up operation.
During the campaign the French troops captured hundreds of Prussian cannons, took tens of
thousands of prisoners, captured most of the fortresses and some 340 colours ! Napoleon dealt with
Prussia very harshly, despite the pregnant Queen's personal interview with the French emperor.
Prussia lost all its Polish territories, as well as all territory west of the Elbe River, and had to pay for
French troops to occupy key strong points within the Kingdom. Napoleon secured the total
annihilation of the Prussian army and state in precisely one month, from October 6 to November 6.
Her army was ruined, she had no money, and she had lost half of her former possessions.
The battle of Eylau was a very bloody contest.
The French have suffered 15,000-25,000 killed and wounded, this is about 1/3 of their forces. Riding
over the battlefield one of the French commanders said: "Quel massacre ! Et sans resultat" (What a
massacre! And for no outcome.) The French soldiers cried out for peace after Eylau. "Even these
hardened and enthusiastic warriors contemplated with dread the prospect of a fresh winter
campaign in an inhospitable and difficult country, and Napoleon was often remonstrated with, as he
rode alongside of his men, for insisting on their advance to Poland. To such complaints he would
reply with the rough jests which his veterans loved to hear from him ... In action, the infantry was
still splendid ... The cavalry was excellent and well mounted, though, in the latter respect, they fell
short of many Russian cavalry regiments. The artillery was highly trained and invariably made good
practice." (Petre - "Napoleon's Campaign in Poland, 1806-1807" pp 27-28)
Eylau was the first serious check to the French Grand Armee, which in the previous two
campaigning seasons had carried all before it.
Napoleon after the battle of Eylau (7-8 February 1807).
The French infantry have suffered very heavy casualties.
French victory at Heilsberg, 1807.
In spring 1807 though the weather was still severe, so Napoleon rousted his troops out of their winter
quarters for drills and frequent field exercises. The army was weakened as many veterans were
killed, wounded or sick and in hospitals. Meanwhile in France thousands of young men were called
to arms. Napoleon caused these to be despatched to the front as soon as possible and they were
drilled en route. The harsh winter campaign of 1806-1807 and the bloody battles at Eylau and
exhausted the French troops mentally and physically.
Victory at Friedland, 1807.
On 14th June, the French army finally scored a decisive victory over the Russians. By the end of the
battle, the French were in complete control of the battlefield and the enemy was retreating over the
Alle (Lyna), where many soldiers drowned while trying to escape. French casualties were approx.
7,500 while the Russians suffered almost 20,000 in dead and wounded. The thorough destruction of
Bennigsen's army persuaded Tsar Alexander to seek peace terms 5 days after the battle.
After the victorious campaign some troops returned to France.
"The city of Paris had created near the north of Saint-Martin barrier a triumphal arch of the largest
size. ... A gilt quadriga surmounted the monument, and inscriptions were engraved on each of its
sides. From the morning onwards the arch was surrounded by an immense crowd. ... At noon, all
the troops having arrived, the eagles were united at the head of the column and decorated by the
prefect of the Seine. ...
After the customary speeches and the return of the eagles to their habitual positions, 10,000 soldiers
in parade uniform moved forward to march past the triumphal arch, to the sounbd of the drums
and the bands of the corps, numerous salvoes of artillery, and the acclamations of the immense mass
of people who had assemled on the spot.
... the Imperial Guard gave a great feast to the city of Paris. In the vast enclosure of the Champ de
Mars there were set, on classic pedestals, vases filled with inflammable materials, or eagles with
winged thunderbolts full of fireworks. The vases and the eagles alternated, and were connected by
means of a flying dragoon, which was to light all at the same time. Beneath the eagles were the
numbers of the regiments forming each brigade, with the name of the general commanding it, and
under the coloured fires the name of a battle and of the general of division who commanded the two
brigades in the action.
In the centre was a huge map of Europe, showing in enormous letters the principal towns and the
site of our great battles; and the route followed by the Grand Army in the campaigns of 1805, 1806
and 1807 was traced by white stars ... Above the map (of Europe) were winged Victories, also set off
by fireworks, and so forth. The infantry of the Imperial Guard marched into this enclosure under
arms, to carry out firing exercise ... the Empress set fire to a flying dragoon which, at the same
moment, set fire to all the fireworks. ... The vault of the heavens, lit by the thousands of blazing
stars, the frightful detonations which resounded from every part of the Champs de Mars, the shouts
of the multitude covering the slopes, all contributed to make this military fete one of the greatest
magnitude ..." - Jean-Baptiste Barres
1806-1807
.
1808-1811.
"After 1808 fewer French soldiers received extensive training."
The influx of new conscprits diluted the old ideals of austerity and duty.
After 1809 drunkenness and indiscipline increased ... " John Elting
In this period the army was still in good shape, although not as good as few years ago. Much of the
revolutionary ardour that had fired the French troops of the 1790s and early 1800s had been
quenched by 1808. Napoleon himself sensed a lack of enthusiasm for the forthcoming campaigns. In
1808-09, for the new war with Austria tens of thousands of new recruits joined the field armies. The
influx of conscprits diluted the old ideals of austerity, self-respect and duty. After 1809 drunkenness
and indiscipline increased, especially in the cavalry. They were hastily trained. "After 1808 fewer
French soldiers received extensive training." (Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" p 534)
In 1809 Napoleon chastised the lack of discipline in some infantry divisions.
He noted that since the battle of Wagram, Tharreau's division had attended neither battalion school
nor target practice. Henceforth, the Emperor ordered, the men would perform the basics of the
soldier's school and practice platoon drill each morning. They would fire 12 cartridges daily at the
marks and for 2 hours in the evening perform battalion maneuvres. (Arnold - "Napoleon Conquers
Austria")
Napoleon bolstered the morale of young soldiers by forming regimental artillery and attaching 2-3
light guns to every infantry regiment.
The first provisional regiments, squadrons and battalions appeared already in October 1807.
Napoleon, when he needed, took one or two squadrons/battalions from one regiment and one or
two from another regiment, named a field officer and thereby formed a provisional regiment. Rarely
these troops returned to their parent regiments. The temporary regiments had no Colors, no Eagles,
no esprit de corps and no tradition. They served mainly in Peninsula against the Spaniards and the
British.
Battle of Wagram, 1809.
Artillery was a major factor in this battle and casualties soared above 80,000, with the Austrians
losing slightly more than the French. Wagram was the first battle in which Napoleon failed to score
an uncontested victory with relatively few casualties. This would be indicative of the gradual decline
in quality of Napoleon's troops and the increasing experience and competence of his opponents,
who were learning from previous errors. (- wikipedia.org)
Among the French troops occupying Spain looting was rampant, discipline was poor.
The veterans were demoralized by plunder and waste and by the cruel war with Spanish guerillas.
They had got out of the habit of being inspected. Training had fallen off during the years. Several
hundred of veterans were selected from the troops in Spain and sent to join the Middle Guard.
Although they looked good with tanned faces, some of them went around and stole things in Paris.
The stern General Michel arrested them and sent to prisons.
John Arnold on the French failure in Spain:
"A young French conscript, Phillipe Gille, provides a detailed account of the inadequate manner in
which French soldiers were rushed to the front. Mobilized in France in 1808, Gille apparently did not
even receive his musket until arriving at the Spanish border. There he joined a provisional unit
composed of fellow conscripts, crossed the border, and soon engaged in combats with guerilla. ...
During the Peninsula years, how large a numerical contribution to the French armed forces were
conscripts such as Gille? For the decisive years 1808 to 1812, French annual conscript calls ranged
from 181,000 to 217,000. During 1810 and 1811, when France was at peace in the rest of Europe, the
majority of these conscripts went to the Peninsula and substantially diluted the quality of the French
forces serving there. Simultaneously, troop quality declined further as veterans suffered some of the
nearly 100,000 casualties sustained in the Peninsula in 1810-1811.
The impact of this dilution is clearly stated by General Anne Savary. Savary's report on the 1809
Battle of Essling, where he fought with troops substantially better than the average Peninsula soldier,
observes, "if instead of troops consisting of war levies [raw conscripts], we had opposed to them
such soldiers as those of the camp of Boulogne [the Grande Arme], which we might easily have
moved in any direction and made to deploy under the enemy's fire without any danger their being
thrown into disorder". Innumerable Peninsular battlefields demonstrated this need....
The problem worsened as the Peninsula became a secondary front.
A typical Peninsula regiment of 2,500 men would send 120 to 200 men back to France as a depot
unit, 50 to the artillery, 10 to the gendarmes, and 12 of the best men to the Imperial Guard. These
subtractions, coupled with the unprecedented guerilla-inflicted losses experienced in the never
secure rear areas, seriously eroded the staying power of the infantry regiment. It got worse in 1811
and thereafter when Napoleon withdrew the best troops from the Peninsula to prepare for the
Russian invasion." (Arnold - "A Reappraisal of Column Versus Line in the Peninsular War")
War in Spain 1808-1814
French regulars vs Spanish guerillas
.
.
1812: Invasion of Russia.
The Grand Army of 1812 was almost as good
as the famous Grand Army of 1805. In 1812 however
there were less veterans in the ranks.
The army of 1812 was the most carefully and completely
organized force Napoleon had ever commanded.
In 1811, except the rather low-intensity guerilla war in Spain, Europe was in peace.
Napoleon had time to train the young soldiers. They were clothed and well armed. The cavalry was
supplied with thousands of German, Polish and French horses. The artillery and engineers were well
equipped and trained. The Grand Army of 1812 was almost as good as the Grand Army of 1805.
In 1812 however there were less veterans in the ranks. "The veteran troops were sadly diluted by the
influx of recent recruits and the demands of the Spanish campaign. A similar expansion had
occurred in 1809 when the French army was largely composed of new recruits. In both instances the
recruits lacked the discipline and savoir faire to be able to sustain themselves in a foraging situation,
but as the 1809 campaign was fought in Austria, the impact of this indiscipline on supplies was
minimal compared to what it was to be in 1812." (Nafziger - "Napoleon's Invasion of Russia" p 88)
Before the campaign began General Dejean wrote to the Emperor that up to a third of the horses in
cavalry were too weak to carry their burden, while nearly half of the men were too puny to wield a
saber. Colonel Saint-Chamans wrote: "I was not happy with the way the cavalry was being
organised. Young recruits who had been sent from depots in France before they had learnt to ride a
horse or any of the duties of a horseman on the march or on campaign, were mounted on arrival in
Hanover on very fine horses which they were not capable of managing." The result was that by the
time they reached Berlin, the majority of the horses were suffering from lameness or saddle sores
induced by the riders' bad posture or their failure to take care in saddling up. More than one officer
noted that recruits were not taught about checking whether their saddle was rubbing or how to
detect the early signs of saddle sores.
Napoleon however liked the big numbers of soldiers, even if they were young recruits mounted on
weaker horses. He wrote: "When I put 40,000 men on horseback I know very well that I cannot hope
for that number of good horsemen, but I am playing on the morale of the enemy, who learns
through his spies, by rumour or through newspapers that I have 40,000 cavalry... I am preceded by a
psychological force..."
Most military experts agree that the Grand Army of 1812 was the most carefully and completely
organized force Napoleon had ever commanded. It had the most thoroughly prepared supply
system (The baggage was hauled by 18,000 heavy draft horses). The army was also bigger than any
other army Napoleon had before. One of the conscripts wrote: "Oh Father !, this is some army ! Our
old soldiers say they never saw anything like it." But only half of the troops were French, the rest
were made up of Poles, Italians, Germans, Swiss, and Austrians. Some of the foreign troops were
eager to fight for Napoleon (Poles, Italians) and some were not (Prussians, Austrians) Napoleon
passed the Imperial Guard in review at Dresden, before a throng of vassal rulers, including many
princes, five kings and one emperor (of Austria).
Russia was a remote giant land with poor road system and once the campaign began there were
numerous problems with supplies. "As supplies became scarce in 1812, discipline broke down and
the control over the troops diminished. They plundered indiscriminately instead of carefully
requisitioning the supplies they found. Surprisingly, the officers refused to take part in the excesses
and often suffered to a greater degree than the men they led. This lack of discipline forced the
inhabitants of the region to flee and hide those supplies that might have assisted the French army."
(Nafziger - "Napoleon's Invasion of Russia" p 88, 1998)
The discipline of the troops decreased while the amount of stragglers and sick rapidly increased. At
Niemen River Davout's I Corps had 79,000, but at Smolensk only 60,000. The situation in other
troops was even worse. Ney's III Corps had 44,000 at Niemen and only 22,000 at Smolensk. Murat's
Reserve Cavalry numbered 42,000 at Niemen and 18,000 at Smolensk. Before the army reached
Moscow it lost half of its strength.
In the battle of Borodino more than 30,000 were killed and wounded. It was THE bloodiest battle of
Napoleonic wars. But hunger, Cossacks and weather decimated the troops more than the regular
Russian army. After Napoleon left Moscow the situation changed from bad to worse. The debris of
the Grand Army which in June 1812 had crossed the Niemen River was now chased back by
Cossacks and armed peasants. The Russians captured thousands of POWs.
GRANDE ARMEE at Borodino in 1812
Commander: Emperor Napoleon
Chief-of-staff: Marshal Berthier
IMPERIAL GUARD - MARSHAL BESSIERES
- - - Infantry Division of Old Guard
- - - Infantry Division of Young Guard
- - - Division of Guard Heavy Cavalry
- - - Division of Guard Light Cavalry
- - - Guard Artillery
- - - Infantry Division of [Polish] Vistula Legion
I ARMY CORPS - MARSHAL DAVOUT
- - - 1st Infantry Division - General Morand
- - - 2nd Infantry Division - General Friant
- - - 3rd Infantry Division - General Gerard
- - - 4th Infantry Division - General Desaix
- - - 5th Infantry Division - General Compans
- - - Light Cavalry Division - General Girardin
III ARMY CORPS - MARSHAL NEY
- - - 10th Infantry Division - General Ledru
- - - 11th Infantry Division - General Razout
- - - 25th Infantry Division - General Marchand
- - - Light Cavalry Division - General Beurmann
IV ARMY CORPS - Eugene Beauharnais
- - - 13th Infantry Division - General Delzons
- - - 14th Infantry Division - General Broussier
- - - Light Cavalry Division - General Ornano
- - - Light Cavalry Division - General Preysing-Moos
- - - Italian Royal Guard - General Lecchi
V ARMY CORPS - Prince Poniatowski
- - - 16th Infantry Division - General Krasinski
- - - 18th Infantry Division - General Kniaziewicz
- - - Light Cavalry Division - General Kaminski
VIII ARMY CORPS - General Junot
- - - 23th Infantry Division - General Tharreau
- - - 24th Infantry Division - General Ochs
- - - Light Cavalry Division - General Hammerstein
RESERVE CAVALRY - MARSHAL MURAT
I CAVALRY CORPS - General Nansouty
- - - 1st Light Cavalry Division - General Bruyeres
- - - 1st Heavy Cavalry Division - General St.Germaine
- - - 5th Heavy Cavalry Division - General Valence
II CAVALRY CORPS - General Montbrun
- - - 2nd Light Cavalry Division - General Pajol
- - - 2nd Heavy Cavalry Division - General
- - - 4th Heavy Cavalry Division - General Defrance
III CAVALRY CORPS - General Grouchy
- - - 3rd Light Cavalry Division - General Chastel
- - - 6th Heavy Cavalry Division - General Lahussaye
IV CAVALRY CORPS - General Latour-Maubourg
- - - 4th Light Cavalry Division - General Rozniecki
- - - 7th Heavy Cavalry Division - General Lorge
The splendid Grande Armee crossing the Niemen River on Russia's border.
"... the 200,000 French soldiers arrived on the Niemen in company with 200,000 allies. ...
assembled by this wonderful man, all disciplined warriors, and notwithstanding their
different national feelings, all proud of the unmatched genius of their leader."
(Napier - "History of the War in the Peninsula" Vol III, p 447)

Battle of Borodino from the epic film
"War and Peace" by Sergey Bondarchuk.
This film took 7 years to produce and cost over US $ 100 million. If inflation is taken into account , a film
of this magnitude would cost US$ 700 million today, making it one of the most expensive films ever made.
According to the Guinness Book of Records, the Battle of Borodino scenes included 120,000 soldiers (!) ,
making it one of the largest battle scenes ever filmed.
In 1969 this film won "Academy Award - Best Foreign Language Film"
and , in the United States , the "Golden Globe - Best Foreign Film."
.
.
"I have no army any more!"
"Of the 680,500 men that Napoleon had organized
for his invasion of Russia, barely 93,000 remained.
George Nafziger writes: "Of the 680,500 men that Napoleon had organized for his invasion of Russia,
barely 93,000 remained. The main army had suffered the harshest casualties and had dwindled from
450,000 to 25,000 men. The flanking and rearguard forces under Schwarzenberg, Reynier,
MacDonald, and Augereau had returned with a total of 68,000 men, but many of these men had not
ventured very far into Russia, and those of Schwarzenberg, Reynier, and MacDonald had not been
as heavily engages as the main army. Records suggest that 370,000 French and allied soldiers died
either from battle or other causes, while 200,000 were taken prisoner by the Russians. Of those taken
prisoner, nearly half died in captivity. Napoleon had taken 176,850 horses with him into Russia, and
barely any of them survived the campaign.
The Russians reported burning the corpses of 123,382 horses as they cleaned up their countryside of
the debris of war. So heavy were the horse losses that one of Napoleon's most serious handicaps in
the 1813 campaign was his inability to reconstitute his once-powerful cavalry.
Of the 1,800 cannon taken into Russia, the Russians reported capturing 929 of them, and only 250
were brought out. The remainder were lost or thrown into swamps and lakes so that they might not
be captured. Though the loss of cannons was serious, the loss of horses was more devastating to
Napoleon. France's arsenals and industrial facilities would soon replace the lost weaponry. Of the
66,345 men that had belonged to Davout's corps in June 1812, there remained only 2,281. The 50,000-
man Imperial Guard had been reduced to 500 men under arms and a further 800 sick, of whom 200
would never return to arms. Similar casualties were suffered by the II, III, and IV Corps ..."
Napoleon's plan was to cross the Berezina and head for Poland, while the Russians wanted to trap
him there. While some 25,000 French troops and a further 15,000 Russians became casualties, their
losses paled next to that of the French stragglers, about 10,000. Approx. 10,000 were massacred by
Cossacks, while another 20,000 died in the near freezing water or were crushed to death in the panic
to cross the bridges. Since then Brzina has been used in French language as a synonym of disaster
(meet your berezina).
(In 1812 Polish senior officer, Sokolnicki, was French army's intelligence chief. He thought that
having thousands of warm uniforms stored in depots even before the campaign started was a must.
Napoleon however did not listen to him.)
Innumerable wagons daily arrived in Konigsberg, Danzig (Gdansk), and Warsaw. Their cargoes
contained the wounded and sick escorted by exhausted soldiers. Deathly pale faces and frostbitten
limbs provided horrifying testimony of the Russian winter's potency. All semblance of order had
dissolved, many were weaponless. The civilians observed this endless train of misery and couldn't
believe their eyes.
Many regiments ceased to exist. For example the 5th Regiment of Cuirassiers had 958 men present
for duty on June 15th, 1812. On Feb 1st 1813 had only 19 ! The French cavalry never recovered from
the massive loss of horses. Nine out of ten cavalrymen who survived walked much of the way
home; most of those who rode did so on tiny, but tough, Russian and Polish ponies, their boots
scuffing the ground. Napoleon wrote: "I have no army any more! For many days I have been
marching in the midst of a mob of disbanded, disorganized men, who wander all over the
countryside in search of food."
On the strategic level the French were succesful until 1812.
The invasion of Russia broke their backbone.
1800 Marengo Campaign - the French won
1805 Austerlitz Campaign - the French won
1806 Jena Campaign - the French won
1807 Friedland Campaign - the French won
1809 Wagram Campaign - the French won
1812 Invasion of Russia - it cost them half a million men (!)
It also badly tarnished Napoleon's reputation.
(The Emperor barely escaped with his life.)
1813 Saxon Campaign - French defeat
1814 Campaign of France - French defeat
1815 Waterloo Campaign - French defeat
Napoleon's flight from Russia in 1812, by W Kossak
The invasion of Russia was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars .
The campaign reduced the French and allied invasion forces to less
than 2 % percent of their initial strength. One of Russian generals
wrote,
"The French fled in a manner in which
no other army has ever fled in history."
Battle of Berezina Crossing 1812
.
.
1813: new army and the campaign in Germany.
"Evidently, some of the new troops looked so bad
in drill while still at the training centers that the
populace referred to the army as the 'infants of the
Emperor'- General Savary
They were however filled with boundless confidence
in their leader whom they loved with unflagging
devotion.
For his contemplated campaign in Germany, Napoleon required practically an entirely new army. It
was not a case of a reorganisation of the army, for that once great force had almost ceased to exist.
French military was in crisis and scrambling to raise men as quickly as possible. Napoleon turned to
every possible resource at his disposal that could produce manpower, and do this quickly. It
required not only time and energy but also money. The expense of organizing only the Guard
amounted to 18,000,000 francs. Military service was unpopular, in the west of France it became
necessary to hunt up the refractaires with mobile columns, and the generals reported that they were
afraid to use their young sldiers for this purpose.
The new army was huge but the 18- and 19-years old soldiers lacked stamina and the rapid marches
and hunger weakened them physically. Camille Rousset gives the following as a common type of
report on inspection: "Some of the men are of rather weak appearance. The battalion had no idea of
manouveruring; but 9/10 of the men can manage and load their muskets passably."
General Lambardiere writes: "These battalions arrive fatigued, every day I supply them with special
carriage for the weak and lame ... All these battalions are French; I must say that the young soldiers
show courage and good-will. Every possible moment is utilised in teaching them to load their arms
and bring them to the shoulder." So poor were they in physique that the Minister of Police protests
against their being drilled in the Champs Elysees during the hour of promenade, on account of the
scoffing and jeering they gave rise to.
After the disastrous campaign in Russia the quality of cavalry was low. There were too many young
soldiers, hastily trained, and hardly 10-20 % of the officers were classed as capable. Retired officers
had been recalled, many old NCOs had been promoted lieutenants. Nearly 80 % of the new
cavalrymen had never ridden a horse. In Hamburg the young cuirassiers having been ordered to
leave on reconnaissance and after few minutes all were dismounted, with their horses running free
in the streets. The Germans laughed openly. French officer Jean Barres writes, "27th September
(1813). In the night we were told that the enemy cavalry was approaching and preparing to attack
ours, which, composed of young soldiers, was in no condition to hold its own." (Barres - "Memoirs of a
French napoleonic soldiers ..." p 177)
The high stress suffered during military campaign (they were put into action without full training)
exhausted many of them.
They fell sick by hundreds, there were also deserters and stragglers. Special detachments were
formed to catch the stragglers and find the weak and 'make them walk'. In Paris alone 320 soldiers of
Young Guard were arrested for desertion and sent to prisons. During Emperor's journey from
Dresden, through Gorlitz to Bautzen, he saw the German roads and villages choked with thousands
of stragglers. Napoleon was outraged and issued the following order: "Every soldier who deserts his
flag betrays the first of his duties. As a consequence, His Majesty orders: Article 1. Evry soldier who
deserts his flag without legitimate cause will be subject to decimation. To this effect, as soon as 10
deserters are returned the generals commanding the army corps will have them draw lots, and have
one shot." Bautzen. 6 Septeber 1813 Napoleon." (Bowden - "Napoleon's Grande Armee of 1813" p 160)
"The strength and physical stamina of the young conscripts, and consequently the quality of their
regiments, left much to be desired; they could not march like the veterans, fell easy prey to sickness,
and the standard of their training when they left the depots in the spring 1813 was frighteningly low.
The ability of battalions to manoeuvre was poor, and many recruits could not even load their
muskets. When the reinforcements drafts marched to the front, carts had to follow them to pick up
the footsore and the exhausted." (Digby-Smith, - p 29)
"The levy, calling upon the adolescents of France one full year before they normally would have
been eligible for military service clearly illustrates Napoleon's desperate need for numbers of troops.
" (- Bowden p 31)
The new units were thrown together quickly and their men had not had the necessary time to form
the interpersonal bonds within their companies that gave them the morale strength necessary to
wage war successfully. Despite these problems, the army's morale was generally high. Many of the
young troops who stayed in the ranks, were filled with boundless confidence in their leader whom
they loved with unflagging devotion. The few veterans had regained their faith in Napoleon. The
artillery and engineers were as usual excellent. When led by Napoleon in person the young soldiers
won every battle (Lutzen, Bautzen, Dresden) Jean Barres writes after the battle of Lutzen, "Our
young conscripts behaved very well; not one left the ranks; on the contrary, some that we had left
behind, sick, came to take their places. One of our buglers, a boy of 16, was of the number. He had a
thigh carried away by a ball and died at the rear of the company. These poor children, when they
were wounded but still able to walk, used to come to me to ask to leave the company to get their
wounds dressed;... My company was disorganized; it had lost half its sergeants and corporals ..."
Without Napoleon however the young soldiers were often routed by the Russian and Prussians, for
example at Kulm, Dennewitz and Katzbach.
Allies' new plan (called the Trachenberg Plan) advocated avoiding direct engagement with
Napoleon. This resulted from fear of the Emperor's legendary prowess in battle. Consequently the
Allies planned to engage and defeat his marshals separately, and thus weaken his army. It was
decided upon after a series of defeats and near disasters by the Coalition at Napoleon's hands at the
battles of Lutzen and Bautzen.
The Trachenberg Plan had exasperated the emperor. His young troops marched and
countermarched across Germany, exhausting their meager resources. The emperor was so busy
reacting to Allies maneubvers that he had no time to implement his own strategy. He looked like a
tiger "surrounded by hunters, he was half bewildered, and unable to make up his mind to do more
than make short dashes, first on one part, then on another, of the circle that was steadily closing in on
him." (- F L Petre)
Battle of Leipzig, 1813.
Leipzig was the biggest battle of the Napoleonic Wars. Soldiers of more than 20 nationalities were
present on the battlefield. The casualties were heavy. Teacher Sander's son writes: "Everywhere there
lay thousands of dead and the returning peasants had to burry them. Big pits were dug in the village
and in the surrounding fields, each designed to hold 40-50 dead. ... "
It was one of the very few battles in which Napoleon was clearly defeated. It resulted in the
destruction of what was left of French power in Germany and Poland. Never again Napoleon's army
went into Germany. Digby Smith writes: "The effects of the Allied victory at Leipzig were truly
momentous. It had smashed Napoleon's stranglehold on Europe for good ..."
Napoleon and his new army in 1813.
.
.
1814: Campaign of France.
Paris was taken by the Russian, Austrian
and Prussian troops. Napoleon abdicated.
A handful of heroes faced all of Europe to whom they themselves had taught the art of fighting over
the past decade. Napoleon had mixed feelings about his troops in 1814. He wrote: "The Old Guard
alone stood firm - the rest melted like snow." The lack of weapons and uniforms was one of the
characteristics of the French troops during this war. Napoleon wrote that the peasants had picked up
on the battlefields thousands of muskets abandoned by the enemy and that commissioners should be
sent to collect them. In default of muskets there were 6.000 pikes manufactured.
"A decree ordering a levy of 300,000 soldiers was made, and another augmenting the Guard to
112,500 men... The levy, however, was not successful. France was exhausted not only of her men, but
even of her youth, and boys were now in his greatest need to form his battalions. To add to his
trouble, as fortune always seems to delight in pushing down a falling favorite, the Typhus fever
broke out among his troops along the Rhine." (Headley - "The Imperial Guard of Napoleon")
Allied armies were advancing into France from every direction.
With an army of only 50,000-75,000, the Emperor was faced with half a million Allied troops
commanded by Barclay de Tolly, Schwarzenberg and Blucher. Napoleon put up an impressive
performance, fighting on average a battle or skirmish every day, and winning many of them
(Champaubert, Montmirail, Chateau-Thierry, Vauchamps etc.) However, his victories were not
significant enough to make any changes to the overall strategic picture, and Allies army eventually
captured Paris.
Many of Napoleon's commanders were either weary or downright prophets of doom. In the end of
campaign some defected to the Allies. Paris was taken by storm by the Russian, Austrian, German,
and Prussian troops. Out of frustration, Marshal Marmont surrendered his troops to the Allies and
allowed them to enter Paris unabated. For this action (or lack thereof) Marmont was (and still is)
considered, by most French, as a traitor.
At Fontainebleau, Marshal Michel Ney became the spokesman for the marshals' revolt on 4 April
1814, demanding Napoleons abdication. Ney informed Napoleon that the army would not march on
Paris; Napoleon responded the army will obey me! to which Ney answered the army will obey its
chiefs. Napoleon abdicated on April 6. However, occasional military actions continued in Italy,
Spain, and Holland throughout the spring of 1814. Part of the French army was very unhappy with
the new situation.
Napoleon in 1814.
.
.
1815 - Hundred Days Campaign.
"There was a prodigious gap between them (soldiers of 1815)
and our old soldiers from the Camp the Boulogne (1805)."
- Desales, officer of artillery of Erlon's I Corps
The French Royal Army in early 1815 consisted of only 90 line and 15 light infantry regiments. Two
years earlier, in 1813-1814, there were 137 line (numbered 1st-157th) and 35 light (numbered 1st-
37th) regiments. The cavalry of 1815 was made of 2 carabinier, 12 cuirassier, 15 dragoon, 7 lancer, 15
chasseur and 7 hussar regiments. There were also several foreign troops and the Guard.
Royal Guards = 5,300 men and 2,650 horses
Infantry (90 + 15 regiments) = 144,800 men
Cavalry (2+12+15+7+15+7 regiments) = 36,000 men and only 29,500 horses
Artillery (8 + 4 regiments) = 16,000 men
Pontoniers, engineers etc. = 4,800 men
TOTAL: 207,000 men + reserve troops, garisons, etc.
After returning from Elba Napoleon formed new regiments, battalions and squadrons were formed.
Some authors claim that the French army of 1815 was Napoleon's best and composed of battle
hardened veterans. According to Henri Lachouque however "not all the discharged veterans
returned. Some had been spoiled by civil life." (Lachouque - "Anathomy of Glory")
Captain Duthilt thought the soldiers who had suffered the defeats of the emperor's recent campaigns
and the returned prisoners of war from Russia had lost a great deal of their enthusiasm. A call for
volunteers produced only some laughable 15,000 men. The army in 1815 was composed of soldiers
who had at least one campaign behind them, although in the eyes of veterans of Austerlitz and
Egypt, the soldiers of 1814 still seemed like little boys. (Barbero - "The Battle" p 20)
Many regiments included a high percentage of young soldiers who had never been under fire.
General Lamarque complained that the Young Guard were filled with recruits and deserters who
neither knew how to maneuver nor shoot. (Lasserre - "Les Cent jours en Vende: le gnral Lamarque et
l'insurrection royaliste, d'aprs les papiers indits du gnral Lamarque." published in 1906.)
In 1815 the discipline was poor, the old timers were annoyed and complained that the young men
went out with girls or got drunk. The army was hastily assembled, lacked uniforms and shoes. Many
soldiers wore civilian clothes under their greatcoats and forage caps instead of shakos. "For lack of
shakos the 14th Light Regiment would fight the Waterloo campaign in fatigue caps." (Austin - "1815
the return of Napoleon" p 295)
In some infantry regiments only the grenadiers were issued bayonets. Some cuirassiers had no
armor. "The 11th Cuirassiers fought without them at Waterloo ... Shoes, twenty regiments had none."
(Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion" p 24)
In 1815 the French cavalry was impoverished and had considerably scaled back the strength of
cavalry regiments.
Worst of all, several French top rank commanders defected to the Allies already before the campaign
started! For example General Bourmount rode directly over to the Prussians and surrendered with
five of his staff. The old camaraderie of the French troops was replaced by suspicion. "The soldiers
were upset at the excessive number of senior officers who had betrayed, or who were suspected of
being ready to betray the emperor... The troops had neither confidence in their commanders nor the
ability to accept discipline." (Barbero - "The Battle" pp 277-278)
"The soldiers doubted the loyalty and competence of many senior officers. They resented officers
being promoted merely for going over to the Emperor while they received nothing for doing the
same. Six officers of the 1st Cuirassiers who had been rewarded in this way were greeted with
groans and shouts on parade. The 12th Dragoons petitioned the Emperor requesting, "... the
dismissal of our colonel, whose ardour in the cause of Your Majesty is by no means equal to our
own." (Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion" p 78)
But not only generals defected to the enemy, there were deserters even from the Old Guard. They
formed so-called "Bourbon Cavalry Corps". With them served deserters of cuirassier and dragoon
regiments. This unit was under Wellington's command but was not present at Waterloo.
The campaign of 1815 ended on the fields of Waterloo. Napoleon was defeated by Wellington's
British-Netherland army and Blucher's Prussians. For more info read our article Battle of
Waterloo/La Belle Alliance.
Marshal Ney
"The bravest of the brave."
~
The Royal Army is Back: invasions of Spain, Senegal and Algeria.
In 1831 was established the famous Foreign Legion.
The Legion is known as an elite unit whose training
focuses not only on military skills but also on its
strong esprit de corps.
After Napoleon's second abdication in 1815 the Bourbons introduced many changes in the
army. The existing army units were completely broken up. The term 'regiment' was abolished,
and the infantry was organized into departamental legions. Instead of numbers, they were
distinguished by their department's name. Each legion was to consist of: 2 battalions of line
infantry, 1 battalion of chasseurs, a company of horse scouts (eclaireurs), a company of artillery,
and a depot
Four Swiss regiments were added to the line infantry and two to the Guard. The Swiss drew
higher pay than French units, and their officers outranked French officers of the same grade.
The French infantrymen were put in white uniforms with facings of regimental colors. That was
not popular, they felt like an always-whipped Austrians. King Louis ordered all of cavalry
regiments disbanded and reorganized, regarding the survival of any recognizable element of
the Napoleonic army a menace to the general tranquility. Regimental numbers were replaced
by departamental names. The new cavalry regiments and the infantry legions were activated
with pomp and ceremony. The new organization had no past, no traditions, no reputation, and
precious little self-respect.
The army as a whole was unreliable, it was not even proud of itself. When
the new officers amused themselves by snatching an eagle-crested button
from the threadbare coat of a limping veteran, there would be a sudden
casualties in nearby alleys. When a group of young officers jammed into a
provincial theater to heckle Talma, a friend of Napoleon, the attentive
citizenry and veterans asked for a short intermission, bounced them out the
handiest door, and ran them down the street to the shelter of their barracks.
In 1823 this army managed a military promenade through Spain to
overthrow an upstart Spanish constitutional government and restore
Ferdinand's absolute authority. Most of the Spaniards welcomed them, and
there was only little fighting. More wars followed. In 1825 the French-
Trarzan War, Algeria, intervention in Mexico with battles of Puebla and
Camaron, Mandingo Wars, Dahomey War, and others.
The Franco-Trarzan War of 1825 was a conflict between Muhammad al Habib and France. In
1825, Muhammad attempted to establish control over the French-protected territory located
south of the Senegal River. The French responded by sending a large expeditionary force that
crushed enemy's army. The war incited the French to expand to the north of the Senegal River.
French rule in Algeria lasted from 1830 to 1962. Algeria was then part of the Barbary States,
which depended of the Ottoman Empire, but enjoyed relative independence. The conquest of
Algeria was initiated by King Charles X in the attempt to save his throne from increasing
hostility of the French people. The monarchy planned to bolster patriotic sentiment around him
and reverse his domestic unpopularity. In 1830 the French landed with 34,000 soldiers (enemy
had 43,000) and established a strong beachhead. They pushed toward Algiers, thanks in part to
superior artillery and better organization. The French won at Staoueli and entered Algiers. By
1848 nearly all of northern Algeria was under French control.
In 1831 was established the famous French Foreign legion (Lgion trangre). The legion was
created for foreign nationals wishing to serve in the French army, but commanded by French
officers. (After the July Revolution of 1830, foreigners were forbidden to enlist in the French
Army, and so the Legion was created to allow France a way around this restriction.) The
Legion is known as an elite unit whose training focuses not only on military skills but also on
its strong esprit de corps. Algeria was designated as the Legion's home. As the colony was
proving to be a unpopular posting with regular troops, the introduction of the Legion was well
received.

The French Foreign Legion in 21st century and in the past.
National origin of the more than 600,000 Legionaries (1831-1961) :
- Germans 200,000 !
- Italians 60,000
- French 50,000
- Belgians 50,000
- Spaniards 40,000
- Swiss 30,000
- Poles 10,000
(and many others, incl. 1,500 Englishmen and Scots,
700 Americans, 500 Swedes, and 100 Canadians)
French, British, and Spanish colonies before the 1830s.
Note that these posessions were never all held at the same time.
Army of Emperor Napoleon III: 1850-1900
Relations with the Prussians and Germans
dominated France's foreign policy up to 1914.
The French army, elevated from obscurity, was remodelled on Napoleonic lines. What was
needed to complete the resurrection was victory in the field. "It is hardly surprising that
Napoleon III and the army were mindful of the great Napoleonic traditions and were anxious
to emulate them. Their first real opportunity came with the Crimean War. In this muddled
campaign the army acquitted itself well ... finally forcing the issue at Sebastopol by storming
the Malakov Fort.
In 1859 it was again successful, this time against the Austrians, with a couple of fumbling and
costly voctories at Magenta and Solferino. The next adventure unfortunately did not go so
smoothly; a protracted anti-guerilla struggle in Mexico, 1863-7, ended in a humiliating
withdrawal.
Meanwhile, back in Europe, Prussia was fast emerging as a challenge to France's military pre-
eminence." (Shann and Delperier - "French Army 1870-1. Franco-Prussian War. (I)" p 3)
Promotion in the army was determined by a law that had been passed in 1832.
Approx. 66 % of the officers were promoted on the basis of seniority, up to the rank of
commandant.
According to Major Simon the soldiers "spent whole weeks adjusting the straps or revolver
holsters and the straps around canteens, seeing to it that the former should run between the
2nd and 3rd tunic buttons ... On the range, what mattered was not to hit the target frequently
but to adopt the precise posture that regulations called for, even if the marksman's physique
made this uncomfortbale for him. To allow the lefthand soldier to put a rifle against his left
shoulder would have seemed a grave infringement of discipline."
Armies of Emperor Napoleon III
Imperial Guard (Garde Imperiale)
- - - - - - Cent-Gardes: 1 squadron (150 men) [1]
- - - - - - 1st Guard Infantry (Voltigeur) Division: 1 chasseur and 12 voltigeur battalions
- - - - - - 2nd Guard Infantry (Grenadier) Division: 3 zouaves and 9 grenadier battalions
- - - - - - Guard Cavalry Division: 1 Guides, 1 Chasseur, 1 Dragoon, 1 Lancer, 1 Cuirassier, 1
Carabinier Regiment
- - - - - - Guard Artillery
Army of Africa (L'Armee d'Afrique)
- - - - - - Zouaves - 9 battalions [2]
- - - - - - Algerian Tirailleurs - 9 battalions
- - - - - - African Chasseurs - 4 cavalry regiments [3]
Army (L'Armee)
- - - - - - Line Infantry - 300 battalions [4]
- - - - - - Light Infantry - 20 battalions of chasseurs [5]
- - - - - - Heavy Cavalry - 10 cuirassier regiments
- - - - - - Line Cavalry - 12 dragoon and 8 lancer regiments
- - - - - - Light Cavalry - 12 chasseur and 8 hussar regiments. Spahis regiments.
- - - - - - Artillery - 15 field and 4 horse regiments
- - - - - - Engineers.
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[1] --- The Cent-Gardes were charged with the task of escorting Napoleon III in the field.
[2] --- The Zouaves were not subject to conscription, which ensured a high level of esprit de corps.
They were formed from native volunteers of the Zouagha tribe and was quickly Europeanised.
The Zouaves made a very favourable impression on military men and civilians alike.
The 2nd Regiment was nicknamed "The Jackals of Oran". In the war against the Germans
the Zouaves greatly distinguished themselves.
[3] --- The African Chasseurs helped to extricate the British Light Brigade (ext.link)
following its disastrous charge at Balaklava. The 1st Regiment received the honour
of being the first cavalry regiment to be awarded the Legion d'Honneur.
In Mexico they earned the nickname of "The Blue Butchers." (ext.link)
[4] --- 3 battalions formed regiment. Each battalion had 6 field and 2 depot companies.
[5] --- For their dash and marksmanship they were regarded as an elite troops.
The army in 1870 was made of 500,000 regular soldiers, some of them veterans of previous
campaigns in the Crimean War, Algeria, Mexico, and the French-Austrian war. This strength
would increase to 650,000 on full mobilisation.
"At the outbreak of war many pundits were predicting a rapid French offensive and a repeat of
the victorious Jena campaign of 1806. Yet within a month of the first encounter the French army
had been almost totally eliminated as an effective fighting force. Much of the blame for this
debacle was rightly laid at the door of the French High Command. ... Some blamed the
'Algerian experience' for France's defeat claiming that her generals had forgotten how to fight a
European war after 40 years of pursuing the wily tribesmen of North Africa. This is hardly true.
Three-quarters of the generals active in 1870 had seen action in either the Crimea or in Italy,
and over a third had served in both campaigns ... It is certainly true that many of the lessons
learned there were less than fully relevant by 1870: unlike their German opponents the French
had no experience of a war fought with breech-loading weapons, although they were aware of
the theoretical changes in tactics that they had wrought." (Shann and Delperier - "French Army
1870-1. Franco-Prussian War. (I)" p 22)
.
Weapons: modern needle rifles, first machine guns and more.
While most of the Germans fell under the French Chassepot rifles,
most French fell under the Prussian Krupp shells.
After receiving reports of the effectiveness of the Prussian breech-loading rifles in 1866, the
French had hastily equipped their infantry with the Chassepot rifle, one of the most modern
mass-produced firearms in the world. The Prussian army was still equipped with the Dreyse
needle-gun rifle, which was not nearly as effective as the French Chassepot rifle and had
shorter range, which meant that the Prussian infantry would have to make it through French
fire before their rifles could threaten the enemy. Pictures
The deficiencies of the needle-gun were more than compensated for by the 6 pounder (3 kg)
breech-loading cannons being issued to Prussian artillery. The Prussian cannon had a longer
range, faster rate of fire, and was much more accurate as compared to the French muzzle-
loading cannon. The Prussian cannon was to shape the future of artillery on the battlefield.
In addition, the French infantry was equipped with the precursor to the machine-gun the
mitrailleuse ("grapeshot shooter). It was made up of 25 barrels activated by a hand crank, firing
150 rounds per minute. Unfortunately only 210 mitrailleus were in existence at the beginning of
the war in 1870. (The earliest mitrailleuse was invented in 1851 by Captain Fafschamps of
Belgian army, 10 years before the advent of the Gatling gun in USA. The French 25 barrels
Canon Balles was adopted in secrecy in 1866.) Pictures (ext. link)
.
French defeats at Gravelotte and Sedan in 1870.
Napoleon III surrenders himself to Moltke and the Prussian King .
He was permitted to leave Prussian custody for exile in England.
Battle of Gravelotte-St. Privat 1870.
It was the largest battle during the Franco-Prussian War. The German forces (180,000 men),
under von Moltke the Elder defeated French Army of the Rhine (120,000 men), commanded by
Marshal Bazaine. Moltke's plan called for pinning attack by the corps of his center and right
wing, while the Saxon corps worked its way from the left around the French right. That plan
broke down withing the opening shots and the battle degenerated into a pure frontal assault.
The attack of Prussian IX Corps under von Manstein collapsed under murderous rifle fire. The
Prussian VII and VII Corps then started in, launching supporting attacks. They had the same
result. The Prussian Guards Corps and the Saxon Corps assembled their artillery in a massive
battery and began blasting the French right, and the village of St.Privat that anchored it, to bits.
The Guards Corps (2 divisions) attempted to storm St.Privat. "They, too, ran into the buzz saw,
a true hurricane of Chasepot and Mitrailleuse fire. These being the Prussian Guards, they came
back for more, and then again a third time." (-Robert Citino)
And so it went - both armies taking and delivering horrible amounts of punishment. The
casualties were predictably heavy, they were even higher than they had to be, because of the
aggressiveness of virtually every prussian corps commander. While most of the Germans fell
under the French Chassepot rifles, most French fell under the Prussian Krupp shells. The
Prussian Guard Division losses were staggering with 8,000 casualties out of 18,000 men ! This is
said that King Wilhem was in tears as he surveyed the wreckage of his beloved guardsmen. On
the French side, the troops holding St. Privat lost more then 50 % of their number!
Pictures (ext. link)
Battle of Sedan 1870.
The intention of the French was to rest the army, which had been involved in a long series of
marches, resupply with ammunition and then retreat, rather than giving battle in the town. The
French troops were exhausted and short on ammunition. "Prussian artillery, commanding the
heights above the town, bombarded the trapped French troops. The courageous General
Margueritte led repeated cavalry charges in a valiant attempt to break out, but these all failed.
Finally a flag of truce was sent from the fort. To the Germans' surprise they discovered that
Napoleon III himself was in Sedan. All French forces surrendered at 4:15 P.M., September 1." (-
Wallechinsky & Wallace)
Battle of Sedan resulted in the capture of Emperor Napoleon III along with his army and
practically decided the war in favour of Prussia, though fighting continued under a new French
government. The French lost over 38,000 men killed, wounded and captured. The Prussians
reported their losses at 9,000 killed, wounded and captured or missing. Napoleon III surrenders
himself to Moltke and the Prussian King. With the Second Empire overthrown, Napoleon III
was permitted to leave Prussian custody for exile in England, while, within a fortnight, the
Prussian Army went on to besiege Paris.
Deutsch-Franzsischer Krieg 1870-71 in Bildern
[Franco-Prussian War in pictures] (ext.link)
Moltke's operational performance in both of his wars was nothing short of spectacular.
"Campaigning with separate armies, Moltke was capable of enveloping the enemy, or of
moving rapifdly to seize a central position. he could close on you with pincers; he could smash
you suddenly with concentrated might. A simple speedometer reading would not show Moltke
fighting a mobile war, but he got to everyplace he needed to be before he adversaries, both of
whom followed the Napoleonic code and concentrated their forces for battle as early as
possible. ... He crushed Benedeck's (Austrian) army of the North in precisely 13 days of
campaigning; in 1870, he crushed the (French) Army of the Rhine and shut it up helplessly in
Metz in 15 (days)." Robert Citino - "The German Way of War" pp 188-189

The war of 1870.

Battle of Sedan 1870 (Die Entscheidung von Sedan)
.
"The English fleet can't protect Paris".
The creation of a unified German Empire
ended the "balance of power" in Europe.
"Relations with the German Empire dominated France's whole foreign policy up to 1914.
Every French government reached a decision on the basis of the intentions attributed to
Germany, and on the danger that German political initiatives represented for France. Franco-
German relations were themselves dominated by the question of Alsace-Lorraine. The
territorial annexation carried out under the Treaty of Frankfort (1871) had inflicted such a
wound on France that nothing could exceed in urgency the desire to avoid a repetition of the
German Invasion. The lost provinces had belonged to France since the days of Louis XIV and
Louis XV, and the question of national sovereignity had not been raised even after the collapse
of Napoleon.
... Yet the relative strength of the armed forces of France and Germany was such that no French
government, during the last quarter of the century, could have envisaged the notion of any
aggression directed against Germany. ... From 1875 on, when the French General Staff
elaborated its first plans for mobilization in the event of war, the ruling idea was entirely
defensive. ... After 1893, the relative strength of forces once more turned in favor of Germany.
Since the German population was growing much more rapidly than the French, the contingent
mobilized every year was much more numerous, and the reserves at the disposition of the
regular army were far larger than those the French high command could count on. ..." (La Gorce
- "The French Army; a military-political history" pp 11-13)
The creation of a unified German Empire ended the "balance of power" in Europe
that had been created with the Congress of Vienna after the end of the Napoleonic Wars.
The famous painting "Dream" Le Reve
by Edouard Detaille (ext.link)
~
French military slang.
Napoleonic Wars.
~ ~
War
Napoleon, The Boss
Napoleon's hat
artillery
eagle atop the colour
veteran
young scared soldier
wounded
la musique, la fete
le patron, le petit Tondu
le lampion
le brutal
"the cuckoo"
"three-haired slugger", "old sweat"
"short burst of fire"
"mortgaged"
blood
fleas
"grape juice"
"breadcrumbs"
take part in a hard fight
a near-miss
starving
wine
beef
British soldiers
Austrian soldiers
"comb one's hair"
friser
"set one's teeth on edge"
"booze", "life-saver", "damn dog"
"hardwood"
Les Goddams
Les Kaiserlicks
The most popular girls for the napoleonic soldiers were the Prussian girls. According to Jean-
Claude Quennevat the Prussian girls "were generally hyper-sentimental romantics, inclined to
accord a holy gloss to the sexual act, even outside marriage, and were therefore ready to
sacrifice anything for their lovers."
Quite many French soldiers dueled for the Prussian girls. The cavalrymen used sabers, the
infantry used bayonets or the short infantry swords. (Duelling was forbidden by the Emperor
so it usually took place at night by torch light.)
The Spanish girls were considered pretty.

Musee l'Arme (Museum of the French Army) in Paris in 2009
Sources and Links.
Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows"
Blaufarb - "The French Army 1750-1820"
Barres - "Memoirs of a French napoleonic officer"
Chartrand - "Louis XV's Army"
Citino - "The German Way of War"
Elting - "Swords Around a Throne"
Chandler- "The Campaigns of Napoleon"
Bowden - "Napoleon's Grande Armee of 1813"
La Gorce - "The French Army; a military-political history"
Lynn - "Giant of the Grand Siecle: The French Army"
Nafziger - "Napoleon's Invasion of Russia"
Britten-Austin - "1812: The March on Moscow"
Petre - "Napoleon's Conquest of Prussia, 1806"
Blond - "La Grande Armee"
Digby-Smith - "1813:Leipzig"
Bielecki, Tyszka - "Dal Nam Przyklad Bonaparte"
Shann and Delperier - "French Army 1870-1. Franco-Prussian War. (I)"
Picture by Avierianov, Russia - "General Delzons at Maloyaroslavetz, 1812."
Napoleon
HOME PAGE

French Infantry: infanterie franaise: Franzsische Futruppen: Uniforms: Weapons: Organization
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/French_infantry.html[2012-05-21 12:37:59]
French Infantry of the Napoleonic Wars.
"The army's infantry is its most essential component.
Even today, no army can take and hold any ground
without the use of infantry." - George Nafziger
"I suppose there are no finer moments in life than the evening of a day
when one has just won a great victory. If the joy is tempered a little by
the regreat caused by the loss of so many good and valiant comrades,
it is none the less keen and intoxicating. ...
A bottle of rum was passed round to drink the Emperor's health."
- Jean Barres, infantry officer,
after the battle of Bautzen 1813
French infantry under Napoleon.
Types of infantry
line, light and irregular infantry
Weapons
muskets, bayonets and sabers
Organization
regiments, battalions, companies
Grenadiers and Carabiniers
elite assault companies, made of
strong, brave, and seasoned men
Fusiliers and Chasseurs
they formed the bulk of infantry
Voltigeurs
light companies, made of short
agile men.Skirmishers,marksmen
Drummers and Musicians.
Sappers
.
Captain of 94th Line Infantry Regiment in 1810-1812.
"It is well known with what gallantry the o f f i c e r s lead
and with what vehemence the [French] troops follow ..."
- William Napier, British army
- - - - - - - - Eagles, flags, and fanions.
- - - - - - - - The best regiments (1800-15)
- - - - - - - - Miscellaneous
- - - - - - - - (looters, cowards and drunkards)
French infantry under Napoleon.
"Their movements compared with ours are as mail coaches
to dung carts. In all weathers and at all times they are
accustomed to march, when our men would fall sick by
hundreds ... Another peculiar excellence of the French
infantry is their steadiness in manoeuvering under fire."
- John Mills, British Coldstream Guards
With very few exceptions, most armies in history have been built around a
core of infantry. American military historian, George Nafziger, writes, "The
army's infantry is its most essential component. Even today, no army can take
and hold any ground without the use of infantry." The infantry was the basis
of the French army, which was the largest army in the World in that time. Such
army was necessary as France had several powerful and aggressive enemies
on land; Russia , Prussia and Austria all had large armies. In this situation
accepting only volunteers as it was in Switzerland (neutral country, separated
by mountains) and in Britain (separated from her enemies by sea) , was not
enough.
To meet the numbers conscription was at work.
Conscription hustled to arms a lot of quivering creatures who would never have gone to war of their
own free will. The process of weeding out the weak was under way in the first stages of every
campaign. Revolutionary France had been the first to adopt the principle of universal conscription,
according to which all young men of draft age were subject to being called up; in fact, however, a
system of drawing names was in place, and as a result, only the minority of those eligible were
enrolled every year. Even though entering the draft lottery was theoretically required of all male
citizens, malfunction exemptions, favors and bribes - together with every man's perfectly legal right to
buy a replacement if he could afford one - guaranteed that the burden of conscription fell principally
upon the country and town folks.
In the
beginning of
the French
Revolution,
the newly
raised
French
armies,
composed of
demoralized
regulars and
untrained volunteers, refused to face the disciplined Austrian troops and were more dangerous to
their own officers than to the enemy. The victory at Valmy stimulated the French morale, then the
Jacobin fanatics infused the French soldiers with something of their own demonic energy. Untrained
but enthusistic volunteers filled the ranks. In the spirit of liberty and equality, the volunteers elected
their officers, and discipline all but disappeared.
Lacking time to train the vast masses of conscripts and volunteers, Carnot (see picture)
fostered the amalgame, which used the Royal Army as the hard core around which new
regiments were formed, thereby greatly facilitating the implementation of the new tactics;
the recruits could be used in line and as skirmishers, where discipline and training were
more important than elan. Everything was in short supply, so the armies did without tents,
trains, and similar impedimenta, learning to live off the land, and were thus able to move more
rapidly than their foes. Carnot was also ruthless. Trusting no one, he used a system of political
commissars, to keep an eye on the reliability of generals Success was the only criterion for rank.
Napoleon was a product of his times.
In 1792, every able-bodied Frenchman was declared liable for military service, and National Guard
was formed.
"On 1 Jan 1791 the infantry was reorganised into 104 line regiments and 12 chasseur battalions (light
infantry). A report to the Assembly noted that these units were woefully under-strength. Initially the
Assembly wanted to bring the standing army up to full strength and raise battalions of National
Guardsmen as its reserve. However, many politicians distrusted the army after the mutinies of 1790,
the widespread desertion and the inability of officers to control their men ... Consequently, on 21 June
(the day after the King's failed attempt to flee France) and on 22 July 1791, the formation of 185
battalions of gardes nationaux volontaires was ordered." (Crowdy - "French Revolutionary Infantryman
1791-1802" p 8)
During 1793-1796, the infantry was reorganized into demi-brigades, each with 1 battalion of old
soldiers and 2 battalions of volunteers, in the hope of combining regular steadiness with volunteer
enthusiasm. Initially, the result was that each element qcquired the other's bad habits. There was no
time to drill the disorerly recruits into the robot steadiness and precision demanded by linear system.
(Esposito, Elting - "A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars")

"After several years of war many volunteers
and levies knew no other life than soldiering.
They grew up very quickly under fire, facing
the armies of Prussia, Austria, Britain,
Spain, Russia and Turkey. " - Terry Crowdy
Under Napoleon the discipline of the infantry greatly improved although now and then were
problems. When the 69th Demi-Brigade mutined a general arrived to see what the trouble was. The
infantrymen cheerfully explained that they had no complain except that they had nothing to do; they
simply had 'bored themselves' and so kicked up a little excitement to make life interesting !
In 1809 Napoleon chastised the lack of discipline in some infantry divisions. He noted that since Battle
of Wagram, Tharreau's division had attended neither battalion school nor target practice. Henceforth,
the Emperor ordered, the men would perform the basics of the soldier's school and practice platoon
drill each morning. They would fire 12 cartridges daily at the marks and for 2 hours in the evening
perform battalion maneuvres. (Arnold - "Napoleon Conquers Austria")
It was by no means an illiterate infantry. In 1812 the 33rd Line Infantry Regiment had 500 "privates
worthy of NCO rank" and more than 700 who understood the decimal system, and the first three
rules of arithmetic. Many of the officers were classically educated.
French fusilier, by Steven Palatka.
There was no corporal punishment in the French army.
In contrast the Russians used gauntlet, while the British
flogged the troublemakers.
In 1803-1807 France had one of the best infantries which had ever existed in the World up until that
time. It was the Camp of Boulogne that Napoleon's greatest military ideas were executed. The
Napoleonic foot soldiers were known for agility, stubborn attacks, and the speed of their marches.
Maneuverability and speed were the characterictics of Napoleon's lightning campaigns.
"The arrival of the first French infantry division [to Poland], belonging to Davout's Corps, made a
strange impression on me. A dozen or so of us rode out to meet it, and about a mile outside the city
we saw fields completely covered with individual soldiers, in greatcoats of every color, carrying their
muskets with the butts in the air and picking dry paths through the fields to avoid the knee-deep
mud on the road. Right outside the city [Posen, Poznan today], by the windmills, there was a beating
of drums, and they all came running to form ranks and in the blinking of an eye they had taken off
their greatcoats, straightened their bicornes on their heads and become the most regular armies.
They then marched at a lively pace into the city with bands playing. They halted in the market square,
stacked their weapons and took out little brushes to wipe the mud from their shoes and began fooling
around as if they had only been marching for a mile, not the 150 miles they had just completed. I
stared in amazement at these boisterous infantrymen, so far undefeated. They might as well have been
going to a dance.
They were not like the Prussian infantry ... Those had seemed a full head taller, with broader
shoulders and far stronger, but, at the same time stiff and wooden, and after a half-mile march, when
their column had halted for some reason, they had straight away broken ranks to rest."
(Chlapowski/Simmons - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" p 10)
At Austerlitz in 1805, the French infantry divison under Rivaud (3 battalions of 8th Line, 3 of 45th
Line and 3 of 54th Line Infantry) met four battalions of the Russian Guard Infantry. "As the Russian
Guard approached, Constantine ordered the four battalions of Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky to fix
bayonets and charge the French. At 300 paces, the Russian guardsmen, surged forward with their
customary 'urrah !' This charge, launched at too great distance, met with Rivaud's seasoned troops
who deployed and stood to receive the attack. The skirmishers that Rivaud had deployed in front of
his first line were swept away by by the charge, but the Russian troops were winded by the time they
reached the main French line and the French fire inflicted heavy losses.
Despite this, the three battalions of Rivaud's first line were driven back on the second line of
battalions where the impetus of the Russian attack was halted. Colonel Rall, commanding the Russian
Guard position battery, advanced his guns in support of the infantry. Before he could get them into
position, however, Constantine received word of Kutuzov's orders for a general withdrawal from the
heights. ... By around 12:30, the Russian Guard infantry, covered by their cavalry and the (Austrian)
kaiser Cuirassier Regiment had disengaged, reformed, and set off for Krenowitz." (Goetz - "1805:
Austerlitz" p 188)
Many of the victories from 1805 to 1807 were both easy and decisive.
"The French infantry was indisputably the finest in Europe in 1805,
and perhaps even the finest infantry fielded throughout the wars of
1792-1815." (Goetz - "1805: Austerlitz" p 45)
Austrian General Stutterheim wrote: "The French infantry
manoeuvered with coolness and precision, fought with courage, and
executed its bold movements with admirable concert." Military
histporian L petre writes, "In action, the [French] infantry was still
splendid, and did not as yet require to be formed in deep columns
of many battalions, such as was Macdonald's at Wagram, three years
later." (Petre - "Napoleon's Campaign in Poland, 1806-1807" pp 27-28)
In November 1805 at Mariazell 4 French battalions routed 8
Austrian battalions. The French took large numbers of prisoners.
General Friant wrote that at Austerlitz "No sooner had the 15th
Light and 33th Line arrived and deployed than they marched on the
enemy, nothing could resist their attack, the 15th was directed at the
bridge and chased a corps 10 times more numerous than they,
penetrated Sokolnitz, intermingled with the Russians, slaughtering
with the bayonet all that dared oppose them."
General Thiebault described how the infantry manoeuvered at
Austerlitz (on the Goldbach Heights): "The two corps [of Lannes and
Soult] executed their rearward movement in squares, chequer-
wise... For my own part I was no less struck by the novelty than by
the magnificence of the spectacle. Nothing could be finer or more
imposing than the 30 moving masses, which after two hours' march extended over a distance of five
miles, while their arms sparkled in the sun." The Russians and Austrians noted that the French
regiments maneuvered calmly and with precision "as if on parade ground." The musket fire of French
infantry was very effective due to the considerable musketry practice with live ammunition that the
French had received at Boulogne Camps.
The Battle of Austerlitz in 1805 was a glory day for the French infantry. Napoleon had strong centre
under Generals Vandamme and St. Hilaire climb the Pratzen Heights, the key position on the
battlefield. Kutuzov and part of Russian staff rode forward with Jurczik's Austrian brigade. As they
drew closer against the French center and began to deploy, the French placed 6 heavy guns behind
the 36th Line Regiment (3 pieces on either end of the regiment) and waited. Both sides deployed in
almost a mirror image of each other.
On north flank Vandamme sent one battalion of 10th Light but the attackers wavered and the
Austrian grenadiers counterattacked. The French were driven off to the northwest. Grenadiers' victory
was short-lived as Boye's dragoons (part of 3rd Dragoon Division) charged and surrounded them.
The grenadiers were captured "almost to a man". The Austrian VI/23rd Infantry instead of coming to
the grenadiers' rescue they threw their muskets and fled in panic. (Goetz - "1805: Auserlitz" p 184)
On the southern flank appeared Kamenski's brigade, the Russians were unaware of the situation
further north. The French II/10th Light (750 muskets) exchanged volleys with two Russian battalions
(total of 1,000 muskets). Both sides held ground however the Russians suffered heavier casualties than
the French. More battalions drew into line adjacent to the ones already in firefight. Approx. 3,000
Frenchmen stood in line and fired at 3.000 Russians.
After 20 minutes of this firefight and after the Austrian brigade under Jurczik fell back the Russians
began wavering. Russian General Langeron described this combat: "Soon, the French lines initiated a
very sharp and very murderous fire of musket and canister upon the brigade of Kamensky which in a
moment had many men rendered hors de combat. (Kamensky's brigade) answered with a less sharp
and badly directed fire, the majority of our soldiers fired in the air ... in justice I ought to say that
despite the superior number of the enemy, despite their little experience of war and the effect on them
of an unforseen attack on their rear, despite the noise of gunfire, which many of them were hearing
for the first time, they maintained themselves admirably for nearly 2 hours and in these two hours
more than half of the two regiments were left dead." (Langeron - "Journal inedit de la Campagne de 105;
Austerlitz" p 75)
General Langeron arrived, placed himself at the head of Russian grenadiers and led them in bayonet
charge. This attack was successful and one grenadier battalion captured 2 guns and almost reached
Pratzen. St.Hilaire led counter-attack, he drove the grenadiers back, recaptured the guns and took the
Russian positions. In the center Austrian Jurczik's brigade advanced against Pratzen. Thiebault
ordered his infantry to hold their fire until the Austrians had closed to 30-40 meters. When the
whitecoats drew closer the French infantry unmasked several cannons and opened a murderous fire.
The Austrians were surprised and halted, unable to move forward one step. The French opened
musket fire and charged with bayonets. Jurczik's first line (3 btns.) fell back, while his second line (2
btns.) counterattacked but without success. Jurczik was mortally wounded.
General Vandamme's
infantry attacked
Kollowrath and
Miloradovich on the
Pratzen Heights.
According to Robert Goetz
"for at least an hour,
intense fighting raged
across the entire length of
the Pratzen Heights"
Vandamme's divisional
battery took active part in
it firing canister at the
whitecoats. The Austrians
wavered and when few
squadrons of French
dragoons charged from the
flank, they broke and fled.
The dargoons captured
hundreds of prisoners and
sabered Austrian and
Russian gunners. Once
Kollowrath's northern
flank was falling back, his
center began crumbling.
Around 11 AM Kollowrath
ordered all his forces to
withdraw. Vandamme's
infantry rushed forward
with a cheer. Once
Vandamme's men crossed
over the crest Napoleon lost sight of them. They were now advancing against the second line under
the command of Miloradovich. They opened a heavy musket fire killing and wounding many
Russians and some Austrians. Both sides held their ground and paused - for a while - to put order in
their weary battalions. Vandamme renewed his attack after 11:15 AM and broke the Russians. They
fled toward Zbishow.
According to Robert Goetz the fighting on the Pratzen Heights had marked the climax of the Battle of
Austerlitz. The superb performance of the French made the Austrians' brave attempts futile.
.
At Pultusk in December 1806, Marshal Lannes, the "French Ajax" (picture), and
General Suchet, led infantry assault on the Russian positions. "Around 1 p.m. as
Suchet's wing marched toward Barclay's position, Marshal Lannes rode up to help
supervise the advance. After the French infantry passed through a woodlot they
became the prime target for the Russian artillery. Inspired by Lannes' presence,
the French infantry ignored their losses, climbed the slope in front of the Russian
position, and charged. Russian sources paid tribute to their conduct: 'The attack of
the French at this place was the most fierce and dashing.'
The 34th Ligne's charge stove in the first line of defence. Barclay's horse guns were
facing west to check an advance along the road to Golymin. The retreat of the Russian infantry
exposed the battery's left flank and Suchet's surging French infantry overran the battery.
The Russian jagers fell back on their reserve: two battalions of Tengin Musketeers stationed parallel to
the road. Here they rallied while the reserve launched a counterattacked. A furious melees ensued.
Russian soldiers grappled with Captain Templier to possess the eagle of the 34th Ligne. The Russians
tore the eagle from its perch leaving Templier clutching the less valuable battalion color. The Russian
counterattack drove back the 34th Ligne and recaptured the 6 horse guns. In response, the second
battalion of the 88th Ligne passed through the 34th and charged to stabilize the position. ... Then
began a close range musketry duel." (Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows" p 164)

Battle of Hollabrunn, Austerlitz Campaign 1805 (movie "War and Peace")
French infantry versus Russian infantry under Prince Bagration.
However, not all battles were easy and decisive victories, some were very bloody affairs and a great
number of troops perished. Eylau, Wagram, Valutina Gora, and Borodino were slaughterhouses.
After the battle of Valutina Gora "Gudin's division were drawn up on top of their companions' and
Russian corpses, amidst half-broken trees, on ground ripped up by roundshot ... Gudin's battalions
were no longer more than platoons. All around was the smell of powder. The Emperor couldn't pass
along their front without having to avoid corpses, step over them or push them aside. He was lavish
with rewards. The 12th, 21st and 127th Line and the 7th Light received 87 decorations and
promotions." (Britten-Austin - "1812 The March on Moscow" p 214)
For the capture of Shevardino Redoubt the French infantry paid dearly. Three times the redoubt
changed hands and one French battalion (of 61st's Line Regiment) was almost completely annihilated
inside the redoubt !
De Segur writes: "Next day
when the emperor reviewed
that regiment, he inquired
where was its III Battalion ? 'In
the redoubt' replied the
colonel..." The battle however
was won by the French and
the Russians have suffered
even heavier casulaties than
the French. The infantry of
Compans' division (Davout's
corps) covered themselves
with glory.
Picture: French officer and
some line infantrymen in
captured Russian redoubt.
Picture by A.Averianov , Russia.
At Borodino the French infantry have suffered even more. Sergeant Bertrand of 7th Light Regiment
writes: "A roundshot took my captain's head off, killing or mortally wounding four men in the first
rank. The lieutenant takes the captain's place; scarcely is he at his post than he's himself stricken by a
piece of grape which shatters his thigh. In the same instant the sous-lieutenant's foot is shattered by
another shell fragment. The officers hors de combat, the sergeant-major absent, I, as senior sergeant,
take command of the company." The 57th Line Regiment (nicknamed The Terrible for their bravery)
advanced steadily and without firing a shot despite mounting casualties. The Russians gunners fell
back. Prince Bagration was greatly impressed with the French assault, he clapped his hands and
yelled 'Bravo, bravo !'
Napoleon after the battle of Eylau (7-8 February 1807).
The French infantry have suffered very heavy casualties.
Even on secondary theaters of war, like
Italy and Spain, many infantry units
performed gallantly. John Burgoyne
wrote in "Life and correspondence of
Burgoyne": "The French regiment came
up the hill with a brisk and regular
step, and their drums beating pas de
charge: our men fired wildly and at
random among them; the French never
returned a shot, but continued their
steady advance. The English fired
again but still without return ... and
when the French were close upon them, they wavered and gave way."
In Salamanca (1812) the French 25th Light and 27th Line attacked while the British line hesitated
and stood firm for a moment. The British then broke and fled. An English officer described a fight
between the elite British Fusiliers and the French: "The French regiment formed close column with the
grenadiers in front and closed the battalions ... They then advanced up the hill in the most beautiful
order without firing a shot ... when about 30 paces distant our men (British) began to waver, being still
firing ... The ensigns advanced 2 paces in front and planted the colors on the edge of the hill and
officers steped out to encourage the men to meet them. They (British) stopt with an apparent
determination to stand firm, the enemy (French) continued to advance at a steady pace and when
quite close the Fusiliers gave way: - the French followed down the hill on our side."
Colonel Waller, (British 2nd Division) witnessed a French attack against Picton's "Fighting Division"
in 1810 at Bussaco: "At this moment were seen the heads of the several columns, three I think, in
number and deploying into line with the most beautiful precision, celerity and gallantry.
As they formed on the plateau, they were cannonaded from our position and the regiment of
Portuguese... threw in some volleys of musketry into the enemy's columns in a flank direction, but the
(Portugese) regiment was quickly driven into the position ... the (French) columns advanced in despite
of a tremendous fire of grape and musketry from our troops in position in the rocks, and overcoming
all opposition although repeatedly charged by Lightburne's Brigade, or rather the whole of Picton's
Div., they advanced and fairly drove the British right wing from the rocky part of this position."
At Corunna in January 1809 the French infantry had little surprise for the British. Colonel MKenzie
of the 5th Foot decided to take some companies of his regiment through the village of Piedralonga
and make a charge on the guns, which, so far as he could see, were unsupported. He led his men
through the village of Piedralonga and then opened them up in line for the charge up the slope
beyond it. They ran few yards only. Suddenly, from behind a curving, low stone wall beneath guns, a
line of French infantry rose up and fired a volley of devastating effect. Colonel MKenzie and several
of his men dropped dead. The rest turned and fled down the slope.
For French vs Scots fighting read our article: "Battle of Corunna 1809" (Bitter struggle for Elvina)" >>
For French vs Brits, Scots and Germans read: "Battle of Quatre Bras 1815 ()" >>
On picture: "the French arrived [at
Tordesillas], 60 ... headed by Captain Guingret, a
daring man, formed a small raft to hold their
arms and clothes, and plunged into the water,
holding their swords with their teeth, swimming
and pushing their raft before them. Under
protection of a cannonande they crossed this
great river, though it was in full and strong
water, and the weather very cold, and having
reached the other side, naked as they were,
stormed the tower: the Brunswick regiment then
abandoned the wood, and the gallant Frenchmen remained masters of the bridge." (Napier - "History
of the War ..." Vol IV, p 138)
(PS. at Leipzig (1813) a group of French infantry swam the Elster River near Mockern and began
firing, the surprised Prussians were taken in crossfire and fled.
The French napoleonic infantrymen were known as being good marchers.
John Mill of British Coldstream Guards writes, "Their movements compared with ours are as mail
coaches to dung carts. In all weathers and at all times they are accustomed to march, when our men
would fall sick by hundreds ... Another peculiar excellence of the French infantry is their steadiness in
manoeuvering under fire."
Even during the winter campaign of 1814, the French recruits outmarched virtually every opponent.
Blucher's Russians and Prussians covered 190 miles in 25 days (7.5 miles/day).
Schwarzenberg's Austrians and Bavarians marched 125 miles in 28 days (4.5 m/day)
Allies' marches were not too impressive due to winter blizzards, ice, and sieges.
The poorly clothed and hungry French troops managed to march (8 miles/day) .
The Old Guard covered 200 miles in 15 days (13.5 miles/day).
In 1812 most of the veterans were swallowed up in the snows of Russia. The
casualties were horrible and it required a heart of stone to look on those gallant
men, mangled, frozen and torn, and heaped in thousands over the fields and roads.
The reconstruction of the infantry in 1813 was not a simple task. One cannot just
strike the earth and expect legions, armed, clothed and trained. Napoleon used
everything he had. In 1813 the young soldiers were called "infants of the Emperor."
So poor were they in physique that the Minister of Police protests against their
being drilled in the Champs Elysees during the hour of promenade, on account of
the scoffing and jeering they gave rise to.
"The strength and physical stamina of the young conscripts, and consequently the
quality of their regiments, left much to be desired; they could not march like the
veterans, fell easy prey to sickness, and the standard of their training when they left the depots in the
spring 1813 was frighteningly low. The ability of battalions to manoeuvre was poor, and many recruits
could not even load their muskets. When the reinforcements drafts marched to the front, carts had to
follow them to pick up the footsore and the exhausted." (Digby-Smith, - p 29)
The new units were thrown together quickly and their men had not had the necessary time to form
the interpersonal bonds within their companies that gave them the morale strength necessary to wage
war successfully. Despite these problems, the army's morale was generally high. Many of the young
troops who stayed in the ranks, were filled with boundless confidence in their leader whom they
loved with unflagging devotion.
Tens of thousands of the footsore boys entered Dresden, wore their battle
dress and marched into battle singing "Victory is Ours". Marshal Davout
writes "in spite of their youth ... I cannot recall having found more ardor
in our old troops." They have fought bravely at Dresden and Leipzig.
At Dresden "The streets were full of French troops, especially the open
spaces in the suburbs ... Amongst these troops the bursting shells
produced only a feeling of exhilaration and eagerness. They were to fight
under the immediate command of a leader whom they still believed to be
invincible.
Aster tells a curious story of a battery which received orders to be ready
to move into the fighting line. The men were dust-stained and untidy
after their long march. The moment they heard the order, each man began
to get out of his haversack his parade uniform, which it was thought
suitable to don on such an occassion. Comical scenes ensued, as men, in
the act of changing their trousers, had to skip off as they might to avoid a
shell about to burst. All were laughing and cheery, as if about to go to some fete. Such was the spirit
of Napoleon's soldiers." (Petre - "Napoleon at War" p 226, publ.1984)
At Leipzig, the ferocity shown by both sides in the struugle for Probstheida was truly unique, as were
the losses they suffered. An attempt by the Old Guard to advance south, however, was stopped by the
Allied artillery on the low hill about 500 m away. Generals Baillot, Montgenet and Rochambeau were
all killed during the fighting here, while French regiments which especially distinguished themselves
were the 2nd, 4th and 18th Line and the 11th Light. Even Prinz August von Preussen wrote most
flatteringly of the enemy's valour. Allies staff officer Maximilian von Thielen writes: "The French
[infantrymen] were holding out with unparalled stubborness ..."
In 1814 the French infantry found itself in heavily reduced size. A handful of heroes faced all of
Europe to whom they themselves had taught the art of fighting over the past decade. The young
recruits of French infantry under General Pacthod fought like lions at Fere Champenoise. Large
squares formed by them withstood several charges made by cuirassiers, lancers, dragoons, and the
Guards. They held their ground even after being decimated by musket fire at close range, followed by
more cavalry attacks on every side.
In 1815 it was no more than a glorious memory. After the 100-Days Campaign the French King Louis
XVIIIth decided that no reminder of the Republic or the Empire would be allowed to survive in the
army. The organization of the army and the uniforms from the Empire were banned.
In general, the napoleonic infantryman was easy everywhere, little or nothing worried him, neither
the pyramids of Egypt nor the vast plains of snowy Russia. No matter where he found himself, he
considered himself to be a representative of the French way of life. The army will never forget that
under Napoleon's eagles, deserving men of courage and intelligence were raised to the highest levels
of society. Simple soldiers became marshals, princes, dukes and kings. The French soldier had become
an equal citizen by right and by glory. Every soldier of Roman Empire could make a career in the
army. The veterans could even aspire to become primus pilus.
French infantry with captured enemy's colors.
Museum of the Army in Paris.
Napoleon and French infantry with captured Allies Colors.
Many of the victories from 1805 to 1807 were both easy and
decisive. These were the Glory Years of the French army.
~
Line Infantry, Light Infantry, Irregular Infantry.
Both types of infantry, line and light, were able to execute all maneuvers.
The light however was more intensively trained in marksmanship and in
executing all maneuvers in higher speed.
The total strength of the French infantry under Napoleon varied from year to
year. In the beginning of Napoleon's reign, France had 89 line and 26 light
regiments. In 1813-1814 (Leipzig Campaign, and Campaign of France) it
reached grand total of 137 line (numbered 1st-157th) and 35 light (numbered
1st-37th) regiments. Only in 1815 (Waterloo Campaign) the strength of French
infantry fell below the initial numbers and totaled: 90 line and 15 light
regiments.
Actually the number of line regiments was almost identical with the number of departements in
France. In 1790 France had been reorganized into 83 Departments of similar size and each was
subdivided into 4-5 parts. Each Department had to furnish 4-5 battalions of line infantry to the
Revolutionary Armies. In 1792-1793, from conquered territories, were formed new 4 Departments
(main cities: Avignon, Chambery, Nice and Bale). In 1796 were added further departments with
Belgian cities: Bruges, Ghent, Mons, Antwerp, Brussels, Maastricht, Liege, Namur, Luxembourg.
These 9 new departments had to furnish Belgians into the French army. At least half of the Belgians
spoke French (Wallons). In 1798 four departments on the right bank of Rhine and one in Switzerland
were added, reaching total of 96 Departments.
In 1812, the year of Invasion of Russia, there were 134 (!) departments, among them the department of
Leman, with Geneva as capital, the department of Rome, the department of the Zuyder-Zee, capital
Amsterdam, and the department of the Lower Elbe, capital Hamburg. It was truly a Grand Empire.
After the capitulation of Pris to the Russians, Prussians, and Austrians, and Napoleon's first
abdication in 1814, the number of France's departments sharply decreased. France entered the
Waterloo Campaign in 1815 with only 86 departments.
In 1803 the French army had 89 regiments of line infantry,
numbered 1st-112th. Twenty three numbers were vacant: 31, 38,
41, 49, 68, 71, 73, 74, 77, 78, 80, 83, 87, 89, 90, 91, 97, 98, 99, 104,
107, 109, 110. The majority of vacant regiments were due to
yellow fever and casualties suffered on San Domingo (Saint-
Domingue).
(The slave rebellion 17911804 in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, led to the
elimination of slavery and the establishment of Haiti. It is estimated that the
campaign resulted in the death of 100,000 blacks and 25,000 French and Poles. The
loss of a major source of revenue shook Napoleon's faith in the promise of the
western world, encouraging him to unload other French assets in the region incl.
Louisiana. In 1807 Britain became the first major power to abolish the slave trade.)
List of disbanded, raised and reraised regiments:
31st Line - disbanded in 1803-4
38th Line - vacant
41st Line - vacant
49th Line - vacant
68th Line - vacant
71st Line - vacant
73rd Line - disbanded in 1803
74th Line - disbanded in 1803
83rd Line - vacant
87th Line - vacant
89th Line - in 1803 part was merged with 8th and part was sent to West Indies. Upon return the 89th
was disbanded
90th Line - vacant
91st Line - disbanded in 1803
10th Line - disbanded in 1803, reraised either in Dec 1813 or Jan 1814
107th Line - disbanded in 1803, reraised in 1814
111th Line - many northern Italians (Piedmontese) served in this unit
113th Line - formed in May 1808 from troops of Tuscany
114th Line - formed in 1808 from the provisional regiments of Army of Spain (formed in 1807)
121st Line - formed in Jan 1809 from the I and II Reserve Legions
122nd Line - formed in Jan 1809 from the III, IV, V Reserve Legions
123rd Line - formed in Sept 1810 from Dutch, disbanded in 1813
124th Line - formed in Sept 1810 from Dutch, disbanded in 1813
125th Line - formed in Sept 1810 from Dutch, disbanded in 1813
126th Line - formed in 1810 from Dutch, disbanded in 1813 and amalgamated to 123rd
127th Line - formed in 1811 from Garde de Hambourg and Garde de Lubeck (mostly Germans)
128th Line - formed in 1811 from Garde de Breme (mostly Germans)
One of our visitors, John Groweg, wrote: "Napoleons troops occupied my ancestral hometown of Diepholz, Germany. Historical
documents and accounts passed down show that families hid their sons or helped them sneak off to Holland in order to avoid
conscription into Napoleons army. One of my ancestors did not escape service and was drafted into the French 128th Line
Infantry Garde de Breme. He later died in a Minsk hospital of unknown causes, probably of illness after the rains of June 1812.
Many foreign troops were forced against their will into Napoleons army.
129th Line - formed in 1811 from Regiment d'Oldenbourg, and
detachments Garde de Westphaliens and French troops. Disbanded in 1813.
130th Line - formed in 1811 from 1st, 3rd, and 6th Auxilliary Btns. of the Army of Spain.
131st Line - formed in 1811 from Walcheren Regiment (or French conscripts).
132nd Line - formed in 1811 from the foreign Regiment l'Ile-de-Re (or French conscripts).
133rd Line - formed in 1811 (or 1812 ?) from the 2nd Meditarranean Regiment (Italians).
134th Line - formed in Jan 1813 from the 1st Regiment Garde de Paris.
135th Line - formed in Jan 1813 from the Cohorts of National Guard.
136th Line - formed in 1813 from the Cohorts of National Guard
137th - formed in 1813 from the Cohorts of National Guard
141st - formed in 1813 from the Cohorts of National Guard
142nd - formed in 1813 from the Cohorts of National Guard
143rd - formed in 1813 from the Cohorts of National Guard
151st - formed in 1813 from the Cohorts of National Guard
152nd - formed in 1813 from the Cohorts of National Guard
153rd - formed in 1813 from the Cohorts of National Guard
156th Line - formed in 1813 from the Cohorts of National Guard
The 88 cohorts of National Guard (formed in March 1812) sent in 1813 numerous pleas to Napoleon asking permission to take the
field. Their uniforms were identical to troops of the line. The cohorts were composed of 78.000 able-bodied men ages 20 to 26 and
were formed by department [in few cases 2 weaker departments formed 1 cohort]. The cohorts were something between the
National Guard and the army and had to serve only within the limits of the Empire. Approx. 70.000 were infantrymen and 8.000
artillerymen. The officers and NCOs were selected from retired veterans or from National Guard who already had seen service in
the field army. They were of low quality and drilled the cohorts in company and battalion evolutions without much succe from
the army. Napoleon accepted the pleas from cohorts joyfully, each cohort became battalion of 6 companies. In this way the
Emperor was able to form 22 new regiments of the line, the cohorts gave 70.000 infantrymen. (- Scotty Bowden)
Several regiments of line infantry won fame on the battlefield.
In 1806 at Jena, the 111th Line Infantry captured a Prussian battery despite 6 volleys of canister.
In 1809 at Aspern-Essling the Austrian cuirassiers executed a bold charge. "Instead of losing
momentum by ordering a square, he [Saint-Hilaire] commanded the trusty 105th Line to face to the
flank, told the drummers to beat the pas de charge, and advanced against the enemy horsemen.
Infantry charging cavalry was thing rarely attempted. It demanded great resolution. ... The 105th met
the challenge and drove off the startled Austrian heavy horse." (Arnold - "Napoleon Conquers Austria",
page 70)
In March 1814, the French-Italian troops arrived at the walled city of Parma. One battalion of 9th
Line Infantry marched down the length of the ramparts with a picket of Italian 1st Chasseur
Regiment. The French voltigeurs arrived at San Francesco Gate, with Second-Lieutenant Hutinet at
their head, they scaled the wall and chased off the militia troops guarding it. They opened the gate
and allowed the entry of the battalion. The Austrians and the British began to withdraw. On learning
this, the French brought forward another battalion of the 9th. The allies were hastily scurrying along
Parma's narrow streets and bridges to evacuate the city.
The bloodbath at Borodino (1812) was a glory day for the French line infantry. Captain Francois of
30th Line described attack on the Death Redoubt (Raievski Redoubt): "Nothing could stop us... We
hopped over the roundshots as it bounded through the grass. Whole files and half-platoons fell,
leaving great gaps. General Bonamy ... made us halt in a hail of canister shot in order to rally us, and
we then went forward at the pas de charge" A line of Russian troops tried to halt us, but we delivered a
regimental volley at 30 paces and walked over them. We then hurled ourselves at the redoubt and
climbed in by the embrasureds; I myself got in through an embrasure just after its cannon had fired.
The Russian gunners tried to beat us back with ramrods and levering spikes. We fought hand-to-
hand with them, and they were formidable adversaries." Captain Bonnet describes how the Russian
skirmishers arrived in good order a little to the left "... and a dense column to our right. I deploy my
battalion and, without firing, march straight at the column. It recoils. When carrying out this
movement we were so exposed to grapeshot from the guns in the village that I saw my battalion
falling and being breached like a crenellated wall. But still we went on."
For more information read our article below
"The best French infantry regiments (1800-15)
Line infantry: 4th, 18th, 57th, 84th and others."
French line infantry, by Funcken
"Good line infantry is, without doubt,
the sinew of an army." - Napoleon
.
Light infantry formed the advance guards and scouting parties. This kind
of service had fostered the soldier's intelligence and independent
judgement. No longer he was a mindless robot in a lock-step formation,
moving and firing only upon order. Some regiments of light infantry
were given mountainous departments from which they would draw
conscripts. These lads were usually light-footed, with greater stamina and
stronger health than the lowlanders. They were well suitable for light
infantry duties.
In 1803 the French army had 26 regiments of light infantry, numbered 1st-
30th.
In 1813-1814 there were 35 regiments numbered 1st-37th, two numbers
were vacant.
In 1815 (Waterloo Campaign) there were 15 regiments of light infantry.
Below is a list of disbanded, raised and reraised regiments:
11th - disbanded in 1803 and reraised in 1811
(from the following btns: Tirailleurs Corses, Tirailleurs du Po,
Tirailleurs de la Legion de Midi and Valaison)
19th - disbanded in 1803 and reraised in 1814
20th - disbanded in 1803
30th - disbanded in 1803
31st - raised in 1804
32nd - raised in 1808 from Italians (Grand Duchy of Toscany)
33rd - raised in 1808 from provisional regiment,
in 1809 disbanded and reraised in 1810 from Dutch
34th - raised in 1811
35th - raised in 1812 from 1st Regiment de la Mediterrane (formed in 1810)
36th - raised in 1812 from Regiment de Belle-Ile (formed in 1811)
37th - raised in 1812
Napoleon's light infantry enjoyed a great
reputation in Europe. "The light infantry had
acquired a tradition of dash and
aggressiveness ... rapid deployment and
expert skirmishing." - Colonel John Elting
In his "Basic Reason for the French Success"
Prussian general Scharnhorst maintained that
the individual French soldier, epitomized by
the light infantryman, had decided most of
the tactical engagements of the war.
Scharnhorst wrote: "The physical ability and high inteligence of the common man enables the French
light infantryman to profit from all advantages offered by the terrain and the general situation, while
the phlegmatic Germans, Bohemians and Dutch form an open ground and do nothing but what their
officers order them to do."
Major K.F. von Knesebeck saw the French in six engagements, deploy "their entire infantry" in open
order as skirmishers "with decided superiority." Knesebeck believed that the Prussians and Austrians
could learn a great deal from the French light infantryman. According to author Gunther Rothenberg
"Rigidly controlled and regimented, the Austrian skirmishers rarely were equal to the French."
(Note. Not every French commander used the light infantry in the best way. In 1812 at Smolensk von Suckow sees "a French staff
officer, without even reconnoitering the terrain, lead the Wuertemberg Light Infantry - in particular its superb Foot Chasseurs -
straight up to the high wall, where they're simply mown down. Decimated and furious at being forced to carry out such an
absurd mission, they're obliged to beat a retreat, after losing 5 officers within only a few minutes." (Britten-Austin - "1812 The
March on Moscow" p 195)
in 1815 at Waterloo the gate of Hougoumont was stormed by the 1st
Light Regiment, while the gates of La Haye Sainte was assaulted by the
13th Light. In Hougoumont Lieutenant Legros - nicknamed "The Smasher"
(L'enforceur) choped a hole through the door panel with an axe. Then the
gates yielded to the pressure of many bodies, and a group of Frenchmen
burst inside. At the beginning of the melee that followed, the Germans and
British sought refuge in the buildings, leaving Legros' group masters of the
field. A Frenchman armed with an ax chased a German officer, caught up
with him and chopped off one of his hands. The French however found
themselves in a crossfire and were killed except a boy-drummer. Some
French infantrymen attempted to climb over the walls but were shot by the defenders.
Wellington decided to alleviate the pressure on the defenders of Hougoumont, two battalions went
down the slope in companies, one after the other, and attacked the enemy. The French light infantry
surprised by the arrival of reinforcements withdrew and abandoned the orchard. Only a handful of
men of the 1st Light, resisted the British Foot Guards and German light infantry, and held their
ground.
In La Haye Sainte the French light infantrymen broke down the
outer door of the passage through the stables. It was here where
both sides crossed bayonets. The attackers were pushed back but
the French light infantrymen climbed up onto the roof of the
stables and fired down into the yard at the German riflemen. The
riflemen attempted to block up holes in the walls made by
artillery fire but the French scaled the walls and bursted into the
farmyard.
Major Baring gave order to retire through the house into the
garden. They rushed to the rear with the French hot on their heels.
Some wounded cried out in French Pardon ! begging for life but
they were bayoneted. With shouts Coquin ! the French fired after
the fleeing Nassauers. Baring attempted to defend the small
garden but quickly found it untenable. His last men abandoned
the farm sometime around 6.15 PM and sprinted up the slope. The French caught up with some and
killed. "... many of the men were overtaken by the enemy, who vented their fury upon them in the
lowest abuse..." The French were screaming at them, kicked and stripped of all they had before they
were turned over to cuirassiers and escorted to the rear.
In 1809 at Ebelsberg, the men of the 26th Light, covered themselves with glory.
Then the 26th Light set out across the Traun bridge to begin one of the celebrated assaults in French
Napoleonic history. Austrian battery, sited on a rise behind the village [Ebelsberg] had acquired
the range during prior French crossings and now dominated the scene. Musket fire flailed the bridges
exit. Pouget ordered his men to open their ranks and sprint across the bridge, thereby reducing the
time spent in the lethal beaten zone of flying metal. Gaining the far side, the 26th Legere reformed
under the shelter of buildings General Coehorn rode up to Pouget, gestured toward a narrow
village street, and said: You are going to follow this street to a chateau occupied by the enemy. You
will attack it. By now it was apparent that whoever held the chateau controlled the village below.
the colonel dismounted, placed his sappers to the fore, and marched his men up the winding, cobbled
street.
So narrow was the passage that in places his column had to shrink to a 6-rank frontage. After a stiff
climb, Pouget sighted his objective 40 paces away. As his leading company of carabiniers reached
the small square outside the chateau, muskets suddenly appeared from window and turret and the
resultant discharge of noise, smoke, and lead arrived before the French could react. The disciplined
defenders of the [Austrian] Jordis Infantry Regiment, supported by sharpshooting Grenzers, had
waited until enough French soldiers massed at the top of the alleyway before firing Ignoring the
casualties, when the smoke cleared, Pouget studied the chateaus entrance. He had his best
marksmen, the carabiniers, engage the defenders in a musketry duel. In the first ten minutes, 3
carabinier officers and 53 men fell here. The combat proved harder still on the light companies
jammed motionless in the alleyway at the rear. As the sappers charged forward to axe their way
through the wooden door, other French soldiers found an unprotected cellar entrance and began to
clear the chateau room by room. When the sappers burst through the front door, the garrison laid
down their weapons and surrendered. (Arnold - Napoleon Conquers Austria)
In 1809 at Aspern-Essling the 24th Light's in brilliant bayonet charge overran Austrian battery. The
French took 700 prisoners and recaptured the church. Soon however the Austrian Beniovski Infantry
Regiment counterattacked and retook the church.
For more information read our article below
"The best French infantry regiments (1800-15)
Light infantry: 1st, 6th, 9th, 10th. 11th, 13th, 24th, 25th, and 26th."

French light infantry skirmishing
Picture by Giuseppe Rava, Italy.
During the battle of Mohrungen in January 1807 the French skirmishers
shot Russian General-Lieutenant Anrepp, inflicting a mortal wound.
"He was the highest ranking officer on either side to perish during the
campaign." (Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows" p 214)

French light infantry, by Funcken
"If the campaigns are studied, the French certainly
owes most of their victories to her light infantry."
- Prussian general Schanhorst
In 1813 and 1814 there were several regiments of so-called naval infantry (Regiments d'Infanterie de
Marine). In the battle of Leipzig the naval infantry fought like lions. Every building in the village of
Schonefeld was defended like a strong point. "It was necessary to retire to the houses, the gardens and
then the cemetery where there were more corpses above than below ground." - Georges Blond
There were also several units of irregular infantry in the army.
The chasseurs des montagnes were formed to deal with the Spanish irregulars, bandits and gangs of
deserters along the French-Spanish border. They were uniformed in dark brown with sky-blue
facings. They earned reputation as excellent guerilla hunters and eradicators, specializing in swift
cross-country movements. However, this unit was weak and had only 3 battalions of light infantry.
Although these battalions were made of regular troopers their replacements were apprehended
efractaires from the Pyrenees departments, who returned to duty under the pledge that they would
serve only on the Spanish frontier. In 1814 the chasseurs des montagnes were disbanded and transferred
to line and light regiments.
Le 3me Bataillon de Chasseurs de Montagnes
est un groupe de reconstitution napolonien Link
The miquelets francais was another unit formed on the Spanish border during 1792-94 and 1808-09. It
was an old French custom to recruit independent companies of Basques and smugglers for partisan
mountain warfare. Moncey and Perignon commanded such units early in the Revolution. For many
Frenchmen the Basques' features suggested extreme ferocity. These iregulars were armed with very
long-barreled muskets with a set-trigger, pistols and snickersnees.
In 1815 Napoleon formed Chasseurs des Pyrenees to guard the Spanish frontier. Napoleon wanted 9
battalions but the time was short and only seven and half were formed.
The Chasseurs des Alpes was formed in 1813 in preparation for an Austrian offensive in Italy and for
fighting the Piedmontese Barbets. It had 1-2 battalions formed of former smugglers, poachers,
gamekeepers and ordinary mountaineers. In 1814 the Bourbons disbanded this unit. In 1815 Napoleon
formed 2 battalions.
The Chasseurs de la Reunion were formed as part of the garrison of the Isle de France (Mauritius). It
was all-black formation. They proved worthless as combat troops.
The cipayes (sepoys) were made of natives in India. There were only few companies and they were
disbanded in 1803 when the small French colonies in India were lost to the British in 1803.
.
PS.
In general the line infantrymen were taller (few cm) than the agile men of the light
infantry. Taller men have slightly longer arms than the shorter men. It can be an
advantage in bayonet fight IF both sides were of equal moral strength. For this
reason the assault infantry (grenadiers, guards, or any elite troops) in any army
were made of taller, robust, and often war-hardened lads.
However, the most decisive factor in bayonet combat was not the physical but the
moral strength. There were cases of the taller infantry actually fleeing before the
shorties. There were many other more or less important factors. For example; were
the casualties from artillery about even on both sides ? Or one side was decimated
while the other was sheltered ? Any flank attack would make great impact even on
the best infantry and any good commander tried to avoid being outflanked at all
cost. There were cases of large battalions fleing before much smaller troops
resulutely attacking them from the flank.
Article: "Infantry Combat and Tactics:
"Bayonet charges and bayonet fights.
Official minimum height for the French infantry:
for grenadiers
for fusiliers
for voltigeurs
- (French) 5'4"
- (French) ?
- (French) 4'11"
- 173.5 cm
- ?
- 159.9 cm
Actual average height of French troops (infantry, cavalry):
for (200) privates of 1st Old Guard Gren.
for (400) cuirassiers - heavy cavalry
for (400) dragoons
for (300) chasseurs
for (600) hussars - light cavalry
for (3,500) line infantrymen
for (900) light infantrymen
- 180 cm
- 172.5 cm
- 168.0 cm
- 167.0 cm
- 165.0 cm
- 165.0 cm
- 162.5 cm
The men who are admitted into the four Swiss regiments were "at least 1,678 metres
(5'5") and having no infirmity; however, the men necessary to form the voltigeur
companies may be shorter, but they must be no less than 1,556 metres (5'1") tall."
In the past people were shorter than today. In 2005 the average height of 20-30 years old male was:
China 170 cm, Portugal 172.5 cm, France 175.5 cm, UK ?? cm, Poland 176.5 cm,
USA (blacks) 178 cm, Germany 178 cm, USA (whites) 179 cm, Sweden 180 cm.
~
Infantry weapons: Muskets and Bayonets.
"In their own time they (the French muskets) made and broke empires;
they won , and nailed down , the independence of the United States.
Together with the Roman short sword and the Mongol composite bow,
they rank as the greatest man-killers of all-history."
The muskets were muzzleloading and smoothbore. But, primitive as they appear today, such
weapons deserve respect. Colonel John Elting writes: "In their own time they made and broke
empires; they won, and nailed down, the independence of the USA. Together with the Roman short
sword and the Mongol composite bow, they rank as the greatest man-killers of all-history. ...
The musket (fusil d'infanterie) was the basic French weapon, issued to all dismounted troops unless
otherwise specified. ... Napoleon on assuming power, ordered a commission of artillery officers to
establish the necessary new models of individual weapons. The resulting 'System of the Year IX
(1800-1801) was basiacally an improved and simplified version of the 1777 models. Some
improvements were made in musket designed in the 'Year XIII' (1805).
Bayonets (45.6 cm long) were made in the Langres and Moulins cutleries.
The 'Charleville' musket (fusil d'infanterie) model 1777 (AN IX), had overall length 151.5 cm, (barrel
length 114 cm). Some of the elements of the 1777 Charleville model are the finger ridges on the trigger
guard, the brass frizzen, and the cheek piece carved in the stock's butt with a straighten frizzen cover
and slightly different front band.
The 1777 Charleville was considered by most Europeans as the best musket in the world. These
smoothbore muskets were named after the armory in Ardenne, France. It was also distributed to the
Americans, and later became the basis for the pattern of the Springfield Musket 1795. They are 60 1/2
inches, with a 45 inch barrel, and have "U.S." stamped on the butt stock.

French musket Charleville
"Americans found them definitely preferable to the British 'Brown Bess,' though the
latter threw a heavier slug: caliber .75 as compared to the French .69" - John Elting
Due to almost intermittent wars the napoleonic infantry had very little time to train.
After only several days in depot the young men were rushed to the front lines.
For this and other reasons the French were not among the best marksmen in Europe.
Article: "Infantry Combat and Tactics: Musket Fire (Rate and Accuracy)."
The drill manual distinguished several movements for firing a musket.
To load it, the infantryman :
- opened his priming pan (bassinet)
- plucked a cartridge from his giberne
- bit off the tip of the end containing the powder charge
- primed his musket by squeezing some powder into the pan
- closed it
- emptied the rest of the powder down his musket barrel
- rammed the rest of the cartridge down on top of it,
using his iron ramrod (the cartridge paper served as wadding
to keep powder and ball in place)
- he then cocked his musket and was ready to shoot
"Training remained rudimentary. The new conscript might receive 2 or 3 weeks of basic instruction at
the depot, but he would fire on average only 2 musket shots a year in practice. Much stress was
placed upon the attack with cold steel ..." (Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" pp 207-208)
The worst situation was in 1813 and 1814. Camille Rousset gives the following as a common type of
report on inspection: "Some of the men are of rather weak appearance. The battalion had no idea of
manouveruring; but 9/10 of the men can manage and load their muskets passably."
During prolonged firing the soldier had often to clear the vent with a pin carried on his pouch belt,
and clean the barrel which often fouled after 50 or 60 shots. Cartridges were spoiled by humidity. In
wet weather men who failed to keep them dry, or to cap or wrap up their lock plates, were incapable
of firing a shot.
By today's standards, muskets are not very accurate due to the windage (gap) between the projectile
and the barrel. Depending on the type and calibre, it could hit a man's torso at up to 200-300 paces,
though it was only reliably accurate to about 50-100 paces.
Each infantryman carried a triangular bayonet.
"The earliest French bayonet attack occured no later
than 1677 at the siege of Valenciennes, where, after
an enemy cavalry charge 'the musketeers, having
put their bayonets in their fusils, marched at them
and with grenades and bayonets, chased them back
in the town.' In another use of the plug bayonet,
dragoons beat back enemy forces at a river near the
same town in 1684. ... As they have so often in their
history, the French pictured themselves as
particularly apt in the assault with cold steel.
A belief in a special French talent in combat a l'arme blanche probably goes back as
far as Merovingian times. The cult of the bayonet peaked late in the 18th century
and again, with tragic consequences, just prior to World War I. Much of the
language later assumed by advocates of the bayonet was already current in the 17th century. Writing
in 1652, Laon expressed the belief that 'French infantry is more suited to the attack than to the
defense.'
The French never seemed to tire of contrasting their own energy in the assault versus their enemies'
stolid nature, particularly when Germans were involved. 'The [German] infantry is constant enough
when syanding fast, but it is not lively in the attack and cannot carry off a coup de main. Chamlay
agreed in the superiority of the French infantry on the offensive, starting in 1690 ... The same
confidence typified opinion in the War of the Spanish Succession ... No less a figure than Marshal
Villars praised 'the air of audacity so natural for the French infantry ... is to charge with the bayonet
..." (Lynn - "Giant of the Grand Siecle" pp 487-488)
Article: "Infantry Combat and Tactics:
"Bayonet charges and bayonet fights.
.
Ammunition to the Charleville Musket was kept in the black cartridge box. It was called
giberne and was carried by all infantry. For campaign the cartridge box (or rather the large
outside flap) was covered by 'white' fabric covers made of undyed linen. On the cover was
painted regimental and battalion number.
One white leather belt went over the left shoulder to support the cartridge box on the
right hip. Other white leather belt supported the infantry saber. The infantry sabers
were short and of little value in combat. When the saber was taken away from some
troops, the bayonet was transferred to the other belt. (The natural color of the leather
belts was buff, but they were whitened with pipeclay. Officers wore no crossbelts).
The short sabers were a burden during skirmishing but the soldiers liked them. Maybe it was
a question of status, the 'noble' cavalryman carried sabers so why not we infantrymen, right ?
These sabers were mostly used in the camp although they were kept during combat.
Sometimes the infantrymen left their sabers in depots before marched into the field. For
example before the battle of Fuentes de Onoro the French infantrymen left their sabers in depots. The
2nd Regiment of Conscripts of the Young Guard left them behind while being on campaign of
pursuing the Spanish guerillas across rough terrain.
Officially the short sabers briquetes were issued only to the elite companies (grenadier and carabinier
companies) and to the infantry of the Imperial Guard. Unoficially also the voltigeurs and chasseurs
carried them. The Decree of 27th October 1807 forbade the voltigeurs to be armed with the sabers. Of
course none of the guys took it very seriously and they kept their weapons until 1815.
The center companies (chasseurs) of light infantry regiments had to give up their sabers in 1807. But
in some regiments it brought little result so the order was repeated in 1815. Only NCOs, grenadiers
(carabiniers) and musicians were officially allowed to be armed with short sabers.

Russian cuirassiers (Duka's division) attacking French infantry (Ledru's division)
formed in squares. Battle of Borodino, 1812.
Gruesome bayonet fight for the Great Redoubt at Borodino.
Picture by A Averianov.
~
Organization of French Infantry.
Regiments, Battalions and Companies.
The basic building block of napoleonic army organization was the individual soldier. A small group of
soldiers organized to maneuver and fire were section and platoon. As elements of the armys
organizational structure become larger units, they contain more and more elements. A company was the
smallest element to be given a designation and affiliation with higher headquarters at battalion, regimental,
brigade, and division level.
Prior to the Revolution, the French Army was composed of three-battalion regiments. Since the word
"regiment" was associated with the bad old days when the aristocratic colonel was lord and master, the
term was abolished. So were the old regimental names, which were associated with ideas of feudal
fiefdoms. Thus in 1792, before the Battle of Valmy, it was decided to form demi-brigades instead of
regiments. Each demi-brigade was made up of one regular battalion from a pre-revolutionary regiment
combined with two battalions of volunteers. The demi-brigades were adopted by the entire French army
two years later.
In 1803 Napoleon was re-instated the term "regiment", the "demi-brigade" being applied henceforth only to
provisional troops. Each line and light regiment had: staff, 2-6 "war" battalions and 1 "depot" battalion. In
1811 Napoleon ordered that majors-in-second be named for all regiments with 4-6 war battalions.
The field battalion, or war battalion [bataillon de guerre] had:
staff
one grenadier company of 80-90 men (in light infantry called "carabinier company")
eight fusilier companies of 120 men each (in light infantry called "chasseur companies")
In 1805 one of the fusilier/chasseur companies became a voltigeur company. In September 1806 before the
hostilities with Prussia, the 3rd war battalions were dissolved to replenish the 1st and 2nd battalions and
sent cadres to France to collect conscripts.
War battalion in 1805-1807:
staff of battalion
one grenadier company of 80-90 men, (in light infantry called "carabinier company")
one voltigeur company of 120 men
seven fusilier companies of 120 men each (in light infantry called "chasseur companies")
In 1808 Napoleon ordered the organization of war battalion [Bataillon de Guerre] being changed from 9
(smaller) to 6 (stronger) companies. These changes were implemented in troops on primary theater of war
while those on secondary theaters (Spain and Italy) would keep their 9-companies battalions for some time.
Between 1808 and 1815 the battalion was approx. 840 men strong.
Davout's opinion, in a letter dated 10 Sept 1811, was that a battalion
of 960 men was too large to be managed properly.
In reality the strength of battalion was between 400 and 600 men.
For example in 1809 at Wagram were 255 btns. with an average of 556 men each.
The average strength of battalion at Borodino in 1812 was 425 men.
Many line regiments formed their 4th field battalions. In 1811 Napoleon ordered that
majors-in-second be named for all regiments with 4-6 war battalions.
War battalion in 1808-1815:
staff of battalion
one grenadier company of 140 men (in light infantry called "carabinier company")
one voltigeur company of 140 men
four fusilier companies of 140 men each (in light infantry called "chasseur companies")
This is interesting that prior to going into battle, a battalion would have all companies equalized by the
Chef. If the grenadier or voltigeur company was short on men, then selected fusiliers were accpted to help
fill out their ranks. It was important to maintain the frontage of the troops not only by the above described
process but also by taking the men of the third rank. Sometimes the 3rd rank would dissolve as the men
were drawn to fill out the files in the 1st and 2nd rank.
The "depot" battalion was commanded by the senior captain, with a major in command of the depot itself.
In the depot the new soldiers were clothed and trained. (The annual drawings took place and a numbered
ballot for each man who had reached the required age was placed in an urn. There was a quick physical
examination. The best age for recruits was between 20 and 25, the younger than that were weaker
physically and lacked stamina.) Once trained and dressed the new soldiers were sent to the front and
joined one of the three field battalions of their parent regiment.
"Each company [of depot battalion] had different specific duties. The 4th Company of the battalion rarely if
ever left the depot. It was charged with training recruits and included in its ranks the regiments's artisans,
the enfants de troupe (soldiers' sons carried on the battalion payroll), and any veteran soldiers awaiting
retirement, discharge, or pensioning. The 1st and 3rd Companies were responsible for transporting newly
trained recruits to the field battalions. ... The 2nd Company of the battalion was generally assigned to act as
guards for naval vessels as well as for the garrisons to man them." (Nafziger - "Napoleon's Invasion of Russia"
p 14)
Regiment of Line Infantry in 1808
Colonel *
Major-in-Second [0] *
Adjudant-Chef [1] *
Paymaster [4]
Drum-Major [5]
Eagle-Bearer with 2 Escorts
N o n - combatants : surgeon with aides ,
shoemaker, gaitermaker, tailor, gunsmith
and 8 musicians
I War Battalion
Chef *
Adjudant-Major [1]
Sous-Adjudant-Major [2]
Adjudant-Sous-Officer
[3]
Drum-Corporal
II War Battalion
Chef *
Adjudant-Major
Sous-Adjudant-Major
Drum-Corporal
III War Battalion
Chef *
Adjudant-Major
Sous-Adjudant-Major
Drum-Corporal
Depot Battalion
Major *
Capitaine d'habillement [6]
Quartier-Maitre-Tresorier
Grenadier
Company
Grenadier
Company
Grenadier
Company
-
Fusilier
Company
Fusilier
Company
Fusilier
Company
Fusilier
Company
Fusilier
Company
Fusilier
Company
Fusilier
Company
Fusilier
Company
Fusilier
Company
Fusilier
Company
Fusilier
Company
Fusilier
Company
Fusilier
Company
Fusilier
Company
Fusilier
Company
Fusilier
Company
Voltigeur
Company
Voltigeur
Company
Voltigeur
Company
-
* - mounted
[0] - in 1811 Napoleon ordered that majors-in-second be named for all regiments with 4-6 war battalions
[1] - in the rank of captain
[2] - in the rank of lieutenant
[3] - in the rank of senior NCO
[4] - in the rank of officer. He went with the troops oversseing pay and all the financial records
[5] - he commanded all the 36 drummers in the infantry regiment
[6] - one of depot's captains with duty of regiment's clothing
French battalion of 6 companies formed in line.
French battalion of 6 companies formed in column.
The company was an administrative unit, the
tactical unit was the platoon (peloton). In 1808-1815
each company consisted of 140 men:
= 1 captain
= 2 leutenants
= 1 sergeant-major
= 4 sergeants (gritty, hard-bitten lads
who kept the men well under control)
= 1 fourrier
= 8 corporals
= 2-3 drummers
= 121 privates
"I had the misfortune to be disliked by the sergeant major. . . . . .
at the battle of Eylau a (Russian) musketball cut the sergeant-major's
musket in two ; he was then resting under arms , with his left arm
bearing on the socket of the bayonet , s o that he twirled round o n
his heels in such a peculiar way that I could not help bursting into
a laugh ...In going to the rear to get his wound dressed he told me :
I shall remember that laugh of yours."
- Jean Baptiste Barres, French infantry
~
Drummers, Cornets and Musicians.
The evening before the battle of Wagram (1809)
"The Emperor slept in the lee of 12 grenadier drums
stacked in groups of three." - Henri Lachoque
Just as modern company commander relies on his radio operator, his Napoleonic counterpart
depended on his drummers and cornets. During a battle it was very noisy and not everyone could
hear a officer's voice. For this reason every company had drummers and cornets. They also performed
a service that went beyond supplying a rhythmic musical accompaniment to the marching infantry.
The musicians carried wounded officers out of danger zone and after battle stacking their drums, they
would await the grim task of carrying their stricken comrades to field hospitals.
The musiacians occupied a central place in the life of the troop during peacetime for they signalled
the routine of the day, the posts, reveille, reviews etc. "During the Empire the drummers, trumpeters,
and musicians were pampered. They wore elaborate uniforms and received high pay. ... With bass-
bound ebony sticks they beat the March, Charge, Quickstep, ... The famous syncopation erroneously
called the 'Lame Duck' was borrowed from the Prussians whose drummers beat this singular rhythm
when their officers were late for assembly." (Henri Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory" pp 209-210)
Each company had 2-3 drummers.
But the drum was an unhandy, heavy instrument and for this reason the drummers were not
necessarily boys. The "brave little drummer boy" of tradition was not much use on napoleonic
battlefield. For example at Waterloo the average age of the drummers in the British II/73rd Foot was
23, and had an average of 8 years service each. When 13-year-old Parisian street urchin, by name
Victor, wanted to join the 5th Regiment of Tirailleurs (Young Guard) as a drummer-boy, he was
turned down because of his tender age and puny physique.
The drummers had to master a litany of commands. The beginners had difficulties with holding the
drumstick properly without hitting the rim of the drum as often as the drum-head, which would
bring down upon them a reprimand from the instructor, or a rap across the knuckles. Occasionally,
with a slow learner, the technique could be hand-to-ear ;=)
According to Colonel Elting (USA) during 1804-5 first the light infantry regiments and then the
voltigeur companies of the line regiments had drummers replaced by cornets. Those were "hunting
horns" with circular tubing and a flaring bell. The cornets were "immediately and immensely
unpopular" ; their tone squeaky and "far more productive of laughter than martial fury." Nothing
seems to have been done officially, but all light regiments gradually recovered their drums. The
cornets remained, at least for show.
Drummer by F Funcken
"Never did I hear such drums and never shall again ;
there were years of battle and blood in every sound"
-Benjamin R. Haydon
Officially there were also 8 musicians per infantry regiment but colonels often increased their numbers
to 20-30. During battle the regimental bands were often grouped to form massed big bands. The
infantry sang the songs refrain making an impressive show.
- the band played when troops waited for action
- the band marched behind the advancing battalions
- the musicians however did not participate in the combat
In 1812 the bands were playing and marching in front of their parent regiments when they were
crossing the Niemen River and border of Russia. In 1813 at Dresden the sounds of regimental bands
came out of the suburbs. It was the infantry of Imperial Guard advancing out of the city and against
the enemy. In 1815 at Ligny the band of 23rd Line Regiment played when battalions marched in
columns proceded by skirmishers. But once they got into the fire zone the band was left behind the
attacking troops. At Borodino the bands played before the battle. "Before dawn on 7 Sept the bands on
the right flank began playing the reveillle to wake up the infantry, and it was gradually picked up all
along the line. They played the most rousing pieces. Music does a great deal to prepare the spirit for
battle. ..." (Chlapowski, - p 116)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
PS.
1865. Union General Philip Sheridan orders his musicians
to "play the gayest tunes in their books ( . . . ) never mind if
a bullet goes through a trombone, or even a trombonist, now
and then." :-)
1918. Not ot be outdone by the British and the French bands,
General John Pershing beefs up America's bands. He later
form US Army Band, still known as "Pershing's Own."
1990. The 3rd Armored Division band deploys to Kuwait,
where it performed on the enemy side of a berm while the
division advanced into Iraqi territory.
~
Sappers (Combat Engineers).
They broke in gates, chopped gaps in palisades
built bridges or destroyed them, broke walls or
loopholed them , to provide firing positions .
Each battalion had 1 corporal sapper and 4 privates sappers.
These strong men with facial hair marched together with
regimental band and near the Eagle/flag.
Sappers were picked men from grenadier (carabinier) company.
They were equipped with axes. Sappers wore grenadier uniform
with crossed axes and grenade badges on the sleeves. Their fur
cap was without front plate. Beards were mandatory.
Left: sapper of French line infantry.
Picture by L. et F. Funcken.
During combat they broke in gates, chopped gaps in palisades, built small bridges or
destroyed them, broke garden walls or loopholed them to provide protected firing
positions for the infantry. Before Waterloo Napoleon have ordered the sapper
companies of I Army Corps (d'Erlon's) to be ready to construct barricades around
the conquered buildings of La Haye Sainte and prevent the enemy from
reoccupying them.
During the battle of Ligny the French infantry attacked the strongly defended
chateau. Their skirmishers opened fire while sappers attempted to smash down one
of the three gates. The Prussian infantrymen shot the sappers within moments and
opened fire on the skirmishers.
~
Grenadiers (line infantry) and Carabiniers (light inf.).
The grenadiers (and carabiniers) were e l i t e troops
selected for their stature, bravery and war experience.
The grenadier companies (carabinier companies in light infantry) in every
infantry battalion were made of strong and brave men selected from the large
number of veterans in the army. In 1805 approx. 1/3 of napoleonic infantry
were veterans of at least 6 years' service. The army of 1812 was almost as good
as the famous Grand Army of 1805-1806, except there were less veterans in
the ranks.
According to de Segur the old-timers could easily be recognized "by their
martial air. Nothing could shake them. They had no other memories, no other
future, except warfare. They never spoke of anything else. Their officers were
either worthy of them or became it. For to exert one's rank over such men one
had to be able to show them one's wounds and cite oneself as an example."
They stimulated the new recruits with their warlike tales, so that the
conscripts brightened up. By so often exaggerating their own feats of arms, the
veterans obliged themselves to authenticate by their conduct what they've led
others to believe of them.
Each war battalion had only one grenadier company (carabinier company).
It was an elite troop and were often used as spearhead of attacking force. They were also trained how
to operate guns. The grenadiers, being an elite troops, were granted a higher pay.
According to the French Regulations of Internal Economy and of Infantry [Section IX, Article 1] issued
in 1791: Grenadiers are supposed to set an example of good conduct and of subordination. They are
always to be selected from the soldiers of the most distinguished and approved merit. Every year, on
the 9th September, a list of privates to complete the grenadier company is to be formed. Each of the
several captains in a battalion will select the 3 most eligible men from his fusilier company to become
grenadiers. These selected men must have been serving for at least for 2 years and be at least 173.5 cm
tall (French 5'4"). These selected men were assemled, talked about, and examined by the captain,
officers, NCOs and two senior troopers of the grenadier company. The captain of grenadier company
listens to the reports and remarks made, note down such as appear to him founded and then decides
whom of the selected men put on the list to propose to the commander of demi-brigade. The
commander of the demi-brigade judging from the reports which have been given to him by the
captain will accept only those of the earlier selected by the captain men who "deem worthy of a
decided preference." (There were exceptions however. Coignet went from his auxiliary battalion
straight into grenadier company basically he was taller than average and strong.)
The Imperial Decree of February 18th 1808 stated in Article 9th: "The Grenadier Company (...) shall be
taken from the totality of the corps, from among the men most appropriate by their (...) and shall be
accepted only if they have 4 years of service and have participated in at least 2 of the following
campaigns: Ulm, Austerlitz, Jena or Friedland."
Newly formed infantry battalions didn't have grenadiers (carabiniers) as they not had been in enough
combat !
Also, the depot battalions, the temporary battalions, and the battalions de marche were without
grenadiers (carabiniers).
As for their appearance it was stipulated that they must present a formidable sight, with moustaches,
red epaulettes and tall fur caps. The epaulettes broadened their shoulders and the tall bearskins (or
shakos with tall plumes) made them look even taller.
(King of Prussia, Frederick the Great, required from his grenadiers to be brave, good marchers, with
black hair and moustaches, not appear too amiable or laugh too easily and not have an effeminate
aspects. He formed them in battalions and used as crack troops on battlefield.)
The grenadiers and carabiniers wore bearskins. The bearskins were more difficult to cut through than
shako and had better padding than the helmet. Grenadier's bearskin had front plate and was slightly
taller than carabinier's bearskin. But this headwear was quite expensive headwear and a black waxed
cloth was used as protection against bad weather.
In July 1805 the carabiniers were ordered to return their bearskins to regimental depots
in preparation "for the coming campaign" and adopt shakos instead. In 1811 only few
carabiniers and grenadiers retained their bearskins, most wore shakos. In February 1812
(just few months before the Invasion of Russia) the fur caps were officially discontinued
in grenadier and carabinier companies due to shortage of bear skins.
Grenadier's (and carabinier's) shako had red shevrons, pompons, plumes and bands.
(See picture -->)
Sometimes the grenadier companies were detached from their parent battalions and formed in
separate grenadier battalions, or even divisions, for specific tasks. Already in 1796 Bonaparte formed a
special advance guard by detaching the grenadier and carabinier companies from most of his demi-
brigades and forming them into a provisional division (4,000 men) under General Dallemagne. It
consisted of two brigades commanded by Lannes and Lanusse, horse battery and light cavalry.
In 1805 existed the so-called "Grenadier Division" under Oudinot.
On 1 June 1807 the 1st Infantry Division under General Oudinot,
also called the "Grenadier Division", consisted of 16 elite battalions:
1st Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - I/1st Provisional Regiment (6 carabinier companies)
- - - - - - - - - - II/1st Provisional Regiment (6 voltigeur companies)
- - - - - - - - - - I/2nd Provisional Regiment (6 grenadier companies)
- - - - - - - - - - II/2nd Provisional Regiment (6 voltigeur companies)
2nd Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - I/3rd Provisional Regiment (6 carabinier companies)
- - - - - - - - - - II/3rd Provisional Regiment (6 voltigeur companies)
- - - - - - - - - - I/4th Provisional Regiment (6 grenadier companies)
- - - - - - - - - - II/4th Provisional Regiment (6 voltigeur companies)
3rd Brigade
4th Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - I/7th Provisional Regiment (6 carabinier companies)
Artillery
Sappers
In December 1808 Napoleon began breaking up Oudinot's division by
returning those companies whose parent regiments were assigned to
Bernadotte's and Davout's army corps. Thus this crack division was
reduced to 10 elite battalions. In 1809 this division was disbanded.
Bonaparte and grenadiers in 1796
The French grenadiers captured a big ferry
and surged across the Po River to confront
the Allies. - Italian Campaign 1796
~
Fusiliers (line infantry) and Chasseurs (light infantry).
The fusiliers and chasseurs formed
the bulk of the French infantry.
Each war battalion had only one grenadier and one voltigeur company, the remaining four, six, or
eight companies were made of fusiliers (chasseurs in light infantry). The fusiliers (chasseurs) occupied
the center of battalion line and for this reason were called centre companies. The fusiliers (chasseurs)
were without the prestige and priviledges of the grenadiers (carabiniers in light infantry). However
those of them who served in at least 2 campaigns, were brave, strong, and tall, were in some point
admitted into the grenadier (carabinier) company. If they were not tall enough they were admitted
into the voltigeurs.
Until 1806-1807 the fusiliers wore bicorn hats.
By 1807 it was replaced with shako with pompon.
The fusilier also wore dark blue coat with white lapels, red collar and red cuffs. In cold weather they
wore beige, dark blue or grey greatcoats. Oficially the epaulettes were worn only by the grenadiers
and carabiniers. But already since the beginning the chasseurs (centre companies of light infantry
regiments) wore them until 1812-1813.
Weapons:
Fusilier - musket and bayonet
Chasseur - musket and bayonet
Voltigeur - musket and bayonet
Grenadier, Carabinier - musket, bayonet, and infantry saber
Note: the chasseurs had to give up their sabers in 1807. But in some regiments it brought little result
so the order was repeated in 1815. unoficially also the voltigeurs and chasseurs carried the short
sabers. The Decree of 27th October 1807 forbade the voltigeurs to be armed with this weapon. Of
course none of the guys took it very seriously and they kept their sabers until 1815. Only NCOs,
grenadiers (carabiniers) and musicians were officially allowed to be armed with short sabers.
French fusilier in 1810 .
Picture by Andre Joineau
BATTALION OF LINE INFANTRY (in 1803)
fusiliers - fusiliers - fusiliers - fusiliers - fusiliers - fusiliers - fusiliers - fusiliers - grenadiers
BATTALION OF LINE INFANTRY (1804 - 1807)
voltigeurs - fusiliers - fusiliers - fusiliers - fusiliers - fusiliers - fusiliers - fusiliers - grenadiers
BATTALION OF LINE INFANTRY (1808 - 1815)
voltigeurs - fusiliers - fusiliers - fusiliers - fusiliers - grenadiers
French chasseur in 1809 .
Picture by Andre Joineau
BATTALION OF LIGHT INFANTRY (in 1803)
chasseurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - carabiniers
BATTALION OF LIGHT INFANTRY (1804 - 1807)
voltigeurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - carabiniers
BATTALION OF LIGHT INFANTRY (1808 - 1815)
voltigeurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - carabiniers
~
Voltigeurs.
The voltigeurs were the shortest men of the battalion
well suited for skirmishing, scouting, and fighting in
broken terrain and in the woods.
The voltigeurs were introduced by Napoleon in 1803. They were short and agile men, well suited for
skirmishing, ladder climbing, urban combat, and for scouting. They were trained in firing rapidly and
accurately and were expected to be able to march at the trot. Napoleon also wanted them to vault up
behind cavalrymen on horses but in real combat this happened only very few times and on very small
scale.
"British participants in the battle [of Albuera 1811] noticed French sharpshooters lying on the ground
and using their shakos as rests to steady their muskets for more accurate fire." ( Dempsey - "Albuera
1811" p 158)
Theoretically voltigeurs were armed with 141.7 cm long dragoon muskets (it was a shorter version of
musket, easier to load and carry for the short man). But it was rare and voltigeurs were armed as the
rest of infantry, with long muskets. They also carried a bayonet and short saber.
The Decree issued in March 1803 ordered raising a 10th Chasseur Company in the regiments of light
infantry. The 10th Company was formed by taking the 6 smallest men from every chasseur company
in the battalion. The 10th Chasseur Company became the Voltiger Company. In December was
decided that the voltigeurs won't be taller than 4'11' (French) and their officers not exceed 5'. In
regiments of line infantry the 3rd Fusilier Company became the Voltigeur Company. After 1808 each
infantry battalion had six companies: four centre (chasseurs/fusiliers) and two flank elite companies
(voltigeurs and grenadiers/carabiniers).
In 1805-1806 was introduced requirement of 2 years of excellent service for being admitted into
voltigeurs. In 1808 the voltigeurs were officially assigned to the left of battalion line. It was a
priviledged position as on the right flank of the battalion stood the Grenadier Company (made of tall
and seasoned soldiers). Thus the two companies became flank companies. In 1809-1810 the voltigeurs
were granted a higher pay.
The voltigeurs, being elite troops, distinguished themselves by wearing yellow collars, and yellow-red
or yellow-green epaulettes. Wearing epaulettes by voltigeurs was never oficially allowed - actually it
was prohibited. The Ministry of War even complained that voltigeurs were "entitled to no other dress
distinctions than yellow collar." Order issued in September 1808 prohibited the use of regimental
funds for the purchase of epaulettes for voltigeurs. Between 1804 and 1809 some voltigeurs wore the
unofficial colpacks, sort of fur cap replaced by 1809 with shakos.
BATTALION OF LINE INFANTRY (1808-15)
voltigeurs - fusiliers - fusiliers - fusiliers - fusiliers - grenadiers
BATTALION OF LIGHT INFANTRY (1808-15)
voltigeurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - chasseurs - carabiniers
The voltigeurs were short and agile men.
Here they wear parade uniforms. 1812.
Sometimes the voltigeur companies were detached from their parent battalions
and formed in separate, independent voltigeur battalions for specific tasks.
Examples below:
"... the Emperor himself arrived there and sent Talhouet with 200 voltigeurs across the Danube
River on boats to the crossroads of Pratern. From there, Pourtales, who was Berthier's ADC, then
swam with a dozen or so voltigeurs across the stretch of the Danube separating Pratern from Vienna.
This all happened as night was falling." (Chlapowski, - p 65)
On May 18th 1809 groups of voltigeurs rowed across the Danube River carrying a cable that would
support the bridge to the Island of Lobau (this bridge would lead to the Austrian-held shore). These
voltigeurs cleared the island and construction of the bridge began. To protect the pontonniers, Major
Sainte-Croix (ADC to Massena) took 200 voltigeurs across Danube River to the right bank. Meanwhile
the pontonniers were able to complete the bridge.
According to Austrian historian Rothenberg in Wagram Colonel Sainte-Croix with 2,500 voltigeurs
(!) and 10 guns were ordered to cross the Danube River and establish a small bridgehead. The
voltigeurs were carried in specially constructed barges also with bulletproof shielding. The surprised
Austrians offered little opposition with only their jagers operating in small clumps in the woods had
fought well. (Rothenberg - "The Emperor's Last Victory" pp 158-159)
In 1812 before the three bridges were thrown over the Niemen River, 3 companies of voltigeurs of
13th Light Regiment crossed silently in skiffs and landed on the Russian bank. They took cover behind
a little escarpment formed by the river and looked for the enemy's scouts and light artillery.
At Shevardino 1812, six companies of voltigeurs in skirmish order "covering themselves as much as
possible, were ordered to keep a constant fire on the [Russian] artillery men at the guns on the
redoubt. ... A battalion [of infantry] was placed in rear of the knoll to support the voltigeurs." (-
Gourgaud)
While there was no major confrontations on the 6th, one day before the battle of Borodino, the day
was not as peaceful as it is usually described in books, being full of skirmishes along the entire line.
Alexander Mikaberidze writes: "That day, Fedor Glinka, sitting in the bell tower near the village of
Borodino, could see as the French 'bands [of tirailleurs] skirmished with our jagers for almost the
entire day since our troops did not allow them to get drinking water from the Kolocha.'
At one moment a heated fight began between the tirailleurs of Morand's division and the Russian
jagers near Borodino. Hearing the musket fire, Davout ordered General Dedem, commanding a
brigade in Friant's division, 'to ride flat out and stop the firing all down the line.' Still occasional fire
could be heard for the rest of the day and Capt. Francois recalled hearing it as late as 11 pm. The 30th
Line lost 67 killed that day ... Later that night, Colonel Kaisarov, who served as Kutusov's duty
general, wrote that 'the enemy occupied us with skirmishes on the left flank,' ..." (Mikaberidze - 'The
battle of Borodino' p 71)

Voltigeurs acting as the advance guard of the French army ,
crossing the Danube River, and capturing the Lobau Island.
During the battle of Mohrungen in January 1807
a 41-year-old sergeant rallied his voltigeurs when
Russian dragoons threatened. The French waited
until the cavalry approached, fired, killed the officer
leading the charge, and watched as the leadersless
cavalry fell back. The sergeant was awarded with the
cross of the Legion of Honor.
~
Eagles, flags, and fanions.
"When Bonaparte saw passing in front of him the
flags of the 30th, 43rd, and 96th Demi-Brigades,
as these flags did not present any more than a stick
surmounted with some rags pierced by grapeshot
and blackened by powder, he took off his hat
bowed himself as a sign of respect."- St.Hilaire
The practice of carrying standards, to act both as a rallying point for troops, and to
mark the location of the unit, is thought to have originated in Egypt some 5,000 years
ago. It was formalised in the armies of medieval Europe, with standards being
emblazoned with the commander's coat of arms. As armies became trained and
adopted set formations, each regiment's ability to keep its formation was potentially
critical to its, and therefore its army's, success. In the chaos of battle, not least due to
the amount of dust and smoke on a battlefield, soldiers needed to be able to
determine where their regiment was. The medieval standards developed into the Colours of the infantry
and cavalry.
Such became the significance in this context that, for a regiment to lose its colours was a disgrace, with
the capture of an enemy's colours being seen as a great honour. This is why that, whenever the colours
are paraded, they are always escorted by armed guards and paid the highest compliments by all soldiers
and officers.
"A month after being proclaimed Emperor in May 1804, Napoleon decided on the emblem of Empire. He
considered the cock and the lion but rejected both in favour of an eagle with wings spread. It became the
design of the Great Seal of State and the emblem of the army and navy. In the army the Eagle would be
carried on top of a pole with a standard underneath. The Eagle was the supreme importance. When
writing on the subject to Marechal Berthier he stressed that it was the priceless symbol of France and the
Empire, while the standard below it was of lesser importance and could be replaced if necessary. ...
Because the Consular Guard, and then the Imperial Grenadier and Chasseur Guard regiments, were
normally in barracks in Paris or on palace duties, their Eagles were kept in a room next to the throne
room in the Tuileries." (Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion" p 200)
Having almost 200 infantry regiments and more than 500 battalions, and being involved in countless
battles and combats from Moscow to Madrid, and from Amsterdam to Rome, the French lost
astonishingly small amount of eagles and flags. Several examples below.
At Mohrungen in January 1807, two battalions of the Yekaterinoslav (Ekaterinoslav) Grenadiers and two
weak battalions of the 5th Jagers engaged two battalions of the famous 9th Light Infantry in a bayonet
fight. The melee occurred in the village of Pfarrersfeldchen. The Russians killed three eagle bearers, one
after another. Russian Adjutant Borodkine grappled with Carabinier Fouquet and tore the flag from his
grasp. Among the casualties were a commander of Russian grenadier battalion, and commander of the
second battalion of the 9th Light Infantry. In the wood east of Pfarrersfeldchen the 27th Light Infantry
encountered the newly-raised 25th Jagers. While advancing the Russians crossed a ditch and became
disordered. The French charged immediately and the jagers fled before making contact. Two companies
of the jagers however rallied and checked the French advance.
Russian infantry capturing French flag at Eylau, 1807
(in the right bottom corner)
At Eylau the Russian heavy cavalry
(Military Order Cuirassiers) captured the
eagle of 24th Line Infantry Regiment.
James Arnold writes: Captain N.L.
Sergueienko led his cuirassier squadron
against the 24th Ligne. The 24th Ligne had
already suffered severely, but the
regiment had a proud reputation and a
devoted group of grenadiers refused to
yield. They formed around the eagle of
the regiments third battalion and tried to
defend themselves with their bayonets.
The cuirassiers methodically hacked them
down. A cuirassier trooper drove his
horse toward the eagle bearer and cut him
down just before his wounded horse
collapsed. The dismounted trooper
valiantly continued to contest and seized the trophy. He handed the eagle to Captain Sergueienko, who
by now was also wounded. Sergueienko preserved the eagle while the cuirassiers slaughtered the fleeing
French soldiers. (Arnold Crisis in the snows p. 295)
Many actions fought during the battle of Pultusk in 1806 were quite confusing. "Major-General Kozhin
led his (Russian) cuirassiers and two squadrons of the Kargopol Dragoons against the front and left
flank of Vedel's columns. Heretofore, the weather had featured thick, low lying clouds, periodic snow
showers, and a stiff, icy wind. Kozhin's troopers struck at a time when a snow squall reduced visibility.
Consequently, the first the French knew about it was when saber-wielding horsemen appeared in their
midst. Caught out of square, the French suffered terribly. ... The Russians hacked the first battalion of the
88th Ligne to pieces, mortally wounding the unit's commander, and apparently captured its eagle.
Lieutenant Voisin valiantly tried to rally the battalion but only some 70 to 80 men responded. The rest
had either fallen in combat or fled. ... The 88th Ligne would fight in numerous battles during the
Napoleonic Wars. Never again would it suffer such losses." (Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows" p 159)
In 1807 at Heilsberg the 55th Line was attacked by
Prussian cavalry and Russian infantry and was
overthrown. They also lost their eagle, colonel, and
number of officers. The eagle was captured by NCO
Anton Antonov of Pernov Musketeers. Prussian
historians claimed that the Prittwitz Hussars captured
the Eagle of 55th Line. German artist Knotel even
painted a picture showing this moment. There is
however no data, no names of Prussian soldiers who
captured the Eagle, no nothing to back up this claim. So
it looks like the Russian infantry and not the Prussians
did it.
In 1807 near Eylau, the Russian St.Petersbourg Dragoons captured French color. The French 46th Line
Infantry marched in snow while being fired upon by the Russian artillery and skirmishers. It didnt stop
them from crossing their bayonets with the Russian infantry and the famous 18th Line (nicknamed "The
Brave") hurried to support their comrades. Meanwhile the S.Petersburg Dragoons moved around own
infantry and began deploying into charge. The 18th Line suddenly saw a dark mass of cavalry coming at
them and leaving no time for forming the square. The French infantry wavered and fired. The dragoons
attacked from the front and from the rear and the infantry lost any order. A desperate struggle was
around the French standard.
Trooper Podvorotny drove the French standard-bearer to the ground and seized the Eagle. Trooper
Deriagin and others cut down the escort of the standard, Adjutant Fomine, dragoon Erofeiev and
trumpeter Logvinov were also involved in this bloody struggle.
Marshal Soults Journal of the IV Corps: The 18th Regiment was near to arriving at the summit, when a
large body of enemy cavalry surrounded it, charged it, repulsed it. Colonel Langlois wrote that General
Lavasseur, all the senior officers, as well as large number of officers and soldiers of this regiment were
seriously wounded and, the worst of all, the Eagle was lost. The damage was indeed enormous: 44
officers killed, wounded and captured as prisoners - including Lavasseur, Ravier and Pelleport. The 18e
also lost more than 500 other ranks, including several hundred prisoners. The situation could develop
into a slaughter if not the charge by the 13e Chasseurs who saved the 18e Ligne. This regiment was so
shaken that it was kept in reserve when the Battle of Eylau was fought. The losses of the dragoons were
only 20 men killed and 18 wounded. The French army Bulletin dated 9 Feb. 1807 tried to downplay the
loss of the regiments Eagle and the Emperor ordered that the 18th Ligne be given replacement eagle.
At Eylau in 1807 the Russian cavalrymen covered themselves with glory. The 44th Ligne and 16th
Legere frantically tried to form square. Three sides managed to form but it was too late. The Russians
poured through the open, fourth side and began the slaughter. The next day, neatly arrayed bodies two
and three ranks deep would clearly delineate where the French had tried to complete their squares.
Caught out of formation, unable to use their weapons to defend themselves, the survivors broke and
fled. Russian hussars and dragoons plunged their swords into the exposed backs of the fleeing French.
A cannon ball broke the staff of one of the 44th Lignes eagles. Before the eagle bearer could pick up the
eagle, a canister round struck him in the chest. As he staggered, a Russian dragoon slashed him across
the head causing him to lose consciousness. The St. Petersburg Dragoons added to the luster they had
earned the previous day by capturing the eagle. ( Arnold Crisis in the snows p. 292)
In 1815 at Waterloo (battle of Belle
Alliance for the Prussians, and Mont St
Jean for the French), two of the French
regimental eagles were captured by
British heavy cavalry The Royal Dragoons
captured the Eagle of the 105th Line and
the Scots Greys captured the Eagle of the
45th Line.
For more information on this matter read
very interesting article titled "The Royal Scots Greys at Waterloo : Did it really happen this way ?" from
Napoleonic Historical Society >> (ext. link)
The British troops also captured several French colors in Peninsula. The Prussians and Austrians got few
as well. The Russians however captured more French colors than the Prussians, British and Austrian
troops. Below only several examples.
At Austerlitz the Russian Guard cavalry captured flag of 4th Line Infantry Regiment.
(This infuriated Napoleon, because his brother Joseph, was the chef of this regiment.)
Near Eylau, the 18th Line lost its flag and Eagle to the Russian St Petersburg Dragoons.
In 1813 at Plagwitz, the Russian 28th Jager Regiment captured Color of the 146th Line Regiment.
In August 1813 at Lowenburg the 28th Jagers captured Color of 148th Line Regiment.
In 1812 at Krasne, the Russian Poltava Infantry Regiment captured Color of 35th Line Regiment.
The Russian Pernau Infantry Regiment captured French (battalion ?) color in 1807 at Heilsberg.
At Eylau they captured another trophy, battalion color of French 55th Line Infantry Regiment.
In 1807 at Friedland the Pernau Infantry Regiment captured battalion Color of the 69th Line Regiment.
In 1805 at Durenstein the Moscow Infantry Regiment defeated the French 100th Line Infantry Regiment.
The enemy lost 100 men, 1 Color and 1 Eagle. In the same campaign they also captured Color of 103rd
Line Regiment.
In 1812 at Krasne, the 18th Line again lost its eagle and was virtually destroyed by the Russian
Lifeguard Uhlans.
The French however were not push-overs. At Austerlitz alone they took 50 colors from the Allies !
Even in 1815, at Quatre Bras and Waterloo, the French captured several enemy's colors. John Elting
writes, "Amazingly, at Waterloo the French had lost only 2 eagles, and those early in the battle to English
cavalry." By contrast, they had taken either 4 or 6 colors - the number naturally is much disputed - from
Wellington's army."
At Eylau in 1807 A single shell exploded among the color party of the 1st [Old Guard] Grenadiers,
killing a lieutenant, wounding 5 NCOs, and shattering the staff held by the eagle-bearer. He calmly
ignored the carnage, picked up the splinter still attached to the banner, inserted it in the musket,
and resumed his place in the ranks. (Arnold - "Crisis in the snows" p. 339)
.
Years of 1804-1811
Battles: Ulm, Austerlitz, Jena, Auerstadt,
Eylau, Heilsberg, Friedland, Wagram
With the establishment of the Empire in 1804, the regiments were presented with a
new flag (drapeau) for every battalion. The 1804 pattern of the flag was lavishly
braided, bearing the regimental number within a laurel wreath, the diamond
inscribed in gold lettering. During campaign the flag was removed. In 1808-1815 the
Eagle-bearer (Porte-Aigle) was accompanied by 2 escorts (2nd me & 3eme Porte-Aigle)
in the rank of NCOs and carried halberds. Triangular pennons (61cm x 20cm) were
attached to the halberds, red for that to the right and white to the left of the Eagle-
bearer. The Eagle would be carried with the 2nd Company of I Battalion in every regiment.
In September 1806 it was ordered that regiments of light infantry should hand in all their Eagles at the
beginning of a campaign. The Eagles should be kept in depots. But some regiments carried their Eagles
until 1814 and even one regiment lost its Eagle in battle in that year.
In 1808 was issued order that only one Eagle was to be carried by the regiment (newly formed regiments
were given only one Eagle). The Eagles and flags of other battalions and squadrons were to be returned
to regimental depots. It took several years before the order was implemented.
In 1811 some 2nd and 3rd battalions still had their colors in the field.
The rank of Eagle-bearer (Porte-Aigle) was oficially introduced. He was an officer of proven valour and
at least 10 years service or 4 campaigns of Ulm, Austerlitz, Jena and Friedland. The guards, 2nd and 3rd
Eagle-bearers, were sergeants who were paid as sergeant majors - this was a way of rewarding brave
and seasoned NCOs who could not aspire to the rank of officer (or simply saying they were too stupid).
The 1st, 2nd and 3rd Eagle-bearer were armed with a short saber and pistols.
.
Years of 1812-1814
Smolensk, Borodino, Malo-Yaroslavetz, Krasne, Berezina,
Dennewitz, Dresden, Leipzig, Hanau, La Rothiere, Paris.
In April 1812 was ordered that each regiment of light and line infantry will receive a
new tricolor pattern flag, which bore on the reverse the battle honors of the regiment.
The battle honors were restricted to battles at which Napoleon had commanded in
person.
In 1812 every infantry regiment had only one Eagle.
It was carried by an eagle-bearer (officer) and guarded by 2 guards (sergeants, brave
but usually too stupid for commission) and 6 fourriers (drawn from companies). The
2 guards (sergeants) were not the jalonneurs of the battalion.
The Eagle was with the 2nd Company of 1st Battalion.
The 2nd Battalion carried white fanion,
the 3rd red fanion,
the 4th blue fanion,
the 5th green fanion
and the 6th yellow fanion.
There were also so-called company markers. (See picture).
In 1812 some regiments left their Eagles in depots and went to Russia
with fanions only. The Old Guard regiments, however, kept its 1804
pattern standards until 1813.
In 1814 Napoleon reissued Eagles to regiments who had had them
confiscated or/and destroyed by the Bourbons. The eagles and tricolor flags were bigger
but much simpler. All the regiments of Young Guard carried simple fanions.
.
Burning the flags during the retreat from Russia in fall and winter of 1812.
Picture by W Kossak.
.
Year of 1815
Charleroi, Gilly, Quatre Bras, Ligny, Waterloo.
The flag of 1815 was also a tri-color pattern but it lacked almost all the magnificent
embroidery of 1804 pattern. "All regiments received new eagles, a number of them
after Waterloo. However, there seem to have been no new battalion fanions; some
officers felt they would have been very useful as rallying points." (Elting - "Swords
Around a Throne" p 651)
After Waterloo the Bourbons did their best to see that all the napoleonic standards
and eagles were destroyed. In some regiments the officers burned the standards
before mixing the ashes with wine and drinking them down. The officers of the 2nd Swiss Regiment tore
their standard into strips with each officer keeping a piece.
(HUMOR. During the Civil War in USA, the 8th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry carried into battle a wooden perch to which a bald
eagle (named Old Abe) was tethered. The bearers caried their mascot in the front rank of the color guard. On Oct 3 1863, a bullet
severed the cord that held the eagle to his perch, and Old Abe flew along the flaming battle line, losing several of his feathers to
enemy fire. - Don Troiani "Civil War" p 76
~
The best regiments of French infantry.
"This terrible Napoleon and his infantry,
we expected them to appear anywhere."
- General Langeron, Russian army
The French army contained many regiments of line and light infantry whose soldierly
skills and deeds of daring reflected the unsurpassed devotion of the soldiers to their
cause and to Napoleon. They all won immortal fame in those ten terrible years of
strife.
Below are the most popular and known infantry regiments of Napoleon's army. To
decide which one is the best you have to consider several things; their battle honors,
number of combats, reputation, training, commanders, etc. This is somehow tricky. For
example the capture of the Great Redoubt at Borodino was more difficult and
demanding than participation in several smaller and low-intensity combats against
weaker opponents. But how to rate such things ?
.
Line Infantry
(4th, 18th, 57th, 84th)
4th Line
4 Battle Honors: 1796 - Arcole, 1800 - Hohenlinden, 1806 - Jena, 1809 - Wagram
37 Battles and Combats: 1791 - Expedition to Saint-Dominique, 1795 - Mannheim, 1796 - Mantoue, Castiglione, Verone,
Primolano, La Brenta, Caldiero, Arcole, Tagliemento, 1798 - Expedition to the Iles Saint-Marcouf, 1800 - Engen,
Moeskirch, Memmingen, Hohenlinden, 1805 - Ulm, Austerlitz, 1806 - Jena, 1807 - Eylau, Heilsberg, Koenigsberg, 1809 -
Eckmuhl, Aspern, Essling, Wagram, 1812 - Smolensk, Valoutina, La Moskowa, Krasnoe, 1813 - Dresden, Leipzig, Hanau,
1814 - Brienne, La Rothiere, Monterau, Troyes, 1815 - Ligny
Notes: In 1804 their colonel was Joseph Bonaparte, Emperor's brother. In 1805 at Austerlitz the Russian Guard cavalry
captured their flag. In 1807 at Heilsberg the 4th Line was part of St.Cyr's hard fighting division. In 1809 at Wagram the
4th Line was part of Massena's Corps and - again - lost Eagle, this time to the Austrians. In 1812 at Borodino the 4th was
part of Ney's III Corps, attacking Russian formidable center. In 1813 at Leipzig the 4th Line was part of Dufour's 5th
Infantry Division and was involved in heavy fighting for Wachau. In 1815 at Ligny (Waterloo Campaign) the 4th Line
was part of Girard's 7th Division and attacked Blucher's Prussians flank. Solid but unlucky unit.
18th Line "The Brave"
3 Battle honors: 1796 - Rivoli, 1805 - Austerlitz, 1812 - Borodino (La Moskowa)
38 Battles and Combats: 1792 - Jemmapes, 1796 - Dego, Lonato, Castiglione, Saint-Georges, Caldiero, Arcole, Tarvis, 1797
- Rivoli, 1798 - Fribourg, Alexandrie, Chebreiss, Pyramides, 1799 - Saint-Jean de Acre, Mont-Tabor, Aboukir, 1805 -
Hollabrun, Austerlitz, 1806 - Jena, 1807 - Eylau, Heilsberg, Friedland, 1809 - Ebersberg, Vienne, Essling, Wagram, Znaim,
1812 - Smolensk, La Moskowa, Krasnoe, 1813 - Dresden, Leipzig, Hanau, 1814 - Magdebourg, La Rothiere, Montereau,
1815 - Surbourg, Strasbourg
Notes: in 1807 at Heilsberg the 18th was to outflank the Russian position, instead it found itself isolated and attacked by
numerous Cossacks. Two more battalions and one battery were sent to support the 18th before it was able to withdraw.
Near Eylau, the 18th Ligne lost its flag and Eagle to the Russian St.Petersbourg Dragoons. In 1809 the 18th had fought at
Aspern-Essling and at Wagram, and lost 45 of 54 officers killed and wounded ! At Raab the 18th delivered am audacious
charge that sent the Austrians reeling and took 5 cannons. In 1812 at Borodino this regiment was in Ney's III Corps,
attacking Russian center. It was on 18th November 1812 at Krasne, that the 18th lost its eagle. Marshal Ney led his
troops in a frontal attack that ended in failure. According to Col. Pierre Pelleport, the 18th Line was virtually
destroyed by Russian Lifeguard Uhlans. By Pelleport's order, the eagle was placed at the head of the regiment although
other troops sought to hide their own eagles by dismantling them or hurrying them to the rear. Approx. 600 of the
Frenchmen became casualties, including 350 dead and few survived by the skin of their teeth. The infantry fled pell-mell
across the white field, carrying with them the few officers who were trying vainly to rally them. Officers Koracharov and
Bolchwing and uhlan Darchenko of the II Squadron captured the eagle and flag (drapeau) of the 18th Line and were
awarded with the St. George order. The 18th Line had requested a replacement eagle for the one lost at Krasne and
Napoleon approved the request in 1813. In 1813 at Leipzig this regiment was in Vial's 6th Infantry Division and was
involved in heavy fighting for Wachau. One battalion of the 18th (made of raw recruits) was crushed by the Prussian
landwehr and reserve infantry at Hagelberg.
57th Line "The Terrible"
3 Battle Honors: 1797 - La Favorite, 1805 - Austerlitz, 1812 - Borodino (La Moskowa)
43 Battles and Combats: 1792 - Spire, 1793 - Mayence , 1794 - Fontarabie, Pampelune, 1797 - La Favorite, 1799 - Zurich,
Diessenhofen, 1800 - Engen, Moeskirch, Biberach, Hochstedt, Nordlingen, Oberhausen, Neubourg, Landshut,
Hohenlinden, 1805 - Memmingen, Ulm, Austerlitz, 1806 - Jena, Lubeck, 1807 - Bergfried, Deppen, Hoff, Eylau, Lomitten,
Heilsberg, 1809 - Thann, Abensberg, Eckmuhl, Ratisbonne, Essling, Wagram, 1812 - Mohilov, La Moskowa,
Malojaroslavetz, Viasma, Krasnoe, 1813 - Dresden, Pirna, Kulm, Rachnitz, 1814 - Strasbourg
Notes: Napoleon once said: "The Terrible 57th which nothing can stop." These words were proudly added to their flag.
The Directory ordered such inscriptions removed, thereby proving once more that they knew nothing about soldiers. In
1805 at Austerlitz the 57th Line was in Vandamme's Division and participated in the storming of Pratzen Heights. It was
one of the most decisive moments of this epic battle and Napoleon's greatest victory. In 1807 at Heilsberg the 57th was
part of St.Cyr's Division. They stormed the Russian redoubts in the center of their positions. The fighting was
tremendous. In 1809 at Wagram the 57th Line and 10th Light were part of Grandjean's Infantry Division (Oudinot's
Corps) In 1812 at Borodino this regiment was part of Davout's I Corps and they captured one of Bagration Fleches. The
57th were awarded with a badge of Legion of Honor affixed to their Eagle. Today the Le terible is one of the most
popular napoleonic infantry units in the English speaking world.
84th Line "One Against Ten"
2 Battle Honors: 1805 - Ulm 1805, 1812 - Wagram
30 Battles and Combats: 1792 - Valmy, 1794 - Oneille, 1795 - Saint-Martin-de-Lantosca, 1796 - Borghetto, Mantua, Cerea,
Bassano, 1800 - Engen, Moeskirch, Hochstedt, 1805 - Ulm, Austerlitz, 1809 - Sacile, Prewald, Graetz, Wagram, 1812 -
Ostrowo, Smolensk, La Moskowa, Malojaroslawetz, Krasnoe, La Beresina, 1813 - Feistritz, Laybach, Isonzo, Caldiero,
1814 - Verone, Mincio, Plaisance, 1815 - Waterloo
Notes: The 84th Line, in tribute to the victory over 10,000 Austrians at Graz (fight at Saint Leonhard) in 1809, had a
silver plaque attached to the staff of its eagle with the inscription "Un Contra Dix" ("One Against Ten"). Here few details
about this combat. Two battalions of the 84th Line with 2 guns entered the town of Graz, seized stable and cleared the
streets, and took 450 prisoners. The Austrians held only the church and cemetery. Fierce musketry halted the 84e. At
midnight the French scaled the cemetery's walls and took the defenders by surprise. Approx. 120 Austrians surrendered.
The French realized that there were more Austrians in the neighbourhood. The 84th considered a withdrawal only to
find that the whitecoats had surrounded them. The French put all prisoners into the church, and took cover behind
cemetery wall. Although most of the Austrian forces were militia, they outnumbered the French by 10 to 1. The only first
rate unit was the Simbish Infantry Regiment. In the morning the whitecoats attacked the cemetery several times. In one
attack they penetrated the church to liberate their comrades, in another attack they dragged off one cannon before the
French counterattacked and retook it. In one of the last attacks the whitecoats scaled the wall and captured one of 84th's
eagles. Sergeant Legouge single-handedly entered the fight to save the eagle. Running out of ammunition the French
decided to use bayonets and cut their way to safety. They escaped and met up with a relieving troops sent by Marshal
Marmont.
In 1809 at Wagram this regiment was part of the famous MacDonald's column. When its eagle and flag were destroyed
in 1812 in Russia, its colonel saved the plaque.
Light Infantry
(1st, 6th, 9th, 10th. 11th, 13th,
24th, 25th, and 26th)
1st Light
3 Battle Honors: 1805 - Ulm, , 1806 - Jena, 1807 - Friedland
47 Battles and Combats: 1792 - Spiere, Mayennce, 1793 - Le Boulou, Collioure, Saint-Laurent-de-la-Muga, 1794 - Le
Montagne-Noire, Rosas, 1795 - Loano, Bardinetto, 1797 - Armee du Nord, 1799 - Zurich, Stokach, 1800 - Moeskirch,
Bregenz, Mont Tonale, Hohenlinden, 1806 - Lago-Negro, Monterano, Sainte-Euphemie, Sigliano, 1807 - Strongoli, 1808 -
Valence and Tarragone, 1809 - Vals, Saint-Hilary, Raab, Presbourg, and Saint-Colomba, 1810 - Grenouillere, Montblanc,
and Salona, 1811 - Tarragone, Saint-Celoni, and Serrat, 1813 - Bautzen, Lukau, Juterbock, Dessau, Leipzig, and Zara, 1814
- Chalons-sur-Marne, Mincio, Bar-sur-Aube, Saint-Georges, Saint-Romans, 1815 - Ligny, Waterloo
Notes: Due to this regiments heavy involvement in the attacks on Hougoumont (Waterloo) the 1st Light is quite popular
in the English-speaking world.
6th Light
7 Battle Honors: 1800 - Marengo, 1805 - Ulm, 1806 - Jena, 1807 - Eylau, Friedland , 1809 - Essling, Wagram
41 Battles and Combats: 1795 - Pirmassens 1796 - Mantua, Castiglione. 1800 - Romano, Montebello, Marengo, Gazzoldo,
Goito, Pozzolo, 1805 - Elchingen, Ulm, Austerlitz, 1806 - Jena, Lubeck, 1807 - Eylau, Peterswald, Guttstadt, Friedland,
1809 - Villafranca, San-Payo, Santiago, 1809 - Essling, Wagram, 1810 - Cuidad-Rodrigo, Almeida, Busaco, 1811 - Fuentes-
de-Onoro, 1812 - Arapiles, 1813 - Lutzen, Bautzen, Buntzlau, Potznitz, Leipzig, 1814 - La Rothiere, Vauchamps,
Montmirail, Craonne, Orthez, Toulouse, 1815 - Ligny, Waterloo
Notes: In 1791 their colonel was Thomas O'Meara [Irishman]. Seven battle honors, this is not bad at all!
9th Light "Incomparable"
4 Battle Honors: 1805 - Ulm, 1807 - Friedland, 1809 - Essling and Wagram.
35 Battles and Combats: 1793 - Neerwinden , Arlon, 1794 - Fleurus, Mayence, 1795 - Ehrenbreitstein, 1800 - Romano,
Marengo, 1805 - Ulm, Durrenstein, Vienne, Halle, Lubeck, 1806 - Waren, 1807 - Mohrengen, Eylau, Braunsberg,
Friedland, 1808 - Madrid, 1809 - Medellin and Talevera, 1809 - Essling and Wagram, 1811 - Chiclana and Fuentes-de-
Onoro, 1812 - Badajoz and Bornos, 1813 - Vittoria, 1813 - Lutzen, Bautzen, Kulm, Peterswald, and Leipzig, 1814 -
Toulouse, Santa-Maria de la Nieva, 1814 - Montmirail, 1815 - Ligny
Notes: There were quarels between the Consular Guard and the 9th Light , which - Napoleon having dubbed it "The
Incomparable" in Italy - was not about to be impressed by any "Praetorians." In 1808 the 9th participated in the storming
of the Somosierra Pass in Spain.
In January 1814 a 60-man detachment from the 9th Light crossed the Saar River, burned a farmhouses defended by
Prussian infantry, and returned the river barges to the French bank. The lieutenant who commanded the mission
received the chevalier of the Legion of Honor in recognition of the operation's success. (Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon" p
260)
10th Light
7 Battle Honors: 1805 - Ulm and Austerlitz, 1806 - Jena, 1807 - Eylau, 1809 - Eckmuhl, Essling and Wagram.
38 Battles and Combats: 1795 - Dusseldorf, 1796 - Rastadt, Neresheim, Kehl, Biberach, 1799 - Limmath, Zurich, 1800 -
Engen, Hohenlinden, 1805 - Ulm and Austerlitz, 1806 - Jena, 1807 - Eylau, Heilsberg, Friedland, 1809 - Thann, Landshut,
Eckmuhl, Essling, and Wagram, 1812 - Alba, Carascal, Estella, 1812 - Smoliany, Borisow, 1813 - Pampelune and Roncal,
Lutzen, Kulm, Buntzlau, Naumbourg, Dresden, Leipzig, Hanau, 1814 - Vauchamps, Bar-sur-Aube, and Arcis-sur-Aube,
1815 - Strasbourg
Notes: In 1805 at Austerlitz the 10th was part of St.Hilaire Division and participated in the storming of Pratzen Heights.
It was one of the most decisive moments of this epic battle. In 1807 at Heilsberg this regiment was part of St.Hilaire's
Division and attacked the heavily fortified Russian center. In 1809 at Wagram the 10th and 57th Line "The Terible" were
part of Grandjean's Infantry Division (Oudinot's Corps)
11th Light
- Battle Honors: none
39 Battles and Combats: 1794 - Schanzel, Kaiserlautern, Mayence, Mombach, 1795 - Loano, 1796 - La Bochetta-di -
Campione, La Corona, Lonato, Saint-Georges, Tyrol, Lavis, Brixen, 1797 - Rivoli, Mantua, Valvasonne, 1798 - Malta, 1799
- Offenbourg, Stockach, Trebbia, 1800 - Fischbach, 1802 - Gros-Morne, Crete-a-Pierrot, La Cap, Vertieres, 1812 -
Sivotschina, Soolna, Polotsk, Beresina, 1813 - Dresden, Leipzig, Hanau, 1814 - Brienne, La Rothiere, Valjouan, Monterau,
Troyes,
Notes: In 1803 this unit was disbanded and the number 11th was remaining vacant until 1811. In 1811 the regiment was
formed of several famous battalions: Bataillon de Tirailleurs Corses, Bataillon de Tirailleurs du Po, Bataillon de Tirailleurs
de la Legion de Midi, and Bataillon Valaison.
13th Light
5 Battle Honors: 1805 - Austerlitz, 1806 - Jena, 1807 - Eylau, 1809 - Eckmuhl, Wagram
25 Battles and Combats: 1792 - Valmy, 1793 - Wattignies, 1795 - Dusseldorf, 1796 - Ireland, 1800 - Melagnano, Volta,
Mincio, Passage of the Adige, 1805 - Austerlitz, 1806 - Auerstadt, 1807 - Landsberg, Eylau, 1809 - Rohr, Landshut,
Ratisbonne, Dunaberg, Wagram, 1812 - Smolensk, Moskova, Viasma, Krasnoe, Beresina, 1813 - Dresden, Kulm, 1815 -
Waterloo
Notes: They often formed the spearhead of Davout's excellent corps. In 1809 at Wagram the 13th Light was in Morand's
Division (Davout's Corps). In 1812 at Borodino still in Morand's Division (Davout's Corps) and participated in the
ferocious attacks on Great Redoubt. In 1815 at Waterloo the 13th captured La Haye Sainte, in the very center of
Wellington's positions.
24th Light
6 Battle Honors: 1805 - Austerlitz, 1806 - Jena, 1807 - Eylau, 1809 - Eckmuhl, Essling, Wagram
26 Battles and Combats: 1797 - Mayence, 1800 - Montebello, Marengo, 1805 - Austerlitz, 1807 - Bergfied, Eylau, Lomitten,
Heilsberg, Friedland, 1808 - Andujar, 1809 - Essling, Wagram, Znaim, 1812 - Krasnoe, Smolensk, Valoutina, Borodino,
1813 - Bautzen, Dresden, Leipzig, 1814 - Commercy, Brienne, La Rothiere, Monterau, Bar-sur-Aube, Arcis-sur-Aube
Notes: In 1807 at Heilsberg the 24th was part of St.Cyr's Division and was involved in some heavy fighting. In 1809 at
Aspern-Essling the 24th in brilliant bayonet charge overran Austrian battery. The French took 700 prisoners and
recaptured the church. Unfortunatelly at Wagram they lost their Eagle to the Austrians. In 1812 at Borodino this regiment
was part of Ney's III Corps. One battalion of the 24th (made of raw recruits) was crushed by the Prussian landwehr and
reserve infantry at Hagelberg.
25th Light
6 Battle Honors: 1805 - Ulm, 1806 - Jena, 1807 - Eylau and Friedland, 1809 - Essling and Wagram
30 Battles and Combats: 1796 - Altenkirchen 1799 - Stokach, Le Grimsel, 1800 - Hermette, Mincio, Valeggio, 1805 -
Gunzberg, Scharnitz, 1806 - Jena, 1807 - Allenstein, Guttstadt, Friedland, 1808 - Saragosse and Cascantes, 1809 -
Tamammes, 1809 - Essling, Wagram, 1810 - Cuidad Rodrigo, Alcoba, 1811 - Redhina, Foz-do-Aronce, Miranda-del-
Corvo, 1812 - Salamanca (Arapiles), 1813 - Lerin and Muz, 1813 - Lutzen, Wurschen, Buntzlau, Leipzig, 1814 - Toulouse
Notes: In 1812 at Salamanca the 25th Light Light and 27th Line attacked while the British line hesitated and stood firm
for a moment. The redcoats then broke and fled. Six battle honors.
26th Light
7 Battle Honors: 1805 - Ulm and Austerlitz, 1806 - Jena, 1807 - Eylau, 1809 - Eckmuhl, Essling and Wagram
30 Battles and Combats: 1800 - Suze, Brunette, Bosano, 1805 - Ulm and Austerlitz, 1807 - Hoff, Eylau, Heilsberg, and
Konigsberg 1808 - Saragosse, Andujar, Baylen, 1809 - Eckmuhl, Ebersberg, Essling, Wagram, Hollabrun, Znaim, 1812 -
Oboiardszino, Polotsk, Torezacew, Borisow, Beresina, 1813 - Hambourg, Dresden, Leipzig, Freibourg, Hanau, 1814 -
Ligny, Brienne
Notes: At Austerlitz in 1805, the 26th Light Infantry Reguiment defended the southern flank of the French army. It was
heavily outnumbered by the Russian and Austrian infantry and suffered heavy casualties. For more information on this
combat read Robert Goetz's "1805: Austerlitz"
In 1807 at Heilsberg the 26th was involved in the ferocious fighting for the redoubts. Adolphe Thiers writes: "General
Legrand then detached the 26th Light to attack that of the three redoubts which was within his reach. That gallant
regiment dashed off at a run, carried the redoubt in spite of General Kamenski's troops, and kept possession of it, after
an obstinate fight. But the officer who commanded the enemy's artillery, having had his guns drawn off at a gallop,
quickly removed them to the rear, to a spot which commanded the redoubt and covered the 26th with grape, which
made prodigious havoc." Terrible grape fire decimated the 26th, it was followed by musket volleys fired by two
battalions at the redoubt. To modern man, long accustomed to repeating and automatic firearms, one, two, or even three
rounds per minute is nothing to write home about. However, once one comes to grips with the idea of 600 men, packed
into front of about 200 paces, able to fire anywhere from 1000 to 3000 rounds per minute, then the image alters
drastically, even in the eyes of a modern soldier. Nothing could stop the 26th, they carried the redoubt about 7 PM.
According to Military Journal of the IV Army Corps it was the 26th Light, but according to Russians the 26th was
repulsed and the redoubt was taken by the Guard Fusiliers. Shikanov thinks that the 26th could indeed take the redoubt
but the Fusiliers held it while the 26th continued its advance. The Russians claimed that they saw the Fusiliers very near
to the redoubt. Half of the Prussian Towarzysze Regiment attacked the 26th Light before being driven back by musketry.
At Hoff in 1807 the French 26th Light Infantry captured Russian battery of 4 pieces. One battalion of the regiment was
formed in square while the lead battalion formed line and advanced against the artillery. The canister made no
impression on the French and they reached the guns. A bloody melee took place. The French bayoneted the gunners and
horses, and cut the traces. Seeing Russian infantry counter-attacking the French fell back behind the second battalion. The
fresh battalion deployed from square into line, charged, overthrown the infantry and recaptured the guns. Then Russian
cavalry intervened forcing the victorious battalion to form square. Russian skirmishers moved up to join their cavalry.
In 1808 at Baylen, the 26th Light Infantry surrendered to the Spaniards.
In 1809 at Wagram, the 26th was part of Legrand's Division (Massena's Corps). In 1813 at Leipzig this regiment was part
of Dufour's 5th Division and was involved in heavy fighting for Wachau. One battalion of the 26th (made of raw
recruits) was crushed by the Prussian landwehr and reserve infantry at Hagelberg.
Our favorites are: 57th Line and 10th Light.
Battles and Combats
1795-1815
light regiments line regiments
76
93rd Line
It looks like they were everywhere :-)
The 93rd Line, or part of it (and the 2nd Line)
even fought as marines at the naval battle at
Trafalgar in 1805.
52 28th Line
51
40th Line
51st Line
49
16th Line
24th Line
48
43rd Line
"The 43rd ... became involved in so many duels
that the active enmity of the citizens [of Caen]
compelled its retirement." - Parquin: "Napoleon's
Victories"
47 1st Light 5th Line
45 39th Line
44
26th Line
96th Line
43
57th Line "The Terrible"
12th Line
34th Line
36th Line
Battle Honors
1795-1815
light regiments line regiments
7
6th Light
10th Light
26th Light
6
24th Light
25th Light
85th Line
5
13th Light
16th Light
27th Light
94th (95th ?) Line
4
9th Light "Incomparable"
7th Light
17th Light
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4th Line, 13th Line,
133rd Line, 136th Line,
142nd Line, 144th Line
Map of the Battle of Valutina Gora (a hill near the village of Valutino) in Russia, in 1 8 1 2.
After the bloody battle of Valutina Gora, 1812, "Gudin's division were drawn up
on top of their companions' and Russian corpses , amidst half-broken trees , on
ground ripped up by roundshot ... Gudin's battalions were no longer more than
platoons. All around was the smell of powder. The Emperor couldn't pass along
their front without having to avoid corpses, step over them or push them aside.
He was lavish with rewards. The 12th, 21st and 127th Line and the 7th Light
(Regiment) received 87 decorations and promotions."
Britten-Austin - "1812 The March on Moscow" page 214
~
Miscellaneous.
Looters, drunkards, deserters and cowards.
The French soldiers were not angels and sometimes they behaved badly.
There were cases of roughness, indiscipline and disgraceful behavior.
After the carnage at Eylau in 1807 the discipline among the French
troops was low. Chief Surgeon Percy and his assistants had their horses,
personal belongings, swords, and hats stolen while they labored in the
hospitals with saw and knife. French soldiers opened the coffins in the
village of Schmoditten in hopes of finding treasure. Someone exhumed
the body of a French general, presumably in hopes of finding him buried
in an uniform of gold. (Arnold Crisis in the snows p. 359)
Among the French troops occupying Spain looting was rampant,
discipline was poor. The veterans were demoralized by plunder and waste
and by the cruel war with Spanish guerillas. They had got out of the habit
of being inspected. Training had fallen off during the years. The civilian
population in Spain were treated by the French in a manner that ranged
from the merely boisterous to downright brutal. Rape, pillage, murder,
thievery, drunkenness and anything else were common. "... the number of
towns whose inhabitants were accused of firing on the French - most
notably, Medina de Rio Seco and Chinchon - experienced appaling
massacres. To decribe this policy as genocide - a term that can certainly be
applied in other contexts, most notably the Vendee - would be to go too far. Many French officers
were, in fact, keenly aware that their aim had to be driving a wedge between the insurgents and the
populace as a whole and struggled hard to keep their men under control, whilst further restraints
were often exercized by the civilian officials who became involved in the various anti-bandits
tribunals established by such rulers as Joseph Bonaparte." (Esdaile - "Popular Resistance in the French
Wars" p 12)
The hostile Spain was not the only country where the French soldiers behaved very badly. Jean
Barres described what happened in one of the German-speaking countries, "Then, for the first time, I
witnessed an example of the horrors of war. As the cold was very bitter some men were detached to
fetch wood, in order to bivouac. The village whither they went for it was devastated in a moment; not
content with taking the wood, they carried off the furniture, the farm implements, the linen and other
movables. The officers became aware of this devastating torrent, but too late. Strict orders were given,
condemning to death all soldiers who should be found with linen, portable property, etc. If this order
had been executed throughout the whole campaign the whole Grand Army would have been shot."
(Barres - "Memoirs of a French napooleonic officer" p 62)
And one more example by Dezydery Chlapowski of Napoleon's Guard Lancers: "The Austrian
defense of the town had been fierce. A great many French corpses lay in front of and on the bridge
leading to the city gate. ... After a fierce struggle the French had broken into the town and ran amok
among the Austrians, leaving many corpses around the streets. .... [they] having lost many men before
taking the town, exacted a terrible revenge afterwards. The Emperor refused to enter the town until
the following morning. I think even he was disturbed by the sight of this carnage."
Young infantry officer, whose name was Tournilhac, had two fingers frostbitten in Russia in 1812,
but it did not prevent him, when, near Kovno, the treasure of the army was abandoned, from taking
great handfuls of gold from the staved-in casks and rejoining the remnants of his regiment.
French and Polish infantrymen in a church.
French cavalrymen raping nuns.
Picture by La Roche.
There were also cowards in the French army.
In 1813 at Gross Beeren, six Saxon battalions remained on the windmill hill stubbornly defending
their position against the hated Prussians. They finally broke and fell back. Seeing the Saxons retreat
"only accelerated the collapse of discipline and order in the French ranks. The majority of Durutte's
men threw down their muskets and fled into the forest - leaving the wounded Durutte in their wake.
Two battalions retained their composure long enough to cover the retreat. Under their protection the
division melted into the woods. After the Frenchmen disgraced themselves, Reynier turned to his
other Saxon division and ordered General von Lecoq to retake the windmill hill in order to cover the
retreat to Wietstock." (Leggiere - "Napoleon and Berlin" p 170)
During the campaign in northern Italy against the Austrians, in November 1796, Bonaparte was
very disapointed with the performance of the 39th and 85th Demi-Brigades (Regiments). He even
issued a very public proclamation: "Soldiers ! I am not pleased with you. You have shown neither
discipline, nor steadfastness, not bravery. No position could rally you. You abandoned yourselves to
panic. You let yourselves be chased from positions where a handful of brave men should have
stopped an army. Soldiers of the 39th and 85th, you are not French soldiers. General, Chief of Staff,
have written on their colours: They no longer belong to the Army of Italy" (Source: Boycott-Brown - "The
Road to Rivoli" p 454)
Marshal Ney wrote after the battle of Dennewitz that when the XII Corps ran into Cossacks; the
troops gave into such a panic-stricken terror that it was very difficult to rally them. He also informed
about 6,000 deserters who threw away their muskets in order to run faster.
On February 10, 1807, the Iron Marshal was a much different mood. During the battle he had
observed unprecedented behavior; scores of his soldiers leaving the ranks under the pretext of
escorting the wounded to the rear, others simply running from the fight. In Davouts mind, if left
unchecked this could spread like a cancer and destroy the army. He instructed his colonels to have
the good soldiers, those who had stood firm during the worst of the ordeal, inflict harsh beatings on
those who had abandoned them (Arnold - "Crisis in the snows" pp 377-378)
Picture: arresting those who attempted to avoid conscription.
Picture by T de Thulstrup.
The numerous campaigns made the military service unpopular
and desertions became a serious problem. In 1813, in the west of
France it became necessary to hunt up the refractaires with
mobile columns, and the generals reported that they were afraid
to use their young sldiers for this purpose. Special detachments
were formed to catch the stragglers and find the weak and
'make them walk'. In Paris alone 320 soldiers of Young Guard
were arrested for desertion and sent to prisons. During
Emperor's journey from Dresden, through Gorlitz to Bautzen, he saw the German roads and villages
choked with thousands of stragglers.
Napoleon was outraged and issued the following order: "Every soldier who deserts his flag betrays
the first of his duties. As a consequence, His Majesty orders: Article 1. Evry soldier who deserts his
flag without legitimate cause will be subject to decimation. To this effect, as soon as 10 deserters are
returned the generals commanding the army corps will have them draw lots, and have one shot."
Bautzen. 6 Septeber 1813 Napoleon." (Bowden - "Napoleon's Grande Armee of 1813" p 160)
For info on British deserters (and more) click here , and for the Russians here.
Links and Sources.
Plates - du projet de rglement sur l'habillement du major Bardin. Paris, Muse de l'Arme, Dist. RMN P. Segrette
Britten-Austin - "1812 The March on Moscow"
Susane - "Histoire de l'Infanterie Francaise"
Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory"
Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion"
Mageraud - "Armement et Equiement de l'Infanterie Francaise"
Napier - "History of the War in the Peninsula 1807-1814"
Boycott-Brown - "The Road to Rivoli"
Chlapowski - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" (transl. by Tim Simmons)
Pictures of French grenadier and carabinier by Steven Palatka.
Picture of French fusilier and light infantry in combat by Dmitrii Zgonnik, Ukraine.
Article: Uniforms of napoleonic troops: parade, battle and campaign outfits."
Napoleon, His Army and Enemies
French Cavalry: Cavalerie franaise: Franzsische Kavallerie: Uniforms: Organization: Weapons
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/French_Cavalry.html[2012-05-21 12:38:14]
French Cavalry of the Napoleonic Wars 1800-1815
"Cavalry is useful before, during and after the battle."
- Napoleon
The commander of Napoleonic cavalry was Joahim Murat.
"Herculean in strength, excessively gallant, admirably cool
in the midst of danger ... " - John Elting
[He] "was greatly admired by the rank and file." - D Chandler
French cavalry under Napoleon.
Organization.
Regiments, squadrons, and companies.
Quality.
Horsemanship, swordsmanship, and tactics.
Horses.
Types, height, and colors.
Horse Carabiniers (Carabiniers--Cheval).
2 regiments
Cuirassiers (Cuirasiers).
12-15 regiments
Dragoons (Dragons).
15-30 regiments
Lighthorse Lancers (Chevau-Lgers Lanciers).
7-9 regiments
Horse Chasseurs (Chasseurs--Cheval)
15-31 regiments
Hussars (Hussards)
7-15 regiments
.

French cuirassier from Muse de l'Arme (ext.link)
Breastplate protect his body, imparting him with massiveness
and supporting his intimidating look of steely self-assurance.
The best regiments of French cavalry.
Marshal Murat. Commander of cavalry.
French cavalry under Napoleon.
Majority of the aristocratic officers left France during Revolution
and the quality of French cavalry had fallen badly.
It was Napoleon who made it as an effective force
which would have parity with any enemy.
Picture: French heavy
cavalry in front of
Moscow in 1812. Author
? (Awesome picture).
The force of impact
generated by cavalry,
provided it was engaged
at the proper moment,
was out of all proportion
to its numbers. Had this
not been the case, after
all, governments would
not have spent so much
money on maintaining
mounted troops, which
represented a heavy cost
to the national treasury.
"Cavalry is useful
before, during and after
the battle," wrote
Napoleon, and he
stressed the need for audacity in its employment and careful training to achieve true discipline. He was
also insistent that careful categorization according to role was of great importance... It was some time
before the French cavalry reached its full potential, as it had suffered the loss of many officers during
the Revolutionary period, but by 1807 it was reaching its prime. The great charges led by Murat at Eylau
and Grouchy at Friedland played vital parts in the outcome of these battles." (Chandler - "Dictionary of
the Napoleonic Wars" pp 85-86)
"Under Napoleon, the French cavalry were, in contrast to the infantry, far more renowned for their
action in masses than for their duty as light troops. They were deemed irresistible, and even Napier
admits their superiority over the English cavalry of that day. Wellington, to a certain degree, did the
same. And strange to say, this irresistible cavalry consisted of such inferior horsemen ... no soldiers are
so careless of their horses as the French." ("The Armies of Europe" in Putnam's Monthly, No. XXXII,
published in 1855)
Napoleon said that "overall the numbers of cavalry in the French army will be 1/6 the strength of
infantry.
In battles however, the ratio was a little bit different. For example
in 1805 at Austerlitz the French had 58,650 infantry and 11,280 cavalry, ratio of 5.2 : 1.
In 1809 at Wagram the French had 141,845 infantry to 29,025 cavalry, ratio of 4.88 : 1.
In 1812 at Borodino the French had 88,350 infantry to 28,500 cavalry, ratio of 3.1 : 1.
In 1813 at Leipzig 151,300 infantry to 41,300 cavalry, ratio of 3.5 : 1.
In 1815 at Waterloo 53,400 infantry to 15,600 cavalry, ratio of 3.4 : 1.
During the war with Prussia in 1806 the French cavalry under Marshal Murat bagged Hohenlohe's force
on October 28, capturing approx. 10,000 men and 64 guns. On October 29 General Milhaud with 700
light cavalrymen captured 4,000 Prussians. General Lasalle with light cavalry appeared before the
fortress of Stettin, demanding surrender, and seized the fortress and its 5,000-man garrison without
firing a shot.
French cavalry with captured enemy's colors, by Detaille

Video game Total War: "Battle of Leipzig 1813" (cool music by a German rock band)
French cuirassiers versus Prussian and Russian infantry

Charge of French (heavy) cavalry at Eylau in 1807.
~
Organization: regiments, squadrons, companies.
" Squadron will be to the cavalry
what the battalion is for infantry."
- Napoleon
The cavalry of the Napoleonic Wars was alwayz formed in 2 ranks. The French Ordonnance provisoire
sur l'exercise et les manoeuvres de la cavalerie provides standard intervals and speeds for horses, and
describe the tactical formations. Title III, Article VII, paragraph 404 states that two ranks of cavalry were
6 m deep. Title I, Article XII states that the ranks had an interval of 0.666 m measured from the tail of
the front horse to the nose of the rear rank.
Theoretical strength of French cavalry regiment was between 800 and 1.200 men. During campaign the
numbers decreased. For example during crossing of the Rhine River (September 1805) eight cuirassier
regiments had 484 men per regiment on average. In December at Austerlitz it decreased to 317 men per
regiment. (It gives 35 % losses within 4 months. For comparison losses in twenty five regiments of
dragoons were 40 % {counted without the foot dragoons}, in seven regiments of hussars 25 % and in
nine chasseurs were approx. 32 %.)
Two (or three regiments) formed brigade.
Two (or three brigades) formed division.
Two or more divisions formed corps.
Most often regiment had 3 or 4 squadrons. For example at Austerlitz 44 cavalry regiments had 153
squadrons, on average 3.5 squadron per regiment. During the 1812-1813 campaigns there were several
regiments 6 or 8 squadrons each. Below is structure of regiment four squadrons strong.
French cuirassiers at Austerlitz
Regiment of Cavalry
1 Colonel [1]
1 Major
1 Quartier-maitre (Quartermaster)
2 Chefs d'Escadron
2 Adjutant-Majors
1 Aide-Major
2 Sous-Aides
2 Adjutant-Sous-Officers
0-4 Eagle-Bearers and Escorts [2]
Non-combatants: surgeon with aides ,
blacksmith, crafstmen, and musicians
(usually formed of trumpeters)
I Squadron II Squadron III Squadron IV Squadron
Depot
Squadron
.
1st Company
(Elite Company)
[3]
.
.
2nd Company
.
.
3rd Company
.
.
4th Company
.
.
Company
.
.
5th Company
.
.
6th Company
.
.
7th Company
.
.
8th Company
.
.
Company
.
[1] - there could be second in command as well if the regiment had 5, 6, 7 or even 8 squadrons in the field.
[2] - Originally there were 4 Eagles per cavalry regiment of 4 squadrons. In 1806 Napoleon ordered that
regiments of chasseurs and hussars deposit all Eagles, dragoons deposit 3 and keep only one in the field
and the cuirassiers retain 3 Eagles per regiment. Some regiments of hussars and chasseurs refused to give up
their Eagles and in 1809 (and even in 1812 and 1813) they carried 1 in the field.
In 1812 generally no squadron fanions were carried in the field, instead were used the small company fanions.
[3] - they wore bearskins instead of shakos or helmets and were mounted on black horses.
The strength of squadron in the field varied between 85 and 250 men.
In the begining of campaign the squadrons were usually stronger than in the end.
In 1809 at Wagram the French had 209 squadrons with an average of 139 men per squadron.
At Borodino in 1812 the average squadron was 97-98 men strong.
On August 15th 1813, the French army stationed in Germany had the following:
12,818 chasseurs in 67 squadrons (9.1 officers and 182 other ranks in squadron)
7,203 hussars in 38 squadrons (8.5 officer and 181 other ranks in squadron)
3,546 lancers in 20 squadrons (10.75 officer and 166 other ranks in squadron)
7,019 dragoons in 45 squadrons (8.33 officer and 148 other ranks in squadron)
5,789 cuirassiers in 40 squadrons (8.6 officer and 136 other ranks in squadron)
Each squadron had 2 companies.
In 1805-1807 the wartime company had:
= 1 Captain (he was allowed 3 horses)
= 2 Lieutenants (lieutenant was allowed 2 horses)
= 1 Marechal-des-logis Chef (Sergeant-Major)
= 2 Marechal-des-logis (Sergeants) in cuirassier company, -- 4 in dragoon company
= 1 Fourrier
= 4 Brigadiers (Corporals) in cuirassier company, -- 8 in dragoon company
= 1 Trumpeter in cuirassier company, -- 2 Trumpeters and 1 Drummer in dragoon company
= 74 Privates in cuirassier company, -- 72 mounted and 46 on foot in dragoon company
Squadron of French cavalry.
Napoleon said that "squadron will be to the cavalry what the battalion is for infantry."
The cavalry strength in battle -in most armies- was expressed in the number of squadrons
instead of regiments. Squadron consisted of 2 companies, each commanded by a captain.
The senior of the captains commanded the squadron.
Company according to Decree of March 27th 1815
(several weeks before Waterloo):
= 1 Captain
= 1 Lieutenant
= 2 Sous-lieutenants
= 1 Marechal-des-logis Chef
= 4 Marechal-des-logis
= 1 Fourrier
= 8 Brigadiers
= 2 Trumpeters
= 58 dragoons, chasseurs, lancers or hussars, or 42 cuirassiers
The farriers and fouriers would usually have been kept in the rear.
The 1st Company in every regiment (except cuirassiers and carabiniers) was named the Elite Company.
Only brave, strong and seasoned men were accepted, and they rode on black horses. Sometimes the elite
company was detached from regiment and served as an escort to a marshal. If there was several
regiments the marshal took only 15 men from every elite company. Sometimes this was not enough and
instead the elite companies were used entire regiments of cavalry. For example in 1812 marshal Berthier
and his headquarters were guarded by 28th Chasseur Regiment and Saxon light cavalry.
The colonels of cuirassier regiments decided to form elite companies but were reminded that they are
elite. They received higher pay, were stronger and taller than other troopers, wore red plumes and
epaulettes and had flaming grenade insygnia on coat-tails and saddlecloth.
Sappers were part of the Elite Company in dragoon and hussar regiments.
They opened roads, improved campsites and guarded the regimental Eagle.
There were 10 sappers per regiment (1 sergeant, 1 corporal and 8 privates).
From top
to bottom:
Cuirassiers.
They were all elites and thus all wore red epaulettes, and tall red plumes. They also wore helmets with black turbans. However,
according to orders issued in 1812 (before the invasion of Russia) they replaced their plumes with red pompons.
Dragoons.
The men of elite company wore red epaulettes, and brown (or black) bearskins with red plumes. The men of other companies wore
shoulder straps, and helmets with brown turbans (black turbans were for cuirassiers). For parade they wore green plumes (with top
in regimental color).
According to new regulations from 1812 the bearskin was officially replaced with helmet with red plume (or red pompon on
campaign.) Many troops however liked their bearskins and kept them for a long time.
Lancers.
The elite company wore red epaulettes and white plume. No bearskins.
Chasseurs.
The elite company wore red epaulettes, and fur caps (sometimes called colpacks) with bag in regimental color. The other companies
wore shakos with pompons. For parade however the pompon was often replaced with green plume with top in regimental color.
According to new regulations issued in 1812 the fur caps were replaced with shakos with red bands and shevrons. Many chasseurs
however kept their old fur caps.
Hussars.
The elite company wore fur caps (sometimes called colpacks) with bag in regimental color. There were no red epaulettes. The other
companies wore shakos with pompons. For parade however the pompon was often replaced with black plume with top in
regimental color.
According to new regulations issued in 1812 the fur caps were replaced with shakos with red bands and shevrons. Many hussars
however kept their old fur caps.
Color of pompons in chasseur and hussar regiments:
I Squadron
1st Company - red pompon
Company - red pompon with white center
II Squadron
Company - green pompon
Company - green pompon with white center
III Squadron
Company - blue pompon
Company - blue pompon with white center
IV Squadron
Company - orange pompon or pink
Company - orange pompon or pink with white center
~
Quality: horsemanship, swordsmanship and tactics.
"And strange to say, this irresistible [French] cavalry
consisted of such inferior horsemen ... "
- "The Armies of Europe" Putnam's Monthly, No. XXXII
The French cavalry became most renowned
for their actions in large masses.
Picture: young cuirassier is having problem with his big
horse. Picture by Telenik, Russia.
Generally the Frenchman was an inferior horseman and
swordsman as comparing to the Hessian, Baden, Polish,
British, Prussian and Austrian cavalryman. Additionally
the deficient maneuvering capacity of the French cavalry,
compelled the French to hold it together in dense masses,
So why did the French cavalry won in so many
engagements ? One factor was certainly their superior
organization, at higher levels, to most of their opponents.
The French command structure and organization made it
more likely that a French cavalry had reserves available,
and the ability to direct them to exploit a break in the
enemy line or plug a gap in their own, or counterattack the
victorious enemy. Their discipline and tactics of using
larger formations (cavalry divisions and cavalry corps)
impressed even the most bitter enemies of France.
In cavalry combat, bravery, good weapons, and fast horses
are not enough to win.
The right tactics, discipline, economy of force, and cool
head, matters even more.
In 1812 at Maguilla (Maquilla) took place combat between the French and British cavalry. General Hill detached Penne Villemur's
cavalry on the right flank, and General Slade with the [British] 3rd Dragoon Guards and the Royals on the left flank. French General
Lallemand came forward with only two dragoon regiments, whereupon Hill, hoping to cut this small force off, placed Slade's British
cavalry in a wood with directions to await further orders. Slade forgot his orders and drove the French dragoons beyond the defile
of Maquilla. General Slade rode in the foremost ranks and the supports joined tumultuously in the pursuit. But in the plain beyond
stood calm Lallemand with small reserve. He immediately broke the mass of British cavalry, killed and wounded 48 and "pursued
the rest for 6 miles, recovered all his own prisoners, and took more than a 100, inluding 2 officers, from his adversary" (Napier -
"History of the War in the Peninsula 1807-1814" Vol III, p 444)
Before the Austerlitz Campaign of 1805 and before the Invasion of Russia in 1812 the French cavalrymen
were intensively trained, well armed and supplied with splendid uniforms and horses. They were
enthusiastic and ready to fight. The officers and NCOs were battle hardened veterans. In 1805 the
French had established a morale ascendancy over their opponents.
In 1806 and 1807 "The cavalry was excellent and well mounted, though, in the latter respect, they fell
short of many Russian cavalry regiments." (Petre - "Napoleon's Campaign in Poland, 1806-1807" pp 27-28)
Much of the revolutionary ardour that had fired the French troops of the 1790s and early 1800s had been
quenched by 1808. Napoleon himself sensed a lack of enthusiiasm for the forthcoming campaigns. In
1808-09, for the new war with Austria tens of thousands of new recruits joined the field armies. The
influx of conscprits diluted the old ideals of austerity, self-respect and duty. After 1809 drunkenness and
indiscipline increased, especially in the cavalry. They were hastily trained. "After 1808 fewer French
soldiers received extensive training." (Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" p 534)
There were numerous dragoon and chasseur regiments campaigning in Spain. (And few other
regiments as well.) They faced the Spanish guerillas and British cavalry. Costello of British 95th Rifles
writes: "... a loud cheering to the right attracted our attention, and we perceived our 1st Dragoons
charge a French cavalry regiment. As this was the first charge of cavalry most of us had ever seen, were
were all naturally much interested on the occassion. The French [foot] skirmishers who were also
extended against us seemed to partiicipate in the same feeling as both parties suspended firing while
the affair of dragoons was going on.
The English and the French cavalry met in the most gallant manner, and with the greatest show of
resolution. The first shock, when they came in collision, seemed terrific, and many men and horses fell
on both sides. They had ridden through and past each other, and now they wheeled round again. This
was followed by a second charge, accompanied by some very pretty- sabre-practice, by which many
saddles were emptied, and English and French chargers were soon galloping about the field without
riders. These immediately occupied the attention of the French skirmishers and ourselves, and we were
soon engaged in pursuing them, the men of each nation endeavouring to secure the chargers of the
opposite one as legal spoil. While engaged in this chase we frequently became intermixed, when much
laughter was indulged in by both parties at the different accidents that occured in our pursuit." (Costello
- "The Peninsular and Waterloo Campaigns" p 67)
Sergeant-Major Thirion described the cuirassiers of 1812 participating in the Invasion of Russia: "Never
had more beautiful cavalry been seen ! Never had the regiments (of cuirassiers) reached such high
effectives." One of the conscripts wrote: "Oh Father !, this is some army ! Our old soldiers say they never
saw anything like it."
However the cavalry regiments left on the secondary theaters of war (Italy, Spain, and elsewhere) were
of lower quality.
At Borodino the French cavalry captured a redoubt, a feat never repeated by any other cavalry. Colonel
Griois watched the cavalry attack: "It would be difficult to convey our feelings as watched this brilliant
feat of arms, perhaps without equal in the military annals of nations ... cavalry which we saw leaping
over ditches and scrambling up ramparts under a hail of canister shot, and a roar of joy resounded on all
sides as they became masters of the redoubt." Meerheimb wrote: "Inside the redoubt, horsemen and foot
soldiers, gripped by a frenzy of slaughter, were butchering each other without any semblance of
order..."
The retreat from Russia in fall and winter of 1812 was a disaster.
Murat's Reserve Cavalry numbered 42,000 at Niemen and 18,000 at Smolensk.
Before the army reached Moscow it lost half of its strength. After Napoleon left
Moscow the situation changed from bad to worse. The debris of the Grand Army
which in June 1812 had crossed the Niemen River was now chased back by
Cossacks and armed peasants. The Russians captured thousands of POWs.
The cavalry was so reduced that it became necessary to form all the officers who
were still mounted into four companies of 150 men each. Generals acted as
captains; and colonels as corporals. This Sacred Squadron, commanded by
General Grouchy, and under the orders of the King of Naples, kept the closest watch over the Emperor.
Many regiments ceased to exist. For example the 5th Regiment of Cuirassiers had 958 men present for
duty on June 15th, 1812. On Feb 1st 1813 had only 19 ! The French cavalry never recovered from the
massive loss of horses. It is estimated that 175.000 excellent horses of cavalry and artillery were lost in
Russia ! The Russians reported burning the corpses of 123,382 horses as they cleaned up their
countryside of the debris of war. So heavy were the horse losses that one of Napoleon's most serious
handicaps in the 1813 campaign was his inability to reconstitute his once-powerful cavalry.
The rebuilding of the cavalry in 1813 was more dificult than infantry and artilery. Shortages of trained
cavalrymen, officers, NCOs and war horses were critical. Promotions were rapidly handed out and
temporary squadrons were formed. In the beginning of April 1813 General Bourcier gathered 10.000
battle-hardened veterans from 60 regiments spread across the countryside. The cavalry centers were in
the cities of Magdeburg and Metz. Horses were coming from northern Germany. During Armistice was
more time to train the young troops and many regiments showed improvements in their maneuvers. But
they never reached the level of pre-1812.
"Perhaps the worst part of the [French] army of 1813 was its cavalry. In the first part of the war, up to
Lutzen, it numbered by 15,000 mostly old soldiers ... It was opposed to a far more numerous cavalry of
generally excellent quality, against which it was almost impotent. Later, it was greatly increased in
numbers, but the recruits were of very inferior quality and training. On the other hand, the [French]
artillery was very good and numerous." (Petre - "Napoleon at War" p 110)
There were too many young soldiers, hastily trained, and hardly 10-20 % of the officers were classed as
capable. Retired officers had been recalled, many old NCOs had been promoted lieutenants. Nearly 80
% of the new cavalrymen had never ridden a horse. In Hamburg the young cuirassiers having been
ordered to leave on reconnaissance and after few minutes all were dismounted, with their horses
running free in the streets.
The Germans laughed openly.
The situation in French cavalry in 1814 was very difficult. Every soldier who could stick on the back of a
horse was mounted - some on nags resembling the "four horses of the Apocalypse."
In 1815 (Waterloo Campaign) the French cavalry was impoverished and had considerably scaled back
the strength of cavalry regiments. By contrast England had always good horses and the financial means
to obtain more of them wherever they might be found. The Russians too had no problems with horses.
Article: "Cavalry Combat and Tactis During the Napoleonic Wars"
French cavalry in Egypt,
picture by Detaille
French cavalry in Prussia. Battle of Eylau, 1807.
Picture by Simon Fort
General Jomini (<- picture); "When I speak of excellent French cavalry, I
refer to its impetous bravery, and not to its perfection; for it does not
compare with the Russian or German cavalry either in horsemanship,
organization, or in care of the animals."
Antoine-Henri, baron Jomini was born in Switzerland. He became a general in the French
and afterwards in the Russian service . He became one of the most celebrated military
writers. In 1815 (after Waterloo) he was with Tsar Alexander in Paris, and attempted in vain
to save the life of his old commander Marshal Ney.
.
Napoleon: "Two Mamelukes held 3 Frenchmen; but 100 French cavalry did not fear
the same number of Mamelukes; ... 1.000 French beat 1.500 Mamelukes. Such was the
influence of tactics, order and maneuver."
.
Archduke Charles (picture ->) comander-in-chief of the Austrian
army in 1809: "The French cavalry was, on the whole, poorly mounted
and poorly equipped; its men were awkward horsemen. Yet it
outclassed its opponents simply because, when order rang out and
trumpets clarioned 'Charge !' it put in its spurs and charged all out,
charged home !"
(In 1790s the young Charles had managed to divide and defeat two French armies,
which had penetrated into Germany, driving them back across the Rhine River. He was
widely acclaimed as the "Saviour of Germany." In 1809 Charles defeated Napoleon at
Aspern-Essling, before being smashed at Wagram. Wellington thought Charles to be the
best among all Allied commanders.)
.
Polish Officer Chlapowski: "The enemy [Hungarian hussars] had charged us 3 or 4
times during this engagement. Some of them would break into our ranks, many
passed right through and circled back to regain their lines, and after charge they
ended in complete disorganization. The French, on the other hand, although they also
lost formation after a charge, kept together far more and every time were quicker to
regain order. ... although the Hungarians drove home their attacks with determination,
they were harder to reform into some sort of order. The French, on the other hand,
knew that their own horses lacked the Austrians' speed and endurance, and would
launch their attacks from closer range and so retained formation right to the end of the
charge, and regained it more quickly afterwards."
.
General (Field Marshal in 1815) Welligton - "I considered our (British)
cavalry so inferior to the French from the want of order, that although
I considered one squadron a match for two French, I didn't like to see
4 British opposed to 4 French: and as the numbers increased and
order, of course, became more necessary I was the more unwilling to
risk our men without having a superiority in numbers."
(Wellington is regarded as one of the best military leaders Great Britain ever had, second
only to Admiral Nelson.)
~
Horses: types, height, and colors.
The German horse breeders and traders made fortunes
as Napoleon purchased huge amounts of horses for his cavalry.
The northern part of France called Normandy was one of the world biggest horse-breeding areas (Studs
of Le Pin and St. Lo). Napoleon valued these mounts highly and during reviews often asked colonels
how many horses from Normandy they have in their regiments. In 1810 the horse grenadiers of the
Guard rode on black horses, 14 1/2 - 15 hands tall, between 4 and 4 1/2 years old and bought in the city
of Caen (Normandy) for 680 francs apiece. The German horse breeders from Hananover and Holstein
and traders made fortunes as Napoleon purchased huge amounts of horses for his heavy cavalry. The
Prussian large mounts were also accepted.
The highest quality horses for light cavalry came from Hungary, southern Russia and Poland. These
countries dominated light horse breeding in Europe in XVIII_XIX Century. For light cavalry Napoleon
purchased horses from almost every province of France but especially from Ardennes, Taubes and
Auvergne. In 1806 many Prussian (Mecklenburgian), Syrian and Turkish horses were purchased.
After victorious war in 1806 Napoleon dismounted the Prussian cavalry, and in 1805 and 1809
dismounted the Austrian cavalry. Thousands of horses were also taken from Saxony, Hannover and
Spain. Many horses were purchased or simply taken from Polish farms. After the disaster in Russia in
1812, several Polish cavalry regiments were still in good shape. Especially the Lithuanian uhlans.
Napoleon stripped these regiments of all their horses in an effort to remount the cavalry of Imperial
Guard. (Nafziger - "Lutzen and Bautzen" p 9)
John Elting wrote about the horsecare in French cavalry: "Too many French were careless horsemasters,
turning their animals loose at night into fields of green grain or clover without supervision. Thousands
overate and died of the colic. Germans and Poles were more careful."
Britten-Austin described the situation in 1812: "Without a drop of water to drink and only an
occassional nibble of wayside grasses, they arrive at the first bivouc utterly spent, collapse, and have to
be shot by their riders, who, adding horsemeat to a soup of uncut rye, promptly go down with diarrhea,
an affliction not conducive to brilliant exploits on horseback." (Britten-Austin - "1812 The March on
Moscow" p 125)
Graf Henkel von Donnersmark writes after the battle of Leipzig: "The captured [French] horse was big
but in poor condition, so I exchanged it with a Russian officer for a strong Cossack horse; now I owned 3
such Don mounts. They are excellent for use on campaigns where there are lots of hardships, but they do
have some beauty defects."
During every campaign there was always a shortage of good cavalry horses. In 1805 between Ulm and
Austerlitz the French lacked so many horses that the Emperor sent officers to buy horses "of whatever
breed" and color for the cavalrymen. In 1814 there were 6,000 horses for 9,500 cavalrymen. "The
government eventually decreed spade labor to prohibit ploughing and force peasants to surrender their
horses." (Michael Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon")
In the end of March 1815 (several weeks before Watreloo) the cavalry had only 27,864 horses. Some of
the horses were let out to farmers in order to save their keep; they were hastily reclaimed for the use of
the army. Napoleon also appropriated half the horses of the gendarmerie. Each gendarme received a
compensation of 600 francs and was bound to find another horse for himself. Thanks to this expedient
4250 horses, strong and trained, were alloted to the cuirassiers and the dragoons.
Chasseur and his horse. Picture by Bellange.
"Too many French were careless horsemasters,
turning their animals loose at night into fields
of green grain or clover without supervision .
T h o u s a n d s overate and died of the colic.
Germans and Poles were more careful."J Elting
.
Height of horses.
According to order issued on October 28th 1802 the horses for French cuirassiers and dragoons were to
be between 15 1/4 and 15 1/2 hands tall (154.3m-158.3 m). After war in 1805 the minimum height for
horses were relaxed, even for the cuirassiers. But when Prussian and Austrian horses were captured and
new territories annexed the requirements were heightened. In 1812 the height of horses was as follow:
- cuirassiers and carabiniers - . . . . 155 cm - 160 cm
- dragoons and artillery - . . . . . . . . .153 cm - 155 cm
- chasseurs and hussars - . . . . . . . . 149 cm - 153 cm
- lighthorse-lancers - . . . . . . . . . . . . .146 cm - 150 cm
- Polish uhlans - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142 cm - 153 cm
- Polish Krakusi - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 cm - 142 cm (nicknamed by Napoleon "my Pygmy Cavalry")
.
Colors of horses.
During peacetime the regiments of light and line cavalry had color of horses according to squadron :
- - - - - I Squadron: 1st 'elite' company rode on blacks, 5th company on browns nad blacks
- - - - - II Squadron: 2nd company rode on bays, 6th company on bays
- - - - - III Squadron: 3rd company on chestnuts, 7th company on chestnuts
- - - - - IV Squadron: 4th and 8th company on grays and whites
However already in 1805 only some colonels insisted on keeping up these peacetime practicies. The
heavy cavalry rode on black horses. (Prussian king Frederick the Great insisted that the black horses
should go to the cuirassiers. He considered the black of the coat as a sign of quality.)
The most numerous and the most available were the light bays and chestnuts.
In 1814 the Russian Lifeguard Uhlans were mounted on dark bays (I Squadron), light bays (II Squadron),
chestnuts (III Squadron), and blacks (IV Squadron). The prestigous Chevaliers Garde made of Russian
aristocracy rode on large horses: bays (I Squadron), chestnuts (II Squadron), grays (III Squadron), and
blacks (IV Squadron).
The British 2nd Dragoons - "Scots Grays" rode on large grays, while many of the noble Household
Cavalry rode on large blacks.
Many Austrian hussars rode on grays.

Black - - - - - Brown - - - - - Liver

Dark Bay - - - - - Light Bay - - - - - Dun

Dark Chestnut - - Chestnut - - - - - Palomino

Roan - - - - - - Gray - - - - - - White
.
Types of horses.
The Arabian mounts were not as fast as European warmbloods but they were sure-footed. They were
famous for elegance, toughness and almost legendary endurance. Arabian horses were very popular
among officers and generals. Napoleon usually rode on Arabian: the snow-white "Euphrates" at
Wagram, the dapple-gray "Taurus" in Russia (1812), at Leipzig (1813) and in France (1814), and
"Marengo" at Waterloo. Napoleon encouraged the use of Arabians at the French national studs. Almost
all European countries mixed their native mounts (coldbloods) with Arabians and getting new breeds
(warmbloods).
In 1800s the biggest studs of Arabians were founded in Hungary and Poland.
The Andalusian horse was called "the royal horse of Europe". Many war-leaders rode on the Spanish
horses. This is friendly, docile, strongly build, brave (used for bull fighting) and of catlike agility.
The French horse Comtois of Burgundy was used by the army of King Louis XIV and by Napoleon.
Characteristics: hardiness, endurance, good nature and easy to train.
The French horse Auxois of Burgundy was a powerful one.
This mount was a quiet and good natured, used also by artillery.
The French horse Ardennais was a very popular horse in French cavalry.
The French horse Percheron was a powerful mount used by heavy cavalry. By XVII Century it attained
wide spread popularity. In early XIX Century the French goverment established a stud at le Pin for the
development of army mounts. The horse was docile, energetic and of big size.
The French horse Boulonnais of Flanders enjoyed a great popularity in every European heavy cavalry
and among horse dealers. Napoleon purchased thousands of these horses for his cuirassiers.
The German horse of Frederiksborg enjoyed numerous exports which seriously depleted the stock.
The Hannoverian horse was used by light artillery and heavy and line cavalry. It was probably the most
successful warmblood in Europe. The Hannoverian breeding industry has existed for 400 years. Even
today this horse excel in equestrian disciplines of jumping and driving.
The Holsteiner horse was developed in northern Germany. Their reputation was such that only in 1797
approx. 100.000 horses were exported ! This horse has a good character, is fast and strong. Napoleon
purchased very many Holsteiners. The famous Saxon heavy cavalry and guard rode on Holsteiners.
Man of 10th Chasseurs and his horse in 1812.
He wears tenue de pansage. Picture by Knotel.
~
Horse Carabiniers [Carabiniers--Cheval]
In 1792 the Ministry of War ordered that the horse carabiniers
m u s t always be chosen from seasoned and reliable soldiers.
However, to increase their numbers Napoleon allowed
young recruits to join the elite troop.
The carabiniers were raised in 1691 by Louis XIV (The Sun King), with the men drafted
from the better troopers of other line regiments. Rene Chartrand writes: "Commissions in
the carabiniers could not be purchased, but were granted by the king to deserving and
talented officers of modest means. ... In principle, carabiniers were to fight on foot when
required, which they occasionally did, notably when they dismounted, stormed and
captured the gates of Prague in 1741 .
From 1763 other line regiments were required to send few men to be instructed by the
carabiniers and this led to the establisshment of the cavalry school at Saumur in 1768. The war record of
the carabines was distinguished. They served in every campaign, displaying great bravery in victories
such as Fontenoy or in defeats like Minden. One of the more spectacula feats by a carabinier occurred at
the battle of Lawfeld, on 1 July 1747, when troopers Haube and Ibere captured the British cavalry's
commanding general, Lord Ligonier. " (ext.link)
The two regiments of carabiniers often formed the 1st Brigade of the 1st Heavy cavalry Division.
(They briefly became 'Horse Grenadiers'). They were elite troops and received higher pay. During the
Wagram Campaign in 1809, with the temporary absence of the Guard Cavalry, the 1st Carabiniers
formed Napoleon's escort. The carabiniers often participated in reviews and parades in France and in
conquered countries. (Due to their eliteness, small numbers, quality of horses, and above all their
striking uniforms, the carabiniers are favorite cavalry troops for some wargamers and military buffs.)
Men.
In 1792 the French Ministry of War ordered that the carabiniers must always be chosen from seasoned
and reliable soldiers. In 1801 the strongest and tallest men and horses from the dissolved 19th, 20th, 21st
and 22nd Rgiment d'Cavalerie were assigned to horse carabiniers. Despite the flow of soldiers into
their ranks in 1803 the two regiments were only 2 squadrons each. (Although there was no shartage of
seasoned cavalrymen in the French army, Napoleon used most of them to fill the ranks of the prestigous
Cavalry of the Imperial Guard. Thus only the remaining veterans were transfered into the carabiniers.)
Napoleon strengthened the two regiments of carabiniers with young and robust recruits and brought
their strength to 3 and 4 squadrons.
Horses.
Until the disastrous campaign in Russia in 1812 the carabiniers rode on big black horses.
In 1813-1815 they were more flexible and rode on blacks, browns and dark bays.
The horses were of high quality, one of the best in Empire.
Weapons.
They were armed with long, straight sabers and pistols.
In 1805 the carabiniers received dragoon muskets.
In 1810 their long straight sabers were replaced with slightly curved sabers (a la Montmorency).
In 1812 the dragoon muskets were replaced with shorter cavalry carbines.
Uniforms.
The horse
carabiniers wore
bearskins with red
plumes. The
uniform was dark
blue with red lapels
and collars.
In 1809 the
carabiniers suffered
badly in the hands
of Austrian uhlans
and Napoleon
ordered to give
them armor.
Chlapowski, among
others, described
this combat: "The cuirassier division arrived, with the brigade of carabiniers at its head. ...
Soon an uhlan regiment in six squadrons trotted up to within 200 paces of the carabiniers
and launched a charge at full tilt. It reached their line but could not break it, as the second regiment of
carabiniers was right behind the first, and behind it the rest of the cuirassier division. I saw a great
many carabiniers with lance wounds, but a dozen or so uhlans had also fallen." (Chlapowski - "Memoirs of
a Polish Lancer" p 60)
Thus the bearskin was abandoned, and their new helmet was made of yellow copper, with iron
chinstrap scales and a headband with the letter 'N' in front. The crest had a scarlet comb instead of the
cuirassiers black horsehair. The cuirasses were almost identical in design to those worn by the
cuirassiers, although they were covered with a sheet of brass (for officers red copper).
The visual effect was astounding ! However, according to Rousellot (in 'Sabretache' 1987) only their
officers wore white coats, the privates wore light blue ones. Faber du Faur also depicted the carabiniers
in blue coats instead of white. According to some sources (for example Coppen) the carabiniers wore
blue at Waterloo. Others claim that they also wore blue also in Russia (1812) and white only at Borodino.
.
Campaigns.
In 1805 the understrength 1st and 2nd Carabiniers fought at Austerlitz. They used both, their swords
and their carbines, against the Russian dragoons and hussars.
1st Heavy Cavalry Division - GdD Nansouty
1st Brigade - GdB Piston
- - - 1st Horse Carabiniers (260 men)
- - - 2nd Horse Carabiniers (240 men)
2nd Brigade - GdB La Houssaye
- - - 2nd Cuirassiers
- - - 3rd Cuirassiers
3rd Brigade - GdB St. Germain
- - - 9th Cuirassiers
Horse battery
.
In 1809 the undesrtrength
again carabiniers fought at
Alt-Eglofsheim and Wagram.
1st Heavy Cavalry Division - GdD
Nansouty
1st Brigade - GdB Defrance
- - - 1st Horse Carabiniers
- - - 2nd Horse Carabiniers
2nd Brigade - GdB Doumerc
3rd Brigade - GdB St.Germaine
Horse battery
The two regimnents of
carabiniers were deployed
just in the very center of
French line. (See map -->)
The Austrian cuirassiers
sounded charge and drew
sabers. The scene which was
about to be enacted under the
light of the rising moon,
about 7 PM on 22nd April, was one of the most dramatic and awe-inspiring in modern war. The two
opposing lines advance. Were it not for the din of the guns, it would be possible to hear the frequent
order, "Close! Cuirassiers close up!" as the heavy Norman and Flemish horses move forward at a walk.
The Austrians, less fatigued than the French, are already trotting, and about to break into a charge. Now
only 100 yards separate the opposing fronts, when the carabiniers in Nansouty's centre halt. At the same
moment the cuirassiers receive the order, "Trot! March!" The halt is only for a moment whilst the
carabiniers can fire a volley in the faces of the Austrians, and then, drawing their sabres, join in the line
which is now trotting forward in a semicircle, with the outer regiments threatening the Austrian
cuirassiers' flanks. At the trot still, the French line meets the Austrian galloping horsemen in a fearful
crash which drives each front line back on its supports. Each penetrates the other, whilst the light
cavalry meet on either flank. The shock is followed by an indescribable mele of individual combats, the
Austrians generally employing the edge, the French the point of the sword. The superb Kaiser
Cuirassiers (Emperor's Own) entered the fray. They were supported by Stipsicz Hussars on the left.
These troops halted the French. Nansouty's second line came forward. General Schneller was wounded
as the victors pursued the Austrians towards the Ratisbon road. One author described that the
Austrians "had respectively 13 and 8 times more dead and wounded than the French."
(The French outnumbered the enemy in men by 1.5 to 1.)
In 1812 at Borodino the carabiniers repeatedly clashed with Russian cuirassiers, hussars and dragoons.
They fought with gusto until the end of battle when they were defeated by Russian Chevaliers and
Horse Guard and then were charged - by mistake ! - by French cuirassiers. They took them for the
white-clad Saxons.
4th Heavy Cavalry Division - GdD Defrance
Brigade - GdB Chouard
- - - 1st Carabineirs
Brigade - GdB de Lamotte
- - - 2nd Carabiniers
Brigade - GdB des Eclaz
- - - 1st Cuirassiers
- - - Lancers [1 sq.]
Horse Battery
Horse Battery
During the winter retreat from Russia the carabiniers
suffered horrible losses. They lost all their splendid
horses and most of the men vanished. Nine out of ten
cavalrymen who survived the reatreat walked much of
the way home; most of those who rode did so on tiny,
but tough, Russian, Lithuanian and Polish ponies, their
boots scuffing the ground. (See picture by W Kossak --
>)
The carabiniers no longer formed the first brigade of the
1st Heavy Cavalry Division.
In 1813 at Leipzig the young carabiniers panicked before
Hungarian hussars. Rilliet from the 1st Cuirassiers witnessed the encounter. The 1st Carabiniers were in
front and general Sebastiani was to the right of the regiment: all at once a mass of enemy cavalry,
mainly Hungarian hussars, rode furiously down on the carabiniers. 'Bravo!' cried the general, laughing
and waving the riding crop which was the only weapon that he designed to use. 'This will be charming;
hussars charging the horse carabiniers.' But when the Hungarians were 100 paces away, the 1st
Carabiniers turned about and fled leaving behind their brave general ! They hastily rode back on to the
2nd Carabiniers and both regiments hooved away.
It was such a disgrace that
when after battle a group of
carabiniers entered a farm
seeking quarters, the
cuirassiers from the 5th
Regiment teased them: "If
you want hospitality, try
the Hungarian hussars !"
The Saxon cavalry also had
young soldiers in their
ranks but performed
wonders at Leipzig.
Marshal Macdonald
describes another combat
with the carabiniers: "My
cavalry came up at the right
time and performed very
well but the Horse
Carabiniers did very badly.
I saw with my own eyes, 10
sabre-lengths away, how
one enemy squadron
overthrew them."
2nd Heavy Cavalry Division - GdD St. Germaine
Brigade - GdB Daugeranville
- - - 1st Carabiniers
- - - 2nd Carabiniers
- - - 1st Cuirassiers
Brigade - GdB Thiry
Horse Battery
In 1814 there was not much glory for the carabiniers neither, and on one or two occasions they
stampeded before the Cossacks and Russian cavalry. After Napoleon's first abdication the royalists
returned and some joined the prestigous carabiniers. In the next year, after Napoleon's return, these
men would desert to Wellington.
In 1815 some carabiniers deserted to Wellington before the campaign began. There were enough
carabiniers (and other cavalrymen) deserters, that Wellington formed a troop called "Bourbon Cavalry
Corps." At Waterloo, a sergeant of 2nd Carabiniers and a thorough monarchist, deserted to the British
just shortly before Napoleon's Guard attacked. He let the enemy know when and where the Guard will
attack. (As claimed by British Sergeant Cotton) Captain Duthulit also stated that "this infamous criminal"
was from the horse carabiniers, but he was an officer. Another carabinier deserted to the Netherland
troops under Chasse. Other sources claim that it was a cuirassier.
The remaining carabiniers however
fought very well at Waterloo. They were
part of the 12th Cavalry Division of
Kellerman's Corps.
12th Cavalry Division - GdD Roussel dHurbal
1st Brigade - GdB Donop
2nd Brigade - GdB Blanchard
- - - 1st Carabiniers (3 sq.)
- - - 2nd Carabiniers (3 sq.)
Horse Battery
~
Cuirassiers [Cuirasiers]
The French cuirassiers were the descendants
of the medieval knights, who could turn a battle
with their sheer weight and brute force.
In an economic sense, the heavy cavalry signified an enormous investment by its supporting state. The armor
and the large horses were expensive. Thus heavy cavalry was regarded as a luxury affordable only to the
larger states (France, Russia, Austria, Britain, and Prussia). Napoleon was annoyed when he learned his
brother Jerome had formed the curiassiers in his Kingdom of Westphalia. The Emperor wrote, "I see that you
have a regiment of cuirassiers. This arm does not seem to me appropriate for you. You are not a power large
enough for a respectable body of heavy cavalry, what you should form is light cavalry. Your cavalry should
be composed entirely of chasseurs." Napoleon also tried to discourage Prince Poniatowski from forming a
single cuirassier regiment in the Polish army. The Poles and Westphalians however formed their heavy
cavalry and loved it.
In contrast to the two understrength regiments of horse carabiniers, there were more than dozen regiments of
cuirassiers in the French army. Napoleon formed cuirassiers already in the beginning of his reign. The first
twelve rgiments so-called d'Cavalerie received the strongest and tallest men and horses. They were
numbered 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th Cuirassiers. The 8th Regiment however
declared that they were senior to other regiments and had its saddlecloths marked with a "1." (In the past the
8th were King's Own Cuirassier Regiment and had retained their cuirasses since 1666.) Now the colonel of
8th Cuirassiers denounced that the 1st Cuirassier Regiment is a "vile usurper." His claim, however brought
him nothing more than a rebuke.
Napoleon gave them full cuirass, front and back plate, and helmet.
(Marshal Ney had been urging the adoption of epaulettes of chain
mail.) The newly formed cuirassiers wore red epauletes and red
plumes, like the grenadiers in infantry. The cuirassiers were elite troops
and received higher pay. Some British officers thought that the
cuirassiers were "Bonaparte's Bodyguard."
The 13th Cuirassiers was formed in 1809 from the 1st Provisional
Heavy Cavalry Regiment. The 14th Cuirassiers was formed in 1810
from the 2nd Dutch Cuirassiers. During the Invasion of Russia in 1812
this regiment had only 2 squadrons, other squadrons were formed in
Holland and became available in 1813. In May 1812 they wore the
white old (Dutch) uniforms and the new dark blue (French). Regiment
was disbanded in 1814.
The 15th Cuirassiers was organized in 1814 in Hamburg from the
elements drawn from the 2nd, 3rd, 4th Cuirassiers, officers were taken
from many other regiments and all of them were mixed with big
number of recruits. When the officers finally were able to mount one
squadron the populace witnessed the warriors sprawled on the ground
while their horses galloped away along the streets. They were
disbanded in 1814.
While other types of cavalry had their important roles to play, it was the cuirassiers, the descendants of the
medieval knights, who could turn a battle with their sheer weight and brute force. They looked dangerous
everytime they ventured forward and the generals never employed them frivolously.
Officer of 7th Cuirassiers, by Detaille.
"One of French cuirassier regiments developed a unique test for newly assigned officers.
You were given 3 horses, 3 bottles of champagne, and 3 'willing girls' and 3 hours to
kill the champagne, cover the girls and ride a 20-mile course.
Of course you could draw up your own schedule of events" :-)
.
Commanders of cuirassiers.
Nansouty: cautious and level headed man.
Hautpoul: giant of a man, eager to charge at any time.
The regiments of cuirassiers and regiments of carabiniers formed three or four divisions of heavy cavalry.
Each division was commanded by general de division. The most known commanders were Generals Nansouty
and d'Hautpoul.
Etienne-Marie-Antoine Champion de Nansouty (1768-1815) came from aristocracy, went with
the Revolution but did not put himself forward. Nansouty was a man of tradition, education and
exactitude. "His men were always carefully trained and cared for. Yet there was no elan in his
character, no readiness for an unexpected, all-out blow to save a desperate day. His disposition
was mordant ... " ( John Elting, - p 162)
"He was considered cautious ... or even reluctant to bring his squadrons to battle, but that was
mainly on those occasions that Murat was in overall command, who Nansouty considered to be
somewhat over zealous and headstrong ... Although he was considered a good, level headed, reliable and
tactically sound commander he lacked the flare and initiative of a LaSalle or Montbrun." (Terry Senior,
napoleon-series.org)
Nansouty commanded the superb 1st Cuirassier Division at Austerlitz (1805), Jena (1806), Eylau (1707), and
Wagram (1809). In 1812 during the Invasion of Russia, he commanded the I Cavalry Corps. This cautious
leader died in February 1815 in Paris and took no part in the battles of Ligny and waterloo.
Jean-Joseph-Ange D'Hautpoul (1754-1807) was a giant of a man, with enormous body strength.
In contrast to Nansouty, d'Hautpoul was a fiery commander eager to charge at any time. In
1794 at Aldenhoven Hautpoul crushed enemy cavalry twice as numerous and was promoted to
the rank of general.
Hautpoul commanded the 2nd Cuirassier Division at Jena (1806) and Eylau (1807). His orders
were simple: "Horse Carabiniers, brave carabiniers, pierce enemy's ranks ! Cuirassiers, drive
throught them !"
At Eylau in 1807, General Hautpoul was struck by a Russian cannonball, which dented his armor and
shattered his hip. He was taken wrapped in his bloodstained cloak to the nearby village where he died the
following day. Napoleon had the generals body taken to Paris for final interment. He ordered the 24
Russian cannon captured on the field melted and recast to create a statue honoring this valiant warrior.
(Arnold - "Crisis in the snows" p. 378)
.
Weapons and horses
When it came to hardware the
cuirassiers were riding arsenals.
On photo: French cuirassier sabre from Military Heritage
>
When it came to hardware the cuirassiers were riding
arsenals: body armor, helmets, pistols and long straigh
sabers. When in 1812 they received carbines they made
considerable effort to avoid carrying them. However, according to regimental inspections only 20 % had
pistols. Rousselot moted that most contemporary illustrations shows the cuirassiers without cartridge box and
carbine belt. He wrote that inspections reports conducted in 1805 showed that the 3rd, 4th, 7th and 8th
Cuirassier Regiment lacked cartridge boxes and belts. The troopers caried few rounds of ammunition in their
pockets. Inspections in 1807 again showed lacks of the same items in 4th, 6th, 7th and 8th Cuirassier
Regiment. They kept ammunition in their pockets.
The body armor was expensive. In 1815 there was not enough time to make the armor and at Waterloo the
entire 11th Rgiment was without it. It was also uncomfortable to wear in summer. In 1809 many young
cuirassiers discarded their armor.
The cuirassiers rode on blacks, browns and dark bays.
.
Uniform.
Cuirassier's uniform displayed
the markings of elite status.
The French cuirassiers of the Napoleonic wars wore dark blue coat, a flaming grenade on coat-tails and
saddlecloth, red epaulettes and plume attached to their headwear. Inspections conducted in cuirassier
regiments showed lack of epaulettes on big scale.
Cuirassier's helmet was made of steel with brass comb, a black horse mane (for trumpeters red or white
mane), a black cow-hide turban, black visor edged with brass, a tall red plume on the left side, and brass chin
scales. The cuirass had front and back plates made of steel. It had leather straps with brass scales, the cuirass
lining was edged with white in all regiments. The coat was dark blue with collar, facings, and cuffs in
regimental color.
The tall black boots were considered necessary to protect the legs when the files of cavalry were pressed
together. During the Napoleonic Wars there were two types of the tall boots. Boots with soft legs were worn
during a long march but for parade they were replaced with boots with stiff legs. The hard boots looked
great but they were not comfortable.
For the Grand Parade Uniform (Tenue de Grande Parade) was helmet with red plume, cuirass, coat, sabre, tall
boots, and white culottes de peau. For the Campaign Uniform (Tenue de Campaign) was helmet with red plume
(pompon was also popular), cuirass, coat, sabre, tall boots, and buff surculottes. For the Exercise Uniform
(Tenue dEcurie) instead of the helmet and plume was worn a comfortbale bonnet de police. No cuirass. The
were also petit tenue, stable dress, walking-out dress, and a dress worn in barracks and billets.
The cuirassiers also wore campaign heavy cloth breeches called surculottes. They were also
called "over-breeches" as many soldiers wore them over the white breeches (or over the
bucksins) for field service, march, battle etc. The over-breeches were buttoned down the sides
and tucked into boots. These were made of wool or linen and were off-white, brown, brown-
grey, light grey or dark grey.
Before campaign every cuirassier received white sheepskin to the regulation shabraque (cloth
covering the saddle) and grey overalls called pantalons a cheval. The overalls were worn with
or without the breeches underneath. Some overalls had cloth covered buttons down the outer
seams while other had red laces instead of buttons. The first time the overalls were mentioned
in official order was in the year of 1812 although they were used already in the 1790s. The
decree of 1812 described the overalls as made of grey linen with cloth covered buttons. Due to
its weight and numerous buttons this type of overalls was replaced by lighter overalls, often
reinforced on the inside of the legs and around the bottoms with black leather. These lighter
overalls might be grey, blue, red or green but during 1812-1815 the grey with orange or red stripe and
without buttons were more common.
According to Decree isuued on April 7th 1807 : "From March 1st to December 1st the cuirassiers have to wear
a mustache but must be clean shaven for the remaining 3 months." This regulation was until new one was
issued on March 3rd 1809.
Cuirassier regiments.
No. Coat Breeches
Collar and
Turnbacks
1er dark blue white red
2e dark blue white red
3e dark blue white red
4e dark blue white orange
7e dark blue white yellow
10e dark blue white pink
13e dark blue white crimson
14e dark blue white crimson
Above: uniforms of French cuirassiers. Picture by L. et F. Funcken.
(1) - 13th Cuirassier Regiment, 1809
(2) - 11th Cuirassier Regiment, 1804-06
(3) - cuirassier in a stable dress, 1804
(4) - trumpeter of 8th Cuirassiers, 1804-12
(5) - senior officer of 7th Cuirassiers 1809
(6) - officer, 1806
(7) - trumpeter of 12th Cuirassiers 1804-12
Right: uniform of cuirassier-trumpeter
according to the new regulations issued
in 1812. (so-called Bardin-type uniform).
This uniform was worn during the Leipzig
Campaign (1813), Campaign of France (1814)
and the Waterloo Campaign (1815).
Thus since 1812 the trumpeters no longer
wore uniforms in regimental colors. All wore
the green outfits. The privates and officers
however still wore their dark-blue uniforms.
.
Campaigns and battles.
The cuirassiers and dragoons spearheaded the massive cavalry charge at Eylau. Murats celebrated charge
would be remembered in French military history as an epic feat. His troopers had paid a terrible price for
their success but they had won much by forcing Bennigsen to commit most of his reserves and substantially
eroding the offensive power of the Russian army. Had fresh French troops been available, Napoleon would
have won the battle at this point. But Bernadotte, whose I Corps would have been present but for the
interception of his orders, was 2 days march away. Ney had been given the assignment of pursuing the
Prussians. All that remained were 3,000 soldiers of the Imperial Guard infantry. Napoleon chose to retain
them in reserve.
So Muats grand
charge passed
unsupported. [Like at
Waterloo in 1815.]
Viewed from a
Russian perspective,
the great cavalry
charge looked very
different. By
destroying Augeraus
corps, the Russians
had forced Napoleon
to commit his entire
cavalry reserve in a
naked, unsupported
charge against the
Russian center. The
French broke through
the front lines of
Russian infantry,
were stopped by the
reserves,
counterattacked by Russian cavalry, and driven back to their original position after taking heavy losses. It
speaks volumes about the tenacity of the Russian resistance and the wisdom of Bennigsens layered defense
in depth that these elite French formations had to conduct repeated charges in order to gain ground that they
ultimately proved unable to hold. (Arnold - "Crisis in the snows" p. 309)
For the viewpoint of the French cuirassiers, it appeared that they had captured many guns belonging to the
center grand battery while annihilating the first line of Russian infantry. In fact numerous Russians survived
by falling to the ground to allow the cavalry to sweep over them. In an amazing display of discipline and
fighting prowess, the survivors reformed behind the French cavalry. They opened a wild but destructive fire
into the backs of the dragoons and cuirassiers. (Arnold - "Crisis in the snows" p. 299)
The cuirassiers distinguished themselves at Hoff in 1807. Markov wrote: Having approached our
positions, the French tried to cross the bridge but were halted by the artillery fire. Napoleon moved forward
his artillery and forced our horse artillery to withdraw. As the French advanced, Dorokhov counter-attacked
and drove them back across the bridge. The Olivipol Hussars pursued them to the opposite bank but were
routed and driven back upon the Izoum Hussar Regiment. Yahvils horse artillery halted the French. The
French cavalry then resumed its charges, routed our hussars and charged the Kostroma Regiment." (Karpov -
"Deistvia Russkikh voisk v Kampaniu 1806 i 1807 godov ")
At Hoff part of the Russian infantry was deployed behind a small bridge. The Dniepr Musketiers stood in line
behind the Kostroma Musketiers and were unable to see the charging cuirassiers. After routing the three
battalions of the Kostroma the French also cut up one battalion of the Dniepr. The garden walls and fences
became obstacles for the fleeing infantry. Furthermore, the men of the Kostroma had to wait for the Dnieper
Musketiers to clear off Hoff before they could continue their flight.
The cuirassiers caught up with them and did terrible
execution. The Kostroma Musketier Regiment lost 5 of its
6 standards. The sixth was briefly in cuirassiers' hands
until one of the Russian hussars tore it from their hands.
The Kostroma Musketiers also lost 4 of its 6 light cannons.
Whether these guns were massed in one battery or split
into 2-guns platoons is unknown. Furthermore, the
Kostroma suffered 458 killed, wounded, or missing, and
barely escaped a total annihilation.
Two Russian cuirassiers regiments counter-charged; the Military Order and His Majesty's Cuirassiers. They
were fine troops, fresh and formed and easily outfought their tired and disordered counterparts. (The French
were disordered by the pursuit of Russian infantry). The French 26th Light Infantry stood nearby. They
deployed in line and fired several volleys into the flank of the Russian heavies. Hautpoul rallied the four
regiments of French cuirassiers and counter-attacked. This time it was the Russians who fell back. Under the
cover of horse artillery the Russian cuirassiers rallied and charged again. The 26th Light Infanatry however
formed squares and repulsed their six attacks.
In 1809 arriving at Ratisbon, the 2nd Cuirassiers took part in a fight with the Austrian Merveldt Uhlan
Regiment first and then against the Hohenzollern and Ferdinand Cuirassier Regiments. Charged three times,
the Austrians were routed, the 2nd Cuirassiers took 200 prisoners fortified in a village.
In 1809 "... regiment of [French] cuirassiers which after one charge got into a melee with some Hungarian
hussars. I was surprised to see when the Hungarians retreated that far more of their bodies were lying dead
than French." (Chlapowski, - p. 63)
During the winter retreat from Russia in 1812, battalions of Russian 18th Infantry Division stood in the
wood near Berezina. There were two small meadows, open patches, in the wood, in which the infantry was
posted. The Russians were formed in columns and did not expect cavalry attack because of the forest cover.
General Doumerc struck the Russians with the 4th, 7th, and 14th Cuirassier Regiment (totalling 450 men). The
cuirassiers passed through the brush and woods, reformed, and fallen on the enemy. They sabered 500-750
men and took 2,000 (!) prisoners.
In 1812 at Borodino, the French, Polish and Saxon cuirassiers captured the Great Redoubt
(Raievski Redoubt, Death Redoubt) strongly defended by Russian infantry and artillery.
It was an incredible feat for cavalry and never repeated by any other cavalry from any army.
Chlapowski writes: "The
redoubt had been so ruined
by cannon fire that the
Emperor rightly judged
cavalry capable of taking it.
So we watched the beautiful
sight of our cuirassier
charge."
General Caulaincourt, with
his eyes aflame with the
ardor of battle, rode to the
front of the cuirassiers and
shouted: "Follow me, weep
not for him [Montbrun], but
come and avenge his
death." In reply to Murat's
order to enter that redoubt
right through the Russian
line, he said, "You shall
soon see me there, dead or alive." The trumpets sounded the charge, and putting himself at the head of this
iron-clad cavalry, he dashed forward. The cavalrymen pressed on with sabers drawn. Wathier's 2nd
Cuirassier Division arrived at the redoubt first, and as they were about to enter its rear they were greeted by
a heavy volley from the infantry inside. Caulaincourt was killed, but the redoubt was taken.
Group of cuirassiers from the 5th and 8th Regiment rode to the redoubt, and jumped over the ditch and the
destroyed parapet into the fortification. Heinrich von Brandt writes: "I saw General Auguste de Caulaincourt,
mortally wounded, being carried away in a white cuirassier cloak, stained deep red by his blood. There, in
the redoubt, the bodies of infantrymen were scattered amongst French, Saxon, Westphalian and Polish
cuirassiers uniformed in blue and in white. ... This was a crucial moment in the battle and the firing abated a
little as if both sides wondered what to do next."
To read more on how the redoubt was
captured, recaptured and taken again
by the French and Saxon cuirassiers click here.
In 1815 at Quatre Bras, French cuirassiers, Private Henry and NCO Gauthire
captured King's Color of the II Btn. of 69th Foot [GdD Kellermann wrote in his
report (now in S.H.A.T. C15 5) to Ney after the charge: "We took the Color of
the 69th which was captured by the cuirassiers Valgayer and Mourassin"
(added with pencil by another hand: "Albisson and Henry ?").] American
historian John Elting writes: "The 69th at once ordered its regimental tailors to
make up a new flag, and denied any loss. Unfortunately, Napoleon had
already announced the capture." (Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" p 352)
Elting: "Amazingly, at Waterloo the French had lost only 2 eagles, and those
early in the battle to English cavalry." By contrast, they had taken either 4 or 6
colors - the number naturally is much disputed - from Wellington's army." The
captured colors were brought to and deposited in the farm of Le Caillou,
farmhouse Napoleon had been using for his headquarters. Unfortunately
during the retreat after battle the trophies were left there.
Names of the French cavalrymen who captured Allies Colors:
- one Color was seized by NCO Gauthier (Gautier) of 10th Cuirassiers
- one by Fourier Palau of 9th Cuirassiers
- one by unknown cuirassier of 8th Cuirassiers. He captured the Color of the British
69th Foot Regiment. (Kellermann to Davout, 24 June 1815, Arch.Serv.Hist.)
- one by Capitaine Klein de Kleinenberg from the Chasseurs of the Guard. He
captured one Color of the KGL. (Lefebvre-Desnouettes to Drouot, 23 June 1815, Arch.
Serv.Hist.)
General Delort mentions an English Color captured by an NCO of the 9th
Cuirassier Regiment. Delort particpated in these charges and his account is in
Houssayes 1815 Waterloo and in the Nouvelle Revue Retrospective. (published
in 1897)
In 1815 at Waterloo General Dornberg decided to attack a single cuirassier
regiment with two of his own, British 23rd Light Dragoons and 1st KGL Light
Dragoons (Germans). Dornberg's men outnumbered the French by 2 to 1. The two
frontal squadrons of the French regiment were attacked on both flanks and routed.
Dornberg's entire cavalry dashed after the fleeing enemy. But the French colonel, unlike his adversary, was
holding two other squadrons in reserve, and these counterattacked and smashed the enemy. The British and
Germans were remounting the slope in great disorder when another cuirassier regiment appeared and
blocked their way. The French drew their sabers and awaited the enemy unmoving. "At the moment of
impact, the light dragoons realized that their curved sabers were no match for the cuirassiers long swords,
nor could they penetrate the French cuirasses. Seeing that his men were losing heart, Dornberg tried to lead
some of them against the enemy flank. (Barbero - "The Battle" p 192)
General Dornberg writes: "At this point I was pierced through the left side into the lung. Blood started
coming out of my mouth, making it difficult for me to speak. I was forced to go to the rear, and I can say
nothing more about the action."
The heavy cuirassiers however were not as effective in one-on-one combat against light cavalry. Cotton of the
British 7th Hussar Regiment described a fight between a man of 3rd Hussar Regiment of King's German
Legion and French cuirassier at Waterloo; "A hussar and a cuirassier had got entangled in the melee, and met
in the plain in full view of our line; the hussar was without cap and bleeding from a wound in the head, but
that did not hinder him from attacking his steel-clad adversary. He soon proved that the strength of cavalry
contains in good swordsmanship ... and not in being clad in defensive armor .. after a few blows a
tremendous fencer made the Frenchman reel in the saddle ... a second blow stretched him on the ground,
amidst the cheers of the horseman's comrades, who were ardent spectators of the combat."
In the Battle of Ligny in 1815, the commander-in-chief
of the Prussian army almost died under the hooves of the
cuirassiers horses. General Blcher's horse (it had been a
present from the Prince Regent of England) was hit and
fell to the ground trapping the commander underneath
it. His adjutant's horse was hit too. According to Peter
Hofschroer "Two more charges of French cavalry passed
over the pair before help could arrive." General Blucher
wasn't noticed by the French cuirassiers because of his
plain uniform. It would be a sensation if cavalry captured army commander.
.
The cuirassiers hovever were not super-soldiers, and sometimes failures and defeats happened. In most of
such cases the enemy outnumbered them. Or the cuirassiers had to deal with enemy's artillery, cavalry and
infantry - all in the same time ! The cuirassiers were unsupported and it was just too much for them.
The only major combat the French
cuirassiers ever lost was the one at
Heilsberg in 1807. It was Russian
cuirassiers' glory day. Their attack
upon French cavalry, for daring and
gallantry could not be exceeded. The
Russian cuirassiers succeeded in
defeating a body of enemy estimated
at two times their number (!)
De Gonneville of the 6th Cuirassiers
writes: "At this moment the grand
duke of Berg (Murat) came up to us;
he came from our right rear, followed
by his staff, passed at a gallop across
our front, bending forwards on his
horse's neck, and as he passed at full
speed by General Espagne, he flung at
him one word alone which I heard,
"Charge !" In the front was GdB Fouler's brigade (7th and 8th Cuirassiers). Murat throws himself into the
thick of the fighting, heedless of all danger. On the fields by Langwiese - 1 km southwest from Lawden -
developed a cavalry battle bewteen Uvarov's cavalry and d'Espagne's cuirassiers and Latour-Mauborg's
dragoons.
It was a bloody fight and costly for the French. Wounded were GdD d'Espagne, GdB Fouler, and colonels of
4th, 6th and 7th Cuirassiers. The only regimental commander to escape unscathed that day was Merlin of the
8th Cuirassiers, but one of the squadron flags of 8th was captured. Among the dragoons were wounded
colonels of 4th, 14th and 26th Dragoons. Murat's 6.000-9,000 cavalrymen were thrown back by 3,000-4,500
Russians and Prussians. By day's end, each cavalryman sabre will be dripping with blood. (Colonel Fulgent
of the curassiers received a serious head wound from a sabre from which he eventually died. Colonel
Chipault of the French cuirassiers had received 56 sabre cuts !)
In 1809 at Aspern-Essling approx. 2,500 French heavy cavalry (4th, 6th, 7th, and 8th Cuirassiers) led by
Espagne attacked the Austrian center defended by strong artillery and numerous light cavalry (uhlans,
hussars and chevauxlegeres). The French heavies received canister and then encountered four cavalry
regiments deployed in a very long line. The Austrians instead of countercharging remained stationary. Their
impressive stance communicated great resolve, and the French wavered. Then, two Austrian cuirassier
regiments crashed into French flank and sent them reeling backward. Major Berret received two lance
wounds from Schwarzenberg Uhlans. General Durosnel was wounded and taken prisoner.
The second attack made by Espagne's cuirassiers took place 1-2 hours later. This time they took three
Austrian cavalry regiments in the flank. The Albert Cuirassiers, Ferdinand Cuirassiers and Knesevich
Dragoons were routed. The Hungarian insurection cavalry stood in second line. They were irregulars and
fled before the iron-clads reached them. Fresh Austrian cavalry advanced against the cuirassiers and the
artillery and infantry opened fire. Espagne was struck in the face with canister and fell dead. General Fouler
was wounded and taken prisoner by the Austrians.
Three of his four colonels died in this battle.
In 1812 at Borodino the French cuirassiers were unable to break Russian infantry formed in squares. Only
the elite Saxon Garde du Corps managed to break one, weak square. "... Colonel Hrapovitsky [of Russian
Guard Infantry] ordered [infantry] columns to form squares against the French cavalry. The cuirassiers made
a vigorous attack but quickly paid a heavy price for their audacity. All squares, acting with firmness, opened
fire and delivered battalion volleys ... The armour proved to be a weak defence against our fire and added no
courage to them. The cavalrymen quickly showed us their backs and fled in disorder." (- Col. Alexander
Kutuzov to Gen. Lavrov, report after Borodino)
In 1815 at Waterloo, the British, German and Dutch-Belgian infantry squares were repeatedly attacked by
the cuirassiers. The British claimed that not a single square was broken. British researcher Siborne wrote that
one square had a side "completely blown away and dwindled into a mere clump." The French sources
however disagree with the British. For example Brigadier (then private) Pilloy of the French cuirasiers wrote
that he charged three times against a British square finally riding "over and through it". (E. Tattet - Lettres du
brigadier Pilloy ... in Carnet de la Sabretache, Vol 15th)
General Delort of the cuirassiers writes that: "several squares were broken."
Wellington's defensive line was overwhelmed by the French cavalry, his generals were forced to seek
protection inside the squares, from where it became impossible to exercise command and control of own
troops. The numerous British-German-Dutch cavalry counterattacked but made little impression on the
French. Few weeks after the battle frustrated Wellington wrote to Lord Beresford that the French cuirassiers
were moving among the squares as though they were their own. One battle was enough for the British to
learn a healthy respect for the iron-clad warriors. Soldier Morris was so awestruck by the sheer size of the
men and the horses, by their shining armor, that he thought "we could not have the slightest chance with
them."
In 1813, on the last day of the battle of Leipzig, group of desperate cuirassiers charged into the city packed
with Allied infantry. Swedish officer Wossido writes: "... part of the open space was strewn with abandoned
wagons and that the Prussian and Swedish riflemen were in disorder. As a result we could hardly move
forward and soon had to halt. Suddenly there came a shout from the gate: Cavalry ! For a moment we were
so squashed by the troops withdrawing that we could scarcely keep on our feet. French cuirassiers rushed
out of the gate and attacked us. There must have been 40 or 50 of them. They were fired upon from all sides
and these reckless horsemen, who made this desperate charge, were in an instant laid down besides their
horses." Graf von Hochberg of Baden described the same moment: "A squadron of French cuirassiers and a
detachment of Polish lancers ... managed - for a short time - to take the gate from the enemy."
Charge of French cuirassiers, battle of Friedland 1807.
French, Polish and German cuirassiers taking the Raievski Redoubt at Borodino.
Russian infantry is formed in squares .
Wounded cuirassier in winter 1807.
Picture by Wojciech Kossak.
~
Dragoons [Dragons]
"It has been said that the greatest inconvenience resulting from the use of
dragoons consists in the fact of being obliged at one moment to make them
believe infantry squares cannot resist their charges, and the next moment
that a foot soldier is superior to any horseman." - General Jomini
During the Napoleonic Wars all cavalrymen were trained in some infantry duties, not just dragoons.
The dragoons however were trained in infantry duties more than other cavalry troops. General Jomini
writes, "Opinions will be always divided as to those amphibious animals called dragoons. It is certainly
an advantage to have several battalions of mounted infantry, who can anticipate an enemy at a defile, or
scour a wood; but to make cavalry out of foot soldiers is very difficult."
Thus the French dragoons divided their training between cavalry and infantry duties and for this reason
their horsemanship "was wobbly" and their swordsmanship was not of the highest order. They were
teased especially by the hussars who considered themselves as the master swordsmen and horsemen.
Furthermore, dragoons horses were not as big and strong (and expensive) as cuirassiers' mounts, and
their uniforms were not as colorful (and expensive) as hussars' outfits. It attracted less volunteers and
thus in their ranks served more conscripts. But the worst of all was the shortage of horses for the
dragoons. Cavalrymen "hadn't walked farther than the distance from their barracks to the nearest bar"
and they hated the dismounted service.
In 1799-1800 France had 20 dragoon regiments.
Napoleon formed new regiments (22nd, 23rd, 24th, 25th, 26th, 27th)
from the disbanded regiments of so-called d'Cavalerie.
The 21st Rgiment was formed in 1800 from Piedmontese (Italian) dragoons.
The 29th Rgiment was formed in 1803 from Piedmontese (Italian) hussars.
In 1804 Napoleon had already 30 dragoon regiments.
In 1811 however the 1st, 3rd, 8th, 9th, 10th and 20th Dragoon Regiment were converted into lancers.
After Napoleon's first abdication in 1814, many regiments were disbanded. Thus in 1815 (Waterloo
Campaign) there were only 15 dragoon regiments. Half of the original number. They served well during
the campaign and fought to the very end.
In February 1808 Napoleon gave each dragoon regiment 8 sappers.
They wore red eppaulettes and bearskins but with no front plate.
Officer and dragoons in 1806.
In 1815 , shortly after Napoleon's return from Elba to Paris , the dragoons
were reviewed by the Emperor. The first rank faced right about, and both
ranks raised their swords and crossed them over the head of Napoleon.The
Emperor bent his head laughingly and finished the inspection under the
canopy of steel.
If not the best horsemen and swordsmen many dragoons were men of good brave hearts.
British author Costello writes: "One of their videttes, after being posted facing English dragoon, of the
14th or 16th [Light Dragoon Regiment] displayed an instance of individual gallantry, in which the
French, to do them justice, were seldom wanting. Waving his long straight sword, the Frenchman rode
within 60 yards of our dragoon, and challenged him to single combat. We immediately expected to see
our cavalry man engage his opponent, sword in hand. Instead of this, however, he unslung his carbine
and fired at the Frenchman, who not a whit dismayed, shouted out so that every one could hear him,
Venez avec la sabre: je suis pret pour Napoleon et la belle France. Having vainly endeavoured to induce the
Englishman to a personal conflict, and after having endured two or three shots from his carbine, the
Frenchman rode proudly back to his ground, cheered even by our own men. We were much amused by
his gallantry, while we hissed our own dragoon ... " (Costello "The Peninsular and Waterloo Campaigns" pp
66-67)
.
Commanders of dragoons.
Grouchy - "A thin-skinned man, reluctant to assume responsibility
yet conscientious in discharging it. ... He was far superior to
Murat in tactical skill, administrative ability, and common sense."
The thirty regiments of dragoons formed numerous divisions. The divisions of dragoons, 4-6 regiments
each, were commanded by generals de division. For example at Austerlitz in 1805, the 2nd Dragoon
Division was under Walther, the 3rd under Beaumont, an dthe 4th under Bourcier. In 1812 at Borodino,
the 6th Cavalry Division (dragoons) was commanded by l'Houssaye. In 1813 at Leipzig the 4th Heavy
Cavalry Division (dragoons) was under General Defrance, the 5th under l'Heritier, and the 6th was led
by Milhaud. In 1815 (Waterloo Campaign) the 9th Cavalry Division (dragoons) was under General
Strolz, and the 10th Division (dragoons) was under General Chastel.
One of the most known commanders of dragoons was Emmanuel Grouchy. In 1806 and at
Jena, and in 1807 at Friedland and Heilsberg, Grouchy led the 2nd Dragoon Division. In
1809 at Wagram, he again commanded a dragoon division [brigade ?] (7th, 30th Dragoons,
and la Reine Dragoons). When Blankenstein Hussars routed Jacquinot's cavalry Grouchy's
dragoons, in turn, routed the hussars. Hohenzollern Cuirassiers and O'Reilly
Chevauxlegeres came and then forced back the dragoons. But it was Grouchy who had the
last reserve and he drove off the Austrian horse. Grouchy and his dragoons were heavily involved in
the fighting at Friedland. In 1812 at Borodino, Grouchy commanded the III Cavalry Corps (4 dragoon, 3
chasseur, and 1 hussar regiment. He also had three German regiments).
John Elting writes, " [he] was of the ancient chivalry of France, his family acknowledged aristocracy
from at least the 14th Century. ... From the first it was clear that he was 'a horseman by nature and
cavalry soldier by instinct.' Better, he knew how to handle forces of all arms and took good care of his
men. When he was suspeneded in 1793 because he was an aristocrat, his troopers came close to mutiny.
... Grouchy's correspondence shows a thin-skinned man, reluctant to assume responsibility yet
conscientious in discharging it. Actually he was abler than he realized. He failed to show the necessary
initiative during Waterloo but, left isolated after that battle, managed a masterful retreat. As a
cavalryman, he was far superior to Murat in tactical skill, administrative ability, and common sense.
Clean-handed and very courageous ..."
In 1815, during the Waterloo Campaign, Grouchy commanded all French cavalry.
.
Weapons.
The dragoons were armed with straight sabers and so-called dragoon muskets. Their muskets were
longer and had longer range of fire than light cavalry's carbines. But they were shorter than infantry
muskets. While a light cavalryman's eqipment included a carbine sling as a means of keeping his
weapon readily available for use, the greater length of musket issued to dragoons made a sling
impractical. Thus the stock of the musket was seated in a boot attached to the saddle, and irs barrel
restrained by a strap attached to the pommel.
When the dragoons expected to go into action they drew sabers and muskets slung on their backs. In
1813 at Dresden the Austrian infantry kept falling back, with their muskets useless during rain. The
French dragoons followed them, loaded their firearms under their capes and fired into the enemy ranks.
Two companies of infantry surrendered to the dragoons.
In 1814 the dragoons gave away their long muskets for the infantry.
Foot dragoon, Musee de l'Armee.
He is armed with musket (right)
and straight saber (left).
Horses.
"... matters turned ugly when mounted and dismounted elements
of several regiments bivouaced together. The limping veterans
crowded over to check on their old horses and found them neglected,
sore-backed, and lame. Blood flowed freely, if only from rookies' noses."
Napoleon had problems to find the right horses for the numerous dragoon regiments.
In 1805 approximately 6.000 of them were without mounts and were organized into four foot dragoon
regiments. Their duty was to guard the artillery reserves and the baggage trains.
For his planned cross-Channel invasion of England, he organized two divisions of dismounted
dragoons. They were put into infantry-style shoes, gaiters and packs. They also received drums to
supplement their trumpets. Colonel Elting writes, "The assignement was sensible, but troopers caught
up in the shuffle remembered that veteran dragoons, who hadn't walked farther in years than the
distance from their barracks to the nearest bar, ended up in the dismounted units, while their mounts
were assigned to raw recruits. The results were rough on everybody: hospitals filled up with spavined
veterans, recruits got saddle sores. Also, J.A. Oyon wrote gleefully, matters turned ugly when mounted
and dismounted elements of several regiments bivouaced together. The limping veterans crowded over
to check on their old horses and found them neglected, sore-backed, and lame. Blood flowed freely, if
only from rookies' noses."
After the 1805-campaign Napoleon mounted the foot dragoons on captured Austrian horses. Then after
the 1806-campaign Napoleon mounted the rest of the "walkers" on captured Prussian and Saxon horses.
The hardships of war in Spain, plus poor horsecare killed thousands of dragoons' mounts. For example
in May 1811 the 3rd Dragons had only 139 horses left out of 563 ! The situation was so desperate that in
1812 was issued an order that all officers in infantry regiments have to give their horses to the dragoons.
French foot dragoons, by Keith Rocco.
.
Uniforms
Dragoon's uniform was elegant
but was a not very fancy.
The dragoons wore green coats, white breeches and tall black boots.
The distinctive headgear of the dragoons was their brass, neo-Grecian style, helmet with its black
horsehair. Troopers had a brown fur turban around it, officers an imitation leopard skin. The dragoons
wore insygnia of elite troops, but only a flaming grenade on coat-tails and saddlecloth.
Uniforms of French dragoon regiments.
No. Coat Breeches Collar Turnbacks
1er green white scarlet scarlet
2e green white green scarlet
3e green white scarlet scarlet
5e green white green scarlet
7e green white crimson crimson
8e green white green crimson
11e green white green crimson
13e green white pink pink
14e green white green pink
17e green white green pink
19e green white yellow yellow
20e green white green yellow
23e green white green yellow
25e green white orange orange
26e green white green orange
29e green white green orange
Uniforms of French drgaoons during the Napoleonic Wars.
(1) - trumpeter of 10th Dragoon Regiment, 1804
(2) - dragoon in manteau
(3) - private of 13th Dragoon Regeiment, 1804-12
(4) - officer of 5th Dragoon Regiment, 1812
(5) - private of 17th Dragoon Regiment, 1812
.
In November 1805 (Austerlitz Campaign) a dragoon brigade
under General Sebastiani took 2,000 prisoners at Pohrlitz.
"During the Polish campaign, dragoons routinely conducted dismounted operations. A typical
example occured on December 24, 1806 when dragoons encountered a Russian rear guard in the act of
setting fire to a bridge. They dismounted, drove off the Russian jagers protecting the bridge, put out the
fire, and established a bridgehead. The next day, General Jean Rapp, who commanded Davout's
mounted advance guard, encountered a strong Russian rear guard defending a defile. Lacking infantry
and artillery, Rapp ordered the 9th Dragoons to dismount and secure one end of the defile to hold this
position until reinforcements arrived." (Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows" p 38)
On December 21, 1806, General von Diericke's force attacked Bessieres' and Grouchy's troops
stationed in Biezun and Karnichen. Karnichen was defended by 100 skirmishers of 6th Light Infantry
and group of dismounted dragoons. In Biezun stood mounted dragoons under Grouchy. A half-battery
of Prussian horse artillery opened fire on Grouchy's dragoons as they left the village and deployed. The
Prussians also attacked Karnichen. Marshal Bessieres sent the 6th Dragoons charging in column directly
into Karnichen, while the 3rd Dragoons attempted to outflank the enemy.
The Prussian Pritwitz Hussars (3 squadrons) moved against the 3rd Dragoons. The hussars thought their
flank was secure when the 6th Dragoons hit them. "Such was the frenzy of the French charge that when
dragoon officer Mercier had his horse shot out from under him, he carried on by running after his
platoon to shout encouragement. The dragoons' impetuous charge drove off the Pritwitz Hussars,
overrun the horse artillery, forced a Prussian infantry battalion into a nearby marsh, and captured 500
prisoners, 4 cannon and a howitzer, 2 caissons, and one color and one standard." (Arnold - "Crisis in the
Snows" pp 115-116)
The Moscow Dragoons engaged General Rapp's 5th and 9th Dragoons near Golymin in December
1806. Many horses sank in the mud and the regiments were unable to maintain order during the charge.
Rapp won by sheer weight of numbers. The Moscow Dragoons however managed to cover the
withdrawal of Shcherbatov's infantry.
According to Eduard Lwenstern, the Russian Soumy Hussars were attacked and overthrown by
French 4th and 7th Dragoons at Golymin (1807). The fleeing hussars run toward the Ingermanland
Dragoons but these dragoons didnt let them pass without jeering.
In 1807, near Friedland, the French dragoons defeated Russian uhlans. Below is a description of this
combat by Kornet F. V. Bulgarin of [Russian] Duke Constantine Uhlans. One squadron of uhlans under
Shcheglov stood by 2 light guns that fired at French foot skirmishers. This little cannonade went for a
while before a column of enemy cavalry went out of the wood. The front of this column was not too
wide but its depth was unknown to the uhlans. According to Bulgarin two squadrons of uhlans and one
squadron of Lifeguard Cossacks advanced against the enemy. They moved in column by platoons (each
squadron had 4 platoons) with intervals on the distance of platoon, passed through a village, formed by
squadrons and then rushed forward with loud battle cry. Shcheglov rode in the front with outstretched
saber.
The column of French dragoons halted and stood
motionless like a stonewall [kak kamennaia stiena]
waiting for the enemy. The dragoons from the
second rank grabbed their muskets and began firing
while these in the first rank drew sabers and waited.
The charging uhlans first slowed down and then
halted. The French sounded massive En avant !
Vive lEmpereur! and advanced forward en masse.
The uhlans and Cossacks gave way before the sheer
weight of the column. Their retreat was covered by
flankers who opened fire on the pursuing dragoons.
The column made a half turn to the right and tried
to cut off the way of retreat for the uhlans and
Cossacks.
The Russians dashed rightward but here unforseen misfortune blocked their path, it was a robust
wattling. The Cossacks jumped off their mounts and tried to remove this obstacle, while the rear ranks
of the uhlans frantically fought with the head of the French column. The French officers fired their
pistols at point blank, while some dragoons used their muskets and long swords. Bulgarin's horse was
hit by two bullets to the head and fell down like an oak. Bulgarin barely escaped on foot.
In 1807 at Bodenwinkel, a few hundred French dragoons unexpectedly attacked Prussian fusilier
battalion standing at an open place in the forest. The fusiliers broke and fled into the forest where they
were hunted down.
After 1807 majority of the dragoons was moved from central
Europe on secondary theaters of wars, to Spain, Portugal and
Italy. Many of the regiments in Spain lacked uniforms, horses and
equipment. For example they were dressed in the brown cloth of
the Capucines found in convents and churches. They also had
difficulty in obtaining eppaulettes for their elite companies and
chin straps. For lack of sufficient number of regulation sabers the
old Toledo-swords with three edges were used.
But the dragoons were efficient troops. Due to their training in
infantry duties they were well suited as occupation force. Led by
Generals Montbrun, Latour-Maubourg, and others, they fought a
grim and deadly war of ambush and retaliation against the hostile
Spaniards. They also guarded communication lines and escorted
convoys. There was no glory in this type of warfare.
Furthermore, the British cavalry (ext.link) inflicted several defeats on the dragoons. The British were
superior swordsmen and horsemen to the dragoons, and had better horses.
.
One of the dragoons' greatest successes in Spain
came in 1812. The second in command of the British
army, Lord Paget, as Henry William Paget was then
styled, was captured by the French dragoons.
Napier writes, "In one of these charges General Paget
was carried off from the midst of his own men, and it
might have been Wellington's fortune, for he also was
continually riding between the columns and without
escort." (Napier - "History of the War in the Peninsula
1807-1814" Vol IV, p 152)
[In 1815 at Waterloo, Henry William Paget, commanded allied cavalry and led the charge, which
checked and in part routed D'Erlon's infantry corps.]
In December 1813, Montelegier's 2nd Brigade (2nd, 6th, 11th Dragoon Regiment) left Colmar and met
Scheibler's flying column (780 Cossacks, and 250 Bavarians and Austrians) near St.Croix. The Allies
threw back the 2nd and 6th Dragoons. The 11th Dragoons however countercharged and overwhelmed
the enemy. The Allies rallied. But when Collaert's 1st Brigade appeared on Scheibler's line of retreat, the
Bavarians and Austrians began their withdrawal.
The Cossacks attempted to flee but were cornered by the dragoons and many
were cut down.
The Bavarians and Austrians lost order and fled with the dragoons hot on
their heels. To Schleiber's horror the inhabitants of St.Croix barricaded the
streets and opened fire. The Allies had to force their way through the town.
They lost 210 killed while the French dragoons suffered only 80 killed.
Scheibler received 3 saber cuts but somehow managed to escape. The 1st and
2nd Dragoon Brigade were under the command of ... General Milhaud.
In 1814 at Nangis the French dragoons, veterans from Spain, attacked
Pahlens cavalry. The Russian center was broken and the Chuguiev Uhlans,
Soumy and Olviopol Hussars, and some Cossacks fled. Even General
Witgenstein and his chief of staff had to run for life. The hot pursuit only
slackened near Maison-Rouge.
On 13 January 1814 approx. 200 French dragoons penetrated the enemy
picket line of Bulow's corps near Antwerp "and reached the enemy camp
before the Prussians could react. The French troopers inflicted several casualties on the unsuspecting
Prussians. As quickly as they appeared the French melted into the darkness." ( Leggiere - "The Fall of
Napoleon" p 427)
.
Russian cuirassiers (left) vs Grouchy's French dragoons (right) at Borodino 1812.
.
In 1814 at Craonne dragoon brigade led by Grouchy and Sparre came from behind the corner of the
Marion Wood and charged the Russian guns on the flank. The gunners were sabered and 12 pieces
captured. Unfortunately the dragoons were not supported and their victory was shortlived. Two Russian
infantry regiments counterattacked with the bayonet and drove them back on the battery which they
had just captured and were forced to abandon the guns. Grouchy was then wounded.
In 1814, shortly after Napoleon's first
abdication, the Russian and Prussian armies
were drawn up on both sides of the road leading
to Paris. They presented arms to the French.
General Bordesoulle met the 30th Dragoon
Regiment and ordered them to draw sabers and
render the honors. The colonel of the 30th
Dragoons was in very bad mood.
He replied: "If my dragoons draw sabers it will
be to charge !"
On 1 July 1815 (approx. half month after Waterloo) several dragoons regiments marched toward
Villacoublay. This force was screened by a small vangaurd. The vanguard met two Prussian squadrons
and was thrown back in the first clash. Behind it, however, the 5th and the 13th Dragoons deployed out
of the wood. Two Prussian regiments arrived, the (3rd) Brandenburg Hussars and (5th) Pomeranian
Hussars The dragoons were driven back and fled to the village.
Meanwhile, General Exelmans had found another way into the village for his following regiments and
the 20th Dragoons with an unlimbered battery appeared in the flank of the Prussian hussars before they
had reformed. The hussars had to retreat, but quickly rallied and counter-charged the French, forcing
them again to the village. With another regiment just joining the French, the hussars retired to
Versailles. The French pursuit was so vigorous that the rearguard, the Brandenbourg Hussars, had to
make several charges to force Exelmans to break off. The dragoons reached Versailles from several
directions and the Prussians were caught in a trap. The commander of the Prussians, von Sohr, was
severely wounded and taken prisoner. Only few escaped. Major von Klinkowstroem, commander of the
Brandenburg Hussars, wrote: "In the hopeless bloody battle that followed many of us fell."
After rallying the survivors Major von Wins went to report the defeat to Blucher, who
was colonel-in-chief of the (5th) Hussars. Nostitz described the scene: "... Major von Wins
unexpectedly rode up and stopped. The major dismounted ... came up to me, saying in a
very excited voice, 'What you see here is all that is left of the two hussar regiments.
Everyone else is either dead or taken prisoner.' I was very surprised. ... Major von Wins ...
demanded to be taken to the Prince (Blucher). I tried to stop him, telling him his reception
would be highly unpleasant. However, that did not help and I had to announce him. The
Prince heard the report in growing anger and then cried out in rage,
'Lord ! If what you are saying is true, then I wish the devil had fetched you too !"
Cavalry battle at Liebertwolkwitz, October 1813
Marshal Murat led numerous dragoons against the Allies.
"But the fire of the four Russian and Prussian horse batteries ... hit the front and right flank
of the column and ripped its head apart, stopping it in its tracks. Seizing the opportunity,
the Russian hussars, with the Prussian uhlans and cuirassiers, charged into the disorganized
front ranks.
.
The Cossacks did pretty well against the French dragoons.
What that division [Milhauds dragoons at Eylau in 1807] did is
unclear, its performance obscured by a veil of official secrecy.
However, at least two Eylau veterans offer evidence about what
took place. A cuirassier officer wrote that during the campaign
Milhauds dragoons suffered a series of unfortunate affairs. They
became known army-wide as cossack game.
In a letter written after the battle, Alexandre Coudreux spoke
more directly. He grieved for the honor of the dragoons because
the army had seen entire divisions about face in front of a handful
of Cossacks. Henceforth, Coudreux used the term dragonaille, a
feminized version of the word roughly translated as girly
dragoons. (Arnold Crisis in the snows p 324)
[Note: at Eylau Milhauds Division consisted of 5th, 8th , 9th , 12th , 16th , and 21st Dragoon Regiment]
One of the worst defeats the French dragoons have ever suffered, occured in Eastern Prussia, at
Burkersdorf.
On February 14th 1807, the 5th, 8th, 9th, 12th, 16th and 21st
Dragoon Regiment (total of 18 squadrons) led by General Milhaud
were at Burkersdorf, a village between Eylau and Knigsberg.
These regiments formed the 3rd Dragoon Division that was
retreating after a reconnaisance in force. (The same Milhaud led
cavalry corps made of cuirassiers at Waterloo).
An inferior force of 400 Soumy Hussars and 350 Cossacks
followed Milhaud for some time. According to Lwenstern the
first encounter took place in the morning and the French appeared
to be eager to fight. But he exagerrate somehow that after the first
hoorah! the dragoons fled. Actually two hussar squadrons and
200 Cossacks attacked the frontal six squadrons but were pushed back. Then four hussar squadrons
came out of village and struck with great impetuosity the French flank.
Milhaud ordered the nearest dragoon brigade to face the attackers but it failed to do so on time. Instead
the brigade was broken and fled. Whereupon the two other brigades, seeing the rout, turned about and
hooved away. The dragoons could not be rallied until they had gone three miles to the rear.
Milhaud was ashamed at the swift defeat and attempted to commit suicide by attacking the Russians
while being accompanied by only four dragoons. Yermolov mentions that two of the exhausted French
squadrons fled across a frozen lake. The Soumy Hussars and the Cossacks caught up with them and
took as prisoners. Sir Robert Wilson writes that the French dragoons lost 400 killed and 288 captured as
prisoners. Bennigsen gives the French casualties at 400 and one standard (guidon?). Lwenstern wrote
that the hussars didnt allow the French to gather, chased them to Ludwigsdorf (Ludwigswalde ?) and
captured 300 prisoners. He explains that Colonel Ushakov send for two squadrons who were 2 miles
away from Burkersdorf but these forces came too late to participate in the battle. After the combat. the
village became a market place where captured watches, weapons, uniforms, tobacco, pistols and horses
were offered for sale. (Lwenstern - Mit Graf Pahlens Reiterei gegen Napoleon Berlin 1910, Ernst Siegfried
Mittler und Sohn, page 18.)
Shikanov mentions 180 prisoners and squadron standard of 8e Dragons being captured.
(Shikanov V.H. - Pervaia Polskaia Kampania 1806-1807 page 178)
~
Lighthorse-Lancers [Chevau-Lgers Lanciers]
"The Polish lancer, as well as the French lancer distinguished himself
by his elegant appearance; but the looks of this last were softer
and the colors of his origin moderated, in respect to the military
roughness of the first figure." - St. Hilaire
The 1st, 3rd, 8th, 9th, 10th and 29th Dragoon Regimentss were converted to 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and
6th Lancers.
The (Polish) Vistula Uhlans and the Old Guard Lancers sent their troopers as instructors to the newly
formed French units. Colonel of the Vistula Uhlans, Jan Konopka, became Chief Inspector of Training
for the newly formed French lancer regiments.
The Poles were acknowledged to be the finest lancers in Europe and Russia, Prussia and Austria
recruited their uhlan units from among the Polish subjects. It was followed by an imitative creation of
lancer regiments all across Western Europe (France, Germany and even the British got around to it after
Napoleonic wars).
Once trained by the Poles the French regiments received tough lot of French officers "such as Perquit...
who didn't recognize any danger." (Elting - "Swords Around a Throne")
The 7th and 8th Lancer Regiments were formed from Poles, by conversion of the 1st and
2nd Vistula Uhlans. They wore their traditional Polish style uniforms (no helmets).
The 9th Lancer Regiment was considered also Polish but actually it was made of Germans and small
number of Poles and Frenchmen. This regiment was formed by conversion of the 30th Chasseurs. "The
9th Regiment was raised in 1811 in Hamburg and initially had green uniforms with chamois facings. In
1813 the basic uniform colour turned to dark blue as for the 7e and 8r regiments, but with its own
facings in chamois." (- Dr. E. M. Theewen)
French lancers in 1813. Picture by Jouineau, France.
Uniforms of French lancer regiments.
No. Coat Breeches
Collar &
Turnbacks
1er green green scarlet
2e green green orange
3e green green pink
4e green green crimson
5e green green light blue
6e green green red
7e * dark blue dark blue yellow
8e * dark blue dark blue
dark blue
yellow
9e * dark blue dark blue light beige
* - the 7th, 8th and 9th wore Polish-style uniforms.
.
Weapons and horses.
Giving lances to poorly trained men
didn't make them good lancers.
They were rather 'men with sticks' than lancers.
Mastery with lance required training and strong hand. "It took a lot of extra training to produce a
competent lancer. A British training manual produced some years after Waterloo stated that he had to
master 55 different exercises with his lance - 22 against cavalry, 18 against infantry, with 15 general ones
thrown in for good measure." (Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion" p 247)
Giving lances to poorly trained men didn't make them good lancers, they were 'men with sticks' not
lancers. Lancer was a formidable opponent. Before World War I Mr. Wilkinson "have watched and
recorded hundreds of competitions between men equally experts in the use of their weapons but lance
won by the every large majority of them."
German officer, Wilhelm Balck, writes: "The employment of the lance requires that troopers and
remounts be well developed physically, and that the trooper be thoroughly trained in handling his horse
and his weapon. This may, perhaps, make it necessary in a campaign to arm recruits with the saber
only."
In 1813 the 125-men strong company of French lancers (regiment had 4-8 companies) was armed as
follow:
in 1st rank
- - - 2 sergeants each with a saber and 2 pistols
- - - 4 corporals each with a saber, 1 pistol, musketoon with bayonet and lance
- - - 44 troopers each with a saber, 1 pistol and a lance
in 2nd rank
- - - 4 corporals each with a saber, 1 pistol, and a musketoon with bayonet
- - - 44 troopers each with a saber, 1 pistol, and a musketoon with bayonet
supernumerary rank
- - - 1 sergeant-major, 1 farrier and 2 sergeants each with a saber and 2 pistols
- - - 3 trumpeters, and 2 farriers each with a saber and 1 pistol
- - - 9 troopers each with a saber and a carbine
- - - 9 troopers each with a saber and a lance
(Total of 125 sabers, 109 pistols, 57 lances, 52 musketoons with bayonets and 9 carbines.)
The lancers were light cavalry and rode on small but sturdy and agile mounts.
Note from Mr T. Wojciechowski: The French lancers were mounted on smaller horses than the Polish uhlans. It was probably OK
as the primary reason for Napoleon to form the lancer regiments was to fight the Cossacks. But then, why did he give them helmets
? This headwear was more appropriate for medium and heavy cavalry than for a light cavalry outfit. And as if it was not enough,
the lancers were issued lances for both ranks (!), sabers, carbines, and pistols. For so well- armed man you need an equally powerful
horse and not a pony.
So the question is why N. did not give them stronger horses ? Probably he didnt have them. Remember what happened when he
increased the number of dragoons ? There were no horses for them and they campaigned as foot dragoons until received captured
Prussian and Austrian horses. This is interesting that French artists always portray their lancers as mounted on powerful horses.
The British lancers (ext.link) were issued Polish-style headwears (no helmets) and were mounted on excellent horses. I would say
they were more battle cavalry than light cavalry, or something in between the two types. In terms of men and horses they were
more in the direction of Napoleons Old Guard (Polish) Lancers than the uhlan regiments, although they were dressed like the
Vistula Uhlans.
.
Only few lancers served during the Invasion of
Russia in 1812.
They were attached to heavy cavalry divisions. See
example below.
Heavy Cavalry Division - GdD St.Germaine
- - - 2nd Cuirassiers (4 sq.)
- - - 3rd Cuirassiers (4 sq.)
- - - 9th Cuirassiers (4 sq.)
- - - 1st Lancers (1 sq.)
In 1813 at Katzbach the lancers were called after the
23rd Chasseurs was repulsed by infantry. The lancers came and broke the square, inflicting heavy
casualties on the Prussians.
In 1813 at Dresden a large square of Austrian infantry repulsed French cuirassiers but surrendered
without a fight to lancers. Another square also repulsed cuirassiers but broke when 50 French lancers
attacked them. The frustrated cuirassiers joined the lancers and together finished off the enemy.
In 1813 at Leipzig, the bulk of lancers formed the 1st Light Cavalry Division of I Cavalry Corps. It was
the top spot among the light cavalry outfits. Two lancer regiments were in 2nd Light Cavalry Division,
and one regiment in 4th Light Cavalry Div.
1st Light Cavalry Division - GdD Berckheim
Brigade - GdB de Montmarie
- - - 1st Lancers (2 sq.)
- - - 3rd Lancers (2 sq.)
- - - 16th Horse Chasseurs (2 sq.)
Brigade - GdB Piquet
- - - 5th Lancers (2 sq.)
- - - 8th Lancers (2 sq.)
- - - 1st Italian Chasseurs
At Leipzig the Austrian Sommariva Cuirassiers
went into action against Berkheim's French
lancers. The armored cuirassiers were lancers'
nightmare. The lancers broke and fled closely
followed by the Austrians.
A Saxon officer writes, "When we [Saxon
cuirassiers] reached Berckheim, his men were
mixed up with the enemy in individual
squadrons, so that there were Austrian units to the
north of the French lancers. We Saxons had only
just come up when Berckheim rallied his men to
face the ever-increasing enemy pressure. But they
could not stand even though Berckheim -
bareheaded, as his hat had been knocked off -
threw himself into the thick of the melee. He was
also swept back in the flood of fugitives ... Despite
this chaos, we [Saxons] stood fast and hacked away at the Austrians. Shortly before they charged us, the
Austrians had shouted to us to come over to them; we ignored them. However, we were overpowered
and broken. The chase now went on at speed, friend and foe all mixed up together, racing over the
plain."
At Genappe in 1815, Colonel Surd of 2nd Lancers, was badly wounded by the British cavalry. His arm
was amputated by surgeon Larrey. But Surd insisted on maintaining command of his regiment and in
fact led his men all day long against the Prussians at Plancenoit.
At Quatre Bras the lancers created havoc among
the Netherlands and British troops. Peter
Hofschroer writes: "... squares of British infantry
held off the French cavalry at first, but the square of
the 42nd was broken and the 44th was thrown into
disorder, the colour of the 44th being fought over. ...
The Prince of Orange was caught in the rout, but
was saved by the speed of his mount... [Wellington]
with his steed also helping to extract him from
similarly precarious position." (- Hofschroer "1815:
The Waterloo Campaign")
Sergeant Anton of the 42nd Highland recorded attack of the lancers: "Marshal Ney ... observed our wild
unguarded zeal, and ordered a regiment of lancers to bear down upon us. We saw their approach at a
distance, as they issued from a wood, and took them for Brunswickers coming to cut up the flying
[French] infantry ... a German [KGL] orderly dragoon galloped up, exclaiming 'Franchee ! Franchee !'
and, wheeling about, galloped off. We instantly formed a rallying square; no time for particularity:
every man's musket was loaded, and our enemies approached at full charge; the feet of their horses
seemed to tear up the ground. ... our brave Colonel [Sir Robert Macara] fell at this time, pierced through
the chin until the point reached his brain. Captain Menzies fell covered with wounds. ... The grenadiers
[of 42nd Highland], whom he commanded, pressed round to save or avenge him, but fell beneath the
enemies lances." The official report of the Hanoverian brigade described the action that soon followed:
"... Verden Battalion was not able to fall back quickly enough and was largely ridden down or taken
prisoner."
In the
memoirs of
Waterloo, the
French lancers,
galloping at will
over the
battlefield,
sending saber-
armed cavalry
fleeing before
them, and calmly stopping to finish off the wounded without even having to dismount, appear as an
image of horror. Wyndham of the Scots Grays saw the lancers pursuing British dragoons who had lost
their mounts and were trying to save themselves on foot. He noted the ruthlessness of the lancers'
pursuit and watched them cut their victims down. Some British cavalrymen on foot slipped in the mud
and tried to ward off the lance blows with their hands but without much success.
In the Battle of Waterloo, Sir Ponsonby together with his adjutant, Major Reignolds made a dash to own
line, and a French lancer quickly began pursuing them. While they were crossing a plowed field,
Ponsonby's horse got stuck in the mud in an instant, the lancer was upon him. Ponsonby threw his
saber away and surrendered. Reignolds came to his aid, but the lancer compelled both of them to
dismount under the threat of his lance. At that moment, a small group of Scots Grays happened to pass
a short distance away, saw the three, and galloped shouting in their direction with the idea of liberating
Sir Ponsonby.
In a flash, the Frenchman killed the general and his brigade major with 2 blows of his lance, then boldly
charged the oncoming dragoons striking down 3 in less than a minute. The others abandoned the
combat, completely incapable of holding their own against the enemy's deadly weapon." (Barbero - "The
Battle" p 163)
~
Horse Chasseurs [Chasseurs--Cheval]
They thought being equal to hussars ,
the hussars however thought otherwise.
In 1798 the Directorate had 22 regiments of chasseurs before Napoleon increased their numbers.
In 1804 there were 24 regiments, and in 1811 as many as 31 regiments (in 1815 15 regiments).
Chasseur regiments made of foreigners:
16th Regiment was composed of Belgians.
19th Regiment of Swiss, later of Italians.
26th Regiment was formed in 1802 of Italians (Piedmontese Chasseurs).
27th Regiment was formed in 1808 of Belgians.
The 27th Chasseurs was originally raised in Sept 1806 as the "Chevau-lgers du Duc d'Arenberg".
It was made up of Belgians and given to the duke Prosper of Arenberg to command.
28th Regiment was formed in 1808 of Italians (Tuscan Dragoons).
30th Regiment was formed in Feb 1811 of Germans and Poles, (in June this unit became 9th Lancers)
There were several reasons why Napoleon formed so many regiments of chasseurs. Their uniforms were
cheaper than hussars' outfits. The chasseurs were well suited for scouting, escorting convoys, screening
the army, and as occupation force. They were armed with sabers and carbines, could fight dismounted
and were capable of charging in pitched battle. Some regiments were trained for several months (at least
in 1805) to handle the cannons. Although they "we never had the opportunity of using the talent which
we acquired" (- Charles Parquin of 20th Chasseurs.)
The chasseurs were often brigaded with the hussars. The most famous was the Infernal Brigade
composed of 9th Hussars, 7th and 20th Chasseurs and commanded by General Colbert. Many chasseurs
kept their hair braided like the hussars. They thought being equal to hussars, the hussars however
thought otherwise. Frequent quarrels arose between the two on the most triffling pretext.
The chasseurs had a interesting way of obtaining alcohol
in Spain when they wanted it. "There is no brandy left.
Who's going to catch a goddam ?" - and the chasseurs
would take turns to capture an English soldier with his
supply of alcohol "he always carried."
The chasseurs were proud of their mustaches. Charles
Parquin of 20th Regiment was not so lucky in this
aspect, he wrote: "to my grief, my moustache had
refused to grow despite constant encouragement with
the razor." ;=)
The young chasseurs however did their best to become good soldiers. Their uniforms were clean, they
were more disciplined than the hussars, and they took good care of their weapons and equipment. The
young Parquin however got an advice from a veteran. "Parquin ... there is not much of the cavalryman
about you. Your accountrements are clean and you handle your arms perfectly, but - have a fiercer eye,
man ! Stare me down ! Terrify me, if you can !" ( Parquin - "Napoleon's Victories" p 23)
Albert-Jean-Michel de Rocca, of light cavalry, writes, "The various troops that composed our army,
especially the cavalry and infantry, differed extremely in manners and habits. The infantrymen, having
only to think of themselves and their muskets, were selfish, great talkers, and great sleepers. ... They
were apt to dispute with their officers, and sometimes they were even insolent to them ... They forgot all
their hardships the moment they heard the sound of the enemy's first gun.
The hussars and chasseurs were generally accused of being plunderers and prodigal, loving drink and
fancying every thing fair while in presence of the enemy. Accustomed, one may almost say, to sleep
with an open eye, to have an ear always awake to the sound of the trumpet, to reconnoitre far in
advance during a march, to trace the ambuscades of the enemy ... they could not fail to have acquired
superior intelligence and habits of independence. Nevertheless, they were always silent and submissive
in presence of their officers, for fear of being dismounted. Forever smoking, to pass away his life, the
light cavalryman, under his large cloak, braved in every country the rigour of the seasons. The rider and
his horse, accustomed to live together, contracted a character of resemblance."
Some of the chasseurs were reckless bravados - in 1809 an officer of 20th Chasseurs dismounted so that
he could go a little toward the enemy in order to relieve nature. When he was standing with his legs
apart and facing the Austrians, a cannonball hit him killing on the spot.
"Among the bravest chasseurs in the regiment was reckoned a corporal of the Elite Company who,
when he was only a trumpeter, and barely at the age of 15, made captive with his own hand a gigantic
dragoon of [Austrian] Latour regiment." ( Parquin - "Napoleon's Victories")
Uniforms of horse chasseurs.
(1) - Elite Company of 17th Chasseur Regiment, 1812
(2) - 16th Chasseur Regiment, 1812
(3) - sapper, 1808
(4) - 1st Chasseur Regiment, 1812
(5) - 27th Chasseur Regiment, 1812
(6) - trumpeter 1810
Weapons.
Picture: French light cavalry sabre and scabbard
(1802). Photo from Military Heritage >
In early campaigns the chasseurs-a-cheval were
armed with two types of sabers: a la husarde and a la
chasseur. Both weapons were replaced by light cavalry
saber Pattern XI. It was a good weapon, with a
slightly curved blade.
.
Picture: French cavalry carbine from Military
Heritage >
The chasseurs were armed also with carbines and
bayonets. The bayonets were disliked by cavalrymen,
they were used for digging up the potatoes and then
threw away.
.
Commanders of chasseurs.
Montbrun - "Very tall, scarred, and soldierly,
with an eye that compelled obedience ..."
One of the most known chasseurs was Montbrun. Louis-Pierre Montbrun (1770-1812)
joined the cavalry in 1789 in the age of 19. In 1809 at Raab "Montbrun led 1st Chasseurs in a
spirited charge that routed the few remaining Austrian cavalry defending the Austrian left
flank." (Arnold - "Napoleon Conquers Austria")
At Wagram, Montbrun commanded Light Cavalry Division (1st, 2nd, 11th and 12th
Chasseurs, 5th and 7th Hussars). In 1812 during the Invasion of Russia and in the battle of
Borodino, he led the II Cavalry Corps.
According to Terry J. Senior from napoleon-series.org "This soldier was a superb equestrian, with a
brilliant sword arm, and a terrific combat record. He possessed an exceptional talent for controlling
large formations of mixed cavalry. Rated ahead of LaSalle on the basis that he was less headstrong and
more calculating than the legendary hussar commander."
Elting writes, "Montbrun was a worthy comrade. Very tall, scarred, and soldierly, with an eye that
compelled obedience, active and tireless, he had risen from private to colonel of the 1st Chasseurs-a-
Cheval. Davout got him promoted to general of brigade. He was at once prudent and reckless, careful of
the lives of his men yet a driving, aggressive leader. In August 1812 he was suffering an attack of gout
when the Russians attempted a counteroffnsive; unable to pull on his boots, he rode to the rescue in his
stocking feet. A month later at Borodino a chance cannon shot killed him."
.
In 1805 at Austerlitz, the 5th and 26th Chasseurs captured Allies flag.
In 1809 at Wagram, Colbert's Infernal Brigade (9th Hussars, 7th and 20th Chasseurs) rushed against
Austrian infantry. The 7th Chasseurs was greeted with musket volley and fell back. Colbert was
seriously wounded. The 20th Chasseurs moved against the square that had just repulsed the 7th.
Despite having emptied their muskets the infantrymen were standing firm. The chasseurs however
attacked and broke the square. Other square was broken by the 9th Hussars. Now Oudinot advanced
against Wagram and took it.
On June 14th 1812 part of the Russian Yamburg Dragoons covered the distance of 105 verst from the
village of Zbegi, through Shaty, Zheimy to Vepry, all without sleep and feeding the horses. Two young
Russian officers led two squadrons of the Yambourg Dragoons as they ran into a body of French
chasseurs and accepted the battle. Most of the Russians were either killed, wounded, or taken prisoners.
(Krestovski - Istoriya 14-go Ulanskago Yamburskago Eya Imperatorskago Vysochestva Velikoi Knyazhny Marii
Aleksandrovny Polka St. Petersburg 1873, pages 180-182)
On 8th February 1814 a half squadron of 31st Chasseur captured 150 Austrian infantry near
Massimbona. Another squadron captured 300 infantry between Marengo and Roverbella. Even the
scouts of the regiment did something to be proud of, they captured an Austrian baggage column, which
was moving into Villafranca with its escort. (Nafziger and Gioannini - "The Defense of the Napoleonic
Kingdom of Northern Italy, 1813-1814" pp 160-162)
During the pursuit of the Russian army in early Februrary 1807 one squadron of the 12th Horse
Chasseurs bagged an entire squadron of Russian dragoons !
There were also few failures in small warfare.
De Rocca writes, "Not far from the village of Mia Casas, the Spaniards had placed several squadrons of
their best cavalry in ambush, this chosen cavalry fell unawares upon the chasseurs of our advanced
guard, who were marching without order ... Our horsemen were overpowered by numbers ... and, in
less than 10 minutes, our enemies completely destroyed upwards of 150 of the bravest of our 10th
Regiment. ... We arrived too late; we saw nothing but the cloud of dust at a distance, which the retiring
Spaniards left behind them. The colonel of the 10th was endeavouring to rally his chasseurs, and tearing
his hair at the sight of the wounded strewed here and there over a pretty considerable space of ground."
The combat at Drouia (1812) began with the Cossacks chasing the French chasseurs outposts toward
the village of Onikshty where stood Polish 10th Hussars and French 11th Chasseurs. Four squadrons (of
the eight) of the Grodno Hussars charged and broke the chasseurs. The French fled toward the village of
Litichki. There in a ravine the French rallied, while their officers formed the four squadrons into four
columns. The hussars charged and again broke them. The French fled in great disorder to the village
of Yaga (Jaga). There they rallied again, some dismounted, grabbed their carbines and formed a skirmish
line. The Cossacks began harrasing them until the remaining four squadrons of the Grodno hussars
arrived. [Russian squadrons were smaller than French ones.] Kulniev's Grodno Hussars and Cossacks
charged and the French and Poles withdrew to the safety of the wood. During the hasty withdrawal,
which after a short melee turned into flight, the French and Poles lost 150 as prisoners, including
General St Gniez.
In July 1812, at Filipova, the Russian Grodno Hussars (8 squadrons) defeated the French 7th and 20th
Horse Chasseurs (total of 8 squadrons), and Polish Uhlans (4 squadrons). The French and Poles were
pursued and 170 were taken prisoner.
The chasseurs had problems especially with the Cossacks.
During the campaign in Russia "Each morning it's the light cavalry, joined by Murat in person, that
opens the march, the hussar and chasseur regiments ... Day after day the Russian rearguard carries out
the same maneuvre. By pretending to make a stand, it lures Murat into mounting a full scale attack -
and then melts away into forests. Towards midday the heat becomes intolerable; and the chasseurs and
hussars 'seeing the Russians dismount, unbridle their horses and give them something to eat. Yet
General St. Germaine kept us standing in battle array, bridle on arm, at our horses' heads. (Britten-
Austin - "1812 The March on Moscow" p 124)
In 1813 at Ostrovno the 16th Chasseurs withheld its volley until the Cossacks were 30 paces away.
Despite the fire the enemy closed with the chasseurs and drove them back. Only the intervention of
Murats cavalry allowed the chasseurs to take refuge behind the 53rd Ligne and in the ravive. The
Russians attempted to go after the chasseurs but the steady musketry from the 53rd Ligne repulsed
them several times.
The chasseurs had their glory day in 1815 at Quatre Bras. Around 6:30 PM the British Foot Guards
arrived. Their artillery deployed behind the ditch occupied by the Luneberg Battalion. It took the Foot
Guards almost two hours to reach the southern edge of Bossu Wood, for the French infantry had
disputed every tree and shrub of it. When the Foot Guards emerged from the wood in a broken line,
heading for the Grand Pierrepont Farm, they and the adjoining Brunswickers were pounded by French
artillery, then attacked by Pire's lancers and driven back into the wood. Other sources claim that the
charge was made by Pire's 6th and 1st Chasseurs. The green-clad chasseurs attacked, forcing some of
the Allied infantry into squares. The French caught the Foot Guards formed in line and in the open. The
cavalry charged from a "concealed positions in a depresion near Pierrepont" and routed the British
Guard within a moment. [- Source: GdD Pire's letter to GdD Reille, June 25th 1815, in Arch. Serv. Hist.]
Approx. 500 redcoats were killed and wounded, and the remaining guardsmen high-tailed it back to the
Bossu Wood. The French infantry followed them and their voltigeurs retook some of the lost terrain.
Meanwhile the 7th Cuirassiers attacked one of Saxe-Weimar's battalions. The Germans also sought
refuge in the wood.
PS.
If you still think that the green-clad chasseurs were the weakest link of the French cavalry, I have one
more thing to say. The 22nd Chasseur Regiment won record 5 Battle Honors. Only three other outfits
achieved it; the 5th and 7th Hussars (both from Lasalle's Hellish Brigade) and the 4th Hussars.
Furthermore, the 5th Chasseur Regiment participated in 86 battles and combats, more than any other
cavalry troop of the French army.
~
Hussars
The hussars had the cleanest bodies and the filthiest minds.
There was a saying: "The hussars were loved by every wife
and hated by every husband".
For the hussars "The wolrd was divided by them into two parts ,
the happy zone, in which the vine grows, and the detestable zone
which is without it." - Albert-Jean-Michel de Rocca, 2nd Hussars
The hussar-mania contaminated France after sweeping over Europe.
The dash of attire and behaviour of Hungarian hussars displayed on the battlefields in the service of
Austria certainly made the best impression, and in due time the French army started changing her
cavalry regiments into hussars, in dress and in title. Lynn writes: "The last type of horsemen to join the
ranks of the French cavalry were hussars, a form of mounted unit composed of Hungarian light cavalry
who forged their methods of combat fighting against the Turks. Hussars were true light cavalry, used
best for raiding and scouting. ... The first genuine French hussar regiment was raised in 1692 from
Imperial deserters, and by 1710, the French counted 3 regiments of these often outlandish cavalry,
regarded by some more as thieves on horseback than as true cavalrymen." (Lynn - "Giant of the Grand
Siecle" p 492)
In 1798 the Directorate had twelve hussar regiments.
In 1803 the 11th and 12th Hussars became 29th and 30th Dragoons.
In 1804 were ten hussar regiments numbered 1st-10th.
In 1810 the 11th Hussars was reraised from Dutch 2nd Hussars.
(During Marmont's retreat from the Rhine to the Saar River in January 1814, Marmont lost only 1,500
men. His biggest problem however were the deserters. Marmont writes, "All of the soldiers who are not
from old France have deserting the flag... All of the Dutchmen who enlisted have now left. The 11th
Hussar Regiment, composed mainly of Dutchmen, dissolved instantly, and because the deserters were
taking their horses with them, I was forced to put on foot those who were left and to give the horses to
the most trusted soldiers.")
In February 1813 the 12th Hussars was reraised from the 9th Bis Hussars (composed of detached
squadrons).
The 13th Hussars existed only between January and December 1813. This unit fought well and suffered
heavily. It was disbanded and its remnants were put into new 14th Hussars formed in Northern Italy in
1813. Majority of them were Italians. The 13th Hussars was reraised in January 1814 from Hussars of
Jerome Bonaparte.
In 1815 (Waterloo Campaign) there were 7 hussar regiments.
Hussars' overbearing arrogance, their military pride, the fastidiously sensitive
brutality of their honor, had an intensity hard to realize today. The hussars
considered themselves as better horsemen and swordsmen than everybody else.
They liked to sing songs that insulted dragoons and considered themselves
distinctly more dashing than chasseurs.
(This situation was not only in the French army. When the Russian hussars had
to abandon their innumerable plaits from the temples, they were quite unhappy.
They considered this as a blow to their self-esteem and complained that they will
become no better than dragoons. !)
In combat the hussars rode yelling most unearthly, cursing and brandishing their
weapons. Some regiments were composed of fellows who had a natural longing
for a fight. They had their own code - that of reckless curage that bordered on a
death wish. The hussars were the eyes, ears and egos of the army.
The mutually supporting camaraderie of the hussars was important factor of
their esprit de corps. Tactically they were used as scouts and screen for other
troops and due to their combativeness were also used in pitched battles. It was
not a rare sight to see a hussar in a forefront of a hack-and-slash melee, gripping
his reins with his teeth, a pistol in one hand and saber in the other.
.
Guindey was quartermaster of the blue-clad 10th
Hussars. He became fomous for killing Prussian
Prince Louis Ferdinand at Saalfeld. As a prominent
leader of the Prussian court war-party, his death
was grievously felt. King of Prussia told his
generals afterward: "You said that the French
cavalry was worthless, look what their light cavalry
has done to us! Imagine what their cuirassiers will do!" Guindey
was awarded and transfered to the Horse Gerenadiers of the
Imperial Guard.
In 1805 at Austerlitz the 2nd Hussars captured Allies flag. The
2nd Hussars was a famous unit. Raised in 1734 by Count
Esterhazy, this regiment took the name Chamborant from its
colonel. "The color of its uniform, a most distinctive chestnut-
brown with sky-blue facings and breeches, was reputedly
suggested by Marie Antoinnette who remarked upon the color of
the habit of a passing monk when Chamborant asked what color she would suggest for the uniform of
his regiment." (- Philip Haythornthwaite)
The 1st Hussars was not worse than the 2nd Hussars. In 1806 before the battle of Jena the Guard cavalry
had not yet arrived in time and the 1st had acted as the Emperor's body guard. In 1809, with an escort
of hussars - Napoleon had given the 7th Hussars this honor (from Lasalle's Hellish brigade) - Empress
Marie-Louise traveled to France to meet her husband. Everything about the journey was heavy with
ceremony and when they arrived in Paris the artillery (and Paris journals :-) made a terrific noise.
The 5th and 7th Hussars formed Lasalle's
legendary Hellish Brigade with Colonels
Francois-Xavier Schwarz and Ferdinand-Daniel
Marx as regimental commanders. In 1806 After
the victorious battles of Jena and Auerstdt,
Lasalle participated in the pursuit of the
Prussians. His two regiments, total of 600-900
men, bluffed the great Prussian fortress of
Stettin with 180 guns and a garrison of 5,000
men. into surrender !
(Overjoyed Napoleon made comment: Si votre
cavalerie lgre prend ainsi des villes fortes, il faudra
que je licencie mon gnie et que je fasse fondre mes grosses pices. )
The (Russian) Tartar Horse Regiment of 5 squadrons advanced against the 17th Light Infantry at Pultusk
in December 1806. The 9th and 10th Hussars (3 + 3 squadrons) led by Treillard however counter-
charged and after a short melee the enemy withdrew.
In the combat near Colmar on January 3 1814, "one small 14-year old bugler (of 3rd Hussar Regiment)
captured an Austrian corporal 5 feet, 8 inches tall." ( Chuquet - "L'Alsace en 1814")
Capt. Poitiers of 2nd Hussars claimed to have killed three men of the British 4th Dragoons himself. (Guy
Dempsey - "Albuera 1811").
There were also some not-so-good performances. In 1807 at Golymin, General Lasalle led "Hellish
Brigade" against Russian artillery (battery of 12-15 guns). The hussars charged with vigor but then were
abruptly seized with panic. The two regiments turned about and, in an indescribable disorder officers
and men mixed, stampeded back to the rear. "Of the whole brigade only the elite company of the 7e
Hussars, placed immediately behind the generals, remained firmly at their posts." (Dupont - "La panique
de Golymin" Cavaliers d'pope. )
Lasalle was furious. He rode after them, halted and brought them back. Lasalle kept them within a short
range from the Russian guns as punishment for their earlier behavior. Now nobody dared to leave his
post. One of the most known cowards was squadron leader of the 5th Hussars "whose colonel had even
undertaken in General Montbrun's presence to issue him with a certificate of officerly cowardice any
day he asked for it. Several times he'd let his men charge without accompanying them. At Inkovo
[Russia] he'd even slid from his horse and surrendered !" (Britten-Austin - "1812 The March on Moscow" p
381)
French hussars and a girl. Picture by S.Letin.
The hussars had the cleanest bodies and the filthiest minds.
Drinking, dueling, womanizing and more drinking were
their funs. There was saying: "The hussars were loved by
every wife and hated by every husband".
.
Weapons and horses.
Each hussar was armed with 1-2 pistols and saber. Their sabers were more curved than chasseurs' and
shorter than chasseur's , dragoon's , and cuirassier's. For example the blade of sabre a la husarde (1786)
was 80 cm long, while the blade of a la chasseur (1801) was 89.1 cm or 90 cm long. Cuirassiers' and
carabiniers' straight sabers were the longest.
Only some hussars were equipped with carbines, thus their firepower was not too impressive.
The height reqirements for the men and horses were not as strict as for other branches of cavalry. For
example, cuirassier's horse was 155-160 cm, but hussar's only 149-153 cm. Only lancers rode on smaller
horses. But lancers were taller men than chasseurs and hussars.
Minimum height requirements for men:
- carabinier: 179 cm
- cuirassier: 173 cm
- dragoon: 170 cm
- chasseur: 160 cm
- hussar: 160 cm
.
Commanders of the hussars.
Gen. Lasalle was loving danger, laughing at his own hardships.
Once Lasalle asked Napoleon when he will get command of
the Guard cavalry. The Emperor replied: "When Lasalle
no longer drinks,
no longer smokes
and no longer swears..."
There were many excellent colonels among the hussars and some even became generals. In the 1st
Hussars served colonels Merlin and Clary, in the 2nd Gerard and Vinot, in the 3rd Colonels Le Brun
and Louis-Marie Le Ferriere-Levesque, in the 4th was Burthe, in the 5th Colonels Schwartz, Dery and
Meuziau, in 6th Pierre-Claude Pajol, Vallin and Carignan, in the 7th Jean Rapp, Daniel Marx, Edouard
Colbert, and Marbot. The 8th Hussars was led by Jean-Simon Domon and du Coetlosquet, the 9th by
Etienne Guyot, Jean Barbanegre, the 10th by Lasalle himself, and Briche. The most famous of them were
Lasalle, Rapp, Colbert, and Marbot.
General Antoine-Charles Lasalle, was "the man for high adventure and reckless deeds. In 1806 after the
Battle of Jena, with only 900 hussars at his back and no weapon heavier than their popgun carbines, he
bluffed the great fortress of Stettin, with 200 guns and a garrison of 5,000 men, into surrender. ... He had
no enemies and rode with open heart and open hand. Utterly brave, loving danger, laughing at his own
hardships, frequently charging with a long pipe instead of a saber in his hand, he had too much heart
and too little head to handle masses of cavalry, and so got himself uselessly killed at the end of day at
Wagram ... His trick of the trade was to charge at the trot, holding his men solidly in hand to meet an
enemy exhausted from galloping." (Elting, - p 163)
Lasalle wore striking uniform, admired by all hussars. It was an ultimate showoff. His horse was one of
the best in the French Empire. Only Murat was more popular among the French cavalry. In 1806-7
Lasalle commanded the Hellish Brigade (5th and 7th Hussars). In 1807 he led II Cavalry Corps (the I
Cavalry Corps was under Murat). In 1809 and at Wagram Lasalle commanded Cavalry Division (8th
Hussars, 13th, 16th and 24th Chasseurs).
Antoine Charles Louis, comte de Lasalle (1775 1809)
He was frequently charging with a long pipe instead of a saber in his hand.
His trick of the trade was to charge at the trot, holding his men solidly in
hand to meet an enemy exhausted from galloping. Only Marshal Murat was
more popular among the French cavalry.
Uniforms of hussars.
The hussars were flamboyantly dressed.
Their brilliant uniforms exemplified
the panache with which they lived and fought.
No. Dolman Pelisse Breeches Lace Cuffs Collar
1er sky blue sky blue sky blue white red sky blue
2e brown brown sky blue white sky blue brown
3e blue gray blue gray blue gray red red blue gray
4e dark blue red dark blue yellow red dark blue
5e sky blue white sky blue yellow white sky blue
6e red dark blue dark blue yellow dark blue dark blue
7e green green red yellow red red
8e green green red white red red
9e red sky blue sky blue yellow sky blue sky blue
10e sky blue sky blue sky blue white red red
11e dark blue dark blue dark blue yellow red red
12e red sky blue sky blue white sky blue sky blue
Uniforms of French hussars
during the Napoleonic Wars,
1805-1815.
(1) - trumpeter of centre company
of 1st Hussar Regiment, 1807
(2) - trumpeter of elite company
of 7th Hussar Regiment, 1807.
The 7th was part of Lasalle's
"Hellish Brigade"
(3) - private of centre company
of 10th Hussar Regiment, 1806
(8) - flag/eagle bearer of
2nd Hussar Regiment, 1812
(4) - 1st Hussar Regiment, 1808
(5) - 4th Hussar Regiment, 1815
(10) - 3rd Hussar Regiment, 1810
Charge of French hussars in Austerlitz in 1805.
Picture by Keith Rocco, USA >>
~
The best regiments of French cavalry.
In 1814 after victory at Montmirail Napoleon himself left for Chateau Thierry,
where Horn's 24 squadrons were ordered to keep the French in check until
Sacken's corps should have passed the Marne River.
"All at once, the whole first line (12 squadrons) advanced to the attack.
The French waited till it came to the proper distance, and routed it.
These squadrons threw the second line (12 squadrons) into disorder,
and galloped off pell-mell along with them in every direction over
the plain." (Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii - "History of the Campaign in France")
The light cavalry enjoyed reputation for bravery and an uninhibited joie-de-vivre when not. There were
many excellent regiments of light cavalry, hussars, chasseurs and lancers. NCO Guindey of 10th Hussars
killed Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia. NCO Pawlikowski of Vistula Uhlans captured Prince
Liechtenstein. The heavy cavalrymen were not worse. In 1812 at Borodino they captured a strong
redoubt defended by artillery and infantry !
Battle Honors
1790 - 1815
hussars chasseurs
lancers
formed in 1811
dragoons cuirassiers
5
4e Hussards
5e Hussards
7e Hussards
22e Chasseurs
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
1er Hussards
2e Hussards
3e Hussards
4e Hussards
6e Hussards
8e Hussards
9e Hussards
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1er Chasseurs
4e Chasseurs
5e Chasseurs
6e Chasseurs
8e Chasseurs
9e Chasseurs
11e Chasseurs
14e Chasseurs
18e Chasseurs
19e Chasseurs
21e Chasseurs
-
-
-
-
-
4e Lanciers
5e Lanciers
6e Lanciers
8e Lanciers
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1er Dragons
2e Dragons
3e Dragons
4e Dragons
5e Dragons
8e Dragons
9e Dragons
10e Dragons
11e Dragons
12e Dragons
20e Dragons
21er Dragons
22e Dragons
23e Dragons
24e Dragons
25e Dragons
1er Cuirasiers
2e Cuirassiers
3e Cuirassiers
4e Cuirassiers
5e Cuirassiers
6e Cuirassiers
7e Cuirassiers
8e Cuirassiers
9e Cuirassiers
10e Cuirassiers
11e Cuirassiers
-
-
-
-
-
- - - 26e Dragons -
Note:
1er Carabiniers = 0 battle honors
2e Carabiniers = 0 battle honors
~
Marshal Murat - commander of French cavalry.
"The First Saber of the Empire"
"If you do not ride your horse like a centaur,
if you do not possess the glance of the eagle,
the courage of the lion, the decision of the thunderbolt,
you are not fit to command a cavalry charge."
- General Foy
Men who successfully led cavalry charges had to be outstanding motivators, with good peripheral
vision, an instinct for terrain, the ability to recover after a setback, and an instinctive understanding of
combat. One of the best cavalry leaders in Europe was Joahim Murat. Marshal Joachim Murat
commanded Napoleon's cavalry. His father was farmer-inkeeper, his mother a pious woman set on
making a priest of him. Murat was tall, athletic with a handsome face framed by dark curls. He was
"woman-crazy; Napoleon complained that he needed them like he needed food." (Elting - "Swords
From his first thundering charges on the plains of Italy to his last grand charge at Leipzig, no
commander more epitomized the dash and ambition of the French cavalry than Murat. He was the
embodiement of the cavalryman. Murat habitually led in the very forefront of the charge, and his
presence elicited courage and devotion from his troops. His flamboyant and colorful outfit, his bravery,
and his fun-loving nature was all that many daring European cavalry leaders aspired to be. His love of
war and glory made him the very incarnation of cavalryman.
In combat Murat was supreme.
Britten-Austin writes: "Riding out in front of a line of red and white pennons which stretches from the
Dwina's swamp on the right to the island of forest in the centre, he intends to harangue the Polish lancer
division - but finds himself in a most awkward, not to say comical position. The Poles need no
exhortion. With tremendous elan, like several thousand pig-stickers, they charge, driving the King of
Naples like a wild boar before them. And Murat, unable to see or command, has no option but to 'lead'
them ... Only thanks to his Herculean physique and the prowess of his gilded scimitar does he survive in
the ensuing scrum." (Britten-Austin - "1812 The March on Moscow" p 134)
In 1807 at Heilsberg Murat charged with a headlong rashness but his horse was struck by canister. Horse
and rider were knocked over together like a stand of muskets. Murat - now without one boot, it was
stuck in the strirup of killed horse - quickly mounted another horse. Unfortunately Uvarov's and
Golitizin's Russians and Prussians routed his cavalry and inflicted heavy casualties.
In 1815 (the year of Waterloo Campaign) Murat's Neapolitan troops were defeated by Austrians. He
eventually arranged a surrender and fled to France. Napoleon was furious and refused to see Murat.
The Emperor rejected his offer to command the French cavalry during the Waterloo Campaign.
Murat fled to Corsica after Napoleon's fall. During an attempt to regain Naples
through an insurrection in Calabria, he was arrested by the forces of his rival,
Ferdinand IV of Naples. Murat was told to move towards the place destined
for his execution, an officer gave him a handkerchief to blind himself, but he
refused it. Murat arrived at the destined spot, turning immediately his face to
the soldiers, and placing his hand upon his breast, he gave the word Fire.
The soldiers fired 12 shots at his breast, which killed him instantaneously, and
3 in the head after he fell. Murat was buried in a pit where they throw the
most despicable felons.
- Napoleon: "He [Murat] loved, I may rather say, adored me. ... With me, he was my right arm.
Order Murat to attack and destroy four or five thousand men in such ir such a direction, it was
done in a flash. But left to himself he was an imbecile, without judgement."
- Officer of 16th Chasseurs: "personally very brave, but has few military talents. He knows well
how to use cavalry in front of the enemy, but is ignorant of the art of preserving it."
- Von Roos: "Herculean in strength, excessively gallant, admirably cool in the midst of danger,
his daring, his elegant costume inspired an extraordinary veneration among the Cossacks."
- Victor Dupuy, France: "[The Cossacks had] almost magical respect for him.... I was riding
ahead with three troopers when I saw Murat at the far end of a little wood ... He was alone. In
front of him ... some 40 mounted Cossacks were gazing at him, leaning on their lances."
- David Chandler, UK: "Murat was one of the most colorful figures of his time. His military
talents on the battlefield, at the head of the cavalry, were considerable, but his rash initiatives
robbed him of any chance of earning repute as a strategist... he had many enemies among the
marshalate but was greatly admired by the rank and file for his dash and undoubted charisma....
He became the model for many another beau sabreur of the 19th century."
- John Elting, USA: " ... cheerful courage, a frank and unpretentious comradeship with colonel
and private alike. That he had no military education bothered him not at all; he boasted that he
made his plans only in the presence of the enemy. (Napoleon complained that Murat tried to
make war without maps.) As a combat leader Murat was unequaled, storming ahead of his
howling troopers, riding whip in hand, white plumes streaming high. Tactics, except the simplest,
he scorned: Put in your spurs and ride at, over, and through anything that gets in your way !"
Murat and French cavalry at Jena 1806.
"Order Murat to attack and destroy four or five thousand men
in such or such a direction, it was done in a flash." - Napoleon
His pursuit of the Prussian army in 1806 brought extraordinary results.
In 1813 at Dresden Murat's cavalry broke the enemy's flank, captured
numerous cannons, colors, generals and several thousands of prisoners.
Marshal Murat
"That he [Murat] had no military education bothered him not at all ;
he boasted that he made his plans only in the presence of the enemy.
(Napoleon complained that Murat tried to make war without maps.)"
- John Elting
Sources and Links.
Bukhari - "Napoleon's Cavalry"
Rousselot - "Napoleon's Elite Cavalry"
Maughan - "Napoleon's Cavalry Recreated in Color Photographs"
Johnson - "Napoleon's Cavalry and Its Leaders"
Costello - "The Peninsular and Waterloo Campaigns"
Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars"
Charmy - "Splendeur des Uniformes de Napoleon: Cavalry"
Lacahouque - "Waterloo."
Chlapowski - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" (translated by Tim Simmons)
Picture of French foot dragoons by Keith Rocco, USA.
Article: Uniforms of napoleonic troops: parade, battle and campaign outfits."
French Artillery: Artillerie franaise: Franzsische Artillerie: Uniforms: Organization: Equipment
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/artillery_Napoleon.html[2012-05-21 12:38:26]
French Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars
"God is on the side with the best artillery."
- Napoleon
"There had been kings who had made artillery their hobby;
Napoleon was an artilleryman who made a hobby of
breaking and making kings."
"The expenditure was 267 rounds per gun at Leipzig (1813)
compared to 100 per gun at Friedland six year earlier."
- Kevin Kiley
French artillery under Napoleon.
Strength and types of artillery.
Cannons and howitzers
of Gribeauval System.
Cannons and howitzers
of System of Year XI.
Foot Artillery.
Horse Artillery.
Artillery Train.
Ammunition wagons and caissons
Uniforms.
Horses.
Types, height, and color.
Captain of Foot Artillery in 1812 - 1813
"French gunners dominated Europe's battlefields in
the 19th Century because of their aggressive tactics
imaginative leaders and their raw courage.
- Patrick Griffith
Sappers, Miners, Pontoniers and Pioneers.
French artillery under Napoleon.
"The infantry and cavalry complained that
the gunners gave themselves airs because
the Emperor himself had been a gunner."
Picture: French foot artillery
Artillerie a pied. Author ?
"The French artillery has always ranked very
high. Almost all improvements made in
gunnery, during the last three or four
centuries, have originated with the French.
The theoretical branch of artillery has also
been constantly a favorite science with the
French; their mathematical turn of mind favors
this; and the precision of language, the
scientific method, the soundness of views,
which characterize their artilleristic literature,
show how much this branch of science is
adapted to the national genius." ("The Armies
of Europe" in Putnam's Monthly, No. XXXII,
published in 1855)
The Napoleonic artillery was a product of the change in French military theory that followed humiliations
of the Seven Years War. Especially painful was the defeat at Rossbach where 42.000 French and their
Allies were trashed by 21,000 Prussians under Fredrick the Great. The French artillery in that time was
according to the "system" of de Vallerie. The cannons were strongly built, very powerful, but very ornate
and far too heavy to handle in the field.
The old system was gradually replaced by so-called Gribeauval System. The new guns were designed for
more rapid movements, on and off the roads. Gribeauval stressed mobility, hitting power and accuracy.
His important innovation was the elevating screw used to adjust the range of the cannon by raising or
lowering its breech. Another innovation was the prolong. It was a heavy rope 30 feet long and used to
connect the gun and its limber when it was necessary to fire while retiring or to unlimber the gun while
crossing some difficult obstacle.
Bonaparte's sighting a cannon.
Napoleon graduated as an artillerist officer in 1785.
In 1791 he entered the II Battalion of 4th Regiment
of Foot Artillery as a lieutenant.
Napoleon expected excellence and competence from his gunners and he
got it. The French artillery became superior to every artillery of Europe.
The artillery enjoyed an unprecedented popularity among young men in
France seeking career in the army. The infantrymen and cavalrymen
complained that the gunners gave themselves airs because their First
Consul and then Emperor himself had been a gunner.
Napoleon graduated as an artillerist officer in 1785 and in 1791 entered
the II/4th Regiment of Foot Artillery as a lieutenant. Bonaparte received
his Captain's commission in 1792 and was stationed with his company in
Grenoble. In 1808 in Spain, Bonaparte, already as emperor, met his old
colonel.
Chlapowski writes: "An old artillery colonel was sitting in the orderly
room with me. When the Emperor alighted from his carriage and entered
the room and saw that the old man did not recognize him, he said: 'Don't
you know me, colonel ? Yet it was you who had me locked in the guard
house !' This colonel had been a captain in the artillery battery in which
Napoleon had first served as a second lieutenant. So Napoleon now
introduced himself as sub-lieutenant Bonaparte, and added that he was
increasing the old man's pension." (Chlapowski - p 42)
The artillery required specially qualified soldiers, gunners, to organise
and run its supply chain so that the gun and batteries can keep firing and
its troops remain capable of conducting operations. Artillery officer had greater responsibility than did an
officer of cavalry or infantry. An infantry officer had to care for about 150 men. A cavalry officer had to
watch over 100 men, but he was also responsible for 100 horses. By comparison, an artillery officer in a
battery had responsibility for about 100-200 men, 200-300 horses, 6-12 guns, numerous limbers, caissons,
a traveling forge, a battery wagon and supply wagons.
As First Consul and Emperor Napoleon awarded and promoted many talented artillery officers.
One of them became a marshal, many were promoted to the rank of general.
In 1810, just two years before the Invasion of Russia, the French artillery was commanded by:
1 inspector-general (premier inspecteur gnral) - Songis
11 generals of division (gnraux de division) - Lauriston,
d'Ebl , de Lariboissire , Androssy , Sorbier , Dulauloy
Lacombe-St.-Michel , de Seroux , Gassendi , de Careil
Hanicque, Saint Laurent, de Senarmont and Pernetti.
16 generals of brigade (gnraux de brigade)
46 colonels (colonels, directeurs)
51 chief of battalions (chefs de bataillon, sous-directeurs)

Batterie d'artillerie de Napolon from
Le Musee de l'Artillerie (in French lang.)

Mise en batterie d'un canon de 8 livres
dans la cour d'honneur des Invalides

General Charles-tienne-Franois Ruty (17741828).
In 1805 he served as artillery park director for Marshal Ney's corps,
then Marshal Murat. In 1807 he served with distinction at Friedland.
In 1808 Ruty was created a baron of the Empire, serving as commander
of the artillery school in Toulouse, before being sent to serve in Spain.
He contributed significantly to the successful sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo
and Almeida, before taking command of Marshal Soult's artillery.
During this campaign he invented a type of howitzer that bears his name.
In 1813 Ruty was recalled to France, and named commander of Oudinot's
Corps artillery. In 1815 he was named commander of the artillery of the
Army of the North.
~
Strength and types artillery.
From time immemorial, soldiers in the French army
had referred to cannon with a nickname ... le brutal.
Barbero - "The Battle" p 101
The French artillery was divided into several sections:
- Foot Artillery (artillerie pied). In 1805 were 8 regiments of foot artillery.
- Horse Artillery (artillerie cheval). In 1805 were 6 regiments of horse artillery.
- Pontoon Bridge Troops. In 1805 Napoleon had 2 battalions of pontoniers. They were assigned by
companies to each army corps, the Cavalry Reserve and its field train's headquarters. When their heavy
pontoon wagons were held up by bad roads, they could improvise bridges out of any available boats,
rafts built from demolished buildings or empty wine barrels.
- Artificers (ouvriers). In 1812 were 19 companies of artificiers (the 19th was made of Spanish dererters
and POWs). The artificiers were specialists in the construction and repair of gun carriages and other
vehicles. They served in artillery arsenals and with the artillery batteries in the field.
- Armorers (armuriers). In 1813 were 6 companies of armorers (the 5th was made of Dutchmen). The
armorers repaired weapons of all types. They served in the artillery arsenals and with artillery batteries in
the field.
When Napoleon became the First Consul he established a large artillery staff under his own control.
Officers from this staff supervised the production of ammunition, cannons and howitzers, operation of
the artillery schools and the armament of fortresses. Officers from this staff served in the field armies,
army corps and fortresses. The artillery organization of the Army of Egypt was the precursor to ideas
which Bonaparte would put into practice in 1804-1805 in the Camp of Boulogne. It was a distribution of
artillery between the cavalry and infantry divisions and the reserve. The number of guns brought into
battle increased with every year:
- at Austerlitz the ratio was 2 guns to 1.000 men
- at Wagram the ratio was 4 guns to 1.000 men (without the guns on Lobau Island)
- at Borodino the ratio was 4.5 guns to 1.000 men.
- at Ligny 2.5 and at Waterloo 3.5 to 1.000 men
"Napoleon endeavoured to compensate for the progressive deterioration in the quality of his troops by
increasing their armaments. Thus in 1806 he estimated that he needed 3,000 serviceable cannon; in 1809 he
wanted double that number. Every campaign saw an increase in the general artillery reserve...But material
wore out and replacements became progressively poorer in quality. The armaments industry suffered
from lack of men, who, in any case, were badly paid. Botched work became more and more frequent." (-
General de Gaulle)
The French also used captured pieces, Russian, Prussian, Austrian, and British.
Napoleon was very interested in British shrapnells. (ext.link) One howitzer and 2 waggons filled with
shrapnells were captured in 1811 at Albuera. Napoleon ordered General Ebl, to have experiments carried
out to determine the mode of loading these shells. Thenceforth Napoleon attached great importance to
their property of bursting on graze and projecting their contents as far as possible. Shrapnell or case shot
was a hollow cast iron shot forming a case which was filled with musket balls. Melted sulfur or resin was
poured in to fill up the interstices and gun powder was added. The Shrapnell shot produced the same
effect as the canister, and could be used for greater distances.
French artillery, picture by Bidault.
~
Guns of Gribeauval System.
The new guns combined with the technological changes
assured that the French artillery was the best in the World.
Jean Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval entered the French royal artillery in 1732 as a volunteer, and became
an officer in 1735. In 1752 he became captain of a company of miners. A few years later he was employed
in a military mission in Prussia. In 1757, being then a lieutenant colonel, he was lent to the Austrian army
on the outbreak of the Seven Years' War, and served as a general officer of artillery. The Empress Maria
Theresa of Austria rewarded him for his work with the rank of lieutenant field-marshal and the cross of
the Maria Theresa order. On his return to France he was made marechal de camp, in 1764 inspector of
artillery, and in 1765 lieutenant-general.
Briffith writes, "It was the great artillery reformer Gribeauval who prepared the standardised equipment
which was to serve the French so well in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. In the years after 1765
he completely redesigned ammunition, gun barrels, carriages, caissons, pontoons, and all the other
vehicles and stores necessary for a mobile army. Despite considerable opposition at court he pushed
through his reforms with the aim of giving two paramount qualities: standardisation and mobility."
(Griffith - "French Artillery" p 7)
The Gribeauval System was very innovative for that times. The new guns combined with the
technological changes assured that the French artillery was the best in the World. These improvements
boosted morale of the gunners which already had a long tradition of professionalism.
Gribeauval also cut back the lavish ornamentation which had previously encrusted gun barrels. The new
artillery pieces looked simpler and had more of a military appearance than artistic. In 1792 the first
regulations of the artillery service appeared.
Gribeauval introduced the following changes:
- he reduced the number of calibers
Napoleon writes, "The 4pdrs and the 8pdrs [cannons] have been rightly suppressed.
Gribeaval simplified and experience has proved the necessity of further simplification.
... The 8pdrs and the 4pdrs were often employed in the wrong place: the ammunition of
8pdrs was expended where that of 4pdrs would have sufficed." (- Napoleon Bonaparte)
- introduced interchangeable wheels
"The principle of standardisation is today accepted as essential to all military equipment,
but in the 18th century it was revolutionary. Each manufacturing workshop would have its
own foibles and peculiarities, even when it was supposedly working to a centralised pattern.
For this reason the various types of equipment with an army would not have interchangeable
parts, and repairs on campaign would be uneccessarily difficult. Spare parts could often not
be fitted without alterations, and badly damaged vehicles could not easily be cannibalised to
repair others." (Griffith - "French Artillery")
- introduced elevating screws for easier raising of the gun barrel
The old aiming mechanism was much improved, with an adjustable backsight instead of a
rudimentary notch on the barrel, and a delicate elevating screw instead of an unsophisticated
wedge.
- cannonballs were designed to fit more properly the bore of the cannon,
- - -which reduced windage and improved accuracy of field cannons
- the gunners began using prefabricated powder amounts instead of loose powder
"Gribeauval's ammunition was made up into standardised cartridges which ensured that
each shot was propelled by the same amount of powder as its predecessor. This meant that
adjustements of aim could be more sensitive, as well as giving great advantges in handling
the ammunition." (Griffith - "French Artillery")
- reduced the weight of guns yet managed to increase firing range with smaller charge.
"The chief factor that limited the use of cannon in the early modern era, particularly on the
battlefield, was their weight. In the 1620s, the barrel alone of a 34-pounder weighed 5,600
pounds, and the cannon on its carriage required 20 horses to pull it and a crew of 35 to serve it."
(Lynn - "Giant of the Grand Siecle" pp 501-503)
- redesigned the gun carriages
Napoleon however was unhappy with the new carriages. He writes, "Gribeanval's
carriage was altogether faulty. It has been altered, and rightly so, for there has been
a gain of 100 per cent. in transport, and lightness given to both the carriage and the
howitzer. But the latter still requires improvement."
- introduced double files of horses instead of single files
Picture: use of the bricoles (drag
ropes), blue-white are infantry
attached to the gun. Blue-red are
gunners.
Jean Baptiste Vaquette de
Gribeauval introduced several
devices which allowed the guns
to be manhandled with ease,
thus bypassing the horse team
for many movements in battle.
In the first place he introduced a
set of drag ropes called bricoles
and levers by which the gun
crew could pull their cannon
easily in any direction. He also
used a split trail with a rounded
base which did not stick in the
ground when the cannon was
pulled backwards.
Combined with this was the use of a long rope called prolonge which could be attached to the rear of the
gun-carriage at one end, and to the limber at the other. The prolonge was very handy for rapid advances
and retreats under fire.
.
French gunners and infantrymen at Ligny 1815.
~
Guns of System of Year XI.
In 1803 the Gribeauval System was replaced by the System of the Year XI.
Tooling up for the new weapons took time and was only well begun by 1805.
(Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" 1997 p 258)
Unfortunately the constant wars forced the use of the old guns or mixing
them with the new guns.
Although certain parts would be interchangeable, Gribeauval System still required 25 different size of
wheels and different size of caissons for each caliber of gun. It was not what Napoleon expected from his
artillery. In 1803 the Gribeauval System was replaced by the System of the Year XI.
The new and better cannons, howitzers and caissons were sent to troops in central Europe, the primary
theater of war for most of the time. The new pieces were available to equip the Grand Army for the 1812
invasion of Russia, but the troops in Spain and Portugal had to be content with the old Gribeauval's guns.
The mountain artillery was improvised when required, no permanent units being organized. It was used
in Tyrol, Dalmatia and Spain. On such occassions the howitzers were either mounted on strengthened
sleds (6pdr and even 12pdr howitzers) or disassembled "into several mule loads" (only for 3 or 4 pdrs).
"To conclude, the failings with Gribeauval system of artillery were in part solved by the new system of
An XI, but not fully remedied until 1827. The 6 pound gun of An XI was a modern weapon, and is notable
for its lack of re-inforcing rings, this marked the piece different and superior to the Liechtenstein system."
(Paul dawson, napoleon-series.org)
The System of the Year of XI cconsisted of:
- cannons: short 24pdrs, long and short 12pdrs, long and short 6pdrs
Instead of a 4pdr cannon for light work and an 8pdr for medium work,
Napoleon wanted a single piece, a 6pdr, to perform both tasks.
"After the Battle of Marengo the Army of Italy (French army in Italy under
Bonaparte) was so deficient in artillery that General Allix had been ordered
to form a train of 250 guns in Turin. ... so he made use of a number of 6pdr
cannons and 24pdr howitzers he found in Turin, which were introduced
into service by the order of 2 March 1803 (Year XI). This would indicate that
initially the 6pdr cannons of the System of the Year XI were captured rather
than French weapons; ...... Eventually, however, all the 6pdr guns were of
French manufacture. The new system replaced the 8pdr with 6pdr cannon
and theoretically abandoned the 4pdr. However the 4pdr continued in use
until the end of the Empire and the System of the Year XI never fully replaced
the Gribeauval System in the field or in fortresses." (George Nafziger -
"Imperial Bayonets" pp 245-246)
- howitzers: 24pdrs and 6pdrs
The new howitzer required 2 powder charges to the 3 required by the old
6'4" howitzer. Gribeauval's howitzers were criticized as clumsy designs
of limited range. For some military experts, however, Marshal Marmont's
howitzer was controversial, and both 6" and 8" variants were later added
at different times, based on Prussian and Russian design respectively.
The new 6pdrs howitzers were called a la Prussienne.
- mortars: 24pdrs and 6pdrs
- 3pdr mountain guns
- new caissons and carriages
Gribeauval's caissons had the tendency to let in rain and spoil the cartridges.
They were front-heavy and thus still awkward vehicles for Napoleon's taste.
The new carriages and cannons were lighter than that of Gribauval System.
It was very important for the maneuverability of the modern field artillery.
Net weight of the carriage and cannon
Gribauval System System of XI Year
4pdr - 1940 pdrs
-
8pdr - 2456 pdrs
12pdr - 3205 pdrs
-
6pdr - 2008 pdrs
-
12pdr - 2811 pdrs
Unfortunately the constant wars forced the use of the old guns (4pdr and 8pdr) and carriages of
Gribeauval System or mixing them with the new guns (6pdrs) of the System of Year XI, which increased
the spare parts problem. In 1813 at Leipzig most of the guns were the 6pdrs. See below. It was Napoleon's
main and the best army in that time and thus the artillery was much better than the pieces attached to the
armies on secondary theaters of war like Italy or Spain, and more numerous. The French army in
Germany in April 1813 had total of
- 144 12pdr cannons
- 646 6pdr cannons
- 44 6 inch howitzers
- 246 5.6 howitzers
- 4,000 caissons
After Waterloo the System An XI was considered as heresy by the Royalists.
French artillery at L e i p z i g in 1813.
(For complete order of battle click here)
GdD - General de Division , GdB - General de Brigade
CdB - Chef de Bataillon , CdE - Chef de Escadron
Infantry and cavalry Artillery
II ARMY CORPS
4th Infantry Division: GdD Dubreton (5,200
infantrymen)
0
0
5th Infantry Division: GdD Dufour (3,900
infantrymen)
0
0
.
Divisional Artillery: CdB Reisser (174 gunners, 120 train-drivers)
- - - - - Foot Battery (6 x 6pdr cannons, 2 x 5,7-inch howitzers)
Divisional Artillery: CdB Grosset (190 gunners, 197 train-drivers)
0
0
6th Infantry Division: GdD Dufour (5,900
infantrymen)
0
0
0
0
0
III ARMY CORPS
8th Infantry Division: GdD Brayer
0
0
9th Infantry Division: GdD Delmas
0
0
11th Infantry Division: GdD Ricard
0
0
Light Cavalry Brigade
0
0
0
0
I CAVALRY CORPS
1st Light Cavalry Division: GdD Berckheim
2nd Light Cavalry Division: GdD Corbineau
3rd Light Cavalry Division: GdD Chastel
1st Heavy Cavalry Division: GdD Bordesoulle
3rd Heavy Cavalry Division: GdD Doumerc
II CAVALRY CORPS
2nd Light Cavalry Division: GdD Hurbal
4th Light Cavalry Division: GdD Exelmans
2nd Heavy Cavalry Division: GdD St.Germaine
Divisional Artillery: CdB ?????? (209 gunners, 195 train-drivers)
Corps Reserve Artillery: GdB Mongenet (202 gunners, 225 train-
drivers)
- - - - - Horse Battery (4 x 6pdr cannons, 2 x 5,7-inch howitzers)
- - - - - Position Battery (8 x 12pdr cannons)
-
Divisional Artillery: CdB Trip
Divisional Artillery: CdB Charvet
Divisional Artillery: CdB de Larue
Artillery
- - - - - Horse Half-Battery (3 x 6pdr cannons)
Corps Reserve Artillery
- - - - - Horse Battery (4 x 6pdr cannons, 2 x 5,7-inch howitzers)
- - - - - Position Battery (8 x 12pdr cannons)
0
- - - - - Horse Battery (4 x 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers)
0
~
Foot Artillery [Artillerie Pied]
The foot gunners and their officers marched on foot.
The gunner was armed with musket, bayonet
and a short infantry saber.
The foot gunners marched on foot and their officers were suppose to march with them. Only those of
officers who were 50-years old and more were entitled to horses. However, according to several French
sources (for example Tousard) and regulations there is a provision for mounting foot artillerymen on gun
team horses as early as 1809. The foot gunner was armed with musket of dragoon model, bayonet, and a
short infantry saber.
There were 8 (administrative) regiments of foot artillery of 22 (tactical) companies each.
The companies were scattered among various armies. For example in 1812 the 3rd Foot Artillery Regiment
had 8-9 companies in Spain, 2-3 in Netherlands and the rest in France, Germany and Russia.
In 1810 the 9th Regiment of Foot Artillery was formed.
When a train company, with the drivers, horses and limbers, was merged with an artillery company
(guns and gunners) it became mobile and was known as a division d'ertillerie.
Foot artillery companies, or batteries, consisted of 100 to 120 men with 6 cannons and 2 six-inch
howitzers. During a longer campaign the company would be reduced to 3 or 4 guns as there were losses
among the gunners. Fewer gunners were able to serve fewer guns. Gunter Janoschke of Germany writes:
"The main problems with fielding the standard number of guns was the shortage of horses, the capture of
guns or the inability to repair them. The crew was not the problem, because guns didn't needed crews full
of well-trained artillerymen. A few of them plus additional untrained men were enough. I can only speak
for the Prussians, as they were used to fill the crew by the reserve men of the battery, placed somewhere
in the rear. They get reinforcements from the depots, and if that wasn't possible, men from the infantry
and cavalry were transferred to artillery service. The result was, that the batteries could field still a lot of
guns even after a long campaing, apart from material losses. Its known, that the French started
sometimes war with leaving guns behind due to a shortage of horses. "
"If a gun company didn't have enough men to man their assigned guns during a campaign because of
losses, guns would be left behind in a 'depot' and picked up later. The same thing would happen if there
was a shortage of horses for the attached train companies." (- Kevin Killey, 2006)
Napoleon was not too happy with the 8 guns batteries, he wrote "It would be better, were it not
determined otherwise by the details of artillery, to form a unit of 4 guns, because a battery of 8 guns is
already too numerous not to be often divided ..."
According to regulation of 1st April 1791 each company of artillery was organized into 2 sections,
themselves into two escouades (squads). Ten companies formed battalion, and two battalions made
regiment. According to Yves Martin The Decree of 18 March 1792 ( Law of 18 March 1792) created gunner
companies to serve along with National Guard units. These were actually the forerunners of the so-called
"regimental" artillery.
A law dated 9 September 1799 laid out in great detail the final organization of the Artillery of the
Revolutionary wars. The company of foot artillery had 93 men:
= 2 captains (one 1st class, one 2nd class)
= 1 lieutenant en premier
= 2 lieutenants en second
= 1 sergent-major
= 1 fourrier
= 1 tambour
= 5 sergeants
= 5 corporals
= 35 gunners, 1st class
= 40 gunners, 2nd class
(Yves Martin - "French Artillery 1789-1800" napoleon-series.org)
According to Table 53 in Nafziger's "Imperial Bayonets"
the French artillery company in 1805 had:
= 4 offices
= 9 NCOs
= 86 gunners
= 2 musicians
= 4 others
In 1807 company of foot artillery (8 pieces) consisted of:
= 2 captains (in battle one was with the guns, and the other with the 2nd and 3rd line of caissons)
= 2 lieutenants
= 1 sergeant-major
= 4 sergeants
= 4 corporals
= 1 furrier
= 2 drummers
= 24 gunners of 1st Class
= 45 gunners of 2nd Class
Each company had 1 fanion.
In 1815 company of foot artillery (8 pieces) consisted of:
= 2 captains
= 2 lieutenants
= 1 sergeant-major
= 4 sergeants
= 4 corporals
= 1 furrier
= 2 drummers
= 48 gunners of 2nd Class
Additionally each company had 4 metal workers, 4 ouvriers, 13 woodworkers and artificiers.
~
Horse Artillery [Artillerie Cheval]
The horse gunners were mounted, each armed with a saber and 2 pistols.
They "were renowned for their courage, and no less for their contentious
spirit. They pushed esprit de corps far beyond the point of virtue and
believed themselves infinitely superior to their comrades in the foot artillery."
- Seruzier
According to Yves Martin the Decree of 17th April 1792 (Law of 29th April 1792) is linked to the creation
of horse artillery in France. "Following an inspection tour on the eastern border, Minister Narbonne
insisted on the importance of "flying artillery" for the Prussians and Austrians - the decree/law was the
immediate consequence of this inspection. Two companies were initially created in Metz by General
Mathieu Dumas under the command of Captains Chanteclair and Barrois. ... The guns were 4pdrs and
20pdr howitzers. The men were poor riders but "had the devil in their body" as a contemporary observer
wrote. Given this initial dash, all other generals began asking for similar units; thus 9 companies of horse
gunners were created. These were linked to the existing foot artillery regiments. Two companies were
raised for each of the first two regiments and one for the 5 others. Each company had 76 men. In order to
ensure that this change was made immediate, 645 men were transferred from foot to horse service within
the artillery corps - these men being in turn replaced for foot artillery service. ... On 2 July 1794, the horse
artillery, previously attached to the foot artillery regiments was organized into full-fledged regiments: 9
light artillery regiments, each with 10 companies of 84 men." (Yves Martin - "French Artillery 1789-1800")
The horse gunners and their officers were mounted. Each horse gunner was armed with a light cavalry
saber and 2 pistols attached to the pommel of his saddle under its sheepskin cover.
While their primary service was with cavalry divisions, Napoleon also would assign companies of horse
artillery when possible to each of his army corps because their mobility made it possible for them to react
to changing battlefield developments much more rapidly than foot artillery could.
In 1807 France had 6 regiments of horse artillery each of 3 squadrons x 2 companies each.
Every regiment had 1 depot company.
In 1814 each regiment had 4 squadrons x 2 companies in the field, and 1 depot company.
In 1810 the 7th Regiment of Horse Artillery was formed from the Dutch.
When a train company, with the drivers, horses and limbers, was merged with an artillery company
(guns and gunners) it became mobile and was known as a division d'ertillerie
Horse artillery was an expensive arm. After Napoleon's abdication, the food and peace loving Bourbons
cut back the horse artillery to 4 regiments.
According to law dated 9 September 1799 company of horse artillery had 76 men:
= 1 captain (either 1st or 2nd class)
= 1 1st class lieutenant
= 2 2nd class lieutenants
= 1 chef
= 1 fourrier
= 4 marechaux des logis
= 4 brigadiers
= 2 trompettes
= 30 1st class gunners
= 30 2nd class gunners
(Yves Martin - "French Artillery 1789-1800")
According to Table 54 in Nafziger's "Imperial Bayonets"
the French horse artillery company in 1805 had:
= 4 offices
= 10 NCOs
= 86 gunners
= 2 musicians
= 4 others
In 1815 company of horse artillery (6 pieces) consisted of:
= 2 captains
= 2 lieutenants
= 1 sergeant-major
= 4 sergeants
= 4 corporals
= 1 furrier
= 2 trumpeters
= 35 gunners of 2nd Class.
There were also 4 metal workers and 4 ouvriers.
~
Artillery Train [Train dartillerie]
Before Bonaparte the men in artillery train were civilian contract drivers.
They took good care of their horses and were more obedient than soldiers.
But soldiers-drivers looked better on parade and
were not scared as much in a battle as were the civilians.
In 1800 Bonaparte created the artillery train. It was very important part of every army as it was
responsible for ammunition. Before Bonaparte the men in artillery train were civilian contract drivers.
They took good care of their horses and were more obedient than soldiers. But soldiers-drivers looked
better on parade and were not scared as much in a battle as were the civilians. At the battle of Novi the
civilian-drivers panicked and abandoned all wagons, caissons and guns !
The napoleonic soldiers-drivers were former
cavalrymen, wounded or unfit for service in
cavalry. Sometimes foreigners were accepted as
drivers, especially if they were strong and knew
horses. Among the foreigners were especially
many Dutch and also some Prussian prisoners.
The situation with artillery trains in other
European armies was not better. For example the
officers of British artillery train were neglectful
and the drivers "became notorious for
indiscipline and criminality."
If necessery and possible the French doubled the amount of horses in artillery train. In 1813 at Dresedn
"The rain having prevented the infantry of both armies from using their muskets ... it was the artillery
which, in spite of the difficulty of manoeuvering on the rain sodden ground, played a decisive rle. In
particular the French artillery, whose teams of horses Napoleon had doubled up, using animals from the
headquarters wagons, which remained safely in Dresden." (- Baron de Marbot)
The French train driver was armed with a carbine, a short infantry-type saber, and a pistol. They were
expected to take a hand in protecting themselves and their ammunition wagons if attacked by Cossacks,
Spanish or Tyrolean guerillas etc. The color of the train troops coat was officially iron grey.
In 1805 France had 10 bataillons du train dartillerie.
Each battalion consisted of 1 elite company and 4 center companies. The elite company (best draft horses
and best drivers) was assigned to a battery of horse artillery. The center companies were assigned to foot
batteries.
The drivers rode on left hand horses.
In 1808 France had 8 battalions of artillery train.
Artillery Train company in 1805-1807:
= 2 officers
= 7-10 NCOs
= 2 trumpeters
= 84 privates
There were also 2 blacksmiths and 2 harness makers.
Artillery Train company in 1815:
= 1 sergeant major
= 4 sergeants
= 1 furier
= 4 corporal
= 2 trumpeters
= 24 drivers of 1st Class
= 60 drivers of 2nd Class
There were also 2 blacksmiths and 2 harness makers.
"The bulk of ammunition was carried in caissons, designed by Gribeauval to hold the new 'fixed'
ammunition, i.e. projectile and propellant made up into one. The caisson was an 11-foot long, narrow-
bodied wagon with a sloping lid hinged to open, the interior being divided into compartments for the
assembled rounds. Powder and matches were also carried in the caisson, as were shovels and a pick
(fastened to the sides), a detachable tool-box at the front and a spare wheel ... A light caisson was also
produced (presumably for horse artillery use) only 7'6" long and without either spare wheel or tool box."
(Wise and Hook - "Artillery Equipment of the Napoleonic Wars" p 7)
The ammuntion was also kept in the small coffer
attached to each gun's trail.
The ammunition in the coffer (Gribeauval System):
12pdr - 9 cannonballs
6.4 inch howitzer - 4 canisters
5.5 inch howitzer - ?
The French army used two kinds of wagons designed to carry a supply of ammunition: caisson munition
(ammunition caissons) and charette-caisson (ammunition wagons). The ammunition caissons and wagons
were painted in olive-green, metal and wooden parts, including the wheels. The oil paint increased the
resistance of the wood against the damp and bad weather.
The 12pdr caisson (Gribeauval System) was designed to carry ammunition for
the 12pdr and 8pdr cannons, howitzers, and infantry muskets :
12pdr - 48 cannonballs, 12 big and 8 small canister
8pdr - 62 cannonballs, 10 big and 20 small canister
14,000 infantry cartridges
This caisson could also carry ammunition for the new 6pdr cannon of System Year XI.
The 4pdr caissons was designed to carry ammunition for
the light 4pdr cannons and infantry muskets:
4pdr - 26 cannonballs, 26 big and 24 small cartridges
12,000 infantry cartridges.
Napoleon habitually wanted a double standard load of ammuntion with each gun.
That required:
2 caissions for each 4-pounder,
3 caissons for a 6- or 8-pounder,
and 5 caissons for a 12-pounder.
(Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" pp 258-259)
Cannon Ammunition wagons
Weight of fully loaded
caisson
Cannonballs and canister
per caisson
8-pounder
4-pounder
6-pounder
2
1
1-2
1295 pdrs
1079 pdrs
1468 pdrs
92 projectiles (+15 in coffer)
Deployment of the French foot battery in battle.
K e v i n K i l e y on the deployment of the caissons in combat:
"only one caisson per gun was kept with the battery in action.
The rest of the caissons were used in a running shuttle service
between the firing battery and the artillery parks when in
action" Kiley-"Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars 1792 -1815" p 110
"The artillery train also hauled the equipment in the different artillery parks at corps and army level.
The corps park consisted of spare guns, vehicles, and equipment maintained there to replace material lost
in action. Usually there was 1 spare gun for every 10 assigned to the infantry divisions or the corps
artillery.
The army artillery park, known as the Grand Parc, was divided into a mobile park, which accompanied
the army in the field, and the fixed park, which established depots and arsenals maintained by artillery
park system that ammunition was continuously sent forward to the artillery companies, with the
divisions, corps, and army artillery reserve using the artillery train. Every artillery train battalion assigned
to the army was under the authority of a general of brigade, as noted in the Decree of 3 January 1800,
who carried the imposing title Inspector General of the Artillery Train. (...)
Train personnel were not artillerymen: they were drivers and horse handlers. Their mission was to drive
and take care of the horses that pulled the artillery's guns and vehicles. They were also responsible for the
considerable amount of horse harness that equipped the horse teams. They had all of the problems and
headaches the cavalry had with their horses.
In addition to that, the train troops usually had to be able to 'make bricks without straw.' Horse pairs and
teams had to be carefully matched. Harnesses had to be continually adjustated to take into account the
weight lost by the horses on campaign.
Teams also had to be carefully trained, the best and strongest (and also, usually, the steadiest) being in
the wheel pair, nearest the limber. (...) The lead teams also had to be well chosen, and the middle team for
the 12-pounders, called a swing team, had to be even-tempered to be placed between two other teams.
All in all it was a hard business, and the runaway artillery team, of which undoubtedly there were
many, especially in combat, was almost impossible to stop, unless the horses were shot, run over a cliff,
or came up against an obstacle they could neither run over nor run through." (Kiley - "Artillery of the
Napoleonic Wars 1792-1815" pp 109-110)

French gunners of Revolutionary Army. Picture by E Detaille
"Had I possessed 30,000 artillery rounds at Leipzig
... today I would be master of the world."
- Napoleon
~
Uniforms.
The French foot gunners wore dark blue coats, with dark blue lapels, collars and red cuffs. In some
aspects it was similar to light infantry uniform. The greatcoat was also dark-blue. The foot gunner wore,
in addition to two white leather crossbelts for cartridge box and short saber called a bricole. It was a
shoulder belt (not white) with an attached long drag rope.The bricole had a hook that could be inserted at
the ends of the gun's axles and along the sides of the carriage.
Until 1812 the drummers of foot artillery customarily wore red coats with dark blue lapels.
The horse gunner wore uniform resembling the light cavalry's outfit (hussar's) until 1812. The new
uniform was elegant but simpler. The fur cap (or shako with red cords) was replaced with shako with red
bands and shevrons. He also wore red epaulettes, similar to those worn by the elite companies of cavalry
and infantry. See pictures below.
All gunners and drumers wore either dark blue breeches (parade, review) or dark blue trousers
(campaign, battle).
The color of the artillery train troops coat was officially iron grey.
Uniforms of French foot artillery. Picture by A. Jouineau.
The foot gunner wore, in addition to his white leather crossbelts (seen above)
for cartridge box and short saber , a bricole . It was a shoulder belt (not white)
with an attached long drag rope.The bricole had a hook that could be inserted
at the ends of the gun's axles and along the sides of the carriage.
Uniforms of foot artillery, by L. et F. Funcken.
private (4) and trumpeter (5) in 1812 - Invasion of Russia
They both wear the new Bardin-type uniform.
Trumpeter in Spain in 1810.
Uniforms of horse artillery, by L. et F. Funcken.
(1) - private in 1805 - Austerlitz Campaign
(2) - private in 1812 - Invasion of Russia
(3) - private in 1812 - Invasion of Russia
(4) - private in 1810 - in Spain
.
Uniforms of Artillery Train.
The color of the train troops coat was officially iron grey.
Uniforms of artillery train, by L F Funcken.
(2, top) two mounted train drivers wearing hats, and artillery caisson, 1804-1806
(3, bottom) two mounted train drivers wearing shakos, and horse cannon, 1813
officer (5) and trumpeter (4) of horse artillery in 1806
~
Horses: types, height, and colors.
To see horses agreeing to be harnessed
and directed to work is truly awe-inspiring.
The artillery caissons and wagons were pulled by horses. The horse Auxois of Burgundy was a powerful
one, a quiet and good natured, and used by artillery. The German Hannoverian horse was used by the
light artillery. (The Hannoverian breeding industry has existed for 400 years.) In the course of the
Napoleonic War, many excellent horses others were lost in combat, to disease, or simply wore out their
lives in the hard work and scant forage that were the lot of the artillery horse. In 1806 and 1807 great
numbers of foreign artillery horses (Saxon, Prussian) were pressed into the French service.
The wheel horses for lighter guns were between 155,6 cm and 159,5 cm (15.2-16 hands) and up to 162 cm
for the heavier field guns. The lead horses were between 148,9 cm and 152,9 cm. The draft horses were 5-
7 years old, and sometimes a little bit older, sure-footed, with a firm chest. No smaller draft horses than
145 cm were allowed in the teams. To see the strongly built animals agreeing to be harnessed and
directed to work is truly awe-inspiring.
The riding horses of the horse artillery were 3 to 5 years old, and between 152,9cm and 157 cm at the
shoulder (15 - 15.2 hands). One artillery driver was assigned to each pair of horses, riding the on left
horse of his team and holding reins for it and the off horse. The riding horses of the train were between
148cm and 152cm at the withers.
"Once the foot artillery battery line was established the drivers would often dismount and lay on the
ground with their reins in their hands, depending on the amount of hostile fire being received. This was
not possible with horse artillery which would change positions rapidly, and in some cases so did foot
artillery batteries. ... The horses were worked hard and long, but it had to be so. A battery racing to catch
up with a retreating enemy or to gain a position of advantage had no room for gentle treatment. The
stakes were high, and the horses paid the price." (- Paul Dawson)
Mules were not used.
Although in the heat of battle the horses would shy and rear and flash their hooves; but mules were
much worse, they would buck and kick and roll on the ground, entangling harnesses and becoming
impossible to control and direct. An ox was calmer and stronger animal but was far too slow. (I can't
imagine a horse gunner mounted on an ox. ;=)
In 1812 the official colors of horses for the 8 pieces in every battery were:
for the 1st cannon - whites
2nd cannon - pales
3rd cannon - red bays
4th cannon - chestnuts
5th cannon - bays
6th cannon - blacks
1st howitzer - brown piebald
2nd howitzer - black piebald
During campaign however the gunners used whatever
strong horses they got or found, regardless of color.
And there were problems with the piebald horses as they
were not as common as the light and dark chestnuts, and
the light and dark bays.
The ammunition wagons were equipped in a similar manner.
If necessery and possible the French doubled the amount of horses in artillery train.
In 1813 at Dresedn "The rain having prevented the infantry of both armies from using their muskets ... it
was the artillery which, in spite of the difficulty of manoeuvering on the rain sodden ground, played a
decisive rle. In particular the French artillery, whose teams of horses Napoleon had doubled up, using
animals from the headquarters wagons, which remained safely in Dresden." (- Baron de Marbot)

whites and greys for the first cannon in the battery
. . . . .
chestnuts for the fourth cannon

light and dark bays for the fifth cannon
. . . . . .
blacks for the sixth cannon
Gun
Horses
for the gun
Horses
for the caissons
12pdr foot cannon 6
3 caissons
2 horses each
8pdr horse cannon 6
2 caissons
2 horses each
8pdr foot cannon 4
2 caissons
2 horses each
howitzer 4
2-3 caissons
2 horses each
Gun Weight Horses Drawing Capacity * Weight per Horse
12pdr cannon 1916 kg 6 3712 kg 319 kg
howitzer 1256 kg 4 2700 kg 314 kg
* - "Drawing capacity is based on each horse in the team drawing 900 kg . The offside horses drawing 450 kg . This is for both
wheelers and leaders. The third pair of horses in a 6 horse team, not being directly attached to the gun only provide 3/4 of their
potential drawing capacity. ... The pulling ability was further reduced by one-half if a horse carried a rider on its back. Finally, as the
number of horses in a team increased, the pulling capacity of each horse was further reduced. .... A single horse can pull 1360- kg at
32-37 km per day over a hard-paved road. The weight dropped to 860- kg on hard ground, and reduced to 500- kg over rough
ground. ... Of interest the table shows that the 8-pdr was as mobile as the 4-pdr in terms of weight per horse, which probably
influenced the guns adoption as the principle weapon of horse artillery in favour of the 4-pdr." (- Paul Dawson)
~
The French artillery became superior
to every artillery of Europe. - Griffith
The main difference between the French and Allies artillery
was not in the quality of gunners or guns but in the fact that
Napoleon used artillery offensively while for the Allies the
main purpose of artillery was to defend cavalry and
infantry. Their batteries of reserve joined the battle, either
one-by-one on the request of local divisional commanders or
were sent by the commander in chief if he felt that part of his
line was took weak or too hardly pressed. In contrast
Napoleon's artillery prepared the way for the final blow that
would decide the battle.
The oblique, flanking fire was the most effective. "Cross fires
and enfilades were for ever foremost in gunners' minds, and
in the Napoleonic Wars the French became expert at achieving them. ... When artillery was used to support an
attack it would once again attempt to fire into the enemy's flank ... The closer the artillery could come, the
better; and the French became very bold in this role." (Griffith - "French Artillery" p 28, publ. in London 1976)
This method wouldn't work only in a mountainous or wooded country.
Another extremely effective tactics of the French artillery was moving the guns forward and blowing away the
enemy with canister. Kevin Kiley writes, "Increasingly after 1807, massed artillery was brought forward rapidly
into canister range in order to 'blow away great sections of the enemy's line' and thus to seek a quick decision.
This tactics was pioneered by Senarmont at Friedland in 1807, and was used to good effect at Ucles, Ocana, and
Somosierra in Soain, as well as by the great 102-gun battery commanded by lauriston at Wagram in 1809,
which not only covered a tactical corps change of front but preceded Macdonald's famous attack that shattered
the Austrian line.
The best example of this tactics, however, was undoubtedly Drouot's artillery attack at Lutzen, in which his 80-
gun battery completely blew the center out of the Allied line, paving the way for the decisive assault of the
Guard. Further examples occured at Hanau, at Ligny, and at Waterloo, as well ay Raab in 1809.
Waterloo is interesting, as the aggressive employment of French artillery did not take place. The French
infantry reverted to the old tactic of large skirmiser swarms sweeping up to the enemy line, and starting to
shoot it to pieces. Enough French cavalry remained intact to support this movement, forcing the Allied infantry
to stay in squares - perfect targets for the French artillery , which was manhandled into 100-250 meter range to
support the infantry and demolished the squares with point-blank fire.
If this had been employed earlier in the day, Napoleon could very well have won the day. (As it was, the
Prussians were coming in on the right flank and the numbers were overwhelming.)" ("Artillery of the Napoleonic
Wars 1792-1815" p 139)
In 1808 at Friedland, Senarmont, who was
Victor's army corps artillery commander,
quickly saw that there was an opportunity for
an artillery concentration and movement.
Rushing to Marshal Victor he obtained
permission to mass the guns from all three
divisions of the corps, a total of 38 pieces. These
included 4 12pdrs, 4 4pdrs, 22 6pdrs, and 8
howitzers. "Senarmont split his guns into three
provisional batteries; a heavy reserve and two
main units each of 10 6pdrs, 2 4pdrs, and 3
howitzers. The two big batteries were placed on hillocks some distance apart to cross their fire, while the
reserve was kept in a covered position behind the left hand battery.
Fire was opened at 400 m from the enemy, but after 5 or 6 shots from each gun the batteries were advanced
alternately to about 200 m. The batteries were supported by one infantry battalion and four dragoon regiments,
while the remainder of the corps sheltered behind a fold in the ground to the rear. So precarious did this
advance appear, indeed, that Napoleon is reputed to have thought Senarmont was deserting. It was a novel
demonstration of the fact that artillery could make a charge on its own in the same way as the other arms, and
Senarmont was deaf to all attempts to call him back. When they were 200 m from the enemy line the French
fired about 20 times, still with roundshot. By this time it was half an hour after they had entered the action,
and they were beginning to dominate the situation. They were lucky, however, that the enemy guns across the
river were unable to inflict many casualties upon them because the Russian field of fire was obstructed by both
the proximity of friendly troops and the dense lingering smoke.
Senarmont's next step was to prolonge both batteries forward until they joined together at about 60 m from the
enemy. A rapid fire with canister was then sufficient to break the infantry in front of them, and hence to silence
the supporting artillery, for the Russian gunners did not stand their ground once their infantry had retired. The
Russians then attempted a cavalry charge, but this was obstructed by fugitives and deterred by two general
discharges by the French. After this the way was clear for a French infantry attack right into the town of
Friedland itself. Senarmont accompanied this for most of the way, and also poured fire into the flank of units
which were retreating across his front to the safety of the Alle bridge.
Three hours after Senarmont had come into action the battle had been won. In that time his guns had fired an
average of 72 rounds each, plus 12 rounds of canister. ... Senarmont lost 66 casualties killed and wounded in
this battle, plus 53 horses. If there had been less smoke on the battlefield, or if the Russians had deployed an
effective light infantry screen the losses would undoubtedly have been far heavier although it was perhaps the
strong French cavalry supports which prevented the latter from happening. On the other side Senarmont
claimed there were 4,000 enemy left on this part of the field, although a proportion of these would have fallen
in the earlier fighting and the subsequent infantry attack. Nevertheless the artillery charge was a startling feat
of arms, and served to prove the old horse gunner Foy's disctum that 'the basic tactic is to get up close and
shoot fast." (Griffith - "French Artillery" pp 41-41)
Senarmont was two more times able to effect a central breakthrough in battle. It was in Spain at Ocana and
Medellin against the Spanish troops. The French also used a mass of 48-60 guns to force the Spanish line at
Tudela, while at Belchite the bombardement was so heavy that after some caissons had exploded in their midst
some of the Spanish troops ran away.
About Senarmont at Eylau in 1807: He assembled a 12-gun battery on a reverse slope where it could fire at
the Russians while enjoying partial shelter. (Arnold Crisis in the snows p. 281)
In 1806 and 1807 "The [French] artillery was highly trained and invariably made good practice."
(Petre - "Napoleon's Campaign in Poland, 1806-1807" pp 27-28)
French foot gunner , picture by Keith Rocco.
" ... a cannon, with French crew, arrived and unlimbered.
In front of it came some old French officer, riding beside
Dabrowski's aide, Bergenzoni, who was hit immediately
by an enemy [Prussian] bullet and fell off his horse . . . .
The Frenchman did not even stir,as if he had not noticed
his companion fall beside him...At the third shot the gate
[of Dirschau] gave way ..." Campaign of 1806-07 Chlapowski - p 17
In 1809 Napoleon said that his artillery had
won the battle of Wagram. As a special favor, the
emperor selected the son of General Lariboisiere
of artillery, to carry the battle news to Paris. The
French artillery was so well organized, and
efficient that several other European armies
patterned their artillery after the French. There
was even partial adoption of the French
Gribeauval System by the US Army in 1809.
The French artillery perfected the technique of acting in mass at a decisive point after this had been identified
in the preliminary outpost battle. This tactic demanded good conditions of weather and terrain.
Wellington (Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington 1769 - 1852) feared
the French artillery and would accept set-piece attacks only on ground
which were either eminently unsuitable for the French gunners or his own
troops were well sheltered. Field Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov tried to
neutralize the French artillery with his own powerful batteries and
protected his troops with strong fieldworks.
Map: movement and deployment of French and Russian artillery at Borodino in 1812.
Napoleon 120,000-135,000 men and 584 guns. Napoleon said: "This poor army is sadly
depleted, but what remains is good." Colonel Seruzier contemplated that "never has there
been a finer force than the French army on that day, and despite all the privations it had suffered since Vilna,
its turnout on that day was as good as it ever was in Paris when it paraded for the Emperor at the Tuileries."
Kutuzov had 115000 regulars, 9500 Cossacks, 30500 militia and approx. 600 guns. Thus at Borodino were more
than 1,000 guns ... this is just unbelievable.
In 1863 at Gettysburg were 612 pieces (272 CSA vs 360 USA) and in 1815 at Waterloo more than 500 guns.
French artillery at Borodino.
In 1812 during the retreat from Russia, only
Napoleon's V Army Corps (Poniatowski's Poles)
brought back 30 pieces. The tiny Baden troop
brought most of theirs, but many of the French
guns, caissons, wagons and field forges had to
be abandoned. All gunners and horses were
weakened by overwork and poor feeding. The
French gunners, pontoneers and sappers have
suffered heavy casualties at Berezina.
After 1812 the quality of artillery began
gradually decreasing, de Gaulle acurately described it: "1,200 cannon had been left behind in Russia and
almost as many at Kulm, on the Katzbach and at Leipzig, without counting those that were abandoned by the
roadside in Germany, Spain and Italy, and even France. For the wood of which the gun-carriages and wheels
were made, instead of being seasoned, as formerly, for 10, 20 or 30 years, now came from newly cut timber; as a
result it warped, split and bent." - General de Gaulle
In 1813 at Leipzig the French gunners were again at their best.
Napoleon joined General Drouot on Gallows Height and after a short
inspection of the battlefield, the Emperor turned to the general, and said,
"Put together a bouquet for me." (source: Bleibtreu - "Die Volkerschlacht bei
Leipzig.")
Drouot instantly rode away towards his Grand Battery that comprised of
100 guns; 24 from Victor's corps, 32 from Lauriston's corps, 12 from Latour-Maubourg's cavalry corps, and 32
from the Guard Artillery (3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th Foot Battery of Old Guard). Drouot signaled sharply with his
saber, making his movements so abrupt that his greatcoat balooned and spread out in the air behind him.
Drouot's artillery dismounted 24 Allies pieces (17 Russians and 6 Prussians) while the remaining guns hastily
fell back and onto the road to Gulden-Gossa. Those gunners who had no riding place on the cannons or
limbers were fleeing on foot, while some fled on draft horses. Only few remained and manned the guns. Then
a Russian ammunition wagon was hit by a French grenade and blew up making a tremendous noise. Bloody
shreds of the bodies of the Russians flew in all directions. The commander of Prinz Eugen's artillery reported
about the dramatic situation with his guns, and immediately galloped away, leaving everything behind.
Seeing Napoleon still near the Grand Battery, Drouot advised respectfully; "Your Majesty must withdraw
himself from this area of the hostile cannonande !" But the Emperor was immovable. He held his field glass,
watching the Allies and knowing that fire of this sort couldn't be withstood by any troops in the world.
Once the Russian artillery was gone Eugen's II Infantry Corps (3rd
& 4th Division) became the only target for Drouot's gunners.
Digby-Smith writes: "The situation of the Russians on Klux's right,
in the open fields ... was much worse. Lacking any cover at all,
they suffered very heavy losses from artillery fire. Shahovskoi ...
reported to Prinz Eugen that his men were being destroyed. The
prince rode slowly along the line. At each battalion, his question
'How many men have you lost ?' would be answered with a silent
gesture to the lines of dead lying where they had fallen. ... [Prinz
Eugen] did nothing to alleviate the situation ... It was Borodino all
over again (where Prinz Eugen had commanded the 4th Infantry
Division); the Russian commanders had learned nothing and
continued to squander their men to absolutely no avail ..." ( Digby-Smith, - "1813: Leipzig - Napoleon and the
Battle of the Nations" p 86)
For a while the Russians held on. Prinz Eugen shouted to his officers: "No one who can stand on his feet is to
leave the position !" The hits were so demolishing that the shakos and muskets landed far away from those hit
by solid iron balls. The infantry ducked whenever a missile passed overhead. The 3rd Division have suffered
horrible casualties and was finally withdrawn behind the Auenhain sheep-farm. The 4th Division also got
under fire and fell back either on Crobern or Gulden Gossa. Pahlen's cavalry and Cossacks also got their share
of projectiles and were obliged to withdraw. With the Russians falling back Klux's Prussian 9th Brigade again
formed the front line. Some of the Prussians (7th Silesian Landwehr) stood on the sunken road south of
Wachau, in contrast to the Russians who were in the open and took the lion's share of casualties from artillery
fire. Prussian 2 battalions were still in the Hearth Wood. But when Victor's infantry moved forward, Klux
quickly fell back on Gulden-Gossa.
The fire from the Grand Battery was terrific, the fields were covered with smoke and the earth literally
vibrated. The glass in the windows even as far as Leipzig rattled without pause. (Sporschil - "Die Grosse
Chronik" p 788) Prinz Eugen formed a small rear guard to cover the retreat of Prussians and Russians. It
comprised of half of Pyshnitzki's 4th Division (6 battalions) and small part of Shahovski's 3rd Division (2
battalions). Their main objective was to slow down, or even halt for a while, Victor's infantry. Soon half of the
rear guard was out of combat and the casualties could have been heavier if not the Prussian Silesian Schutzens'
(riflemen or marksmen).
The Silesians took cover on a sunken road.
The horse artillery of Pahlen's cavalry corps suffered badly and the gunners hurriedly unharnessed the
wounded and dead draft horses, then limbered up the guns and rode away. They spared neither the whips nor
the horses., which soon had heaving flanks and sweat-blotched loins. Pahlen's Cossacks headed rearwards and
were soon followed by the hussars. Mesenzov's Russian 5th Infantry Division (of Gorchakov's I Corps) and
part of Pirch's Prussian brigade took cover in the University Wood. In front of Gulden Gossa 12 Russian 6pdrs
were deployed. The village itself was defended by 3 battalions drawn from Pirch's brigade. They anxiously
looked to the north.
Tsar Alexander (see
picture, he is mounted
on chestnut horse) was
shocked and sent an
adjutant to
Schwarzenberg asking
for Austrian Reserves.
"For God's sake, in the
name of the Tsar, I ask
you to step down from
your plan, and send us
the Austrian Reserves !"
But Schwarzenberg
wasted precious
minutes by sending
pedantic orders to
various troops.
Drouot swept the fields
in front of him clean of
all living. The situation
was ripe for a massive attack, breaking the enemy's line and winning the battle. The cannons were firing on all
cylinders until Murat's 10,000 cavalrymen began to advance. Then they fell silent as the advancing masses
obscured the line of fire.
Once the cavalry passed Napoleon ordered Drouot to take part of his Grand Battery and push it forward.
Marbot writes: "General Drout with 60 cannons aided the attack." The crews manhandled the pieces back to
hook them on to their limbers. The ammunition wagons set off with their wheels digging great gouges into the
meadow. The guns rolled forward, with their chains and buckets swinging. They got within a deadly canister
range and began deploying. Drouot turned to his officers and with a broad smile on his face said; "They (Allies)
shall get to know us". Mesenzov's infantry division was retreating to the east of Gulden Gossa. The French sent
several battaries after them, and sprayed them with canister driving the Russians to a near panic.
The esprit de corps of the gunners was excellent, even in 1813. "Aster tells a curious story of a battery [in the
battle of Dresden] which received orders to be ready to move into the fighting line. The men were dust-stained
and untidy after their long march. The moment they heard the order, each man began to get out of his
haversack his parade uniform, which it was thought suitable to don on such an occassion. Comical scenes
ensued, as men, in the act of changing their trousers, had to skip off as they might to avoid a shell about to
burst. All were laughing and cheery, as if about to go to some fete. Such was the spirit of Napoleon's soldiers."
(Petre - "Napoleon at War" p 226, publ.1984)
In 1814 however the French artillery suffered from lack of strong horses. Furthermore, there were quite
many raw recruits among them. Houssaye writes that at the battle of Craonne some of the French gunners
"were untrained, and suffered heavily from the fire of the better-served Russian guns." (Houssaye - "Napoleon
and the campaign of 1814" p 150)
French artillery in winter 1814.
Picture by Adrian George.
During the Waterloo Campaign in 1815 the raising of artillery was beset by some frustrating difficulties, and
there was very little time. Napoleon rebuilt the artillery of the Guard but did little to the rest of the artillery.
There was no lack of cannons, but trained gunners and horses were in short supply. Despite the poor shape
the French artillery still was able to impress even the enemy.
In the beginning of the battle Reille's artillery kept firing on all cylinders and several guns had been brought
up as far as the Nivelles Road. Almost all the British eyewitness accounts confirm that the British and German
infantry massed on the high ground beyond Hougoumont came under fire and suffered a steady attrition that
gradually began to wear on the men's nerves. Most of the British battalions behind Hougoumont-La Haye
Sainte line were formed in column of companies (not a "thin red line"). It was a deep formation with all 10
companies lined up one behind the other. It was easy to maneuver battalions so deployed and therefore ideal
formation for waiting troops; but it certainly wasn't suitable for withstanding artillery bombardement.
To lessen their casulaties from artillery fire the British, Dutch and German infantry out on the ground.
This way Wellington saved many lives. The cavalry in the second line also got under atyillery fire. Sergeant
Wheeler of the British 51st Light writes, "A shell now fell into the column of the [British] 15th Hussars and
bursted. I saw a sword and scabbard fly out from the column ... grape and shells were dupping about like hell,
this was devilish annoying. As we could not see the enemy, although they were giving us a pretty good
sprinkling of musketry ..." A British officer wrote that one of the French batteries "was committing great
devastation amongst our troops in and near Hougoumont." Bull's howitzer battery also got under fire, suffered
losses in men, wagons and horses, and exhausted their own ammunition to such a point that, no more than 2
hours after the beginning of the battle, they were compelled to abandon the line of fire. The fire of the French
artillery distracted the British gunners. Instead of targeting the French columns they got involved in counter-
battery fire. Wellington had expressely forbade it but it was ignored. (Napoleon explained: "When gunners are
under attack from an enemy battery, they can never be made to fire on massed infantry. It's natural cowardice,
the violent instinct of self-preservation ...")
The British artillery was also effective. Some battalions of Reille's corps remained stretched out on the ground
in hollows and sunken lanes. Other battalions received the fire standing firm. "Between 2 and 3 PM, a [French]
battery drew up on the right side of the buildings and began to bombard them heavily with cannons and
howitzers. It did not take long to set them all alight." (- Major Busgen, Nassau Battalion)
Picture: Hougoumont after battle - a sight most pitiful.
The Farmer's House - it was burned down by the
French artillery
The Chateau - it was burned down by the French
artillery
The Barn - it was burned down by the French artillery
The Gardener's House - it was the only buidling in H.
to escape fire.
After the farm of La Haye Sainte (in Wellington's
center) fell into French hands, their artillery was
brought forward.
British officer Mercer of Royal Artillery writes, "The rapidity and precission of this [French] fire was quite
appaling... Every shot almost took effect, and I certainly expected we should all be annihilated. ... One shell I
saw explode under the two finest wheel-horses in the troop down they dropped."
Some Allies squares went under severe artillery bombardement. The British 27th Regiment of Foot lost more
than 2/3 of its men! Kincaid wrote "the 27th regiment were lying dead, in square, a few yards behind us."
Captain Scriba was with one of the Hannoverian squares. This square "lost its original shape, at first it became
irregular triangle, and then a mass closed up on all sides, without any indefinitetable shape." The British,
Netherland and German infantry stood out in the open whilst exposed to the merciless artillery and skirmish
fire of the French. It resembled the execution of the Prussian infantry in 1806 at Jena by the French tirailleurs.
Up until now Wellington was on the back foot and would have been beaten without Blucher. The Duke said,
"Give me Blcher or give me night."
Prussian officer, Baron Von Muffling, writes, The Duke was most desirous of our [Prussians'] arrival and had
repeatedly declared that this was the last moment , and if we did not arrive soon,he would be compelled to
retreat." Wellington and Blucher then counterattacked and soundly defeated Napoleon. It was Napoleon's last
battle.
Napoleonic gunner (left) and the fearsome 12pdr le brutal (right).
Picture by Keith Rocco, USA.
Captain Mercer of British horse artillery wrote, "About this time being impatient
of standing idle, and annoyed by the [French] batteries on the Nivelles Road, I
ventured to commit a folly, for which I should have paid dearly had our Duke
chanced to be in our part of the field. I ventured to disobey orders, and open a
slow deliberate fire at the [French horse] battery [of Pire's cavalry division],
thinking with my 9-pounders soon to silence his 4-pounders.
My astonishment was great, however, when our very first gun was responded to by at
least half-a-dozen gentlemen of very superior calibre whose presence I had not even
suspected, and whose superiority we immediately recognised bu their rushing noise
and long, for they flew beyond us. I instantly saw my folly, and ceased firing, and
they did the same - the 4-pounders alone continuing the cannonade ... The first man
of my troop touched was by one of these confounded long shot. I shall never forget
the scream the poor fellow gave when it struck."
Artillery played a very important role at Wagram in 1809. "Re-forming his columns and taking a moment to
have a surgeon dress his wound, Oudinot sent Coehorn toward the road to Znaim - one of the main routes
Charles would need if he were to retreat - and placed himself at the head of Albert's brigade for an advance on
Wagram.
Seruzier, in spite of having his fifth horse shot out from under him, brought up the corps' horse artillery to
provide fire support. The artillerists positioned their batteries in echelon formation; while one battery fired, the
other advanced and unlimbered, and when the second battery opened fire, the first battery limbered and
advanced. These modern fire-and-move tactics helped pave the way for a successful assault. Still, in the end
it required naked valor to take Wagram, and none surpased that of General Oudinot and his staff." ( James
Arnold - "Napoleon Conquers Austria")
~
Sappers, Miners, Pontoniers and Pioneers.
"All the best engineer officers of the French army were collected together
under General Chasseloup at Danzig (Gdansk), and the operations were
conducted with great rapidity, though not fast enough to please the Emperor"
- Baron Lejeune, 1807
The French military engineers (sappers, miners, pontoniers etc.) enjoyed a great reputation. Small groups
of them rendered invaluable service to the Continental Army during American Revolution against the
British. The best officers of the engineers came from the polytechnic school and the school of application.
The Napoleonic engineers had been better equipped and organized than the Austrian, British and Russian
engineers for many years. They were all well trained under professionally qualified officers.
And they were courageous men. Chlapowski writes, "... I was sent 30 French sappers, commanded by a
sergeant, and ordered to take these men and my two companies [of infantry] and eject the enemy
[Prussians] from Zblewo. ... [I] selected an advance guard from my Polish troops. But the French
[sappers] straight away requested permission to lead off, very politely explaining that older soldiers
should set an example. ... These Frenchmen moved so fast that my men had difficulty keeping up."
(Chlapowski/Simmons - p 19)
In Egypt with Bonaparte were 800 engineers (sappers, miners etc.) under General Cafarelli-Dufalga and
Colonel Sanson. In Italy the engineers were commanded by Colonel Chasseloup-Laubat, and in the
famous training ground Camp of Boulogne by Marescot. In 1805 the engineers of the I Army Corps were
under Colonel Morio, in II Army Corps under General de Lery, in III under General Andreossy, in IV
under Colonel Poitevin, and in V Army Corps under General Kirgener. In 1809 during the campaign
against Austria, the engineers were commanded by Bertrand.
From 1809 several French army corps had one battalion of sappers and one company of miners under
command. This establishment included 35 wagons carrying 1,700 pickaxes, 1,700 spades, 680 axes,
demolition equipment etc.
- Sappers (Sapeurs du genie) Until 1789 in addition to the general staff of engineers' officers, existed 6
companies of sappers (sapeurs du genie). These companies belonged to the artillery corps. In 1793 the
numebr of sappers dramatically increased to 12 battalions, each of 8 companies of 200 men. In 1805
Napoleon had 5 battalions but in 1810-1812 three more were added (they were Dutch, Italians and
Spaniards).
- Miners (Mineurs) The elite of all engineer troops were miners. They were recruited from civilian
miners. Not only did they face the enemy in counter-mining operations, but the equally dangerous
threats of cave-ins and asphyxiation. There were 6 companies of miners which the artillery absorbed for a
while. In 1793 at Carnot's proposal the companies of miners were separated from the artillery. They
participated in sieges as they were specialists in the attack and defense of fortified places. It was a very
dangerous duty. During First Empire the 6 companies of miners were reduced to 5, in 1805 expanded to 9
and finally to 12 companies.
- Pioneers (Pionniers ) In February 1811 was ordered to use the captured Spanish, Portugese and
Austrian POWs in the 38 pioneer battalions. Out of the 38 battalions, 15 were to be used for fortresses,
castles and other fortifications, another 15 for repairing and building the roads. Eight battalions were to
be used for seaport and offshore services. In 1803 Napoleon formed one battalion of black pioneers
(pionniers noirs) from Haitians POWs. The "negros" wore brown breeches, white gaiters, and brown coats
with red lapels and collars. In 1806 this unit was transferred to the Neapolitan Army in southern Italy.
- Pontoniers (Pontoniers) Each larger army corps had small troop of pontoniers.
"... there were between 6 and 14 companies of pontoneers, not including the Imperial Guard. One
company of pontoneers was assigned to each corps d'armee, to the Reserve Cavalry, to the army Grand
Parc, and to the Guard (which eventually had its own). A pontoneer company could 'throw' (construct or
emplace) a brodge between 60 and 80 pontoons over a waterway in about 7 hours, the length of this
bridge being from 350 to 500 feet. Pontoons were carried on long-2-wheeled wagons called hacquets,
which were fitted to the usual artillery limber in the front to make it a 4-wheeled wagon. Other wagons
carried the ancillary eqipment, such as planks, anchors, etc. needed to finish the bridge." (Kiley - "Artillery
of the Napoleonic Wars 1792-1815" pp 125-126) The System of the Year XI discarded the copper pontoons
and replaced them with wooden pontoons.
Napoleon once said: "It is difficult to prevent an enemy, supplied with pontoons, from crossing a river."
Chasseloup-Laubat (1754-1833) was an engineer of great reputation.
H i s ability as a military engineer was recognized in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793.
He was chief of engineers at the siege of Mainz in 1796, after which he was sent to Italy.
"... he became chief engineer to Bonaparte in Italy (1796 and 1800), being present at
most battles and sieges. Promoted to general of division in 1799, he spent many years
in Italian appointments. In 1807 he supervised the sieges of Danzig and Stralsund, and
next year was made a count. He served in R u s s i a in 1812 and retired the next year.
Chasseloup-Laubat espoused the Bourbon cause in 1814 and took no part in the events
of 1815." (Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" p 90)
.
In early 1807, after the bloody battle of Eylau, Napoleon decided to build a military camp in Osterode.
The French engineers constructed a palisade around a vast square inside which were streets bordered by
wooden huts. Each street bore the name of one of the latest victories. The Imperial Guard had its own
camp, built with a degree of luxury. In the centre was a brick building where Napoleon installed himself.
The Siege of Danzig (1807) was the French encirclement and capture of Danzig in the War of the Fourth
Coalition of the Napoleonic Wars. A French map of the siege, indicating the sitting of French batteries.
(The left band side of the map is north.)
"All the best engineer officers of the French army were collected together under General Chasseloup at
Danzig, and the operations were conducted with great rapidity, though not fast enough to please the
Emperor, who, at a distance from the scene of action, did not realize that fresh obstacles were thrown in
our way every day by the skill of the directors of the defence." - Baron Lejeune, French officer
In 1809 near Vienna Napoleon instructed General Bertrand and his engineer officers to organize the
construction of great bridges protected by a palisade upstream and capable of withstanding the current
and the ramming raft that had destroyed the original bridge connecting the south shore of Danube River
with the Lobau Island.
On June 1st the work started. In adddition to the engineers and
pontoniers, three naval battalions (1,500 men), two battalions of sailors
(1,00 men) and one battalion of naval artificers joined Bertrand. They built
bridges, gunboats, landing barges and a floating battery, repaired
damaged pontoons and mannded several crafts.
When they lacked of cordage Napoleon had the church bell ropes
dismantled. The bridgeworks were impressive. By working day and night
the engineers and pontonniers completed the construction of the main
trestle-bridge and its subsidiaries - major engineering achievements surpassing the bridges constructed
by the Roman emperors, Caesar and Trajan. (Rothennburg - "The Emperor's Last Victory" pp 132-135)
Having waited until mid-October 1812 Napoleon soon found itself in the midst of an unusually early
and especially cold winter in Russia. Temperatures soon dropped well below freezing. Icicles hung from
the trees like glittering chandeliers.
At Beresina River General Eble's pontoniers and
engineers (French and Polish) saved the army there by
construction of the bridges. The bridge trains has been
destroyed at Orsha, several days before the crossing of
the Berezina River. But General Eble did wonders. He
had several companies of pontoniers with him who had
all kept their muskets. Then they plunged naked into
the icy river, working deep to their armpits and only
few survived. It was unusual display of discipline and
sacrifice.
Eble himself died too.
In May 1813 at Briesnitz the pontoneers built two pontoon bridges with rafts and boats, and the stone
bridge in Dresden was repaired. Two further pontoon bridges were built parallel to the stone bridge.
(Nafziger - "Lutzen and Bautzen" p 193)
In 1815 at Waterloo during the dramatic fight for the farm La Haye Sainte (defended by German
infantry in British service) the main gate was battered down with axes wielded by men of the 1st Engineer
Regiment and stormed by the II Battalion of 13th Ligh Regiment." (Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion" p
139)
French army crossing of the Marne River on March 2, 1814.
(Napoleon is in the center of the picture.)
General Henri Bertrand (1773-1847).
General Bertrand was the most known engineer of the Napoleonic army.
Bertrand was an engineer by training and a longstanding imperial aid.
"His great success in the field was the construction of the pontoon bridges
across the Danube in front of Aspern-Essling during the Austrian campaign
in 1809...he accompanied the Emperor to Elba. He was present at Waterloo
and was at Napoleon's bedsite when he died on St.Helen, having remained
with him throughout his exile." (Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion" p 12)
Bertrand was immensely loyal to the Emperor.
Sources and Links.
Susane - "Histoire de l'Artillerie Francaise" Paris 1874
Wise and Hook - "Artillery Equipment of the Napoleonic Wars"
Kiley - "Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars 1792-1815"
Broughton - "French Artillery Regiments and the Colonels Who Led Them."
Yves Martin - "French Artillery 1789-1800" napoleon-series.org
Summerville - "Napoleon's Polish Gamble"
Griffith - "French Artillery"
Nafziger - "Imperial Bayonets"
Bowden - "Napoleon's Grande Armee of 1813" Chicago 1990.
Picture of gun crew by Adrian George.
Keith Rocco's gallery.
The French Artillery Museum
Artillery of the Imperial Guard.
Artillery Tactics and Combat
Cannons and Howitzers, Gun Crew, Battery, Ammunition
Deployment in Battle, Accuracy of Artillery Fire
Attacking and Defending Artillery Positions
Redoubts
French Guard Infantry : Kaiserliche Garde-Infanterie : Infanterie de la Garde Imperiale
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/IMPERIAL_GUARD_infantry_1.htm[2012-05-21 12:38:35]
French Guard Infantry of the Napoleonic Wars
Napoleon's Guard was "One of the most celebrated military formations in history."
- David Chandler
There was a special aura surrounding the words " Napoleon's G u a r d " .
To serve in the Imperial Guard was to serve in an organization that demanded
excellence beyond all others . Service in the Guard left a lasting impresion
upon the innermost being of everyone who was privileged enough to serve.
Introduction: The Power Behind the Throne.
Guard of the Directory (1796-99)
Consular Guard (1799-1804)
Imperial Guard (1804-15)
Young Guard. - Middle Guard. - Old Guard.
Commanders.
Organization.
Uniforms.
=
General Dorsenne and the Guard Infantry at Wagram.
The Old Guard feared and adored him. Dorsenne was so hard that the
toughest soldiers jumped to please him and dreaded his strictness.
He "could turm his back to the enemy under the heaviest fire and give
his orders cooly, without concern for what went on behind him." When
cannonballs killed his third horse and third time he picked himself up
he spat out "Bunglers !" dusted himself off and mounted his 4th horse.
Introduction: The Power Behind the Throne.
The Guard embodied the physical strength and bravery that characterized
anciet warriors . It was forbidden to b r a w l at the canteens or get drunk.
"When ... the Guard meets ... the Line en route,the latter shall form in line of
battle and port arms or present sabers...Flags and standards shall be dipped."
The primary role of the Guard, of course, was the personal protection of the Emperor, but they
also functioned as a fighting force. They were recruited from among the best available veterans.
Service in the guard was an honored position, and was considered elite status for a soldier.
Contrary to popular opinion, they often went on campaign with the Emperor. They were
unquestionably loyal to Napoleon.
Napoleon's Guard represent the last true link in a chain spanning the ages. "War's history tells
of many elite guards which, in their times, formed living walls around their rulers' thrones. The
Persian 'Immortals' had a support contingent of concubines... Israel's King David kept a
bodyguard of Philistine mercenaries. Alexander the Great rode amid the nobly-born Royal
Squadron of his Macedonian Companions. Rome's Praetorian cohorts, unfortunately, are more
remembered for betraying their Caesars than for guarding them, as are the Janissaries of the
Ottoman sultans. Formed in 1506, the Pope's Swiss Guard still wears a version of the uniform
designed by, tradition says, Michelangelo. The 'Maison du Roi' of France's Bourbon kings
included Swiss and French guards. When the Revolution flared, the French guard mutined. The
Swiss died fighting for a king who abandoned them.
None of these looms so formidably large across our memories of old wars as Napoleon's
Imperial Guard. Its history is short, barely 15 years in all, but these were mighty years of
amazing triumph and defeat; defeat from which it still wrung a foeman's tribute to its valour
and devotion. With its Emperor it stands among the mightiest of great conquerors and great
conquered."
(- John Elting)
Napoleon and the Guard Infantry at Borodino.
Picture by Vereshchagin, Russia.
While campaigning, the guardsmen were the equal of any formation in the Imperial Army.
Seldom used in the early campaigns, they were quite active by 1813 and 1814 and became
Napoleon's shock troops. Napoleon wanted a strong Guard for several reasons. It was the wall
of bayonets against enemies foreign and domestic about his throne, and a reserve of elite troops
under his immediate control. No Napoleonic troop marched into battle with more confidence
and promise of military glory than the Imperial Guard. They embodied the physical strength
and bravery that characterized anciet warriors. Discipline was high, it was forbidden to brawl
at the canteens or get drunk. A guardsman caught sleeping out of barracks got 15 days' arrest.
But men are men. There were brawls and duels among the guardsmen, and their conduct in
public suggested that some of them considered Paris an occupied city. There were quarels
between the Guard and other troops, for example the 9th Light Regiment, which - Napoleon
having dubbed it "The Incomparable" in Italy - was not about to be impressed by any
"Praetorians." But the men who provoked the quarrel were rewarded with rings around their
eyes bearing a strong resemblance to large goggles.
The elite troops were pampered. The Guard drew extra pay and allowances, and they got better
housing. Jean Barres of Foot Chasseurs writes, "Our pay was 23 sous 1 centime per diem. ... The
pay was enough to provide all absolute necessaries, but deductions were often made which
were not always very scrupulously accounted for, and of which we dared not complain, for the
sergeant-majors were all-powerful in the companies."
In 1807 after the bloody battle of Eylau, Napoleon decided to build a military camp in Osterode.
The French engineers constructed a palisade around a vast square inside which were streets
bordered by wooden huts. Each street bore the name of one of the latest victories. The Imperial
Guard had its own camp, built with a degree of luxury. In the centre was a brick building
where Napoleon installed himself.
The Guard was a priviledged troop. Napoleon wrote; "When ... the Guard meets ... the Line en
route, the latter shall form in line of battle and port arms or present sabers ... Flags and
standards shall be dipped, The colonels and commanders shall exchange salutes."
Napoleon and the Guard Infantry at Jena 1806.
"To reach the King of Prussia's palace, where the Emperor was to be lodged, we
(Guard Foot Chasseurs) followed the wide, magnificent Avenue of Linden trees
... The crowd gathered to see us pass was so great that one might have thought
the whole population of B e r l i n was assembled at this point to watch the
conquerors of their country go by ..." - Jean-Baptiste Barres, 1806
~
Guard of the Directory
In 1796 the Guard of the Directory was formed
to escort the Directors in public ceremonies.
"The Guard's origin was double. One ancestor was the guard of the National Convention.
That was rough duty: 'Deputations' from various disorderly sections of Paris had the habit of
swarming in, brandishing their sundry blunt and edged weapons, to acquaint the Convention
with their conflicting versions of the people's voice. Anyone choosing to stand in the way of
such intrusions ... might suddenly find his head ornamenting the point of a partiot's pike. The
resultant atrition on the 'grenadier-gendarmes' who had that duty prompted the Convention to
augment them with selected infantrymen and artillerymen and to form the whole into a seven
company guard. Between the Paris mobs and the Paris politicians, those veterans found
themselves in bad company. Though repeatedly purged, reorganized, and renamed, this Gardes
du Corps Legislatif remained unruly and sullenly contemptous of its civilian masters.
A parallel unit appeared in 1796, when the newly installed Directory created a Maison for itself
of 120 infantry grenadiers and an equal number of mounted ones, plus a 25 piece band drawn
from the Paris Conservatory of Music." (Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" pp 183-184)
In 1796 the Guard of the Directory was formed to escort the Directors in public ceremonies and
parades.
There were 2 companies of foot grenadiers (and 2 companies of horse grenadiers). The
grenadiers were:
at least 5'10" tall
literate
with perfect conduct
and participation in 2 campaigns.
It was elite of the army. However, to enlarge their ranks, deserters and 'bad subjects', were also
admitted.
Some army commanders took advantage of the opportunity to rid themselves of some
questionable characters.
Robespierre and Saint-Just had a great number of members in this Guard. The Convention was
not unaware of it, and it is what explains the effort that it required to set these troops towards
the commune, on the famous night of Thermidor 9. After the reign of Robespierre, the
Convention felt the need to purify the ranks of its Guard. The purification had changed the
Guard in last days of its reign; the Directory continued with this prudent work of regeneration.
By its care, the veterans of the armies of the Rhine, of Sambre and Meuse, of the Pyrenees and
Italy, took places in its Guard.
The admission requirements were:
For the officers:
at least 5'3" tall
25 years of age
For the NCOs and privates:
at least 5'6" tall
25 years of age
literate
at least 2 campaigns
The Old Guard, picture by Edouard Detaille.
There were quarels between the Old G u a r d and other troops.
During one of the ensuing brawls the men of 9th Light Infantry
were rewarded with rings around their eyes bearing a strong
resemblance to large goggles.
~
Guard of the Consuls [Gardes des Consuls]
"His comrades of the Italian campaigns
formed the nucleus of the Guard.
They were rough soldiers ..."
- Henri Lachoque
"On 28 Nov, eighteen days after the coup d'etat, the Guard of the Consuls was officially created
out of the Guards of the Directory and Legislature. ... On 2 December citizen Murat, a
lieutenant eneral, was named commander in chief and inspector general of the new Guard. (He
remained in this post only a few weeks.) ... The decree organizing the Guard of the Consuls was
dated 13 nivose year VIII (3 Jan 1800)." (Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory" p 7)
With the establishment of the Consulate, the Guard of the Directory,
had to form the Guard of the Consuls. In Novemner 1799 was issued a decree:
"Art. XIV -
The Consular Guard will be recruited only from men who
will have distinguished themselves on the field of battle.
PAY (per year):
troop earnings will be paid every 10 days, officers at the end of each month.
- Foot Grenadier and Chasseur 410, Drummer 500
- Horse Grenadier and Chasseur 450, Trumpeter 650
- Gunner 1st Class 500, 2nd Class 460
Money allocated for equipment, armament, horse-harness, and clothing:
- Foot Grenadier and Chasseur 258, Officer 800
- Horse Grenadier 517, Officer 1000
- Horse Chasseur 689, Officer 1500
- Gunner 689, Officer 1500
The infantry of the Guard consisted of 2 battalions of foot grenadiers and 1 company of light
infantry.
In the end of 1800 the company of light infantry increased to battalion of chasseurs.
All men were excellent fighters, select marchers and killers, but the whole Guard was far from
solid,
and its morale and loyalty were still uncertain things. Some were uncombed Revolutionary
zealots.
In the battle of Marengo the Guard transitioned to a battle formation. When Bonaparte became
First Consul he wrote that his plans for the Guard were for it to become the model of the entire
army. By a new decree of March 8, 1802, Bonaparte supplemented the new organization of the
Guard:
Art. I
In the future the Guard will be made up ... of foot grenadiers and foot chasseurs,
each made up of a staff, with 2 battalions; and each battalion, of 8 companies.
A regiment of horse grenadiers composed of a staff with 4 squadrons of 2 companies each.
A regiment of horse chasseurs, made up temporarily of 2 squadrons, 2 companies each one,
with its staff.
A horse artillery squadron, with a staff and company of foot artillery.
Art. IX
There will be a Company of Veterans, formed of the officers, NCOs and privates who will have
served 3 years in the Consular Guard, and have been judged out of shape to continue on active
service; their pay will be the same as that of the foot grenadiers."
Art. XXXIII
The soldier intended to belong to the Consular Guard must meet the following conditions, i.e.:
to be on active service.
to have made at least 4 campaigns,
to have obtained rewards granted to brave men by feat of arms or brilliant deed, or to have
been wounded
to be at least 1 meter 8 decimeters (5'6") tall for grenadiers, and at least 1 meter 7 decimeters
for the chasseurs
and to always have held an irreproachable conduct.
In 1802 Napoleon submitted a permanent schedule of recruitment for Consular Guard: 1 man
from each battalion.
"1802 was a wonderful year. During its course Bonaparte filled the French with the 'joy of
revival' ... It was the year of the Code, of the general peace ... and of Bonaparte's appointment
to the consulate for life. ... Now he was pleased to change the name of the Guard of the Consuls
to the 'Consular Guard', or simply 'The Guard.' ... Bonaparte outlined the organizaon as
follows: 'The foot Guard shall be composed of two corps containing 2 battalions of grenadiers
and two of chasseurs respectively ... ' Though these corps contained but one regiment each,
their designation as such indicated that their strength would eventually be increased. Colonel
Hulin was given command of the grenadiers. A veteran soldier ... one of the authentic stormers
of the Bastille." (Lachoque - "Anatomy of Glory" pp 24-25)
1803-1804
Foot Grenadiers
(General Davout)
Foot Chasseurs
(General Soult)
- Regiment of Foot Grenadiers
(Colonel Hulin)
- Regiment of Foot Chasseurs
(Colonel Soules)
"... the [French] government received the news of death of
Washington who had died ... This death was announced to
the Consular Guard by the following order:
Washington is dead ! This great man fought the tyrants ...
His memory will be always dear to the French people,
as to all free men ...
St.Hilaire - "History of the Imperial Guard"
~
Imperial Guard [Garde Imperiale]
They owed him their prestige and glory,
which they paid for in loyalty.
In 1804 after his crowning, Napoleon transformed the Consular Guard into the Imperial Guard
(Garde Imperiale). A decree of July 29, 1804, stated: The Consular Guard will take the title of
Imperial Guard". The decree also described recruitment: "Each regiment of infantry, cavalry, foot and
horse artillery, and each battalion of the train, prepared a list of 6 NCOs or privates likely to be
called upon to belong to the Guard, having met the measurements of the needs of that Corps.
The conditions to be included to fill these lists were:
- for the dragoon and horse chasseurs, at least 6 years of service, 2 campaigns: 1,73 cm tall (5'4")
- for the cuirassiers and artillery, at least 6 years of service, 2 campaigns, 1,76 cm tall (5'5")
- for the line and light infantry, at least 5 years of service, 2 campaigns, 1,76 cm tall (5'5")
- for the battalions of the train, same time in service, and height of 1,678 cm (5'2")
... The soldiers chosen to enter the Guard remained with their troop, where they continued their
service until
the Minister of War ordered them to be directed to Paris to be placed in regiments there."
The so-called Velites were formed from selected conscripts taken from infantry and from
departamental reserve companies. In 1806 the height requirement was 168 cm (soon it was
heightened to 173 cm). Napoleon writes, "Young men who volunteer, may enlist in the two fusilier
regiments if they are strong and healthy and measure not less than 5'8" (173 cm)."
Allured by the splendid renown of Napoleon, dazzled by his numerous victories, young men
flocked to the ranks of Velites. They were required to be young men of family. This was to obtain a
certain amount of education and character. "Less than 18 % of the Velites came from civil service
families (judiciary, administration). More striking still, only 1.5 % came from military backgrounds.
... The majority were classified as property holders - 46 % as land owners or rentiers, presumably
well-off families that neither worked for a living nor exercised a public function, and a further 10 %
in various branches of agriculture like wine-growing. Another 25 % came from commercial milieux,
the liberal professions, and artisan families." (Blaufarb - "The French Army 1750-1820" pp 178-9)
Jean Barres was one of the young Velites, he writes, "Having had our descriptions recorded and
heights taken we were distributed among the two corps of Velites, each according to his stature; 13
were admitted to the Grenadiers and 7, of whom I was one, to the Chasseurs. ... After a most painful
night we got under arms at daybreak to march to the garden of the Tuileries. There each company of
chasseurs (old soldiers) was augmented by a portion of the first detachment of Velites; they were
ranked according to their stature, and we were told henceforth we were incorporated in these
companies. I found myself in the 2nd Company of the II Battalion (of Foot Chasseurs). ... Before the
billets were distributed each Velite was paired with an old chasseur. At first sight, and judging by
the gruff tone of my companion I did not congratulate myself on the award of chance."
Thus during peacetime the regiment of foot grenadiers or chasseurs consisted of three battalions.
Two battalions were made of veterans and one of young Velites. Before campaign however they
merged and formed two larger field battalions.
In 1806 every battalion of line and light infantry were ordered to send 1 man to the Guard by 1 July.
The candidates must be:
not older than 35
strong and tall (5,10" for grenadiers and 5'8" for chasseurs),
with 10 years service
and a citation for bravery
It soon appeared that these conditions could not be fulfiled,
even by lowering the term of service to 6 years.
NCO of the infantry of Imperial Guard.
Picture by Keith Rocco, USA.
"Despite the snow, which was falling in avalanches, the foragers of the companies ...
found some excellent cellars of Hungarian wines. We drank of these to warm ourselves,
to refresh ourselves ... lastly, we drank so much that if we had had to fire our muskets
that night we should not have been able to handle our cartridges ...
A benevolent spectator of this gigantic orgy , drinking next to nothing, I marvelled ,
without being dazzled, at the surprising capacity of some of the men, which was truly
gargantuan." - Jean Barres and the young Velites, Guard Foot Chasseurs, November 1805
Order of battle of the Guard Infantry Division in December 1805
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brigade -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Chasseurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brigade -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Grenadiers (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Grenadiers of Royal Italian Guard (1 battalion)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Divisional Artillery
Order of battle of the Guard Infantry Division at Eylau in 1807:
Commander - GdB Dorsenne
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brigade - GdB Dorsenne
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of Grenadiers (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of Grenadiers (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brigade - GdB Soules
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of Chasseurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of Chasseurs (2 battalions)
Napoleon created Fusiliers of the Imperial Guard in September 1806.
He converted and eliminated the former velite-chasseurs battalion.
The Fusiliers joined the army in 1807.
Order of battle of the Guard Infantry Division in June 1807
Commander - GdB Hulin
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Dorsenne
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Soules
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Boyer de Rebeval
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of Fusliers (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of Fusliers (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Divisional artillery
The Emperor was proud of his Guard, their reputation, appearance, and always gave them a
prominent place in his great exhibitions at Paris and elsewhere. They were pampered. In 1807 after
the Peace Treaty between Russia and France was concluded, The "engineers had built a large
wooden hut in which the officers of the Guard were to feast their erstwhile opponents. On the 30th
the sun shone briliantly in a cloudless sky. In a well-chosen meadow, a cannon-shot from the town,
planks nailed to trestles formed picninc tables for the 'brotherly feast', arranged around a square in
which the band would play. The meal consisted of soup, beef, mutton, pork, goose and chicken. To
drink: beer, brandy in barrels at the ends of the tables. The Guards ate standing.
The Russians, initially suspicious and awkward, were reassured by the French. Coignet has left a
detailed account of this feast, and although he may have exaggerated some details, he did so
inadvertently, having written his memoirs more than 30 years after leaving the service and one can
understand that this was in no way a formal banquet.
"These hungry men [the Russians] could not restrain themselves: they knew nothing of the reserve
which one should exhibit at table. They were given brandy to drink, which was the drink of the meal
and, before offering them a glass, it was proper to drink and then to pass them a goblet in white
metal containing a quarter of a litre. The contents immediately disappeared; they swallowed a
morsel of meat as large as an egg with each swig. They were quickly uncomfortable and by signs,
invited us to unbutton, as they were doing. We saw that, in order to exagerrate their manly chests,
they were swathed in cloth, which we were disgusted to see them discard." ( Georges Blond - "La
Grande Armee" p 158)
Jean Barres writes, "27th June - Grand manoevuvers and firing exercise of the whole Imperial Guard,
on the heights of Tilsit, before their Imperial Majesties. Napoleon was extremely anxious that his
Guard should justify the great renown it had acquired, for during the musketry fire he passed
behind the ranks to incite the soldiers to fire quickly, and while they were marching, to incite them
to march in close formation and in perfect alignment. With voice, glance and gesture he urged us n
and encouraged us.
On his part, the Tzar Alexander was greatly pleased to see, at close quarters, these men, who,
whether they charged upon his cavalry or marched against his infantry, sufficed by their mere
presence to check or contain them. ...
28th June - ... The infantry of Imperial Guard gave a dinner, on the open ground behind our quarter
of the town, to the 800 Russian Guards who came on duty about their sovereign. During the dinner
the Prussian Guards arrived; they were welcomed and treated with the greatest consideration; as a
general thing they were p[referred to the Russians, probably because they were German. There was
a great deal of drunkenness, especially among the Russians, but there was no quarelling and no
disorder. For the rest, the officers of the three Powers were there, to check any manifestation
contrary to the general harmony." Barres - "Memoirs of a French napoleonic officer"114)

Fete given for the Russian Guard
by the Imperial Guard in 1807.
Picture by Chereau.
Order of battle of the Guard Infantry in July 1809
1st (Young Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Curial
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Tirailleurs-Chasseurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Tirailleurs-Grenadiers (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Fusiliers-Chasseurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Fusiliers-Grenadiers (2 battalions)
2nd (Old Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Dorsenne
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Chasseurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Grenadiers (2 battalions)
The infantry of the Guard also acquired more foreign elements. The Velites of Florence received
Guard status in 1809, those of Turin in 1810. In 1813 the battalions of Velites were increased to 800
with Young Guardsmen who spoke Italian.
Napoleon enlarged the Young Guard several times.
In 1809 were formed the following regiments:
- - - 1st and 2nd Tirailleurs-Grenadiers, in 1810 renamed to 1st and 2nd Tirailleurs
- - - 1st and 2nd Conscrit-Grenadiers in 1810 renamed to 3rd and 4th Tirailleurs
- - - 1st and 2nd Tirailleurs-Chasseurs, in 1810 renamed to 1st and 2nd Voltigeurs
- - - 1st and 2nd Conscrit-Chasseurs, in 1810 renamed to 3rd and 4th Voltigeurs
According to the Decree issued in December 1810 each of the new regiments was to form an elite
company of 200 men called corporal-voltigeurs (in voltigeurs battalions) and corporal-tirailleurs (in
tirailleurs battalions).
1809
administrative org.
Foot Grenadiers
(First in command: Marshal Davout)
(Second in command: General Dorsenne)
Foot Chasseurs
(First in command: Marshal Soult)
(Second in command: General Curial)
- Regiment of Grenadiers
(Colonel Michel)
- Regiment of Fusiliers-Grenadiers
- 1st Regiment of Tirailleurs-Grenadiers
- 2nd Regiment of Tirailleurs-Grenadiers
- 1st Regiment of Conscripts-Grenadiers
- 2nd Regiment of Conscripts-Grenadiers
- Regiment of Chasseurs
(Colonel Gros)
- Regiment of Fusiliers-Chasseurs
- 1st Regiment of Tirailleurs-Chasseurs
- 2nd Regiment of Tirailleurs-Chasseurs
- 1st Regiment of Conscripts-Chasseurs
- 2nd Regiment of Conscripts-Chasseurs
The increase of Guard came in 1810 from the incorporation of the Dutch Royal Guard. The Dutch
regiment became 2nd Regiment of Grenadiers before being demoted to being 3rd Regiment of
Grenadiers in 1811.
In 1810 the Imperial Guard was officially divided into Old, Middle Guard and Young Guard.
Only the 1st Regiment of Foot Grenadiers and 1st Regiment of Chasseurs carried Eagle.
The 2nd Grenadiers and 2nd Chasseurs, and all the regiments of Middle and Young Guard carried
fanions.
The voltigeurs carried red fanions while the tirailleurs carried white ones.
Napoleon explained to Berthier (chief of staff) his intentions: "I intend that the Young Guard
subalterns and NCOs should rank with those in the line, its NCOs shall be drawn from fusiliers of
Middle Guard, and those of fusiliers from the Old Guard. In the line I shall use the Young
Guardsmen as corporals and Middle Guardsmen as sergeants. Therefore the best conscripts should
go to the Young and Middle Guard. "
In April 1811 a school of drummers was formed for the Guard. It consisted of :
- 16 pupils for the 1st Regiment of Grenadiers
- 16 pupils for the 1st Regiment of Chasseurs
- 16 pupils for the fusiliers of the Middle Guard
- 48 pupils for the tirailleurs and voltigeurs of the Young Guard
The decree issued on July 19th ordered that there would always be 10 men nominated per regiment
of line and light infantry for the recruitment of foot grenadiers, as well as for the foot chasseurs of
the Old Guard. (In cavalry also 10 men per regiment for the Guard). There were problems, however,
for example the 29th Line Infantry had only 4 (instead of 10) soldiers 5'9" with four years' service,
and asked if 5'8" would do for a grenadier.
In 1811 in the Old Guard were only 532 veterans from Egypt and Italy, the rest were younger men.
The number of veterans decreased and Napoleon was forced to accept 500 soldiers with only 5 years'
service.
In 1811 were formed new regiemnts:
- - - 5th and 6th Regiment of Tirailleurs
- - - 5th and 6th Regiment of Voltigeurs
- - - Regiment of Flanquers-Grenadiers
- - - Regiment of Flanquers-Chasseurs
- - - Pupilles (from Legion of Dutch Velites)
The Battalion of Instructions was formed in 1811 and was set up to train the Young and Middle
Guard as corporals and sergeants for the newly formed regiments. The Battalion of Instruction was
an important formation.
The 1st Regiment of Grenadiers and 1st Regiment of Chasseurs enjoyed the highest prestige.
Napoleon made it clear in 1811 writing to Marshal Berthier: "I wish it clearly understood that this
priviledge doesn't apply to the 2nd Grenadiers and 2nd Chasseurs, nor to the Fusiliers, Voltigeurs
and Tirailleurs nor the 2nd Lighthorse-Lancers ("Red Lancers") ... Keep this decision for your
guidance alone."
1811-1812
administrative org.
Foot Grenadiers
(Second in command: General Dorsenne)
Foot Chasseurs
Old
Guard
- 1st Regiment of Grenadiers
(Colonel Claude-Etienne Michel)
- 1st Regiment of Chasseurs
(Colonel Jean-Louis Gros)
Middle
Guard
- 2nd Regiment of Grenadiers
(Colonel Louis Harlet)
- 3rd [Dutch] Regiment of Grenadiers
(Colonel Ralph-Dundas Tindal)
- 2nd Regiment of Chasseurs
(Colonel Francois Rosey)
-
-
Young
Guard
- Regiment of Flanquers-Grenadiers
- 1st Regiment of Tiraileurs
- 2nd Regiment of Tiraileurs
- 3rd Regiment of Tiraileurs
- 4th Regiment of Tiraileurs
-
- Regiment of Flanquers-Chasseurs
- 1st Regiment of Voltigeurs
- 2nd Regiment of Voltigeurs
- 3rd Regiment of Voltigeurs
- 4th Regiment of Voltigeurs
- Pupils [Dutch]
Regiments of flanqueurs (flankers) were formed. The men were recruited from 'sons or nephews of
the headquarters, foot, or horse rangers of the Crown Forests, or those of the public domain, who
have reached 18 years of age and measure 5 feet, 6,5 inches.' After serving 5 years, the flankers might
succeed to their fathers' posts. The flankers wore green uniforms and were usually conspicuous at
parades and reviews.
Order of battle of the Guard Infantry in September 1812
1st (Young Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Delaborde
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Berthezene
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4th Regiment of Voltigeurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - detached
2nd (Young Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Roguet
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Lanaberre
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of Voltigeurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of Tirailleurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Boyledieu
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Fusiliers-Grenadier (2 battalions)
3rd (Old Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Curial
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Boyer de Rebeval
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Michel
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Regiment of [Dutch] Grenadiers (2 battalions)
The campaign in 1812 and the winter retreat from Russia ruined the Guard.
The winter was harsh, one night 30 veterans of Old Guard Chasseurs froze to death. The sudden
attacks of the Cossacks had made the guardsmen jittery. A sergeant of the Middle Guard carried the
regiment's dog, which had frozen its paws, on his pack. The dog almost got the sergeant killed while
he was fighting off a Russian cuirassier by trying to take part in the fight and entangling the
sergeant in his leash. :-)
The Emperor's carriages were in the middle of the column formed by the Guard. In front were the
artillery and cavalry, and flanked on both sides by battalions of the Old Guard in single file
surrounding several cannons. In this formation the French could respond immediately to an attack.
Commander of the Cossacks, Platov, had promised his daughter to "bring Napoleon back alive." The
Emperor, surrounded by the 2nd Foot Chasseurs, ordered his tents and wagons burned,
commanding the officers to do likewise. Those who survived "learned through resignation and hope
- if not to be happy - at least how to eat horse meat with relish." When one depressed marshal
complained the old timers muttered: "Shut up, you old fool ! If we must die, we will die."
In 1812 approx. 50,000 guardsmen had been reduced to 1,100 !
(Nafziger - "Lutzen and Bautzen" p 6)
Retreat from Russia in winter 1812, picture by W.Kossak.
By February 1st 1813 there were no officers or other ranks answering roll for several regiments of
Young Guard: 4th, 5th and 6th Tirailleurs, 4th and 5th Voltigeurs ! The 3rd Grenadiers (Dutch) had
only 11 men in the ranks (out of 1.496). The Old and Middle Guard did better, there were 408
veterans in the 1st and 2nd Grenadiers and 415 veterans in 1st and 2nd Chasseurs. The Fusiliers-
Grenadiers had 118 survivors and the of Fusiliers-Chasseurs 126.
In 1813 the Old Guard was rebuild. The 2nd Regiment of Foot Grenadiers and 2nd Regiment of Foot
Chasseurs became part of the division of the Old Guard. Approx. 250 battalions in Spain furnished 6
veterans each with at least 8 years' service. These men went into the 2nd Foot Grenadiers and 2nd
Foot Chasseurs. The 1st Foot Grenadiers and 1st Foot Chasseurs accepted only those with at least 10
years' service.
In 1813 were formed new regiments:
- - - 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th Regiment of Tirailleurs
- - - 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th Regiment of Voltigeurs
1813
administrative org.
Foot Grenadiers
(Second in command: General Friant)
Foot Chasseurs
Old
Guard
(Colonel Claude-Etienne Michel)
(Colonel Joseph Christiani)
(Colonel Pierre Decouz)
(Colonel Pierre-Jaques-Etienne Cambronne)
Middle
Guard
.
(Colonel Jean-Francois Flamand)
-
Battalion of Velites of Turin
Battalion of Polish Grenadiers
Battalion of Saxon Leibgarde Grenadiers
Battalion of Westphalian Garde Fusiliers
(Colonel Guillaume-Charles Rousseau)
-
Battalion of Velites of Florence
-
-
-
- Regiment of Flanquers-Grenadiers
- Regiment of Flanquers-Chasseurs
Young
Guard
-
- Pupils [Dutch]
Order of battle of the Guard Infantry in mid May 1813
1st (Young Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Dumnoustier (7,770 men)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (Middle Guard) Brigade - GdB Mouton-Douvernet
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brigade - GdB Tindal
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Brigade - GdB Lanusse
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of Voltigeurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Regiment of Voltigeurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Divisional Artillery (two foot batteries of Young Guard
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5' howitzers)
2nd (Young Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Barrois (5,000 men)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Rottembourg
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6th Regiment of Tirailleurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Berthezene
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Regiment of Tirailleurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Flanquers-Grenadiers (1 battalion)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Flanquers-Chasseurs (1 battalion)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Divisional Artillery (two foot batteries of Young Guard
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5') howitzers
3rd (Old Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Rouget (3,500 men)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Decouz
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of Grenadiers (1 battalion)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of Chasseurs (1 battalion)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Brigade - GdB Michel
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Velites of Florence (1 battalion)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Velites of Turin (1 battalion)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Divisional Artillery (foot battery of Old Guard
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5') howitzers
"In no formation of the Grande Armee was the strategic consumption [in 1813]
more dramatically illustrated than with the 1st Guard Infantry Division
under Dumoustier... on May 5, the division had only 7,865 combatants
present and under arms with 3,040 in hospitals. Of those in hospital,
only 10 % were there as a result of being wounded in combat.
The remaining 90 % ... were no longer in ranks as a result of these
young soldiers simply breaking down from the rigors of a campaign
which was less than 10 days old !"
(Bowden - "Napoleon's Grande Armee of 1813" p 90)
Order of battle of the Guard Infantry in September 1813
1st (Old Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Friant
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Christiani
2nd (Old Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Curial
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Rousseau
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Rothembourg
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Polish Guard Grenadiers (1 battalion)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Life Guard Grenadiers (1 battalion)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Westphalian Guard Fusiliers (1 battalion)
1st (Young Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Pacthod
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Lacoste
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of Voltigeurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Couloumy
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Brigade - GdB Gros
2nd (Young Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Barrois
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Poret de Morvan
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of Tirailleurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Dulong
3rd (Young Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Decouz
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Boyer de Rebeval
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Pelet
4th (Young Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Roguet
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Flamand
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Flanquers-Grenadiers (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Flanquers-Chasseurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Marguet
"Napoleon's desperation for troops during 1814 had led him to the point of prostituting the prestige
and elite status of the Guard simply to draw anyone who could carry a musket into the army." (-
Paul Dawson napoleon-series.org)
In January 1814 were formed:
- - - 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th Regiment of Tirailleurs
- - - 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th Regiment of Voltigeurs
These regiments were composed of volunteers, at least 20-40 years old. Some 18 and 50 years old
were accepted, provided that they were physically strong and at least 5 feet tall. The Spanish Royal
Guard (grenadiers and voltigeurs) were also used in the formation of these new units.
The first battalions of 2nd Foot Grenadiers and 2nd Foot Chasseurs were made of veterans of the
Russian campaign and Fusiliers with 3 years' service. The second battalions were made of veterans
of the Spanish war.
When Napoleon abdicated in 1814 he was allowed only a small troop on Elba Island. On April 7th
Napoleon called for volunteers from his Old Guard to serve in his guard on Elba Island. The Allies
allowed for 500 infantrymen, 120 cavalrymen and 120 artillerymen. Generals Petit and Pelet were
soon swamped with requests. Many officers asked to serve as simple privates. Out of 400 volunteers
of Guard Artillery 100 were selected for Elba. Out of the Marines 21 men were accepted, and out of
the French and Polish cavalry only 100 Polish lancers were chosen. This is what the Emperor said
about this faithful phalanx: "They are all my friends. Every time I looked at them my heart was
touched because, to me, they symbolized the whole army. These six hundred braves from many
regiments reminded me of the great days whose memory is so precious. They all bear honorable
scars from .... those memorable battles. In loving them, I loved all you soldiers of the French Army."
Once on Elba the guardsmen got bored, and at the first sign of spring they were laying siege to the
local women. After the war was finally over, Marshal Macdonald asked what the guardsmen of Elba
Battalion have done if the expedition from Elba Island to France hadn't occurred or hadn't
succeeded. They replied: "Gone off home."
The bulk of the Guard infantry however remained in France and served for the King. General Friant
wanted them to cry Vive le Roi ! A wag in the battalion cried Vive Desnager ! instead. Who was he ?
The tavern keeper at La Courtaille where the Old Guard went on Sundays to drink.
Napoleon had to rebuilt the Guard again in 1815.
"Digby Smith is of the opinion that it's impossible to know the number of Guard survivors from
Russia still present in its ranks in 1815, but points out that of the 400-600 officers and other ranks
who'd got back, many must have succumbed in Germany. The Grenadiers' and Chasseurs'
composition in 1815 is perhaps relevant to the fiasco of the last fatal charge at Waterloo." (Austin -
"1815: the return of Napoleon" p 314)
According to the Decree of April 8th 1815, (Article 22.) the requirements for the infantry were:
for Old Guard 12 years' service
and for the Young Guard 4 years
The height requirements (Article 23.) were as follow:
5'5" for foot grenadiers
5'3" for foot chasseurs
On June 16th 1815 the Young Guard consisted of the following regiments:
- - - 1st Regiment of Tirallieurs [26 officers, 1.083 other ranks] under Jacques-Elisee Trappier de
Malcolm
- - - 2nd Regiment of Tirallieurs - [24 officers, 750 other ranks] in Vandee under Mosnier
- - - 3rd Regiment of Tirallieurs - [28 officers, 960 other ranks] under Antoine Pailhes
- - - 4th Regiment of Tirallieurs - [24 officers, 389 other ranks] in Paris under George Albert
- - - 5th Regiment of Tirallieurs - [23 officers, 153 other ranks] in Paris under Lapaige-Dorsenne
- - - 6th Regiment of Tirallieurs - [16 officers, 249 other ranks] in Rouen under Auguste Contamine
- - - 7th Regiment of Tirallieurs - [17 officers, 89 other ranks] in Paris under Jean-Pierre Lalaude
- - - 8th Regiment of Tirallieurs - [8 officers, 77 other ranks] in Lyon under Varlet
- - - 1st Regiment of Voltigeurs [31 officers, 1.188 other ranks] under Antione-Joseph Secretan
- - - 2nd Regiment of Voltigeurs - [29 officers, 910 other ranks] in Vandee under Claude Suisse de
Sainte-Clair
- - - 3rd Regiment of Voltigeurs - [32 officers, 935 other ranks] under Francois-Alexandre Hurel
- - - 4th Regiment of Voltigeurs - [32 officers, 700 other ranks] in Rueil ? under Jean-Francois
Teisseire
- - - 5th Regiment of Voltigeurs - [30 officers, 175 other ranks] in Paris under Joseph Leclerc
- - - 6th Regiment of Voltigeurs - [20 officers, 110 other ranks] in Amiens under Guillaume-Joseph de
Penguern
- - - 7th Regiment of Voltigeurs - [18 officers, 187 other ranks] in Amiens under Marchal
- - - 8th Regiment of Voltigeurs - [14 officers, 171 other ranks] in Amiens under Henry Puis
Only five or six out of the sixteen regiments were combat-ready.
In the ranks of Young Guard served volunteers, Corsicans, and even deserters. Some went out with
girls and/or got drunk. Several battalions of Young Guard were under general Lamarque serving in
Vendee. He complained that they were filled with recruits and deserters who neither knew how to
maneuver nor shoot. (Lasserre - "Les Cent jours en Vende: le gnral Lamarque et l'insurrection royaliste,
d'aprs les papiers indits du gnral Lamarque." published in 1906.)
A a levy of selected 2 officers and 20 men from each line and light infantry regiment joined the new
Guard. Only the 1st Foot Grenadiers and 1st Foot Chasseurs were filled with men with 12 years'
service and with the men of Elba Battalion. They were the old of the Old Guard, the sine pari
(without equal). Almost 30 % of the I/1st Grenadiers were veterans of 20-25 campaigns, one third
was awarded for bravery. They averaged 35-years of age and 5'11" in height.
The 2nd Foot Grenadiers and 2nd Foot Chasseurs accepted men with 8 years' service.
The 3rd and 4th Grenadiers, and 3rd and 4th Chasseurs were filled up with men with only 4 years'
service in the Line.
1815
administrative org.
Foot Grenadiers Foot Chasseurs
Old
Guard
- 3rd Regiment of Grenadiers
- 4th Regiment of Grenadiers
- 3rd Regiment of Chasseurs
- 4th Regiment of Chasseurs
Young
Guard
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
The beaurocrats in Ministry of War named the 3rd and 4th regiments of grenadiers and chasseurs,
the Old Guard, but the army called them Middle Guard. The Young Guard consisted of volunteers,
retired men, Corsicans, recruits and even deserters. It recruited with great difficulty and Napoleon
thought of sending the conscripts from the north and the Pas-de-Calais to Paris for the Young
Guard. "... but that would weaken the I Army Corps (d'Erlon's) which must be recruited in these
departments." wrote the Emperor to the Minister of War. Napoleon also encouraged the officers of
the Young Guard to put up posters and bestir themselves to recruit men. He wrote to the Minister:
"Send officers to the mairies with bands and drums and ... do everything possible to arouse
enthusiasm in the young."
Order of battle of the Guard Infantry in June 1815
1st (Old Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Friant
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdD Friant
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdD Roguet
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Regiment of Grenadiers (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4th Regiment of Grenadiers (1 battalion)
2nd (Old Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Morand
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdD Morand
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdD Michel
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Regiment of Chasseurs (2 battalions)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4th Regiment of Chasseurs (2 battalions)
3rd (Young Guard) Infantry Division - GdD Duhesme
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Chartrand
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Guye
In August, just few months after Waterloo, King Louis XVIII ordered the Imperial Guard abolished.
In September the Young Guard was disbanded. On 11 September, General Roguet, reviewed the 1st
Grenadiers for the last time.
A new Royal Guard was composed of:
- two regiments of Swiss infantry
- eight cavalry regiments
- gendarmes
- artillery
When the new officers amused themselves by snatching an eagle-crested button from the threadbare
coat of a limping veteran, there would be a sudden casualties in nearby alleys. When a group of
young officers of the Royal Army jammed into a provincial theater to heckle Talma, a friend of
Napoleon, the attentive citizenry and veterans asked for a short intermission, bounced them out the
handiest door, and ran them down the street to the shelter of their barracks.
Maison du Roi, the new Royal Guard in 1816.
The new Royal Guard looked great during parades and reviews.
Most of the members of the Old Guard however went home. Only
few stayed in Paris and they entertained themselves by mocking
the aristocratic officers and shouting confusing commands during
the Royal Guard's drills.

Grenadier of Old Guard, by Vernet.
When Napoleon died many refused to believe it. Rumours said
Napoleon had landed at Ostend."Where are you going?" asked
the wife of a veteran when he pulled on his old uniform.
"To him !" was the instant response.
One of the officers of the Old Guard , Noisot , had erected at
his own expense a bronze monument to Emperor Napoleon.
According to Mark Adkin he arranged to be buried standing
up a few yards "so that he could continue to stand guard for
eternity."
~
Uniforms of the Imperial Guard.
Between 1806 and 1810 the Guard's uniforms
had cost 20 million francs, and the cost kept rising.
The Jacobins clung to the historic dress of the Gardes francaises which, besides being of the national
blue, white, and red, was after all, the uniform worn by the stormers of the Bastille. Moreover, a
long war had emptied the clothing magazines and had left no time to destroy all the trappings of
Tyranny. The soldiers were disgusted with their old clothes, with the uniforms of the Royal army,
and with the faded libert caps and the ill-matched shoes. Such garments lowered the prestige of
the Guard.
With the better cloth, real leather and gold laces, a new type of soldier appeared at the dawn of
1800. And the Guard prided itself on being the criterion. Officers of the Guard ruined themselves
for clothes and accoutrements. An officer thought nothing of spending 35 francs for a bearskin and
18 for a pair of elegant boots. Such elegant outfits also pleased the young women. Between 1806
and 1810 the Guard's uniforms had cost 20 million francs, and the cost kept rising. In the Line,
coats and waistcoats had to last 3 years, overcoats 4, hats 5, and heavy equipment 20; but no term
was specified (according to Henri Lachoque) in the Guard in that time. The resulting waste
appalled the honest Daru.
The famous painter David tried to persuade Napoleon and the generals to adopt new fashions and
dress in the Roman style, but the kilts the of Ecole de Mars met with small success.
The wardrobe of the grenadier or chasseur was large and cost 258 francs (approx. 100,000 francs in
1956). It included a bearskin cap, 2 dress coats, 2 waistcoats, 2 pairs of breeches, 1 pair of
stockings, and a single shirt. The guardsmen combed their queues and tied them just 2 inches
below the base of the skull, shined their boots, and chalked their leather belts. Doubtless some
privates had dirty hands, but all wore clean white gloves. :-)
The officers' uniforms were literally loaded with gold lace. The luxury of the gilded phalanx was
overwhelming; it drove the crowds to frenzy of enthusiasm, and set the girls to dreaming. The
Emperor didn't like ragged gaiters nor torn shirts. General Hulin of the Grenadiers issued the
following: "The Commandant has noticed several soldiers wearing black gaiters on the march and
reminds them of the regulations expressly ordering them to wear grey ..."
The guardsmen had to take a good care of the bearskins. After the campaign of 1807 (in Eastern
Prussia and Poland) most of the Guard returned to France. "Our bearskin bonnets, which had
become hideous, were likewise replaced. I had the satisfaction of lighting on a bearskin as fine as
those of the officers. As for our hats, it was absolutely necessary to give us others, since we had
had none since the battle of Friedland." (Barres - "Memoirs of a French napoleonic officer" p 123)
Uniform Plates
for details see Jouineau and Mongin - "The French Imperial Guard"
Uniforms of the Old Guard infantry.
M-1 : chasseur in campaign dress (greatcoat, summer trousers, bearskin covered with oilcloth)
P-1 : chasseur in parade uniform (jacket, white gaiters, bearskin with cords and plume)
P-2 : grenadier in parade uniform (jacket, white gaiters, bearskin with cords and plume)
M-2 : grenadier in campaign dress (greatcoat, summer trousers, bearskin covered with oilcloth)
Uniforms of the Middle Guard infantry.
Uniforms of the Young Guard infantry.
"On that day [20th February 1814] Napoleon fought an action near Nogent.
Being Mardi Gras, his Young Guard raided a costumer's shop and fought in
masks and fancy dress. The fight [with the Austrians] was rough . . . . . . "
(- Henri Lachoque)
For more information read our article
"Uniforms of the Napoleonic Troops:
Parade, Battle and Campaign Dress."
~
Organization of the Imperial Guard.
Regiment, Battalion and Company
In general the infantry of the Imperial Guard was organized the same way as the rest of the
army. There were only few differences. For example in 1808-1815 the line regiment had staff,
and 3-6 battalions of 6 companies each. In comparison the Guard regiment had staff, and only 2
battalions of 4-8 companies each.
In 1804 the Regiment of Foot Grenadiers (and Regiment opf Foot Chasseurs) consisted of staff
and 3 battalions (two were made of battle-hardened veterans and one battalion of young
Velites). See below. Each regiment had several sappers. In 1813 at Naumburg, Sapper Winckel
of the 2nd Regiment of Foot Grenadiers, hauled down the Prussian flag from the steeple and
raised the French colors.
Regiment of Guard Foot Grenadiers in 1804
1 Colonel
1 Major
1 Quartier-maitre Tresorier (Paymaster)
1 Vuguemestre Segeant-Major (Wagonmaster)
1 Tambour-Major (Drum-Major)
2 Porte-aigle (Eagle-Bearers, the Velites were without Eagle)
N o n - combatants : surgeon with aides,
shoemaker, gaitermaker, tailor, 2 gunsmiths
and musicians
I Battalion
1 Chef
1 Adjudant-Major
1 Sous-Adjudant-Major
1 Officier de sante
1 Drum-Corporal
II Battalion
1 Chef
1 Adjudant-Major
1 Officier de sante
1 Drum-Corporal
Battalion of Velites
1 Chef
1 Adjudant-Major
1 Officier de sante
1 Drum-Corporal
1st Grenadier Company
4 officers, 1 sergent-major
4 sergents, 1 furier, 8 corporals
2 sapers NCOs, 2 drummers
80 grenadiers
1st Grenadier Company
80 grenadiers
1st Velite Company
4 sergeants, 1 fourrier
8 corporals, 2 drummers
72 Vlites
2nd Grenadier Company
80 grenadiers
2nd Grenadier Company
80 grenadiers
2nd Velite Company
72 Vlites
3rd Grenadier Company
80 grenadiers
3rd Grenadier Company
80 grenadiers
3rd Velite Company
72 Vlites
4th Grenadier Company
80 grenadiers
80 grenadiers
4th Velite Company
72 Vlites
80 grenadiers
80 grenadiers
80 grenadiers
80 grenadiers
80 grenadiers
80 grenadiers
80 grenadiers
80 grenadiers
When the Velite Battalions were disbanded and formed the Regiment of Fusiliers, each Guard
regiment had only 2 battalions. There were no longer any velites. In this formation the
regiments served until the end of the napoleonic wars.
Napoleon also changed the organization of battalion. It no longer had 8 smaller companies of
approx. 100 men each, instead there were 4 larger companies of 200 men each. The strength of
battalion and regiment however was about the same. See below.
Regiment of Guard Foot Grenadiers (Old Guard)
1 Major-Commandant (in the rank of senior officer or general)
1 Quartier-maitre Tresorier (Paymaster, lieutenant or captain)
1 Vuguemestre Segeant-Major (Wagonmaster)
1 Tambour-Major (Drum-Major)
1 Porte-aigle (Eagle-Bearer, lieutenant) + Escorts
N o n - combatants : surgeon with aides,
shoemaker, gaitermaker, tailor, 2 gunsmiths
and musicians
I Battalion
1 Chef
1 Capitaine Adjudant-Major
1 Lieutenant Adjudant-Major
1 Drum-Corporal
II Battalion
1 Chef
1 Capitaine Adjudant-Major
1 Lieutenant Adjudant-Major
1 Drum-Corporal
1st Grenadier Company 1st Grenadier Company
2nd Grenadier Company 2nd Grenadier Company
3rd Grenadier Company 3rd Grenadier Company
4th Grenadier Company 4th Grenadier Company
Regiment of Guard Fusiliers (Middle Guard)
I Battalion II Battalion
1st Fusilier Company 1st Fusilier Company
2nd Fusilier Company 2nd Fusilier Company
3rd Fusilier Company 3rd Fusilier Company
4th Fusilier Company 4th Fusilier Company
Regiment of Guard Tirailleurs (Young Guard)
I Battalion II Battalion
1st Tirailleur Company 1st Tirailleur Company
2nd Tirailleur Company 2nd Tirailleur Company
3rd Tirailleur Company 3rd Tirailleur Company
4th Tirailleur Company 4th Tirailleur Company
In 1810-1811 each company of Young Guard had:
= 1 captain
= 4 lieutenants (two of 1st and two of 2nd class)
= 1 sergent-major
= 4 sergeants
= 1 furier
= 8 corporals
= 1 sapper (with bearskin but too young for proper beard)
= 3 drummers
= 200 voltigeurs or tirailleurs
The sappers of the Young Guard wore tall bearskins and white leather aprons and marched at
the head of the regiments. The only problem was with beards for the sappers. Paul de
Bourgoing writes, "Choose the 12 men who seem to have the thickest beards, or are likely to
grow them. Above all, don't take any blondes or redheads; only men with black beards, whom
you'll place out in front.... Most were still beardless."
Henri Lachoque add, "Twelve priviledged characters were appointed sappers who would carry
axes and wear aprons and bearskin bonnets. Guessing which of the youths would grown
beards - and black ones, for red or blond beards were out - was something of a problem."
(Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory" p 201)
Theoretically the Guard battalion was approx. 800-men strong.
Due to casualties, sickness and other reasons, the units never reached the maximum strength.
For example at Leipzig (1813) the average battalion of
- Old Guard was 780-men strong
- Middle Guard 520 men
- Young Guard 455 men.
Battalions at Waterloo:
- Old and Middle Guard 550 men
- Young Guard 525 men
Battalion of 6 companies formed slightly different square and column than
battalion of 4 or 8 companies. (Source: Bowden - "Napoleon's Grande Armee")
Grenadier of Old Guard. Muse de l'Arme, France.
At Ligny, in June 1815, the advance of Old Guard was accompanied by
artillery cannonade and . . . . thunder lightnings. The veterans entered
Ligny and swept everything before them with the bayonet, moving like
a raging bull with lowered head. Ligny was taken to the refrain of the
Chant du Depart.
~
The Young Guard [Jeune Garde, Junge Garde]
Their officers came from the Old Guard; while the NCOs from the Middle Guard.
The privates were the strongest and best educated conscripts. These veterans
forged the young men into a superbly drilled and strictly disciplined force.
The martial air of the first regiments of Young Guard astonished everyone.
In 1810 the Imperial Guard was officially divided into Old Guard, Middle Guard and Young
Guard.
"The Young Guard infantry appeared (unoficially) in 1809 with the organization of two
regiments each of tiraileurs-grenadiers and tirailleurs-chasseurs. Their cadres came from the
Old Guard; their privates were the strongest and best educated men from the current class of
conscripts. There were also two regiments each of conscripts-grenadiers and conscripts-
chasseurs, likewise taken directly from the newly summoned conscripts. Their enlisted cadre
was from the (Guard) fusiliers; their lieutenants were students from St. Cyr. The cadre,
especially its senior officers, did not take kindly to being in 'conscript' outfits.
One regiment's vehicles were marked with Garde Imperiale, Regiment de Grenadiers in letters 2
feet high, below which, in small print, was CTS (the abbreviation for 'conscript'). The rest of the
army thought this exceedingly funny and nicknamed the regiment the 'cts'. The regiment was
not amused, and there were several duels. Before they hit the road to Spain for on-the-job
training, the conscripts received a very modern-seeming orientation, stressing the Spanish
attitude toward such matters as religion and women ..." (Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" pp
194-195)
In 1809 the height requirement was 163 cm, in 1814 only 157 cm.
The taller men went into the Tirailleurs-Grenadiers (Tirailleurs)
while the shorter ones entered the Tirailleurs-Chasseurs (Voltigeurs).
Napoleon gave seasoned officers to command the Young Guard. These veterans forged their
men into a superbly drilled and strictly disciplined force. The martial air of the first regiments
of Young Guard astonished everyone. They were strong, healthy young men, with great
stamina (in 1812 the 4th Voltigeurs and 4th Tirailleurs marched 468 miles in 23 days) When
Napoleon recalled part of the Young Guard for his campaign against Russia. Roguet's division
had covered a distance of 465 miles by wagon and over 700 on foot.
The Young Guard perished in 1812 in the snows of Russia.
The epic events of 1813 saw the emergence of the Young Guard as Napoleon's effective shock
troops, men who made up for what they may have lacked in the pomp and foppery of parade-
ground ceremony with awe-inspiring, sledgehammer blows on the battlefield. March or die
was the napoleonic formula - and it did not appeal to the young soldiers. No one was allowed
to lag behind and in 1813 special NCO detachments knew how to make the "lame" walk. Soon
many youngsters fought from fear rather than for glory. In Paris 320 were arrested for desertion
and sent to prison.
The Young Guard was enlarged to more than forty regiments. Paul Dawson writes, "Napoleon's
desperation for troops during 1814 had led him to the point of prostituting the prestige and
elite status of the Guard simply to draw anyone who could carry a musket into the army." In
1814 the men of the Young Guard were lean, their uniforms and shoes generally in a sorry state
of dilapidation. The boys were brave and enthusiastic, but they were too young and lacked
stamina. Thusands fell sick and exhausted during the rapid marches.
But hopes run high, in January at Epinal one battalion of 1st Voltigeurs lost 50 % its effectives
defending the rear of the army. Dragging their single cannon, this unit finally reached Nancy
where they were congratulated by Marshal Ney.
IMPERIAL GUARD
Old Guard:
- - - - - 1st Regiment of Foot Grenadiers
- - - - - 1st Regiment of Foot Chasseurs
Middle Guard:
- - - - - 2nd Regiment of Foot Grenadiers
- - - - - 3rd Regiment of Foot Grenadiers
- - - - - 2nd Regiment of Foot Chasseurs
- - - - - Regiment of Fusiliers-Grenadiers
- - - - - Regiment of Fusiliers-Chasseurs
Young Guard:
- - - - - Regiment of Flanquers-Grenadiers
- - - - - Regiment of Flanquers-Chasseurs
- - - - - 1st Regiment of Conscripts-Grenadiers
- - - - - 2nd Regiment of Conscripts-Grenadiers
- - - - - 1st Regiment of Conscripts-Chasseurs
- - - - - 2nd Regiment of Conscripts-Chasseurs
- - - - - Pupils.
- - - - - 1st Regiment of Tirailleurs
- - - - - 2nd Regiment of Tirailleurs
- - - - - 3rd Regiment of Tirailleurs
- - - - - 4th Regiment of Tirailleurs
- - - - - 1st Regiment of Voltigeurs
- - - - - 2nd Regiment of Voltigeurs
- - - - - 3rd Regiment of Voltigeurs
- - - - - 4th Regiment of Voltigeurs
In 1809 the regiments of tirailleurs-grenadiers were renamed "tirailleurs",
while the regiments of tirailleurs-chasseurs were renamed "voltigeurs."
You have to remember few things. First of all, only the two regiments of Old Guard, the 1st
Regiment of Foot Grenadiers and the 1st Regiment of Foot Chasseurs, carried Eagles. ("Only the
regiments of the Old Guard have eagles." - Napoleon). The Middle and Young Guard carried
fanions. The voltigeurs carried red fanions while the tirailleurs carried white ones.
Secondly, all the regiments in the Guard, Young, Middle, or Old, had only 2 battalions each.
In comparison all the regiments of light and line infantry, had from 2 to as many as 6
battalions.
Voltigeur (left) and Tirailleur (right)
of the Young Guard. Parade uniforms.
The taller men went into the Guard Tirailleurs-Grenadiers (Tirailleurs)
while the shorter ones entered the Tirailleurs-Chasseurs (Voltigeurs).
In 1811-1814 the 5th Regiment of Tirailleurs (Young Guard)
was commanded by Major Hennequin. He was a tough man
"who laughed when he burnt himself".
Article: "Campaigns and battles:
the Old and Young Guard in combat."
Map of the Battle of Dresden, 1813. Day 2.
Allies' right flank was driven back by the Young Guard led by Marshals Ney and Mortier.
~
The Middle Guard [Moyenne Garde]
"The 2nd Regiment of Foot Grenadiers was even handsomer than the 1st,
the generals admitted. The men were 'younger, with better figures',
but their esprit de corps was 'not of the highest.'" - Henri Lachoque
Middle Guard:
- - - - - 2nd Regiment of Foot Grenadiers (in 1813-1815 were ranked as Old Guard)
- - - - - 2nd Regiment of Foot Chasseurs (in 1813-1815 were ranked as Old Guard)
- - - - - 3rd Regiment of [Dutch] Foot Grenadiers
- - - - - Regiment of Fusilier-Grenadiers (1806-1811 Young Guard, 1814 Old Guard, in 1815 3rd
Grenadiers)
- - - - - Regiment of Fusilier-Chasseurs (1806-1811 Young Guard, 1814 Old Guard, in 1815 3rd
Chasseurs)
- - - - - Battalion of Velites of Turin [Italian]
- - - - - Battalion of Velites of Florence [Italian]
- - - - - Battalion of Grenadiers [Polish]
- 2nd Regiment of Foot Grenadiers.
- 2nd Regiment of Foot Chasseurs.
The two regiments were formed in 1806 from veterans with at least 6 years' service. Soon these
units were disbanded and - in 1810 - the regiment of Dutch Grenadiers took on the name 2nd
Regiment of Foot Grenadiers. In 1811 the 2nd Grenadiers and 2nd Chasseurs were reraised and
strengthened with 500 men from the line with 5 years' service and 1000 men from the
instruction battalions. Further few hundred of veterans were selected from the troops in Spain
and sent to join the Middle Guard. Although they looked good with tanned faces, some of
them went around and stole things in Paris.
Lachoque writes, "The 2nd Regiment of Foot Grenadiers was even handsomer than the 1st, the
generals admitted. The men were 'younger, with better figures', but their esprit de corps was
'not of the highest.' They went poaching around Courbevoie and stole grapes from the
vineyards of Argenteuil. General Michel of the 1st Grenadiers sent the offenders to prison. Life
in Spain had corrupted them." (Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory" p 203)
The 2nd Grenadiers however complained that at review the Emperor's attention seemed fixed
on a regiment of Croats rather than on them. In the beginning of 1813 both regiments were
classified as Middle Guard. Their first battalions were made of veterans of the Russian
campaign and Fusiliers with 3 years' service. The second battalions were made of veterans of
the Spanish war selected from the Line with 8 years' service. In the end of 1813 both regiments
became Old Guard.
- (2nd) 3rd Regiment of Foot Grenadiers [Dutch].
In 1810, the Regiment of Foot Grenadiers of the Dutch Royal Guard
(Regiment de Grenadiers de la Garde Royale Hollandaise) was
incorporated into the French Guard as the 2nd Regiment of Foot
Grenadiers. The tall and handsome Dutchmen wearing their white
uniforms were much admired by the people of Paris and Versailles.
By way of welcome, Napoleon reviewed them and afterwards, open
barrels of wine were set out for the perspiring Dutchmen. They found
it a delicious change from their habitual beer and quaffed mightily -
but couldn't carry the unaccustomed tipple. Roaring drunk they
whacked one another and chased squealing Parisian women into the
dusky groves. Lachoque writes; "On 6 September the Old Guard gave
the newcomers a reception at Versailles that ended in an orgy of
catastrophic proportions. Women were chased and attacked, men
were beaten, and shops were rifled. ... Finally, towards midnight
order was restored." In 1811 Napoleon approved the transfer of 25
Dutch grenadiers to the Line for bad conduct.
The commander of the Dutch Grenadiers was Ralph-Dundas Tindal, a
tall Scot with a sentorian voice. They had as a drum-major one named Siliakus. He was a giant
(202 cm tall !) born in Holland, and he died in Russia during the retreat.
When in 1811 two new regiments, one of Foot Grenadiers and one of Foot Chasseurs, were
raised, the Dutch Grenadiers were renumbered as the 3rd Regiment of Foot Grenadiers. They
participated in the invasion of Russia, and fought well at Krasne (Krasnoie). During the winter
retreat however they have suffered severe losses. Napoleon disbanded the regiment and some
Dutchmen eneded up in the French 2nd Regiment of Foot Grenadiers.
- Regiment of Fusiliers-Grenadiers.
- Regiment of Fusiliers-Chasseurs.
After the Velites were detached in 1806 from their parent regiments of
grenadiers and chasseurs, they formed two regiments of fusiliers. The
officers of the Fusiliers came from the foot grenadiers and foot
chasseurs. The name of the two regiments was altered several times. See
below.
Regiment of Fusiliers-Grenadiers:
- - - - - 1806 Regiment de Velites-Grenadiers
- - - - - 1806 2e Regiment de Fusiliers
- - - - - 1809-1814 Regiment de Fusilier-Grenadiers
- - - - - 1814-1815 Disbanded
Regiment of Fusiliers-Chasseurs:
- - - - - 1806 Regiment de Fusiliers
- - - - - 1806 1er Regiment de Fusiliers
- - - - - 1809-1814 Regiment de Fusiliers-Chasseurs
- - - - - 1814-1815 Disbanded
Until 1811 both regiments of Fusiliers were ranked as Young Guard. In
that year they became Middle Guard. It was ordered that the Fusiliers
were to be replenished with voltigeurs and tirailleurs of the Young Guard with 2 years' service
and some education, and selected conscripts. Napoleon wrote that the most distinguished and
intelligent Fusiliers with 4 years' service or citation for gallantry should be admitted to the Old
Guard. Napoleon added: "Thus half or one third of the Fusiliers will be recruited from the
Young Guard and conscripts and half or one third of the Old Guard from the Fusiliers."
In 1813 approx. 250 battalions from Spain furnished 6 veterans each with at least 4 years' service
into the Fusiliers.
In 1814 the Fusiliers became Old Guard although Napoleon refused to give them bearskins. The
Fusiliers were disbanded after the campaign. When Napoleon raised regiments of Conscripts-
Grenadiers and Coscripts-Chasseurs he took cadres from the Old and Middle Guard. Lachoque
writes: "Stripped of 450 men for this purpose, the Fusiliers were replenished by a levy from
each department of 4 conscripts who were intelligent, literate, robust, and of suitable height."
.
- Battalion of Foot Grenadiers [Polish].
This unit is known under three different names:
- Bataillon de Grenadiers a Pied de la Garde Impriale
- le Battaillon de Grenadiers polonais de la Garde Impriale
- le Battailon d'Elite polonais
This battalion was formed in 1813. It consisted of four companies, each of 183
grenadiers, 8 sappers, 3 drummers, 8 corporals, 1 fourier, 4 sergeants, 1 sergeant-
major and 4 officers. The men were at least 23 years old and with 2 years service.
They wore Polish, and Saxon shakos. French General Curial insisted on wearing
bearskins, so they picked up some Polish bearskins from the Leipzig battlefield.
September 15th:
Commander: Chef Kurcjusz (from Polish 15th Infantry Regiment)
Adjutant-Major: Captain Laski (from Polish 12th Infantry Regiment)
Adjutant-Major: Lieutenant Gawronski
- - - 1st Company: Captain Smette (from the famous Vistula Legion)
- - - 2nd Company: Captain Chmielewski (from Polish 12th Infantry Regiment)
- - - 3rd Company: Captain Sulejowski (from Vistula Legion)
- - - 4th Company: Captain Czerwinski (from Polish 1st Infantry Regiment)
In 1813 at Leipzig the grenadiers tenaciously defended the line of Pleisse River and captured
Austrian General Merveldt (commander of army corps). They then fought in Probstheida, and
finally in Leipzig itself. However, the almost complete destruction of (Polish) VIII Corps and
the death of Prince Poniatowski broke their spirit. Kurcjusz surrendered to the Allies while
many grenadiers left their ranks and joined other Polish troops. According to Yves Martin the
remnants of the battalion under Cpt. Smett still fought at Hanau. In the end of 1813, the
battalion was finally disbanded and its men were transferred to the light cavalry, 3rd Guard
Eclaireurs. (Yves Martin - "Polish Grenadiers of the Imperial Guard, 1813")
.
- Battalion of Velites of Florence [Italians].
- Battalion of Velites of Turin [Italians].
The two Italian battalions were attached to the Guard. These were the Velites of Florence, and
Velites of Turin, raised as as bodyguards for the Emperor's sister Elisa, Grand Duchess of
Tuscany, and Prince Borghese, governor of the Transalpine departments. The Velites of
Florence (600 men) received Guard status in 1809, those of Turin in 1810.
The officers and NCOs of the Velites of Florence came from the Foot Chasseurs,
and the privates from the Tuscan departments, over 18 years old, 5'10" tall,
who could pay 200 francs for their board.
The Velites of Turin (475 men) were under Major Ciceron, a brave man well-known
in the Imperial Guard. The officers and NCOs came chiefly from the Foot Grenadiers.
Prince Borghese proposed to Napoleon that an eagle be awarded to the velites but
the Emperor refused.
~
The Old Guard [Vieille Garde]
"More dreadful-looking fellows I had never seen. They had
the look of thoroughbread, veteran, disciplined banditti."
- Mr Hayden
The 1st Regiment of Foot Grenadiers and
the 1st Regiment of Foot Chasseurs were
the Old Guard, the old of the old, so to
speak. They were the creme de la creme of
Napoleon's infantry. Of all the infantry
regiments of the Imperial Guard only the
two units carried Eagles. They enjoyed
the greatest prestige and pay and
numerous priviledges. There were short
periods when also the 2nd regiments
were named Old Guard, but it was not
the real Old Guard. (During the Waterloo Campaign in 1815 even the 3rd and 4th regiments
were called Old Guard.)
Already in 1811 Napoleon wrote to Marshal Berthier (chief-of-staff) "I wish it clearly
understood that this priviledge doesn't apply to the 2nd Grenadiers and 2nd Chasseurs, nor to
the Fusiliers (Middle Guard), ... Keep this decision for your guidance alone."
You cannot exaggerate about these lads: they were battle-hardened veterans, bold, and
physically strong. They were convinced to the point of arrogance, that they are the most
ferocious fighters on earth- and the amusing thing about it is that they were. If they had the
chance to fight today in a pub, they would take the opponents to the cleaners, then drive them
back in a school bus sobbing like the muppets.
Chateaubriand saw them in 1814; "I do not believe that human faces have ever worn such
threatening expressions. These Grenadiers covered with scars, these conquerors of Europe,
were forced to salute an old king, a veteran of years and not of war ... [some] drew the corners
of their mouths into grimaces of scorn and rage ..."
Napoleon selected his guardsmen carefully and
the requirements were not easy to meet for the
candidates. In 1806 only one man from each
infantry battalion was admitted to the Old
Guard. In 1809, after the battles of Aspern-
Essling and Wagram, Napoleon took 456 best
NCOs from the infantry, and they became
privates in the Old Guard. In 1811 in the Old
Guard were only 532 veterans from Egypt and
Italy, the rest were younger. The number of
veterans decreased and Napoleon was forced to
accept 500 soldiers with only 5 years' service.
The long retreat from Russia destroyed the Old
Guard. The survivors' cheeks were hollow.
They had lived on horse flesh half roasted and
rye water which in the absence of salt they
seasoned with gunpowder. Their tattered
uniforms and their feet being enveloped in
shreds of coarse cloth made a sad sight. That "column of granite" had melted away ! In the end
of the campaign only 408 grenadiers and 415 chasseurs were still in the ranks. Many were frost
bitten, or died of hunger and exhaustion.
In 1813 the Old Guard was rebuild, 250 battalions in Spain furnished 6 veterans each with at
least 8 years' service. These men went into the 2nd Grenadiers and 2nd Chasseurs. The 1st
Grenadiers and 1st Chasseurs accepted only those with at least 10 years' service.
In January 1814 the men of Old Guard who, exhausted as they were, would have attacked the
enemy without a murmur in battles. After the bloody battle of Craonne, Napoleon wrote to his
brother Joseph, "The Old Guard alone stood firm - the rest melted like snow."
In 1815 only the 1st Regiment of Foot Grenadiers and 1st Regiment of Foot Chasseurs were
filled with men with 12 years' service and with the men of Elba Battalion. They were the old of
the Old Guard, the sine pari (without equal). Almost 30 % of the I/1st Grenadiers were veterans
of 20-25 campaigns, one third was awarded for bravery. They averaged 35-years of age and
5'11" in height.
Requirements:
- under 35 age
- at least 10 years' service
- at least 3 campaigns (some had as many as 12 campaigns)
In 1814 the 1st Chasseurs still had many old-timers: for example sapper Rothier
- 21 years' service, 2 wounds, Private Stoll - 22 years' service and 20 campaigns.
Those who were too old, or crippled were sent to Company of Veterans in Paris.
This small unit was full of soldiers, some lacking an arm, others striped like
zebras with saber cuts.
- able to read and write
- good conduct and citation for bravery
- at least 5'10" (English) for grenadier
- at least 5'8" (English) for chasseur
Only men awarded with Legion of Honor
were exempted from height requirement.
Average height of Napoleonic troops: (cm)
200 privates of 1st Foot Grenadiers of Old Guard
400 cuirassiers
400 dragoons
300 horse chasseurs
600 hussars
200 privates of 2nd Conscripts of Young Guard
3,500 line infantrymen
900 light infantrymen
- 180 cm!
- 172.5 cm
- 168 cm
- 167 cm
- 165 cm
- 165 cm
- 165 cm
- 162.5 cm
=
Nicknames of Old Guard:
- "The Grumblers"
- "The Eagles"
- "The Gaiter Straps"
- "The Supporters of the Usurper" (our favorite)
=
Surpassed by the German military bands, nevertheless the Old Guard had an excellent corps of
musicians, many of whom were of foreign origin (incl. blacks who were masters of the
rhythms). The band was led by a "jingling Johnny" and base and snare drums. The favorite
songs played by their regimental band were:
- "The Victory is Ours" played during Napoleon's entry to Moscow
- "The March of the Consular Guard"
- "Let us watch over the Empire"
- "March of the Grenadiers"
- "Marseillaise"
- "I Like Onions Fried in Oil" :-)
=
- 1st Regiment of Foot Grenadiers of the Imperial Guard
--- (1er Regiment de Grenadiers--Pied de la Garde Imperiale)
They occupied the barracks of the Cent-Suisse, nearest the Emperor.
Over the door was carved: "The Home of the Brave".
The drum roll of the Grenadiers was Grenadiere.
Colonel-Majors and Majors:
1804 - Higonet
1805 - Dorsenne
1807 - Michel
1813 - Petit
The grenadiers wore tall black bearskin, with a brass plate representing
in relief a crowned eagle holding thunderbolts in its talons. The cartridge
box was decorated by a large eagle. Their plumes and epaulettes were
red.
"[The foot grenadier has] ... square shoulders, the developed chest; his tanned skin, his slightly
hollow cheeks, his aquiline nose, give to the whole of his figure an air of gravity which
impresses on first sight. He walks with ease; ...all, in his pace, indicates the feeling of a
superiority acquired on battlefields; this bearing, this assurance, are without pride, without
affection. This man ... belongs to a corps of whom those who constitute it have no rivals. ... He
has known it all: not a river, which he did not cross, from the Tiber to the Nile, Tag to
Boristhne. He made his triumphal entry into the capitals of Europe; he knows the road of
Vienna like that of Berlin." (- St.Hilaire)
- 1st Regiment of Foot Chasseurs of the Imperial Guard
--- (1er Regiment de Chasseurs--Pied de la Garde Imperiale)
The drum roll of the Chasseurs was Carabiniere.
Colonel-Majors and Majors:
1804 - Gros
1813 - Decouz
1813 - Rottembourg
1813 - Cambronne
1815 - Michel
1815 - Cambronne
1815 - Pelet-Clozeau
They wore bearskin without the front plate.
Their plumes and epaulettes were red-green.
Although they were shorter than the grenadiers they were gayer, livelier "and more supple".
"[The foot chasseur] ... his features did not have the gravity, which distinguished those of the
grenadier his brother in arms; they even announced a kind of gaiety. The foot chasseur had
abrupt movements, prompt gesture; he spoke with promptness, and during the discussion, he
warmed up easily." (- St.Hilaire)
~
Commanders of the Imperial Guard.
"Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bessieres took over the Guard
and gave it careful, efficient administration."
- John Elting
There were very many brave officers and generals serving in Napoleon's Imperial Guard.
For example Louis-Etienne de Rosnay. He joined the army in 1799 and within few months
participated in several battles, could count 5 wounds and became captain. In 1805 at de Rosnay
he received his 8th wound, a shattered arm. In 1809 Rosnay was colonel of 31st and then 12th
Regiment of Light Infantry. In 1813, with 11 wounds, a musket ball lodged under his eye and
citations for bravery he was promoted to general in the Young Guard.
And there was Dorsenne. The Old Guard feared and adored him. Dorsenne was so hard that
the toughest soldiers jumped to please him and dreaded his strictness. He "could turm his back
to the enemy under the heaviest fire and give his orders cooly, without concern for what went
on behind him." When cannonballs killed his third horse and third time he picked himself up he
spat out "Bunglers !" dusted himself off and mounted his 4th horse. Elzear Blaze added his
comments on the sheer terror of being hit by artillery and musket fire:
There are men, however, who, gifted with an extraordinary strength of spirit, can cold-bloodily face the
greater dangers. Murat, bravest of the brave, always charged at the head of his cavalry, and never
returned without blood on his saber. That can easily be understood, but what I have seen General
Dorsenne do - and [have] never have seen it done by anyone else - was to stand motionless, his back to the
enemy, facing his bullet-riddled regiment, and say, "Close up your ranks," without once looking behind
him. On other occasions I have tried to emulate him, I tried to turn my back to the enemy, but I could
never remain in that position - curioisity always made me look to see where all those bullets were coming
from.
Dorsenne died in July 1812 in Paris.
.
Marshal Jean Lannes
Marshal Jean Lannes was one of the first commanders of the Guard. Jean (John in English) had
little education, but his great strength and proficiency in all manly sports caused him in 1792 to
be elected sergeant-major of the battalion of volunteers of Gers. He served through several
campaigns, and rose by distinguished conduct to the rank of chef de brigade. On the
establishment of the empire he was created a marshal (1804). Lannes was a well-built fire-eater,
with face riddled with wounds.
Lannes had beaten down his flaming battle temper, which could raise blisters on granite. He
developed such self-control that he was able to look at a quivering sentry who had narrowly
missed him with an accidental shot and remark that he was certain the man was sorry.
Jean Lannes however neglected the Guard's interior discipline.
He was unversed in the innate criminality of clothing contractors,
and went some 300,000 francs into debt uniforming his Guard.
In 1809 at Aspern-Essling, an Austrian cannonball struck him. The knee-pan of one was
smashed, and the back sinews of the other torn. Lannes said, "I am wounded; it's nothing much
..." He tried to rise, but could not. The surgeons proceeded to dress his wound. One of the
marshal's legs was amputated. He bore the operation with courage; it was hardly over when
Napoleon came up. The Emperor, kneeling beside the stretcher, wept as he embraced the
marshal. His other leg was later also amputated. Few days later Lannes died.
Marshal Lannes, the French Ajax.
In young age Lannes' strength and proficiency in all manly sports
caused him to be elected sergeant-major. As a general and marshal,
Lannes was a well-built fire-eater, with face riddled with wounds.
Lannes' flaming battle temper could raise blisters on granite.
.
Marshal Jean Bessieres
Bessires was born in southern France in 1768. He took part in numerous campaigns and
repeatedly distinguished himself for valour. Jean-Baptiste Bessieres took over the Guard and
gave it careful, efficient administration. Bessieres was tall man with a youthful face. Despite
being very rigorous in discipline, he was adored by every guardsman for his honesty, even
temper, and bravery. His orders and speeches were cold and dry and he was the only marshal
who kept the old-fashioned military style of both powdering his hair and wearing it in a long
queue. Bessieres was excellent cavalryman and gallant fighter, thourough soldier and all
soldier. His cold courage never flinched, in crisis of battle a sudden beserk fury possessed him.
Bessires was killed by a cannon ball which ricocheted off a wall and hit him in the hand. He
died from blood loss. [Bessieres] "... was personally beloved to an extraordinary extent amongst
his soldiers, and (unlike most of the French generals of the time) amongst his opponents. It is
said that masses were performed for his soul by the priests of insurgent Spain, and the king of
Saxony raised a monument to his memory." (- wikipedia)
Marshal Bessieres.
He gave the Guard careful, efficient administration.
He was a thourough soldier and all soldier and was
beloved to an extraordinary extent amongst his men.
Bessieres' cold courage never flinched, in crisis of
battle a sudden beserk fury possessed him.
.
Marshal Francois Lefebvre
Francois-Joseph Lefebvre had a German accent, a very loud voice and a sergeant's vocabulary.
But he looked after his guardsmen as if they were his own children. Lefebvre was an
outstanding 'general of execution, an excellent leader of men, but given a semi-independent
mission he was apt to go looking for a head to hit, regardless of orders. The Old Guard loved
him for simplicity and for ten other reasons. But Napoleon was not so impressed, he wrote
"There is such imbecility in Lefebvre's correspondence that I can't comprehend it."
He was sent to besiege Gdansk (Danzig), knowing nothing of that type of warfare. Finally the
Russo-Prussian garrison made a sortie in force. Lefebvre went flailing happily into the middle
of the uproar, pushing aside the grenadiers who tried to shield him: "Come on my lads ! This I
understand !" :-)
For the capture of Danzig Levebvre became the Duke of Danzig and was awarded with a lot of
money. He was to receive an individual who spoke with envy of the riches he enjoyed.
Lefebvre replied: "You can have the lot at cost. ... I will fire 60 musket rounds at you and if you
are still alive after that you can have the lot."
In 1812 at Borodino, the Old Guard was under the command of Lefebvre. During the winter
reterat from Russia, near Vilna (Vilnius), with his white beard and his baton in his hand, he had
been magnificent in his courage and energy, crying To Arms ! to his Old Guard and leading
them to the ramparts to repel the Cossacks. But then his son was killed and he plunged into a
sort of torpor. Though 58-years old, the tough marshal marched on foot every mile from
Moscow to the Vistula River.
Marshal Lefebvre
The Old Guard loved him for simplicity. Lefebvre used to say
"I am a soldier, I must obey." He was an excellent leader of
men with sulphurous vocabulary. He looked after his guard
as if they were his own children.
Unfortunately, given a semi-independent mission he was
apt to go looking for a head to hit, regardless of orders.
.
Marshal Edouard Mortier
Edouard-Adolphe-Casimir-Joseph Mortier was the commander of the Young Guard. Mortier
('mortar' in French :=) was a huge man, with 6,6" he was the tallest of all marshals. Mortier
received better-than average education at the English Collage of Douai (his mother was
English). Mortier was cheerful and unassuming, and easily influenced by his colleagues, until
the shooting started. Then he suddenly set an example of unbreakble courage. In 1814 while
many marshals (incl. Ney) bugged out, Mortier remained loyal.
During the period of 1812-1814 Mortier and his Young Guard participated in all major battles:
Borodino (1812), Krasnoie (November 17, 1812), Berezina Crossing (November 27-28, 1812),
Ltzen (May 2, 1813), Bautzen (May 20-21, 1813), Dresden (August 25-26, 1813), Leipzig
(October 16-19, 1813), Montmirail (February 11, 1814), Laon (March 9 and 10, 1814) and Paris
(March 31, 1814). For this reason Mortier's Young Guard was called Napoleon's Fighting
Machine.
Marshal Mortier
"Extremely tall , heavily built , slow of speech."
Every combat in which he took part bore testimony
to his extraordinary bodily strength and bravery.
His mother was English.
.
General Jean Dorsenne.
Dorsenne "could turm his back to the enemy under the heaviest fire and give his orders cooly,
without concern for what went on behind him." When cannonballs killed his third horse and
third time he picked himself up he spat out "Bunglers !" dusted himself off and mounted his 4th
horse. Jean-Marie-Pierre-Francois Lepaige Dorsenne was a soldier of high valor and many
wounds.
Napoleon had promoted him for gallantry on the battlefield but had hesitated to admit to his
Guard because he was 'too attractive.' Despite his pleasant appearance Dorsenne was so hard
that the toughest veterans jumped to please him and dreaded his strictness. In a year's time he
made them a model for the whole infantry. In Spain the "haughty and hard" Dorsenne ordered
a reign of terror. Dorsenne died in July 1812 in Paris after a terrible trepanning operation. After
his death, General Friant took over the Grenadiers.
PS. Dorsenne had wanted to fill up the Guard with 'sons of good families' to bolster Napoleon
prestige in France and Europe. But the Emperor disagreed and never changed his method of
recruiting the Guard.
General Louis Friant.
The son of a wax-maker, took part in the great victory of Fleurus (neare battlefield
of Ligny) in 1794. Friant was promoted to Gnral de Brigade on 13 June 1795. In
the Austerlitz campaign of 1805, Friant's division earned a reputation for rapid
and effective marching. (70 miles in 46 hours from Vienna to Austerlitz and
arriving just in time to counterattack the Allies at Tellnitze and Sokolnitze on the
morning of 2 December. In the fighting Friant had three horses killed under him.
In Auerstadt (1806) Friant's division advanced on the right, turning the Prussian
left flank. The infantry of Friant and Gudin, standing in square, withstood a massive cavalry
attack led by Blucher himself. In Eylau (1807) Friant's division arrived to reinforce the French
right on the morning of 8 February, helping to turn a near-defeat into a stalemate. In Wagram
(1809) Friant was wounded by a shell fragment during the successful storming of the Square
Tower at Markgrafneusiedl. In Borodino (1812) Friant's division captured Bagration Fleches.
After Dorsenne's death in 1812, Friant took over the Old Guard. He distinguished himself in
1813 and 1814 in every battle he fought. In Waterloo (1815) Friant led the Middle Guard in the
attack on the Allied center, where he was wounded yet again.
General Jerome Souls.
The foot chasseurs were commanded by Jerome Souls. He was born on 24 August
1760, spoke with German accent and enjoyed reputation as a great fighter. There
was however a darker side of this warrior. When in 1807 after the peace of Tilsit
Souls and his 1st Regiment of Foot Chasseurs had returned to France the customs
officers wanted to do their duty and visit the transports of Soules and his men. The
response of Souls was simple: "if only one of your toll-collectors dare lay a hand
on the boxes of my old rabbits, I will have them all f**** drowned in the Rhine River like kittens
!" His body language was "you don't wanna mess with me" thing. In 1815 Soules cast his vote
for the death of Marshal Ney, which was not very noble of him.
General Jean Gros.
Another commander of the foot chasseurs was General Jean-Louis Gros. Napoleon had a very
particular regard for him. Gros, he said, lives in gunpowder like fish in water: it is his
element.... He is a finished trooper. Henri Lachoque described him as "brave and much
scarred ... loudmouthed ... he declared that he 'slept in the arms of the goldsmith' - thinking
Morpheus was some pimp at the Palais-Royale." Gros was masculine, very brave but poorly
educated, the way in which he expressed himself belonged only to him. :-))
J.T. Headley writes: "Gros, one of the generals of the chasseurs of the Old Guard, was a tall,
powerful man, with a voice like a trumpet." In 1792 as a lieutenant of battalion of the volunteers
in the Army of Eastern Pyrenees he had fought against the Spanish troops and received saber
blow to his face and nose. In the next years he was shot and wounded in the right thigh and left
foot. At Caldiro he led a battalion front the front, and was shot and wounded again before
600-man strong Austrian unit surrendered. At the battle of Biberach, Gros led 4e Demi-Brigade
and captured 12 guns. In Dresden (1813), Gros led one of counterattacks on Austrian redoubt,
and received a painful bayonet wound to his thigh. Approx. 550 Allies soldiers surrendered to
Gros' lads.
General Henri Delaborde.
One of the most popular divisional commanders of the Young Guard was Henri-
Francois Delaborde (1764-1833). Delaborde was son of a baker and was educated for
the church. He was a leanly big man and spoke Latin language. According to Elting
"he said little, but what he said was very definite." In the beginning of the French
Revolution he joined the volunteers and passing rapidly through all the junior
grades was made general of brigade after the battle of Rhein-Zabern (1793). He was present at
the siege of Toulon and promoted general of division. In 1807 Delaborde was training new
conscripts at his camp at Pontivy in France. In 1808 he fought a brillant delaying action at Rolica
against British troops that outnumbered him 4 to 1. Amazingly the French lost only 550 men
and retreated in fighting order. The British lost approx. 500 men. In 1812 Delaborde
commanded the 1st Infantry Division of Young Guard. He traveled by carriage. Only 48, his
bent back and protruding paunch made him look much older. Delaborde distinguished himself
at Krasne against the Russians.
Delaborde led his division of Young Guard with these words: "My children, when you smell
powder for the first time, it is stylish to stick up your nose !" The Bourbons hated him and
wanted to execute for supporting Napoleon to the very end.
General Francois Roguet.
Francois Roguet (1770-1846) was nicknamed "Pere" and was a tough soldier and a natural
leader. The caustic Gascon did not trifle with discipline which he termed 'the soul of the
armies.' In Spain a few NCOs closed their eyes while houses were pillaged. On their return
three court-martial were convened, and two of the malefactors were shot. Two NCOs were
stripped of their shevrowns in front of the troops. Roguet added: "I shall remember the
commanders who permitted this relaxation of discipline." In 1812 during the horrible winter
retreat from Russia, thousands of men died from cold, hunger and exhaustion. However some
warriors had been too hard to break. "The Old Man Roguet" marched out on foot with his
Middle Guard, too tough even to catch cold. He set the supreme example every morning of a
cold water shave before a mirror hung on a gun wheel. He ate gruel and drink melted snow.
His servants all froze to death. In Waterloo (1812) enraged Roguet had threatened with death
any grenadier of the Old Guard who should bring him a Prussian prisoner.
General Poret de Morvan.
Paul-Jean-Baptiste Poret de Morvan was born in April 1777. In 1811 he became
colonel of the 34th Regiment of Line Infantry, in 1813 colonel-major of 3rd
Regiment of Tirailleurs of the Young Guard, and in 1815 colonel of 3rd Regiment
of Foot Grenadiers of the Middle Guard. He was a man of a robust stature, and
every drop of blood in his frame came from the fiercest of fighting stock. At
Waterloo fought with great determination against the numerically superior
British-German-Netherland troops. Commander of the Legion dHonneur : 26
May 1813 Baron of the Empire: 14 August 1813. De Morvan died in 1834.
~
Campaigns and battles. The Young, Middle and Old Guard in war.
At Eylau in 1807 A single shell exploded among the color party of the 1st Grenadiers,
killing a lieutenant, wounding 5 NCOs, and shattering the staff held by the eagle-bearer.
He calmly ignored the carnage, picked up the splinter still attached to the banner,
inserted it in the musket, and resumed his place in the ranks.
In 1809 the 1st Conscripts-Grenadiers and 1st Conscripts-Chasseurs of Young Guard
campaigned in the mountainous Tyrol against Andreas Hofer's insurrection. Hofer begun to
secretly organize insurrection, visiting villagers and holding councils of war in local inns. He
was so much on the move that he signed his messages "Andreas Hofer, from where I am" and
letters to him were addressed to "wherever he may be". Hofer commanded a force of Tyroleans
approximately 20,000 strong, together with a couple of hundred Austrian soldiers. The French
promised a reward for his head. Hofer was captured by Italian troops and sent to Mantua in
chains. He was executed. Hofer became a martyr in Germany and Austria and a rallying point
against the power of Napoleon.
The Young Guard
fought hard in 1809 at
Aspern-Essling. Henri
Lachoque writes, "A
desperate struggle
commenced during
which Marshal Lannes
was mortally wounded.
Massena held the village
of Aspern with
admirable tenacity while
the Austrian grenadiers
wrested Essling from
Boudet's division. Then
the Emperor's aides,
Generals Mouton and Rapp, recaptured it with troops from Curial's [Guard] division.
'Forward in column ! Keep your heads down and don't bother about the number of enemies'
the Emperor ordered.
The Guard batteries supported the attack, firing at top speed. Captain Bizard had his arm shot
off. Some of the gun crews were reduced to 2 men. Many senior officers and generals were
hors de combat. Durosnel, Drouot, Curial, and Gros were all wounded, as was Mouton who
was created Count of Lobau after the battle. The Guard Tirailleurs drove the enemy out of
Gross-Aspern. Captain Ciceron was sent to the cemetery where he was overwhelmed by a
superior force and obliged to retreat. Wounded, and with the rear-guard of his company
surrounded, he had to surrender. In its baptism of fire the Young Guard lost a quarter of its
effectives. Lieutenant-Colonels Lanabere and Lonchamp as well as Rousseau, Secretan,
Labusquette, and Ciceron were all wounded more or less severely."
In 1810 in Spain the Young Guard wer tired but war-wise. Colette, a soldier of the 2nd
Conscripts-Chasseurs writes, "The [Spanish] partisans blockaded us for 4 days without bread so
we ate the captain's horse. ... Then we charged them with bayonets and made an opening.
When we leave a town the Spaniards enter it and come out to attack us every night. ... Where
we are, they are all around us ..."
Corporal Franconin of the 1st Guard Tirailleurs-Grenadiers writes, "We have been running
around the mountains for almost two months. We set out in the morning and sleep in whatever
village we land in at the end of a fruitless search. We have seen the partisans several times. Two
of our mobile columns ... came across one of the largest bands on a hillside two musket shots
from Belorado. We gave them a good beating ..."
In 1811 Mignolet of the 1st Guard Tirailleurs wrote from Spain, "Their bands grow bigger every
year, for we burn their towns and villages ..."
In Russia in 1812 the Young Guard fought at Smolensk. Delaborde's division fought its way
into the suburbs with difficulty. The Guard Voltigeurs and Guard Tirailleurs, parched by the
heat, devoured green apples they found in the orchards. Amid toppling houses, screaming
wounded roasting in the flames they penetrated to the center of the burning city which lay
under an immense pall of flame-colored smoke. The Russian infantry fought from house to
house. At last, near the burned bridge, the Young Guard joined the Polish infantry of the
Vistula Legion under Clapared who were firing on the retreating Russians. Smolensk was in
French hands.
In 1812 the Imperial Guard reached Moscow. The Old Guard was posted in Kremlin and its
surroundings, while the Young Guard was quartered in the rubble around the palace of Count
Rostopchin, governor of Moscow. The young men made themselves comfortable and ate off
gold-rimmed porcelain. In few weeks the Guard left the beautiful city and marched westward.
In one of Delaborde's brigades 99 young soldiers died of starvation between Smolensk and
Moscow.
The winter retreat from Russia destroyed the Young Guard.
In 1813 the Young
Guard were in the
forefront of
Emperor's
juggernaut, surging
on to the bullet-
swept fields of
Lutzen. When the Young Guard began its assault the order was given by the giant man
Marshal Mortier. His words were greeted by the roar of a thousand voices shouting "Vive
l'Empereur !" They then marched on Gross Gorschen as irresistible as the ocean, sweeping
everything before them. It was a costly victory. Some of the wounded had had their wounds
dressed in those ambulances that happened to be close to the battlefield. While passing the
village of Kaja they had seen the teams of peasants, escorted by soldiers, digging huge graves
and long ditches in the fields. Wagons carried the corpses, which were thrown into the graves.
Chlapowski of Polish Guard Lancers writes, "More and more battalions arrived in our front
line, and the Emperor ordered them to direct all their fire at the village. ... the Emperor drew
his sword, placed himself between the two columns of Young Guard, and advanced through
the resulting gap toward Kaja. The Young Guard stormed the vilage without firing a shot and
ejected all the enemy with the bayonet." (Chlapowski, - p 135)
In 1813 at Dresden the Young Guard spearheaded the French onlsaught, smashing through
the stubborn Allies line and assuring victory one of the largest engagements of Napoleonic
Wars. The 1st Guard Tirallieurs charged six Prussian battalions at bayonet point, taking several
hundred prisoners, General Gros' 4th and 5th Guard Voltigeurs captured the trenches at
Freiberg. The 3rd Guard Voltigeurs led by Cambronne captured a whole battalion.
Hilaire writes, "Already, in the center, the Hungarians of [General] Colloredo had removed the
redoubt of the barrier at Dippodiswalde; on the right, the Austrian artillery had extinguished
the fire of our batteries at the gate of Freyberg; and on the left, the Russians and the Prussians
penetrated in the suburb of Pirma the inhabitants, dismayed, barricaded themselves in their
houses; the women and the children sought refuge in the cellars: the enemy believed himself
sure of victory.
It was while shouting: To Paris! to Paris! that its first columns tried to force the gate of Plauen.
The door opened it finally was like the eruption of a volcano. The battalions of the Young
Guard, commanded by Tyndal, Cambronne, and Dumoustier, sprang; the fire from the
crenellated walls supported their exit; the redoubt was abandoned with the retreat of the
Austrian columns, on all sides a hailstorm of bullets and cannon balls covers the plain. The
enemy moved back terrified."
The Young Guard however paid a high price for the victory. Nearly all its generals, including
Dumoustier, Delaborde, Castex, Tindal and Boyer de Rebeval, were wounded. More than 100
officers and 2,000 men were casualties.
General Dumoustier was charging the enemy at the Pirna Gate when suddenly, as the Young
Guard emerged from the city, the drums of the 3rd Guard Tirailleurs stopped beating. Who
gave the orders to halt ? No one. A burst of a grapeshot had simply mown down all the
drummers. At the review after battle Napoleon took off his hat to the Young Guard. He said:
"There go the brave 1st Guard Tirailleurs. Order 100 out of ranks so that I may award them the
cross of the Legion."
Actually the first counterattack on the redoubt (III) at Dresden failed, though 50 men of Young
Guard got in through a gate in the gorge of the work, which, being closed behind them, left the
little party isolated in the midst of about 500 Austrians. "Refusing the enemy's calls to
surrender, the gallant band held firm against tenfold numbers. As no officer was with them the
drum-major took command, brandishing his baton, with which he promptly felled the Austrian
leader.
Help was at hand, and this little band of heroes held their ground till what remained of them
was rescued by a fresh irruption, through the pallisading, of their comrades, now reinforced by
two regiments led by Berthezene. The redoubt was now recaptured, and some 400 Austrian
prisoners were taken in it." (- Loraine Petre - "Napoleon's last campaign in Germany 1813" p 208,
publ. in 1977)
In 1813 at Leipzig, Marshal Oudinot turned to his generals and said to the Young Guard:
"Take your division Decouz, and that of Pacthod and drive away these guys with a kick in the
rear, so that they then will only flee." They cheered their Emperor as they marched past him.
The drummers, tediously beating the rhythm of the march, broke into flurries when they
realized He was so close. Napoleon and his staff watched their advance. Oudinot's troops
passed by Wachau and in frontal assault captured Auenhain sheep-farm. Mortier's troops
drove into University Wood sweeping all before them.
In 1814 at Brienne, Blucher launched an assault in an effort to recapture the chateau. In the
dark streets below Marshal Ney let loose his Voltigeurs in the rear of the exhausted Russian
battalions. The enemy was caught between two fires and suffered heavily. A frightful slaughter
ensued in the darkness lighted intermittently by burning houses. The French and Russian
battalions became mixed. In the chaotic combat General Decouz received a mortal wound.
In 1814 at La Rothiere the Young Guard suffered heavy casualties in the street fighting.
Blucher directed Russian 2nd Grenadier Division toward the burning village. The Astrakhan
Grenadier Regiment and Little Russia Grenadier Reegiment charged into La Rothiere and drove
the Young Guard at bayonet point. The Young Guard broke and fled and was only rallied in
the northern part of the village "by officers beating men back into the ranks." They were able to
hold on several buildings so the fight for the village was inconclusive.
In 1814 at Craonne, a withering Russian artillery fire decimated the 14th Guard Voltigeurs.
They lost 28 of 33 officers and 50 % of rank and file ! Bigarre and Le Capitaine were both hit, as
were Guye and Boyer de Rebeval.
During the battle of Paris in 1814 at Paris the 11th Guard Voltigeurs made a gallant charge to
rescue Marmont's infantrymen, hard pressed in the woods of Romainville. Together they
cleared the Russians from the outskirts of Pantin. The 2nd Guard Voltigeurs met the Russian
grenadiers head on and exchanged volleys before falling back. Suisse led the 10th Guard
Voltigeurs out at bayonet point and had his jaw smashed in the process. The Guard Flanquers-
Grenadiers recaptured the bridge over the canal.
In 1814 in Soissons were - among others - 1,160 Guard Voltigeurs and Guard Tirailleurs. They
had been besieged since 20 March by Prussians. They withstood bombardement, mines and
repeated ultimatums and they refused every summons to surrender. Every salvo they fired on
the night of 29/30 March was accompanied by shouts Vive l'Empereur ! Major Braun led 500 of
them down the Crouy road and attacked the Prussian outposts as they were making their soup.
The Young Guard brought the half-cooked meat back to Soissons, but left one of its captains
dead on the field. On the 7th a peasant bringing letters from the Prussian general was run out
of town without ceremony. An ADC of the war minister wearing a white cockade was obliged
to retreat in the face of threats from the young soldiers whose officers had the greatest
difficulty in controlling them.
Voltigeur of Young Guard in 1815.
Picture by Keith Rocco.
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The Old and Middle Guard (and the Consular Guard) did fight in numerous battles; Marengo
(1800), Eylau (1807), Wagram (1809), Dresden (1813), Leipzig (1813), Hanau (1813), Brienne
(1814), La Rothiere (1814), Paris (1814), Ligny (1815), Waterloo and Plancenoit (1815).
There were several close calls, so to speak. In 1813 at Hanau the 1st Regiment of Foot
Grenadiers almost lost their color to the Bavarians. In 1800 at Marengo the grenadiers of the
Consular Guard suffered heavily at the hands of the Austrians. Most accounts indicate that the
Guard infantry conducted a rearguard action but suffered heavy losses (a third of its number!)
The Prussian, British and Russian Guards have tasted defeats and failures as well. For example
the British Guards at Talavera was counterattacked by the French infantry, suffered 33 %
casualties and "rapidly" fell back. At Quatre Bras (1815) the British Guards lost half thousand
men within few moments and fled to Bossu Wood like a deer. At Austerlitz the Russian Guards
was defeated by the French in such a manner that they should consider themselves lucky to
escape from the battlefield.
Some visitors to our website, especially the younger ones, are disappointed
that a guard or elite troops can't win everytime everywhere. I guess their
expectations are so high that only Major Sharpe, Rambo, Bambo, or the fakes
from Hollywood can meet them. But that's fine with me. Boys like supermen
like girls like dolls.
Articles:
- Grenadiers of Consular Guard vs the Austrians.
- The Old, Middle and Young Guard vs the Prussian infantry at Ligny.
- The Middle Guard vs the British, German and Dutch infantry at Waterloo.
- The Old Guard and Young Guard vs the Prussian infantry at Waterloo. "Bloodbath at
Plancenoit".
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.
In 1807 at Heilsberg (in Eastern Prussia) Napoleon's ADC General Jean-Marie Ren Savary
received order to take Roussel's 4 battalions of Guard Fusiliers and 12 guns and support
Murat's cavalry (mostly cuirassiers and dragoons).
On came these gallant men in magnificent formation. They marched in the direction where was
fought the great cavalry battle and were almost swept away by the fleeing cuirassiers and
dragoons. Marshal Murat met Savary and insisted that the guardsmen attack with bayonet.
Savary was annoyed with Murat's actions: "It would be better for us if he (Murat) was less
brave and had a little more common sense." Savary's guardsmen loaded their muskets and
cannons and opened fire at close range. The enemy was checked by crisp volleys and many
Russians and Prussians were unsaddled. The gallant commander of the Russian cuirassiers,
GM Kozhin, was killed. One of the cuirassiers picked up his body, threw over saddle and rode
away to the Russian lines.
The confusion in this sector of the battlefield was riotous. Legrand's division and Savary's
Fusiliers were formed in hollow squares, containing the Russian prisoners. The squares were
then repeatedly attacked by Russian and Prussian cavalry and forced to retire behind Spuibach.
Russian artillery opened fire on the Fusiliers.
According to Adolphe Thiers "The brave General Roussel, who was, sword in hand, amidst the
Fusiliers of the Guard, had his head carried off by a cannon ball." St.Hilaire writes, "The
Fusilier-Chasseurs of the Young Guard, commanded by General Savary, were put in motion to
support the Saint-Hilaire division; those proved themselves as prodigious combatants with an
intrepidity, which marked them throughout all the army. General Roussel, chief of staff of the
Guard, who was in the midst of them, had his head carried off by a ball. General Curial, colonel
of the Fusilier-Chasseurs of the Young Guard, was seriously wounded as a combatant at the
head of this regiment with his accustomed courage." (St.Hilaire - "History of the Imperial Guard.")
At Eylau in 1807 the infantry of the Imperial Guard stood under heavy artillery fire. A
soldier in the Imperial Guard chasseurs described what took place: "We were under the fire of
a huge battery which was directing against us a withering fire, working terrible havoc in our
ranks. Once the file (adjacent soldiers) touching me on the right was struck full in the chest;
once the file to the left had their thighs torn off. The shock was so violent that those next to the
men struck were thrown down together with the poor wretches who were hit. Another round
took off the leg of a guardsman. He hopped rearward using two muskets as crutches and
remarked with spirit that it was all for the good since he owned three pairs of boots and they
would now last twice as long as he had bargained for. (Arnold Crisis in the snows p. 282)
At Eylau a column of Russian grenadiers following up the flight of Augereau's corps had
penetrated into the cemetery near Eylau where Napoleon stood. He called up a battalion of the
Guard. There were six battalions that had taken no part in the contest except to stand and see
their ranks rent by shot. With joy, therefore, they saw a prospect of mingling in the strife.
Two battalions disputed the honor of charging the Russians. The first in order marched
forward, and without stopping to fire, overthrew the Russian grenadiers with the bayonet.
Bruyere's cavalry charged the Russians. Lachoque writes, "Towards the close of the cavalry
fight a Russian column of 4,000 men stormed the cemetery. The Emperor sent Dorsenne against
them with a battalion of Guard Foot Grenadiers. Without firing a shot the Grumblers hurled
them back with bayonets while the service squadrons attacked their flanks. Major Lonchamp
and Captain Rogery were wounded." (Lachoque - "Anatomy of Glory" , pp 88-89)
In 1808 the Guard Fusiliers were in Madrid, Spain, when the famous uprising against the
French began.
Chlapowski writes: "About 2,000 peasants and citizens were captured. ... these 2,000 were led
out of the city, lined up beneath its wall and the order was given to a battalion of Fusiliers to
shoot them." (Chlapowski - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" pp 36-37)
The guerilla war had a negative effect on the Fusiliers.
Lachoque writes, "43 Fusiliers-Grenadiers had deserted during the retreat from Madrid. The
youngsters were gloomy and no longer sang. They came to dread the smoky huts in villages
where men and beasts were huddled together and where the fleas in their pallets were simply
indestructible. They had been better off in Germany where the hog was king." In good old
Germany the beer was foamy and the girls very friendly :-)
In 1812 at Krasne (Krasny, Krasnoie), Napoleon formed all 4 battalions of Guard Fusiliers in
three columns and directed towards Buyanovo, Malievo and Chirkova. They advanced
noiselessly, their watches synchronized for a simultaneous attack. At midninght, in cold, the
Fusiliers led by Roguet fell upon the Russians with bayonets in their camps, throwing them into
disorder and inflicting heavy losses. The Fusiliers lost more than 300 men. Krasny was on fire,
revealing a Dante's inferno.
In 1812 Napoleon made his entry to Moscow at the head of the Old Guard. Guns were posted
in Kremlin at each corner of the square, while companies of Foot Grenadiers and Foot
Chasseurs guarded the gates.
During the frightful winter retreat
from Russia in 1812, as the army
approached the Beresina, the
paymaster of the Guard fearing the
chest would fall into the hands of the
Cossacks, distributed the whole
amount among the soldiers of the
Guard, who put it in their knapsacks.
When the army reached the other side
of the river, it was rendered up again,
and the amount, 2,000,000 of francs, found entire, with the exception of some two hundred
francs, which had sunk with the grenadier who carried it in the waves of the Beresina. General
Dorsenne, who commanded the Old Guard, once said, "If I had a wagon load of gold, I would
put it in the mess-room of my grenadiers - it would be safer there than under lock and key."
During the retreat the Old Guard lost more than half of men. But they never murmured, never
broke their solid formation, but clenching firmly with frozen fingers their muskets, struggled
and died at their posts. One guardsmen said: "We are used up, but it is all the same, Vive l'
Empereur. We have always thoroughly flogged these Russians, who are nothing but schoolboys
compared to us." Such was the destitution and such the spirit of this glorious old corps.
The new Old Guard fought at Dresden in 1813.
The Austrian superb 1st Light Division attacked the suburbs and redoubts in the center. They
managed to take one redoubt by storm and assaulted the city walls. The Austrians however
were unable to gain more terrain and were soon repulsed with by bayonet charges by the Foot
Grenadiers of Old Guard and the Fusiliers of the Middle Guard.
In 1813 the Middle and Old Guard entered Naumburg and Sapper Winckel of the 2nd Foot
Grenadiers, hauled down the Prussian flag from the steeple and raised the French colors.
At Hanau in 1813, Bavarian troops deployed before to fight the retreating from Leipzig
French troops. When this was told Napoleon, he said, "... since these Bavarian gentlemen
pretend to bar our passage, we must pass over their bellies." It was then that Napoleon
galloping up to his Guard ordered two battalions of Foot Chasseurs to clear the field, while at
the same time he directed Drouot to advance with the artillery of the Guard. The scene then
became indescribably fearful.
The two battalions of the Old Guard charged almost on a run, overthrew everything in their
passage, and forced the enemy into a precipitate retreat. Captain Godau, at the head of only
two companies, charged and overthrew several battalions of the Bavarians. Lachoque describes
the attack, "Towards 3 PM, with the Foot Grenadiers formed in square behind him, Napoleon
flung out his arm and said: 'The Chasseurs will charge.'
Curial promptly formed the 2nd Foot Chasseurs in line of battle and launched it onto the road
and into the woods beyond. Though its commander Cambronne fell wounded with a dozen of
his officers, the Chasseurs pushed the Bavarians back to the Kinzig valley ... Friant's Grenadiers
held Neuhof and the bridge at Lamboy, and the road to Frankfurt was clear." John Elting
writes: "... the Emperor sends in 2 battalions of Guard Chasseurs to clear the way for him. They
surged forward, light infantry style at the run in open order, loading their muskets as they
come, each man seeking to be first to get his bayonet into a Bavarian. To Wrede, the sight of
their bearskin caps is a nerve-wrenching omen of defeat. ...
And there 2 battalions of Foot Grenadiers, literally shaking with impatience, finally hear the
order: 'Grenadiers, forward !' An officer who had fought for hours on the extreme left of the
French line, sees them come: "... their line swept down the slope in perfect order, but headlong
and terrible for these men were furious. ... In an instant everything before them was knocked
over, run through, swept into the Kinzig River, where 700 to 800 piled up. - A frightful
spectacle for a human being, a superb one for a soldier."
In 1814, after the battle of La Rothiere, several Allies battalions which did not arrive till too
late to take part in the battle, covered Sacken's retreat. As the French approached, these
battalions advanced to meet them, but a battalion of the Old Guard drove in the skirmishers,
while six other battalions fell on them in front. At the same time the dragoons of the Guard
came thundering on, breaking through the first and second lines, and putting all to flight.
In 1814, after the battle of Brienne, Captain Hauillet with a company of the 2nd Foot
Chasseurs of the Old Guard, was appointed to cover the withdrawal of the army. But soon
after he had taken his position, an overwhelming force of Austrians suddenly came upon him.
There seemed no escape - but they were a part of the Old Guard, and if they fell, it would be
like the Spartans in Thermopyl. Hauillet called together the drummers and ordered the
Chasseurs not to fire, but to advance with the bayonet. The charge was then beaten and at the
head of only 150 men, he flung himself on the Austrians advancing against him, broke their
ranks in pieces, and put them to flight.
On 12 January 1814, in the night, 300 Foot Grenadiers and Chasseurs led by Albert advanced
noiselessly towards Chatenay with fixed bayonets. With the visibility less than 6 feet (heavy
snowstorm) they were still a mile away when they heard the challenge Wer da ? A patrol of
Austrian chevaulegeres vanished into the night without waiting for a reply. Albert ordered his
men forward on the double. They reached Chatenay to find the enemy formed in line of battle.
Twenty fice Chasseurs entered the village from the south and 25 Grenadiers from the north,
while 50 bypassed it to cut off the enemy's line of retreat. At the command 'Forward !' the
enemy was cut to pieces. Half of the chevaulegeres were killed and 21 were captured.
In 1814, near Bar-sur-Aube, a company of Chasseurs lay in ambush. As the Austrians
emerged at daybreak the Foot Chasseurs opened fire point-blank and drove them with
bayonets.
At Montmirail in
1814, Marshal Ney
took 6 battalions of
Old Guard to attack
the Russians who
were entrenched to
their chins in Les
Greneaux and
supported by
artillery. Thirt guns
of Old Guard went
into action, firing at top speed. Carrying their muskets with priming-pans open, the Grenadiers
marched off at the double by battalions, 100 paces apart. They attacked the farm and
overwhelmed the enemy who fled, leaving their guns and soup kettles behind them. The
Henrion formed the 2nd Foot Chasseurs in squares, as if at a drill, and threw back the cavalry
charges.
At Chateau-Thierry in 1814, two battalions of Foot Grenadiers drove Prince William of
Prussia off the Nesle Plateau and into the city. The enemy fled across the Marne bridge in
disorder, under fire from Old Guard artillery. A company of Foot Grenadiers went in at the
double and scaled the walls of the farm of Bouc-aux-pierres under a hail of bullets. The
Grenadiers forced their way into the house and bayoneted the Prussians, taking few prisoners.
The Emperor was jubilant.
Several units of the Old Guard fought hard at the Battle of Paris in 1814. Lieutenant Viaux of
2nd Foot Grenadiers collected 20 soldiers at Montmartre and fought to the end. His body full of
wounds was found under a tree, with saber in his hand and surrounded by corpses of dead
and wounded Prussians. Near Courbevoie Captain Morlay with 50 grenadiers of the Old
Guard, almost all wounded, was in charge of the defense of the bridge of Neuilly. Attacked, in
the evening, by 2,000 men with 4 cannons, these veterans were summoned several times to give
up; but their answer was the same with each summons: The Old Guard never lays down its
arms! The invalides gave up their fight the next day only after had been granted a honorable
terms.
On the 12 January 1814 a small
detachment of Old Guard found 5,000
Austrian infantry, artillery and light cavalry
on the highway to Vesoul. The Austrians
easily routed the enemy and pursued them
with 300 men and 4 guns. Marshal Mortier
dispatched 200-300 foot grenadiers and
chasseurs to take care of the pursuers.
The French advanced in the night in
complete silence.
Austrian patrols hailed them with Wer da !
Receiving no reply the Austrians fired
scattered shots and fled as fast as they could.
The veterans followed them until reaching
Chatenay-Vaudin where they met more Austrian troops. Colonel Adam divided his force into
three troops and reserve. Two troops marched calmly and confidently against the superior
enemy, while a third troop blocked the Austrians' line of retreat. Then they charged with fury
overthrowing everything on their path. Every Austrian was killed except the commander and
27 men, all of whom surrendered.
Meanwhile Mortier learned from his cavalry patrols of enemy's strength and location. The
marshal realized in how dangerous situation is his small force and how badly outnumbered.
Mortier decided to evacuate Langres on the 17th. The marshal complained that after the Old
Guard left the townpeople of Langres voluntarily opened the gates to the Allies.
The Wuerttembergers decided to pursue the Old Guard. They attacked the rearguard of
Mortier's force at Choignes. They captured all the houses on the left bank of the Marne, crossed
the bridge, and took the rest of the small town. Mortier dispatched only one battalion of
grenadiers to deal with them. The veterans fixed bayonets and charged at the Wurttembergers.
The jagers broke and fled toward the river with the grenadiers hot on their heels. The
grenadiers suffered only 5 wounded while the corpses of the jagers littered the streets and the
bridge.
After this combat the Wuerttembergers' advance guard kept a respectful distance from Mortier.
They spent a horrible night bivouacked in the open field on ground so drenched that the men
sunk into mud up to their shins. ( Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon" p 501)
April 1814 was the month of Napoleon's abdication.
On April 7th the Old Guard came out of their barracks in Fountainebleau carrying torches and
weapons shouting "Vive l'Empereur !" and "Down with the traitors !" These lads were ready to
fight. On May 3rd took place a solemn entry of Louis XVIII in Paris. The royalist diarist de
Boigne writes: "The procession was escorted by the Imperial Guard. Its aspect was imposing,
but it froze us. It marched quickly, silent and gloomy. With a single glance it checked our
outbursts of affection. ... The silence became immense, and nothing could be heard but the
monotonous tramp of its quick striking into our very hearts."
Another royalist, Chateaubraind had noticed how the veterans had "pulled their bearskins
down over their eyes and presented arms with a gesture of fury." Chateaubriand related that
when several weeks later "the King passed, the grenadiers of Old Guard bared their teeth like
tigers."
In 1814 Napoleon bid farewell to the Guard. "For 20
years I have constantly accompanied you on the road
to honor and glory. . . . Do not regret my fate . . .
Adieu, my friends. Would I could press you all to my
heart." At these words Gen. Petit waved his sword in
the air and cried Vive l'Empereur ! which was
rapturously echoed by the Old Guard.
But when Napoleon was leaving not one of the old
warriors was able to utter a sound. They watched in
mournful silence, tears trickled down their cheeks
and they struggled to maintain composure. . . . On
the way home they beat up some happy royalists and
nailed to the bridge a large placard inscribed 'Long
live Napoleon the Great!'
The return of the Bourbons and King Louis XVIII to power after Napoleon's second abdication
in 1815, provoked a wave of emigration from France. Some of the emigres - incl. Marshal
Grouchy and Generals Bertrand, Clausel, Lefebvre-Desnouettes, and the two Lallemand
brothers (Charles and Henri) were condemned by the royal ordinance and they risked
execution if apprehended. On 24 July 1815, the Bourbon government issued an "ordonnance du
roi" containing the names of individuals to appear before courts-martial.
In 1840 Father De Smet was on his journey in the wild and remote Rocky Mountains of North
America, where he met "Jean-Baptiste de Velder, an Old Grenadier of Emperor Napoleon." The
veteran who had left his fatherland many years ago, had passed the last 15 years in the capacity
of mountain-man. The life of the mountain man was rough, and one that brought him face to
face with death on a regular basis - sometimes through the starvation, heat, or cold and
sometimes by the surprise attack of Indian warriors. De Smet complained that the veteran
"snored like a steam engine in full swing." :-)
Guardsman invalide , picture by Bellange.
Years later , when at last death knocked at Napoleon's door
He remembered his Guardsmen in his will. Approx. 200,000
francs were to be divided among the amputees of Ligny and
Waterloo, with double to the Guard, and quadruple to the
men of the Elba Battalion.
Sources and Links.
Elting - "Swords around the Throne: Napoleon's Grande Arme"
Houssaye - "La Vieille Garde Imperiale" (Ilustrations de Job)
Lachouque - "The Anatomy of Glory: Napoleon and his Guard ..."
Lachouque - "Waterloo"
St.Hilaire - "History of the Imperial Guard"
Connelly - "Historical Dictionary of Napoleonic France, 1799-1815"
Chlapowski - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" transl. by Tim Simmons
Mansel - "The Eagle in Splendour: Napoleon I and His Court"
Rousselot - "Les grenadiers de la Garde" "Les marins de la Garde"
Dupont - "Napoleon et ses grognards"
Jouineau and Mongin - "Officers and Soldiers of the French Imperial Guard 1804-15" Vol I (The Foot Soldiers)
Le muse de l'Arme.
French Guard Cavalry : Kaiserliche Garde-Kavallerie : Cavalerie de la Garde Imperiale
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/IMPERIAL_GUARD_cavalry_1.html[2012-05-21 12:38:47]
French Guard Cavalry of the Napoleonic Wars
"There is no temple without a God
and no throne without a Guard.'
But there are guards and Guards."
- Henri Lachoque
Napoleon's Guard cavalry was commanded by Bessieres.
Bessieres was a calm man, thorough soldier and all soldier.
When he was wounded the Guard swore to avenge him.
The guardsmen were limitlessly confident in Emperor's genius.
"We could have been asked to conquer the moon,
and we'd have responded with Forward, march !"
- Officer Zaluski of Old Guard Lancers
.
Horse Grenadiers of the Imperial Guard.
Introduction.
History, organization, and
commanders of the Guard
Cavalry
Marshal Bessieres.
Commander of the Guard Cavalry.
Emperor Napoleon's escort.
The Duty Squadrons.
The rare thing.
.
Heavy Cavalry
Guard Horse Grenadiers
"The Gods" , "The Giants"
lite Gendarmes
Guard Dragoons
"Empress Dragoons"
Light Cavalry
1st Guard Horse Chasseurs
"The Comrades"
2nd Guard Horse Chasseurs
Guard Mamelukes
1st Guard Lancers [Poles]
"The Polish Lancers"
2nd Guard Lancers [Dutch]
"The Red Lancers"
3rd Guard Lancers [Poles]
1st Guard Scouts
.
.
.
.
.
The horse grenadier :
"... steadiness that distinguished it among all
the other riders of the army. He was of tall
stature ... The general expression of his figure
was the coldness."
The elite gendarme:
"... could be confused with the horse grenadier;
... it was he who ensured respect ..."
The dragoon:
"... more slender in his physical form. He was
studied to reconcile the severity of behavior
with elegance in manners."
The horse chasseur:
"...a man, small in size and slightly squat ...
His legs are singularly arched ... an enormous
moustache decks his upper lip; in his ears
silver rings are hanging ... [He is] intrepid ... "
The Polish lancer:
"... Just the name of Polish lancer awakes the
ideas of bravery and of military fidelity !
... all made him at first taken for German;
but with the quickness of his movements,
with his instinctive exuberance, one recognized
that which one so precisely called the
'French of North'. ... The Polish lancer, as well
as the French lancer distinguished himself by
his elegant appearance; but the looks of this
last were softer and the colors of his origin
moderated, in respect to the military roughness
of the first figure."
2nd Guard Scouts
3rd Guard Scouts [Poles]
1st Honor Guard
2nd Honor Guard
4rd Honor Guard
4th Honor Guard
The Red Lancer:
"... as brave as the Polish lancer, the French
lancer had a lively mood; he was more sober
especially in his way of living, while the
intemperance of Polish had become proverbial
in the army."
Introduction: Cavalry of Napoleon's Imperial Guard.
" When . . . the Guard meets . . . the Line en route, the latter
shall form in line of battle and port arms or present sabers.
Flags and standards shall be dipped ..."
In 1796 the Guard of the Directory was formed to escort the Directors in public ceremonies and
parades. The guardsmen were 5'10" tall, literate, with perfect conduct and participated in at least 2
campaigns. These men were the elite of the army and formed 2 companies of foot grenadiers and
one squadron of horse grenadiers.
The horse grenadiers (see picture -->) wore aiguillette on the right shoulder. It was the distinctive
insignia of Guard cavalry. The Guard drew extra pay and allowances, additionally they got better
housing and enjoyed the highest prestige. The guardsmen were forbidden, under pain of dismissal,
to tend an officer's horse, or even hold it by the bridle.
Guard Cavalry in 1796
Squadrons
Horse Grenadiers 1
1800
Squadrons
Horse Grenadiers 2
Horse Chasseurs 1
In 1802 Napoleon submitted a
permanent schedule of
recruitment. Each cavalry
regiment was ordered to send 2
best men to the Guard Cavalry.
The candidate had to be tall,
robust, of exemplary conduct,
and able to read and write. It
was expected that he
participated in at least 3
campaigns.
Decree of September 1805:
Art. I - A corps of horse vlites
will be formed with 800 men.
Art. II - This corps will be
composed of conscripts from the
3 last years, at a rate of 6 per Department, taken among those who come forward voluntarily, or,
failing this, indicated by the prefect.
Art. III - Among the 6 vlites provided by each department,
three must be 5' 4" tall, and three 5'5" tall and above.
Art. IV- The vlites will have to be well to do and to have, by themselves
or their parents, an assured income 300 francs per annum.
Art VI - The corps of the vlites with horse will be divided into 8 companies."
Art. XII - Those of the vlites who are distinguished by their control, their aptitude and their
behavior,
could be allowed in the Imperial Guard before having reached the age and the number of years of
service
required to belong to the aforementioned Guard.
The Velites were created from conscripts with an income of 300 francs who could produce a pair of
buckskin breeches, gauntlets and boots. There were 400 Velites for grenadiers and 400 for
chasseurs. The vlites were admitted in the regiments of horse grenadiers and horse chasseurs and
formed V and VI Squadrons. (See below). Theoretically after 3 or 5 years all the velites became
second lieutenants of the line cavalry regiments.
1805
Squadrons
(of veterans)
Squadrons
of Velites
Horse Grenadiers 4 2
Horse Chasseurs 4 2
Elite Gendarmes 1
-
Mamelukes 0.5
-
Each squadron had 2 companies.
Each company consisted of:
= 1 Capitaine
= 2 Lieutenant en premier
= 2 Lieutenant en second
= 1 Marechal-des-logis-chef
= 6 Marechaux-logis (4 in 1813)
= 1 Fourrier
= 10 Brigadiers (8 in 1813)
= 3 Trompettes
= 1 Marechal-ferrant (blacksmith)
= 96 Privates
Guard Cavalry at Austerlitz in December
1805.
Commander: Marshal Bessieres
- - - Regiment of Horse Grenadiers (5
squadrons)
- - - Commander: General de Brigade
Ordener, Major Lepic
- - - - - - Chef Prince Borghse
- - - - - - Chef Jolivet
- - - - - - Chef Duclaux
- - - - - - Chef Rossignol
- - - - - - Chef Blancard
- - - - - - Chef Treulle
- - - - - - Chef Chamorin
- - - - - - Chef Clement [Velites Squadron]
- - - Regiment of Horse Chasseurs (5 squadrons)
- - - Commander: General de Brigade Morland,
Major Dahlmann
- - - - - - Chef Bourbier
- - - - - - Chef Beurmann
- - - - - - Chef Guyot
- - - - - - Chef Bohn
- - - - - - Chef Charpentier
- - - - - - Chef Thiry
- - - - - - Chef Clerc [Velites Squadron] *
- - - - - - * - on the day of battle formed Napoleon's escort
- - - Mamelukes - General Rapp, Captain Delaitre
(1/2 squadron)
- - - Company of Guard Horse Artillery - Captain Chauveau
- - - Company Guard Horse Artillery - Captain Dubuard
In 1806 each cavalry regiment was ordered to send 6 best men to the Guard Cavalry.
The candidates from :
- hussars were at least 170 cm tall
- from chasseurs and dragoons 173 cm
- from cuirassiers and carabiniers 176 cm tall
In 1806 was formed third regiment of the Guard Cavalry, the Guard Dragoons
-->
(Regiment de Dragons de la Garde Impriale). Part of this regiment (2 squadrons)
was present in the battle of Friedland. See below.
Order of battle of the Guard Cavalry Division in June 1807
(Not all squadrons were present at Friedland)
Commander - GdD Walther
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Horse Chasseurs [6 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Mamelukes [2 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Heavy Cavalry Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Horse Grenadiers [6 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Dragoons [2 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Elite Gendarmes [2 squadrons]
In 1807 fourth unit was raised, the Polish Guard Lighthorse -->
(Regiment de Chevau-Lgers de la Garde Impriale Polonais).
In 1807 it was ordered that all cavalry regiments will send 700
bravest soldiers who had distinguished in battles regardless of
their length of service.
In 1808 the Guard Cavalry was involved in some bloody street
fighting in Madrid, Spain. Chlapowski of Guard Light Horse
wrote: " The cavalry of the Guard was stationed in villages 1 to 1.5
miles from the city ... The inhibitants collected in the key areas
around the city, armed with long swords and knives. Many had
firearms. Most of them gathered in the city center at the square
called the Puerto del Sol, but they were also milling around in the
side streets. They shot at officers riding past with orders. Murat's ADC, Gobert, was stabbed
several times in the legs as he fought his way through the Puerto del Sol, but despite this he made
it right across town to the (Guard) Fusiliers, who straight away marched to the arsenal. They took
it without a shot and dispersed the crowd which had taken a few old artillery pieces, but did not
know how to fire them. About 2,000 peasants and citizens were captured." (Chlapowski - "Memoirs
of a Polish Lancer" p. 36, translated by Tim Simmons)
Baron de Marbot added his own description of the events:
"While defending the dismounted dragoon, I had received a
blow from a dagger in my jacket sleeve, and two of my
troopers had been slightly wounded. My orders were to bring
the divisions to the Puerta del Sol, and they started at a
gallop. The squadrons of the guard, commanded by the
celebrated Daumesmil (picture), marched first, with the
Mamelukes leading.
The riot had had time to increase; we were fired
upon from nearly all the houses... We lost there
several men, among others the terrible
Mustapha, that Mameluke who went near to
catching the Grand Duke Constantine at
Austerlitz. ... In the Puerta del Sol we found
Murat engaged with a huge compact crowd of
armed men.... The Mamelukes, dashing scimitar in hand into
the dense mass, sent a hundred heads flying in a trice, and
opened a way for the Guard Chasseurs and Guard Dragoons, who set to furiously with their
sabres.
The Spaniards, rolled back from the square, tried to escape by the many wide streets which meet
there from all parts of the town, but they were stopped by other French columns whom Murat had
bidden to rendezvous at that point. There were also partial combats in other quarters, but this was
the most important, and decided the victory in our favour. The insurgents had 1,200 or 1,500 men
killed and many wounded, and their loss would have been much greater if Murat had not given
the order to cease firing."
When this massacre became known, an insurrection broke out in other parts of Spain, namely
Asturias, and soon afterward embraced the whole country. It is to be remarked that this first
spontaneous rising originated with the people, while the 'better' classes had quietly submitted to
the foreign yoke.
Order of battle of the Guard Cavalry Division in July 1809
(Not all squadrons were present at Wagram)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Mamelukes [2 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of (Polish) Lighthorsemen [4 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Heavy Cavalry Brigade
In 1810 fifth regiment was formed, the Dutch lancers.
(2e Regiment de Chevau-Lgers Lanciers de la Garde Impriale).
They were the Red Lancers.
Not always the best soldiers were sent to the Guard by the colonels of the Line. In July 1811
Napoleon wrote: "Communicate my displeasure to the colonel of the 9th Cuirassiers. He has sent
the Guard a bad character who has spent 3 months in jail. Order him to place the responsible
parties under 24-hour arrest and publish the fact in his orders. ... The inspectors will select the men
for the Guard hereafter."
In December 1811 Napoleon wrote to his Chief-of-Staff Marshal Bessieres: "I see that thanks to
your efforts the cavalry strength of Guard amounts to 6.450, or 400 men short of establishement. I
have decreed that the following regiments shall each provide 10 men of the required quality, to wit
the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 10th Hussars, and the 10th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 22nd, 26th, 27th, 29th and
30th Chasseurs, totalling 140 men.
These men will be taken from the regimental depots, and if enough men of the required quality are
not available at the depots, then the shortfall will be made up from the combat squadrons in Spain.
The 20 dragoon regimentsd serving in Spain will each provide 10 men, making another 200. The 16
regiments of cuirassiers and carabiniers will each provide 6 men, making another 96. As for the 60
men needed to complete the 2nd Lighthorse (Dutch Lancers), the Velites will provide them."
The Guard was ranked into three categories: Old, Middle and Young Guard. The Old Guard
enjoyed the highest prestige, and in 1811 Napoleon made it clear to Berthier (chief-of-staff) "I wish
it clearly understood that this priviledge doesn't apply to the 2nd Grenadiers and 2nd Chasseurs,
nor to the Fusiliers (Middle Guard), voltigeurs and tirailleurs (Young Guard) nor the 2nd
Lighthorse-lancers ("Red Lancers"). ... Keep this decision for your guidance alone."
Old Guard:
Regiment of Horse Grenadiers
Gendarmes
Regiment of Horse Chasseurs
Mamelukes
Regiment of Dragoons
Regiment of 1st Lancers (Polish)
Officers and sergeants of Middle Guard
Officers of Young Guard
Middle Guard:
Regiment of 2nd Lancers (Red Lancers, Dutch)
Sergeants of Young Guard
Young Guard:
Squadrons of Velites (in Regiment of Horse Grenadiers)
Squadrons of Velites (in Regiment of Horse Chasseurs)
Squadrons of Velites (in Regiment of Polish Lancers)
Squadrons of Velites (in Regiment of Dragoons)
Thus in Velites only the privates were the raw recruits, the real Young Guard.
Officers came from the Old Guard, while the NCOs from the Middle Guard.
Order of battle of the Guard Cavalry Division in
September 1812
- - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Lefevbre-Desnouettes
- - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Horse Chasseurs [5 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - Mamelukes [half squadron]
- - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB St.Sulpice
- - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Dragoons [5 squadrons]
- - - - - 3rd Brigade - GdD Walther
- - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Horse Grenadiers [5 squadrons]
- - - - - 4th Brigade - GdB Krasinski
- - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of (Polish) Lancers [4 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - attached: (Polish) Vistula Uhlans [half
squadron]
- - - - - 5th Brigade - GdB Colbert
- - - - - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of (Dutch) "Red Lancers" [4
squadrons]
- - - - - 6th Brigade - GdD Durosnel
- - - - - - - - - - Elite Gendarmes [2 squadrons]
In 1812 the Imperial Guard vanished in the Russian snows and Napoleon had to rebuild this
formation. In 1813 he ordered that every cavalry regiment in Spain will send 20 best veterans into
the Old Guard. The squadrons of Young Guard were made up of true volunteers from the towns
and departments near Paris. These volunteers were not those who went into the Honor Guards.
(Bowden - "Napoleon's Grande Armee 1813" p 39)
A common criticism of the guard was that it drew off the best men from the line and from the
conscripts, thereby robbing them of potential sergeants and corporals. But it must be remembered
that Napoleon intended that the guard serves as a training ground for the NCOs from the army so
the guard functioned as a military school. For example sergeants of the Old Guard were
commisioned as the second lieutenants in the line.
1813
Squadrons of
Old Guard
Squadrons of
Middle Guard
Squadrons of
Young Guard
Horse Grenadiers 4
-
2
Elite Gendarmes 2
- -
Dragoons 4
-
2
Horse Chasseurs 4
-
6
1st Polish Lancers 4 2 1
2nd Red Lancers 4
-
6
1st Honor Guard
- -
5
2nd Honor Guard
- -
5
3rd Honor Guard
- -
5
4th Honor Guard
- -
5
Order of battle of the Guard Cavalry in mid May 1813
Commander - GdD Philippe-Antoine dOrnano
1st Guard Cavalry Division - GdD Lefebvre-Desnouettes (2,980 men)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of (Polish) Lancers [3 Old Guard + 4 Young Guard squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of (Dutch) "Red Lancers" [6 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of (German) "Berg Lancers" [3 squadrons]
2nd Guard Cavalry Division - GdD Walther (3,770 men)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Horse Chasseurs [4 Old Guard + 5 Young Guard squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Dragoons [4 Old Guard + 2 Young Guard squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Horse Grenadiers [4 Old Guard + 2 Young Guard squadrons]
Order of battle of the Guard Cavalry in September 1813
1st Guard Cavalry Division - GdD Ornano
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Colbert
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of (German) "Berg Lancers" [3 squadrons + 3 squadrons detached]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of (Dutch-French) "Red Lancers" [10 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Linteville
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Dragoons [2 Young Guard squadrons]
2nd Cavalry Division - GdD Lefebvre-Desnouettes
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Krasinski
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of (Polish) Lancers [4 Young Guard squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Castex
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Horse Chasseurs [5 Young Guard squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Horse Grenadiers [2 Young Guard squadrons]
3rd Cavalry Division - GdD Walther
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Lyon
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of (Polish) Lancers [4 Old Guard squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4th Regiment of Honor Guards [5 squadrons)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Horse Chasseurs [4 squadrons of Old Guard]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of Honor Guards [5 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Letort
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Dragoons [4 Old Guard squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of Honor Guards [5 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Brigade - GdB Laferriere
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Horse Grenadiers [4 Old Guard squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Regiment of Honor Guards [5 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Elite Gendarmes [2 squadrons detached to Headquarters]
Order of battle of the Guard Cavalry in February 1814 at La Rothiere.
1st (Old Guard) Cavalry Division - GdD Colbert de Chabanais
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdD Krasinski
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of (Polish) Lancers [4 Old Guard + 4 Young Guard squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of Eclaireurs [4 squadrons]
2nd (Old Guard) Cavalry Division - GdD Guyot
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdD Guyot
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Horse Grenadiers [4 Old Guard squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdD Ornano
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Dragoons [4 Old Guard squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Brigade - GdD Lefebvre-Desnouettes
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Horse Chasseurs [4 Old Guard squadrons]
1st (Young Guard) Cavalry Division - GdD Laferriere
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Horse Chasseurs [6 Young Guard squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Dragoons [2 Young Guard squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Horse Grenadiers [2 Young Guard squadrons]
2nd (Young Guard) Cavalry Division - GdD Defrance
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of Honor Guard [4 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of Honor Guard [2 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Regiment of Honor Guard [2 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4th Regiment of Honor Guard [2 squadrons]
In the spring of 1815 was formed by Wellington so-called Bourbon Cavalry Corps led by Duc de
Barri. This unit consisted completely of French deserters willing to fight for King Louis XVIII's
cause. They were cuirassiers, dragoons and even some horse grenadiers and horse chasseurs of the
Old Guard. The exact strength of this "Corps" is unknown, it consisted of few squadrons. The
Bourbon Cavalry Corps took no part in the battles of Ligny and Waterloo.
Ordre of battle of the Guard Cavalry in June 1815, Battle of Waterloo
Guard Light Cavalry Division - GdD Lefebvre-Desnouettes
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Lallemand
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Colbert de Chabanais
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of (Polish) Lancers [1 squadron]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of (French) "Red Lancers" [4 squadrons]
Guard Heavy Cavalry Division - GdD Guyot
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade - GdB Jamin de Bermuy
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade - GdB Letort
~
Commander of Guard Cavalry - Marshal Bessiers.
The combination of being calm and intrepid attracted Napoleon.
Bessieres, a thorough soldier and all soldier, was loyal, brave and
even-tempered, "possessing a cold courage that never flinched."
The cavalry of the Imperial Guard was commanded by Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bessieres (1766-
1813).
In the beginning of his military career Bessieres served in the Constitutional Guard of King
Louis XVI and as NCO took part in the war against Spain. He repeatedly distinguished
himself for valour, and in 1796, as an officer, he served in Napoleon's Italian campaign.
During the invasion of Styria he commanded the "Guides," who formed the nucleus of the
later Guard Horse Chasseurs. Bessieres served in the Egyptian expedition, and distinguished
himself at Acre and Aboukir. Returning to Europe he was present at Marengo (1800) as
second-in-command of the Consular Guard. Bessieres led a brilliant cavalry charge at the
close of the day.
In 1802 Bessieres became General de Division. He was always impeccably uniformed and
rigorous in discipline. "He alone kept the old-fashioned military style of both powdering his
hair and wearing it in a long queue."
In 1804 Marechal de France. Bessieres was one of the Good Marshals, liked by soldiers and
junior officers.
In 1808 Bessieres crushed the Spanish troops at Medina del Rio Seco.
In 1809 at Essling Bessieres' desperate cavalry charges checked the Austrians. At Wagram he
had a horse killed under him and the marshal himself was injured. Henri Lachoque writes,
"At this moment Bessieres was needed to charge Liechtenstein's cavalry - ut the Marshal had
just been hit. ... Bessieres was borne unconscious from the field on a litter. His guardsmen
thought he was dead. All swore to avenge him. 'That was a fine shot, Bessieres' the Emperor
told him later. "It made my Guard cry...'"
In 1809 he was created duke of Istria.
The newly-created duke of Istria successfully opposed the British Walcheren expedition.
Then Bessieres was back in Spain and at Fuentes de Onoro he was second-in-command, after
Massena.
In Spain Bessieres ordered a reign of terror, seizing hostages and arresting magistrates and
priests.
During the Invasion of Russia in 1812 he commanded the Guard Cavalry. Bessieres was
personally beloved to an extraordinary extent amongst his guardsmen. He won further
distinction during the retreat from Russia and at the beginning of the 1813 he was appointed
to the command of the whole of cavalry.
In 1813, while reconnoitering the defile of Poserna-Rippach, Bessires was killed by a cannon
ball which ricocheted off a wall. Georges Blond writes, " .... staff surrounded him [Bessieres]
and this ciolorful party was spotted by the gunners of an enemy battery. The first round
decapitated a sergeant of the Polish lancers of the escort. Bessieres, saddened, galloped
toward the enemy to inspect their position more closely, then returned: 'I want this young
man buried.' Hardly had he spoken, when a round from the same battery struck him fully in
the body. Napoleon, learning shortly afterwards of his death, appeared distressed." ... When
walking away, he murmured: 'Death is coming near to us."
Napoleon deeply felt the loss of Bessieres, his friend and able commander, and protected his
children.
Marshal Bessieres
~
Napoleon's Escort and the Duty Squadrons.
Four squadrons drawn from the four regiments of Guard Cavalry :
Horse Grenadiers, Horse Chasseurs, Dragoons, and Polish lancers
formed Napoleon's escort. These were called "the duty squadrons".
Among the four duty squadrons the Chasseurs had a special task:
a group of 20-30 men rode in front and behind the Emperor.
The Emperor was guarded by a squadron of Guard Cavalry, usually of the Horse Chasseurs.
Only on rare ocassions other troops enjoyed this priviledge. In 1806 when the Guard couldn't
catch up with the Emperor, the 1st Hussars escorted him. The Guard was so exhausted on
arrival that the hussars continued to escort Napoleon. In the battle of Eckmuhl in 1809 the 1st
Horse Chasseurs (this was line regiment, not guard) escorted the Emperor. Shortly, also in
1809, the 1st Horse Carabiniers enjoyed this priviledge. In 1813 after the battle of Dresden,
Napoleon was escorted by Elite Gendarmes.
In most campaigns Napoleon had in his disposal 4 squadrons drawn from the four regiments
of Guard cavalry: horse grenadiers, horse chasseurs, Polish lancers and dragoons. These
squadrons were called "the duty squadrons". In the beginning the duty squadrons were one
each from the chasseurs and grenadiers, later augmented by the dragoons and Poles, when
they became "Old Guard".
At Leipzig in 1813 the situation became so critical that Napoleon was forced to unleash the
four duty squadrons (grenadiers, Polish lancers, dragoons and chasseurs). These 800 superb
cavalrymen led by Letort "scored a brilliant victory against the Austrian horse, including the
capture of 190 officers and men of the famous Vincent [Latour] Chevaulegers." (Parquin -
"Napoleon's Victories")
Among the four duty squadrons the Horse Chasseurs had a
special task: a group of 20-30 men rode in front and behind the
Emperor, while a corporal and 4 chasseurs cleared a way for
him. One of the four carried his despatch case and another his
field glass. If the Emperor dismounted these men would
immediately do likewise.
The picket that accompanied Napoleon during his frequent
excursions away from his field Headquarters was drawn from
the Horse Chasseur service squadron and comprised :
- 1 lieutenant
- 1 marechal-des-logis
- 2 brigadiers
- 1 trumpeter
- 22 chasseurs
Some were riding in advance and some to the rear of the group
immediately surrounding the Emperor. The latter included a
brigadier and 4 chasseurs, one of whom carried Napoleon's portfolio containing his maps,
writing materials and dividers, while another bore his telescope.
There were dangers not only on the battlefield. From 1800 to 1805, a terrorist organization led
by the Bourbon Comte d'Artois and supported by the British Government, attempted no
fewer than 6 times to assassinate Napoleon. The most infamous was the 'infernal machine'
which exploded in Paris. This horse-drawn bomb killed many people and demolished a
building.
In Russia in 1812 the Cossacks attacked
Napoleon's headquarters at Gorodnia
[Horodnia]. The only troops with the
Emperor was the Duty Squadron of the 1st
Guard Lancers under Kozietulski.
Kozietulski's men threw themselves at the
swarm of Cossacks. Kozietulski was pierced
by lance "which entered his shoulder as far
as the bone." In Museum of the Polish
Army in Warsaw is exhibited his uniform
with the visible hole in the sleeve and
stained in blood.
It was a dramatic fight. There then appeared the Old Guard Horse Grenadiers in line
formation and the Cossacks disappeared into the forest. They returned however in large
numbers and surrounded the Red Lancers on three sides. The Dutch lost more than 100 men
and the Poles who tried to rescue their comrades lost approx. 20 killed and wounded.
PS.
Napoleon was never the best of horsemen, and most often travelled by coach. It was painted in green, drawn by 6 large
grey horses (three ex-drivers of Guard Horse Artillery rode on them), and had 2 coachmen on top and a servant on the
box. The coach contained pull-out bed, hand-operated printing press, his mobile treasury, and small library. The escort
of the coach was as follow: four Guard Chasseurs-a-Cheval rode in pairs before the coach, and twelve pairs were
behind it. At night 5 lamps illuminated the coach, which gave extraordinary appearance as it raced through villages.
~
Miscellaneous.
The rare thing.
The Old Guard Horse Grenadiers
(picture, right) and the Old Guard
Lancers (picture at the bottom of the
article) were the only two regiments
of Napoleon's Cavalry of the
Imperial Guard never defeated by
equal number of enemy's cavalry.
The other guard units suffered only
few setbacks and in each of them
they were outnumbered by the
enemy.
At Eylau in 1807 the Guard Horse Grenadiers were very successful against the Russian
infantry and artillery. However, in one of the actions two squadrons of this splendid regiment
were counter-attacked by several squadrons of fine Russian hussars and some Cossacks.
Being disordered after crushing the Russian infantry the grenadiers were surrounded by fresh
and much stronger cavalry force. The Russians called for surrender.
General Lepic responded: "Take a look at these faces and see if they want to
surrender !" Then he shouted to the grenadiers "Follow me !" and set off at
the gallop back through enemy lines. The grenadiers rallied, and together
with the chasseurs came back, and routed the Russian horse.
James Arnold writes: While one wing of the Guard heavy cavalry shattered
a nearby square of Russian infantry the other two squadrons engaged a
Russian cavalry force featuring elements of three different hussar regiments.
A Russian hussar officer was immensely proud of his troopers conduct,
writing that they even dared to show their points to the feared Grenadiers a cheval. In a
surprising reversal of fortune, the hussars drove back the heavy cavalry of the Imperial
Guard. Lepic led his wing through the disordered first line, made a partial wheel to the left,
and charged the Russian hussars. In this second encounter, the grenadiers triumphed.
Covered by the intervention of the Guard grenadiers, the chasseurs reformed and charged
again. Twice the squadrons of the Guard overran the Russian mass, knocked out their
artillery, then ran over them in the opposite direction.
According to the Russians
themselves, Marshal Murats cavalry
broke through their infantry, but then
was halted by fresh forces and had to
fight their way back. In the tail of the
retreating French cavalry were the
Guard Horse Grenadiers. The hussars
and Cossacks surrounded them and
called to surrender.
Russian sources; memoirs of General
Bennigsen, memoirs of Denis
Davydov, memoirs of Yermolov; and
the Journal of Actions of Imperial
Russian army 1807, describe this episode. Two squadrons of French guard cavalry were
locked between the lines of Russian infantry. Mass of Russian cavalry surrounded them but
the French refused to surrender. A short fight developed, some guardsmen were killed, many
escaped trough intervals between the cannons of Russian right flank battery, while few were
taken prisoner. Shikanov mentions only 51 privates and 1 officer of Horse Grenadiers
captured prisoner. (Shikanov V.H. - Pervaia Polskaia Kampania 1806-1807 Moskva Reytar
2002, p 173)
On Dec 15 1813, 60-100 Elite Gendarmes were routed by Colomb's Hussars and Cossacks.
The Guard Dragoons were defeated in 1807 by the Russian cavalry. After battle of
Friedland Napoleon sent Guard Dragoons and Saxon cavalry in pursuit of the defeated
Russians. They met with a strong force of Russian light cavalry from the rear-guard, were
routed and pursued all the way to the main French army, creating confusion in the ranks of
the infantry and artillery. (Elting, Esposito - "A Military History and Atlas ...")
The Guard Dragoons were again defeated on 24th September 1812 by two squadrons of
Russian Lifeguard Dragoons. According to Caulaincourt the loss of 150-250 Guard Dragoons
caused more consternation in Napoleon's headquarters than "the loss of 50 generals." (Curtis
Cate - "The War of The Two Emperors").
French author, Henri
Lachoque, does not
mention the two
squadrons of Russian
Lifeguard Dragoons.
He writes, "On the
23rd General St.Sulpice
was sent to Bezovka,
halfway to Mozhaisk,
with the Guard
Dragoons, two horse
batteries, and an
infantry regiment to
guard the line of
communications. Two
days later a patrol of
200 dragoons fell into an ambush set up by 4,000 Cossacks ... More than 80 dragoons were
killed, wounded, or captured."
The splendid squadrons of Young Guard (from the Horse Grenadiers, Horse Chasseurs,
Dragoons)
were routed at Leipzig in 1813 by Chaplitz's Russian uhlans and dragoons. Efim Chaplitz
came from Polish gentry. In 1783 he entered Russian service and became one of the most
successful generals of Russian light and medium cavalry.
In 1812 the newly formed 3rd Guard Lancers (Young Guard, Polish) was
defeated at Slonim by a large force of Chaplitz's cavalry Cossacks and Russian
Pavlograd Hussars. General Konopka, 13 officers, and 253 men were
captured.
In 1812 the Dutch Red Lancers were harrased mercilessly by Ataman
Platov's Cossacks and suffered heavy losses. The Cossacks and their methods
of combat were unknown to the Dutch and the weather was too harsh for them. Not
surprisingly only few Red Lancers survived this campaign. Sometimes when Cossacks saw a
patrol of the Regiment they would make a rush at them shouting "A red one ! Catch him !",
and often forced them to flee. It is said that, on occassion, the seasoned Polish Guard Lancers
would exchange their sombre blue and crimson uniform for the Dutch scarlet, causing
considerable surprise to overconfident Cossacks and encouraging a warier approach in
future." (Pawly - "The Red Lancers" p 35)
In December 1814 Generals Roguet and Lefebvre-Desnouettes decided to
raise the siege of Breda and fall back on Antwerp. General Krafft's Prussians
pursued the enemy on the 24 December, catching the French rear guard
between Dorst and Ulvenhout.
"The Prussian 1st Leib Hussar Regiment [nicknamed Death's Head Hussars ->]
routed the Guard Horse Chasseurs and took several prisoners. Heavy fog
forced the Prussians to end the pursuit but enabled the French to reach
Antwerp." (Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon" p 184)
The Guard Horse Chasseurs (Napoleon's favorite cavalry troop) were defeated in
December 1808 at Benavente by the British and German cavalry (3rd King's German Legion
Dragoons, and British 10th Hussars and 18th Light Dragoons). The chasseurs lost 127 men.
Their commander, brave General Lefebvre-Desnouettes, was captured by a German named
Bergmann, who gave up his prize to British hussar Grisdale.
.
Old Guard Lancers, by L Rouselot
" Generals Walther, Lefebvre-Desnouettes and Letort (all from the Guard Cavalry)
all congratulated me on my successful charges. I was delighted when one of them
said: "If anyone is braver or fights better than us, it's you Guard Lancers !"
- senior officer of the Guard Lancers, Leizpig Campaign 1813
~
Regiment of Horse Grenadiers of the Imperial Guard
[Regiment de Grenadiers--Cheval de la Garde Impriale]
They became known for their austerity and haughty demeanor.
The army nicknamed them "The Giants", "The Gods" or simply
"The High Heels" from their heavy cavalry, tall boots.
The Guard Horse Grenadiers were the senior regiment in the Guard Cavalry. Their
priviledged position the whole army - and even the Guard - had envied. In 1796 the
Guard of Directory (Garde du Directoire) was organized and one squadron of Horse
Grenadiers was raised. Soon Napoleon enlarged the troop to two and then to four
squadrons. The privates wore dark blue coats and collars, white lapels and tall boots.
In 1797 they received tall fur caps.
In 1804 the Consular Guard became Imperial Guard. The troopers were quartered at the
barracks in the Ecole Militaire where they slept in solid oak beds 6'8" by 4' with a shelf at the
head. The food was good and the wine even better.
The horse grenadiers were armed with straight sabers, pistols and carbines.
1806 - the carbines were replaced by longer dragoon muskets
1806 - the straight saber was replaced by a slightly curved saber a la Montmorency
1807 - the long dragoon muskets were replaced by guard cavalry carbines.
The slightly curved saber a la Montmorency was 97,5 cm long, and it had a flared brass hilt
decorated with a flaming grenade. The beechwood grip was covered with parchment, and the
wooden scabbard with laminated strips of leather and brass. The rings and shoe, or drag,
were iron.
Colonels :
1801-1806 Ordener
1806-1813 Walter
1813-1815 Guyot
Colonels-en-Second and Majors :
1804 - Oulie
1805 - Lepic
1805 - Chastel
1812 - Exelmans
1813 - Castex
1814 - Levesque-Ferriere
1814 - Jamin de Bermuy
The Horse Grenadiers rode on big black horses, with full manes
and tails, bought in Caen for 680 francs apiece. Their daily ration
was 10 pounds of hay, 15 of straw, and 2/3 bushel of oats or 1/3
of bran. The privates in the squadrons of Young Guard rode on
browns.
The Horse Grenadiers were the elite of the elite of the French cavalry.
Napoleon was unwilling to committ the precious regiment in battle.
They however participated in several large and small combats.
In 1800 at Marengo they waited calmly under fire. 'Keep your chins up !' shouted their
sergeants.
Then they drew their long sabers and charged overthrowing everything on their way.
In Austerlitz in 1805 they defeated Tsar's best cavalry. The Horse Grenadiers advanced
from behind infantry clutching their long sabers and shouting, "Let the ladies in St.
Petersburg to cry!" The fight was sharp but short. The Russians were thrown back and
pursued until Krenowitz. Russian Guard Cavalry was defeated and only Repnin's squadron
continued its desperate fight. The surrounded Russians suffered heavy casualties.
In 1807 at Eylau they stood under hellish fire from 60 Russian cannons, when their
commander General Lepic noted some of his troopers ducking incoming shells.
"Heads up, by God!" he cried "Those are bullets - not turds." Few moments
later they charged and overthrew several Russian units. (Chandler - "The
Campaigns of Napoleon")
The regiment lost 14 officers killed and wounded. Baron Meneval describes
how the Horse Grenadiers forming part of a force of 24 squadrons together
with d'Hautpoul's cuirassiers charged into the Russian squares. They broke
the centre, wheeled, and charged a second time reaching the enemy's third
line.
The horse grenadiers shortly campaigned in Spain. Not big battles just a lot of problems
with the Spanish guerillas. Henri Lachoque writes, "A squadron of horse grenadiers tethered
their horses in the garden of a monastery and fell into a trap. Lured by an urchin to 'come in
and quench his thirst', one trooper did not return. A grenadier who went in search of him also
disappeared. Some men of their troop returning from a foraging detail conducted an
investigation, sabers in hand. They found the child, followed him, and discovered their two
comrades with their heads cut off. They arrested 8 monks and threw them all out of the
window." (Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory" p 133)
In 1812 the horse grenadiers campaigned in Russia. They were present at Borodino, entered
Moscow and ten patrols guarded the inside of the Kremlin. The horse grenadiers had also
several encounters with the elusive Cossacks. Chlapowski writes, "There then appeared the
Horse Grenadiers, in line formation. This line of black horses, its tall riders also in black
bearskins, so impressed the Cossacks that they disappeared into the forest." (Chlapowski, - p
123)
In the very end of the battle of Waterloo, when the entire French army fell apart before the
Prussians and the British-Netherland army, the horse grenadiers made a great impression on
the pursuers. Captain Barton of the 12th Light Dragoons described how his regiment
advanced against the giants on black horses. The grenadiers "appeared to take but little notice
of our advance, when opposite their flank they fired a few pistol or carbine shots. We were ...
being too weak to make an impression [on them], they literally walked from the field in a
most majestic manner."
In November 1815 the regiment was disbanded. On 25 November for the last time their
trumpeters sounded the Ban. The standard-bearer advanced to the Inspector and presented
the standard. It was the last unit of the whole Imperial Guard (infantry, cavalry, and artillery)
disbanded by the Bourbons.
The Guard was no more.
Battle of Eylau 1807
General Lepic noted some of his grenadiers ducking incoming shells.
" Heads up, by God ! " - he cried - " Those are bullets - not turds. "
.
The Men.
Their colonel forbade "any woman under 40
to come in and make soup for them."
When it came to muscle and physique, the grenadiers, man for man, could have thrown the
chasseurs, Mamelukes, and the Young Guard, all outdoors and walked on them. The horse
grenadiers were strong, tall and handsome, and their colonel forbade "any woman under 40
to come in and make soup for them." :-)
For new candidates there were strict requirements: 176 cm tall, 10 years' service,
4 campaigns and citation for bravery. The legionaires were exempted from all
requirements.
Most candidates came from the regiments of heavy cavalry (carabinier and cuirassier
regiments.)
In 1809, just few days after the battle of Wagram, "The 3rd Cuirassier Division passed in
review at the Schonbrunn. As was his custom when honoring gallant units, Napoleon stood
before the 8th Cuirassier Regiment and asked who was the unit's bravest trooper. The colonel
replied that the entire regiment was brave. The emperor directed his question to the troopers,
and they answered 'Millot.' When that worthy stepped forward, Napoleon, exhibiting his
formidable memory that so delighted his grognards, inquired if they had not already met.
'Yes', replied Millot, 'at Heilsberg'. Napoleon awarded him with the cherished Cross and
would later promote him into the Imperial Guard Horse Grenadiers."
(Source: James Arnold - "Napoleon Conquers Austria")
There were also candidates from the dragoons, chasseurs and even some
hussars. For example the scarface NCO Guindey (see picture -->), NCO of the
10th Hussar Regiment, who killed Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia in 1806. The
brave Guindey was killed in 1813 at Hanau by the Bavarians.
Among the officers Majors Venieres, Pernet, and Delaporte had fought in 23 or
more campaigns !
Colonel Ordener has achieved fame by receiving
- 7 saber wounds
- 3 bullet wounds
- and 1 wound from a cannonball !
But not only their privates, NCOs and officers were brave men, generals too.
General Lois Lepic was a great man and honourable soldier. His greatest
weakness was his health, he was affected by severe arthritis and by
numerous wounds. At Pastrengo in 1799 he suffered 8 sabre wounds (incl. 7
to his head !) and 1 bullet wound to his arm. At Eylau in 1807 he suffered 2
bayonet wounds. Today there are places, restaurants and even streets in
France named after Louis Lepic. One or two restaurants or bars of this name
are also in USA.
In May 1815, just few weeks before Waterloo, 243 men of the Young Guard squadrons asked
to return to the regiment. Guyot wrote, "Perhaps they are not as perfect as the old grenadiers,
but they hope to be, and take pride in the regiment ..."
The Horse Grenadiers were very devoted to the Emperor. In March 1814 a major of grenadiers
was wounded at Craonne. He had his foot carried away by a cannon-ball and the surgeon
had to amputate his leg. During the extremely painful operation "which he bore with great
courage, the man called out "Vive l'Empereur!" and lost consciousness.
Guard Horse Grenadiers, picture by Rousellot.
In 1807 at Eylau, the Russian cavalry and Cossacks surrounded
the horse grenadiers and called for surrender. General Lepic
responded: "Take a look at these faces and see if they want to
surrender !" Then he shouted to the grenadiers "Follow me !"
and set off at the gallop back through enemy lines.
.
Uniforms.
Their wardrobe was made by Bosquet, the master tailor.
During the Waterloo Campaign however "these once
magnificient horsemen had ... lost their shine.
There was a shabbiness, a lack of uniformity ..."
Their wardrobe was made by Bosquet, the master tailor, a celebrated artist in his craft. Their
bearskins (received in 1797) were made by Maillard of the Rue Saint-Honore, and their tall
black boots by Fabritzius. The trumpeter's hat was of the same quality as a general's. For
parade their horses were decorated with red, braided forelocks and crupper rosettes.
In 1812 the Horse Grenadiers left Paris for the campaign against Russia in new fur caps and
cords made by the Emperor's hatter Poupard. The war and the winter retreat their splendid
uniforms.
In 1815 they were just in the process of being converted to the cuirassiers of the Guard. The
Bourbons named them Royal Corps of Cuirassiers of France, but the grenadiers protested
against wearing helmets, and kept their fur caps.
There were many uniforms and fur caps missing already before the battles of Ligny and
Waterloo. According to Mark Adkin "these once magnificient horsemen had, like much of the
army, lost their shine. There was a shabbiness, a lack of uniformity ... Most wore blue, single-
breasted undress coats; some had their grubby, off-white cloaks on, some had them rolled
across their shoulder, others on the front of the saddle. While most had their bearskins, few
were ornamented. The remainder wore an assortment of hats or forage caps." Henri Lachoque
described their fur caps looking "rather mangy."
1813 (Campaign in Germany)
I, II, III, IV Squadron
Old Guard
V and VI Suadron
Young Guard
Uniforms
fur caps with red plumes and golden
cords
dark blue coat with white lapels
aiguilettes
fur caps without plumes and cords
dark blue coat without lapels
no aiguilettes
Horses
16-hands tall blacks,
and few browns
15-16 hands tall dark bays
and few dark chestnuts

Parade uniform (1800-07)
It was called the First Full Dress
and consisted of dark blue jacket,
white lapels, and red cuffs. They
also wore bearskins with cords
and tall red plumes.
During campaign they wore s u r t o u t.
It was also worn in battles in 1806-09.
The surtout was fastened with 6-10 buttons and was without
the white lapels and red cuffs. In 1809 the surtout of privates
was replaced by so-called Second Full Dress. However the
majority of the officers and NCOs continued with the old
surtout until 1814.
Second Full Dress (or "undress habit").
In 1809 the surtout was replaced by so-called Second Full Dress.
It was made of cheaper clothes than the First Full Dress. It had
the plain round cuffs of the surtout and the white lapels of the
First Full Dress. This outfit was worn in many battles in 1812-14
Thus the First Full Dress was for parade
while the Second Full Dress was for battle.
This is our favorite uniform of the grenadiers.
Waterloo Campaign 1815
After Napoleon's abdication in 1814 the Guard Horse Grenadiers
had been given a new, short tailed habit-veste in anticipation of
their receiving armor, like the cuirassiers.
~
Elite Gendarmes
[Gendarmerie d'lite]
They were highly disciplined, ruthless men
to be feared by draft-dodgers or villians. They
also maintained order and security in the area
of the headquarters, and protected Napoleon's
baggage, correspondence etc.
In 1801 Bonaparte organized an elite legion of gendarmes. It consisted of a large staff, 2
squadrons of horse gendarmes and 2 companies of foot gendarmes. In 1807 there were 2
squadrons of Elite Gendarmes. (There was also one battalion of foot gendarmes in the Guard).
The Elite Gendarmes were recruited from the departamental gendarmes and also drew men
from regiments of heavy cavalry. The candidates were expected to be literate, between 25 and
40 years old, veterans of 4 campaigns and at least 5'9" tall. In 1813 the elite gendarmes were
filled up with 200 national gendarmes. A third of the newly recruited gendarmes were
required to speak German. (The year of 1813 was the year of Saxon Campaign.)
The army nicknamed them "The Immortals" because in the early period they didn't participate
in any combat. Jean Barres writes, "On the 14th of July, as we were about to enter
Brandenburg, some of the Emperor's carriages, escorted by the elite gendarmerie, passed
through our ranks. A man of Guard Foot Chasseurs shouted: 'Room for the Immortals !' A
lively quarrel would have ensued had not the officers intervened. ... This insult was unjust,
but what can one do against a widespread opinion ? However, after the battle of Eylau the
Emperor ordered, on the day of a battle, that the gendarmes should have a squadron at the
front. The men died at their post, but this did not kill the jest."
The Elite Gendarmes rode on big black horses.
They were armed with straight sabers, pistols and carbines/muskets.
They wore dark blue coats with red lapels, tall boots and bearskins.
Their bearskins however were slightly lower than Horse Grenadiers'.
Colonels :
1801-10 Savary (Minister of Police)
1810-15 Durosnel
Most often the genadarmes acted in samll detachments. They were
highly disciplined, ruthless - men to be feared by draft-dodgers
deserters, or villians. The duties of Elite Gendarmes also included:
- protecting Napoleon's baggage
- maintaining order and security in the area of the headquarters
- guarding and escorting VIPs like Pope
- escorting and interrogating prisoners
- guarding trophies to be handed over to the Emperor
- guarding money, seals, correspondence, etc.
- In 1809 at Aspern-Essling they guarded the bridge built across Danube River
and during battle they forbade passage for any but the wounded.

Elite Gendarmes in Paris. Picture by Job.
~
Regiment of Dragoons of the Imperial Guard
[Regiment de Dragons de la Garde Impriale]
In 1814 the Guard Dragoons called the returning King "fat pig".
Napoleon loved them while the Bourbons hated them.
In 1804-1806 France had 30 regiments of dragoons, more than any other cavalry. (There were
only 12 regiments of cuirassiers and 10 regiments of hussars, for example.) Thus this is not
surprising that finally - in 1806 - the Regiment of Guard Dragoons was established.
Art XVIII - Each regiment of dragoons of the line will provide, this year, for the formation of
the Guard Dragoons, 12 men having at least 10 years of service. The Emperor will name the
officers: the regiments of horse grenadiers and horse chasseurs will provide the NCos and
sergeants. 2/3 of the officers will be provided by the horse grenadiers and chasseurs; the 1/3,
by the thirty dragoon regiments. ... Art. XIX - Two squadrons of dragoons will not be
organized, this year; next year a new call will be made for 10 men to form the two other
squadrons."
The other requitements were:
at least 173 cm tall (176 cm for Horse Grenadiers, but only 170 cm for Horse Chasseurs)
at least 2 campaigns (3 or 4 campaigns for the Horse Grenadiers and Horse Chasseurs)
able to read and write
citations for bravery
The Guard Dragoons were often termed the Empress Dragoons [Regiment de Dragons de
lImperatice] since she was officially their sponsor.
Officers of Guard Dragoons from the early period, 1806:
Colonel Arrighi - earlier served as colonel of 1st Dragoons
Col.-Mjr. Fiteau - served as colonel in 3rd Dragoons
Major Louis Letort - served as major in 14th Dragoons
Chef Jolivet came from the Guard Horse Grenadiers
Chef Rossignol came from the Guard Horse Grenadiers
Cpt. Desirat came from the 18th Dragoon Regiment
Cpt. Lerivint came from the 25th Dragoon Regiment
Cpt. Duvernoy (adjudant-major) came from the 1st Chasseur Regiment
Cpt. Jolly (adjudant-major) came from the 1st Chasseur Regiment
Colonels :
1806-09 Arrighi
1809-13 St Sulpice
1813 Ornano
Colonels-en-second and Majors :
1806 - Fiteau
1806 - Letort
1809 - Marhtod
1813 - de Pinteville
1813 - Chouard
1815 - Hoffmayer
Letort was one of the commanders of Guard Dragoons. He participated in
numerous campaigns, in the beginning as infantry soldier and then joined the
9th Dragoons. Letort distinguished himself in 1812 in Maloyaroslavetz, in 1813 in
Leipzig, and in 1814 in Montmirail. In 1810 He was made Baron de l'Empire.
Letort was a daredevil of Lasalle's ilk and a general with a tactical awareness. His
performance in 1813 at Leipzig was truly outstanding. In 1814 at Rheims he "led
his Guard Dragoons as though they were the (Polish) winged knights." (Henri Lachoque - "The
Anatomy of Glory")
In 1815 in Gilly, near Fleurus, Letort was shot by the Prussian infantry. He took a musket ball
in the lower abdomen, and lingered in great pain before dying in the night. (A square of
Prussian fusiliers threw back 3 cavalry charges. Several cavalrymen however managed to
break into the center of the square but were bayoneted. The regimental history of the 28th
Infantry Regiment a former Berg regiment, France's ally, described what happened: "Although
several cavalrymen managed to break into the square, they were all bayoneted. Even after
such a show of resistance, the enemy tried to persuade the troops to change sides. General
Letort, commander of the Old Guard Dragoons, recognised the Fusiliers by their Berg
uniform.
He thought that, since the hopelessness of their position would be obvious to them, their
loyalty might waver.He rode up and demanded they desert the Prussian army. A shot rang
out and Letort fell dead from his saddle. Fusilier Kaufmann of the 12th Company had leapt
out of the square and given the enemy general his answer , in powder and lead. The battalion
continued to withdraw but just before it reached the wood, the enemy cavalry approached
again.The 10th Company faced front while the others continued their movement. At this
critical moment, the full force of the enemy cavalry charge it home."
The Guard Dragoons avenged the death of their beloved Letort, the F/28th Infantry lost 13
officers and 614 men that day ! This battalion was then reorganised into a new 'combined
battalion' with the survivors of the III/2nd Westphalian Landwehr which had suffered
heavily on the retreat from Thuin earlier on.
Another daredevil of the Guard Dragoons was Claude Testot-Ferry. In 1811 Napoleon
summoned him to join this regiment, at the rank of major. In 1813, he was put in command of
the 3rd Squadron at the battle of Leipzig, then the 2nd Squadron at the battle of Hanau. At
Hanau he received 22 sabre and lance cuts before safely reaching the rear to have his wounds
treated. In 1813 he took command of the 1st Eclaireur Regiment of the Guard.
The dragoons were armed with:
- slightly curved long sabers a la Montmorency
- dragoon-type muskets
- pistols
The Guard Dragoons wore dark green coats with white lapels, aiguilettes, and fine helmets
with long black horsehair. The fur band around the helmet's base was of simulated panther
skin. The helmets were slightly modified in 1810 by shifting towards the rear of the crest the
point at which the horsehair emerged. The dragoons were never issued the stiff boots worn in
parade by the Horse Grenadiers. Consequently, their officers wore the semi-rigid type with
stiff knee section only.
The men in squadrons of Young Guard wore grey breeches and no aiguilettes.
Napoleon intended to mount the dragoons on
black horses but Bessieres, commander of Guard
cavalry, pointed out that blacks were designated
only for the Horse Grenadiers and for the Elite
Gendarmes. He instructed the commander of
dragoons to procure chestnuts. Originally the first two squadrons rode on catured Prussian
Gendarmes' horses, the other two squadrons were still on foot. Later on all dragoons were
mounted on French, Prussian and Austrian chestnuts (there were also some bays).
In 1809 the Guard Dragoons had made the 2800-km march from Spain in 63 days without
losing a man or a horse. They were present in numerous battles: Friedland, Wagram,
Borodino, Leipzig, Hanau, La Rothiere, to name just few. In 1813 there was a friction between
the famous Saxon cuirassiers (ext.link) and the Guard Dragoons. "At about midday the Saxon
cuirassiers brigade .... was transferred from east of Wachau to the west, from where they
witnessed (with no small pleasure) the defeat of Letort's Dragoons of the Imperial Guard.
This friction between the allies had been generated by the sustained brutality and
licentiousness of the French regiment towards the unfortunate local Saxon population, and
there had been several fights between the regiments in bivouac." (Digby-Smith - "1813:
Leipzig" p 91)
In 1813 and 1814 the Guard Dragoons fought in numerous combats. Although they had no
luck against infantry and artillery they routed enemy's cavalry on numerous ocassions. After
Napoleon's first abdication in 1814, the Guard Dragoons called the returning King "fat pig".
The royalists hated them. In 1815 the Guard Dragoons fought to the very end. At Waterloo
they repeatedly charged the British, German and Netherland infantry and have suffered
heavy casualties.
Guard Dragoons, picture by Rousellot.
They were "very handsome, the horses fine, strong, and well cared for.
The officers, NCOs, and soldiers are animated by an excellent spirit,
perfect discipline, and have a splendid appearance." - General Ornano
~
1st Regiment of Horse Chasseurs of the Imperial Guard
[1ere Regiment de Chasseurs--Cheval de la Garde Impriale]
The Guard Horse Chasseurs were Napoleon's e s c o r t
and for this reason they became the most known troop
in the French army. The Emperor himself wore uniform
of colonel of this regiment.
As commander of the army in Italy, Bonaparte took over the Guides he found at Albenga in
1796. Though they fought with distinction at Mondovi and Lodi, they guarded Bonaparte
poorly. In 1796 at Borghetto, Bonaparte was lunching with general Massena and Murat when
the Austrian light cavalry (Hungarian hussars ?) surprised them. Bonaparte fled by climbing
over a wall and lost his boot in the process. Generals Murat and Massena followed him. This
episode resulted in Bonaparte forming his escort.
General Lannes was put in charge of guarding the headquarters with 2 battalions of Guard
Foot Grenadiers and 100 horse and foot guides. A week later Captain Bessiers, a friend of
Murat, was given command of the Company of Guides of the Commander-in-Chief.
Bonaparte described his Guides as "200 daredevils, well-mounted and brave." The Guides
captured 2 Austrian guns at Roveredo.
In 1798 approx. 400 Guides (horse and foot) joined Napoleon in Egypt. The were at the battle
of Pyramids and at Heliopolis (where Deriot had sustained 17 wounds !) and participated in
the siege of Acre. Their enthusiasm was somewhat dampened during the occupation of the
remote land, some were killed in the Cairo riots, and some were assassinated. Approx. 200
Guides left Egypt in August 1799, the rest returned in 1802. Napoleon reviewed the Guides
and concluded that certain men were too old and unfit for active duty because of wounds.
The Guides were the ancestors of the Guard Horse Chasseurs.
These dashing and swaggering men were Napoleon's escort and for this reason they became
the most known troop in the entire French army. Napoleon wore the green undress uniform
of colonel of this regiment (green was Napoleon's favorite color).
Requirements:
10 years' service (in 1814 the most seasoned chasseur had 28 years' service !)
minimum 3 campaigns
citation for bravery
in 1796 they were expected to be at least 176 cm tall,
then it was lowered to 173 cm, and in 1805 down to 170 cm.
The legionaires were exempted from the height requirement.
The Guard Horse Chasseurs were tough men. At Eylau in 1807 one officer received 14 (!)
bayonet wounds
and survived. James Arnold writes: Lieutenat Rabusson suffered fourteen bayonet wounds:
2 to the jaw;
2 in the thigh;
2 in the arms;
3 in the chest;
3 in the face;
and 2 scoured his skull. Knocked from his horse, Rabusson refused a hussars demand to
[Russian] surrender. A final saber blow dropped him unconscious into the snow.
Miraculously, that evening some of Davouts infantry found Rabusson still unconscious,
carried him to safety, and he survived his ordeal. (Arnold - "Crisis in the snows" p. 305)
Lieutenant Rouvier took two bayonet wounds while fighting through the Russian infantry
and then endured a saber blow from the opposing hussars. A Cossack closed to finish him off
and drove his lance into Rouviers torso. The lieutenant clung to his saddle and managed to
defeat the Cossack. He extracted the lance and continued the fight. (Arnold - "Crisis in the
snows" p. 305)
Colonels :
1802-1808 Eugene Beauharnais
1808-1815 Lefebvre-Desnouettes
Colonels-en-Second and Majors :
1804 - Morland
1805 - Dahlman
1805 - Guyot
1807 - Thiry
1809 - Daumensil
1809 - Corbineau
1809 - Lion
1811 - d'Avranges d'Haugeranville
1813 - Exelmans
1813 - Meuziau
1815 - Lallemand
The Guard Chasseurs rode on 15 hands tall (149-
153 cm) pictoresque bays. They were mostly dark
bays. Some sources, for example L. Rousselot,
mention bays and chestnuts. One author gives
light chestnuts for the squadrons of the Young
Guard.
The chasseurs were armed with slightly curved sabers, pistols and carbines.
The chasseurs' saber had a curved blade 84 cm long (Horse Grenadiers' 97,5 cm !)
with a single-branch brass hilt and a similar grip and scabbard.
The Guard Horse Chasseurs were less precise in movement
than the Horse Grenadiers but they were more resorceful
and dashing. The Horse Chasseurs were also more
flamboyant and less disciplined (in the beginning) than the
Grenadiers. Marshal Bessieres had to request them to refrain
from smoking their pipes while on escort duty and to salute
generals.
In this regiment served quite many foreigners, especially
Germans from Rhineland. But there were also Italians ,
Belgians , and even few Swiss. In 1814 after Napoleon's first
abdication 240 foreigners were retired. Van Merlen had
returned to his native Holland. In 1815 he was killed leading
Netherland Cavalry Brigade against the French at Waterloo .
One of the chasseurs,a black man nicknamed Hercules,distinguished himself in early
campaigns with extraordinary strength and bravery.
The Guard Horse Chasseurs had several nicknames:
- The Comrades
- The Invincibles (they were not)
- The Cherished Children (or rather The Spoiled Brats :-)
One or two authors call them "The Invincibles after their battle-winning charge at Austerlitz".
(Summerville - "March of Death" p 51) IMHO this is an error, for their charge at Austerlitz was
NOT battle-winning. At Austerlitz they have fought very bravely against Tsar's Guard
cavalry and infantry but with mixed results. (Article: "Austerlitz: Napoleon's Guard vs Tzar's
Guard")
In 1807 at Eylau the Guard Horse Chasseurs suffered heavy losses against the Russians.
Lachoque writes, "The Horse Chasseurs lost 21 officers and 224 men in killed and wounded,
and more than 200 horses. Captain Guyot of the II Squadron and the standard-bearer, a
veteran of Egypt, were among the killed; Thiry, Desmichels, and Rabusson were wounded."
In December 1808 at Benavente, the regiment was ambushed and defeated by stronger force
of British and German cavalry. The Guard Horse Chasseurs met again with the British and
German cavalry at Waterloo. Repeatedly some of the chasseur squadrons rode up to within
300-400 paces of the British and German (KGL) cavalry. A British officer writes, "[their]
officers wearing tall, broad bearskin hats, and on several occassions some of them rode up to
us, challenging the officers of our [British] regiment to single combat. As they were much
stronger, the regiment could not accept the honor ..."
In December 1814 Generals Roguet and Lefebvre-Desnouettes decided to raise the siege of
Breda and fall back on Antwerp. Krafft's Prussians pursued the enemy on the 24 December,
catching the French rear guard between Dorst and Ulvenhout. "The Prussian 1st Leib Hussar
Regiment [nicknamed Death's Head Hussars] routed the French Guard [Horse] Chasseurs
and took several prisoners. Heavy fog forced the Prussians to end the pursuit but enabled the
French to reach Antwerp." (Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon" p 184)
Despite the few setbacks the Guard Horse Chasseurs were fine soldiers.
One of the most known chasseurs was Pierre Daumesnil, "The Wooden Leg."
As a young man (17 years old) he fled home, to join the army after having killed
a man in a duel. He rose from a private to officer, to being a general and a
Baron of the Empire, receiving 20 (!) wounds during his career. He
demonstrated his bravery at Marengo in 1800 and at Austerlitz in 1805 where he
saved General Rapp from being cut to pieces by the Russian Guard Cavalry. In
1807 Daumesnil's squadron of Guard Chasseurs was given the honor of carrying the news of
signing the Tilist Treaty to Paris. In 1809 Daumesnil and his Chasseurs were ordered to Spain
where his party freed Godoy from his imprisonment. Daumesnil had two horses killed under
him and was shot in the thigh during the street fighting in Madrid. After the battle of Aspern-
Essling Daumesnil was promoted to major in the Chasseurs. At Wagram Daumesnil received
the last of his wounds; he lost his leg, putting to an end his cavalry career. The lost leg was
replaced by a wooden prosthesis; hence his nickname "wooden leg". Assigned to the defense
of the Chteau de Vincennes in 1812, he faced down the allies marching on Paris in 1814 with
the famous words "I shall surrender Vincennes when I get my leg back!"
The Guard Horse Chasseurs distinguished themselves during the campaign in
Eastern Prussia and Poland in 1806-1807. Nicolas Dahlmann (picture) had set off on
patrol with two squadrons and the Guard Mamelukes in December 1806. Near
Lopacin they ran into the Russian rear guard under Pahlen. Pahlen's force consisted
of the Soumy Hussars, 21st Jagers (2 battalions) and a horse battery (12 pieces).
"Dahlmann was both a gifted horseman and an experienced tactician. ... instead of
charging blindly ahead, Dahlmann sent scouts to find a way across the marsh that
bordered the Sonna River. ... Dahlmann saw that he confronted six Russian horse
guns divided into three sections. The Russian guns ineffectually pelted his troopers
while they filed across the marshy ground. Upon reaching solid ground, Dahlmann ordered
his trumpeters to sound the charge. ...
In mass, artillery could defend its front. Individual sections could not. Some horse gunners
defended themselves with saber, handspike, or rammer while others crouched beneath the
equipment to evade the blows. Dahlmann personally sabered several gunners as his troopers
overrun a section of guns. Next into the lists came two squadrons of the Sumsk Hussars who
assignment was to support these guns. ... A brief hack-and-slash melee took place and the
Sumsk Hussars withdrew. Dahlmann's troopers pursued along the river until they
approached a village where a concealed party of jagers stopped them with a punishing volley.
...
The four remaining Russian guns retired to a new position near the village while his Sumsk
Hussars fixed Dahlmann by bluffing a charge. The affair had grown serious enough that
Murat forwarded reinforcements. In response, Lasalle led his hussars in a charge against the
Sumsk Hussars. Like most cavalry combats, this encounter was over quickly but not before
the 5th Hussars had lost one captain and three troopers dead on the field and another four
officers and nine troopers wounded.
Meanwhile, a horse battery that had accompanied Lasalle commenced a vigorous artillery
duel with its Russian counterpart. ... With the Russian gunners caught up in the duel, the
Mamelukes and Dahlmann's chasseurs cleared the burning village. The subsequent pursuit
nearly trapped Pahlen in a defile near Sonsk. ... Although Pahlen had to abandon a gun and
two munitions wagons he managed to escape intact with most of his command." (Arnold -
"Crisis in the Snows" pp 123-124)
Dahlmann was killed at Eylau in 1807. James Arnold writes: Around 6 a.m. the emperor
summoned Chief Surgeon to report. Napoleon then requested the list of wounded generals.
He particularly inquired about General Dahlmann of the Guard Chasseurs a cheval who had
suffered 10 lance thrusts. Would he survive ? No sire, Percy replied. His urine was bloody,
he was vomiting convulsively, his breathing was labored, his extremities already cold to the
touch. Everything pointed to an imminent death. (Arnold Crisis in the snows p. 354)
Uniform.
They wore very expensive
hussar-style outfits. The gaudy
red and green regalia of their
parade dress (see picture -->)
made them one of the most
colorful regiments in Europe.
Truly delight for the eyes ! Duke
of Orleans once exlaimed, "I
never saw a finer regiment, nor
smarter or better turned-out
troops." The pelisse was
trimmed with curled black
lamb's wool and lined with
white flannel. The dolmans
were dark green and were worn
under the pelisses. Henri
Lachoque writes, "The lining of
the officer's pelisse of short grey
fur cost 50 francs, and the collar
and edging of throat of
Canadian fox cost from 100 to
120 francs. The parade dress
however was rarely worn.
Their short Hungarian-style
boots were fitted by the master bootmaker. These boots were pleated at the
instep for comfort and trimmed with orange braids and tassels.
The squadrons of Old Guard wore black fur caps.
The squadrons of Young Guard wore tall red shakos.
During long marches the scarlet flammes on their fur caps have disappeared
beneath black waxed and varnished covers atop the caps, and their
sabretaches were covered with a black, waxed case without ornament.
The trumpeters' white fur caps were left in regimental depot, black fur caps
"always being worn on campaign." (- L. Rousselot)
After the campaign against Austria in 1809 they needed new uniforms.
Wagner furnished them with 1,295 pairs of boots, 918 undress coats and
waistcoats, 950 Hungarian breeches, but only 469 of the expensive pelisses
and dolmans.
In 1815, during the Waterloo Campaign, their uniforms, once so brilliant,
were varied. A few left for Belgium in dark green undress coats like the
Emperor's with scarlet collars and orange shoulder knots and aiguillettes,
red waistcoats - either braided in orange or plain - green breeches with
Hungarian boots or overalls, and colpacks with red and green cords and
plumes. About 500 wore dolmans and pelisses with riding trousers and
boots.
In good weather the Guard Horse Chasseurs
of the picket (see picture -->) were dressed in
their habits of their service uniforms, the long
ornamented tails of which fall down on each
side of their saddles.
Their fur caps would display their corded
and tasselled flammes and red-green plumes.
Most often the Guard Horse Chasseurs wore
the campaign uniform as seen on Keith
Rocco's picture. (Guard Horse Chasseurs
during the Waterloo Campaign.) They wore
this dress not only during campaign but also
in battle. The fur cap is without plume and
cords, while the hussar-style red pelisse was
left in depot. The tight breeches were either
worn under the trousers or not worn at all. If not f the braided dark-green
dolman of hussar style and the fur cap the Guard chasseur would look like
the chasseur of the line.
Guard Horse Chasseurs' legwears:
- green tight breeches were called parade trousers or culotte hongroise
- overalls made of rough, unbleached cloth were called stable trousers or
pantalons d'ecurie.
- the color or gray trousers with leather reiforcement were called campaign
trousers or charivari. There were several types of the campaign trousers.
LEFT: during campaign and in battle the Guard
chasseurs wore dark green trousers, strengthened
with black leather on the inside and around the
bottoms. The trousers were closed on the outside
by 18 buttons sewn on scarlet bands.
RIGHT: in 1808 new trousers were introduced.
They were without the closures and buttons on
outside of each seam. Instead each seam was covered by 2 orange stripes
(golden for officers). In 1811 the leather reinforcements were replaced by an
layer of green cloth.
In 1812 after the campaign in Russia the grey overalls became more
popular than ever. Many were made of so-called 'Marengo-grey'
cloth with black leather reinforcements and 2 crimson stripes along
each outside seam. The grey overalls were cheaper and more
practical as the chasseurs were light cavalry and participated in
numerous marches and counter-marches, scoutings, often in bad
weather. In my opinion it was the most practical legwear for light
cavalry. It was used in 1813 and 1814.
Before the Waterloo Campaign however the old-style , side-buttoned green
overalls have been resurrected. These items came from regiment's depot
stores. The side-buttoned overalls had proved to be more trouble than they
were worth but the light cavalry liked them. White or grey overalls were
good enough for heavy cavalry but not for the flamboyant hussars and
chasseurs.
~
2nd Regiment of Horse Chasseurs of the Imperial Guard
[2e Regiment de Chasseurs--Cheval de la Garde Impriale]
In May 1815, just few weeks before Ligny and Waterloo, Napoleon formed the 2nd Regiment
of Guard Horse Chasseurs from the Regiment of Eclaireurs. They were ranked as Young
Guard and nicknamed "The Hussars of the Guard." They were commanded by Antoine
Francois Eugene Merlin de Douai.
Many elements of their uniforms were identical to those of the Old Guard but they were
made of poorer quality materials. Instead of the fur cap was the red shako trimmed with
orange braid.
~
Squadron of Guard Mamelukes
[Escadron de Mamelukes de la Garde Imperiale]
The sons of the desert or "authentic head-hunters"
received a hot welcome in Paris. They were superb
swordsmen and horsemen. In 1814 near St Dizier the
Mamelukes "took a crack at some Cossacks whom
'they sabered in their accustomed style."
(- Lefebvre-Desnouettes)
In 1802, after reading general Rapp's report, Bonaparte decided to form a squadron of
Mameluks organized like hussars. Napoleon decided that the valiant cavaliers with dark skins
would help to reinforce his own prestige. The sons of the desert or "authentic head-hunters"
received a hot welcome in Paris. The officers were Frenchmen, the commander was Jean
Rapp, a daredevil with 22 wounds. In charge of administration was Edouard Colbert (He led
the Red Lancers at Waterloo). Quartermaster was Delaitre (later he served in the Polish Old
Guard Lancers). The privates were Greeks, Egyptians, Georgians and Turks.
Every Mameluk was armed with :
- a very curved saber
- two brace of pistols
- dagger
- mace and
- eventually a battle-ax.
"The Mamelukes did present special problems. The burial of one of their retired officers
caused a local disturbance, his Christian neighbours objecting to having the grave of an
'infidel' near their sainted ancestors. There also is the sad tale of a homesick Arab rug dealer
who was overjoyed to spot a Mameluke in a German town and tried to engage him in
conversation. Unfortunately, he was only a Second Mameluk whose command of Arabic began
and ended with 'Allah'. After countless repetitions of that holy name, the merchant concluded
that he had met a man too pious to discuss worldly matters." (Elting - 'SWords Around a
Throne" p 189)
At Austerlitz the Allies had gained a
healthy respect for the colorfully clad
Mamelukes, and their proud
reputation within the army was
assured.
In 1807 the costumes of the
Mamelukes "occasioned much
surprise, not unmixed with terror, to
the Russian troops, who imagined
them to be Turks." (Parquin - "Napoleon's Victories" p 63)
Dezydery Chlapowski of the Old Guard Lancers was also impressed with the Mamelukes. He
writes, "When we [Guard Lancers] were about 60 paces from the [Russian] hussars they
turned and fled, and did not stop until they had passed through a regiment of cuirassiers,
behind which they began to reform. ...
General Walther must have seen the line of enemy cuirassiers. First came the Mamelukes ...
and launched a charge straight into the cuirassiers. The enemy commander could not have
believed that a single squadron would attack his brigade. ... It's true that our four squadrons
were also advancing toward the [Russian] cuirassiers, but they gave us no chance to attack as
they retreated in a rabble upon their second line." (Note: during the first phase of the Saxon
Campaign the Russian cuirassier regiments were not all that strong in terms of numbers.)
The squadron of Mamelukes consisted of 2 companies.
In 1804 the company was made of :
= 9 officers (6 of whom are Arabs)
= 10 NCO (6 of whom are Arabs)
= 10 brigadiers (8 of whom are Arabs)
= 2 trumpeters
= 92 privates
In 1813 the Mameluks were reinforced with Frenchmen who were designated as '2nd
Mameluks'.
There were 2 companies of Mameluks, the 1st was ranked as Old Guard and the 2nd as
Young Guard.
The Squadron of Mameluks was usually attached to the Regiment of Guard Horse Chasseurs.
In 1815 Duke of Orleans asked them if there were any Egyptians among them, but was told
that they were all French. They still wore crescents on their turbans. An Imperial Decree of 24
April announced: "The Regiment of Chasseurs-a-Cheval of our Guard will be augmented by
a Mameluk squadron of 2 companies." But since its personnel was listed indiscriminately on
the rolls of the Chasseurs, and even the Red Lancers, it is not known whether the squadron
marched as a full unit to Waterloo.
Chefs d'Escadron:
1801 - Pelletier Montmarie
1801-1803 Rapp
1803-1805 Dupas
1805-1810 Delaitre
1810 - Kirmann
The Mamelukes were hated by the Spaniards. During the revolt in Madrid in 1808
the "popular fury was loosed upon the Mameluks. These 'pagan sons of dogs' were
assailed by women who jumped onto the cruppers of their horses ... Before a house
in the Carrera de San Jeronimo 2 Mameluks fell to the pavement, shot from the
window above.
Furious their comrades entered the house, killed all the occupants - both men and women-
and threw their heads into the street. . . . . Towards 2 PM in the afternoon the canaille was
finally subdued; but then the reprisals began.Tied in pairs to the strirrups of the Mameluks
and Guard Horse Chasseurs, the condemned were dragged to the Pardo, the Retiro, and
the Convent del Jesus were firing-parties awaited them."
(Henri Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory" pp 121-122)
~
1st Regiment of Lighthorse-Lancers (Polish) of the Imperial Guard
[1ere Regiment de Chevau-Lgers Lanciers de la Garde Impriale (Polonais)]
It was Napoleon who said: "These men only know how to fight !"
Yep, they knew how to fight and they intended to do just that
after they charged in their usual stormy fashion at Somosierra.
In early 1814 "Major Skarzynski performed prodigies of valor.
Snatching a lance from a Cossack, he created a void around him
by knocking over the fugitives in his path and running the rest
through with his lance." - Henri Lachoque
"The Guard's first foreign regiment was
the chevau-legers Polonais, activated in
March 1807 from picked volunteers,
mostly small landowners or their sons,
who had some education and were
expert riders. They paid for their own
clothing and equipment and provided
their own horses. Nevertheless, the
regiment was recruited up to strength in
10 days. Their two majors, captain-
instructor, two adjutant-majors,
quartermaster-treasurer, surgeon, and all
their trumpeters were French.
Their farriers seem to have been
Germans. ...
Beyond their zeal, courage, and
horsemanship, however, these proud and
individualistic gentlemen-at-arms had
everything to learn. Their first drills and
reviews were cases of every Pole for
himself, and it took 2 years to get their
regimental accounts set up properly. The
regiment was gradually assembled in
Spain in 1808, where Lasalle gave it
practical outpost training." (Elting -
"Swords Around a Throne" pp 193-4)
"The Polish lighthorse ... had become lancers to satisfy the demand of their chief Count
Krasinski. Their training in the new weapon began in earnest when Major Fredro returned
from leave in Poland bringing back manuals and exhibiting amazing skill in handling the
lance. ... Dautancourt proposed permitting only the front rank of a squadron to carry lances
for fear that in charging those in the 2nd rank might injure the horses and men in front.
Furthermore, a lighthorseman armed with a lance, carbine, bayonet, saber, and 2 pistols
would hardly continue to be a lighthorseman ! But Dautancourt was voted down. All troopers
of the regiment were armed with lances ... Experience proved Dautancourt correct." ( - Henri
Lachoque)
The regiment consisted of 4 squadrons of two companies each.
Company of 125 chevaulegere-lancers was armed as follow:
1st rank
2 marechaux-des-logis - saber, 2 pistols
4 brigadiers - saber, carbine, bayonet, pistol and lance
44 cavaliers - saber, pistol and lance
2nd rank
4 brigadiers - saber, carbine, bayonet, pistol
44 cavaliers - saber, carbine, bayonet, pistol
Others
3 trumpeters - saber, 2 pistols
2 blacksmiths - saber, pistol
9 lanciers - saber, pistol, lance
9 carabiniers - saber, carbine, bayonet, pistol
1 marechal-des-logis-chef - saber, 2 pistols
1 fourrier - saber, 2 pistols
The Poles were eager to show their skill with their traditional lance.
In 1809 in Vienna, NCO Jordan, called upon the Guard Dragoons, to "fight" him.
Two veterans stepped out, he unhorsed both.
On April 7th Napoleon called for volunteers from his Old Guard to serve in his guard on Elba
Island. The Allies allowed for 500 infantrymen, 120 cavalrymen and 120 artillerymen.
Generals Petit and Pelet were soon swamped with requests. Many officers asked to serve as
simple privates.
Colonel Krasinki, wearing his parade uniform announced to his lancers that "God has visited
misfortune upon the Emperor" and all began to weep. They regreted they had not all been
killed before hearing that anyone had dared demand Napoleon's abdication. Loud cries for
vengeance were heard along with "Vive l"Empereur!" Lances were raised and the cavalry
spontaneously moved toward Fontainebleau. They passed through Nainville before
Sebastiani's ADC halted them. Krasinski galloped off to headquarters to protest that his duty
and honor called him to Napoleon's side, since it was not to France but to Napoleon that his
lancers had pledged their lives.
Regiment of Polish Guard Lancers, picture by L F Funcken.
The famous French General Lasalle wrote a poem for this regiment.
The Old Guard Lancers and the French Horse Grenadiers were the
only cavalry units of the Imperial Guard which were never defeated
by Allies cavalry.
.
Article:
Battle record, exploits, weapons, uniforms,
and commanders of the Polish Guard Lancers.
~
2nd Regiment of Lighthorse-Lancers (Dutch) of the Imperial Guard
[2e Regiment de Chevau-Lgers Lanciers de la Garde Impriale]
The Red Lancers !
The Regiment of Red Lancers was formed in 1810 from three Dutch troops:
- Garde du Corps (former Guard Cuirassiers)
- Guard Hussar Regiment
- 3th Hussar Regiment
The German members of the Guard Hussars were given the choice of joining the Berg Lancers
or the four Dutch regiments. According to Decree of 13 September 1810 "No officer may
remain in the corps who is not Dutch by birth." However, in October the Emperor realized
that the unit was 143 short of establishment. In order to fill the ranks, Napoleon signed a new
decree and accepted many Germans.
Article 1: All officers, NCOs and soldiers of the former Dutch Guard who were born in the
territory of the Hanseatic cities, in Oldenburg, Osnabruck (Duchy of Berg) and in Westphalia
will be considered as Dutch."
Article 2: All Germans who have served without interruption since at least 1800 in the former
Dutch Guard, either on foot or mounted, who have never deserted and who enlisted of their
own will in the Dutch forces, will be considered as Dutch."
Part of Article 4: "Our Minister of War will make a special register of those who are Prussian."
To strengthen the regiment before the Invasion of Russia, Napoleon issued a decree on 11
March 1812 stating:
"The 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th Lighthorse-Lancers; 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 10th Hussars; 5th,
10th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 21st, 22nd, 26th, 29th, and 31st Chasseurs; and 4th, 5th, 6th, 11th, 15th,
16th, 17th, 18th, 21st, 22nd, 24th, 25th, 26th, and 27th Dragoons, are each to provide 15 men
for the recruitment of the above-mentioned 2nd Lighthorse-Lancers of our Guard. These men
must have completed between 2 and 4 years of service, and will be selected from among the
best remaining at the depots in France." (In comparison the Horse Grenadiers accepted men
with 10 years of service, and the Guard Dragoons with 5-10 years.)
Thus the Red Lancers were a mixed unit of young Dutch recruits and guardsmen with French
cavalrymen who completed 2-4 years of service.
Colonels :
1811 - Colbert
Majors :
1810 - Hasselt
1810 - Du Bois
1813 - Gauthier
1813 - Lalaing dAudenarde
1815 - Du Bois
Pierre Eduard Colbert was the colonel of the 2nd Guard Lancers. He was to the
Red Lancers what Letort was to the Guard Dragoons, a hero, a legend. Marshal
Ney described Colbert as "consummate officer of the greatest distinction." Colbert
earned the nickname "Iron Man" on many battlefields. Some found him
domineering and tactless. In 1814, in a report presented to the Burbons he was
described as "skilled and distinguished in all disciplines." Colbert earned the nickname "Iron
Man" on many battlefields. Bullet wound to arm (Egypt), bullet wound to thigh (Austerlitz)
three lance wounds (Eastern Prussia 1807), bullet wound to head (Wagram), bullet wound to
arm (Quatre-Bras). - Ronald Pawly
After returning from Elba Napoleon met Colbert.
Napoleon: "Colbert, you are arriving quite late !"
Colbert: "Sire, I could come no sooner."
Napoleon: "Come on, You're late - what kept you ?"
Colbert: "Sire, not as late as Your Majesty
I have been waiting for you a year."
Uniform.
The Red Lancers wore one of the most striking uniforms in
Napoleonic cavalry. Initially it had been intended to dress the
Red Lancers in uniforms similar to those worn by the Guard
Horse Chasseurs of Napoleon's escort. Some Dutch officers
quickly complied. Henri Lachoque writes that Baron Colbert
"was concerned about their uniform, believing that the 2nd
Guard Lancers should be dressed like the 1st Guard Lancers
[Poles], although the czapka and kurtka were essentially Polish
garments."
It was decided that since the Dutch Guard were organised as the
Polish Guard Lancers, so their uniform should be the same as
that of their fellow lancers. The Decree of 10 February 1811
stated: "Article 1: The 2nd Lighthorse-Lancers of the Guard will
have the same cut of jacket and the same headdress as the 1st
Lighthorse-Lancers of the Guard (Polish). It will keep the color
scarlet for the jacket, with yellow buttons and distinctions. The
distinctive color for lapels, collars and cuff facings will be sky
blue." The collars, lapels, turnbacks and cuffs were in fact produced in dark blue.
In April 1812 the King of Prussia on learning that the Imperial Guard was passing through
Potsdam, asked about the Red Lancers. The king greatly admired their uniform. In 1813 the
squadrons of Young Guard wore blue (not red) jackets faced with red.
By the way, one of our visitors (Timur Sri Muhammad Tunggadewa of Indonesia) wrote:
"After the Napoleonic Wars, one Dutch military unit in Netherland East Indies, the Bengal
Lancers, were dressed almost like the Red Lancers, although their pants were white with red
stripes. Heres the picture." (ext. link)
Weapons.
The Red Lancer also carried carbine (An XIII model flintlock light cavalry musketoon) and
light cavalry curved saber. His primary weapon however was lance. They received instructors
from the 1st Guard Lancers. Ronald Pawly writes, "One of the instructors was Ltn. Fallot, who
had detached with 8 regimental NCOs to the Polish Guard Lancers at Chantilly in 27
November 1810 to learn the handling of the lance. ... In recent years Napoleon was
unpleasantly impressed by the effectivenness of this weapon - then a novelty in Western
Europe - in the hands of Austrian and Russian uhlans and Cossacks, and in 1811 would see
his final decision to form a new lancer branch within the French cavalry. That May, at Albuera
in Spain, the Vistula Uhlans in French service took part in one of the most bloodily successful
cavalry charges of the Napoleonic Wars: together with the French 2nd Hussars they rode right
over a British infantry brigade ..."
Fallot's party spent 6 weeks at Chantilly learning this demanding new skill. The safe and
effective handling of the heavy wooden lance - 2.26 m long with a 21 cm iron head - took a
great deal of practice, the rudiments being taught on foot for some time before any attempt
was made to master mounted drill. ... it took a thoroughly trained trooper to handle the lance
in action; to a poor horseman it was an impediment , even a danger ..." During march the
weight of the lance bore down on the stirrup, where its lower end fitted into a small 'bucket';
carried on the march slanting back from a small sling around the rider's arm.
Horses.
The Dutch lancers rode on chestnuts and bays,
measuring between 14 and 14.75 hands (146-150
cm). Each cost approx. 460 francs. The horses came
mostly from Ardennes, Manche, Orne and
Calvados regions. Some thought it would be nice to give them blacks.
Red Lancers during peacetime and in combat.
On 23 September 1810 the French Imperial Guard and the Dutch Guard
were present at the Sunday parade at the Tuileries. Napoleon approached
the Red Lancers and asked about the recent disorders, which had taken
place in their garrison. The colonel apologised and attributed the episode to
the effects of hospitality lavished on them by their new brothers in arms.
Napoleon replied: "Well, if your men can't withstand the effects of wine
they will have to be satisfied with drinking beer in the future." In late 1811,
two squadrons of Red Lancers escorted Napoleon through the new Belgian
and Dutch departments.
By March 1812 the regiment in the field numbered 41 officers and 649
other ranks. As they passed through Holland some officers took the
opportunity which offered to see their families. On 22 March the Red
Lancers entered Hanover. After several weeks on the march many of the
horses were in poor shape. The reinforcements were soon ready to start
their march eastwards. In April in Potsdam the Red Lancers met the King of
Prussia. In May they were ordered to head for Danzig (today Gdansk. On 24
June the Red Lancers crossed the Niemen River over the bridge and entered
Russia. Two days later they were used as outposts and scouts.
Deprived of good wine and food, and comfortable quarters, and
constantly harrased by Cossacks the Red Lancers lost their good spirit.
General Colbert wrote to Bessieres (commander of the Imperial Guard): "A
bad mood reigns among the officers, and it could spread to the soldiers if
one should be indulgent."
On 27 July the Cossacks and the elite Russian Lifeguard Uhlans surprised
detachments of Red Lancers at Babinovitz and took approx. 50 prisoners.
Only an NCO and 3 lancers escaped. Colbert launched a pursuit but "the
enemy had made off." The regiment then marched to Vitebsk where
Napoleon was assembling his Imperial Guard. From there they moved to
Smolensk and crossed the Dieper River.
From 14 August onwards the Red Lancers would form with the Polish
Guard Lancers a brigade under Colbert. The mood in the regiment
improved and on Napoleon's birthday the Dutch decorated trees with
inscriptions and lanterns bearing the monograms of Napoleon. These
ornaments were made by Sergeant Skalski of Polish Guard Lancers. Then
the Dutch, French, Germans and the Poles shared their stores of spirits.
"The Red Lancers were dogged by ill luck with the Cossacks, who seemed
insultingly eager to come to blows (perhaps as a result of their easy victory
in the fight at Babinovitz). Sometimes when Cossacks saw a patrol of the
Regiment they would make a rush at them shouting "A red one ! Catch him
!", and often forced them to flee. It is said that, on occassion, the seasoned
Polish Lancers would exchange their sombre blue and crimson uniform for
the Dutch scarlet, causing considerable surprise to overconfident Cossacks
and encouraging a warier approach in future." (Pawly - "The Red Lancers" p
35)
Paul Britten-Austin writes that the
Dutchmen are "too phlegmatic" for
the little warfare. Austin writes:
"Approaching stealthily, Cossacks
nevertheless (again) carry off the
Dutch regiment's outpost picket. And
again 'only one man escaped flat out
at a gallop and brought the news to
our camp. Even an hour and a half's
pursuit couldn't catch up with the
Cossacks.' Mortified by this second
surprise of the campaign, Colbert
doubles the 2nd Regiment's outposts;
and, to make assurance doubly sure,
mingles the Dutchmen with the
warier, more experienced Poles."
(Britten-Austin - "1812 The March on
Moscow" p 333)
During the battles of Smolensk and Borodino the Red Lancers were held
in reserve. On 22 September they passed under the walls of Kremlin,
Moscow. "We found Moscow absolutely deserted ... We have been detached
from the Guard and are involved daily with the Cossacks." - wrote Captain
Calkoen.
"Nearing Bouikhovo after nearly 3 hours' ride, Calkoen's squadron were
advancing a few hundred yards ahead of the Poles when Ltn. Doyen led his
point troop up a hillock. They were immediately attacked from all sides by
the Cossacks. Ltn. van Omphal's troops were at once sent to help them
disengage, but were outflanked in their turn. The Red Lancers fell back
towards the Polish squadron, who had halted and taken up battle
formation. Under this cover the Dutch Lancers regrouped and charged the
Cossacks again ..." (- Ronald Pawly)
In the end of the campaign the Polish Guard Lancers had their horses
rough shod and saved 200 horses. But the Red Lancers didn't follow the
Poles' habit and were able to save only few officers' horses.
The Dutchmen were brave men, no doubt about it, but they were not well
suited for this campaign. The Poles, whose homeland habitually suffered
bitter winters and cold winds from the east, will have been better prepared
for the hardships, mentally and perhaps physically.
In 1813 this regiment was rebuilt with volunteers
and King Joseph's (Napoleon's brother) guard.
Red Lancer in combat
Many of these men were veterans. Some sources
give the first 5 squadrons as Old Guard and
majority Dutch. The other 5 squadrons were
ranked as Young Guard and were recruited in part
from the municipal cavalry of the Guard of Paris.
Other sources give 4 squadrons of Old Guard and
6 of Young Guard. Henri Lachoque writes: "Later
the Emperor added 5 Young Guard squadrons,
ranking the 5 veteran squadrons as Old Guard
without increasing their pay and allowances."
"General Colbert's brigade of Guard Lancers
performed with distinction on the 20th, and on the 21st when fighting
continued at Wurschen. ... [At Reichenbach] Russian artillery was emplaced
and protected by other troops. Very soon the Cossacks were being
supported by Russian dragoons, and the position of Colbert's brigade
became untenable. With hardly 6 squadrons at his disposal the general
ordered his Red Lancers to attack the Russian cavalry while the other
squadrons of the brigade formed a second line. Counterattacked by much
greater numbers, the first squadrons were forced to withdraw; the
intervention of the second line bought them time to rally." (Pawly - "The Red
Lancers")
According to M. Bogdanovich of Russia, at Reichenbach the Russian
artillery fired on the Red Lancers. This bombardement was immediatelly
followed by spirited cavalry charge conducted by General Korfs cavalry.
The lancers were driven off, lost 5 officers and 176 other ranks as prisoners.
(Bogdanovich M. - Istoriya Voiny 1813 Goda St. Petersburg 1863, Vol 1, page
282)
According to Captain de Stuers the regiment lost at Reichenbach 201 killed
and wounded.
In 1813 at Dresden the Red Lancers successfully charged against Giulay's
Austrians. Then they have fought at Nollendorf and Toplitz. On 14 October
the Red Lancers captured a large convoy escorted by Cossacks. They were
present at Leipzig. One squadron was trapped in the city by the destruction
of the bridge.
In 1814 it was still a very strong regiment and participated in numerous
combats. At Hoogstraten a detachment of Red Lancers under de Brack dealt
with the Prussian uhlans. Several squadrons retired to Brussels. De Brack's
detachment occupied Waterloo and the junction of the roads to Nivelles
and Namur.
The regiment charged at Brienne and at La Rothiere. At La Rothiere the
Red Lancers and Polish Guard Lancers attacked Vasilchikov's Russian
hussars and dragoons. The Red Lancers made another charge and
recaptured the guns lost by Duhesme's infantry.
At Montmirail the Red Lancers covered a 20-gun battery and suffered
heavy losses from Allies' artillery.
At Antwerp 100 lancers made a well-timed charge against Allies
skirmishers.
At Laon the Red Lancers successfully charged into Russians' right flank.
But they failed to break infantry square and suffered heavy casualties. (The
square was protected by a wide ditch.)
At St.Dizier they fought with great bravery, overrun 18 Russian guns and
captured 6 guns and 400 Russian dragoons. General Sebastiani reported
that in 20 years he had never seen a more brilliant charge !
After Napoleon's first abdication, many Dutch officers and NCOs asked
to go home. Some hoped to be admitted to the new army of the
Netherlands.
In
1815,
just few
weeks
before
Waterloo, Napoleon wrote, "As soon as possible the Red Lancers must be
increased to 3 regiments..." This however didn't happen, the time was too
short. It was only one regiment as they lacked horse and men, and even
accepted cavalrymen from different sources: Royal Corps, retirement,
Young Guard and even some horse grenadiers.
At Quatre Bras the Red Lancers fought with the Nassau infantry and
Dutch troops. At Waterloo the Red Lancers charged Allies squares without
artillery support and without success. During the retreat after the battle
they routed several squadrons of British cavalry and escorted Napoleon to
the Sambre River and on to Philippeville.

British gunners versus Red Lancers.
~
3rd Regiment of Lighthorse-Lancers (Polish) of the Imperial Guard
[3e Regiment de Chevau-Lgers Lanciers de la Garde Impriale (Polonais)]
This regiment was formed in 1812 and was ranked as Young
Guard (the 1st was Old Guard, the 2nd 'Red Lancers' was
Middle Guard). Napoleon took advantage of the Poles' good
will to create this unit. The officers were seasoned fighters but
the rank and file came mainly from landowning families and
students of Polish and Lithuanian universities. They were
patriotic and enthusiastic but there was not enough time to
train them. Their pay and allowances were the same as the
2nd Regiment (Red Lancers).
In 1812 at Slonim the 3rd Guard Lancers were attacked by
superior number of Cossacks and Russian cavalry. After a
prolonged and dramatic fight (numerous charges and
countercharges) the regiment was destroyed.
Colonels: Jan Konopka
~
1st, 2nd and 3rd Regiment of Horse Scouts of the Imperial Guard
[1er, 2e, 3e Regiment dEclaireurs-a-Cheval de la Garde Imperiale]
In December 1813 Napoleon formed three new regiments of Guard Cavalry. They were the
eclaireurs, scouts. The scouts had neither cloaks nor breeches, they were issued undress coats,
pantaloons, gray capes and stable jackets. Kozietulski, the Hero of Somosierra, was organizing
the 3rd Regiment (armed with lances) at Givet without farriers or trumpeters, and without
pay. Hoffmnayer was obliged to appeal to the Berg Lancers for their mounts.
The three regiments, Eclaireurs-Grenadiers, Eclaireurs-Dragoons, and Eclaireurs-Lanciers
were attached to Horse Grenadiers, Dragoons and Polish Lancers respectively.
Each regiment had 4 squadrons of 250 men each. They were formidable units.
- The 1st Regiment (Eclaireurs-Grenadiers) got some men (not their best) from the Honor
Guards.
- The 2nd Regiment (Eclaireurs-Dragons) was recruited from the postillions of mail service.
Actually both regiments were mostly conscripts, sprinkled with a few Old Guard cadres
and a few odd individuals like a sous-lieutenant from the Neapolitan chevau-legers, some
of Joseph''s former guard cavalry, and trumpeters from the Pupilles.
- The 3rd Regiment (Eclaireurs-Lanciers) was composed of Poles. It had quite many veterans.
The privates of the 1st and 2nd Guard Scouts Regiment were armed with carbines and sabers.
Those in the 3rd carried lances and sabers (in 1st rank) and carbines and sabers (in 2nd rank).
"Napoleon had in mind a French counterpart to the Cossacks that had harrassed so effectively
the French in 1812. John Elting writes, "Napoleon had repeatedly considered forming units of
very light cavalry. Now three regiments - eclaireurs-grenadiers, eclaireurs-dragoons, and
eclaireurs-lanciers - were hastily scraped together. Their horses were small, hardy beasts from
the Pyrenees, the Ardennes, and the Rhone delta; their eqipment was very light. ... All three
regiments were put into action hastily, short of weapons and equipment, but were never
completely organized." (Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" p 201)
Commanders:
1st Regiment - Guyot (colonel) and Testot-Ferry (major)
2nd Regiment - Ornano (colonel) and Hoffmayer (major)
3rd Regiment - Krasinski (colonel) and Kozietulski (major)
Uniforms.
The man of the 1st Regiment is wearing husar-style
uniform. The man of the 2nd Regiment wears the
Kinski uniform, and the man of the 3rd Regiment is
with lance and is wearing tall red shako. (The
privates of squadrons of Old Guard wore uniform of
hussar pattern, green dolman with white laces and
braid. Those of Young Guard wore a simple green a
la Kinski coat.)
Horses.
They were mounted on small but hardy horses of
various colors.
Some of the Guard Scouts were very brave men.
Claude Testot-Ferry of the 1st Regiment received at
Hanau 22 sabre and lance cuts before reaching the
rear to have his wounds treated. In the end of 1813 he
took command of the regiment, with whom he
served throughout the campaign in France in 1814. (The dolman worn by him as a colonel-
major in the 1st Rgiment is now held at the Muse de l'Arme at Salon de Provence).
The 3rd Guard Scouts (Poles) fought well in the battle of Paris, defending the Montmartre
area. They refused to follow Marmont's troops and surrender to the Russians. The 3rd
Eclaireurs left Paris hoping to join Napoleon in Fountainbleu.
They were however new units and needed more experience and better equipment. They
suffered some setbacks in the hands of the seasoned cavalry troops of Russia and Austria. In
Arcis-sur-Aube in 1814 the Guard Scouts advanced and were promptly met by a volley of
shot and shell from the crest of the plateau east of the town. Charged simultaneously by
yelling Cossacks and Austrian cavalry, the eclaireurs were thrown into panic and turned tail,
colliding with Exelmans' cavalry which promptly headed back to Arcis, pursued full tilt by
the Russians.
The three regiments were disbanded in June 1814.
~
1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Regiment of Honor Guard
[1er, 2e, 3e, 4e Regiment de Garde d'Honneur]
Picture: Garde d'Honneur, by L et F
Funcken.
(left) private, (right) trumpeter, (bottom)
officer.
In the left bottom corner are shakos of
1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Regiment.
In 1813 there were 15 000 volunteers with
20 000 horses, mounted and equipped at
their own expense. These 20-26 years old
men came mainly from noble and wealthy
families but were hardly enthusiastic for
military service and soon many deserted.
They formed several new regiments named
Life Guard but because of the desertions it
was changed to Honor Guard. The rest of
the army called them "the Hostages" :-)
The privates wore uniform of hussar
pattern, green dolman and pelisse with
white braid, edging and laces. The collar
and cuffs were scarlet collar with white
edging. Crimson sash with green sliding
loops and cord. Silver buttons. The breeches were scarlet breeches with white lace. Short black
hussar boots. The shako was scarlet with silver eagle, white top band, cords and flounders.
Green plume with blue top over a pompon in squadron color inserted in a tricolour cockade.
The chinstrap were silver. Green portemanteau with white edge and regimental number.
The privates were armed with light cavalry sabers and carbines.
Commanders :
1st Regiment - de Pully (colonel), Picquet (colonel-en-second) and Mathan, Castellane
(majors)
2nd Regiment - Lepic and then Lagrange (colonels), Vallin (colonel-en-second), de Pange,
dAmbrusac (majors)
3rd Regiment - de Segur (colonel), Vincent (colonel-en-second), Valluces, de Belmont (majors)
4th Regiment - St. Sulpice (colonel), Merlin (colonel-en-second), Monteil, Clermont-Tonnierre
(majors)
Cossacks attacking the Honor Guard, by Detaille (France).

OFF TOPIC: (chaarge) Cavalerie de la Garde rpublicaine
.
.
Sources and Links.
Recommended Reading
Lachouque (Anne S. K. Brown) - "The Anatomy of Glory: Napoleon and his Guard"
Chlapowski - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" transl. by Tim Simmons
Elting - "Swords around a Throne: Napoleon's Grande Arme"
Rousselot, text by Edward Ryan - "Napoleon's Elite Cavalry"
Mansel - "The Eagle in Splendour: Napoleon I and His Court"
Six - "Dictionaire biographique des generaux et amiraux..."
Pawly - "The Red Lancers"
French Guard Artillery : Kaiserliche Garde-Artillerie: Artillerie de la Garde Imperiale
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/IMPERIAL_GUARD_artillery.htm[2012-05-21 12:38:54]
French Guard Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars
"In most battles the Guard Artillery is the deciding factor since
having it always at hand, I can take it wherever it is needed."
"... erase the [enemy] masses."
- Napoleon to the Guard Artillery at Wagram
Introduction: Napoleon's Guard
Foot and Horse Artillery.
Organization.
Uniforms.
Horses.
Guard Artillery Train.
Ammunition wagons/caissons.
Draft horses, mules and drivers.
Drouot.
.
.
Foot Artillery of the Imperial Guard. (Author ?)
In 1811 - 1813 they were commanded by Jean Sorbier , nicknamed "The Old Thunderer".
At Leizpig and Hanau the grand battery was under General Drouot, "The Monk Soldier".
For Gen. Drouot praying and fighting appeared to be his idea of the whole duty of man.
Drouot always carried a Bible with him and had become a living legend to the gunners.
Napoleon's Guard Artillery.
" ... its gunnery generally excellent, thanks to
the annual competitions at La Fere." - J Elting
With the establishment of the Consulate, the Guard of the Directory, had to form
the Guard of the Consuls.
In Novemner 1799 was issued a decree:
"Art. XIV -
The Consular Guard will be recruited only from men who
will have distinguished themselves on the field of battle.
PAY (per year):
troop earnings will be paid every 10 days, officers at the end of each month.
- Foot Grenadier and Chasseur 410, Drummer 500
- Horse Grenadier and Chasseur 450, Trumpeter 650
- Gunner 1st Class 500, Gunner 2nd Class 460
Money allocated for equipment, armament, horse-harness, and clothing:
- Foot Grenadier and Chasseur 258, Officer 800
- Horse Grenadier 517, Officer 1000
- Horse Chasseur 689, Officer 1500
- Gunner 689, Officer 1500"
Thus the gunners were one of the one best paid troops in Napoleon's army.
By a new decree of March 8, 1802, Bonaparte supplemented the new organization
of the Guard: Art. I - In the future the Guard will be made up ... of foot
grenadiers and foot chasseurs, each made up of a staff, with 2 battalions; and
each battalion, of 8 companies. A regiment of horse grenadiers composed of a
staff with 4 squadrons of 2 companies each. A regiment of horse chasseurs, made
up temporarily of 2 squadrons, 2 companies each one, with its staff. A horse
artillery squadron, with a staff and company of foot artillery.
In 1802 Napoleon submitted a permanent schedule of
recruitment for Guard:
2 men from each artillery regiment,
tall, robust, of exemplary conduct,
able to read and write and
participated in 3 (!) campaigns
In the end of 1806 each artillery regiment was ordered to send to
the Guard
15 best gunners
physically strong
not older than 35
able to read and write
with 10 years' service and
at least 5'10" tall (Eng.? Fr.?)
with citation for bravery and good conduct
In March 1815 it was expected from the gunners of Old Guard to
have at least 8 years' service.
There was one horse gunner who had served 50 years !
The height requirements were: in 1805 176 cm tall, and in 1806 178 cm tall men
were accepted.
St.Hilaire writes; "The foot gunner [of the Old Guard] was a large and lanky
fellow; he had the slightly arched back found in all men who devote themselves
to operations of force. His character was as severe as his uniform; he spoke little,
and his meditative air, although he was only private, made one soon guess that he
belonged to an erudite arm, to a corps special to Napoleon, more or less justified
in his preferences, placed before all the others, without exception even those of
his engineers. ... His step was a little heavy, and on this standpoint he was far
from resembling his brother in arms, the horse gunner."
The guardsmen were battle-hardened veterans, professionals, and brave men.
There was, perhaps, no class of men on the face of Earth, who led a life of more
continued exertion and danger, and who were more enamored of their
occupation, than the gunners of Napoleon's Guard. Stalwart and resolute, bodies
toughened by years of war, they had every reason to cheer Him. Napoleon knew
many of them, called them by name. In 1813 before Napoleon's birthday "the
Guard Artillery prepared fireworks which they set off on the Eble River just
under Emperor's windows." (Lachouque - "Anathomy of Glory")
Napoleon increased the number of batteries and made the Guard Artillery his
powerful reserves. "From the start the Guard Artillery had been intended to
intervene en masse after the battle had developed, and hence it was not used in
the type of desultory outpost work on which the line [artillery] was often
dispersed. ... This was to be the pattern for the later battles of the Empire, with the
Guard [Artillery] providing the nucleus for ever bigger masses of guns. Especially
after the great concentration of 100 guns at Wagram Napoleon became convinced
that a really decisive result could be obtained only with 36 guns or more. Against
this weight of fire, he said 'Nothing will resist, whereas the same number of
cannons spread out along the line would not give the same results.' ... The
artillery was no longer merely an auxiliary which assisted each division to
achieve a limited result. Instead, the Guard Artillery mass could claim to be one
of the great deciders of battles." (Griffith - "French Artillery" p 36)
Unfortunately during the retreat from Russia in 1812 most of the gunners and
almost all their horses were lost.
By August 1813 the Guard Horse Artillery has been completely restored to its
former organization.
The officers had an average of 17 years in service and the privates had an average
of 14 years. The companies maneuvered in full gallop and were able to come to a
stop and fire the first round "in less than a minute". Their horses were well cared
for and ammunition was plentiful. The companies of Young Guard had double
ammunition provisions and the companies of Old Guard having triple
ammunition. The Guard Foot Artillery was also in very good shape.
In 1813 Napoleon wrote to Clarke, Minister of War, "In most battles the Guard
artillery is the deciding factor since having it always at hand, I can take it
wherever it is needed." It was customary for the gunners to boldly handle their
weapons.
Napoleon had a group of very talented officers of artillery who
understood his ideas.
The Guard Artillery was commanded by:
1803 - Joseph Christophe Couin
1807 - Jean Ambroise Baston de Lariboisiere
1811 - Jean Barthelemont Sorbier (nicknamed "The Old Thunderer")
1813 - Charles Francois Dulauloy
1815 - Antoine Drouot
1815 - Jean Jacques Desvaux de Sainte-Maurice (see picture -->)
The Park of Guard Artillery:
1807 - Armand Joseph Henri Digeon
1808 - Antoine Drouot
1809 - Joseph Pellegrin-Millon
1815 - Henri Antoine Bon de Lignum
Foot artillery of the Imperial Guard in 1808.
There was, perhaps, no class of men on the face of Earth, who led a life of more continued exertion,
and danger, and who were more enamored of their occupation, than the gunners of the Guard.
They were stalwart and resolute, with bodies toughened by years of war.
It was customary for the gunners to boldly handle their weapons.
In June 1807 at T i l s i t , the Guard Artillery paraded before
Napoleon,Tzar Alexander,and Frederick William III of Prussia.
Passing the King, a Guard drum-major warned his drummers
" Don't beat so loud - he is only a king ! "
~
Organization of Guard Artillery.
The horse artillery was the elite
of Napoleon's Guard Artillery.
The foot artillery (picture -->) made the bulk of
the Guard Artillery.
Part of their guns were the famous heavy 12 pdr
cannons.
Napoleon affectionately called them his "cherished
daughters."
In 1813-1815 several horse batteries were kept in
reserves.
"Paradoxically horse artillery, which was so useful
in the very forefront of a battle, was also ideal for
use in the reserve role. When a general had
developed his battle and was ready to commit his
reserve at a weak spot identified in the enemy line,
it was the horse artillery which he could most
rapidly call up to prepare the way. For this reason
the Guard Artillery contained a high proportion of
horse batteries, and they often made considerable
movements during the very climax of Napoleon's
battles." (Griffith - "French Artillery" p 10)
The single 12pdr cannon had 15 men crew commanded by a corporal.
The Section (2 guns) was commanded by a sergeant.
The Half-Company (4 guns) was commanded by a lieutenant.
The Company (8 guns) was commanded by a captain.
The average company carried a double ration of ammunition.
Various authors give different number of corporals, or the number of
corporals and sergeants equal.
For example according to Andre Jouineau and Jean Mongin of France, in
1808 the company had:
"= 1 Captain, commanding the company
= 1 Captain, second-in-command
= 1 First-Lieutenant
= 1 Second-Lieutenant
= 1 Sergeant-Major
= 4 Sergeants
= 1 Quartermaster
= 4 Corporals
= 4 Artificers
= 20 Artillerymen, first class
= 48 Artillerymen, second-class
= 2 Drummers"
The Battalion (24 guns) was commanded by Chef de bataillon.
The Regiment was commanded by a colonel.
In 1804 the Artillery Train of the Consular Guard [Train dArtillerie de la
Garde Consulaire] was formed. In 1805 it was enlarged and formed battalion
of Artillery Train of the Imperial Guard [Bataillon du Train dArtillerie de la
Garde Imperiale].
In 1808 was formed Regiment of Foot Artillery. It was commanded by
Antoine Drouot, and then by Armand-Joseph-Henri Digeon. In 1806 the
Regiment of Horse Artillery was formed, it had six batteries. In 1807 they
received lighter 6pdr cannons. (In the battle of Austerlitz in 1805 were two
horse batteries, each of 4 8pdr and 2 4pdr cannons, and 2 howitzers.)
In 1809 the Guard Artillery consisted of:
- Regiment of Guard Horse Artillery
- Regiment of Guard Foot Artillery
The Regiment of Guard Horse Artillery comprised of:
- Squadron of Old Guard
- Squadron of Old Guard
- Squadron of Young Guard
Each squadron had 2 companies, each company of 6 guns, crew, horse-
teams, and train. The Young Guard served in Spain while the companies of
the Old Guard were on the primary theater of war, in Germany and Austria.
In 1809 the Emperor raised 3 companies of artillery conscrits for service in
Spain. These companies acted as regimental artillery and were issued to the
infantry regiments of Young Guard already in Spain. In the following year
the 3 companies became artillery of Young Guard.
The Regiment of Guard Foot Artillery consisted of:
- Battalion of Old Guard
- Battalion of Old Guard
- Battalion of Young Guard
Each battalion had 3 companies.
The company of Old Guard had 4 heavy 12pdr cannons. The train drivers
were ranked as Middle Guard (not Old Guard). The company of Young
Guard had 8 lighter 4pdrs.
In January 1813, shortly aqfter the disastrous retreat from Russia, Napoleon
ordered a number of new batteries formed for the Young Guard. The first
four were manned by gunners from the cohorts of the National Guard. The
800 conscript assigned to the train and gunners from the cohorts were
designated 'second gunners' and received the pay of the Line. On 26 January
the wagon train battalion was reorganized in Paris and filled up with
conscripts. "They have put all the farmers in Paris into the train of artillery" -
joked conscript Cajot.
Commanders and senior officers of the Guard Artillery in 1813:
Colonel-commandant - GdD Dulauloy
Chef de Etat-Major - Lallemand
Ltn. (garde-general du parc) - Guillon
Ltn. (adjudant d'habillement) - Duval
- - - - - - - - - - - Regiment of Horse Artillery (Old Guard)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Commander - GdB Desvaux
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Chefs de Escadron - Dubuard Marin,
Delmude and Boisselier
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Adjudant-Mjr. - List
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sous-Adjudant-Mjr. - Huet, Pasquier, vacant
- - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of Foot Artillery (Old Guard)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Commander - Griois
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Chefs de Bataillon - Couin, Hautepoul and
Capelle
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Adjudant-Mjr. - Beranger
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sous-Adjudant-Mjr. - Cornuel, Mainville and
Raoul
- - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of Foot Artillery (Young Guard)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Commander - Henrion
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Chef de Bataillon - Breux, Aubert, Oudin,
Faivre, Renaud, Lafond and Levis
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Cpt. Adjudant-Mjr. - Hortel
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sous-Aide-Mjr. - Charpentier, Bichaux, 5
vacant
- - - - - - - - - - - 1st Regiment of Artillery Train
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Commander - Bon de Lignum / Leroy
- - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of Artillery Train
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Commander - Mjr. Bailloud
Order of battle of the Guard Artillery in October 1813, Battle of Leipzig:
- - - - - - - - - - - Reserve Artillery under GdD Dulauloy
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - under Col. Griois
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Foot Battery (Old Guard) x 6 12pdr cannons and 2 6' howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Foot Battery (Old Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5' howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - under GdB Henrion
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - under Col. Duchand
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Horse Battery (Old Guard) x 4 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
howitzers
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Horse Battery of Berg x 4 6pdr cannons and 2 x 5.5' howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - under Col. Boisonnet
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Company of (Guard) Engineers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Company of (Guard) Marins
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Company of (Guard) Pontoniers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Company of (Guard) Ouvriers
- - - - - - - - - - - attached to the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Guard Cavalry Divisions
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III Horse Battery (Old Guard) x 4 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IV Horse Battery (Old Guard) x 4 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - V Horse Battery (Old Guard) x 4 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - VI Horse Battery (Old Guard) x 4 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - attached to the 1st and 2nd (Old Guard) Infantry Divisions
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Foot Battery (Old Guard) x 6 12pdr cannons and 2 6'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Foot Battery (Old Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - X Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - XIV Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - attached to the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th (Young Guard) Infantry Divisions
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - VIII Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IX Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - XI Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - XIII Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IV Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - XII Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - V Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - VI Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - VII Foot Battery (Young Guard) x 6 6pdr cannons and 2 5.5'
howitzers
There was enough cannons and howitzers in 1814, the shortages were in
horses and men. After Emperor's first abdication, the Royalists cu back the
horse and foot batteries. Returning in 1815 the Emperor once more began a
rebuilding. Although he did secure some additional fire power at Waterloo
he had 246 guns, somwehat below his usual proportion of guns to
infantrymen.
Order of battle of the Guard Artillery in June 1815, Battle of Waterloo:
- - - - - - - - - - - Reserve Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Foot Battery (Old Guard) - Cpt. Marion
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Foot Battery of Old Guard - Cpt. Radet
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III Foot Battery of Old Guard - Cpt. Tessier
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IV Foot Battery of Old Guard - Cpt. Gaubert
- - - - - - - - - - - attached to the Guard Light Cavalry Division
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Horse Battery (Old Guard) - Cpt. Favier
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Horse Battery (Old Guard) - Cpt. Nasse
- - - - - - - - - - - attached to the Guard Heavy Cavalry Division
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III Horse Battery (Old Guard) - Cpt. Branville
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IV Horse Battery (Old Guard) - Cpt. Barbarin
- - - - - - - - - - - attached to the Guard Grenadier Division
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - V Foot Battery (Old Guard) - Cpt. Resigny
- - - - - - - - - - - attached to the Guard Chasseur Division
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - VI Foot Battery of Old Guard - Cpt. Jacques
Note:
there were also so-called auxiliary artillery companies (batteries) attached to some troops.
These batteries were manned by men of the II Battalion/1 Regiment/La Corps des Canonniers de la
Marine.
~
Uniforms.
Parade, campaign and battle outfits.
The coat of the gunners of the Imperial Guard was dark blue with scarlet
cuffs and dark blue cuff flaps piped scarlet. Since 1810 the dark blue collar
was piped scarlet. The turnbacks were scarlet. The lapels were dark blue
piped scarlet. The breeches were dark blue and the long gaiters were either
black or white. The gaiters were worn fastened up to the knee cap and
strapped under the shoe. They were also issued long linen or cotton drawers,
which would usually be worn without or over the breeches to keep warm.
The breeches required washing, but it was not the case with the drawers.
During campaign they wore the comfortable drawers, white or light grey in
summer, and dark blue in winter. See pictures below.
In 1812 the Young Guard Foot Artillery were issued new short-tailed habit-
veste (so-called Bardin uniform).
In 1813 the long gaiters were replaced by shorter black and grey ones. The
Old Guard kept their old traditioonal long gaiters and long-tailed jackets.
The horse gunners wore striking, hussar-style uniforms.
It consisted of dark blue dolman and pelisse, tight Hungarian breeches,
under-knee boots, and black fur caps. For parade was red plume. The horse
gunners wore fur caps. The cords terminated in tassels which were allowed
to hang from the ends of the fur cap. For campaign they wore trousers or
over-breeches, the dolman was left in depot, and the cords and plumes were
removed.
For more information read our article:
"Uniforms of the Napoleonic Wars."
(Parade, Campaign, and Battle Outfits).
Old Guard Foot Artillery.
In 1 8 0 8 the foot gunners were issued with a 20 cm tall black shako with red shevrons and
bands.
For parade and review it was decorated with red cords and tall red plume.For campaign the
shako
was protected with oilcloth (see picture above) decorated only with a small red pompon on top of
it.
In May 1810 the shako was replaced with 35 cm tall bearskin.
The impressive looking fur cap was decorated with red cords and tall red plume (see picture
above).
During campaign the cords and plumes were detached and the bearskin was protected with
oilcloth.
The gunners of Young Guard however kept their shakos (See picture below).
.
.

Young Guard Foot Artillery.
Pictures by A Jouineau and Keith Rocco.
.
.


Old Guard Horse Artillery.
Left: parade uniform, by A Jouineau.
Right: campaign uniforms, by K Rocco.
~
Horses.
The horses of the Guard Artillery (foot and horse) were
excellent, especially between 1802 and 1812. Even in the last
campaigns in 1813 and 1815, the animals were better than the
average artillery horse.
The Guard Horse Artillery accepted only black and strong horses. Shortly
before the Waterloo Campaign in 1815, there was a shortage of blacks and
Napoleon ordered to take them from the Horse Grenadiers of the Imperial
Guard, the senior and most prestigious regiment of heavy cavalry. Artillery
was the Emperor's darling, not the cavalry.
However during their short stay in Spain the situation was
different. Their caissons, carts and supply wagons were drawn
by mules and donkeys. Henri Lachoque writes, "Meanwhile the
Guard artillery from La Fere arrived in Burgos with some of its
gun carriages hitched to cows." (Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory" p 133)
Napoleon was not too happy with the "Spanish arrangements."
Back in France the Guard Artillery (foot and horse) received
splendid horses. Some were even too large. Captain Antoine
Augustin Pion des Loches of the Guard Foot Artillery wrote in
1812; "Our teams were of the best, and the equipment left
nothing to be desired, but everyone was agreed that the horses were too tall
and too strongly built, and unsuited to supporting hardship and lack of
abundant nourishment."
Unfortunately during the retreat from Russia most of the horses were lost
and replaced with the hardy Russian ponies. These also perished during the
retreat and Drouot ordered his gunners to burn most of their caissons and
threw their ammunition into a small lake near the Orsha road.
Guard Horse Artillery at Borodino in 1812.
The artist gave the Guard Horse Artillery chestnuts and bays.
Morning of Waterloo 1815, by Ernst Crofts.
Ernst Crofts gave the Guard Foot Artillery greys and bays.
~
Guard Artillery Train.
The companies of Young Guard had double ammunition provisions
and the companies of Old Guard having triple ammunition.
The Artillery Train of the Consular Guard was formed in September 1800. In
November 1803 the Guard Artillery Train was composed of 4 companies.
During campaign one company of artillery train was teamed with one
company of artillery (battery). The gunners handled the guns (cannons and
howitzers) and the men of train handled the draft horses, limbers, supply
and ammunition wagons.
Napoleon expected a lot of ammunition for the guns of Guard Artillery. The
8pdr cannon was issued 3 caissons and the heavy 12pdr and the howitzer 5
caissons each. Each caisson held approx. 350 rounds. The caissons were
operated by the strong men of the artillery train. They were carefully
selected. From the candidates was required:
10 years' excellent service
bravery and good character
According to the Decree of July 29th, 1804
(10 Therimador an XII) the requirements were:
5 years' excellent service
at least 1.78m (5'2'' French) tall
In 1809 the height requirement was 1.678 m.
In 1804 (one year before the Austerlitz Campaign) every battalion of artillery
train
had to provide a list of 6 NCOs or troopers meeting the above mentioned
requirements.
.
Left: wounded Corporal in 1813-
1814.
Source: Emir Bukhari from
Griffith's - "French Artillery".
Right: driver in campaign
uniform.
Source: Mark Adkin's - "Waterloo
Companion"
St.Hilaire writes, "As for the
soldier of the Guard train, he was
not an artillery carter; he had
deserved his new qualification ...
Accustomed to mixing his voice
with the crashes of artillery, with
the rustle of the caissons, to excite his horses, he had a
continual hoarseness, which twenty years of peace had not
cured.
One still finds some of these old soldiers of the train,
harness-makers or sergeant blacksmiths, in the Chapelle-Saint-Denis or
Vaugirard; but under the leather apron he is always recognizable: this man
preserved his hoarseness, his common forms and his a little brutal
language."
.
In April 1806, the Guard Artillery Train was formed into one battalion
(staff and 6 companies), with 1000 horses in wartime.
Battalion's Staff:
- - - 1 Captain
- - - 1 Lieutenant-Adjutant-Major
- - - 1 Sous-Lieutenant Quarter Maitre
- - - 1 Adjutant Sous-Officer
- - - Non-Combatants: Veterinarian, Tailor, Boot Maker,
- - - Saddler Maker, Harness Maker, and Rope Maker.
Company:
- - - 1 Lieutenant
- - - 1 Sous-Lieutenant
- - - 1 Sergeant-Major
- - - 4 Sergeants
- - - 1 Fourier
- - - 5 Corporals
- - - 2 Trumpeters
- - - 68 Drivers
- - - 2 Smiths, 2 Harness Makers
In October 1807, the Guard Artillery Train had two battalions:
one in the field and one depot battalion. Each battalion had 6 companies.
In December the 'batalion bis' was formed for service in Spain and Portugal.
In August 1808 it became the 13th Train Battalion, while the depot became
the 13th 'Batallion Bis.'
In May 1811 the Guard Artillery Train consisted of staff and 6 companies.
Staff:
Company:
- - - 1 Lieutenant
- - - 4 Sergeants
- - - 1 Fourier
- - - 4 Corporals
- - - 2 Trumpeters
- - - 26 1st Drivers
- - - 134 2nd Drivers
In February 1812 (few months before the Invasion of Russia)
each company had an extra 10 2nd drivers assigned to them.
In early 1813 the Regiment of Guard Artillery Train consisted of:
staff, small staff, and 3 battalions of 4 companies each:
Regiment's staff:
- - - 1 Major
- - - 1 Chef d'Batallion
- - - 3 Captains commanding each battalion
- - - 1 Lieutenant Adjutand-Major
- - - 1 Sous-Lieutenant Quarter-maitre
- - - 1 Sous-Lieutenant dHabillement
- - - 1 Major Surgeon, 2 Assistant Surgeons
Small staff:
- - - 3 Adj. Sous-Officiers
- - - 1 Trompeter Major
- - - Non-combatants: 1 Veterinarian and 3 Assistants
- - - 1 Bootmaker, 1 Tailor, 1 Saddle Maker, 1 Spur Maker
Company:
- - - 1 Lieutant
- - - 6 Sergeants
- - - 1 Fourier
- - - 6 Corporals
- - - 2 Trumpeters
- - - 285 draft horses
- - - 25 saddle horses
Depot company:
- - - 1 Lieutenant
- - - 1 Sergeant-major
- - - 2 Sergeants
- - - 1 Fourier
- - - 4 Corporals
- - - 40 1st drivers
- - - 10 2nd drivers
In April 1813 the 2nd Regiment was formed. It consisted of 2 battalions of 6
companies each.
The 1st Regiment of (Old) Guard Foot Artillery was teamed with the 1st Reg.
of Guard Artillery Train.
The 2nd Regiment of (Young) Guard Foot Artillery was teamed with the 2nd
Reg. of Guard Artillery Train.
In 1814, after Napoleon's first abdication, the battalion of artillery train was
split into three, and half of its horses lent to the farmers of Angers, Orleans,
and Beauge where the units were stationed.
In 1815 (Waterloo Campaign) was one regiment of the train. It consisted of
staff, 8 Old Guard and 1 Young Guard companies. The regiment numbered
1,784 horses: 48 for officers, 136 for the workmen, NCOs and trompeters,
and 1600 draft horses. Volunteer drivers were enlisted as '3rd Class' soldiers,
to avoid stripping the Line. (- Henri Lachoque)
Regiment's Staff:
- - - 1 Chef dEscadron
- - - 1 Capitaine-Adjutand-Major
- - - 1 Lieutenant-Quarter-maitre
- - - 1 Lieutenant dHabillement
- - - 2 Adjutand Sous-Officers
- - - 1 Trumpeter-Major
- - - Non-combatants: 2 Surgeons, 1 Veterinarian + 3 Assistants
- - - 1 Boot Maker, 1 Tailor, 1 Breaches Maker, 1 Harness Maker
- - - 1 Armourer, 1 Spur Maker
Company:
- - - 1 Lieutenant
- - - ? Sergeants
- - - 1 Fourier
- - - 8 Corporals
- - - 2 Trumpeters
- - - Non-combatants: 3 Smiths, 2 Harness Makers
Guard Artillery Train in 1814.
~
General Drouot - The Monk-Soldier
Praying and fighting appeared to be
his idea of the whole duty of man.
Antoine Drouot was born at Nancy on January 11, 1774 to a family of bakers;
he was one of 12 children of Claude Drouot. Antoine Drouot wrote: "My
parents attempted above all to inspire me with religious feeling and to give
me a love of work and virtue." Drouot was a man with Spartan tastes. In
order to spare parents' budget, he covered the distance between Nancy to
Chalons on foot and entered the exam room wearing his walking clothes.
Because of his good grades, Drouot was named lieutenant in the 1st
Regiment of Foot Artillery.
Antoine Drouot had quick mind and was one the most remarkable
artillerists the world has ever produced. In 1804, he requested service in
Boulogne where Napoleon was creating the Grand Army. In 1805 Drouot
was in Cadiz (Spain). Between 1805 and 1807 he managed the arms factory at
Maubeuge and factory at Charleville. In 1808 Drouot was promoted to
major. In December he became the commander of the Regiment of Guard
Foot Artillery.
Drouot had become a living legend to the men who wore the blue, a figure
who elicited an almost mystical devotion. Drouot always carried a Bible with
him. Praying and fighting appeared to be his idea of the whole duty of man.
In battle Drouot - dressed in an old uniform - stood in the midst of his guns
and directed their fire. His quiet and grave demeanor, his steadfastness,
reminded one of the mighty strength of his artillery. When Drouot received
an order to bring up his guns, he moved fiercely and steadily.
"During the appalling conditions of the retreat from Moscow (in 1812) it was
said that he was the only man in the army to shave in the open daily with a
mirror propped up on a gun carriage. A bachelor, who limped as a result of
a foot wound (his only injury) received at Wagram, he had been fighting
almost continuously since 1793... he was described by Marshal Macdonald
as, "the most upright, honest man I have ever known, well educated, brave,
devout and simple in his manner." (Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion" pp 12 &
201)
Drouot acquired the nickname Sage de la Grande Armee. Napoleon liked him
and appreciated his wisdom and loyalty. "If I had followed the wise counsel
of Drouot, I would never have left Elba." - said the Emperor at Saint Helena.
General Antoine Drouot
"His morals, his integrity, his lack of affectation, would have
brought him honor in the greatest days of the Roman Republic ...
I had good reason to rank him superior to a great many of my marshals."
- Napoleon on Saint Helena
~
Campaigns and battles
"At the beginning of 1808 the Guard Artillery left Hanover and arrived
at its new garrison at La Fere on 14 January. More cunning than the
[Guard] foot chasseurs, the gunners had managed to smuggle in large
quantities of British goods hidden in their kits."
In 1809 at Wagram the Emperor ordered Lauriston to bring the Guard
Artillery and deploy south of Aderklaa. To the right of the 72 guns of the
Guard Artillery were 40 guns from the Army of Italy. The massive battery
was deployed "well within musket range of the white-coated infantry" ( James
Arnold - "Napoleon Conquers Austria")
Napoleon pointed the Austrian lines and said "... erase the masses". Each gun
of Guard Artillery fired approx. 200 rounds. This tremendous fire made a
breach in Austrian line between Breitenlee and Sussenbrunn. The whitecoats
were driven back, many hid in the village. GdK Bellegarde deployed three
batteries to fill the void, and they too were forced into retreat. Only the
Austrian grenadiers held their ground.
In Lutzen 60
guns of the
Guard
Artillery
appeared from
behind a
masking ridge;
stopped the
victorious
Prussians and Russians in their tracks; and prepared the way for an infantry
attack.
In 1813 at Bautzen the central French attack was supported by 76 guns. But
the terrain was both too hilly and too soft for the fire to be effective, and the
Russians were able to preserve their artillery in fieldworks.
In 1813 at Dresden one battery of the Old Guard Horse Artillery deployed
near the redoubt and almost annihilated the leading Russian jager regiment.
The Guard Artillery was committed on the second day in the main attack on
the enemey line. The cannons came on in grand style by successive batteries,
and cleared the enemy from a wide zone to their front. Then, however, they
were inexplicably ordered to retire, and in his memoirs General Griois
records his fury at the waste of a good chance to break out.
The Grand Battery deployed south of Leipzig, on the Gallows Height, was
under Antoine Count Drouot. It consisted of approx. 100 guns (68 from
Victor's, Lauriston's and Latour-Maubourg's corps, and 32 from the Old
Guard Foot Artillery). The Russians and Prussians had 52 guns facing
Drouot's battery. Drouot's guns quickly dismounted 24 (!) Allies pieces while
the remaining enemy guns hastily fell back and onto the road to Gulden-
Gossa. Those Russian and Prussian gunners who had no riding place on the
cannons or limbers were running down the verges in hasty retreat. Once the
artillery was gone Eugene's Russian II Infantry Corps (3rd & 4th Division)
became the only target for Drouot's gunners.
Digby-Smith writes; "The situation of the Russians on Klux's right, in the
open fields ... was much worse. Lacking any cover at all, they suffered very
heavy losses from artillery fire. Shahovskoi ... reported to Prinz Eugen that his
men were being destroyed. The prince rode slowly along the line. At each
battalion, his question 'How many men have you lost ?' would be answered
with a silent gesture to the lines of dead lying where they had fallen. ... [Prinz
Eugen] did nothing to alleviate the situation ... " (Digby-Smith, - p 86)
Then a French cannonball went through the prince's horse and thrown the
rider to the ground. The 3rd Division have suffered horrible casualties and
was finally withdrawn towards Gulden-Gossa. The 4th Division also got
under fire and fell back on Crobern. The withdrawal was covered by 6
Russian battalions. Drouot's battery also forced Mesenzov's Russian 5th
Division to retire.
The artillery fire was terrific. Drouot
made a gap in enemy's line; three
Russian infantry divisions, two
Prussian brigades and Russian cavalry
corps were forced into a hasty
withdrawal. The situation was ripe for a
massive attack, breaking the enemy's line and winning the battle. The
cannons kept firing until Murat's 10,000 cavalrymen began to advance. Then
they fell silent as the advancing masses obscured the line of fire.
Once the cavalry passed Napoleon ordered Drouot to take part of his Grand
Battery and push it forward. Marbot writes: "General Drout with 60 cannons
aided the attack." The crews manhandled the pieces back to hook them on to
their limbers. The ammunition wagons set off with their wheels digging great
gouges into the meadow. The guns rolled forward, with their chains and
buckets swinging. The horrified enemy was rapidly falling back.
On the third day of the battle of Leipzig, at 4:30 PM Dabrowski's 4
battalions of Polish infantry stood just north of the Halle suburbs. Pacthod's
1st Young Guard Division stood in the Halle suburbs and behind the river.
Sacken's Russian XI Corps moved south of Gohlis. The Prussian I Corps
under von Yorck was as a reserve in the second line on the height near
Gohlis.
One of Sacken's three infantry divisions (27th under Neverovski) attacked
Dabrowski. Outnumbered 2 to 1 the Poles withdrew behind the Parthe River
taking up positions to defend the bridge. They were supported by a single
company of Baden infantry. The loss of the Halle suburb meant disaster to
Napoleon and his army. George Nafziger writes; "Gourgaud, one of
Napoleon's ADCs, recognized the danger, and reassured by Dabrowski that
he would die before abandoning his position, hurried to advise Napoleon of
the threat. Pacthod's 1st Young Guard Division (12 battalions and 3 batteries)
was sent from Thonberg at the double, to support Dabrowski. Pacthod
moved his division forward and deployed his artillery in the Rosenthal
Woods, on the west bank of the Pleisse." "... Sacken's attack with Neverovski's
27th Division was now supported by Lieven's 10th Division, which was
posted to Neverovski's left rear. Neverovski sent forward 5 battalions,
supported by 13th Position and 35th Light Battery ...
However,
the flanking
fire from
Pacthod's
artillery and
infantry,
standing
behind the
Pleisse in
the
Rosenthal
Woods, was
devastating
and broke
the attack.
Rachmanov's 4 battalions ... already terribly under strength, were severely
punished and forced to withdraw back to Gohlis. ... By 3 PM Sacken's forces
were once again pushing forward towards Pfafendorf, where the French
Young Guard batteries in the Rosenthal Woods once again showered them
with shot and shell. The battle degenerated into a skirmish fight with one
jager battalion pushing across the Pleisse, in an attempt to strike the artillery
of the Young Guard there. ... The Russian soldiers had fought with tenacity
and many Russian officers and men fell in this battle. Neverovski, Huene,
Rachmanov, all fell as did many staff officers. All their sacrifices were in
vain." The Young Guard held the Pleisse River, while the Poles still
controlled the Halle suburbs and the gate.
In 1813 at Hanau the French army (60,000-90,000 men under Napoleon) in
retreat from Leipzig fought its way through a road block of 30,000-45,000
Bavarians, Austrians and Cossacks under General Wrede. On the 30th,
Napoleon appeared in front of Hanau with a force of 15,000-20,000 men, with
another 15,000 following close behind. French officer Marbot writes, "In the
direction from which we were coming, a large forest, through which the road
runs, covers the approach to Hanau. The tall trees of this forest allow
movement without much difficulty. The town of Hanau is built on the other
side of the river Kinzig. ... It is true that the position he (Bavarian General
Wrede) occupied barred the way to Frankfort and to France, and he felt
certain that he could prevent us from forcing a passage." (- Baron de Marbot)
The French infantry was unable to make progress in some woods, but when
Drouot arrived with the Guard Artillery his preliminary reconnaissance
showed him a profitable line of attack. French Guard Cavalry led by
Nansouty moved forward against the enemy cavalry on the left flank.
Nansouty's first line wheeled left to attack the infantry in the center. Friant
and Cambronne cleared the woods with 2 battalions of the Old Guard in
skirmish order, then Drouot defiled through them with 15 guns and deployed
in such a position as to take enemy's artillery in flank.
Map: Antoine Drouot's Guard Artillery made a short work of the Bavarians.
"Behind this screen the reminder of the Guard Artillery deployed, making a
total of 50 pieces. When these guns had begun to throw the enemy into
confusion the Guard Cavalry completed the rout. The Bavarian cavalry then
counterattacked, but Drouot held his own cavalry in front of the guns until
the very last minute. When the enemy had arrived at close range the French
cavalry then wheeled away to reveal the massed battery, which proceeded to
make very short work of the Bavarians." (Griffith - "French Artillery" p 46)
Once clear of the wood they blew apart the static Bavarian troops holding
that part of the battlefield. They also dimounted 28 of the enemy's guns.
"As Wrede was sending infantry and cavalry reinforcements to the
threatened sector, Sebastiani charged and broke the enemy horse, but was in
turn driven back to Drouot's grand battery by recently arrived Bavarian
cavalry. However the Bavarian success was short-lived. Nansouty's Guard
Cavalry spearheaded by the Old Guard Horse Grenadiers ferociously
counterattacked. The "Gods", the Polish lancers, and the Honor Guard cut
their way through the outmatched Bavarian lighthorsemen. Meanwhile, the
Guard Dragoons charged and broke three battalion squares of enemy
infantry as the Old Guard Chasseurs broke and captured two entire Bavarian
battalions. The impetus of the Guard's Cavalry's charge disintegrated Wrede's
entire command of the left bank of the Kinzig." (Bowden - "Napoleon's Grande
Armee of 1813" p 197)
In 1814 at Craonne and Montereau the Guard Artillery was able to make a
decisive intervention at the crises of the battles, in both cases on extremely
narrow frontages.
In 1814 at Arcis-sur-Aube the Guard Artillery came too late and deployed
too slowly as the guns had to use double teams to move through thick mud.
During the battle of Paris in 1814 the Guard Artillery in La Villette were
firing continuously. They sent for more ammunition. Some ammunition
caissons eventually reached them. The Guard again fired full speed until the
Prussian Guard appeared in the rear. Then they hurled 2 guns into the canal
and abandoned the other 2 as they retired before the advancing Prussians.
The Guard Artillery suffered heavy losses. Major Bitsch was severely
wounded, and Captain Raoul and four majors were put out of action.
After Napoleon's first abdication in 1814 he was allowed to take very
small number of Guard gunners on Elba Island. Approx. 400 volunteered !
General Griois chose 100 gunners under Captains Cornuel and Raoul. The
rest of the Guard Artillery was taken by General Griois to Vendomme where
the batteries were scattered in order to find food and forage for over 1,800
men and 2,400 horses. The officers were split into political cliques, with des
Loches, Bitsch and Leclerc content to serve the King, and Boulart, Marin,
Capelle, Griois and many others unhappy with their fate.
When Count d'Osmond was sent to investigate the gunners' loyalty, they
took little trouble to hide their sentiments. When a Te Deum of thanksgiving
for the Bourbons' return was sung in church, some old warriors heckled the
priest who dared to compare 'the virtues of the King with the crimes of the
Tyrant.' Griois tore up a testimonial stating that his gunners' conduct 'had
vastly improved during their stay' and threw it in the face of the mayor.
There were more incidents, like the horse gunners charging with sabers on
the Prussian Garde du Corps at Compiegne !
Dogureau, who was presented to the King, was appointed major general
commanding the artillery. However, his old threat to "blow out the brains of
the first Bourbon who returns to France" had not been entirely forgotten, nor
had Lallemand's reference to the Court as "canaille of princes and emigres",
nor many other insults.
Guard Foot Artillery in parade outfits.
In 1 8 1 5 at Waterloo, one battery of the Old Guard fired its last shots
into the mass of Prussian and British soldiers, then stoically stood by
their cannons as if ready to fire again. It was a bluff, but they halted
the enemy cold and gained their comrades time to take new position.
Horse Battery of the Imperial Guard in action.
The Guard Artillery suffered heavy losses twice. In 1812 during the winter
retreat from Russia they lost all horses and most of the men. The second time
it happened in 1814 at La Rothiere where Russian dragoon division under
General Panchulitzev captured 24 pieces of Old Guard Horse Artillery. These
were lost during one of the chaotic moments that take place in every battle
and not by a frontal assault.
Sources and Links.
Auge - "La Garde Imperiale"
Jouineau and Mongin - "Officers and Soldiers of the French Imperial Guard 1804-15" Vol I (The Foot Soldiers)
Elting - "Swords around the Throne: Napoleon's Grande Arme", New York 1988
Lachouque (Anne S. K. Brown) - "The Anatomy of Glory: Napoleon and his Guard"
Lachouque - "Napolon et la Garde Imperiale"
Connelly - "Historical Dictionary of Napoleonic France, 1799-1815"
Esdaile - "The Wars of Napoleon"
Mansel - "The Eagle in Splendour: Napoleon I and His Court" 1987
Six - "Dictionaire biographique des generaux et amiraux..."
website: napoleonseries.org
website: napoleon-series.org
THE FRENCH ARTILLERY MUSEUM
Napoleon's Foreign Infantry : Italian : Polish : Irish : German : Swiss
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/infantry_Napoleon_3.htm[2012-05-21 12:39:07]
Napoleon's Foreign Infantry
"After 1806, about 1/3 of the French army were foreign ; by 1812 , more than 1/2 .
The P o l e s , believing that Napoleon would re-establish a free Poland, were perhaps the best.
The Swiss were well-trained mercenaries. Italians usually served well. Germans were variable;
Saxon cavalry and Wurttemberg infantry being thought the best. Neapolitans were frequently
worthless." Esposito, Elting - "A Military History..."
"The forced marches of our army often continued till late at night,
and in passing the troops we frequently heard Italians, Germans
or Frenchmen, singing their national airs to lull their fatigue, or
in this distant and hostile land, to recall a lively remembrance of
their absent country."
- Albert-Jean-Michel de Rocca,
French 2nd Hussar Regiment
Introduction.
.
The Dutch and Belgians.
The 'Vistula Legion'
Legion de la Vistule
The Irish Legion
The Swiss
The Italians.
Tirailleurs du P and
the Tirailleurs Corses
Les Cousins de l'Empereur
Croatian Regiments
"They took no prisoners, and at first
they scared the raw French conscripts."
Legion du Midi
'Regiments Etrangers'
Other Troops.
.
.
Legion de la Vistule.
"The Germans in general, make
capital stuff for a soldier."
Bavarians
Saxons
Westphalians
Wurttembergers
Badeners
Hessians

German troops of the Napoleonic Wars. Diorama of the Battle of Leipzig 1813.
(13.000 tin soldiers displayed at the Bavarian Army Museum in Ingolstadt, Germany)
Introduction - Foreigners in French Service.
The French rulers looked upon Swiss and German infantry
as superior troops that the French could not match;
for them, they were not only convenient but indispensable.
The French, being practical people, have always been eager to let any available foreigners assist
them in any necessary bleeding and doing for France. The foreigners served for the French kings, for
Napoleon and during the 20th Century. Today the French Foreign Legion is an elite unit.
French reliance upon foreign mercenary regiments varied considerably over time. To put the
Napoleonic period in perspective, it is necessary to begin with the Italian Wars. The French created
their armies around a core of foreign infantry. The reign of Francois I marked the high point of
dependence on Swiss, German, and Italian infantry. "During the 16th century, the proportion of
foreigners was not only high in general; it was particularly great in front-line units. Native militias
assisted by second-echelon French troops might man the walls of towns, and mixed forces might
garrison threatened provinces, but highly prized Swiss and Germans concentrated in the field
armies. ... From 1600 until French entry into the Thirty Years' War in 1635, foreign regiments
comprised about 10 % of the infantry regiments maintained by Louis XIII. ... Francois I looked upon
Swiss and German infantry as superior troops that the French could not match; for him, they were
not only convenient but indispensable. Although the Swiss retained some of their elite aura in the
17th century, Louis XIII and Louis XIV ceased to regard them as supermen." (Lynn - "Giant of the
Grand Siecle" pp 329-332)
"The (French) revolutionary armies had been manned practically by Frenchmen only. But as
Napoleon's empire expanded, and embroiled him into more and more wars, he came to call upon
the populations of annexed and 'allied' countries to contribute to the manpower needs of his army."
(- Marc Raeff)
Napoleon's foreign troops comprised three categories:
- Foreigners who enlisted in French regiments
(When German, Dutch and Italian territories
were annexed the foreigners in French service
became very numerous.)
- Entirely foreign units in the French service
Dutch Guard Red Lancers
Dutch Guard Grenadiers
Swiss Regiments
Croatian regiments
Polish Vistula Legion
Hannoverian Legion
Portuguese Legion
Irish Legion
and few others
- Forces of allied or dependent states.
Polish Corps
Westphalian Corps
Bavarian Corps
Saxon Corps
and other smaller units
List of French light regiments formed of foreigners:
In 1811-1813 in the ranks of 8th Regiment of Light Infantry served many Croats.
11th Light - disbanded in 1803 and reraised in 1811 from Italians and Swiss
(Tirailleurs Corses, Tirailleurs du Po, Tirailleurs de la Legion de Midi, and Valaison)
32th Light - raised in 1808 from Italians (Grand Duchy of Toscany)
33rd Light - raised in 1808 from provisional regiment,
in 1809 were disbanded and reraised in 1810 from Dutch troops.
35th Light - raised in 1812 from 1st Regiment de la Mediterrane (formed in 1810)
36th Light - raised in 1812 from Regiment de Belle-Ile (formed in 1811)
French line regiments formed of foreigners:
47th Line - served many Irishmen
113th Line - formed in May 1808 from troops of Tuscany.
123rd, 124th, 125th Line - formed in Sept 1810 from Dutch, disbanded in 1813.
126th Line - formed in 1810 from Dutch, disbanded in 1813 and amalgamated to 123e.
127th Line - formed in 1811 from Garde de Hambourg and Garde de Lubeck (Germans)
128th Line - formed in 1811 from Garde de Breme (Germans)
(One of our visitors, John Groweg, wrote: Napoleons troops occupied my ancestral hometown of
Diepholz, Germany. Historical documents and accounts passed down show that families hid their
sons or helped them sneak off to Holland in order to avoid conscription into Napoleons army. One
of my ancestors did not escape service and was drafted into the French 128th Line Infantry Garde de
Breme. He later died in a Minsk hospital of unknown causes, probably of illness after the rains of
June 1812. Many foreign troops were forced against their will into Napoleons army.)
129th Line - formed in 1811 from Reg. d'Oldenbourg (Germans),
detachments Garde de Westphaliens (Germans) and French troops. Disbanded in 1813.
133rd Line - formed in 1811 (or 1812 ?) from the 2nd Meditarranean Regiment (Italians).
Many Belgians served in :
- 12th Light Infantry Regiment
- 45th Line Infantry Regiment
- 16th Chasseur-a-Cheval Regiment
- 20th Dragoon Regiment
- 14th Cuirassier Regiment
Some were also found amongst the ouvriers and the armuriers
of the French artillery as well as the artillery trains.
The foreigners also served in Napoleon's Imperial Guard. The Dutch formed 3rd Regiment of Foot
Grenadiers and 2nd Regiment of Lancers (the famous Red Lancers). The Italians formed Velites of
Turin and Velites of Florence.
The Poles formed the 1st and 3rd Regiment of Lancers and in 1812 Napoleon attached the entire
'Vistula Legion' to his Guard. The Germans in the Guard in 1813 were represented by the Saxon
Grenadier Battalion and the Westphalian Guard Fusilier Battalion. Earlier on the Berg lancers were
attached to the Guard. There were no Swiss in Napoleon's Imperial Guard.
The number of foreigners in major battles was often
significant.
Below is a comparison list for the Battle of Borodino
(1812):
Battalions of infantry:
French - . . . . . . . . .144 . . . (75 %)
Polish - . . . . . . . . . . 27 . . . (15 %) see picture -->
Westphalian - . . . .14 . . . (7 %) see picture -->
Italian - . . . . . . . . . . .5
Wirtembergian - . . .3
Spanish - . . . . . . . . . 2
Croats - . . . . . . . . . . .2
Hessian, Portug. and others
.
The foreign infantry fighting at Berezina in winter 1812.
C'est la brzina !
The Battle of Berezina took place November 26-
29. Napoleon had 35,000 French, Swiss and
Polish troops and 35,000 stragglers. They faced
40,000 Russians. Additional 30,000 Russian
troops were not far from the battlefield.
The ground on both banks of the Berezina was
broken by woods. Marshals Oudinot and Ney
had deployed the 123rd Line Infantry (Dutch)
and the Swiss regiments in the front line. The
Croats stood by the small fieldwork. The
Imperial Guard was held in reserve. (See map.)
Seven Russian jager regiments occupied the
woods. They were supported by the Pavlograd
Hussar Regiment broken into squadrons and
spread behind the jagers.
A lively skirmish began. Marshal Oudinot was
hit by a musketball and fell wounded. Marshal
Ney then arrived with the Vistula Legion and
some French troops. Ney led the Poles, Swiss,
Dutch, Croats and French cuirassiers (500 men)
against the Russian left. The cuirassiers were under General Doumerc. The jagers crumbled under
the pressure and fell back. Then the cuirassiers fell on the columns of Russian 18th Infantry
Division.
The Russians lost in this action 600 killed and wounded, and 2000 prisoners.
Meanwhile Marshal Victor placed his troopps on the plain near Studianka. Part of his center was
held by some German and Polish troops. The Saxons were held in reserve. The Baden infantry
attacked without artillery support, yet despite this, was successful. The Berg infantry also attacked,
twice, but without positive outcome. The disheartened Berg infantry fell back forcing the few Poles
to fill the gap. Three Russian infantry regiments engaged the 7th and 9th Polish regiment in a lively
fusiliade.
The Baden and Hessian cavalry moved forward to attack the Russians. The enemy however
counterattacked with two reserve squadrons of cuirassiers and one depot battalion of Pavlovsk
Grenadiers. LaRoche was wounded by a bayonet thrust and was taken prisoner. The brave Badeners
and Hessians were routed. The Russians then attacked the Saxons and Polish 4th Infantry. The Poles
fought off the Russian attack. The battle died down after that and only the artillery and foot
skirmishers continued their fire until midnight.
Meanwhile Russian artillery fire began reaching the masses of stragglers that swarmed about the
bridges. The stragglers panicked and stampeded the bridges in horror. Napoleon's losses in the
crossing operations were very heavy. Approx. 25,000 of his troops and a further 15,000 Russians
became casualties. The Old Guard was down to 2,500 men and the Young Guard was reduced to
1,500 men. At least 10,000 French stragglers were massacred by Cossacks, while another 20,000 died
in the near freezing water or were crushed to death in the panic to cross the bridges. Since then
"Brzina" has been used in French language as a synonym of disaster. For example, You met your
Berezina ! or It's a Berezina ! [C'est la brzina !]
Crossing of the Berezina River in 1812.
With the exception of desertion of Saxons at Leipzig, followed by the defection of
the Bavarians, the foreigners were loyal and fought well. Below is a comparison
list showing average officer casualties per battalion suffered at the Battle of
Leipzig. The more battalion or regiment was involved in fighting the heavier were
their casualties.
1. French 1st,2nd,4th Marine Infantry Reg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 10.5*
2. French II Corps (Victor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 8.8 **
3. Polish Vistula Regiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 8.5
4. French III Corps (Souham) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 8
5. Polish (Independent) 27th Division (Dabrowski) . . . . . . . . . . - 7.8
6. Polish VIII Corps (Poniatowski) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 7.0***
7. French V Corps (Lauriston) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 6.5
8. French IX Corps (Augereau) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 6.4
9. Germans [6th Div., Wirtembergians and Westphalians] ... . - 6.2
10. Germans [Wurzburg Line Reg. in 32nd Division] . . . . . . . . - 4
11. Germans [Westphalian 8th Line Reg., and Light Btn.] . . . . - 3.6
12. Italians [3rd Light, 5th Line Reg.] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 1.5
13. Italians [Milan Guard, 1st, 2nd Light, 5th Line Reg.] . . . . . . -1.3
14. Germans [Saxons in 24th Division, von Zeschau] . . . . . . . . - 1.3
15. Germans [Baden 1st,3rd Line Reg.] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 0.3
16. Germans [1st, 2nd Btn. Erfurt in Lefol's Division] . . . . . . . . .- 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* - the Marine Infantry (or Naval Infantry) performed some heroics at the Battle of
Leipzig. Especially the street fighting at Mockern was very dramatic. According to
Marshal Marmont these troops had "exceptional attitude."
** - the II Corps defended Wachau where the enemy mounted the major and the
greatest attack.
*** - Poniatowski's infantrymen fought until they exhausted their ammunition.
First they defended Mark-Kleeberg, then Dosen and Dolitz, then suburbs of
Leipzig and then fired their last shots in the street fighting in Leipzig itself. The
entire VIII Corps ceased to exist and its commander was dead.
~
Dutch and Belgians.
One of the earliest of the French vassal states was Holland.
Though originally an enemy of Revolutionary France, there was
considerable pro-French feeling in the country. After General Pichegry
drove the British and Austrians out of Holland in 1795, the country was
reorganized as the Batavian republic. Dutch troops shared in Brune's
defeat of the 1799 British-Russian invasion.
In 1806, wanting to bring Holland into even tighter alliance, Napoleon
made it a Kingdom. However, Holland being a nation of overseas traders,
Napoleon's Continental System caused great hardship. King of Holland,
Napoleon's brother Louis, was reluctant to enforce the Continental System
and would not introduce conscription. It angered the Emperor. In 1810 he
annexed Holland to France.
The Dutch troops Napoleon took over in 1810 numbered 25 000 men.
Holland was organized into departements and conscription and National
Guard were introduced. The best Dutch troops were the Guard Foot
Grenadiers and the Red Lancers. Both units were part of Napoleon's
Imperial Guard. Then it was decreed that all boys being brought up at a
public expense were, in principle, destined for military service. Those older than 14 were formed
into units called Pupiles. At 18 they would become Velites and attached to various regiments. In 1809
all the Jews in the Dutch army were formed into a separate battalion which later became a regiment
and vanished the next year. Its men were either discharged or put into the fine 1st Light Infantry
Regiment.
By 1814 the desretions among the Dutch troops serving for the French were heavy.
In Bergen-op-Zoom the Dutch conscripts of the garrison trickled away, until one night a carefully
planned British assault worked across the surrounding half-frozen marshes and broke into the town.
Then , amazingly, they rallied to the few French veterans in the place, shattered the English
storming parties - and then continued to dessert. The next year, 1815, the Dutch would march,
without any visible show of enthusiasm, under Wellington and become scapegoats for just about
everything that went wrong at Quatre Bras and Waterloo.
Article: "Belgians in the French Army."
Every year 10 000 Belgians were conscripted
to serve under the napoleonic colours.
~
The Polish 'Vistula Legion'.
Napoleon stated that the infantry [of the Vistula Legion]
were to be treated on a par with French line regiments.
- George Nafziger
The most numerous and particularly dedicated to Napoleon were the Poles. In
1809 "Outnumbered 3 to 1, Poniatowski fought an outstanding defensive
campaign, covering all of Napoleon's northern front while Napoleon faced off
against the main Austrian army at Wagram." (- Gunther E. Rothenberg) The Poles
outmaneuvered and outfought the stronger enemy and as a result the territory
of the Duchy of Warsaw was enlarged.
During Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 the Poles formed the largest of the
contingents provided by any of the states allied with France. Furthermore, the
Poles formed a striking contrast to the Prussians who as soon as Napoleon's
defeat became known joined the Russians. Many other German-speaking troops were unwilling
participants of the war.
At Leipzig in 1813 there were many German troops abandoning Napoleon. But not the Poles. They
fought for Napoleon to the very end. Prince Poniatowski, the commander-in-chief of Polish army,
was killed while covering Napoleon's retreat and the "... Poles constituted the last formed body of
French troops" (Digby-Smith - "1813: Leipzig")
The Poles fought very hard at Leipzig. Casualties:
Poles' casualties were 7.500 or 62 % of their forces
Prussians' losses were 15.500 or 20 % of their forces
Russians' losses were 20.000 or 13 % of their forces
Austrians' losses 7.500 or 7 % of their forces
Swedes' losses 400 men or 2 % of their forces
Picture: voltigeur of 4th Regiment of Vistula Legion.
He is wearing French-style shako. Picture by H Knotel.
Among the best Polish infantry regiments were the four regiments of Vistula
Legion.
IMHO the 4th Infantry Regiment, the 4ers, was as good as the VL. They were
one of Marshal Davout's favorite Polish troops. At Leipzig they fought against
all odds. Heavily outnumbered at Wiederitzsch by the Russians, then at Gohlis
by the Prussians and Russians, and finally at Leipzig itself by the Prussians,
Russians, and Swedish troops, they fought to the last cartridge. They were the
Polish Die Hards. They also fought in Spain. At Fuengirola the British redcoats
asked them to surrender. The 150 men of the 4ers ran out of the old castle and
then up the slope where stood British battalion with a battery. The Poles were
joined by 11 French dragoons. They routed the battalion and took 40 prisoners
incl. Blayney's adjutant. The Poles loaded the cannons with British ammunition and bombarded the
Allies on the beach. Lord Blayney was shocked.
British historian, Norman Davies, wrote, "... from the heights of the Peninsula to the depths of
Russia, Polish valour went on parade as never before since the days of King Jan Sobieski."
Picture: Polish infantry storming
Saragossa, by Jan Suchodolski.
Some of the finest Polish foot troops, the 1st, 2nd, and
3rd Vistula Legion, participated in the storming of the
city's walls. The Spaniards rarely surrendered a city
without a siege, and usually fought fiercely even after
the city walls were breached. The siege of Saragossa
was very bloody and became known in whole Europe.
The number of deaths in the interior of the city during
the siege, including those who were killed by the
French and their allies, has been estimated at upwards
of 40,000 human beings (!)
The infantry of the Vistula Legion served
in every major campaign - in Italy, Spain,
Germany, France and in Russia. In 1812 the
four regiments were attached to
Napoleon's Guard but during the retreat
from Russia they fought often and very
hard. In 1813 their debris were
consolidated into one regiment. This
gallant unit fought ferociously at
Saragossa, Leipzig, Arcis-sur-Aube,
Soissons and in several smaller combats.
When the wars ended there were only few
men left in the ranks.
But let's start from the beginning...
"In 1806, what was left of the old Dabowski and Kniaziewicz's Danube Legion ... was one infantry
regiment and one cavalry regiment in the service of Kingdom of Naples. In February 1807 these
remnants became part of the French army and were sent to Silesia. These Polish veterans became
the core of a new Polish Legion ... and were initially called the Polish-Italian Legion (Italian since
they had fought in Italy, not because the unit had Italians in it).
Napoleon's decree of 1807 stated this Legion should consist of three infantry regiments and one
cavalry regiment. ... In June, the formation took part in the siege of Klodzko. From Silesia the Legion
moved to service in Westphalia in October 1807 ... On 21 February 1808, Napoleon ordered the
Legion to Poitiers in France, where it was formally inducted into the French army. In a letter to
Davout dated 31 March 1808, Napoleon renamed the Polish-Italian Legion (Polacco-Italienne) the
"Vistula Legion."
He also stated that the infantry were to be treated on a par with French line regiments ... The depot
for the Legion appears to have been Sedan. ... It should also be noted that French nationals were not
permitted to serve in the Legion, except as the company clerks (fourriers), battalion adjutant non-
commissioned officers, and as paymasters. The Poles, apparently, had little concern for
administrative duties and, driven to desperation, Napoleon relented on these administrative
positions. ...
After the battle of Wagram (1809), Napoleon found that he was once again in possession of a large
number of ethnic Poles amongst his Austrian prisoners of war. The Decree of 8 July, 1809, directed
that these men were to form a 2nd Vistula Legion. ... The 2nd Vistula Legion never was able to form
completely, so it was disbanded by the Decrees of 12/15 February, 1810. It was incorporated into the
1st Vistula Legion as a 4th Regiment.
The Vistula Legion was sent to Spain where it fought in the sieges
of Saragossa and Segunto. In fact, the Vistula Legion seemed
particularly destined to participate in sieges, and it fought in all of
the major sieges in eastern Spain during the early years of the
Peninsular War. ... In preparation for the invasion of Russia the
Vistula Legion was withdrawn from Spain in early 1812. ... On 2
April, 1812, Napoleon decided to include the Poles in the Young
Guard corps under Marshal Mortier rather than designating them
as Guard. The third battalions were formed, but on 31 May, after
reviewing them in Posen, Napoleon directed that they not form elite companies, feeling their
soldiers were too young. However, they would follow the main army as far as Smolensk and Gjatsk,
joining the main body only during the retreat in the beginning of November. ... The 4th Regiment
was still in Spain while the other regiments went to Russia. ... These men had fought bravely at
Smolensk, Borodino, Tarutino, Krasnoe and at the Berezina Crossing. " (- George Nafziger)
August 1812.
Infantry Division of the Vistula Legion attached to the Young Guard
Commander: General de Division Claparede (Frenchman)
Second-in-Command: General de Brigade Chlopicki
Chief-of-Staff: Colonel Briatte (Frenchman)
- - - 1st Brigade - General de Brigade Chlopicki
- - - - - - - 1st Regiment of Vistula Legion
- - - - - - - 2nd Regiment of Vistula Legion
- - - 2nd Brigade - General de Brigade Bronikowski
- - - - - - - 3rd Regiment of Vistula Legion
- - - - - - - 4th Regiment of Vistula Legion (composed of Poles who deserted from the Austrian army)
- - - Artillery.
- - - - - - - Foot Battery of 4 cannons and 2 howitzers
- - - - - - - Foot Battery of 4 cannons and 2 howitzers
Photo from a Polish reenactor group of
1st Infantry Regiment (Vistula Legion).
Link
"On 18 June, 1813, a Vistula Regiment was organized from the remnants of
the Vistula Legion. It consisted of only two battalions. ... On 15 September
the Legion fought the Russians in a bloody engagement at Neustadt (near
Dresden). The Legion, which participated in several small engagements and
skirmishes, was virtually destroyed at Leipzig and Hanau.
The Legion was reformed at Sedan in early 1814. All the Poles remaining in
French service were utilized in an effort to bring it up to strength. The
Vistula Legion fought in several battles.
At Arcis sur Aube in 1814 Napoleon took refuge in square formed by the Vistula Infantry. "Colbert's
(cavalry) division, which was received by the fire of the light batteries ranged along the front of
Frimont's squadrons, and at the same time Kaizarow's Cossacks, supported by e regiment of
Austrian hussars, charged home against the right flank of the light cavalry of the Imperial Guard.
The cry sauve qui peut was raised in the ranks, and Colbert's horsemen fled in panic on to the front
of Exelmans' division, which was in second line. The lancers and dragoons gave way under the
shock, and in a confused mass the two divisions fled at full gallop towards Arcis, with the Cossacks
in hot pursuit.
Napoleon was at Torcy when he heard the sound of the guns; he set off for Arcis at a gallop,
followed only by a few officers and a small escort. As he reached the town he was met by the mixed
mass of French and allied cavalry; he drew his sword and managed to take refuge in the square of
the (Polish) Vistula Legion battalion. The bayonets of the Poles stopped the hussars and the
Cossacks, and their fire drove them back." (Houssaye - "Napoleon and the campaign of 1814" pp 249-250,
publ. in London 1914)
The fortress of Soissons was defended by a very weak garrison:
792 men of Vistula infantry, 80 eclaireurs, 20 French guns and
300 French municipal guardsmen. The overall command was in
the hands of GdB Moreau. Napoleon ordered him to hold his
position at all costs. On 1st March numerous Prussian and
Russian troops arrived before Soissons. The next day they
bombarded the town and stormed the ramparts. It was a bloody
day. Approx. 300 men of Vistula Regiment "attacked them with
such impetus that they were pushed out of the suburb, far into
the surrounding fields." (Nafziger - "Poles and Saxons of the
Napoleonic Wars" p 129)
In the evening an emissary arrived with a call to surrender.
During a war council Moreau and the commander of Vistula
Regiment voted categorically against capitulation. Soon another
emissary arrived with stronger worded ultimatum threatening
to put the garrison to the sword and sack the town. Moreau
agreed to capitulate.
When informed of this the Vistula Regiment nearly mutined. The Allies were in such a hurry that at
3 pm two battalions entered the town and found themselves facing the angry Vistula Regiment. The
commander of the Poles told the allies general to leave for another hour or he would start shooting !
The Allies general quickly agreed. At 4 pm the garrison departed Soissons with its weapons,
receiving military honors. Allies generals asked Moreau why he didn't order his division to march
after the vanguard, Moreau replied that this was his entire force.
The Vistula Regiment was awarded by Napoleon with 23 crosses of Legion d'Honneur for its actions
at Soissons.
Then the hard fighting "Legion moved to the Compiegne. They fought at Rheims (2 March) and
Arcis-sur-Aube (20 March) where Napoleon sought shelter in one of its battalions as it formed
square. The Legion then went on to fight at the battle at St. Dizier. When the war ended, the
survivors returned to Poland. During the 1815 campaign,325 men under a Colonel Golaszewski
appear to have been the last of the Vistula Legion to serve under Napoleon." (Nafziger - "Poles and
Saxons")
- 1er Regiment dInfanterie de la Legion de la Vistule
28 Battles: 1806 - St.Euphemie, Mangona, and Codron, 1807 - Salzbrunn, 1808 -
Mallen, Allagon, Saragosse, Tudela, and Tavenca, 1809 - Saragosse, Alcanitz,
Maria, Belchite, and Stella, 1810 - Villet-Checa, 1811 - Tarragona, Murviedra,
Gratalope and Fairet, 1812 - Valence, Smolensk, Chirikovo, Borodino, Krimskoie,
Voronowo, Beresina, Krasnoie, and Wilna
Colonels: 1808 - Chlopicki, 1809 - Kosinowski, 1811 - Fondzielski, 1812 -
Kosinowski
- 2e Regiment dInfanterie de la Legion de la Vistule
28 Battles: 1808 - Saragossa and Tudela, 1809 - Perdiguera, Santa Fe, Belchite,
Aquila, El Fresna, Calatayud, Retascon, Daroca, Ojos Negros and Tremedal, 1810 -
Torre la Carcel, Teruel, Villastar, Villel, Lancosa, Tortosa and Fuente Santa, 1811 -
Azuara, 1812 - Valence, Smolensk, Woronowo, Beresina, Tarutino, Wilna and
Kowno, 1813 - Wittenberg
Colonels: 1808 - Bialowieyski, 1808 - Kosinowski, 1809 - Michalowski ?, 1812 -
Chlusowicz, 1812 - Malczewski
10 Battles: 1808 - Saragosse, 1809 - Saragosse, 1812 - Smolensk, Chirikovo,
Borodino, Krimskoie, Voronowo, Beresina, Krasnoie, and Wilna
Colonels: 1807 - Swiderski, 1809 - Estko, 1812 - Kosinski, 1812 - Szott (Fondzielski ?
)
13 Battles: 1810 - Puebla de Senabria, Benevente, Santa Martha, 1811 - Puebla,
Aldea-del-Ponte, Tabara, Salinas and Penaranda, 1812 - Tudela, Ontario and
Penaranda, 1813 - Rogozno and Parkowo
Colonels:1812 - Bronikowski and Estko
Other Polish troops
Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery
Old Guard Lancers
Picadors of the Hell
~
The Italians
"Italians usually served well."
- John Elting
Napoleon replaced the ruler of the Kingdom of Naples with
his older brother Joseph. He went to Naples as a
philosopher-king, resolved to lead his subkects gently into
the fuller life. Unfortunately he did very little to reorganize
the Neapolitan army. Once Joseph became the King of
Spain in 1808, Joachim Murat replaced him. Naples had no
military traditions. Although the privates were agile and
well built they were poorly trained and the discipline was
low. And they often were engaged in some kind of petty
crime and desertion was a favorite recreation.
The Neapolitan troops were expensive and of little use to
France. Seeveral battalions however served in Spain during
1808-1811. In 1811 however Suchet asked that all
Neapolitans be sent home as wothless nuisances. In 1812
some Neapolitan troops were assigned to the Danzig
(Gdansk) garrison. General Rapp however declared that
they would fall on their knees when the first bullet passed a 100 feet overhead !
Murat constantly fiddled with their uniforms and soon became obsessed with a dream of becoming
their king. It was a large (45 000 - 60 000 men) and showy army but unfit for combat.
Uniforms (pictures, ext. links):
Naples: line infantry in 1812 >>
Naples: sapper and musicians of infantry in 1812 >>
Other Italians fought well. General
Domenico Pino commanded a
division of Italians in Prussia in 1807,
and the 2nd (Italian) Division in
Spain in 1808, 1809 and 1810. For his
service, Pino was created a Count of
the French Empire in 1810. He
commanded the 15th (Italian)
Division in the Napoleon's 1812
invasion of Russia. Napoleon's IV
Army Corps under Prince Eugene
included many Italian troops.
The Italians fought at Wagram as
part of Eugene Beauharnais' (French)
Army of Italy.
Italian infantry at Wagram in July 1809:
Royal Italian Guard: GdD Lecchi
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Fontanelli
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Velites [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Honor Guard [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Guerin
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Chasseurs [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Grenadiers [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Dragoons [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Horse Battery [6 guns]
The Italians (Pino's division, the Guards, and other troops) fought gallantly at Borodino and Malo-
Yaroslavetz (see picture). Both battles were very bloody. The Italians covered themselves with glory
at Malo-Yaroslavetz where Pino's brother Giacomo was killed.
Below is order of battle of the French-Italian IV Army Corps in August 1812. This powerful force
was commanded by Prince Eugene Beauharnais, Viceroy of Italy. In April 1809 he was defeated at
Sacile by the Austrian army of the Archduke John, but Eugne decisively won the rematch at Raab
that June. After Aspern-Essling, Napoleon recalled Euegene's Army of Italy and after joining the
main army, Eugne took part in the Battle of Wagram. During the Russian campaign in 1812,
Eugne again commanded the Army of Italy (IV Corps) with which he fought at Borodino and
Maloyaroslavetz. After Napoleon and then Murat had left the retreating army, Eugne took
command of the remnants and led it back to Germany in 1813.
ARMY OF ITALY (or IV ARMY CORPS) in August 1812
Italian Royal Guard: GdD Pino
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Honor Guard [17 officers, 274 other ranks]
- - - - - - - - Guard Infantry Brigade : GdB Lechci
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Infantry Regiment [45 officers and 1,137 other ranks in 2 battalions]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Conscript Regiment [40 officers and 1,084 other ranks in 2 battalions]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Royal Velites [43 officers and 1,105 other ranks in 2 battalions]
- - - - - - - - Guard Cavalry Brigade : GdB
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Dragoon Regiment
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Queen's Own Dragoon Regiment
- - - - - - - - Artillery and Engineers: Capt. Clement
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Foot Battery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Foot Battery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Horse Battery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Horse Battery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Artisan Comnpany
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sappers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - part of Military Equipage Battalion
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Marines
French 13th Infantry Division : GdD Delzons
French 14th Infantry Division : GdD Broussier
15th Infantry Division : GdD Pino
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade : GdB Fontana
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Light Infantry Regiment [22 officers and 741 other ranks in 1 battalion]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Line Infantry Regiment [86 officers and 2,690 other ranks in 4 battalions]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade : GdB Guillaume
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Light Infantry Regiment [87 officers and 3,309 other ranks in 4 battalions]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Dalmatian Infantry Regiment [65 officers and 1,681 other ranks in 3 battalions]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade : GdB
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Line Infantry Regiment [89 officers and 2,892 other ranks in 4 battalions]
- - - - - - - - Artillery : Col. Millo
Cavalry Division : GdD Ornano
- - - - - - - - French-Polish Cavalry Brigade : GdB
- - - - - - - - Cavalry Brigade : GdB Villata
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Horse Chasseur Regiment
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Horse Chasseur Regiment
Reserve Artillery : Col. Montegnet
Artillery Park : Col. Fiereck
Note #1 : GdD = General de Division , GdB = General de Brigade
Col. = Colonel , Mjr. = Major , Capt. = Captain , Ltn. = Lieutenant
Note # 2 : there were 2-3 light guns attached to each line regiment
On 6 November Napoleon received dispatches
from Paris and learned of the abortive coup
attempted by General Malet. (Malet had asserted
that the Emperor had perished in Russia and
wanted to reestablish a republican government).
Meanwhile the retreat from Russia continued.
The Emperor ordered Eugene and his IV Italian-
French Corps to take the road to Dukhovshchina.
The marching Italians were surrounded by the
Cossacks day and night. They finally reached the
lightly frozen Vop River and waded across,
breaking the ice with their chests. Many wagons
and artillery pieces had to be abandoned at the river. More caissions and coaches were left once the
troops resumed their march.
The Italian infantry camped in open field. There were only few squadrons of light cavalry to protect
them from the Cossacks. The village of Dukhovshchina was first reached by the Italian Guards. Two
regiments of Cossacks hastily left the village and attempted to surround the Guard. The Italians
formed themselves into square, while the Italian dragoons and some German cavalry advanced to
drive the Cossacks away. The village itself was in good shape and the houses were intact. The
Guards, and the remains of the 13th, 14th and 15th Infantry Division enjoyed warm quarters and
rested. On 12 November the Italians and the French burned the village and resumed their march
toward Smolensk. The weather was so cold that 32 grenadiers froze to death.
Eugene struggled in Smolensk to gather up his troops. They had joined in the pillage and looting of
the French military magazines and depots in Smolensk. He succeeded in rallying 7,500 men and
then left the city, abandoning those who would not follow. Near Krasne, the French, Polish, German
and Italian troops were attacked by the Russians. The Russian artillery inflicted heavy casualties on
the Italian infantry. Near miss knocked General Ornano from his horse. He was thought to be dead,
but he was only stunned and arose quickly.
Napoleon brought to
the Berezina River
and the bridges the
following forces:
Old and Middle
Guard infantry -
5,000
Young Guard
infantry - 2,500
Poniatowski's Poles -
5,000
Davout's I Corps -
3,000
Eugene's Italians -
2,500
Junot's Westphalians
- 1,500
Guard Cavalry - 2,000
Reserve Cavalry - 1,200
This force was joined by 12,000 men under Marshal Oudinot and General Dabrowski, and a handful
of survivors from Marshal Ney's corps. There were also gunners, engineers, several hundreds of
German troops, and thousands of stragglers.
Prince Eugene Beauharnais wrote that he brought 2,000 Italian die-hards from Russia, half of them
wounded or frostbitten. According to wikipedia "Of 27,000 Italians that invaded Russia, only 1,000
returned." Most of the soldiers from sunny Italy were killed not by the enemy but by the harsh
Russian winter.
Italian troops (line and guards) at the Battle of Viazma (Vyazma) 1812
At Viazma, approx. 25,000 Russians defeated 35,000 French, Poles and Italians.
Kutuzov was unable to hold back his troops in their anxiety to catch up with the
fleeing French. Davout's highly trained I Army Corps was cut off from Napoleon's
army. Eugene's and Ney's corps and Poniatowski's Poles turned back to free Davout.
The fighting was hard. The French at the cost of many killed, wounded and prisoners
managed to break through. Davout's corps was rescued although was in total disarray.
The Italian troops participated in the Leipzig Campaign in 1813 (battles: Dennewitz, Dresden,
Leipzig).
Most of them however were young recruits. At Dennewitz they were part of Bertrand's IV Army
Corps.
Many Italians served in French regiments.
For example the 32nd Light and 113rd Line Infantry
Regiment were formed in 1808 from the troops of
Grand Duchy of Toscany. In 1808 the 32nd Light
fought at Sines, Jonquerra, and Saragosse (Spain), in
1809 at Castillion, Oporto, Bouscaros, St. Colombe,
and Girone, in 1810 at Olot, St.Felix, and Busaco, in
1811 at Redina, Ubeda, Almeida, and Figuieres, in
1813 at Lutzen, Bautzen, Wurschen, Dresden, and
Leipzig, and in 1814 at Macon and Lyon.
The 113th Line performed even better than the 32nd
Light. The 113th Line Infantry Regiment won four
battle honors: Tarragone (1811), Borodino (1812),
Lutzen (1813), and Bautzen (1813). In 1808 they
fought at Girone and Figuieres, in 1809 at Castillon-
de-Ampurias, in 1811 at Bonas, Torquemada, and
Villamanan, in 1812 at Cuidad-Rodrigo, Burgos,
Arapiles, and Sinerone, in 1812 at Borodino, Osmiany
and Wilno, in 1813 at Lutzen, Bauzen, Koenigsberg,
and Ohra, and in 1814 at Magdebourg, Champaubert,
and Paris.
The 111th Line Infantry Regiment was composed of many northern Italians (Piedmontese) and took
part in several napoleonic campaigns. There is a reenactment group in Italy devoted to this unit and
they have an extensive Gallery page.
Many Italians served also in French cavalry The 19th Horse Chasseurs was made of French, Swiss,
and later of Italians. The 26th Horse Chasseurs was formed in 1802 of Piedmontese Chasseurs. The
28th Horse Chasseurs was raised in 1808 of Tuscan Dragoons.
Italian line infantry in 1812 >>
Italian Guard Infantry in 1812 >>
~
Tirailleurs du P
"They Rapidly Became a Crack Battalion"
- and -
Tirailleurs Corses [Les Cousins de l'Empereur]
All the soldiers were volunteers and all Corsicans.
One of the very best light outfits serving in Napoleon's army was the
battalion of Tirailleurs Corses. It was raised in 1803 and Philippe
d'Ornano, a Napoleon's cousin (he married Marie Waleska in 1822),
was chef de bataillon and they were for this reason nicknamed "les
cousins de l'Empereur". It was not an italian battalion like the
"Tirailleurs du Po". All the soldiers of Tirailleurs Corses were
volunteers and all Corsicans, except one officer (the quartermaster). Its
depot company was located in Corsica.
According to Docteur Dominique Buresi of Ajaccio who last year
wrote a "Story of Corsican regiments of light infantry" (DCL
publishing march 2003) several Corsican troops fought during the
period of 1792-1815. Six bataillons of chasseurs numbered 3rd, 4th (ex
royal chasseurs ) and 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th battalions were drafted in
1793 and they wore blue coats. Six batallions were drafted in 1803, five
were send to Naples and the 6th was the Tirailleurs Corses.
In 1806 at Eylau after the bloody battle it was down to 400 men (14
officers were killed !) Many Corsicans were enlisted in 1810 to the 1st
Mediterranean Regiment. In 1814 the garrison of Elba Island consisted of one battalion of Corsicans.
According to Docteur Dominique Buresi this troop fought at Waterloo as the first battalion of the
1st Regiment of Voltigeurs of Young Guard.
The Corsicans (other Corsicans, not the Tirailleurs) served also for the British.
The Corsican Rangers wore green coats and were armed with Baker rifles as the 95th
Rifles and 5th bataillon of 60th Regiment of Foot. Their colonel was Hudson Lowe,
and officers were either corsican or british. In 1808 Hudson Lowe reported that the
Corsican Rangers fought "with fierceness" at Capri. In Egypt Sir John Moore (picture)
said: "when Corsicans are in outposts, I am sure of a quiet night."
The Tirailleurs du P were formed in 1803 of Piedmontese (northern Italians).
According to John Elting "they rapidly became a crack battalion". In 1811 the
Tirailleurs du Po were incorporated into the French 11th Light Infantry Regiment.
"The Piedmontese army is as fine and soldier-like a body of men as any in Europe. ...
Of all the Italian states, Piedmont is the best situated for creating a good army. The
plains of the Po and its tributaries produce capital horses, and a fine, tall race of men,
the tallest of all Italians .... The mountains, which surround these plains on three sides,
north, west, and south, are inhabited by a hardy people, less in size, but strong and
active, industrious and sharp-witted, like all mountaineers." (Source -"The Armies of
Europe" in Putnam's Monthly, No. XXXII, published in 1855)
Battle record of the Tirailleurs du Po and Tirailleurs Corses:
1805 - Holabrunn and Austerlitz,
1807 - Hoff, Eylau and Heilsberg,
1809 - Herttingen, Reid, Ebersberg, Essling and Wagram.
The battalion of the Tirailleurs du Po fought at Hoff in 1807. At 2 PM they moved forward to engage
in musketry two battalions of the Russian 1st Jagers. The Russians however got upper hand and the
Piedmontese needed reinforcements. The Tirailleurs Corses arrived and tried to drive the jagers out
of the wood. The Corsicans however failed in their mission and fell back. The 1st Jagers then opened
fire on the Piedmontese's front and flank. Fortunately the intervention from the French cavalry
saved the isolated battalion.
The Piedmonteses then deployed into skirmish line and again engaged the jagers. The Russian
Izoum Hussars began advancing against the skirmishers. The tirailleurs saw it and formed square.
At 20 paces one rank of the tirailleurs delivered a deadly volley while the other two ranks reserved
their fire in case another charge came.
The two battalions were involved in some gruesome bayonet fighting with the Russians at Eylau.
On February 7, they were ordered by General Legrand to secure the town. Approx. 1,200
Piedmontese and Corsicans entered Eylau and after exchange of musket shots at close range they
assembled on two streets for a bayonet charge. The house-to-house combat was very bloody. The
Russians however stubbornly continued to defend their positions. The Corsican and Piedmontese
soldiers set several buildings on fire and bayoneted those who tried to escape the flames. The few
prisoners were not spared.
Fresh Russian battalion arrived and infiltrated into proeviously secured buildings. General Legrand
then supported the Corsicans and Piedmontese with two battalions of the the French 26th Light
Infantry Regiment. The French charged and captured Russian gun, before turning it around and
firing at the fleeing enemy.
Picture: Tirailleurs Corses and Tirailleurs du Po in
Ebersberg. Tire d'l'pope Napolonienne du Dr
Hourtoulle & Jack Girbal.
In 1809 the Tirailleurs Corses and Tirailleurs du
Po fought for the Traun bridge defended by the
Austrians. "These men earned reputation for
gallantry beginning with their defense of
Napoleon's right flank at Austerlitz 4 years
earlier. At Ebelsberg they again fought
aggressively and with courage. The tirailleurs
crossed the bridge in open order under a barrage
of indiscriminate Austrian artillery fire that sent both retiring Hapsburg soldiers and pursuing
French plunging into the chasm below. Led by the fiery General Coehorn the light infantry cast
the wagons blocking the bridge gate in their faces, but they shouldered their way through and
entered the village. Their sudden eruption into Ebelsberg took the defenders by surprise.
the Tirailleurs Corses and Tirailleurs du Po found themselves in the midst of a vastly superior
defender who fired from rooftop, window, and doorway and whose artillery on the heights
bombarded them with ceaseless fury. Coehorn's brigade could advance no more. They milled
about in some confusion while the town about them began to burn." Massena sent GdD Claparede's
two remaining brigades to succor Coehorn. "The fight escalated into a bloody house-to-house
combat ... Consequently the Austrians scooped up prisoners as their columns advanced toward the
bridge. In this manner a captain of the 4th Vienna Volunteers captured the commander of
Tirailleurs du Po while other Austrians seized two French battalion fanions." (Arnold - "Napoleon
Conquers Austria")
~
The Swiss Infantry.
"No Money, No Swiss"
"The Swiss, like all mountaineers, make capital
soldiers when drilled; and, wherever they have
served as regular troops under foreign banners,
they have fought exceedingly well. But being
rather slow-headed, they need drilling much
more, indeed, than either French or North
Germans, to give them confidence in themselves
and cohesion." (Source -"The Armies of Europe" in
Putnam's Monthly, No. XXXII, published in 1855 )
The Swiss troops served Napoleon but they also served Spain, Austria and the Pope. Swiss
mercenaries have played their important roles in France. Francis I of France used some 120,000
Swiss levies in his wars. Under King Louis XIV, the Swiss troops were organized in two categories,
with the king's guard separate from the ordinary Swiss regiments. In August 1792 the Swiss Guards
defended the Tuileries Palace in Paris during the French Revolution, when several hundred of the
Guard were massacred by the Parisian mob that stormed the Palace. Their stand permitted the royal
family to escape across the gardens.
The French Revolution abolished mercenary troops in its citizen army but Napoleon used them. The
Swiss served loyally so long as they were paid regularly. There was saying "No money, no Swiss."
The Swiss infantrymen were well trained and disiplined. Their musket volleys were perfectly
controlled, their shots well aimed. French General Merle said: "it was pity that the Swiss couldn't
handle two muskets at once, if they only could he would issue them".
Marshal Lannes was titular colonel of the Swiss troops in the French service. The Swiss served
Napoleon and France well. The only setbacks they suffered were at Maida, Baylen and Kliastitzy. At
Baylen the French commander General Dupont was wounded, the Guard Marines' "attack repulsed,
and some of the Swiss, refusing to fight against their compatriots, deserted to the enemy." (Lachoque
- "The Anatomy of Glory" p 128)
The Spanish division led by La Pea closed in on the French rear Dupont sued for a ceasefire. After
prolonged negotiations, the French (and their allies) surrendered.
March 1812 (several weeks before the Invasion of Russia)
"Monsieur Rodolphe de Watteville, General of the Swiss Confederation, former
Landamman of the Swiss and envoy of the Canton of Berne; Jean Conrad
d'Escher, Burgomeister of the Canton of Zurich, Joachim Pancrace Reutti, member
of the Little Council of the Canton of Saint-Gall .... have agreed upon the
following articles:
Art. 1. His Majesty the Emperor of the French ... shall retain and
maintain in his service four regiments of Swiss troops, forming in
total 12,000 men, less general staff.
Art. 2. Each regiment shall be composed with a general staff, 3
field battalions, a half-battalion for a depot, and a single artillery
company.
Art. 3. Each field battalion shall have 6 companies of 140 men
each, organized such that there be one grenadier, one voltigeur,
and four fusilier companies. Each depot battalion shall have 3
companies of fusiliers with the same number of men. (...)
Art. 6. The pay, the salaries, the funds of the four regiments
shall be established and paid on the same footing as those of the
French line infantry. (...)
Art. 8. The men who are admitted into these regiments must be
of Swiss origin, of the age 20 to 40, and a height of at least 1,678
metres (5'5") and having no infirmity; however, the men necessary
to form the voltigeur companies may be shorter, but they must be
no less than 1,556 metres (5'1") tall. These men shall contract to
serve with fidelity during the 4 years of service to His majesty the
Emperor Napoleon and his heirs. (...)
Art. 10. The Swiss government, independently of the number of men it is to
furnish each year for the maintenance of these four regiments in the service of
France, shall be obliged top replace at its own expense all deserters, in the
quantities which shall be indicated to them. They shall not be obligated to replace
other than those who desert during the first 2 years of enlistement, upon entering
to fill the engagement expressed in the following article.
Art. 11. The Swiss government shall not engage to have any regiment in the
service of any power other than France, to recall all Swiss who are serving abroad,
and to employ, to cause them to decide to return to their country, all the means
and authority which are in their power. (...)
Art. 15. A battalion composed of four companies of grenadiers taken by
detachment from the different Swiss regiments, as well as the officers necessary
for the general staff, shall be admitted as part of the Imperial Guard, once His
Majesty has determined the time and relative dispositions. (...)
Art. 24. The Swiss troops in the service of France shall only be employed in
Europe or the islands which are part of it.
Art. 25. They shall retain the liberty to exercise their religion and be judged by
their own laws and those who breach discipline shall be tried only in Swiss
military tribunals, no matter what the case."
Swiss regiments in French service
- 1er Regiment dInfanterie Suisse
14 Battles:1805 - Trafalgar and Castel-Franco, 1806 - Sainte-Euphemie and
Rogliano, 1807 - Rolonda, Sainte-Euphemie, Sainte-Ambrosio and Capri, 1809 -
Capri, 1812 - Willia, Polotsk, Beresina and Wilna, 1813 - Breme
Colonels: 1805 - Raguettly, 1805 - Real de Chapelle
- 2e Regiment dInfanterie Suisse
18 Battles: 1808 - La Grenouilliere, Roses, Figuieres, and Evora, 1809 - Carogne,
Ferrol, Oporto, Girone, and Burgos, 1810 - Burgos, Corales, Toro, and Ribas, 1811 -
Catalogne, 1812 - Belvver, Polotsk, and Bersina, 1814 - Schlestadt
Colonels: 1806 - Castella de Berlens, 1806 - Segesser, 1812 - Abyberg, 1815 - Stoffel
15 Battles: 1808 - Jaen, Baylen, and Cara-de-Deu, 1809 - Tuy and Oporto, 1810 -
Cadiz, Leon, Pueblo, and Sanabria, 1812 - Drissa, Polotsk, Lepel, Beresina, and
Wilna, 1814 - Besancon
Colonels: 1806 - May, 1806 - Thomasset
22 Battles: 1807 - Heilsberg and Friedland, 1808 - Lisbonne, Alcolea, Obidos,
Rolicia, and Vimeiro, 1809 - Chaves, Tuy, and Oporto, 1810 - Vallavoid, 1811 -
Magas, 1812 - Zoa, Llanguez, Polotsk, Beresina, Borisow, Cedano, Wilna, and
Kowno, 1813 - Delfzyl, 1814 - Bescanon
Colonels: 1806 - Perrier, 1806 - Freuler, 1810 - Affry
NOTE:
there were several Swiss battalions fighting at Corunna in 1809.
At Kliastitzi in 1812 battalion of the stalwart Pavlovsk Grenadiers
"while under hail of fire, passed through a flaming bridge and took
by storm the houses defended by the Swiss infantry."
In 1 8 1 2 the Pavlovsk Grenadier Regiment were the only unit of Russian infantry
wore the old-fashioned mitre-caps. In 1807 for their gallant fight at Friedland, Tzar
Alexander ordered that, alone of the infantry, this regiment should henceforth retain
its mitres "in the state in which they left the battlefield as visible mark of its bravery
and Our grace." In 1813 for their valor in combat these grenadiers were admitted to
the Guard. During Allies occupation of France in 1814-1815 they were the third most
often depicted allied troops, right after the Cossacks and the Scottish Highlanders.
While Napoleon was exiled on Elba (1814-15) the grenadier companies of the Swiss regiments
served for Napoleon's enemy, King Louis XVIII. They became part of the well-payed royal guard.
~
The Croats.
"They were always organized
and always ready." - General Teste
Apart from the regular line and light infantry, the Austrian army was able to call on a number of
less conventional types of soldierly: the Grenz regiments and Free-Corps. Collectively, they were
often reffered to as "Croats", though they were not all of Croatian origins. "Earlier in the 18th
century they had garnered a fearsome reputation for their wildness and readiness to loot and
plunder, though it is debatable whether or not they were worse than the rougher elements of other
armies. They sometimes wore red cloaks, which became symbolic of their bloodthirsty and turbulent
nature. General Bigarre, who calls them eaters of raw meat said that at that time, the Red Cloaks, who
were nearly all Turkish deserters, did not take prisoners at all. This was probably something of an
exaggerations, caused by rumour. However there is no doubt that the Croats were extremely tough
and brave soldiers, and in the case of Grenzers, also very loyal to the Habsburgs." (Boycott-Brown -
"The Road to Rivoli" p 34)
The Croats lived in the mountains and formed good light infantry serving in the Austrian and
French armies. American military historian, John Elting, writes, "In time of war Austrian armies
traditionally had been screened by clouds of irregulars, known variously as Pandours, Croats,
Banalists or Red Mantels, who had been highly effective against the Prussians and French during the
XVIII century's many royal wars. By custom, only their officers and NCOs received pay; the privates
had 'plunder rights,' which meant they could keep whatever they might be able to snatch. Seldom
particular as to whom they snatched things from, they usually did friendly civilians more harm than
they did the enemy.
During the Revolutionary wars, they were a mix of Turkish desrters and various Balkan renegades,
bristling with assorted weapons. They took no prisoners, and at first they scared the raw French
conscripts. Familiarity, however, soon bred contempt. Also, whenever the Austrian lost, their
irregulars had little chance to plunder and so lost their interest in the war."
During the fighting at Calliano in 1796 some Croats appeared to the rear of French infantry. The
young French soldiers were gripped by a panic and fled. Laugier, who was caught up in the rout
remarked: "It is strange that this panic was general. When our battalion was in order on the road to
Rovereto why did no general or senior officer come to us to stop the terrified soldiers ? Why did the
officers of our regiment and even those of our battalion disappear ?"
French General Teste wrote that the Croats "were always organized and always ready." The Croats
were experts in skirmish-order hill fighting. Under Napoleon served four regiments of provisional
regiments of Croat infantry (named by the French Regiments d'Infanterie Provisories Croate) But these
were not the wild warriors of the mountains, they were regular (or almost regular) troops.
At Borodino in 1812 the Croats formed themselves in squares and repulsed the Russian cavalry
with a volley.
The 1er Regiment was formed in 1811 from the first battalions of 1er and 2e Regiment de Chasseurs
Illyriens.
The 2e Regiment was raised in 1813 from the first battalions of 4e Regiment de Chasseurs Illyriens
and second battalions of 3e Regiment de Chasseurs Illyriens.
The 3e Regiment was formed in 1812 from the first battalions of 1er and 2e Regiments du Banat.
The 4e Regiment was formed in 1813 from the second battalions of 1er and 2e Regiments du Banat.
All four regiments were disbanded in 1813.
- 1er Regiment d'Infanterie Provisories Croate
8 Battles: in 1812 - Ostrowno, Kalouga, Maloyaroslawetz,
Orsha, Krasnoie, and Beresina, in 1813 - Glogau, Lubnitz
Colonels:1811 - Slivarich de Heldenbourg, 1813 - Joly
- 2e Regiment d'Infanterie Provisories Croate
2 Battles: in 1813 - Radebourg and Wurschen
Colonels: Robert Gordon, Mamulla von Turkenfeld
2 Battles: in 1812 - Polotsk and Beresina
Colonels: Joly
0 Battles: none
Colonels: none
~
Legion du Midi
"To collect discharged Piedmontese veterans, who probably were ocassionally drunk and disorderly
Napoleon ordered the formation of a 1st Piedmontese Legion. ... Napoleon sent its 1st and 2nd
battalion and the artillery company to West Indies, where most of them died of diseas. The few men
remaining there were adopted by the 82nd Line. The 3rd battalion, which had been unable to sail
because of British blockade, was redesignated the 1st, and a new 2nd battalion was enlisted a prix de
argent and very slowly. Those two battalions became the 2nd Legion du Midi. After a stint of coast
defense duty it went into Spain, where it served well enough but gradually fell off in strength to a
single battalion." (- John Elting)
In 1804 the Piedmontese Legion was renamed Legion du Midi.
- I Battalion
- II Battalion
Battles: Beja (1808), Corogne (1809), Busaco (1810), and Fuentes-dOnoro (1811).
Commanders :
1803 - 1807 de Mariloz
1807 - 1811 Maransin
The Legion du Midi was disbanded in 1811.
~
The Irish Legion.
The Irish Legion, was raised "from the almost endless
stream of enthusiastic Irishmen that appeared any time
there was an Englishman to be shot. - magweb.com
During the Nine Years' War, Irish troops came to France in
great numbers. And again in late 18th and early 19th century
groups of volunteers found their way over from Ireland. They
formed "Legion Irlandaise" (Irish Legion) and recruited among
British prisoners of war. According to magweb.com the Irish
Legion, was raised as a light infantry "from the almost endless
stream of enthusiastic Irishmen that appeared any time there
was an Englishman to be shot."
Virginia Shaw Medlen writes, "Established on 31 August 1803,
the Legion Irlandaise was originally created in anticipation of
an invasion of Ireland. The purpose was to establish a core of
trained irish officers and NCOs who could raise the population of Ireland in a war of liberation
against the english rulers of Ireland. ...
However, with the continuing superiority of the British fleet, an invasion of England became more
unlikely. The dream of an Irish invasion died with the British victory over the combined French and
Spanish Fleets off Cape Trafalgar in 1805. With Austria and Russia preparing to renew the struggle
for control of central Europe, Napoleon's attention turned to the east." (Shaw Medlen - "Legion
Irlandaise (Napoleon's Irish Legion) 1803 - 1815")
From 1804 until the end of 1811 the Irish Legion carried a special flag
with "Liberty of Conscience/Independence of Ireland" on one side and
"The First Consul to United Ireland" on the other.
By 1809 the Irish Legion had 5 battalions:
- I Battalion : composed of Irishmen
- II Battalion : composed of Irishmen
- III Battalion : formed principally of deserters of every nationality
- IV Battalion : formed principally of deserters of every nationality
- V Battalion : formed principally of deserters of every nationality
According to the Decree of 28 June 1810 :
- I and IV Battalion became the new I Battalion
- II and III Battalion became the new II Battalion
"On July 30th of 1809, the I Battalion received its baptism of fire in battle when English forces
landed on Walcheren Island. After a spirited defense, the vastly outnumbered French forces,
including the Regiment Irlandaise, retreated into Flushing. On August 1, The English attacked all
along the perimeter outside Flushing. The Irish suffered heavy casualties, but performed well and
held their assigned position. The Irish regiment remained in an advanced position from the 3d to
the 13th of August, and were engaged in almost daily skirmishes. The English were preparing
positions and bringing up siege guns. The expected bombardment began at noon on 13 August. At 5
pm the enemy infantry attacked all of the advanced posts. Although elements of the other
regiments sought to retreat into the city, the Irish held firm and occupied their original position at
the end of the day. In the fighting, the acting Commander of the 1st Battalion, Captain William
Lawless, was struck below the right eye by a musket ball that lodged below his ear. ... By the
evening of the 14th of August, after a terrible bombardment which dismounted many of the town's
guns and nearly exploded the powder magazine, it was apparent that further resistance was futile.
... On the 15th, the French General surrendered, and the entire garrison of Flushing were made
prisoner and were transported to England where the men remained until the end of the war.
However, a small number of men managed to escape. Among them were Captain Lawless and Lt.
Terrence O'Reilly ..." (Shaw Medlen - "Legion Irlandaise (Napoleon's Irish Legion) 1803 - 1815")
The II and III Battalion served in Spain. In January 1809 Napoleon was in Burgos. The honour of
guarding him was granted to the Irish Legion. Parading in full dress with their eagle they provided
a vivid spectacle in their distinctive green uniforms. The Legion also served in the siege of Astorga
in 1810. In June the Legion was assigned to the Army of Portugal. In May 1811, the Irish Legion took
part in the battle of Fuentes de Onoro.
In August 1811 the Legion became the 3e Regiment Etrangers (3rd Foreign Regiment).
Commanders:
Commanders of The Irish Legion in all its designations. From: Nicholas Dunne-
Lynch, The Irish Legion in the Service of France, in Proceedings of Journes des
Etudes Militaires Franco-irlandaises, Chteau de Vincennes, 7-9 September 2007.
(Dublin 2009). Nicholas.Dunne-Lynch 2009.
From To Officer/Nationality Rank Unit Designation
Dec
1803
Sept
1804
Bernard MacSheehy (Irish)
adjudant-
commandant
(a staff rank,
equivalent
to colonel)
la Lgion irlandaise
Sept
1804
April
1809
Edouard Antoine Petrezzoli
(Italian)
chef de bataillon
(lieutenant-
colonel)
la Lgion irlandaise
April
1809
May
1810
Daniel O'Meara (Franco-Irish) colonel le Rgiment irlandais
May
1810
Feb
1812
No overall commander.
Junot recalled O'Meara to the general
staff, but
Minister for War Clarke, who had
appointed O'Meara,
still considered him commander until he
appointed
Lawless, which the archived documents
reflect.
- le Rgiment irlandais
Feb
1812
Dec
1813
William Lawless (Irish) colonel
3e Rgiment tranger
(irlandais)
Dec
1813
April
1815
Jean F Mahony (Franco-Irish) colonel
3e Rgiment tranger
(irlandais)
April
1815
Sept
1815
Hugh Ware (Irish) major 7e Rgiment tranger
Notes:
"Junot dismissed O'Meara in May 1810. The Minster for war, Henri Clarke, Duke
of Feltre, appointed William Lawless on 8 February 1812. In the interim, Chef de
Bataillon Jeremiah Fitzhenry commanded in Spain (2 and 3rd Battalions) , and
Major William Lawless at Landau (1 & 4 Battalions). The 3rd Battalions was
absorbed into the 2nd in 1810 and reformed at Landau under Lawless. Napoleon
raised Ware to colonel during The Hundred Days, but he reverted to major after
the Second Restoration. He was again raised to colonel in 1831, after the July
Revolution. The anomaly is significant, as the grade of major was normally
reserved for a lieutenant colonel on depot duty as distinct from field or overall
commander."
Sources: Service Historique de la Dfense, Chteau de Vincennes
Nicholas Dunne-Lynch
~
The Foreign Regiments (Regiments Etrangers).
The Regiments Etrangers were given very showy uniforms to attract recruits.
They also made a large number of female conquests, especially among cooks.
The regiments etrangers were for some reason considered light
infantry though seldom if ever specifically so employed. They were
given very showy uniforms to attract recruits. One Frenchman
wrote about the 1st Foreign Regiment: "in their handsome green
uniforms, they made a large number of female conquests, especially
among cooks." And the drum-majors of the regiments etrangers wore
the most flamboyant outfits.
In 1805 was raised Regiment de La Tour dAuvergne in 1811
renamed to 1er Regiment Etrangers. In 1805 was also formed
Regiment dIsembourg, in 1812 renamed to 2e Regiment Etrangers.
It was named for the German princeling who organized it for
Napoleon. Both regiments were commanded by princes.
In these units served men of various nationalities:
- Germans
- Spaniards
- Hungarians
- Swedes
- Danes
- Greeks
- and even French royalists and some Englishmen.
Many were prisoners of war, others were deserters,
the third group were volunteers and so-called
"soldiers of fortune".
In 1806 the Regiment de Prusse was raised after Napoleon's victory over Prussia and consisted of
Prussian deserters and prisoners of war. It made a considerable use of captured Prussian weapons
and articles of clothing. Senior sergeants retained the Prussian custom of carrying canes for
disciplinary problems. They were well trained soldier but without much love for France and
Napoleon.
Majority of the foreign troops served on secondary theaters of war, in Holland, Italy and Spain, and
on Corfu Island. Their performance I would say was below the French average. In early September
1813 the Austrian infantry took the fort Muhlbach that guarded the mouth of the Pusteria Valley,
capturing the voltigeur company of the 1st Foreign Regiment (1er Regiment Etrangers) posted there.
The voltigeurs behaved poorly, and many simply ran away at the approach of the Austrians. The
remainder of the company was taken prisoner. (Nafziger and Gioannini - "The Defense of the Napoleonic
Kingdom of Northern Italy 1813-1814" p53).
- Regiment de La Tour dAuvergne - in 1811 renamed to 1er Regiment Etrangers
(1st Foreign Regiment)
8 Battles: 1807 - Calabre, 1809 - Pan-Marco-de-la Catola, 1811 - Scylla, 1813 -
Brixau, Ferrare, Saint-Marco, and Saint-Michel, 1814 - Mincio
Colonels: 1805 - Prince La Tour dAuvergne, 1809 - Drummond, 1811 - Danlion,
1813 - Drummond
- Regiment d'Isembourg - in 1811 renamed to 2e Regiment Etrangers (2nd
Foreign Regiment)
11 Battles: 1807 - Calabre, 1808 - Capri, 1809 - Mitoya, 1810 - Otrante, Carascal,
Lerida, and Viterbe, 1811 - Castelmare, 1812 - Gaete, 1813 - Marinella and
Muhlbach
Colonels: 1805 - Prince d'Isembourg, 1807 - OMeara, 1808 - Stieler de Landoville,
1811 - Barre, 1812 - Meijer, 1813 - Bentzel
- Regiment Irlandaise - in 1811 renamed to 3e Regiment Etrangers (3rd Foreign
Regiment)
15 Battles: 1808 - Jaen, Baylen and Cara-de-Deu, 1809 - Tuy and Oporto, 1810 -
Cadiz, Leon, Pueblo, and Sanabria, 1812 - Drissa, Polotsk, Lepel, Beresina and
Wilna, 1814 - Besacon
Colonels: May, Thomasset
- Regiment de Prusse - renamed to 4e Regiment Etrangers (4th Foreign
Regiment)
22 Battles: 1807 - Heilsberg and Friedland, 1808 - Lisbonne, Alcolea, Obidos,
Rolicia, and Vimeiro, 1809 - Chaves, Tuy and Oporto, 1810 - Vallavoid, 1811 -
Magas, 1812 - Zoa, Llanguez, Polotsk, Beresina, Borisow, Cedano, Wilna and
Kowno, 1813 - Delfzyl, 1814 - Bescanon,
Colonels: 1806 - Perrier, Feuler, 1810 - Affry
~
Other Troops.
.
In 1803 were formed:
- Legion Hanovrienne (Germans). It was commanded by Striffler (in 1811 by Hohenzollern-
Hechingen.)
- Regiment de Westphalie (Germans). It was commanded by Prince de Hohenzollern-
Sigmaringen. This regiment was disbanded and incorporated into the Legion Hanoverien
mentioned above.
- Regiment Albanaise (Balkans). It was commanded by Minot. This unit was disbanded in 1814.
- Bataillon de Valaisan (Swiss) under Louis de Bons (in 1811 Pierre Blanc). This unit was
disbanded in 1811.
- Batailllon de Neuchatel. It was the most known of the foreign battalions. The commander was
de Bosset. Between 1809 and 1814 this unit participated in nine engagements, incl. Paris (1814),
Leipzig (1813), Borodino (1812) and Wagram (1809).
- Bataillon Septinsulaire, commanded by Chef Piero Lorenzo. This unit was disbanded in 1813.
- Regiment dIllyrie, commanded by Schmitz. (In 1813 by Jean Muller). Its battle record: 1812
Ostrowno, Krasne, Smorgnie, Wilno, and Kowno. In 1813 Juterbock, Leipzig and Hanau. This
battalion was disbanded in 1813.
~
The Germans in general,
make capital stuff for a soldier.
Map: various German states before
Napoleon's invasion of Russia in
1812: Bavaria, Westphalia, Saxony,
Wurttemberg, Berg, Mecklenburg,
Nassau (in black), Hessen-
Darmstadt (in dark blue),
Wurzburg (in light green)
One of the main goals of France
was the expansion of French
influence in Germany at the
expense of Prussia and Austria. A
belt of friendly German states
would create a buffer between the
borders of France and its foes. The
three most important to France
German states were Bavaria,
Saxony and Westphalia.
The French military historians often
pay little attention to the
contributions of their German
allies. The Germans were not the
good boys for the French, while the
Italians and the Poles were the
favored ones.
"English language books dealing
with the soldiers of the
Rheinbound are rather a rare
species. Those that do exist tend to
emphasize the arcana of
'uniformology' rather than the
quality of the soldiery or their
battle record ... As a result, it is often easier to discover the colour of Hessian infantry sabre knots than it
is to determine which units of the Grand Duchy's contingent fought and bled at Aspern." (Gill - "With
Eagles to Glory" p 14)
The 14 founding states of the Confederation of the Rhine were (on 25 July 1806): Kingdom of Bavaria,
Kingdom of Wurttemburg, Grand-Duchy of Baden, Duchy of Nassau, Duchy of Arenberg, Duchy of Berg
and Cleves, Landgravate of Hessen-Darmstadt, Principality of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Principality of
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Principality of Isenburg, Principality of Leyen und Hohengeroldseck,
Principality of Salm, Archbishopric of Regensburg-Ashafenburg, and the Principality of Liechtenstein.
Additions in 25 September 1806 - October 1808: Grand-Duchy of Wurzburg, Kingdom of Saxony, Duchy
of Sachsen-Coburg-Saalfeld, Duchy of Sachsen-Gotha-Altenburg, Duchy of Sachsen-Hildburghausen,
Duchy of Sachsen-Meiningen, Duchy of Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach, Duchy of Anhalt-Bernberg,
Principality of Anhalt-Dessau, Principality of Anhalt-Kothen, Principality of Reuss zu Greiz, Principality
of Reuss zu Schleiz, Principality of Waldeck und Pyrmont, Principality of Lippe-Detmold, County of
Schaumburg-Lippe, Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Principality of Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen,
Kingdom of Westphalia (December 1807), Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (February 1808), Duchy of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and the Duchy of Oldenburg (October 1808)
Population (in 1806-07) /and/ contingent required by treaty
German states in 1806-1808
Kingdom of Bavaria = 3,23 mln. / 30,000 (45,000 participated in the Campaign of 1809)
Kingdom os Saxony = 2,00 mln. / 20,000 (23,000 participated in the Campaign of 1809)
Kingdom of Westphalia = 1,94 mln. / 20,000 (8,000 participated in the Campaign of 1809)
Kingdom of Wurttemberg = 1,21 mln. / 12,000 (18,000 participated in the Campaign of 1809)
Grand Duchy of Berg = 0,93 mln. / 7,000 (2,500 participated in the Campaign of 1809)
Grand Duchy of Baden = 0,92 mln. / 8,000 (7,500 participated in the Campaign of 1809)
Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt = 0,54 mln. / 4,000 (4,500 participated in the Campaign of 1809)
Grand Duchy of Wurzburg = 0,28 mln. / 2,000 (2,000 participated in the Campaign of 1809)
Duchy of Nassau = 0,27 mln. / 1,600 (1,500 participated in the Campaign of 1809)
Prussia's population = 9,7 mln. [in 1806 reduced to 4,9 mln.]
USA = 6,5 mln., France = 30 mln., and Russia = 40 mln.
The Germans in general, make capital stuff for a soldier and the German excellence in military matters
was an accepted fact of life. For many military experts the Germans were the best soldiers in the world.
There were few however who disagreed with the above statement. The famous commander, Prince
Eugene of Savoy, reported that "the Prussian troops are the best of the German forces. The rest are pretty
well useless." The King of Prussia, Frederick the Great, considered the Westphalians "flabby and soft,
useless as soldiers."
During the Napoleonic Wars the Westphalian troops performed poorly against Schill's Prussians, and other raiders, and their
performance in Spain and in Russia in 1812 was mediocre. In 1807 at Kunt, approx. 1,400 Prussians under Losthin met 1,200 Bavarians
and Saxons. Despite the fact that the Prussian army was demoralised by the crushing defeats of Jena and Auerstadt they routed with
easy their enemies. After short combat the Saxons and Bavarians threw their muskets down and surrendered. Then arrived General
Lefebvre-Desnouttes with a handful of Vistula Uhlans. At Strigau they annihilated the Prussian force, and freed their German allies.
The Prussian commander thanked his fast horse that his was able to escape To the disgust of Lefebvre-Desnouettes and his Polish
lancers, the Saxons and Bavarians joined im the parade march. The Germans performed somehow better against the Prussians at
Dennewitz in 1813. Shortly before the battle, the Saxons boasted that their attack on Berlin would leave no stone standing ! Despite
Saxons' bravery however Dennewitz was a Prussian victory.
The Wurttembergers, Nassauers and Hessians were the best of the
various German armies. (They were probably better than the
Prussians themselves, but this is only my opinion.) During the
Napoleonic Wars the Saxon heavy cavalry and Baden light cavalry
were among the best in the world. For the popular military history
writer, Scotty Bowden, the Hessians were "the finest of all the
infantry fielded by the Confederation of the Rhine."
Napoleon highly valued the German troops not only because of
their professionalism but also for their ability to speak German.
While campaigning in Austria, Prussia and Saxony the German
troops were thus the preferred source of manpower for scouting,
detached missions, courier duty, and guarding the lines of
communications.
The Nassau infantry served with considerable distinction during the
Napoleonic Wars, both in alliance with and against Napoleon. They
saw action in Germany and Poland in 1806-07 and in Spain, Austria
(1809) and Saxony (1813). During the Waterloo Campaign in 1815
they served for Wellington. The Nassauers fought at Quatre Bras and at Waterloo (defended
Hougoumont).
Picture: the Nassau infantry during the Waterloo Campaign.
Picture by Dmitrii Zgonnik (Ukraine).
The (Grand) Duchy of Berg was obliged to supply several thousand men. The 1st Infantry Regiment
participated in several sieges in 1807. In 1809 Napoleon increased the Berg army to three infantry and one
cavalry regiments. There were also artillerymen and gendarmes. The Berg troops were organized on the
French pattern. The line infantry wore white coats with facings in regimental colors. The regiments were
sent to Saxony, Spain and Austria to fight for France.
Picture: the German troops were uniformed with
tasteful simplicity and practicality. On picture: in blue
infantryman of Oldenburg, in white of Reuss, and in
green the soldiers of Anhalt. Picture by Knoetel. (In
1810 Napoleon annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg. Tzar
Alexander's sister, Ekaterina, was married to the son
and heir of the Duke of Oldenburg. Thus Alexander
retaliated by increasing the duties on articles imported
from Napoleonic France.)
In the beginning of Wagram Campaign in 1809 the
troops were enthusiastic and served well. Their ardor
however waned as they were exposed to desertion and
horrors of war. One of their officers watched from a
bridge over the Danube as "amputated arms and legs
were given over to the river from out of the windows
of the hospitals along its banks." At Wagram the
young soldiers could not find words to express their
wonder at the spectacle provided by the cannonade of
hundreds of guns.
Napoleon reviewed the German troops in Vienna in
1809.
"Those Imperial reviews, for all their pomp and glitter, provide interesting insight into the leadership
techniques of the era in general and the relationship between Napoleon and his soldiers, even the
Germans of the Rheinbund, in particular. As was the norm, Rouyer formed his men early in the morning
and awaited Napoleon.
Emperor soon appeared, followed by a brilliant collection of glittering marshals and showy staff officers
but distinguished from them by the simplicity of his dress and the aura of command that surrounded
him. Then the gates of the palace opened, the drum majors whirled their batons, the drummers beat the
furious staccato, the musicians leaped to life with brazen calls and a thousand voices cried Vive
l'Empereur ! as one.
Napoleon neared the serried ranks of anxious soldiery and the men shouldered their muskets, with the
exception of those regiments which had been in combat; these latter were permitted the honour of
keeping the butts of their weapons on the ground next to their feet. Napoleon then reviewed each
company in considerable detail. The officers and men were faced with a barrage of potentially
embarassing questions: Were rations adequate ? How many men in the company were sick ? What were
their ailments ? Where were they quartered ? The officer without ready and accurate answer was unlikely
to see promotion or reward in the near future.
As he was questioning the regiment, Napoleon had individual soldiers called out of the ranks to remove
their packs and display the contents. He was remarkably attentive to detail and noted each item of a
man's belongings, especially such military necessities as shoes and ammunition. When he was satisfied
with the appearance of the company or regiment and the administrative competence of its leadership, he
would have a battalion or two execute some basic manoeuvres to prove their tactical ability.
These exercises were particularly trying for the German regiments as the officers, still not completely
familiar with French drill, had to comprehend the Emperor's commands and translate them almost
instantaneously into German for the troops to execute." (- John Gill, pp 403-404)
Nassau: Leib-Battalion in 1806 >>
Nassau: 1. and 2. Infantry regiment in 1809 >>
Berg: line, light and landwehr infantry in 1814 >>
The Nassau and Netherland infantry, and other German troops facing the French
at Quatre Bras in June 1815. (on map: the first phase of the battle)
~
Bavarians.
The Bavarians were considered good soldiers.
They however annoyed some French generals.
Gen. Lorencez wrote, "The Bavarians who report 4500 present,
who consume 9000 rations a day, do not put 3000 men in line;
what is more, this debris doesn't give a damn ..."
The Kingdom of Bavaria (German: Knigreich Bayern) was the
strongest of the German states of the Confederation of the Rhine.
When Napoleon abolished the Holy Roman Empire, Bavaria became a
kingdom in 1806, and its area doubled. Tirol was temporarily united,
Salzburg temporarily reunited with Bavaria but finally ceded to
Austria.
The beginning to reforming the Bavarian army was the announcement
of general conscription in 1804. The Bavarian government consciouslly
followed the French military model (tactics and organization).
Especially the Bavarian artillery improved much by borrowing from
the French. IMHO the artillery was the best part of the Bavarian army
in 1809-1812.
Picture: Bavarian infantry, by Dmitrii Zgonnik of Ukraine.
The line infantry wore cornflower-blue coats with lapels, collars and cuffs in regimental colors. The
breeches and belting were white. The light infantry wore dark-green coats with distinctive color on
collars. The breeches were grey and the belting was black. The Bavarian infantry (line and light)
wore helmets called Raupenhelm.
The tall black helmet was made of leather. It pleased the Bavarian tastes and warded off some sabre
blows. However it was heavy, ungainly, and the caterpillar fur crest "soaked up water like a sponge
in the rain. It did however provide NCOs a convenient storage place for their notebooks." (- John
Gill)
Bavarian infantry in April 1809:
Line :
NOTE: infantry regiment = 2 line infantry battalions
line battalion = 1 grenadier and 4 fusilier companies
One fusilier company per battalion served as depot.
Fusilier Company = 180 men. In 1811 reduced to 150.
In 1811 was also formed one schutzen company in each
battalion.
- - - - - - 1. Leib (Max I.Joseph) Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - 2. Kronprinz Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - 3. Prinz Karl Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - 4. vacant (formerly Salern)
- - - - - - 5. Preysing Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - 6. Herzog Wilhelm Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - 7. Furst Lowenstein Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - 8. Herzog Pius Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - 9. Yesenburg Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - 10. Junker Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - 11. Kinkel Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - 12. [*] Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - 13. vacant
- - - - - - 14. vacant
Light:
NOTE: light battalion = 5 companies
(One company served as depot comp.)
- - - - - - 1. Baron Habermann Light Battalion
- - - - - - 2. Wreden Light Battalion
- - - - - - 3. von Bernclau Light Battalion
- - - - - - 4. Baron Donnersburg Light Battalion
- - - - - - 5. Graf Butler Light Battalion
- - - - - - 6. Taxis / von La Roche Light Battalion
- - - - - - 7. [**] von Gunther Light Battalion
[*] - In 1803 Bavaria had acquired the Duchy of Wurzburg, but in 1806, it was required to give up this territory to compensate
the former Grand Duke of Tuscany and Prince of Salzburg, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria; Bavaria was compensated for this
loss by accessions elsewhere.
The 12th Infantry Regiment contained a large number of native Wurzburgers, who could not wait for all the details of this
trade to be resolved. No longer considering Max Joseph their monarch, they became disorderly and about 450 eventually
mitined, marching safely back to Wurzburg with much fanfare. The mutineers were soon followed by a French detachment,
however, which apprehended most of them and turned them over to Bavarian military justice. The rebels were tried and most
of the officers and NCOs punished; the reminder of the soldiers were marched back to Wurzburg in dishonour. (- John Gill, p
118)
[**] - Raised as the Tyrolian Jager Battalion in 1807, it was originally uniformed in traditional Tyrolian colours ... in an effort to
make service under the Bavarian flag more attractive to these mountaineers. .... The battalion's performance reflected the
attitude of most Tyrolians toward Bavarian rule: motivation was poor and desertion rife. (- John Gill, p 119)
Napoleon appointed French Marshal Lefebvre as the commander of the Bavarian
contingent. (There were more French influences in the Bavarian army, for example all
the correspondence between the Bavarian generals was in French.) Francois-Joseph
Lefebvre had a German accent, a very loud voice and a sergeant's vocabulary. But he
looked after his soldiers as if they were his own children. Lefebvre was an
outstanding 'general of execution, an excellent leader of men, but given a semi-
independent mission he was apt to go looking for a head to hit, regardless of orders.
But Napoleon was not so impressed, he wrote "There is such imbecility in Lefebvre's
correspondence that I can't comprehend it." He was sent to besiege Gdansk (Danzig), knowing
nothing of that type of warfare. Finally the Russo-Prussian garrison made a sortie in force. Lefebvre
went flailing happily into the middle of the uproar, pushing aside the soldiers who tried to shield
him: "Come on my lads ! THIS I understand !" :-)
There were times when Lefebvre also commanded the Old Guard.
The French veterans however adored him.
One of the best Bavarian generals was Wrede. "Energetic and ambitious, he was competent general
who usually performed very well at the tactical level but lacked a sure grasp of grand tactics and
strategy. He drove himself hard in this (1809) campaign, pursuing the enemy with vigour and
demanding great exertions from his troops. ... His high estimation of himself and reluctance to obey
the orders of any but the Emperor trammelled co-operation with the similarly haughty Vandamme
at Abensberg and led to considerable friction with (Marshal) Lefebvre throughout the campaign." (-
John Gill)
Napoleon met the Bavarians shortly before the battle of Abensberg in April
1809. News of the arrival of this modestly dressed man spread throughout
the army like wildfire. One Bavarian wrote that "no one would think this
person to be the Great Emperor, the victor of Austerlitz and Jena." The
impact of Napoleon's words however was electric. Once the Crown Prince
translated Napoleon's speech, the troops responded enthusiastically.
In 1809 the Bavarians formed the VII Army corps under Marshal Lefebvre
and fought well. In April, in recognition of their contribution at the battles
of Landshut and Abensberg, Napoleon established Bravoure et Baviere as the
army's parole for the 21st.
Marshal Marmont also praised them in 1809, although in later years
complained of the "softness" of the Bavarians. (He claimed that whereas the
entire Bavarian division was required to hold the village of Tessewitz, the
task was later accomplished by a single French infantry regiment. - John Gill)
The stern Marshal Davout was suspicious of the Bavarians' loyalty already in 1809. When he learned
of Wrede's withdrawal on 17 April, Davout wrote to the chief-of-staff of the French Army, to
express his fear that Wrede might commit 'some black treason.'
Bavarian troops at Wagram in July 1809:
2nd Infantry Division: Wrede
- - - - Infantry Brigade: Minucci
- - - - - - - - - - - VI/Light Infantry Btn. [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - Prinz Karl 3rd Infantry [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - Herzog Wilhelm 6th Infantry [2]
- - - - Infantry Brigade: Beckers
- - - - - - - - - - - Lowenstein 7th Infantry [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - 13th Infantry [2 btns]
- - - - Cavalry Brigade: Preysing
- - - - - - - - - - - King's 2nd Chevauxlegeres [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - Leiningen 3rd Chevauxlegeres [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - Light Battery [6 guns]
- - - - Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - 6pdr Foot Battery [6 guns]
- - - - - - - - - - - 6 pdr Foot Battery [6 guns]
During the Invasion of Russia in 1812 the VI Corps (32,000 men) under Gouvion St. Cyr was
composed of Bavarian troops. Although the Bavarians took part only in few battles, they suffered
heavy losses during the campaign. The long marches and lack of food and shelter exhausted the
soldiers. General Latrille de Lorencez was annoyed with the Bavarians. He wrote, "The Bavarians
who report 4 500 present, who consume 9 000 rations a day, do not put 3 000 men in line; what is
more, this debris doesn't give a damn ..." The corps was destroyed, only 4,500 remained with the
colors by the end of 1812. New Bavarian army was hastily assembled in the next year, but the troops
were desertion-prone and less than enthusiastic about the war effort. The Bavarians participated in
few battles and defended the fortresses of Thorn and Danzig.
In the fall of 1813 Bavaria abandoned Napoleon and joined his enemies.
The Emperor routed the strong Austro-Bavarian corps under Gen. Wrede at Hanau.
Napoleon said, "I have been able to make him (Wrede) a count, but not a general."
In 1814 the Bavarians under Wrede participated in the invasion of France and fought at La Rothiere.
The local traditions say that the Prussians committed more atrocities than the Cossacks, and
Cossacks more than Wurttembergers and Bavarians.
Drummer of Grenadier Company [10. Infantry Regiment] in 1809 >>
3. Light Infantry Battalion in 1812 >>
Guard Grenadiers during the invasion of France in 1814 >>
~
The Saxons.
"Saxon cavalry was among the finest in Europe
... The infantry was usually reliable." - J Elting
The rulers of Electorate of Saxony had held the title of elector for several centuries. When the Holy
Roman Empire was dissolved following the defeat of Austria by Napoleon at Austerlitz, the
electorate was raised to the status of an independent kingdom with the support of France. The
Kingdom of Saxony (German: Knigreich Sachsen) became an important ally of napoleonic France.
The King of Saxony was a conscientious and kindly man, but crippled in will by childhood abuse.
John Elting writes, "His officials and servants robbed him openly. Funck once found the King and
Queen sitting in their entourage feasted on the Royal food and wine. ... Nevertheless, he and
Napoleon became friends; probably Napoleon both pitied him and realized his essential goodness.
Frederick Augustus was loyal to Napoleon to his own hurt: After Leipzig the Allies treated him as a
prisoner of war.
The Saxon army of 1806 was an awkward imitation of the Prussian army of 1786. ...
However, the men soon found the French far better comrades than the Prussians ...
Saxon cavalry was among the finest in Europe ... The infantry was usually reliable."
Napoleon called the King of Saxony "the most honest man to ever hold a royal sceptre." In 1806 the
King became one of Napoleon's most devoted vassals. "Dragooned into Prussian service when
Berlin declared war on Napoleon in 1806, Friedrich August's army fought in the opening battles of
the conflict and shared in the humiliation of the stunning defeat at Jena." (- John Gill, p 249)
"Suggestions that the Saxons were "dragooned" into joining the Prussians army [in 1806] are gross
exaggerrations and a hangover from the Seven Years War when Frederick the Great did, indeed,
take their army captive and force them into joining his army. [In 1806] The Saxon army was totally
mobilized and completely integrated into the Prussian army. ... In 1809, when Austria invaded
Bavaria, the Saxons once again marched to war. Having rebuilt their army, they marched with the
French ... " (- George Nafziger)
The best part of the Saxon army was the heavy cavalry. The worst was the artillery. Bernadotte
wrote in 1809 that, "The (Saxon) artillery is poorly organized." Other French generals complained
that the Saxon foot artillery was "horrible."
The Saxon line infantry wore white coats and white breeches.
The collars, lapels and cuffs were in regimental colors. The
musketiers wore bicorn hats, bearskins were for the
grenadiers. It was not long however before the Saxons
replaced their hats with elegant shakos. For campaign and
cold weather they wore greatcoats. The Saxon infantry
looked awesome in their white uniforms and colorful lapels.
The NCOs abandoned their spontoons and were issued
muskets and pistols. (The Lifeguard Grenadiers however
wore red coats with yellow facings, white breeches and
bearskins. - John Gill)
Each Saxon infantry regiment had 2 colors, one for each
battalion. The first battalion carried the white Life-Color,
while the 2nd Battalion carried the ordinary color "whose base was the regimental facing color." It is
not clear if the light troops had standards.
Saxon muskets were crudely made and of poor quality.
Saxon infantry in April 1809:
Line :
Line battalion = 1 grenadier and 4 musketier companies
The grenadiers were detached and served in separate btns.
Company = 180 men.
- - - - - - Swiss Life Guard (120 men)
- - - - - - Leib-Grenadier-Garde (Lifeguard Grenadier) Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - Konig (King's own) Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - von Cerrini Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - Prinz Anton Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - Prinz Klemens Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - Prinz Maximilian Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - von Burgsdorff Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - Prinz Friedrich August Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - von Low Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - von Oebschelwitz Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - von Dyherrn Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - von Niesemeuschel Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - von Rechten Infantry Regiment
George Nafziger gives the following infantry regiments:
Lifeguard Grenadiers
1. Kurfrst
- - - - in 1806 Knig (King's Own)
- - - - 1813 Provisional Guard
- - - - 1815 Guard
2. Prinz Anton
- - - - 1813 1st Provisional
- - - - 1815 Prinz Anton
3. Maximilian
- - - - 1813 2nd Provisional
- - - - 1815 Maximilian
4. Friedrich August
- - - - 1813 3rd Provisional
- - - - 1815 Friedrich August
5. Xavier
- - - - 1806 Oebschelwitz
- - - - 1810 disbanded
6. Clemens
- - - - 1812 Steindel
7. Lindt
- - - - 1801 Rechten
8. Niesemeuschel
- - - 1810-1813 vacant
9. Aus dem Winkel
- - - - 1798 Snger
- - - - 1808 Cerrini
10. Lw
11. Nostitz
- - - - 1802 Thummel
- - - - 1808 Burgsdorf
12. von der Heyde
- - - - 1800 Braune
- - - - 1800 Ryssel
- - - - 1805 Bunau
- - - - 1806 Bevilaqua
- - - - 1808 Dyherrn
In 1808 two light infantry battalions were formed, each of 4 companies of 180 men.
In 1810 they were expanded into full regiments of 1,652 men each.)
In 1809 a jger company was organized of volunteer huntsmen.
During the Wagram Campaign Bernadotte was allowed to reorganize the Saxon infantry. The two
understrength battalions of each regiment were combined into one very large battalion. The excesss
of officers and NCOs were sent back to Saxony to serve as cadre for the formation and training of
new units.
The elite Schutzen Battalions were also reorganized. "The infantry battalions, evidently feeling the
loss of their light troops, created new 40-man Schutzen detachments and trained them to obey drum
signals." ( - John Gill, p 292)
Saxon 1st and 2nd Infantry Division at Wagram in July 1809:
1st Infantry Division: GL Zeschwitz
- - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Hardtitzsch
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Leib Grenadiers Garde [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon II/Grenadiers [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon II/Schutzen [1 btn.]
- - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Zeschau
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon II/Schutzen [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon King's Infantry [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Niesemeuschel Infantry [1]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon combined infantry [1 btn.]
- - - - Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon 8pdr Foot Battery [8 guns]
2nd Infantry Division: GL Polentz
- - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Lecoq
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Prinz Clemens Infantry [1]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Low Infantry [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Cerrini Infantry [1 btn.]
- - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Steindel
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Prinz Anton Infantry [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Prinz Maximilian Infantry [1]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Prinz Frederich Infantry [1]
- - - - Artillery
In 1813 after the defection, the jgers were reformed as a battalion.
In addition 5 provisional infantry battalions were raised as a home defense.
To provide secuirity for the headquarters the HQ Guard Battalion was organized.
In 1810 however it was disbanded.
In 1810 a program for the selection of younger men as NCOs was instituted.
In 1812 nearly the entire infantry marched to Russia. After the disastrous
campaign most of the infantry regiments had but a single battalion.
In 1813 the number of new recruits was low.
Eventually seven Landwehr regiments were raised, each of three battalions.
During the Wagram Campaign in 1809 the Saxon contingent found itself
under French Marshal Bernadotte. As a military governor in the Hanseatic
cities in 1807-1809, he had gained extensive experience in dealing with
Germans and was renown for his courtesy and charm. In this aspect he
was the very oposite of General Vandamme assigned to the
Wurttembergers. Bernadotte objected to his new appointment because he
saw no prospect for advancement in commanding non-french troops.
Bernadotte was an interesting individual. His parents had intended him to
be a lawyer. He was "furiously ambitious and apt in intrigue." "He served
well enought in 1805, but in 1806 he deliberately disobeyed orders, waiting between Napoleon's
battle at jena and Davout's at Auerstadt. hoping one or the other would meet disaster. His services
in 1807 were unexceptional; in 1809 Napoleon gave him command of the Saxon contingent, but
Bernadotte was in a carping mood, which passed into open insubordination. The Emperor sent him
back to France. Fate then suddenly blessed Bernadotte. The dwindling Swedish royal family
required a replacement for their recently deceased crown prince. Back in 1806 Bernadotte had been
kind to captured Swedish officers. Now - thinking him a relative and loyal supporter of Napoleon -
the innocent Swdes offered him that position. He quickly became the nation's actual ruler, the
Swedish King being prematurely senile. ... Bernadotte showed remarkable bravery in action and was
a competent tactician." (- John Elting pp 126-127)
In Bernadotte's eyes, his own failure of the attacks on Wagram on 5 July had been caused by the
Emperor's refusal to support him and the machinations of the hidden hand at headquarters against
him. Despite the failure Bernadotte lionized his Saxons in an Order of the Day. Saluting Saxons'
bravery hardly seems consistent with his previous descriptions of the Saxon foot soldiers as
lacklustre and slow. He praised the Saxons to their King while heaping them with obloquy in his
reports to Napoleon. Bernadotte's behaviour infuriated Napoleon. The Emperor's patience with him
had been tried severely in 1806 when several French commanders urged draconian penalties for
Bernadotte's failure to contribute to the dual victory of Jena-Auerstadt. Bernadotte's Order of the
Day issued after Wagram was just too much for Napoleon and Bernadotte was sent to "take the
waters" back in France.
The command was given to French General Raynier. He was described as admirable
soldier but a difficult undividual. Of Swiss origin and a devout protestant of
"legendary honesty" he was gifted with courage and cold calculation on the battlefield.
Raynier however lacked the ability - so important in commanding French soldiers - to
inspire and animate his troops. He was also insubordinate (but not as extreme as
Vandamme) and held several French marshals in contempt. Raynier was defeated by
the British at Maida and roughly handled by the Russians during the retreat in 1812 and in 1813.
"In 1806 the Saxon army was obliged to join the Prussian army in its war against France. It was fully
intergrated into the Prussian army and was placed under the command of Furst zu Hohenlohe-
Ingelfingen. ... Once defeated by the French, the Saxon grenadiers provided the rearguard that kept
the immediate battle losses to a minimum. When the campaign was completed Saxony passed in a
French alliance. One of the principal changes was that Napoleon made the Kurfrst of Saxony a
king." (Nafziger, Wesolowski, Devoe, - pp 149-151)
During the campaign of 1807 desertion was a problem but the Saxon infantry served well during the
siege of Danzig (Gdansk).
In 1809 the Saxons fought at Raszyn, Linz, Wagram and several other engagements. During the
battle of Raszyn (near Warsaw) the small Saxon corps marched off angering the Poles. The Poles
had no idea that Marshal Bernadotte had attempted to order these Saxons back to Saxony already
four days before battle.
On 5 July the Saxons fought at Wagram. It was a prelude to the great battle on the next day. The
Saxon Schutzen particularly distinguished themselves. Unfortunately the French infantry of
MacDonald's corps mistook the white-coated Saxon line infantry for Austrians and opened fire. It
shocked the Germans and they fled across the Russbach Stream to safety.
In the evening three battalions of Saxon grenadiers, hove into sight out of the gathering dusk.
Bernadotte's adjutant brought order to storm the village, but neglected to tell the grenadiers that
their countrymen were already fighting in the burning Wagram. The darkness, the smoke, and the
stress created confusion. The grenadiers fired at groups of white-coated infantry in front of them.
The officers soon discovered to their horror that they were shooting at their own men, but it took
several minutes to cease the firing and by then the damage had been done. The Austrian infantry
then attacked and retook the village. The Saxon grenadiers and the line infantry withdrew in great
disorder. Before midnight Wagram was firmly in Austrian hands.
On the next day there was even more fighting and some great controversies for Bernadotte's Saxons.
John Gill writes, "It is clear that the Saxons supported the attacks on Aderklaa in the early morning
and that they were back near Raasdorf, rallying and reforming, by midday. the question revolves
around the hours between these two villages, specifically, whether or not the Saxon infantry were
routed after the repulse at Aderklaa. French authors almost uniformly state that IX Corps
(Bernadotte's) fled the field in complete panic on the morning of the 6th, giving rise to a legend that
has become an assumed fact in Napoleonic studies.
Saxon writers, on the other hand, either gloss over the withdrawal [e.g., Exner] or go to great
lengths to defend their countrymen, quoting Zezschwitz ['Our retreat was completely controlled']
and Bernadotte ['If it were possible to exceed your Saxon cavalry in excellence, your infantry would
have done so today'] to prove the steadiness and valour of the Saxon foot soldiers.
As with most controversies, there is probably some truth on each side. The Saxon artillery clearly
held its ground [no guns were lost despite the fury of the battle] and the cavalry performed with its
own wonted skill and courage. The same, however, cannot be said of the infantry. If some Saxon
units, or parts of Saxon units, retreated in good order and only when commanded to do so,
hundreds of individual soldiers, like their French allies in Carra Saint-Cyr's division, almost
certainly ran for the rear in terror." ( John Gill, p 303)
In 1812 the Saxons participtaed in the Invasion of Russia on the French side and fought at Kobrin,
Borodino, Gorodechna, and Pruzhany.
In 1813 two new Saxon divisions were raised:
- 24th Infantry Division: GL von Lecoq
- 25th Division: GM von Sahr
The white-coats fought bravely at Kalisz, Gross-Beeren, Dennewitz and Leipzig.
After heavy losses at Grossbeeren and Dennewitz the army was reoganized.
At Kalisz in February 1813 the Saxon grenadiers covered themselves with glory.
They repulsed cavalry attacks and withstood artillery fire. Despite heavy casualties
they left the battlefield in good order.
"At the beginning of December 1812 it seemed clear that Napoleon lost his Russian campaign. His
army was exhausted and decimated by the frost and the ubiquitous Cossacks. On the 5th of
December 1812 the Emperor left his troops and returned to Paris. Marshall Joachim Murat, the King
of Naples, became the new leader of the Grande Armee or what was left of the army. .... The
Russian advance, however, was also almost continuous and unstoppable, and consequently the
main Russian forces reached the Duchy of Warsaw soil and then crossed the Vistula River. during
the 4th and 5th of February 1813. The main bulk of the French troops, commanded by Prince
Eugene de Beauharnais, was concentrated near Poznan - to the west of the Vistula River, while the
VII Saxon Corps was marching to the town of Kalisz ... The shortest route to Silesia led through the
city of Kalisz, one of the biggest cities in the Duchy of Warsaw. On the evening of the 12th of
February 1813 Kalisz was occupied by the Saxon Corps, led by General Reynier.
Kutuzov, fast realizing the value of Kalisz and its bridges over the prosna River, gave his advance
guard corps of General von Wintingerode the order to capture the city immediately. Thus the battle
fo Kalisz began on the 13th February 1813, at 1 pm, and was to last about 7 to 8 hours.
The forces of the opponents were almost equal (15,500 Russians vs 12,500 Saxons, Poles,
Germans, and French). But the leaders of the Saxon corps didn't expect Russian attack
as it was the complete surprise to them. That was why their troops were too widely
dispersed around the Kalisz suburbs to offer effective resistance to the advancing
Russian regiments. During the first phase of the battle, the Russian cavalry surrounded
and destroyed the major part of the 21st Saxon infantry division in the villages of
Borkow and Kokanin. During the second phase, there was some fierce fighting near the villages of
Pawlowek and Skarszew, culminating in the Russian capture of the villages. Russians then prepared
for the main attack against the Kalisz suburbs (Tyniec) and to capture the bridge over the Prosna
River." (Baranowski - "Bitwa pod Kaliszem 1813")
Reynier's two divisions were led by veteran commanders, Saxon General Lecoq and French General
Durutte (fought also at Leipzig and Waterloo). On the Russian side there were two fine generals,
Lanskoi (extraordinary cavalryman) and Prinz Eugen (a German in Russian service, distinguished
himself at Borodino).
The bloodiest fighting took place in Tyniec defended by several French battalions of Durutte's
division. Prinz Eugen's infantry captured it before being thrown back by counterattacking Polish
infantry and Saxon grenadiers von Anger. General of Brigade Jarry distinguished himself in this
combat. Prinz Eugen decided against another attack. In the evening von Sahr's Saxon brigade and
Maury's French brigade brushed off Cossacks and entered Kalish. At midnight the two brigades
joined Reynier's troops and together left the city. The bridges were destroyed.
The Russians suffered 600 killed and wounded. They however captured 2 Colors, 700-1500 prisoners
(incl. many wounded) and 6 guns with ammunition wagons. During the pursuit after battle more
prisoners were captured (approx. 1000).
Order of the battle of Kalisz, February 1813
Wintzingerode - vs - Raynier
GdD General de Division, GdB General de Brigade
GL General-Lieutenant, GM General-Major
Col. Colonel, Col-Ltn. Colonel-Lieutenant
GENERAL WINTZINGERODE
ADVANCE GUARDS
- - - Cossack Brigade - Col-Ltn. Davydov
- - - - - - 1st Bug Cossack Regiment
- - - - - - Popov-XII's Don Cossack Regiment
Combined Cavalry Division - GL Lanskoi [3.3340]
- - - Hussar Brigade - Col. Paradowski
- - - - - - Alexandria Hussar Regiment [8 squadrons]
- - - - - - White Russia Hussar Regiment [8 squadrons]
- - - Combined Brigade -
- - - - - - Livland Horse Jager Regiment [4 squadrons]
- - - - - - 3rd Ural Cossack Regiment
- - - Cossack Brigade - GM Witt
- - - - - - 1st Ukrainian Cossack Regiment
- - - - - - 3rd Ukrainian Cossack Regiment
II INFANTRY CORPS
GENERAL REYNIER
9,335 infantry
1,470 cavalry
1,640 artillery
VII ARMY CORPS
- GdD REYNIER
- - - Advance Guard - GM Gablentz
- - - - - - Saxon Hussar Regiment [395 men]
- - - - - - Saxon Chevaulegere Regiment [300 men in 4 squadrons]
- - - - - - 5 voltigeur companies drawn from Durutte's Division
- - - - - - Saxon 1st Light Infantry Regiment [700 men in 2 btns.]
- - - - - - Saxon I Horse Battery [145 men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers]
Independent Brigade - GdB Zoltowski
- - - - - - Polish 2nd Infantry Regiment [920 men in 2 battalions]
- - - - - - Polish 7th Uhlan Regiment [305 men in 4 squadrons]
- - - - - - Polish Cavalry Krakusi [300 men in ? squadrons]
- PRINZ EUGEN WURTTEMBERG
3rd Infantry Division [1.200 men]
- - - - - - 20th Jager Regiment [2 battalions]
- - - - - - Murom Infantry Regiment [2 battalions]
- - - - - - Revel Infantry Regiment [2 battalions]
- - - - - - Chernikhov Infantry Regiment [2 battalions]
4th Infantry Division [1.200 men]
- - - - - - 4th Jager Regiment [2 battalions]
- - - - - - Tobolsk Infantry Regiment [2 battalions]
- - - - - - Volhin Infantry Regiment [2 battalions]
- - - - - - Kremenchoug Infantry Regiment [2
battalions]
Artillery Reserve
- - - - - - Heavy Battery [8 12pdr cannons, 4 unicorns]
- - - - - - Light Battery [8 6pdr cannons, 4 unicorns]
- - - - - - Light Battery [8 6pdr cannons, 4 unicorns]
- - - - - - Horse Battery [8 6pdr cannons, 4 unicorns]
Other Troops:
- - - - - - Cossack Regiment
- - - - - - Cossack Regiment
RESERVE CORPS
GM TUCHKOV-II
Cossacks [1.120 men]
- - - - - - Grekhov IX's Cossack Regiment
- - - - - - Grekhov XXI's Cossack Regiment
- - - - - - Semechykov's Cossack Regiment
- - - - - - Isaiev-II's Cossack Regiment
Cavalry - GM Prince Trubetzki [1.580 men]
- - - - - - Tatar Uhlan Regiment [8 squadrons]
- - - - - - hussars [5 reserve squadrons]
- - - - - - horse jagers [1 reserve squadron]
- - - - - - uhlans [2 reserve squadrons]
- - - - - - dragoons [4 reserve squadrons]
Infantry Division - GM Bahmateiev [5.930 men]
- - - - - - jagers [6 reserve and 1 'recruit' battalions]
- - - - - - infantry [14 reserve and 3 'recruit' battalions]
Artillery Reserve
- - - - - - Pontoneers [295 men]
- - - - - - XXXIII Heavy Battery
- - - - - - 6 guns of XVI Light Battery
- - - - - - 2 guns of IV Light Battery
.
Infantry Division - GL von Lecoq
- - - Brigade - GM von Steindel
- - - - - - Saxon Grenadier Battalion von Liebenau [360 men]
- - - - - - Saxon Infantry Regiment Prinz Clement [790 men]
- - - - - - Saxon I Foot Battery [115 men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers]
- - - - - - Saxon light artillery [45 men, 4 4pdr cannons]
- - - Brigade - GM von Nostitz
- - - - - - Saxon Infantry Regiment Prinz Anton [390 men]
- - - - - - Saxon light artillery [50 men, 4 4pdr cannons]
- - - Brigade - GM von Sahr
- - - - - - Saxon Grenadier Battalion von Spiegel [290 men]
- - - - - - Saxon Grenadier Battalion von Anger [415 men]
- - - - - - Saxon Grenadier Battalion von Eichelberg [60 men]
- - - - - - Saxon 2nd Light Infantry Regiment [720 men in 2 btns.]
- - - - - - Saxon III Foot Battery [120 men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers]
- - - Other Troops:
- - - - - - Saxon Uhlan Regiment [160 men in 4 squadrons]
- - - - - - Saxon Sapper Company [65 men]
32nd Infantry Division - GdD Durutte
- - - Brigade - GdB Devaux
- - - - - - Foreign 1st Infantry Regiment Mediterraneae [1.180 in 2 btns.]
- - - - - - Foreign Infantry Regiment Belle Isle [855 in 2 btns.]
- - - Brigade - Col. Maury
- - - - - - Foreign Infantry Regiment Ile de Walcheren [1.100 in 2 btns.]
- - - - - - Foreign Infantry Regiment Wurzburg [500 in 2 btns.]
- - - Brigade - Jarry
- - - - - - Foreign Infantry Regiment Ile de Re [775 in 2 btns.]
- - - - - - Foreign 2nd Infantry Regiment Mediterraneae [745 in 2 btns.]
- - - Artillery - Chef Lair [20 6pdr cannons, 4 howitzers]
- - - - - - French 22nd Company of 1st Foot Artillery Regiment [80
men]
- - - - - - French 6th and 17th Company of 5th Foot Artillery Regiment
- - - - - - French 4th Company of 9th Foot Artillery Regiment [80 men]
Reserve Artillery - Col. Hoyez
- - - - - - Saxon II Foot Battery [95 men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers]
- - - - - - Saxon IV Foot Battery [95 men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers]
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Battle of Leipzig, 1813
"The treachery of the Saxons and Wurttembergers."
Napoleon wrote: "On the 18th October, the victory was won by the French, despite the defeat
suffered by the Duke of Ragusa (Marmont) on the 16th. Then the Saxons with 60 guns, went over to
the enemy at one of the most vital points in the army's position and turned their guns on the
French....The treachery of various corps of the Confederation of the Rhine, who had been
contaminated by the example of the Saxons ... "
French Officer Marbot described this event in more detail: "This force led by Bernadotte, following
the left bank of the Partha, headed for Sellerhausen which was defended by Reynier, whose corps
was almost entirely made up of German contingents. Reynier having seen the desertion of the Saxon
cavalry, distrusted their infantry, which he had placed next to the cavalry of Durette in order to
restrain them; but Marshal Ney, with misplaced confidence, ordered him to deploy the Saxons and
send them to assist a French regiment which was defending the village of Paunsdorf.
The Saxons ... when seeing the Prussian ensigns in the fields of Paunsdorf they ran towards them at
top speed ... Some French officers could not believe such treachery, and thought that the Saxons
were going to attack the Prussians; so that General Gressot, Reynier's chief-of-staff rushed towards
them to moderate what he thought was an excess of zeal, only to find himself confronted by enemies
! ... The Wurtemberg cavalry promptly followed the example of the Saxons."
"During the morning, a conference was held by Saxon Officers, who decided to defect with their
men at the first opportunity. This came when the Prussians stormed Paunsdorf forcing the French to
fall back. At 4.30 pm, with the French too preoccupied to stop them the two Saxon brigades
marched over to the Allies, turning their guns on their late comrades."
(- Howard Giles)
"... we were in a circle of fire, for everywhere, at every point, in all directions, there was fighting. At
the crossing of the Parthe the Saxon army went over to the enemy before our eyes. ... A sergeant
major of artillery, passing through our ranks at the rear of his battery, shouted at the top of his
voice: 'Paris ! Paris !' A sergeant of the battalion, indignanty, as was the whole army, at this
cowardly desertion, and his insolence, replied, "Dresden ! Dresden !' and laid him dead at his feet
with a musket-ball."
(Barres - "Memoirs of a French napoleonic officer." pp 183-184)
NOTE: not all Saxon units deserted Napoleon at Leipzig.
The King of Saxony was taken prisoner after the battle of Leipzig and his territories declared forfeit
by the allies. They intended the annexation of Saxony by Prussia. Ultimately, the opposition of
Austria, France, and Great Britain to this plan resulted in the restoration of Frederick August to his
throne at the Congress of Vienna. At this time in 1815, Saxony was forced to cede the northern part
of the kingdom to Prussia. These lands became the Prussian province of Saxony, incorporated today
in Saxony-Anhalt. Meanwhile, in 1815, the southern part of Saxony, now called the State of Saxony
joined the German Confederation. (The German Confederation should not be confused with the
North German Confederation.) In the politics of the Confederation, Saxony was overshadowed by
Prussia.
Shortly before the Waterloo Campaign in 1815, several Saxon units were disbanded in May
after a mutiny against the Prussians.
~
Westphalians.
"The merry monarch's men."
Napoleon erased the duchies of Braunschweig and Hesse-Kasel, combined their lands with part of
British possession Hannover, and added several small Prussian properties to create a new state, the
Kingdom of Westphalia. As a model state, the Kingdom of Westphalia was to serve as an example
for the other German states. For this reason, it received the first constitution and parliament to be
found on German soil. Serfdom was abolished and other tyrannies of the petty princes, and
established a parliament. Individual rights were codified under the Code Napoleon. The
Westphalians were now to be equal under the law. So these were the good things. Now the bad
ones. The financial and military French demands were heavy. The Continental System imposed on
Europe by Napoleon crippled the Westphalian economy.
Napoleon made his younger brother, Jrme, the King of Westphaly and the
commander-in-chief of the Westphalian Army. (In 1803 Jrme married Elizabeth
Patterson, daughter of American merchant. Napoleon was unable to convince Pope to
annul their marriage, so he annulled their marriage himself. Elizabeth was soon pregnant
and on her way to Europe with Jrme. Napoleon had issued orders barring the ship
from entering the harbour. Elizabeth went on to England where their son was born.
Jrme never saw Elizabeth again.)
In 1809 Jerome, the King of Westphalia, and his troops failed against Schill's Prussians. And the brief
campaign against the Duke of Brunswick left Jerome feeling humiliated. Napoleon was unhappy
with Jerome's behaviour and actions, "You make war like a satrap. Good God, did you learn that
from me ? ... Quit these follies. Send the diplomatic corps back to Kassel, make war without
followers and baggage, and keep no table other than your own ! Make war like a young soldier who
has need of glory and renown. Try to be worthy of the high position to which you have been called
... " Napoleon refused to support Jerome financially.
The Westphalian line infantry wore shakos, white coats, white breeches and
black gaiters. The collars, lapels and cuffs were in regimental colors. This
uniform was modern-looking and elegant. The Guard Grenadiers wore
impressive bearskins. The men of the light infantry battalion wore shakos and
light blue coats with orange distinctions. The jagers-carabiniers wore shakos,
dark-green coats and breeches with black facings. The guard jagers wore shakos,
dark-green coats and breeches with yellow facings.
The Westphalian infantry was new and inexperienced. Their officers were
hindered not only by diversity of the troops (Brunswickers, Hessians and others)
but by a lingering suspicion of French intentions. The Westphalians however
showed some potential. Many individual soldiers were brave (combats at Dodendorf and
Halberstadt) and held together despite several defeats and having no time to develop unit cohesion.
Furthermore, they were inadequently trained and the top leadership was poor.
Westphalian infantry in April 1809:
Line :
NOTE: infantry regiment = 2 field and 1 depot battalions
Field battalion = 1 grenadier, 1 voltigeur and 4 fusilier companies.
Each company = 140 men. Depot battalion = 4 fusilier companies.
Guard Grenadier Battalion = 6 companies and 1 depot company.
Each company = 116 men.
Jager-Carabinier Battalion = 6 companies and 1 depot company.
Each company = 119 men.
- - - - - - Guard Grenadier Battalion
- - - - - - 1. Infantry Regiment
Light :
light battalion = 1 carabinier, 1 voltigeur, 4 chasseur companies.
Each company = 140 men. There was also 1 depot company.
jager-carabinier battalion = 4 companies x 103 men each
- - - - - - Guard Jager Battalion
- - - - - - Jager-Carabinier Battalion
- - - - - - Light Infantry Battalion
The elite Jagers-Carabiniers were attached to the Werstphalian Guards. The Royal Guard consisted
of Horse Guard Regiment, Guard Lighthorse (Chevaulegere) Regiment, Guard Grenadier Battalion
and Guard Jager Battalion.
The Westphalian infantry served in Germany, Spain, and Russia.
In 1812 Jrme commanded large force of Westphalian and French soldiers marching towards the
Russian front. Because he insisted in traveling in state Napoleon reprimanded him and ordered him
to leave his court behind. (Jerome also failed with maneouvre intended to trap one of the Russian
armies.) Angered by Napoleon's order, Jrme returned with his court to Westphalia.
During Napoleon's Invasion of Russia in 1812, the Westphalians formed the VII Army
Corps under GdD Junot. Andoche Junot gave Napoleon absolute loyalty and his
bravery earned Junot the nickname "the Tempest." By 1810 however he was becoming
erratic, the result of several head wounds ... and disloyal wife. For all his terrible
angers he was just and fair. Junot's campaigns in Spain, Russia and elsewhere were
failure. In 1813 he was made Governor of Illyria but his growing mental instability led
to him be returned to France. He committed suicide in Montbard in 1813.
At Borodino in 1812, Junot's Westphalians moved southward into the gap between Marshal
Davout's French troops and Prince Poniatowski's Poles. The Russians greeted them with artillery fire
from 24-36 guns. A Polish uhlan noticed that whenever a shell exploded dozens of Westphalian
infantrymen threw themselves on the ground and covered their heads with hands. "Not a whisper
was heard" - he wrote. Planat de la Fay wrote that the Westphalians were "from time to time hit by
shells that threw shakos and bayonets into the air. With every such explosion, these poor lads threw
themselves to the ground nut not all of them managed to raise to their feet afterwards."
Junot's infantry then entered the wood south of Bagration Fleches, attacked Russian jagers (three
regiments) and pushed them to the south. Junot - at least temporarily - secured Davout's flank and
linked up with Poniatowski. Linsingen wrote, "our division suffered from heavy fire from the
woods on the right side." Also the Russian Opolchenie (militia) was used against Junot's infantry. At
about 2 p.m. the Westphalians established a firm contact with the Poles.
The Westphalian jagers-carabiniers were armed with rifles and Junot has sent them out to silence
enemy battery. Unfortunately, in the excitement of the moment, the green-clad jagers-carabiniers
were taken for Russians by other Westphalian units and became the victims of friendly fire. It
created a great deal of confusion in the wood.
Junot received order from Ney to press forward. Instead of attacking the enemy, Junot asked for
assist from exhausted Compans's 5th Division. The Frenchmen carried out the fight for quite long
time, before Junot made another attack at 4 p.m.
The Westphalians were lucky, as this time the enemy artillery lacked ammunition and were
distracted by Poniatowski's troops. Conrady wrote: "The Russians were so consumed by the (Polish)
attack from the front, that they noticed our attack only after we charged with yells." The
Westphalians gained some ground before the Russian infantry counterattacked. Junot then led
several battalions and forced the enemy to abandon the area north of the Old Road.
Baggovout being pressed by the Westphalians and Poles, abandoned the Utitza Mound and
withdrew along the Old Road. This way he avoided being cut off from Bagration's army by Junot.
Poniatowski followed Baggovout forcing him to redeploy his troops near Psarevo. The Polish
artillery and 12th Uhlans then inflicted heavy casualties on the Minsk and Kremenchug Infantry
regiments. This attack ended the fighting in this sector of the battlefield, and neither Junot nor
Poniatowski pressed forward.
Gen. Raievski 'The Hero of Borodino' and Russian infantry in 1812.
At Borodino, the Westphalian line infantry met Russian grenadiers
marching steadily with fixed bayonets. A Russian officer recalled:
"When they saw us, they melted down as quickly as snow in the spring!"
Large numbers of Westphalian troops perished during the retreat frome Russia in 1812.
In September 1813 Cossacks surrounded Kassel, the capital of Westphalia, defeated the French and
took the city. By October 1 the cossacks had conquered the whole Kingdom, but three days later
Jrme returned with French troops and managed to recapture Kassel. The Elector of Hesse-Kassel
arrived soon after and the Cossacks besieged the city again. After Napoleon's defeat at Leipzig in
October, the Russians dissolved the Kingdom and restored the status quo of 1806 (although
Kaunitz-Rietberg and Stolberg-Wernigerode were not recreated).
After the Congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Prussia received a large amount of territory in the
Westphalian region and created the province of Westphalia in 1815. The northernmost portions of
the former kingdom, including Osnabrck, had become part of the states of Hanover and
Oldenburg. During the Waterloo Campaign in 1815 many Westphalians served in the Prussian
army.
Westphalian Guard Infantry in 1812 >>
Westphalian National Guard (militia) in 1812 >>
Westphalian NCOs and musician of line infantry in 1812 >>
~
Wurttembergers.
Unlike the other German troops, the Wurttemberg infantry
"did not shift from a 2-rank to a 3-rank line ..."
King Frederick I was so fat that he had to review his troops from a light carriage and "had a section
cut out of his dining table to accomodate his paunch, yet he was a man of courage, shrewdness,
intelligence, and utter determination." (- John Elting)
In 1806 the King joined the Confederation of the Rhine and received further additions of territory. In
return for these favours Frederick joined Napoleon in his campaigns against Prussia, Austria and
Russia.
In 1805 the King established an academy to provide a more formal foundation for officer training.
Almost 50 % of Wurttemberg officers, however, were foreigners, mostly Saxons and Bavarians. In
many aspects the Wurttemberg army followed the French model. But, unlike the other German
troops, the Wurttemberg infantry "did not shift from a two-rank to a three-rank line, the new
regulations allowed the three-rank line to be formed if required, but this appears to have been the
exception rather than the norm." ( - John Gill)
The line infantry wore dark blue coats, white breeches (grey trousers on campaign)
and helmets. The collars, cuffs and lapels were in regimental colors. The light infantry
wore dark-green coats and shakos. Their collars and cuffs were in distinctive battalion
colors.
The discipline of certain Wurttemberg troops was such that the King at the home-
coming review addressed them as brigands. Their bad behaviour in Germany, Prussia,
Poland and Russia in 1809 and 1812 had earned Napoleon's wrath. Jakob Walter, an
infantryman from Wurttemberg, writes, "In this town I came into the house of a furrier
... His wife had a little child about 9 months old. This child was remarkably beautiful,
and I, too, had my fun with it. Once I gave this child some brandy to drink." (Walter -
"The Diary of Napoleonic Foot Soldier / Jakob Walter" page 27, publ. in 1991)
Wurttemberg infantry before / after April 1809:
Line :
line battalion = 1 grenadier and 3 musketier companies
Musketier Company = 175 men.
The elite Foot Guard Battalion had 4 companies.
- - - - - - Garde zu Fuss (Foot Guard) Battalion
- - - - - - Von Phull / Prinz Paul Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - Herzog Wilhelm Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - Von Camrer / von Phull Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - Von Franquemont Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - Prinz Friedrich Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - Kronprinz Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - Von Neubronn / von Koseritz Infantry Regiment [*]
Light: [**]
NOTE: light battalion = 4 companies
(+ 5th company serving as depot comp.)
The men in the front rank were armed
with rifled muskets. The 2nd rankers
were issued rifled carbines [karabinier]
- - - - - - von Stockmayer or Konig (King's own) Jager Battalion [***]
- - - - - - Von Neuffer Jager Battalion
- - - - - - 1. von Wolff Light Battalion
- - - - - - 2. von Brusselle Light Battalion
[*] - It also bore other name, the Fusilier-Regiment
[**] - "The numeration of the light infantry battalions is something of a mystery:
some sources state they were not numbered until after this campaign (1809), others
list numerical designations for all four from the start of 1809. " John Gill, p 170
[***] - the Stockmayer Jager Battalion was honoured with the title Konig Jagers
in recognition of its distinguished performance in 1807
The Wurttemberg light infantry were one of the most valuable troops. John Elting
writes, "German tradition had it that Wurttembergers were excellent warriors but
poor parade-ground soldiers. (Erwin Rommel was one of that breed.) Their light
infantry and jagers were outstanding - nimble, aggressive, and excellent shots."
The Wurttemberg Light Infantry Brigade nearly equalled the
exertions of Marshal Davout's veterans in April 1809. On 24 June
1809 the Wolff Light Battalion launched a cross-river sortie,
attacked Austrian camp, and seized almost 100 prisoners. (And I
am talking about the mighty Danube here.)
Napoleon met the Wurttemberg troops in April 1809. He spoke to them: "Soldiers of
Wurttemberg ! You are about to go into battle against an enemy that has tyrannized
Germany for many years. The Hungarians, Bohemians, and Austrians have always
viewed Germany as their own. ... Show yourselves worthy of the honour to fight
alongside the Grand Army, worthy of the trust I place in you. ..." The Wurttembergers responded to
his speech with great enthusiasm.
In 1809 the Wurttemberg troops were assigned to the VIII Army Corps under General
Vandamme. Dominique Vandamme (1770-1830) was a brutal and violent soldier,
renowned for insubordination and looting. Napoleon once said to him, "If I had two of
you , the only solution would be to have one hang the other.
He also said that were he, Napoleon, to launch a campaign against Lucifer in Hell, then
he would give Vandamme command of the vanguard. General Vandamme "was a
knock-down, drag-out, whoop-it-up roughneck ... His temper was instantaneous, his vocabulary
sulphurous, his talent for insubordination stupendous. No marshal would willingly have him as a
subordinate; only Davout could manage him. ... German troops liked serving under him; he treated
his subordinates with iron rigor but took the best possible care of them." (Elting - "Swords Around a
Throne" pp 158-159)
In the famous battle of Austerlitz, General Vandamme captured crucial position in Allies line. At
Kulm (1813) however, Vandamme was defeated and taken prisoner by the Russians. He fought at
Ligny during the Waterloo Campaign in 1815. After the restoration of King Louis XVIII of France
Vandamme was exiled to America.
There was a lot of friction between Vandamme and the Wurttemberg generals and officers. The
senior Wurttemberg general, Wollwrath, helped to calm von Hugel when that determined officer
asked for permission to engage Vandamme in a duel !
No bed tonight, no bed tonight !
Vandamme has got his purse all right.
If he'd not got his purse so tight
we'd all have a bed tonight !
The Wurttemberg infantry participated in Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, and in the Leipzig
Campaign in 1813. After Napoleon's defeat at Leipzig, King Frederick deserted Napoleon.
Picture: Murat and Wurttembergers
at Borodino.
After the southern fleche was
temporarily abandoned by the
survivors of the French 57th Line
Regiment, the flamboyantly dressed
Marshal Murat took one battalion of
Wurttembergers and attempted to
reoccupy it. Before the
Wurttembergers reached their target
they were charged by Duka's
cuirassiers. Murat was forced to run for life (see picture -->).
Well-aimed shots and rows of bayonets discouraged the cuirassiers from pressing harder.
Meanwhile the Wurttemberg light cavalry advanced to rescue their fellows. In regimental history of
the Chevauxlegere-Regiment Prinz Adam No1 is description of their participation at Borodino. They
attacked the Russian infantry and artillery and captured 2 guns before being struck in the flank and
back by Russian cuirassiers. The chevaulegeres fled, or as said more politely withdrew hastily.
Their horse battery had to run for life too, and have part of their crew cut up. Marshal Murat
however was thankful the Wurttemberg infantrymen saved his life.
Wurttemberg light infantry and jagers in 1806 >>
Wurttemberg 2. and 6. Infantry Regiment in 1813 >>
~
Badeners.
Small but competent army.
When the French Revolution threatened to be exported throughout Europe in 1792, Baden joined
Allies against France. In 1796 Baden was compelled to pay an indemnity, and to cede his territories
on the left bank of the Rhine to France. In 1803, largely owing to the good offices of Tzar Alexander
I of Russia, Baden received part of the Rhenish Palatinate and other smaller districts. Changing
sides in 1805, Baden fought for Napoleon, and obtained the Breisgau and other territories at the
expense of the Austrian Habsburgs.
In 1806 Baden joined the Confederation of the Rhine, became the Grand Duchy of Baden (German:
Groherzogtum Baden), and received other additions of territory. In 1809 Baden was rewarded with
accessions of territory at the expense of Wrttemberg. Where the ruler of Wurttemberg, the obese
King Friedrich, was autocratic and domineering, Karl Friedrich was withdrawn and established
himself as a mild monarch who sought to rule "with minimal force and coercion."
Having quadrupled the size of Baden (!), Karl Friedrich died in June 1811, and was succeeded by his
grandson. (The young Grand Duke of Baden was married to Stphanie de Beauharnais, a cousin of
Empress Josephine's first husband who had been adopted by Napoleon I.)
The Baden infantry maintained their old-fashioned hairstyles until 1806. "The queues and white
powder, previously fundamental to a soldier's appearance, were eliminated for 'sanitary reasons'
and each man was directed to rinse his head with cold water every morning (Sabina Hermes and
Joachim Niemeyer, eds. Unter dem Greifen, Karlsruhe ...)" - John Gill
Marshal Lefebvre, whose corps included the Baden troops in 1807, wrote "The Badeners are no good
for (siege) work and not good under fire ..." Napoleon ordered the Badeners to abandon their
Prussian methods and learn French organization and tactics. The result of the changes and and
experience of fighting as allies of the French was a solid force that fitted into French military
structure and was motivated by professional pride.
The line infantry wore dark-blue coat, white breeches (grey trousers during campaign) and helmet.
The Life Guard Grenadiers wore bearskins. The collar, cuffs and lapels were in regimental colors.
The jagers wore dark-green coat with black facings, helmet.
The Baden infantry was a small but solid force. Although without the elan of the French infantry,
and without the enthusiasm of the Poles and Italians, the Badeners were reliable and disiciplined
troops. The Baden cavalry and artillery, however, were superb in every aspect.
Baden's infantry in April 1809:
Line :
battalion = 1 grenadier, 1 voltigeur and 4 fusilier companies
The voltigeurs were armed not with smoothbore but rifled muskets.
The elite Life Guard Grenadier Battalion consisted of 5 companies.
Each regiment had a depot. Each Company was 140 men strong.
- - - - - - Leib-Garde (Life Guard) Grenadier Battalion
- - - - - - 1. Grossherzog (Grand Duke's Own) Leib Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - 2. Erbgrossherzog Line Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - 3. Graf Hochberg Line Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - 4. Line Infantry Regiment
Light:
NOTE: jager battalion = 6 companies
- - - - - - Von Lingg Jager Battalion
The Badeners took part in Napoleon's campaign of 1807 and 1809. They were heavily involved in
the battle of Aspern. (They outshot and outfought the Austrians and in the heat of the the street
fighting they even fired on the withdrawing Hessians.) There were also several Baden troops
campaigning in Peninsula. The infantry was represented by two battalions from two different
regiments (II/3. and I/4.) They left Baden in August 1808. In 1809 the two battalions were combined
and redesignated as the 4. Infantry Regiment. The remaining two battalions (I/3. and II/4.)
stationed in Baden were combined as the 3. Graf Hochberg Infantry Regiment. New uniforms for
Baden infantry were introduced in 1810. It brought an end to the confusion with iniforms of the 3.
and 4. Regiment.
Baden fought for Napoleon until 1812. After the Battle of Leipzig it changed sides again and fought
for the Allies.
Baden line infantry in 1790s >>
Baden infantry officer, private of Leib Regiment,
jager, and private of Guard Grenadiers in 1812 >>
~
Hessians.
The troops of Hesse-Darmstad were raised from a population
with a long tradition of generations of worldwide mercenary
service. During the retreat from Russia in 1812 they marched
with the French Young Guard and brought out their flags.
The troops of Hesse-Darmstad were raised from a population with a long tradition of generations of
worldwide mercenary service. "A comparison of the Hessain and baden contingents in 1809
illustrates Napoleon's judicious treatment of his German allies. On the one hand, Baden was
regarded as something of liability, its government plagued by weakness and indecission, its army of
indifferent quality and unprepared for Napoleonic warfare. the solution, in the Emperor's eyes, was
massive French intrussion into the inner workings of both the state and the military. On the other
hand, Ludwig's regime was apparently perceived as stable and reliable, his battalions a valuable
adjunct to La Grande Armee. ...
While maintaining the old drill, however, the standard infantry combat formation was changed
from the two-rank to the three-rank line in 1808. That same year 4 sappers were added to each
battalion after the French model ... Old habits die hard, however, and the soldiers were still
expected to execute manoeuvres in the two-rank formation if required." (- John Gill, p 220)
Nine battalions and one squadron of Hessians participated in Napoleon's campaign of 1807. They
were assigned line of communications duties and distinguished themselves in several sieges
(Graudenz and Stralsund). They French were very satisfied with their performance. Napoleon
however was disappointed with them after 1807 and called them "detestable." In 1808 three
battalions with few guns were sent to Spain. In contrast to the Emperor, the stern Marshal Davout
highly praised the Hessians and Major Graf von Gall in 1809. Austrian general, Bianchi, praised the
Hessaians for "speed and determination."
The Hessian infantry wore dark-blue coats, white breeches (grey trousers during campaign) and ...
the old-fashioned bicorne hats. The collars, turnbacks, and cuffs were in regimental colors. During
the Wagram Campaign in 1809 the new recruits of Leib-Garde Battalion wore shakos. The shakos
also appeared in other units in the end of 1809.
Hessian infantry in April 1809:
Line :
NOTE: regiment = 2 battalions
battalion = 4 companies x 170
(incl. 10 schutzen) In 1806-1807
each company had only 100 men.
- - - - - - Leib-Garde (Life Guard) Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - Leib (Life) Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - Gross- und Erbprinz Infantry Regiment [*]
Light:
NOTE: battalion = 4 companies
- - - - - - Leib-Garde (Life Guard) Fusilier Battalion
- - - - - - 1. Leib (Life) Fusilier Battalion
- - - - - - 2. Leib (Life) Fusilier Battalion [*]
[*] - En route to Spain the French reorganized the Gross- und Erbprinz Infantry Regiment (2 btns. x 4 companies) and the 2.
Leib Fusilier Battalion (4 companies) along French lines into just one regiment (2 btns. x 6 companies). It was done by by
distribiting the companies of fusiliers amongst the line infantry. The mix of blue and green uniforms within battalions looked
awful during reviews and parades.
In 1809 the Hessian infantry was organized into 3 brigades, each brigade having one regiment and
one battalion. Thus the hessain brigade (total of 3 battalions) was actually equivalent to French
infantry regiment (3 battalions). The Hessian fusilier battalions enjoyed a status similar to French
voltigeurs and were often detached to undertake difficult missions.
Hessian brigade at Wagram in July 1809:
- - - - - - - Leib-Garde Musketiers [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - Leib Musketiers [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - Leib-Garde Fusiliers [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - Leib Fusiliers [1 btn.]
Hessen-Darmstadt: infantry 1803-1807 >>
Hessen-Darmstadt: Leib Infantry Regiment in 1809 >>
Hessen-Darmstadt: jagers in 1813-1814 >>
As the Austrians overwhelmed the desperate Hessian defence,
the battalion's two standard bearers, Kempf and Bornemann,
struggled to rescue their precious flags. kempf was captured
but managed to free himself and hid in a dovecote until he
could make his way back to his comrades.
Bornemann courageously defended his charge, refusing to surrender
and finally falling with his head crushed by a butt stroke.
The Austrians cut off his hand to seize the flag he still tightly gripped.
Gill - "With Eagles to Glory" p 240
Battle of Kalisz in early 1813.
On the French side fought Saxons, Poles,
Wurzburgers, Dutch, Belgians and few others.
For example in 32nd Infantry Division under General Durutte were:
Brigade - GdB Devaux
- - - - - - Mediterraneae 1st Infantry Regiment [1.180 men in 2 btns.]
- - - - - - Belle Isle Infantry Regiment [855 men in 2 btns.]
Brigade - Col. Maury
- - - - - - Ile de Walcheren Infantry Regiment [1.100 men in 2 btns.]
- - - - - - Wurzburg Infantry Regiment [500 men in 2 btns.]
Brigade - Col. Jarry
- - - - - - Ile de Re Infantry Regiment [775 men in 2 btns.]
- - - - - - Mediterraneae 2nd Infantry Regiment [745 men in 2 btns.]
Artillery - ChdB Lair [20 6pdr cannons, 4 8pdr howitzers]
- - - - - - French 22nd Company of 1st Foot Art. Reg. [80 men]
- - - - - - French 6th and 17th Company of 5th Foot Art. Reg. [85 men]
- - - - - - French 4th Company of 9th Foot Art. Reg. [80 men]
~
OFF TOPIC.
In 1831 was established the famous French Foreign legion (Lgion trangre). The legion was created
for foreign nationals wishing to serve in the French army, but commanded by French officers. (After
the July Revolution of 1830, foreigners were forbidden to enlist in the French Army, and so the
Legion was created to allow France a way around this restriction.) The Legion is known as an elite
unit whose training focuses not only on military skills but also on its strong esprit de corps. Algeria
was designated as the Legion's home. As the colony was proving to be a unpopular posting with
regular troops, the introduction of the Legion was well received.

The French Foreign Legion in 21st century and in the past.
National origin of the more than 600,000 Legionaries (1831-1961) :
- Germans 200,000 (!)
- Italians 60,000
- French 50,000
- Belgians 50,000
- Spaniards 40,000
- Swiss 30,000
- Poles 10,000
(and many others, incl. 1,500 Englishmen and Scots,
700 Americans, 500 Swedes, and 100 Canadians)
Links and Sources.
Gill - "With Eagles to Glory"
Fieffe - "Histoire des Troupes Etranger au service de France"
Martinien - "Tableaux par Corps et par Batailles des Officiers tues et blesse pendant les guerres de l'Empire 1805-1815"
Six - "Dictionnaire Biographique des Generaux et Amiraux Francais de la Revolution et de l'Empire 1792-1814"
Nafziger - "Poles and Saxons of the Napoleonic Wars"
Susane - "Histoire de l'Infanterie Francaise"
www.napoleonseries.org (no longer exist)
www.napoleon-series,org
Polish Army of Duchy of Warsaw : Polnische Armee : Arme Polonaise: Polska Armia
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/polish_army.html[2012-05-21 12:39:19]
Polish Army of the Napoleonic Wars.
When it comes to Poles of the Napoleonic era, consider how hard a proud people fight
when they have no homeland of their own , and they feel that following one man ,
Napoleon, is their best chance to get one.
The Grand Duchy of Warsaw supplied thousands of soldiers for the Emperor ,
while he beat the hell out of Poland's oppressors. During the invasion of Russia
in 1812, the Poles formed the largest of the contingents provided by any of the
states allied with France.
The Poles were "Napoleon's staunchest allies"
- George Nafziger, US military historian
Poland is the only country in the world to invoke
Napoleon Bonaparte in its national anthem.
A Brief Military History of Poland.
Poland's wars with the Germans, Mongols,
Teutonic Knights , Russians , and others.
Poland as European Power 1570 - 1680 .
Wars with the Russians, Cossacks, Turks
and Swedes. The political fall of Poland.
Polish army of the Napoleonic Wars.
Commander-in-Chief.
Generals and Officers.
1806-08 Campaign / Army
1809 Campaign / Army
1814 Campaign
.
.

Napoleon and Prince Poniatowski.
He was the only foreigner Napoleon promoted to
marshal of France. Prince Poniatowski was one of
the commanders who was able to conduct a very
successful campaign without the Emperor's supervision.
Introduction: A Brief History of Poland.
"Few nations in the last 200 years have seen more military action than the Poles."
"... there were plenty of young men [in Poland] determined to prove their prowess
on the battlefield." - Norman Davies
During the American expansion in 19th century there was a saying in
Mexico: "What bad luck for us. We are so far from God and so close to
the USA." In 1840s Mexico lost more than 55% of its national territory to the aggressive
neighbour. The Poles had not just one such neighbour but two. They were sandwiched
between the very militaristic Prussia [Germany] and the mighty Russian Empire. From the
political and strategic point of view it was one of the worst locations on the planet.
From the political and military point of view Poland enjoyed the worst location possible. For
this reason Poland has in the course of history had little acquaintance with peace, but has
again and again been forced to take up arms in the defence of the country. Neal Ascherson,
Scottish journalist, writes: "Russia and Prussia, especially, tried to suppress both Polish
culture and language and the Catholic faith. In response, the Poles developed one of the
most intense and self-sacrificing versions of Romantic nationalism ever seen in Europe. "
The Poles have
been compelled to
fight almost
continously.
Norman Davies
writes, "Few
nations in the last
200 years have
seen more military
action than the
Poles. ... Private
armies abounded.
... Vast numbers of
indigent petty
noblemen filled
the ranks of a military caste of proportions unequelled in Europe. But their contempt for
state service, their preoccupation with private wars and vendettas, ... their obsession with
cavalry to the detriment of all other branches of warfare (infantry, artillery and
engineers), and their opposition to the idea of raising an 'ignoble army' of peasant
conscripts, put them at a marked disadvantage in relation to all their neighbours. ...
From 1765 to 1831, constant attempts were made to develop Polish military potential to a
level commensurate with that of the neighbouring countries. ... The revival began in 1765
with the founding of the Cadet Corps, a military college designed to raise a new generation
of officers in the spirit of patriotism and enlightement. ... The Napoleonic episode initiated
three decades of strong French influence." (Davies - "God's Playground. A History of Poland."
Vol II, p 268)
The Polish land forces has developed along parallel lines to those of the evolution of western
european armies, although local conditions, and especially the many decades of warfare
with the nations to the East - Russians, Tartars and Turks - produced certain deviations and
left their own mark on tactics, uniform and weapons.
List of Polish wars between 972 and 1939:
972 against Germany
10031005 against Germany
1018 against Kievan Rus
1072 against Bohemia
1241 Mongol Invasion of Poland
13261333 against the Teutonic Knights
1409-1411 Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War
1414 Polish-Teutonic War known as Hunger War
1422 Polish-Teutonic War known as Gollub War
1435 Polish-Teutonic War
1439 war against the Hussites
1444 with Hungary against Turkey
1454-1466 Prussian War (ex Teutonic Order)
1467-1479 Warmia Stift Feud
1500-1503 Lithuanian-Muscovite War
1506 Tatar Invasion
1509-1510 Polish-Moldavian War
1512 Tatar Invasion of Lithuania
1520-1521 War with the Teutonic Order
1524 Ottoman-Tatar Invasion of Lithuania and Poland
1530-1531 Polish-Moldavian War
1558-1582 Livonian War
1563-1582 Polish - Russian War
1576-1577 Danzig Rebellion
1577-1582 Polish-Russian War
1587-1588 Polish-Austrian War
1589 Tatar Invasion
1593 Tatar Invasion
1595-1600 Polish-Moldavian/Wallachian War
1600-1611 Polish-Swedish War
1606-1607 Zebrzydowski Rebellion
1615-1617 Polish - Ottoman War
1618-1621 Polish - Ottoman War
1624 Tatar Invasion
1630 Cossack Rebellion
1635-1638 Cossack Rebellion
1644 Tatar Invasion
1648-1655 Cossack Rebellion
1655-1660 First Northern War
1672-1676 Polish-Ottoman War
1683-1699 Relief of Vienna, war with Ottoman Empire
1733-1735 War of the Polish Succession
1768-1776 Polish factional rebellion against Russia
1792 Polish-Russian War
1794 Kosciuszko Uprising
1830-1831 November Uprising anti-Russian rebellion
1863-1865 January Uprising anti-Russian rebellion
1919-1921 Polish-Soviet War
1939 German invasion of Poland
1939 Soviet invasion of Poland
"Darling war, what a lady you must be
for all the most handsome boys
to follow you like this"
(- from popular Polish song)
.
The lands of present day Poland were populated by different Slavic tribes; Polans, Silesians,
Vistulans, Mazurians, Pomeranians and Mazovians. In 966 the Holy Roman Emperor Otto I
the Great affirmed the ducal title held by the Polanes leader Mieszko I. Once Mieszko was
converted to Christianinty, he then believed he was given the right to go out and conquer
land of all his neighbors in the name of his new faith. During the massive expansion
attempts of the Polans into the neighbouring territories, they pushed away the other groups.
Mieszko also allied with the Czechs to try to keep the German land conquered or received
as lien for themselves.
The core of the Polish forces was formed by the ducal household guard which was always
kept under arms, and reinforced in wartime by a levy of all men capable of bearing arms.
They were excellent troops.
In 972 the Germans under Margrave Hodo invaded Poland. Germans had mostly heavy
cavalry. The Poles lead the German forces into a trap near Cedynia. The German column
was then attacked from all sides and forced to retreat in the only direction they could - right
into a swamp. Here they were cornered and cut to pieces. German losses were significant.
Thietmar claims that most of the best knights were killed, apart from Hodo and Sigfried.
In 979 another German invasion of Poland was organized. The Poles again drove out the
Germans, took a number of fortresses, and destroyed Hamburg. Under his great son
Boleslav the Brave the Poles succeeded after a war lasting 14 years in dictating peace terms
to the Germans in Bautzen in 1018, and in the same year captured Kiev, capital of Ruthenia
(today capital of Ukraine). More Polish-German wars followed, in 1146 and 1156, and then
several wars with the Teutonic Knights.

Battle of Cedynia 972: Poles versus Germans.
The Mongols decimated many countries to the east. Nearly all Russia became tributary to
the Mongols. The fast moving scouts of Khan Ougedei reached Germany and France ! In
1241 a combined force of Poles and Germans attempted to halt the Mongols. In the battle of
Leignitz (Legnica) the best Polish knights, Teutonic Knights, Templars and the flower of
German knights perished.
Yet Poland preserved her independence, avoiding the fate that had befallen Russia. Khan
Ougedai died suddenly and there was trouble about the succession. Thereafter the Mongols
concentrated their attention upon their Asiatic and Russian conquests.
Battle of Leignitz/Legnica: Poles and Germans vs Mongols.
(in German language)
The loss of Poland's access to the Baltic Sea resulted in a 150-year long period of wars
between Poland and the Teutonic Order. During the reign of Grand Master von Kniprode,
the Order reached the peak of its international prestige and hosted numerous foreign
knights. The decisive battle between the Poles and the Teutonic knights took place in 1410 at
Grunwald, also called Tannenberg. The day-long fierce fighting ended in a complete defeat
of the Knights and supporting them Crusaders, handful of Genoese crossbowmen and
English longbowmen. The defeat of the mighty Teutonic Order was resounding.
Grunwald was the largest medieval battle in Europe.
1. Grunwald [Tannenberg]: (ext.link) 40.000 - 80.000 combatants
2. Crcy: (ext.link) 30.000 - 45.000 combatants
3. Agincourt: (ext.link) 30.000 - 40.000 combatants
4. Poitiers: (ext.link) 25.000 - 35.000 combatants
5. Hastings: (ext.link) 15.000 - 20.000

Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg) 1410: First Phase.
"The teaser": Lithuanian light cavalry and Tartars vs Teutonic
infantry (bowmen, crossbowmen), cavalry and some artillery.

Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg) 1410: Second Phase.
"The crunch and slaughter": Polish heavies vs Teutonic heavies.
Between 1519 and 1521 there was another war between Poland and the Teutonic Order. The
Polish fleet started a blockade of Teutonic ports. In the war on land the Teutonic forces were
on defense, waiting for reinforcements from Germany. Those reinforcements arrived and
the Teutonic army started an offensive. The Poles however launched a swift
counteroffensive. Both sides were plagued by financial troubles (German reinforcements,
mostly battle-hardened mercenaries, refused to fight until paid).
Meanwhile the Ottoman Empire
invaded Europe, and the Emperor,
Charles V, demanded that the
Teutonic Knights and Poles stop
their hostilities and aid the defense
of Europe against the infidels.
During the truce, the Grand Master
of the Teutonic Order, Albert, was
advised by Martin Luther to
abandon the rules of his Order, and
to convert Prussia into a hereditary
duchy for himself. Albert agreed,
converted to Lutheranism, and
resigned from the Hochmeister office to assume the Prussian Homage (see picture) from his
uncle Sigismund I the Old, King of Poland, the hereditary rights to the now-secularized
Duchy of Prussia as a vassal of the Polish Crown.
The military and political victories, and the development of economy and culture,
strengthened Poland and the dynasty of the Jagiellons. In 1569 the Kingdom of Poland and
the Grand Duchy of Lithuania united and formed the Commonwealth of Poland and
Lithuania. The joint Polish- Lithuanian state was similar in some respects to the British
Commonwealth of Nations, (ext.link) It was a multinational and multicultural state and
comprised of Poland, Lithuania nd Ruthenia. Owing to its greater density of population and
superior economic development, Poland was the leader. Without Polish support Lithuania
was doomed to be conquered by Russia.
Poland became
an European
power: the
economy was
strong, the army
was excellent and
the territory was
huge. Grain
exports to
Germany,
England and
other countries
and the resulting
trade surplus
ensured Poland
prosperity and a
large natural
increase. The XVI
Century was the
Golden Age in
Poland's history.
The people of Poland were organized in several categories. On the very top was the king
and the magnates. The magnates were the owners of vast lands. The king had no power to
discipline them. They were similar to the great barons of England. Originally the king was
an inherited title, it became an elected one, the magnates and gentry doing the voting and
preferring to grant the crown to someone outside Poland rather than to one of their own, lest
he become too strong. The next group were the gentry or minor nobility. Some of them
owned land and some were landless factotums who affiliated themselves with one or
another magnate. They were like the caballero of Spain, the man with only a horse, a saber
and a proud name. Some were rogues, most were excellent horsemen.
Because Polish knightly tradition forbade its members to engage in business of any kind (an
injunction ignored in the case of wheat, lumber and few other things :-) the handling of
money became the accepted responsibility of the Jew. The clergy was directly linked to
Rome and owned vast estates. Although the land was usually held by either the crown,
clergy or the magnates, clever farmers managed through adroit behaviour, or courage in
warfare, to sequester pieces of land on which they made enough profit to acquire other
pieces until they became self-sufficient. (Source: James Michener - "Poland")
The Polish army was never large but it was
of excellent quality. The infantry and artillery
were fine, while the cavalry was arguably
the best in Europe in that time. During the
Golden Age of Poland the army enjoyed
several spectacular victories. Majority of
them were due to the husaria or "winged
knights", as they are called in English, or
"Flgelhusaren" in German language. The
winged knights were awesomely armed and
mounted. They were the pride and glory of
Polish cavalry. There was a saying that if the
sky fell their lances would support it.
It should be remembered that one of the
greatest commanders in history, Gustavus
Adolphus admired by Napoleon and many
other commanders, developed his skills in almost continuous warfare with the Poles.
Gustavus Adolphus' success in the Thirty Years War was preceded by many years of effort
against inferior numbers of Poles.

The winged knights were the terror of infantry and cavalry,
Swedes , Russians , Turks , and western mercenaries , and
anyone who met them in battle. They were the tanks of the past.
After series of defeats, the magnates of Lithuania which was in union with Poland
requested Polish military aid. Poland agreed to lend its Lithuanian ally aid, which would
lead to a long series of wars between Poland and Russia. The Muscovite forces invaded
Lithuania in 1506 and were soudingly defeated in the battle of Kletsk. The war eventually
ended with the inconclusive 'eternal peace treaty.'
In 1512,
Grand
Duchy of
Moscow
began a
war with
Poland
and
Lithuania
for the
lands of
present-
day
Belarus
and
Ukraine.
In 1514 a
huge
Russian
army
under
Chelyadnin besieged and captured the city of Smolensk. Then the Russian army, some
40.000-80.000 men under Chelyadnin, met 20,000-30,000 Poles and Lithuanians under
Ostrogski at Orsza. The Poles and Lithuanians crushed the Muscovites. They took many
prisoners incl. Ivan Cheladnin, and all 300 guns.
Due to the spectacular proportions of the defeat, information about the battle was
suppressed in Muscovite chronicles. Even reputable Russian historians such as Sergei
Soloviov rely on non-Russian sources.
In 1519 the Russian forces attacked the lands around Kreva, while their allies, Tartars,
ravaged Polish Lvov and Lublin. No side could gain advantage. The war lasted until 1520;
in 1522 a peace was signed. The next war in 1534-37 resulted in 5-year ceasefire, but
negotiations for a more permanent treaty failed.
The next major Polish-Muscovite conflict took place in 1605-18, when the Russian Tsardom
was torn into a series of civil wars, the time most commonly referred in the Russian history
as Time of Troubles. The Polish nobility encouraged by some Russian aristocracy attempted
to exploit weakness of Russia and intervene in its civil war by supporting the impostors for
the Tsardom False Dmitriy I and later False Dmitriy II against the crowned Tsars, Boris
Godunov and Vasili Shuiski. The campaign culminated in the battle of Kluszyn (Klushino).
Soon after the battle tsar was ousted by the boyars and the small Polish army entered
Moscow with little opposition. Polish king's son was elected Tsar.
The most
important
battle of this
period was
Kluszyn
(Klushino, not
far from
Borodino,
Napoleon's
bloodiest
battle). The
Polish-
Lithuanian
army
defeated
much
stronger
Russian army
led by Prince
Shuyski,
Tsar's brother.
The charge of
winged-
knights was
decisive in
the extreme.
From
Maskewicz's memoirs: "We [Poles] swooped down on them, sword in hand - whether they
had managed to reload or not, I would not know because they took for the rear and did not
stop galloping until they reached the Muscovite reserve at the rear camp gate, where their
several tidy formations became chaotically entangled." Casualties (killed and wounded):
Poles and Allies 400, Russians and Allies 5,000.
In 1632, after the death of the Polish king, the Russians broke an armistice and started a war
with the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania. It was called the Smolensk War (1632-
1634) and saw Russia attempt to reconquer lands lost to Poland-Lithuania in the truce of
Deuline (1619). Small military engagements produced mixed results for both sides, but the
surrender of the main Russian force in February 1634 led to the Treaty of Ponyanovka.
Russia accepted Polish control, which lasted for another 20 years, over the Smolensk region.
The treaty confirmed the pre-war status quo, with Russia paying a large war indemnity,
while the Polish king to surrender his claim to the Russian throne and return the royal
insignia to Moscow. In the last campaigns both sides introduced new tactics, units and
equipment based on Western models,but the Polish-Lithuanian forces proved more adept
with these innovations than the Russians.
The war of 16541667 was the last major conflict between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth. It is known in Poland as part of the "Deluge" (Polish territory was invaded
by Swedes, Russians, Moldavians, Transilvanians and Tartars.) The war ended with
significant Russian territorial and political gains.
In 1733-35 was the War of Polish Succession and Russian forces intervened in Polish
factional war. In 1768-76 took place Polish factional rebellion against Russia. The Kosciusko
Uprising and the November Uprising, both against Russia, are described down below.
Battle of Klushino 1610: Poles versus Russians and
western mercenaries (French, Scots and Germans).
The PolishSwedish Wars were a series of wars between 1563 and 1721. The Polish nobility
did not think highly of the Swedes, and did not expect this war to be difficult. Poland-
Lithuania had nearly 10 million inhabitants, and Sweden had only 1 million. However
Poland had one of the smallest military to population ratios in Europe, while Sweden was
able to draft a large army much more quickly than the Poles, due to its centralised
government and obligatory draft of free peasants. As a result of 1634 Constitution the
Swedish army was reorganized into provincial regiments: 20 infantry and 8 cavalry. In
wartime additional regiments were raised in Sweden and Finland.
The Poles were forced to fight on two fronts, as their armies were also needed south to deal
with the Moldavians, Cossacks and Tartars, and Swedish army gained 3:1 numerical
superiority.
In
1605
at
Kircholm 4,000 Poles (incl. 2.000 winged-knights) defeated 12,000 Swedes. The Swedes were
routed on both wings and their center was attacked from three sides simultaneously. The
Swedish army collapsed in flight. The battle was decided in 20 min. by the devastating
charge of winged knights. Casualties: 300 Poles/Allies, 8,000 Swedes.
The Battle of Honigfeld (or Trzciana was one of many battles of the Polish-Swedish War of
1626-29. The Polish corps of 4,500 men (incl. 1,500 winged knights) defeated Swedish force
of 9,000 well-trained troops under the famous King Gustavus Adolphus.) The Swedish
cavalry was handled very roughly by the winged knights and the king was almost captured.
The Swedish infantry however left the battlefield in relatively good order. Casualties: 300
Poles and allies, 800 Swedes.
The Swedish armies invaded Poland in 1655 and entered Warsaw almost unopposed in
August. The king fled to Silesia. Spontaneous uprisings started all over the country,
attacking the dispersed occupation Swedish forces who, in their turn, retaliated. The
Polish-Lithuanian forces finally drove back the Swedes in 1657. The Polish-Lithuanian
forces also defeated armies from Transylvania and Brandenburg. The Swedish occupation
and the wars with Cossacks and other neighbours, ruined Poland financially, economically
and weakened her political position.
Battle of Kircholm 1605: Poles versus Swedes.
There were three wars
between Poland and
Turkey (1620-21, 1633-34,
and 1672-76) and several
minor conflicts. The Polish
magnates intervened in
the affairs of Moldavia,
which the Ottoman
Empire considered within
its sphere of influence. In
1621, a huge Turkish army
(200,000 men) advanced
from Istanbul towards the
Polish frontier. The Turks
had high hopes of
conquering Ukraine (then
a part of Poland). The
Poles stopped them at
Chocim (Khotyn) where
55,000 Poles, Lithuanian
and Cossacks routed
100,000 Turks and allies.
In 1632, after the death of
the Polish king, the
Russians broke an
armistice and started a
war with the
Commonwealth. The Turkish commander, Abazy, mobilized his troops and called
Moldavian, Wallachian and Tatars as reinforcements.
In 1672 Ottoman army (80,000 men) led by Grand Vizier invaded Ukraine and captured the
fortress at Kamieniec Podolski. Hetman Jan Sobieski then dealt several defeats to the
Ottomans; of which the battle of Chocim was the largest.
The Turkish army at Chocim (Khotyn) consisted of 35.000 men (incl. elite cavalry) and 50-
120 guns. The Turks held the castle and entrenched camp.
The Polish army of 30.000 men and 65 guns under Jan Sobieski attacked on arrival. The next
day as dawn broke the Polish infantry and dragoons again attacked, and with close artillery
support forced their way into the massive castle. They then cleared a way for the cavalry,
who burst into the Turkish camp. The Turks kept fighting until the winged knights charged
and broke the Turkish elite cavalry. The infantry and gunners panicked and fled. The
victory was decisive. From then on the Turks called Sobieski "The Lion of the North."

Siege of Polish fortress Kamieniec by a massive Turkish army.
From Polish epic movie "Colonel Wolodyjowski."
Map:
Ottoman
Empire
as a
threat to
Europe
in 1683.
Unable
to break
into
Europe
through
Poland,
the
massive
Turkish
army
invaded
Austria and Hungary. The most important and the largest battle of the 1683 campaign was
the battle of Vienna. It had the most far-reaching consequences as it was the turning point
in the 300-year struggle between christian Europe and the Ottoman Empire (ext.link)
The Christian coalition (70,000 German, Polish and French troops) under King Jan Sobieski
defeated 120,000 Turkish cavalry, infantry and artillery under Kara Mustapha Pasha.
Instead of focusing on the battle with the relief army, the Turks also tried to force their way
into the city, carrying their crescent flag. Four cavalry groups totalling 20,000 men (!), one of
them Austrian-German, and the other three Polish, charged down the hills. The attack was
led by the Polish king and 3.000 winged knights. The magnificent charge of heavy cavalry
broke enemy's right wing and the center, and caused the entire army to flee in panic. Up till
Napoleonic Wars that was the greatest cavalry charge in the history of Europe.
In honor of King Jan, the Austrians had erected a church atop a hill of Kahlenberg, north of
Vienna. Also, the train route from Vienna to Warsaw is named in Sobieski's honor. Pope
Innocentius XI regarded the defence of Vienna as his major achievement. European
dignitaries hailed Sobieski as the "Savior of Vienna and Western European civilization." In
a letter to his wife Sobieski wrote about the freed Austrians "All the common people kissed
my hands, my feet, my clothes; others only touched me ..."
.
.
.
.
.
The Fall of Poland.
Poland's neighbours, Russia and Prussia were absolute states
and their political systems stood in contradiction to the
Polish tradition of self-government and low taxes.
The XVIII century is considered the most tragic period in Polish history. Poland's
neighbours, Russia and Prussia were absolute states and their political systems stood in
contradiction to the Polish tradition of self-government low taxes and civil freedoms of the
gentry. Low taxes also meant numerically weak army. Additionally it became increasingly
common for Polish parliament's sessions to be broken up by liberum veto. It was every
nobleman's representative's right to block any legislation, just by uttering his veto. It was
tantamount to an extreme expression of political liberty and conceived as a safeguard
against tyranny. Poland deteriorated from a European power into a state of anarchy.
In 1791 the Poles attempted to reform their political
system. The Polish Constitution of May was
Europe's first modern codified national
constitution and the world's second after the
USA constitution.
The changes in Poland were received with hostility
by Russia and Prussia, while the situation in
Europe was not encouraging for the Poles. The
internal problems of France, the preoccupation of
Britain with the American Revolution, gave the
opportunity for Russia, Prussia and Austria to
proceed with reference to Poland. In reply to
Poniatowski's appeal after the first patrition of Poland, King George III of England wrote:
"Good Brother...I fear, however misfortunes have reached the point where redress can be
had from the hand of the Almighty alone, and I see no
other intervention that can afford a remedy."
In 1794 General Kosciuszko, a veteran of the American Revolutionary War pronounced the
general uprising and assumed the powers of the commander in chief of the entire Polish
Army. The great difficulties with providing enough armament for the mobilised troops
made Kosciuszko form units composed of pesants armoured with scythes called kosynierzy.
After initial successes the Polish forces were defeated by the Russian army at Maciejowice.
Kosciuszko was taken prisoner.
Between 1772 and 1795 the entire territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was
divided between Prussia, Austria and Russia. The first partition of Poland took place in
1772, the second in 1793 and the third in 1795. The partitions ended the political existence of
the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The King was forced to abdicate and was taken to
Russia.
Many captured Poles were sent to Siberia but thousands more escaped to France, Germany
and Italy. For next decades Prussia, Russia and Austria had much of their land forces tied
up in Poland and could not field enough troops to suppress the French Revolution, which
added to its success.
The Partition of Poland did not for a moment break the resistance of the Poles, who -
whenever opportunity offered - rose in arms to fight not only for their own country, but also
for the idea which they inscribed on their standards - "Free men are brothers."

Battle of Raclawice: Russians vs Poles (from an old Polish movie).
The Battle of Raclawice in April 1794 was part of the Kosciusko Uprising.
At Raclawice Kosciusko with 2,400 regulars and 2,000 peasants routed 3,200
Russians. The Poles also won several other engagements and skirmishes.
Meanwhile, the Russians equipped a new corps commanded by Suvorov
and ordered it to join up with the forces already fighting with the Poles.
In September Suvorov won several battles and in November the joint
Russian forces started an all-out assault on Praga, the suburb of Warsaw.
After long hand-to-hand struggle the Russians broke through the Polish
defences. The whole district was completely destroyed and approximately
12,000 of its inhabitants were murdered.

Poland in 1018 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Poland in 1500s ("Golden-Age of Poland")

Partitions of Poland (1772,1793,1795) . . . Poland in 1810-15 (Napoleonic wars)
Polish Army During the Napoleonic Wars.
"The fact France's enemies happened to be Poland's oppressors was
an obvious attraction, and many Polish soldiers volunteered for
service in the French army." (Summerville - "Napoleon's Polish Gamble" )
"During the Partitions, the Poles came to see France as their truest friend in the outside world.
There was some background to this: the French and Polish royal families had intermarried,
French had become the polite language of the great Polish aristocrats, and Poland had drawn
many ideas from the Enlightenment and the Revolution of 1789 before its fall. Afterwards,
Napoleon supported the Polish cause (for his own ends), and for most of the 19th century
French governments not only welcomed Polish exiles but loudly endorsed their calls for the
restoration of independence." (- Neal Ascherson)
"... The fact France's enemies happened to be Poland's oppressors was an obvious attraction,
and many Polish soldiers volunteered for service in the French army." (Summerville -
"Napoleon's Polish Gamble" p 15)
Not all Poles however supported Napoleon. General Tadeusz Kosciuszko, said about the
Emperor: "He only thinks of himself, not about nationalist ideas, and so he could not care less
about any dreams of independence [of Poland]. He is a despot, whose sole ambition is to satisfy his
personal ambition. He will create nothing of any permanence, of that I am sure." Kosciuszko is Polish
national hero, general and a leader of 1794 uprising (which bears his name) against the Russian Empire.
He and Lafayette fought in the American Revolutionary War on the side of Washington.
In 1797 in Italy was formed a Polish Legion, fighting for France
against Austria. There is hardly a more touching chapter in the
world's history than the story of the Polish Legions. The Poles
hoped that by fighting on the French side against Austria, Russia
and Prussia, the contries that had partitioned Poland they could free
their country. Two years after the last dismemberment of Poland, a
Polish army was formed, in Polish uniforms, under Polish
command, decorated with French cockades and wearing on the
eppaulets the inscription: "Gli uomini liberi sono fratelli." (Free men
are brethren.)
These legions however were never used for purposes related to Polish independence. Some were posted
to pacification duties in occupied Italy and in 1802-03 were drafted with the expedition sent to crush the
rebellion of Negro slaves on Santo Domingo. They died in their
The French entered Warsaw in 1807 and French
eagles soared over the Vistula. The Emperor was
hesitant about reenacting the Kingdom of Poland.
In spite of the ovations given him by the Poles, he
wrote: "Only God can arbitrate this vast political
problem ... It would mean blood, more blood, and
srtill more blood ... But it was not long before the
Duchy of Warsaw became a bastion of France in
central and Eastern Europe, and Polish troops
stood ready to fight for Napoleon and
independence. French Marshal "Davout
supervised the creation of the Polish army."
(Esposito, Elting - "A Military History and Atlas of
the Napoleonic Wars.")
The Polish populace considered Napoleon's troops as friends. This is confirmed by French officers Parquin
writes: "After our passage of the [Vistula] river ... the enemy [Russians] gave way and we occupied the
Polish villages, where we were received like brothers by the people, miserably poor though they were."
(Parquin - "Napoleon's
Victories" p 63)
The war in 1807 was called by Napoleon the "First Polish War" and resulted in the formation of the Polish
state. (In 1812 Napoleon, in an attempt to gain increased support from Polish nationalists and patriots,
termed the war against the Russian Empire the "Second Polish War.")
The constitution given by Napoleon in July 1807 established the
Polish army at 30,000 men. Prince Poniatowski became its Minister
of War. The Poles joked about the Duchy having "a Saxon king,
French laws, Polish army, and Prussian currency." (Nafziger-"Poles
and Saxons" p 3)
But the Polish people had high hopes for the future. For nowhere
else had Napoleon a more loyal and devoted ally than the Poles
who stood by him through thick and thin. During Napoleon's
Invasion of Russia in 1812 they formed a striking contrast to the
Prussians under Yorck, who as soon as Napoleon's defeat became
known joined the Russians. Many other German-speaking troops
were unwilling participants of the war.
At Leipzig in 1813 there were many German troops abandoning Napoleon. But not the Poles. They fought
for Napoleon to the very end. Prince Poniatowski, the commander-in-chief of Polish army, was killed
while covering Napoleon's retreat and the "... Poles constituted the last formed body of French troops"
(Digby-Smith - "1813: Leipzig")
The Poles fought very hard, it was their last chance. Casualties at Leipzig:
After Poniatowski's succesful campaign against the Austrians and Napoleon's victory at Wagram in 1809,
the ensuing Treaty of Schnbrunn allowed for a significant expansion of the Duchy's territory southwards
with the regaining of once-Polish and Lithuanian lands.
Population of Europe and USA
during the Napoleonic Wars
Denmark - 1 million
Wurttemberg - 1,2 millions
Westphalia - 1,9 millions
Saxony - 1,95 millions
Lombardy - 2 millions
Papal State - 2,3 millions
Sweden - 2,3 millions
Portugal - 3 millions
Bavaria - 3,3 millions
Poland Duch de Varsovie - 4,3 millions
Naples - 5 millions
Holland & Belgium - 6,2 millions
USA - 6.5 millions
Prussia - 9,7 millions (in 1806 reduced to 4,9 millions)
Spain - 11 millions
Great Britain - 18,5 millions (England, Ireland, Scotland)
Austria - 21 millions (with Hungary)
France - 30 millions
Russia - 40 millions (w/annexed
ter.)
.
The Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army
General de Division (Marshal) Prince Poniatowski.
Prince Jzef Antoni Poniatowski was born in 1763 and ten years later
became the ward of his uncle, the King of Poland. "Nicknamed 'the
Polish Bayard', Poniatowski was born in Vienna ... He was
commisioned into the Austrian army in 1778, serving in the
dragoons and carabiniers, and in 1788 he became an ADC to the
Emperor Francis II ..." (Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic wars" p
346)
In 1788 Poniatowski participated in the war against Ottoman Empire
and was wounded at siege of Sabatach. In 1789 he returned to
Poland, became general and in 1792 defeated the Russians at
Zielence. In July Poniatowski resigned and left Poland but 2 years
later the ardent patriot had returned and joined the Kosciuszko
Insurrection. After collapse of the uprising Poniatowski was in exile.
When Poland disappeared from the map of Europe, many Polish
officers and generals fled to France where they felt an ideological affinity. But not Poniatowski, in 1798
the restless soul was back in the occupied by Prussians Warsaw.
In 1807 Poniatowski met Marshal Murat and the French troops and began overtures to Napoleon for the
restoration of a free Poland. In 1807 he became minister of war in the Polish Directory. In April 1809
Poniatowski selected a good defensive position at Raszyn and withstood all Austrian attacks. Then he
defeated them at Radzymin and reconquered parts of former Poland. Poniatowski routed the Austrians
again at Gra and Grochw. The campaign of 1809 was a massive success for Prince Poniatowski. For his
achievements Poniatowski was presented the French grand-aigle de la Lgion d'Honneur and a saber of
honor. He was one of the few Napoleonic commanders who was able to conduct a successful campaign
without Napoleon's supervision.
In 1812 Poniatowski led the V
Army Corps to Russia and fought
at Smolensk, Borodino, Tarutino
and Krasne. In 1813 Poniatowski
rebuilt the Polish troops that were
to become the VIII Army Corps.
He led them to Saxony to join
Napoleon's army. Poniatowski's
troops participated in several small
engagements, majority of them
were victories. At Leipzig in 1813,
Poniatowski defended Napoleon's
flank for three days. The villages
of Mark-Kleeberg and Dosen changed hands several times. Napoleon promoted him to the rank of
Marshal of France. On the last day of battle Poniatowski was covering the retreat of Napoleon's army.
When the bridge was destroyed Poniatowski spurred his horse into the Elster River. He was shot and
disappeared under water. His body was found several days later.
- Napoleon
"Dauntless heroes; Murat, Ney, Poniatowski,
- it is to you the glory is due! "
- Napoleon after Borodino
Death of Poniatowski at Leipzig.
"He was getting very weak but
refused the pleas to surrender."
Firing from windows and rooftops of Leipzig, and from the cover of improvised barricades, the cleverly
concealed defenders (Polish and French infantrymen) stymied the Russians and Prussians with well-
aimed shots. The withdrawal grew increasingly confused as the various columns converged through
Leipzig's streets. There were many stragglers and wounded. Some of the Saxons and Badens fired at the
French. Graf von Hochberg, a Baden general, writes: "I did not wish to be involved in the certain
destruction of our remaining troops and a German city in order to spare the French some casualties."
Poniatowski together with French Marshal Macdonald, with 1.000 men left, made last attempt to stabilize
the defense. Poniatowski led his last attack and received a bayonet thrust wound above the heart.
Although badly wounded he managed to cross the Pleisse (his horse drowned). Allies' skirmishers opened
fire and Poniatowski was wounded several times. He was getting very weak but refused the pleas to
surrender.
When the bridge
was destroyed , the
profusely bleeding
Poniatowski rode
slowly along the
river looking for a
suitable crossing
point. The river
was already full of
bodies and debris.
"Just short of
reaching the other
bank, the dying
marshal slipped off
his horse and fell
into the murky
water. As it all
took place under
heavy sniper fire (he already had several bullet wounds in him), some believe that Poniatowski was shot
once more before his final fall." (- Mark Salter and Gordon McLachlan)
.
Polish Generals and Officers.
There was rivalry within the officers and generals between
those who had served in the army of the Duchy of Warsaw
and those who had joined Polish units in French service.
Polish officers and generals communicated in Polish and French
language. The troops were organized after the French model and
used much of its terminology. Chlapowski writes: "Our drill
regulations were provided by General Dabrowski, translated from
the French. Knowing the Prussian system, it was easy for me to
learn these new regulations, which were far simpler and much
better suited to the conduct of war." (Chlapowski/Simmons - p 13)
There was rivalry within the officers corpss between those who had
served in the army of the Duchy of Warsaw and those who had
joined Polish units in French service. The former often felt the latter
had put self interest before patriotic duty, while the latter scorned
the former as military amateurs. The rivalry had been largely
healthy, and there had in fact been considerable interchange between the two.
General Fiszer (infantry, chief-of-staff)
Stanislaw Fiszer (1769-1812) came from a German family settled down in Poland. (His
father was Karl Fischer.) He entered military service in infantry and took part in the wars
against Russia. Fiszer ended up as Inspector-General of Infantry. He had a tendency to
imitate Poniatowski even in the manner of dress. Despite beign strict disciplinarian this
short man was loved by the soldiers but could be brusque with officers. Fiszer was a
superb organizer of infantry, his inspections were famous for their thoroughness. He was
one of the best Polish generals. On battlefield he was brave and decisive. Fiszer was killed in 1812 at
Tarutino.
"He had served in the Polish army since his youth and began his career as an ADC under Kosciuszko
during the 1792 and 1794 campaigns. ... He was equally adept working an office as in the field. His
character was cold and his spirit was methodical. He was a freind of order and believed in strict
subordination. He was best qualified to serve as chief of staff who was responsible for the details of the
service." (Roman Soltyk - "Accounts of the operations of the Army under the orders of Prince Poniatowski during
the 1809 campaign in Poland against the Austrians")
General Rozniecki (cavalry)
Alexander Rozniecki began career in the Polish Royal Guard, served in cavalry, fought
against the Russians and was engaged in patriotic conspiracies. In 1807 he was appointed
Inspector-General of Cavalry. As general he was a gifted cavalry organizer and not without
personal courage on the battlefield. In 1809 Rozniecki led daring cavalry raids into Galicia, in
1812 blundered at Mir and Romanow (against Cossacks) and rehabilitated himself at
Borodino against Russian cuirassiers and infantry. As a man he was rude to his subordinates
and servile toward his superiors. Contemporaries described him as being "dirty in soul and body, unkept
in dress," and "brutal, following his lust like a wild beast."
General Hauke (engineers)
Maurycy Hauke (1775-1830)was of German origin (Moritz von Haucke) and studied
artillery school in Warsaw. Hauke entered military service as a miner in 1790. Veteran of
Italian campaigns, general in 1807, in 1809-1813 commander of Zamosc fortress. The
defense of fortress of Zamosc in 1813 is one of the most heroic episodes of this campaign.
General Axamitowski (artillery)
Wincenty Axamitowski (1760-1828) - began career in artillery, veteran of Italian
campaigns, organizer and commander of Polish artillery. Axamitowski was an enemy of
Poniatowski and ultra-loyal to Napoleon. He also served in the French army and was always quick to
denounce any anti-French activities among Polish officers. Very good soldier. (The Director of Artillery
was a Frenchman, Colonel Pierre Bontemps. The Inspector of Artillery and Engineers was another
Frenchman, Jean Baptiste Pelletier.)
General Sokolnicki
Michal Sokolnicki (1760-1816) studied in military academies in Warsaw and Saxony. In 1809 he was one of
the most enterprising commanders in the Austro- Polish war. On battlefield he was a daring commander.
For example in 1800 at Offenbach he led four companies in a bayonet attack across a river. In 1809 at
Raszyn he gallantly defended his positions against superior enemy. He also defeated Austrians at
Grochw, Ostrwkiem, and at Sandomierz where he took the fortress.
In 1812 Sokolnicki was French army's intelligence chief.
He advised Napoleon to sent Polish troops not on Moscow but on Ukraine, where were
some chances for pro-Polish and anti-Russian rebellion. He also suggested not rushing on
Moscow but to advance at slower pace, set winter camps and continue the campaign in
the next year. He thought that having thousands of warm uniforms stored in depots even
before the campaign started was a must.
In 1813 Sokolnicki distinguished himself as cavalry commander at Leipzig where his
uhlans fought against vastly superior number of Austrian and Russian cuirassiers. It was a masterpiece of
cavalry combat where five regiments tamed nine. As a man he was a very ambitious officer, and an
opportunist suffering from self-importance.
"Sokolnicki was trained and capable. He was extraordinarily active, brave beyond words, had a
remarkable spirit when in the presence of danger and he seemed called to a higher destiny. His character
was cold and reserved, generally winning the esteem of those who surrounded him, causing some envy."
(Roman Soltyk - "Accounts of the operations of the Army under the orders of Prince Poniatowski during the 1809
campaign in Poland against the Austrians")
General Jan H. Dabrowski
A marching song mentioning his name along with that of Napoleon Bonaparte
- the "Dabrowski's Mazurek" of 1797 - in time became the Polish national anthem.
Dabrowski was born in Poland, and educated in Saxony. In 1769-1792 served in the
Saxon Guard Cavalry, in 1792 returned to Poland and served in the Polish army. In
1794 he joined Kosciuszko Insurection, and led his small corps into Great Poland to
hinder for 6 weeks the advance of 30,000 Prussians. In 1796 Dabrowski joined the
French army and was nominated general de division. In 1797 he became commander
of Polish forces in Italy, in 1807 - Inspector General of Cavalry of the Italian Republic.
In 1806 Dabrowski was recalled from the Italian service to organize the new Polish
army.
1806: commander of Posen Legion (Division)
1807: commander of 3rd (Legion) Division
1810: commander of II Military District
1812: commander of 17th Infantry Division
1813: commander of 27th Infantry Division
"A bear of a man, good natured and rather phlegmatic. A great patriot ... Contemporaries sometimes
criticized him for his too lenient attitude toward captured German officers ... An excellent organizer, a
well-educated and very capable officer, a brave soldier and caring leader of men. Military historians
sometimes blame him for abandoning the bridge at Borisov (1812), not remembering that he put up a
stubborn resistance, losing 1,800 of his 2,400 Poles."
.
1806-1808
The whole [Polish] army was learning and its excellent spirit,
liveliness and cheerful confidence bade well for the future."
- Officer Chlapowski
In the years 1805-1807 Napoleon defeated Austria, Prussia and Russia. Under the Treaty of Tilsit the
Duchy of Warsaw was established on part of the lands of Prussian-annexed Poland. It was placed under
the guardianship of the King of Saxony. The constitution given by Napoleon in July 1807 established the
Polish army at 30,000 men.
Already in November 1806 Napoleon directed General Dabrowski to form Polish troops. Dabrowski
issued a decree ordering the population to provide 1 infantry recruit from every 10 households, 1 cavalry
recruit from every 45 households and 1 chasseur (light infantry) recruit from every estate. In January 1807
the Polish army consisted of 20.500 recruits and 3.000 volunteers. The army was organized into three
legions (divisions).
In August Marshal Davout selected the best infantry regiment of every division and Napoleon took these
units to Spain. "Napoleon took this force into French service on much the same basis as the Hessians
served the British in the American Revolution." (Nafziger - "Poles and Saxons" p 12) The chosen troops
were: 4th, 7th and 9th Infantry Regiment, 140-men artillery company and 200- -man sapper company.
Several battalions were sent to Prussia. Due to such wide distribution of Polish troops the divisional
organization had become obsolete.
The Polish troops participated in the campaign of 1807.
On 27th January 1807 they fought at Tczew (Dirschau),
on 14th February they took Gniew (Mewe) and on the
20th captured Slupsk (Stolpen). On 23rd February they
took Tczew (Dirschau). There were also Polish troops
(infantry and cavalry) fighting at Friedland.
In March-May approx. 9.000 Polish troops participated in the
siege of Gdansk (Danzig). The Poles suffered 2.000 killed and
wounded. Some Polish troops also participated in the Battle of
Friedland.
In February 1808 the Polish Legion du Nord (Legion of the
North) was incorporated into the Polish army.
.
Polish Army in 1807:
Infantry Cavalry Artillery
1st Legion (Division)
- - - 1st Infantry Regiment
- - - 2nd Infantry Regiment
- - - 3rd Infantry Regiment
- - - 4th Infantry Regiment
2nd Legion (Division)
3rd Legion (Division)
Vistula Legion
- - - 1st Infantry Regiment of Vistula Legion
- - - 2nd Infantry Regiment of Vistula Legion
- - - 3rd Infantry Regiment of Vistula Legion
attached to 1st Division:
- - - 1st Cavalry Regiment
- - - 2nd Cavalry Regiment
attached to 2nd Division:
- - - 3rd Cavalry Regiment
- - - 4th Cavalry Regiment
attached to 3rd Division:
Uhlan Regiment of Vistula Legion
Chevaulegere Regiment
of the Imperial Guard
.
.
.
I Battalion of Foot Artillery
II Battalion of Foot Artillery
III Battalion of Foot Artillery
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Europe in 1807
.
1809 Campaign.
At Raszyn Poniatowski fought to a standstill
an Austrian force more than twice the size.
Then he turned the whole campaign into a
massive success.
Picture: Battle of
Raszyn 1809.
Prince Poniatowski
(in the center,
wearing red
breeches) with
bayonet in hand led
the Polish infantry
in a counter -attack.
The Austrians
(right) were routed.
This picture by W
Kossak is not authentic in its details (for example, there were no Austrian grenadiers at Raszyn) but is
evidence of the enduring interest in the military history of Poland.
In the campaign of 1809, the Duchy of Warsaw sustained the full weight of the Austrian attack. Austrian
corps under Archduke Ferdinand appeared on the Polish borders on April 14, 1809. Taken by surprise,
the Polish government ordered general mobilization. Headed by Poniatowski the few Polish troops
offered an valiant resistance during the Battle of Raszyn. Poniatowski fought to a standstill an Austrian
force more than twice the size. But it was necessary to abandon Warsaw and to withdraw to the right
bank of the Vistula.
All Austrian efforts to cross the Vistula River were in vain. While the Austrians were exhausting
themselves in their attempts to get at the right bank of the Vistula, Poniatowski crossed the Austrian
frontier to liberate Galicia. On May 14 the city of Lublin was taken and on the 18th the city of Sandomierz
with its only major Vistula bridge. On the 20th, in a night attack, the Zamosc fortress was captured
together with 2,000 prisoners and 40 cannons. These developments compelled the Austrians to withdraw
from Warsaw. Everywhere enthusiastically received by the Poles, Poniatowski was able to liberate large
areas of Galicia.
"For the first time since the partitions a Polish army had taken to the field under Polish command and had
succeeded in reuniting two important pieces of the shattered Polish lands. National sentiment revived.
Hopes were raised anew. Poles from Lithuania swam across the Niemen river to escape from Russia and
serve in the Duchy's army. Poles from the Prussian and Austrian partitions came over to swell the ranks:
and all were offereed citizenship in the Duchy's service." (- Norman Davies, p 302)
As a result of Polish offensive, and of the fact that Poniatowski had Polish administration and military
structure in place there for some time, making it difficult for Napoleon to compromise the Polish gains for
political expediency. Most of the liberated lands became incorporated into the Grand Duchy in October
1809.
After the victorious war against Austria and annexation of Galicia the Poles raised new regiments:
6 infantry and 10 cavalry (1 cuirassiers, 2 hussars and 7 uhlans). The army consisted of
- 18 line infantry regiments - 45.000 men (with depots)
- 14.500 men (with depots)
- artillery and sapers - 2.620 men (with depots)
- Vistula Legion and Guard Chevaulegeres - 7.000 men (with depots)
Some Polish regiments served in
France, Germany and Spain under
French and Polish generals. Fo
example the 4th, 7th and 9th
Infantry Regiment were in Spain.
The Guard Chevaulegere Regiment
was with Napoleon's Imperial
Guard. The 5th Infantry Regiment
was in the fortresses of
Czestochowa and Kostrin. The 11th
and 12th Infantry Regiment were in
Gdansk (Danzig).
The First Vistula Legion was in Spain.
The Second Vistula Legion never was able to form completely, so it was disbanded in 1810 and
incorporated into the First Legion as the 4th Infantry Regiment of Vistula Legion.
Polish Army in 1809:
Infantry Cavalry Artillery
1st Division - General Prince Poniatowski
- - - 1st Infantry Regiment
- - - 2nd Infantry Regiment
- - - 3rd Infantry Regiment
2nd Division - General Zajaczek
3rd Division - General Jan H. Dabrowski
First Vistula Legion
- - - 1st Infantry Regiment of Vistula Legion
- - - 2nd Infantry Regiment of Vistula Legion
- - - 3rd Infantry Regiment of Vistula Legion
Second Vistula Legion
Formed in the end of 1809
attached to 1st Division:
- - - 1st Chasseur-a-Cheval Regiment
- - - 2nd Uhlan Regiment
attached to 2nd Division:
- - - 3rd Uhlan Regiment
- - - 4th Chasseur-a-Cheval Regiment
attached to 3rd Division:
- - - 5th Chasseur-a-Cheval Regiment
- - - 6th Uhlan Regiment
Uhlan Regiment of Vistula Legion
Chevaulegere Regiment
of the Imperial Guard
formed in the end of 1809:
- - - 10th Hussar Regiment
- - - 14th Cuirassier Regiment
.
- - - I Battalion of Foot Artillery
- - - II Battalion of Foot Artillery
- - - III Battalion of Foot Artillery
- - - I Squadron of Horse Artillery .
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Zaragoza 1808 from the film Popioly ("Cenizas" / "Ashes")
Storming of the Spanish city by Polish and French infantry.
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1812 - Invasion of Russia. "The Second Polish War."
For the Poles alone, it was a war of liberation.
The Poles formed the largest of the contingents
provided by any of the states allied with France.
In early 1812 due to financial difficulties in the Grand Duchy, Napoleon took into French pay several
units: artillery companies in the fortresses of Gdansk (Danzig) and Kostrzyn (Kustrin), the 9th Uhlan
Regiment, 5th, 10th and 11th Infantry Regeiment. Napoleon approved Poniatowski's suggestion to add 2
light cannons to every Polish infantry regiment. The strength of companies in infantry and cavalry
regiments was increased. Before the campaign against Russia the army of the Grand Duchy consisted of
more than 75.000 men and 165 guns.
The year of 1812 saw the climacteric of the Napoleonic era. For the French it was just another campaign,
for the Russians it presented the supreme test for the integrity and durability of their mighty empire. For
the Poles alone, it was a war of liberation. One of the causes of the war of 1812 was the existence of the
Duchy.
In spite of Napoleon's continuous assurances that "the dangerous Polish dreams" as Alexander called
them, would never be permitted realization, the Russian monarch was forever restive. He demanded that
the word "Poles" be not used in public documents, that Polish orders be abolished and that the Polish
army be considered as a part of that of Saxony. Meanwhile, the "second Polish war," as Napoleon called
According to Adam Zamoyski Napoleon was determined to hold the possibility of the reunification of the
Kingdom of Poland as a carrot before the Poles, a semi-sincere promise to ensure loyalty. He avoided any
concessions toward Poland having in mind further negotations with Russia.
In June of 1812, Poniatowski together with 100,000 of his fellow Poles were part of Napoleon's expedition.
The Poles formed the largest of the contingents provided by any of the states allied with France. The
dispersion, however, of the Polish regiments among the various French corps was strongly resented.
In 1812 the Polish troops carried the fame of Polish heroism along the same roads which two and three
centuries before, in the times of King Stefan Batory and King Wladyslav IV saw the Polish banners of the
White Eagle in a triumphant march to Moscow. The memories of Hetman Zolkiewski and Gosiewski came
back. At Czerepowo General Rozniecki "orders the Polish troops to halt, forms up in square and reminds
us that we're standing at the limit of the Jagellons' and Batory's one-time empire. After painting for us the
heroic aspects of our nation's glorious past he invites all present to dismount and pick up a little dust so
as to be able to remind our descendants of this glorious event which has brought us back to Poland's
former linits." (Britten-Austin - "1812 The March on Moscow" p 234)
The Poles foght
with a great zeal
at Smolensk (see
picture) ,
Borodino,
Beresina, Polotzk,
Krasne and
Borisov. Britten-
Austin writes:
"Some units,
perhaps many, are
mortified to find their exploits have escaped official notice. To his left had seen the 7th Hussars make a
brilliant charge against Russian ainfantry and cavalry, and only lose a few men in so doing. 'A short way
away to our left,' writes Dupuy 'the 9th Polish Lancers [Uhlans ?] pierced a square of Muscovite chasseurs
and wiped it out.' To Thirion it had seemed 'these men [Poles] had become fighting mad. How many
didn't I see who, with arm or leg bandaged, returned to the scrum at a flat-out gallop, forcefully eluding
those of their comrades who tried to hold them back." (Britten-Austin - "1812 The March on Moscow" p 136)
The initial period of the offensive however was wasted. Poniatowski was placed under the direction of
Napoleon's incompetent brother Jerome, who criticized by Napoleon eventually left, but for Poniatowski,
then put in charge of Grande Armee's right wing, it was too late to make up for the lost opportunities.
Later on St. Helena, the dethroned emperor reflected back on the 1812 war with Russia and expressed his
belief,that if he had given Poniatowski Jerome's right wing command from the beginning, Bagration's
army would have been destroyed early, and the campaign would have followed a different course.
The campaign of 1812 ended in a disaster. In the
very end of 1812 the Polish forces consisted of
less than 10.000 men. The splendid Vistula
Legion had only 500 survivors. William Napier
writes: "Napoleon, unconquered of man, had
been vanquished by the elements. The fires and
the snows of Moscow combined had shattered
his strength, and in confessed madness nations
and rulers rejoiced that an enterprise, at once
the grandest and most provident, the most
beneficial ever attempted by a warrior-
statement, had been foiled - they rejoiced that
Napoleon had failed to reestablish unhappy
Poland as a barrier against the most formidable
and brutal, the most swinish tyranny that has ever menaced and disgraced European civilization." (Napier
- Vol IV, p 167)
Not only the Polish troops suffered during the campaign, the populace fared not better. "Against the
promised reconstruction of their state, most Poles went to extraordinary lengths to accommodate the
Grand Army passing through their territories. ... the march into and out of Russia cleaned the house, only
the fittest survived. Thus, the decimated remnants [of the Grand Army], particularly those of the Polish
cavalry, who were familiar with the country, climate, and language, became the safe-conduct of what was
left of the main army group. They served with distinction at Smolensk and Borodino and played a major
role in making the crossing of the Beresina possible." (Riehn - "1812: Napoleon's Russian Campaign" pp 70-
71)
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Order of Battle of Polish troops in August 1812 in Russia.
Polish army in 1812 consisted of 22 infantry and 20 cavalry regiments.
There were also the Vistula Legion and the Guard Lighthorse-Lancers.
Main Polish Force
V Army Corps (16th, 17th, 18th Infantry Division
Light Cavalry Division, Reserve Artillery)
Other Polish Units
V Army Corps
Commander: GdD Prince Jozef Poniatowski
Chief-of-Staff: GdD Fiszer
Chief-of-Artillery: GdB Pelletier [Frenchman]
16th Infantry Division - GdD Zajaczek
Infantry Brigade - GdB Mielzynski
. . . 3rd Infantry Regiment (2.621 men, 2 3pdr cannons)
. . . 15th Infantry Regiment (2.675 men, 2 3pdr cannons)
Infantry Brigade - GdB Paszkowski
. . . 16th Infantry Regiment (2.679 men,2 3pdr cannons)
Artillery - Chef ?
. . . III Foot Battery (144 men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers)
. . . XII Foot Battery (159 men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers)
in the Imperial Guard:
. . . Guard Lancer Regiment - GdB Konopka
in the Vistula Legion under GdD Claparede
1st Infantry Brigade - GdB Chlopicki
. . . 1st Infantry Regiment of Vistula Legion
. . . 2nd Infantry Regiment of Vistula Legion
2nd Infantry Brigade - GdB Bronikowski
. . . 3rd Infantry Regiment of Vistula Legion
. . . 4th Infantry Regiment of Vistula Legion
Artillery .
. . . Sapper Company (72 men)
17th Infantry Division - GdD Dabrowski
Infantry Brigade - GdB Zoltowski
. . . 1st Infantry Regiment (2.396 men, 2 3pdr cannons)
Infantry Brigade - GdB Krasinski
Artillery - Chef Gugenmus
. . . X Foot Battery (167 men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers)
. . . XI Foot Battery (175 men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers)
18th Infantry Division - GdD Kniaziewicz
Infantry Brigade - GdB Grabowski
. . . 2nd Infantry Regiment (2.420 men, 2 3pdr cannons)
Infantry Brigade - GdB Pakosz
. . . This infantry regiment was detached
Artillery - Chef ?
. . . IV Foot Battery (163 men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers)
. . . V Foot Battery (153 men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers)
Light Cavalry Division - GdD Kaminski
Sebastiani,Lefebvre-Desnouettes
18th Light Cavalry Brigade - GdB ?
. . . 4th Chasseur-a-Cheval Regiment (786 men)
. . . 1st Chasseur-a-Cheval Regiment (652 men)
. . . 12th Uhlan Regiment (497 men)
. . . 5th Chasseur-a-Cheval Regiment (791 men)
. . . 13th Hussar Regiment (755 men)
Corps Reserve Artillery - Col. Gorski
. . . II Horse Battery (152 men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers)
. . . XIV Foot Battery (158 men, 6 12pdr cannons)
. . . Pontoneers (121 men, bridging equipment)
General Artillery Park
. . . VII Foot Battery (169 men, no guns)
. . . VIII Foot Battery (81 men, no guns)
. . . IX Foot Battery (86 men, no guns)
. . . XIII Foot Battery (75 men, no guns)
. . . XV Foot Battery (89 men, no guns)
. . . Foot Battery (4 cannons and 2 howitzers)
. . . Foot Battery (4 cannons and 2 howitzers)
in 28th Infantry Division under GdD Girard
Infantry Brigade -
. . . 2nd Infantry Regiment (1.331 men, 2 3pdr cannons)
. . . 7th Infantry Regiment (967 men, 2 3pdr cannons)
Artillery
. . . I Foot Battery (67 men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers)
. . . II Foot Battery (?? men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers)
in 4th Light Cavalry Division under GdD Rozniecki
28th Light Cavalry Brigade - GdB Dziewanowski
. . . 2nd Uhlan Regiment (596 men)
29th Light Cavalry Brigade - GdB Turno
. . . 3rd Uhlan Regiment (658 men)
in 7th Heavy Cavalry Division under GdD Lorge
. . . 14th Cuirassier Regiment (300 men ?)
Artillery of IV Cavalry Corps
. . . III Horse Battery (168 men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers)
. . . IV Horse Battery (167 men, 4 6pdr cannons, 2 howitzers)
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Polish troops at the Battle of Viazma (Vyazma) 1812
At Viazma, approx. 25,000 Russians defeated 35,000 French, Poles and Italians.
Kutuzov was unable to hold back his troops in their anxiety to catch up with the
fleeing French. Davout's highly trained I Army Corps was cut off from Napoleon's
army. Eugene's and Ney's corps and Poniatowski's Poles turned back to free Davout.
The fighting was hard. The French at the cost of many killed, wounded and prisoners
managed to break through. Davout's corps was rescued although was in total disarray.
Retreat from Russia in 1812.
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1813 - Campaign in Germany
Though the ranks of Poniatowski's troops were thinned,
their determination was strong.
The Russian armies crossed the Vistula River at several points. Warsaw
and other Polish cities fell to them. Poniatowski began withdrawing across
Poland "as Schwarzenberg's perfidious maneuvers exposed him to the
approaching Russians. His 8.000 army was joined by about 6.000 light
cavalry..." (Nafziger and Wesolowski - "Poles and Saxons of the Napoleonic
Wars" p 22)
Poniatowski's V Army Corps, or rather what was left from this splendid
formation, moved to Krakow. Poniatowski reorganized his troops and
raised them to the strength of 12,000 men.
Roman Soltyk writes, "The Tzar presented himself as a liberator to the
people and his representation made great progress in Germany. However,
the spirit of the Poles remained unsettled. Tzar Alexander sought to
neutralize the ill perception the Polish people had of him and, while Poniatoiwski and the supreme Polish
government found itself in Krakow, Alexander called Prince Antoni Radziwill, on the pretext of family
affairs, to move to Krakow and attempt to subvert the fidelity of the Poles.
He was to propose that the Duchy of Warsaw assume a neutral stance for the duration of the war and
that Poniatowski unite all the Polish troops in Zamosc fortress to await events. Radziwill's mission was a
thorny affair. He feared the surveillance of the Minister of France, Bignon, who watched his movements.
Poniatowski's faithfulness was well known. Radziwill made no attempt to approach the Prince directly.
However, he sounded the attitudes of several members of the Polish government, emboldened them bit
by bit, communicated his propositions to people that he thought the least likely to be repelled by his
proposals to abandon their alliance with France and had decided to approach Poniatowski about
accepting proposals that would allow Poland an independent political existence.
The Prince was torn between his military duty and the apparent interests of his country, which seemed to
exist in a new alliance. However, he then realized that Poland could not await the regeneration of the
same powers that had divided it and then become their tributary. He put his entire confidence in the
fortunes of Napoleon and remained unshakable." (- Roman Soltyk)
"The last act of independent will was carried out in the Duchy's behalf by Jozef Poniatowski. Refusing
offers of clemency from the Russians, he determined to fight to the last at Napoleon's side. He gathered
the reserves of his army together and retreated into Germany." (- Davies, Vol II, p 304)
The Tzar and the King of Prussia met at Kalisz and concluded an alliance against Napoleon. The Russian
and Prussian armies crossed the Odra River, while the French evacuated Berlin. Meanwhile Napoleon had
occupied himself with great activity in the reorganization of a new army, which he then led into Germany.
Napoleon had ordered Poniatowski to move into Saxony via Moravia and Bohemia. Poniatowski's force
consisted of 12,000 men organized in 6 infantry and 8 cavalry regiments. The Polish cavalry was well
mounted and very useful to the French army, which was, overall, lacking in this arm.
In July Polish infantry and artillery had allowance for exercises in life fire training and shooting
competitions. According to Mariusz Lukasiewicz's "Armia Ksiecia Jozefa" (p 215) the best shooters were
awarded with 20 francs each.
Captain Baka worked very hard to train the hundreds of young recruits in the Krakusi Regiment. It was a
new unit and mounted on small horses. Fighting the feared Cossacks became Krakusi's specialty.
Napoleon called them "Pygmy cavalry", others called them "Polish Cossacks" this is because of their
horsemanship and tactics. The Krakusi had simpler maneuvers and orders but all movements had to be
done in great speed. It was probably the only one regiment in entire Napoleonic army which captured
Cossack Color. The Empreror expressed his wish to have 3.000 of such warriors.
Near Zittau in Saxony Prince Poniatowski ordered intensive and large scale "war games" for his troops.
The quarters were excellent and the food was pretty good. Many soldiers received new uniforms, shoes,
shirts, and headwears. Morale of the troops was very high despite of lack of weapons. According to
General Sokolnicki only 20 % of men in IV Cavalry Corps had carbines. The average cavalryman was
armed with lance, saber and one pistol.
In May 1813 Napoleon formed so-called Grenadier Corps, which became part of the French Guard. It
consisted of three battalions (each of 4 companies); the 1st Battalion of Poles, 2nd of Saxons and 3rd of
Westphalians. It was Napoleon's attempt to establish closer ties to the Poles and Germans. The grenadiers
were selected by Prince Poniatowski from the infantry of VIII Army Corps. They were brave men, at least
23-years old and with 2 years' service.
Napoleon, having his army
at hand, defeated the
Prussians and Russians at
Lutzen (2 May) and Bautzen
(20-21 May). From the start
things were difficult for the
French with Marshal
Oudinot losing the battle of
Grossbeeren. Napoleon then
evened the campaign by
routing Schwarzenberg at
Dresden, but then followed
a series of disastrous
reverses. At Kulm a French
corps under General
Vandamme was destroyed,
Marshal Macdonald was
defeated by Blucher at
Katzbach and, at
Dennewitz, Bernadotte and
Bulow defeated Marshal
Ney. The deliberate
campaign to avoid battle
with the emperor and try to
defeat his subordinates had
worked well for the Allies.
Napoleon's fate was sealed
during the three-day battle
for Leipzig, the biggest
clash of the Napoleonic
Wars, although the sheer
bravery of his troops
allowed the French army to
extricate itself from
complete destruction.
It was a bloody and exhausting campaign. Majority of Polish soldiers were either killed, wounded or
taken prisoner, others wandered back to Poland. Only few followed the French. Napoleon still had plenty
of French infantry and artillery, his weakness however was cavalry. For this reason he entertained
thoughts of completely disbanding Polish infantry and organizing four uhlan and two Polish-Cossack
regiments.
.
Order of Battle of Polish troops in October 1813 in Saxony.
(There were also the Guard Lancers in the Imperial Guard)
VIII ARMY CORPS
(Advance Guard
26th and 27th Infantry Division
Reserve Artillery)
IV CAVALRY CORPS
(7th and 8th Light Cavalry Division
Reserve Artillery)
VIII Army Corps
Commander: Marshal Prince Poniatowski
Chief-of-Staff: GdD Rozniecki
Chief-of-Artillery: Col. Redel
Chief-of-Engineers: Col. Mallet [Frenchman]
Advance Guard - GdB Uminski
. . . Krakus Cavalry Regiment (4 sq.)
. . . 14th Cuirassier Regiment (1-2 sq., no armor)
26th Infantry Division - GdD Kamieniecki
1st Infantry Brigade - GdB Sierawski
. . . Vistula Legion Infantry Regiment
IV Cavalry Corps
Commander: GdD Sokolnicki
Chief-of-Staff: GdB de Tancarville [Frenchman]
7th Light Cavalry Division -
17th Light Cavalry Brigade - GdB Tolinski
. . . 1st Chasseur-a-Cheval Regiment
. . . 3rd Uhlan Regiment
18th Light Cavalry Brigade - GdB Krukowiecki
. . . 2nd Uhlan Regiment
. . . 4th Uhlan Regiment
Divisional Artillery - Capitaine Schwerin
. . . 1st Infantry Regiment
. . . 16th Infantry Regiment
2nd Infantry Brigade - GdB Malachowski
Artillery - Cpt. Orlinski.
. . . Foot Battery (4 6pdr cannons, 2 5.5" howitzers)
1st Infantry Brigade - GdB Zoltowski
. . . 2nd Infantry Regiment
2nd Infantry Brigade - GdB Grabowski
Artillery -
. . . Horse Battery (4 6pdr cannons, 2 5.5" howitzers)
Reserve Artillery - Col. Bontemps
. . . Foot Battery
. . . Foot Battery
. . . Sapper Company
8th Light Cavalry Division - GdD Sulkowski
19th Light Cavalry Brigade - GdB Turno
20th Light Cavalry Brigade - GdB Weyssenhoff
. . . 13th Hussar Regiment
Divisional Artillery - Cpt. Masson
Reserve Artillery:
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1814 - Campaign in France.
When informed of the French surrender
the Vistula Regiment nearly mutined.
In December 1813 Napoleon formed so-called Polish Corps,
it consisted of the following troops (strength on 1st January 1814):
- Krakusi Regiment
- 1st Uhlan Regiment (530 men + 399 horses)
- 2nd Uhlan Regiment (530 men + 336 horses)
- Vistula Infantry Regiment (854 men in 2 battalions)
- four companies of foot artillery (520 men)
- company of horse artillery (125 men + 47 horses)
- sapper company (68 men)
There were also other Polish troops in France:
- 4th, 8th and 16th Uhlan Regiment
- 1st Chasseur-a-Cheval Regiment
- 13th Hussar Regiment
- 3rd Guard Eclaireur Regiment
- 1st Guard Lighthorse-Lancer Regiment
The last stand of Polish troops in French service took place in March
1814 at Soissons. Soissons was defended by a very weak garrison: 792
men of Vistula infantry, 80 eclaireurs, 20 French guns and 300 French
municipal guardsmen. The overall command was in the hands of GdB
Moreau. Napoleon ordered him to hold his position at all costs. On 1st
March numerous Prussian and Russian troops arrived before
Soissons. The next day they bombarded the town and stormed the
ramparts. Approx. 300 men of Vistula Regiment "attacked them with
such impetus that they were pushed out of the suburb, far into the
surrounding fields." (Nafziger - "Poles and Saxons of the Napoleonic
Wars" p 129)
In the evening an emissary arrived with a call to surrender. During a
war council Moreau and the commander of Vistula Regiment voted
categorically against capitulation. Soon another emissary arrived with
stronger worded ultimatum threatening to put the garrison to the
sword and sack the town. Moreau agreed to capitulate.
When informed of this the Vistula Regiment nearly mutined. The
Allies were in such a hurry that at 3 pm two battalions entered the
town and found themselves facing the angry Vistula Regiment. The
commander of the Poles told the allies general to leave for another hour or he would start shooting ! The
Allies general quickly agreed. At 4 pm the garrison departed Soissons with its weapons, receiving military
honors. Allies generals asked Moreau why he didn't order his division to march after the vanguard,
Moreau replied that this was his entire force. The Vistula Regiment was awarded by Napoleon with 23
crosses of Legion d'Honneur for its actions at Soissons.
In 1814 when majority of the French abandoned Napoleon and gave up fighting, "General Krasinski who
commanded the Polish Guard lancers ... came forward with his officers. As he took his leave of the
Emperor he uttered these words, which do the greatest credit to his nation: Sire, if you had mounted the
throne of Poland, you would have been killed upon it; but the Poles would have died at your feet to a
man." (- Charles Parquin, French officer).
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Sources and Links.
Kukiel - "Wojny Napoleonskie"
Bielecki - "Grand Army" 1995
Davies - "God's Playground. A History of Poland." Vol II, 1982
Lukasiewicz - "Armia Ksiecia Jozefa 1813" MON, 1986
Salter and McLachlan - "Poland the Rough Guide."
Kukiel - "Wojna 1812", tom 1-2, Krakw 1937
Kukiel - "Dzieje Oreza Polskiego w Epoce Napoleonskiej, 1795-1815" 1912
Gembarzewski - "Wojsko Polskie. Ksiestwo Warszawskie 1807-1814" 1912
Gembarzewski - "Rodowody pulkw i oddzialw rwnorzednych" 1925
Hussaria: Polish Winged Cavalry - Tactics, Diversity of Enemies, Mobility.
The ultimate weapon of the Winged Knights was psychological...
The Winged Husaria: a model for competitive success.
Polish Renaissance Warfare.
Husaria. (in English)
Polish infantry, cavalry and artillery
(uniforms, weapons, tactics, battle record, best regiments)
Napoleon, His Army and Enemies.
Polish Infantry Cavalry Artillery : Polnische Infanterie Kavallerie Artillerie : Polska Kawaleria Piechota Artyleria
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/polish_army_2.htm[2012-05-21 12:39:30]
Polish Infantry, Cavalry, and Artillery
of the Napoleonic Wars.
Napoleonic French Marshal "Louis Davout [The Iron Marshal]
supervised the creation of the Polish army."
- John Elting
The Polish regiments were organized after the French model
and used much of its terminology. Officer Chlapowski wrote:
"The whole [Polish] army was learning and its excellent spirit,
liveliness and cheerful confidence bade well for the future."
"... from the heights of the Peninsula to the depths of Russia,
Polish valour went on parade as never before
since the days of King Jan Sobieski."
- Norman Davies
Infantry
Food and Pay
Organization
Weapons
Uniforms
Lithuanian Chasseurs
Artillery
Organization
Uniforms
Cavalry : "They had a good
soldierly appearance."
Organization
Weapons
Horses
Krakusi
The best regiments.
Uniforms
Photo: Polish regimental eagles, by Nikolai Mozak.
Polish Army Museum in Warsaw
.
Polish Infantry.
"The Poles had no light infantry, but Lejeune noted that their
line infantry maneuvered much more swiftly than the French"
(John Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" p 405)
Infantry are soldiers who are trained for the role of
fighting on foot. In all the long history of war on land
the front-line fighting man, whose role is to close
with the enemy and force him to flee, surrender, or
be killedthe only method by which battles are ever
wonhas three categories only - the artillery, those
who fight mounted, the cavalry, and those who fight
on their feetthe inevitable, enduring, despised,
long-suffering infantry.
Most battles and all wars are won in the end by the
infantryman. The infantryman always bears the
brunt. His casualties are heavier, he suffers greater
extremes of discomfort and fatigue than the other
arms. In peace or war receives the lowest rates of
pay, the drabbest uniforms, sometimes even the least
promising of recruits; most important of all, it ranks
lowest in the public estimation and prestige.
According to French officer and participant of
Napoleonic campaigns, Louis Franois Baron Lejeune
(1775- 1848), Polish infantry maneuvered more
swiftly than the French infantry. Only in 1802-1805
the French had enough time to train and drill their infantry. After that there was campaigning almost
non-stop. Their infantrymen were trained for few weeks or several days before they were rushed to
the front. Although the French infantrymen were excellent fighters and one of the most successful,
they lacked in drill, discipline and musket practice. After the the loss of half million of veterans
during the disastrous Russian campaign in 1812 the French infantry of 1813 and 1814 became inferior
to the Polish infantry in many aspects. (Of course with the exception of the infantry of the Imperial
Guard).
Below is a comparison list showing average officer casualties
per battalion suffered at the Battle of Leipzig. The more
battalion or regiment was involved in fighting the heavier
were their casualties.
1. French 1st,2nd,4th Marine Infantry Reg. . . . . . . . . . . . . -
10.5*
2. French II Corps (Victor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
- 8.8
3. Polish Vistula Regiment .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
8.5
4. French III Corps (Souham) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
8
5. Polish (Independent) 27th Division (Dabrowski) . . . . - 7.8
6. Polish VIII Corps (Poniatowski) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
7.0**
7. French V Corps (Lauriston) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
6.5
8. French IX Corps (Augereau) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
6.4
9. Germans [6th Div., Wirtembergians and Westphalians] - 6.2
10. Germans [Wurzburg Line Reg. in 32nd Division] - 4
11. Germans [Westphalian 8th Line Reg., and Light Btn.] - 3.6
12. Italians [3rd Light, 5th Line Reg.] - 1.5
13. Italians [Milan Guard, 1st, 2nd Light, 5th Line Reg.] -1.3
14. Germans [Saxons in 24th Division, von Zeschau] - 1.3
15. Germans [Baden 1st,3rd Line Reg.] - 0.3
16. Germans [1st, 2nd Btn. Erfurt in Lefol's Division] - 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* - According to Marshal Marmont they had "exceptional attitude."
** - Poniatowski's infantry fought until they exhausted their ammunition.
The entire VIII Corps ceased to exist and its commander was killed.
Below is rating of napoleonic troops fighting
at Leipzig in 1813 (vs Blucher and Langeron).
Source: "Napoleon's Grande Armee of 1813"
- Elites: French horse artillery, French marine infantry, Polish infantry
- Crack Troops: French foot artillery, Polish foot artillery
- Veterans: minority of the French infantry
- Conscripts: majority of the French infantry
- Militia: all French provisional infantry
There were some differences between the
French and Polish infantry. The French were
known for their offensive spirit. Paddy Griffith
wrote "The attack was the natural way for
Frenchmen to fight. British beef and German
sausage might create specialists in the art of
standing still under fire but the mercurial
Frenchman could not be so inhibited."
In contrast the Polish infantry was very
effective in defensive actions (for example at
Raszyn in 1809 against the more numerous
Austrians, or at Soissons in 1814 against the
Prussians and Russians, or the defense of the
vilages of Markleeberg, Wiederitzsch, and
Dolitz in the battle of and Leipzig in 1813, or
the aggresive defense of Fuengirola against the
British infantry.) The Poles were also pretty
good in the vicious urban combat (Smolensk
1812, Leipizig 1813) and sieges (Saragossa,
Spain).
The French infantry were experts in using their
infantry in heavy, multi- battalion columns. The Poles avoided such heavy formations all together.
When under heavy artillery fire some Polish units sat down to lessen their casualties (Borodino,
Leipzig). Small depressions or folds in the ground, woods and gardens, gave some cover too.
The French and Poles however both used large number of skirmishers. For example at Borodino the
Polish 16th Division fought in the wooded area near Utitza having 2/3 of its strength fully in
skirmish order. In Shevardino, approx. 15 companies of (Polish) voltigeurs pushed back the 50th Jager
Regiment. The Russians were in skirmish order and suffered heavy casualties. At Lepzig in 1813,
Poniatowski deployed 6 battalions into a thick skirmish line.
Of course this is only my generalisation
(and probably not the best one) about the
French and Polish infantry. There were
many cases of French infantry tenaciously
defendind villages and towns, or the Polish
infantry charging with cold steel.
Picture: Polish infantry in bayonet charge
during the winter campaign in Russia in
1812.
For more info read our articles:
"French Infantry."
Even with Napoleon's defeat a Polish state continued in some form. The congress of Vienna in 1815,
summoned by the four powers who have done most to defeat Napoleon (Russia, Prussia, Austria and
Britain), was an attempt to stabilize the map of Europe after the upheavals caused by more than
twenty years of war. Thus the Kingdom of Poland was created out of the Duchy of Warsaw. Grand
Duke Constantine, Tzar's brother, became the commander of the Polish army. Polish infantry lost its
napoleonic character and became quite similar to the Russian infantry. It however fought very hard
and very well during the November Uprising in 1831 against Russia.
.
Polish infantry in combat, by Giuseppe Rava, Italy.
"Honour should be given to whomsoever earns it,
even if it is the enemy, and in this case I must admit
that the Poles repeatedly beat off the Russian assaults
even though heavily outnumbered."
- Graf Henkel von Donnersmark, Leipzig 1813
.
Food and Pay.
The Polish infantry regiment was commanded by colonel, with each battalion commanded by chef.
The company was commanded by captain. The pay, yearly, was as follow:
Colonel - 9417 zloty
Major - 7397 zloty
Chef - 6399 zloty
Surgeon - 4002 zloty
Quartermaster - 3650 zloty
Paymaster - 3467 zloty
Adjutant-Major - 3467 zloty
Captain (I Class) - 3650 zloty
Captain (II Class) - 3467 zloty
Captain (III Class) - 3285 zloty
Lieutenant (I Class) - 2068 zloty
Lieutenant (II Class) - 1825 zloty
Lieutenant (III Class) - 1654 zloty
Sergeant Major - 430 zloty (450 in grenadier and voltigeur company)
Sergeant - 389 zloty (401 in grenadier and voltigeur company)
Fourier - 389 zloty (401 in grenadier and voltigeur company)
Corporal - 304 zloty (316 in grenadier and voltigeur company)
Company Drummer - 194 zloty (206 in grenadier and voltigeur company)
Private - 182 zloty (194 in grenadier and voltigeur company)
PS. There were also surgeons of II, III Class, Musicians, Kapelan, and Adj-Mjr in the rank of NCO.
The pay for Regimental Drummer was 389 zloty and for Battalion Drummer - 304 zloty
The food the privates and NCOs received during the Napoleonic
Wars was not very fancy. Choices of what to give the troops was
limited as they did not have the conveniences to preserve food like we
have today. They did not understand proper nutrition so often there
was a lack of certain foods necessary for good health. The Polish
infantryman was relatively well uniformed and fed. In 1807 his daily
diet consisted of 1 3/4 funt of bread, 1/2 funt of meat, 1/2 funt of
vegetables, salt, vodka (1/10 l). His equipment cost 193 zloty. It
included 2 shirts, shoes, headwear, etc.
.
Organization of Polish Infantry.
"The Polish troops were organized
after the French model .." - Chlapowski
Already long before the Napoleonic Wars the infantry has become a minority in armies of Europe
constituting typically between 10% and 30% of an army's personnel. Poland was the only country in
Europe which in some point had an army with almost equal number of cavalry and infantry
regiments. Twelve regiments of infantry were formed between 1806 and 1807. Regiment had 2
battalions of 9 companies of 95 men each. In March 1809 the organisation of infantry regiment was
changed to 3 battalions of 6 companies of 140 men each.
January 1809:
- 1st Infantry Regiment (1.707 men) - Colonel Malachowski
- 2nd Infantry Regiment (1.707 men) - Colonel S. Potocki
- 3rd Infantry Regiment (1.707 men) - Colonel Zoltowski
- 4th Infantry Regiment (1.808 men) - Colonel F. Potocki
- 5th Infantry Regiment (1.933 men) - Colonel Prince Radziwill, see picture ->
- 6th Infantry Regiment (1.635 men) - Colonel Sierawski
- 7th Infantry Regiment (1.817 men) - Colonel Sobolewski
- 8th Infantry Regiment (1.539 men) - Colonel Godebski
- 9th Infantry Regiment (1.945 men) - Colonel Prince Sulkowski
- 10th Infantry Regiment (???? men) - Colonel Downarowicz
- 11th Infantry Regiment (???? men) - Colonel Mielzynski
- 12th Infantry Reegiment (1.178 men) - Colonel Weysenhoff
French Marshal Davout reviewed the infantry and selected three of the best regiments (4th, 7th and
9th) and sent them to Spain. In 1809 the three units had raised their company strength to 140 men but
retained the old organization (2 battalions x 9 companies) until May 1812. The three regiments joined
the Vistula Legion already in Spain. The Vistula Legion, along with several other units, was the creme
de la creme of Polish infantry. In 1808 Napoleon stated to Davout that the units of Vistula Legion were
to be treated on a par with French line regiments. The French nationals were not permitted to serve in
these units except as the paymasters or fouriers (company clerks.)
The Vistula Legion was under General de Brigade Grabinski:
- 1st Infantry Regiment of Vistula Legion - Colonel Chlopicki
- 2nd Infantry Regiment of Vistula Legion - Colonel Bialowiejski
- 3rd Infantry Regiment of Vistula Legion - Colonel Swiderski
- 4th Infantry Regiment of Vistula Legion -
The 4th was formed of Austrian prisoners and had not enjoyed a
good reputation among the senior regiments. The uhlan regiment
was independent and served along French cavalry regiments and
under French generals.
In the end of 1809 new infantry regiments were raised:
two in the Grand Duchy (14th and 15th) and four
in the liberated Galicia (13th, 16th, 17th and 18th):
- 13th Infantry Regiment (3.435 men) - Colonel Szneyder
- 14th Infantry Regiment (2.852 men) - Colonel Siemianowski
- 15th Infantry Regiment (3.422 men) - Colonel Miaskowski
- 16th Infantry Regiment (2.338 men) - Colonel Keszycki
- 17th Infantry Regiment (2.561 men) - Colonel K. Czartoryski
- 18th Infantry Regiment (1.985 men) - Colonel Hornowski
In 1811 each infantry regiment received 2 light cannons and raised a depot battalion of 4 companies.
Due to financial difficulties Napoleon took into French pay the 5th, 10th and 11th Infantry Regiment.
Each company had 136 men but the convention between France and Poland signed in February 1812
added 20 men. The increase was paid by France.
When in 1812 Napoleon liberated Lithuania,
which had been part of Poland, several
new regiments of infantry were organized:
- 19th Infantry Regiment (929 men) - Colonel Tuzenhauz
- 20th Infantry Regiment (1.014 men) - Colonel Biszping
- 21st Infantry Regiment (1.197 men) - Colonel Przezdziecki
- 22nd Infantry Regiment (1.133 men) - Colonel Czapski
In April 1812 Napoleon attached the Vistula Legion (four regiments of 2 btns each) to the Young
Guard. In May third battalions were formed, but they were not to form elite companies as they were
too young. The third battalions followed the army and joined the parent regiments already during
the retreat in the beginning of November. All four regiments of Vistula Legion fought long and hard.
Out of 7.000 men only 500 returned. In June 1813 Napoleon took all the remaining legionnaires and
organized one regiment of Vistula under Colonel Kosinski. In 1813 this unit fought at Leipzig, Hanau,
Soissons, Rheims and Arcis-sur-Aube where Napoleon sought shelter in one of its battalions. These
lads were awarded with tens of crosses of Legion d'Honneur.
In March 1815 Napoleon directed that 1 battalion of Polish infantry begin forming in Rheims. The 590
men under Chef d'Bataillon Golaszewski were sent to Sedan where was depot of the disbanded
Vistula Legion. Napoleon expected that second battalion will be raised from prisoners he expected to
capture. On June 15th the Polish regiment had only 505 men.

Polish infantry at Leipzig.
Source: Bowden - "Napoleon's Grande Armee's of 1813."
"... Dabrowski's Poles constituted the last
formed body of French troops" at Leipzig.
Digby-Smith, - "1813: Leipzig ..." p 268
.
Weapons of Polish Infantry.
The Polish infantry was armed with
Prussian, Austrian, Russian,
Italian and French muskets.
The Polish infantry was armed with muskets and bayonets. In the beginning there were many
Prussian muskets (reworked 1782 Model). Chlapowski wrote, "We received our muskets very
quickly. They were of recent manufacture, taken from the Berlin arsenal from which the Prussians
had not managed to evacuate them.
The bayonets were much too long for them, so later we exchanged these for French ones. We had
been drilling without weapons, but as soon as our muskets arrived, the recruits learned more easily
how to march and trim their lines. ... We had a cheerful existence in Gniezno; drill all morning and
French lessons after lunch." (Chlapowski/Simmons - p 14)
From the letter sent by Marshal Berthier, Napoleon's chief-of-staff, to Prince Poniatowski, the
commander-in-chief pf the Polish army: " I am informing you that the Emperor has given the order
that 10,000 infantry muskets be sent to you from the arsenal at Magdeburg via Dresden today. His
Majesty has ordered that 7,000 that are in Danzig should be sent to you, as well as 3,000 from Stettin,
which will provide you with 20,000. You shall find attached a duplicate of the order for the 10,000
muskets that are at your disposition."
In 1809 appeared several thousands of Austrian muskets (1774 and 1784 Models). There were also
Italian muskets made in Verona. In 1809 Napoleon sent to Poland "at Poniatowski's request, 20,000
muskets drawn from arsenals in Prussia." (- Roman Soltyk)
Photo: Polish fusilier with a musket.
Source: poniatowski.org
Before the invasion of Russia in 1812, Napoleon provided 40.000 French muskets
(1777, 1793 and 1800/1801 Models). The 2nd and 8th Infantry Regiments were
almost entirely armed with the French famous musket Model 1777 AN IX. The
'Charleville' musket (fusil d'infanterie) model 1777 (AN IX) had overall length 151.5
cm, (barrel length 114 cm), and triangular bayonet 45.6 cm long. Some of the
elements of the 1777 model were the finger ridges on the trigger guard, the brass
frizzen, and the cheek piece carved in the stock's butt with a straighten frizzen
cover and slightly different front band. In the end of 1812 and beginning of 1813
Russian muskets (1808 Model and older) were also used.
.
Uniforms of Polish Infantry.
In the beginning, due to problems with supplies
part of the Polish infantry wore modified captured
uniforms, mainly Prussian and some Austrian.
In 1806-1807, due to problems with supplies part of the Polish infantry wore modified captured
uniforms, Prussian and some Austrian. Some wore modified civilian clothes. Gradually, majority of
the infantrymen replaced their old uniforms with new ones. The 4th, 7th and 9th Infantry Regiment
went to Spain and were issued some French uniform articles. In 1810 the infantry were authorized a
new uniform: dark blue coat with white lapels.
In 1812-1813 some infantrymen received French shakos with tri-color cockade.
In 1813 "After the battle of Dresden 3,000 Austrian deserters of Polish nationality were taken prisoner
into the [Poniatowski's VIII] corps; 30 to each company. Many of them continued to wear their old
[Austrian white] uniforms." (Digby-Smith, - p 316)
The Polish infantry wore dark blue trousers (of warm wool) in winter, and white trousers (of cloth) in
summer. The Polish shako was black, top-square, and was called chapka. The czapka was with yellow
top band. The coat/tunic was dark blue and was called kurtka. It had lapels in regimental colors
(yellow, crimson or white) until 1810. Between 1810 and 1815 the lapels were white. The
greatocat/overcoat was either brown or gray. All leather belts and straps were white, buckles and
fittings were brass while the cartridge box and bayonet scabbard were black. The backpack would be
brown (some were black).
Fusiliers wore dark blue shoulder straps piped crimson (in the 13th Regiment however the fusilers
had white shoulder straps piped light blue). Grenadiers wore red epaulets and plumes, while
voltigeurs wore green epaulets (voltigeurs of 12th Regiment wore white epaulets with green
crescents) and yellow-green plumes.
Left: the fusiliers distinguished themselves with a black
(blue) pompon on the top-square shako called chapka.
Right: the voltigeurs wore yellow or green pompons
and yellow-green plumes and epaulettes. The cords
were white. The grenadiers often wore tall black or
brown bearskins, with or without plate. Some wore
czapka with brass plate bearing a grenade. The cords
were either white or red. The plumes and epaulettes
were red. The grenadiers wore mustaches and large
sideburns.
.
The grenadiers of the Vistula Legion distinguished
themselves with white (not red) cords and white carrot- shape pompons. They wore czapka (not
bearskin) with yellow sunburst plaques bearing a white eagle and the inscription "Pulk
Nadwislanski" (Vistula Regiment).
Uniforms 1807-1809
Regiment Coat Cuffs Turnbacks Lapels
1st Dark Blue Scarlet Scarlet Yellow
2nd Dark Blue Scarlet Scarlet Yellow
3rd Dark Blue Scarlet Scarlet Yellow
4th Dark Blue Scarlet Scarlet Yellow
5th Dark Blue Crimson Crimson Crimson
9th Dark Blue White White White
Uniforms of infantry of Duchy of Warsaw 1807-1810.
1 and 5 - voltigeurs, 2 and 6 - officers, 3 - musician, 4 - grenadier, 8 and 9 - sappers
Picture by K. Linder.
Uniforms 1810- 1814
Regiment Coat Collar Cuffs Turnbacks Lapels
1st Dark Blue Dark Blue Crimson White White
2nd Dark Blue Dark Blue Crimson White White
3rd Dark Blue Dark Blue Crimson White White
4th Dark Blue Dark Blue Crimson White White
7th Dark Blue . Crimson White White
8th Dark Blue Crimson Crimson White White
12th Dark Blue Yellow Crimson White White
13th White Light Blue Light Blue Light Blue White
16th Dark Blue Red Crimson White White
17th Dark Blue Red Crimson White White
Uniforms of infantry of Duchy of Warsaw 1810-1814.
1 - senior officer, 2 - sapper, 3 - fusilier (in greatcoat), 4,5 and 6 - officers,
7- grenadier in summer dress, 8 - fusilier in winter dress, 9 - voltigeur in summer dress.
Picture by K. Linder.
Lithuanian Chasseurs
They were formed from outdoorsmen, foresters,
and men who had an experience with hunting weapons, rifles.
All were volunteers, no recruits were accepted.
In November 1806 Napoleon directed General Dabrowski to form Polish troops. Dabrowski issued a
decree ordering the population to provide 1 infantry recruit from every 10 households, 1 cavalry
recruit from every 45 households and 1 chasseur (light infantry) recruit from every estate. In 1806-
1807 each of the three legions (divisions) had a single company of strzelcw pieszych (chasseurs-a-
pied). These companies were formed into a 400-men battalion of chasseurs. In March 1807 this unit
was converged into line infantry and absorbed into the 11th Infantry Regiment. The chasseurs were
armed with muskets and rifled carbines.
In August 1812 it was decided that new six battalions of chasseurs would be raised in the liberated
Lithuania. They were formed from outdoorsmen, foresters, and men who had an experience with
hunting weapons, rifles and muskets. All were volunteers, no recruits were accepted. They were
issued Austrian muskets with rifled barrels (1807 Model), rifled carbines and muskets. These
sharpshooters were then organized into two regiments of 3 battalions each. But the amount of
volunteers was disappointingly low (624 men) and only one regiment of 2 battalions was raised. It
was the Pulk Strzelcw Litewskich (Lithuanian Chasseur Regiment) This unit was mauled by the
Russians at Kojdanow, Beresina River and at Vilna. But the survivors, in contrast to other units,
stayed in the ranks and retreated across Poland into Germany.
PS.
There were no Polish regiments of legere infanterie (light infantry). If necessary individual companies
of voltigeurs were taken from infantry battalions and formed in larger units. Prince Poniatowski
directed two battalions of converged voltigeurs into the suburbs defended by Russian infantry. These
voltigeurs fought in skirmish order.
If voltigeurs were not enough, the Polish line infantry was capable of fighting as sharpshooters and
tirailleurs. For example at Borodino the Polish 16th Division fought in the wooded area near Utica
having 2/3 of its strength fully in skirmish order. During the battle of Shevardino, approx. 15
companies of (Polish) voltigeurs pushed back the 50th Jager Regiment. The Russians were in skirmish
order and suffered heavy casualties.

Storming of the Spanish city by Polish and French infantry.
~
Polish Artillery.
"The Army of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw had excellent artillery,
both horse and foot ... " - Kevin Kiley, p 141
The strength of Polish artillery was not in the numbers of guns but
in the quality of men and officers. They were well-trained
professionals. Among them were quite a few French officers; Jean
Pelletier, Jean-Baptiste Mallet de Grandville, Pierre-Francois
Bontemps, Charlot, Daret, and others. They were transferred by
Napoleon to the army of Duchy of Warsaw on Prince
Poniatowski's request.
Roman Soltyk writes, "Pelletier had continued service in France
and did not pass into Polish service until early 1809. ... Filled with
merit and highly trained, he had risen to the rank of colonel by the
age of 30. He had the particular confidence of Napoleon and in
1808 was sent into the Duchy of Warsaw to serve as its commander
of artillery. ... He had calm courage in the middle of the greatest
perils, he was a hard worker in the office, his council was
farsighted, he was destined to play a major role in the campaign
(of 1809 in Poland) and his being French increased his influence. This was because on one side, he
could act as an intermediary between Napoleon and the commander of the Polish army and on the
other, he could act as an honest conciliator between the Polish generals, whose rivalries could
produce a dangerous division." (Roman Soltyk - "Accounts of the operations of the Army under the orders
of Prince Poniatowski during the 1809 campaign in Poland against the Austrians")
By the way, in 1815 Jean Pelletier commanded the French artillery under Marshal Ney in Quatre Bras.
At Waterloo (La Belle Aliance) his batteries bombarded Hougoumont and the British-German
infantry deployed behind it.
There were also Polish officers who studied in France (for example Roman Soltyk of horse artillery).
The tactics of Polish artillery was similar in many aspects to the tactics of the French artillery. It was
recommended to deploy the battery on a hard and slightly elevated ground. Firing at ranges of 2000
paces and more was considered as waste of ammunition. When firing from a fixed position it was
recommended to make a shallow ditch in front of the battery. This ditch served as a 'trap' for
enemy's rolling cannonballs.
The Polish gunners also liked to place their cannons behind obstacles; fences, cultivated fields etc. It
was especially important if the enemy had a strong cavalry. It was unlikely that the Polish gunners
would use grenades (shells) if during battle the enemy stood on a soft or muddy ground.
If necessary Poniatowski formed grand-batteries. In 1809 at Raszyn he deployed 16-gun battery
against the Austrians, in 1812 at Smolensk he set up 16-gun battery. French officer Pelletier, who
commanded all Polish batteries at Smolensk, took 42 guns and joined the French grand-battery
pounding the Russians. Poniatowski sometimes used guns in an aggressive way, for example in 1813
several guns participated in the actions of advancing skirmishers.
Polish battery in the battle of Raszyn, picture by W. Kossak
.
Organization of Polish Artillery.
The first company of foot artillery was completed in 1806.
In 1808 was raised horse artillery.
In 1807-1808 Polish artillery was commanded by General Wincenty Axamitowski. The first company
of foot artillery was completed in Poznan (Posen) on 29th December 1806. Another company was
organized in the fortress of Czestochowa. In January 1807 the French supplied 7 guns to the next
company. In that month was issued decree which assigned a 3-company artillery battalion to each
legion (division).
The Polish 6pdr cannon had crew of 10 men, 12pdr cannon required 13 men and 3pdr 8 men. The
company (battery) usually had 6 guns formed in three sections of 2 guns each, or two half-batteries
of 3 guns each. For communication and passing the orders the foot artillery had drummers (in horse
artillery were trumpeters.) Companies were organized in fortresses of Torun (Thorn), Praga, Serock
and Modlin near Warsaw.
November 1807
- I Battalion of Foot Artillery (354 men) - Colonel Dobrski
- II Battalion of Foot Artillery (597 men) - Lt.-Colonel Gorski
- III Battalion of Foot Artillery (389 men) - Lt.-Colonel Hurtig
In 1808 one company of artillery was sent to Spain. It consisted of 4 officers and 145 other ranks.
The excellent horse artillery was formed in the Duchy.
Company of foot artillery consisted of: 1 captain, 2 first lieutenants, 1 second lieutenant
1 sergeant-major, 8 sergeants, 1 furier, 8 corporals, 2 drummers, 4 fireworkers, 2 blacksmiths, 2 rymarz
48 first class gunners, 100 second-class gunners, and 140 horses
January 1809
Commander of Polish Artillery: Colonel Pelletier (Frenchman)
Commander of Polish Engineers: Captain Mallet (Frenchman)
Chief-of-Staff of Polish Artillery: Colonel Gorski
Artillery Park Director: Captain Bontemps (Frenchman)
- I Battalion of Foot Artillery (409 men) - Lt.-Colonel Redel
- II Battalion of Foot Artillery (137 men) - Lt.-Colonel Gorski
- III Battalion of Foot Artillery (266 men) - Lt.-Colonel Hurtig
- Train Battalion of Foot Artillery (402 men)
- I Squadron of Horse Artillery (119 men) - Lt.-Colonel W. Potocki
- Train Squadron of Horse Artillery (119 men)
- Sappers
. . . . . . 1st Sapper Company (79 men)
. . . . . . 2nd Sapper Company (103 men)
. . . . . . 3rd Sapper Company (91 men)
. . . . . . Pontoneer Company (67 men)
In 1810 was formed entire regiment of horse artillery.
It consisted of 4 companies (batteries) each of 6 guns: 4 6pdr cannons and 2 howitzers.
The first company was organized by Captain Potocki, the second company by Roman Soltyk.
1810
Regiment of Foot Artillery
(2,685 men incl. Colonel, Major, 3 Chefs
2 Adjutant-Mjr, 2 Adjutant NCOs etc. and 1.863 horses)
- I Battalion of Foot Artillery
. . . . . . Company of Foot Artillery
- II Battalion of Foot Artillery
- III Battalion of Foot Artillery
- Train Battalion of Foot Artillery
There were also 4 static companies.
Regiment of Horse Artillery
(691 men iclud.: Colonel, Major, 2 Chefs
2 Adjutant-Mjr, 2 Adjutant NCOs etc. and 902 horses)
- I Squadron of Horse Artillery
. . . . . . Company of Horse Artillery
- II Squadron of Horse Artillery
- Train Squadron of Horse Artillery
Engineers
- Battalion of Engineers
- Battalion of Sappers and Miners
. . . . . . 1st Company
. . . . . . 2nd Company
. . . . . . 3rd Company
. . . . . . 4th Company
. . . . . . 5th Company
. . . . . . Pontoneer Company
In 1811 was formed artillery depot battalion of 6 companies. Two light 3pdr cannons were added to
each infantry regiment (for this purpose was formed so-called Auxiliary Artillery Battalion). The foot
artillery was under the command of Colonel Gorski, the horse artillery under Colonel Potocki, and
the Sapper Battalion under Kubicki.
Due to financial difficulties in the Grand Duchy Napoleon took into French pay the artillery stationed
in the fortresses of Gdansk (Danzig) and Kostrzyn (Kustrin).
1812
Chief of Artillery and Engineers - General of Brigade Jean Pelletier (Frenchman)
Director of Artillery - Colonel Pierre Bontemps (Frenchman)
Director of Engineers - Colonel Jaen Mallet (Frenchman)
Chief of Topographical Office - Ltn.-Colonel Alfons
Directors of Fortifications
Foot Artillery Regiment - Colonel Gorski, Major Gugenmus
- I Battalion of Foot Artillery - Chef Uszynski
- II Battalion of Foot Artillery - Chef Ploszczynski
- III Battalion of Foot Artillery - Chef Walewski
Horse Artillery Regiment - Colonel Hurtig, Major Krysinski
- I Squadron of Horse Artillery - Major Szweryn
- II Squadron of Horse Artillery - Major Sowinski
Sappers - Major Kubicki
- Auxiliary Artillery Battalion - Lt.-Colonel Daret
- Military Train Battalion - Lt.-Colonel Hryniewicz
.
Uniforms of Polish Artillery
The gunners wore dark green coats
with black collar, cuffs and facings.
In 1807 - 1810 the foot gunners wore dark green coats with
black collar, lapels, cuffs, cuff flaps and turnbacks - all
piped red. The buttons were yellow. The epauletes, cords
and pompons were red. The trousers were dark green
with black side stripes, the gaiters were black and just
under knee. The shako bore a brass plaque with a white
metal eagle over crossed guns with a brass grenade.
In 1810 - 1813 the summer trousers and gaiters were white.
In 1807 - 1810 the horse gunners wore a dark green coat.
The buttons were gold. Two golden grenades were
embroidered on the collar. Collar, cuffs and facings were
black and piped red. The breeches were dark green with
black side stripes. The Hungarian-style boots were with
gold trim and tassels. The horse gunners wore the top-
squared shako.
In 1810 - 1813 the czapka was replaced with a colpack with
a dark green bag. To the colpack were attached red cords,
tassels and pompon.
In 1810 - 1813 the artillery train drivers wore blue-gray
coat with white buttons, light yellow collar and cuffs. The
shako was black with yellow pompon and white eagle.
.
~
Polish Cavalry : "They had a good soldierly appearance."
Polish cavalry "showed a marked superiority over the French"
(Riehn - "1812: Napoleon's Russian Campaign")
"In the late 15th Century the composition of the Polish army began to alter. Due to the destruction of the
Teutonic state as a major military force in the Thirteen Years War, and Poland's increasingly close ties with
Lithuania, the Polish army became more involved in warfare in the open territories of the East. The
heavily armoured knights, so common in Prussia, were too cumbersome and slow against the elusive
cavalries of the East ... At the start of the 17th Century the army was composed mainly of cavalry ...
During the critical years 1655-62 ... the numbers of light cavalry grew to a rather large proportion. This was
because of the ease of raising such typically Polish cavalry from the large noble population the nobility
formed some 10% of Poland's population !" (- Polish Renaissance Warfare.)
The Poles have been compelled to fight almost continously.
Norman Davies writes, "Few nations in the last 200 years have seen more military action than the Poles. ...
Private armies abounded. ... Vast numbers of indigent petty noblemen filled the ranks of a military caste of
proportions unequelled in Europe. But their contempt for state service, their preoccupation with private
wars and vendettas, ... their obsession with cavalry to the detriment of all other branches of warfare
(infantry, artillery and engineers), and their opposition to the idea of raising an 'ignoble army' of peasant
conscripts, put them at a marked disadvantage in relation to all their neighbours."
The light cavalry helped to solidify the very long eastern border
for centuries. They became superb horsemen and masters of lance.
According to American historian, Colonel John Elting, the "Poles
were acknowledged to be the finest lancers in Europe; Russia,
Prussia, and Austria recruited their lancer regiments from among
the Polish subjects their partitionings of the unhappy kingdom had
given them. When France marched against all Europe, Polish
volunteers swarmed into its ranks." (Elting - "Swords Around a
Throne" 1997 p 241)
.
Polish lancer
.
"We soon recognized that they were Poles by their courage
and by the way they handled their lances."
- Charles Parquin, French cavalry officer
" ... these men [Polish cavalrymen] had become fighting mad."
- Thirion, French cavalry
Several Polish cavalry outfits won great fame during the Napoleonic Wars. Among them are the Old
Guard Lancers and the Vistula Uhlans.
Article: The Old Guard Lancers.
Article: The Vistula Uhlans.
The two regiments won every combat with the Russian, Austrian, Prussian, Bavarian, and British cavalry.
They were also very succesful against the Cossacks, and regular troops: artillery (Somosierra) and infantry
(Albuera).
The Napoleonic Wars were time of military glory for the
Polish cavalry. They routed the Bavarian cavalry at
Hanau, Russian uhlans, dragoons and hussars at
Reichenbach, Cossacks in 1812, British light dragoons at
Talavera and the 3rd Dragoon Guards and 4th
Dragoons at Albuera, Prussian hussars at Peterswalde
and guard light cavalry at Lignitz, Austrian hussars in
1809 and 1813, and their cuirassiers at Leipzig in 1813.
There were no regular cavalry to stop them.
The were few defeats in the hands of the Cossacks. In
1812 at Romanov, one regiment of Polish horse
chasseurs was ambushed by several regiments of
Cossacks, at Slonim one regiment of lancers was
attacked by several regiments of Cossacks supported by
regiments of Russian regular cavalry, and at Mir in 1812
Polish Cavalry Division was attacked by overwhelming
force of Cossacks and Russian regulars. (The Polish officers
blamed French General Latour-Maubourg for the last defeat. They
thought he knew little of Cossacks' warfare. He let his French and Polish cavalry regiments b separated by long distances and fight
isolated and unsupported against the numerous enemy. The French, and in general the western cavalry, fared poorly against the
Cossacks.)
IMHO the Polish cavalry was the best light cavalry in Europe in that time. They even surpased the
previous top-dogs, the Hungarian hussars. (The best heavy cavalry were probably the French cuirassiers
and Saxon Garde du Corps, while the best medium cavalry were some British and German regiments).
At Borodino in 1812, one squadron of the (Polish) 13th Hussar Regiment, the "Silver Hussars", advanced en
fourageurs through bushes against a Cossack regiment led by Karpov-II. Although the hussars were in
small groups the enemy hesitated and then fled.
The Polish cavalry were one of the very few who could challenge the
Cossacks. According to officer A. Prokesch "The Cossack fears
horsemen of no nation, except the Turks. For the Polish lancers he
has admiration, because these were capable to fight in closed, as well
as in open order, and because he had to cope with them almost all
the time during the latest war. The French, as long as they possessed
cavalry, held back their own in closed order and sent forward the
Polish for light duties.
The German and French light cavalry are not feared by the Cossack.
He will not stand and oppose their formed attacks, and in open
order he will surpass them in manoeuvrability." (A. Prokesch - Ueber
den Kosaken, und dessen Brauchbarkeit im Felde)
In early 1814 "Major Skarzynski of the Old Guard Lancers performed
prodigies of valor. Overwhelmed and ridden down by a flood of Cossacks, he
wrenched an "especially heavy" lance from one of them and - wild with the
outraged fury of despair - spurred amuck down the road, bashing every
Cossack skull that came within his reach. Rallying and wedging in behind
him, his Polish handful cleared the field. The same day Napoleon made
Skarzynski the Baron of the Empire. (Snatching a lance from a Cossack, he
created a void around him by knocking over the fugitives in his path and
running the rest through with his lance." - Henri Lachoque)
For more info on Cossacks' interesting tactics, battle record, their victories
and defeats, uniforms, weapons and more, read our article: Cossacks !
"Cossacks !"
The French cavalry commanders (Marshal Murat, General Lasalle and others) enjoyed
leading the Poles into combat. In 1812 near Ostrovno, Russia, Marshal "Murat ... darted
forward, placing himself in front of the 8th Polish Uhlan Regiment He excited them with
his words and actions, though they were already enraged by the sight of the advancing
Russians. ... He had no intention of throwing himself with them into the midst of a melee
... but the Poles were already crouched in the saddle. The charging cavalry covered the
width of the field completely and pushed Murat before them. He could neither separate
from them or stop." (George Nafziger - "Poles and Saxons of the Napoleonic Wars" p 116)
The famous French General Lasalle, wrote a poem for the Polish Guard Lancers. " The
French were once in Poland. Now the Poles have come to Spain ... For Poles and Frenchmen, in one breath,
Could put all men on earth to death !"
The Polish 10th Hussars were nicknamed the Golden
Hussars for their uniforms and were considered the bad
boys of the Polish army for their roughness and
drinking.
The 10th Hussars were the first unit of Napoleon's
multinational Grand Army to enter Moscow in 1812.
They were followed by Prussian uhlans, Wirtembergian
chasseurs and General Pajol's French hussars and
chasseurs-a-cheval. Moscow in 1812 was a sprawling
city of about 250,000 inhabitants.
At Hohenlinden in 1800 "Pawlikowski, a 23-year old NCO of uhlans, noticed Austrian
infantry in a copse. Accompanied by a French chasseur named Gotebeuf, he charged
the Austrians ... After killing 2 officers with his lance he took prisoner 1 officer and 57
men. General Decean, who met him leading the prisoners, offered him a promotion to
lieutenant, but Pawlikowski answered in broken French: 'No know read, no know
write, no be officer." (George Nafziger - "Poles and Saxons ..." p 100)
On the night of 1st-2nd July 1809, NCO of (Polish) 1st Horse Chasseurs, named Yashchalt, captured
General Biking at his headquarters. This brave chasseur rode into the Austrian camp at the head of 20
troopers. "He advanced, under the obscurity of night, into the middle of the village, dismounted,
penetrated into the headquarters and captured him (Biking), along with one of his colonels. However, as
he was taking them away, the alarm was sounded. The adventurous soldier was forced to release his prize
and to escape with his detachment." (- Roman Soltyk)
In May 1809 near Kock, two squadrons of 5th Chasseurs chased out 300 Hungarian hussars after a violent
engagement in which the brave Chef de Escadron Berko (Josel Berko Berkowitz) was killed. "The hussars
were aggressively pursued, so that they did not have time to destroy the bridge over the Wieprz River." (-
Roman Soltyk)
During the Siege of Zamosc Fortress in May 1809, French General Pelletier sent Polish troops against the
fortifications. Roman Soltyk writes, "The Austrian artillery responded with a heavy cannonade that lasted
a half hour before it stopped suddenly. ... The (Polish) infantry led, followed by the uhlans, who had
dismounted and marched with their lances in their hands. They lowered the drawbridge and pushed into
the city." Prince Poniatowski traveled to Zamosc, reviewed the troops and praised them and Pelletier for
their efforts.
Siege of Sandomir Fortress 1809. One squadron of 6th Uhlans "dismounted and repeated what they had
done in the assault of Zamosc Fortress. On foot and armed with lances, they charged the Austrian infantry
and drove them from the battery." (- Roman Soltyk)
"In 1808, fed up with Spanish sniping, the Lancers of the Vistula climbed down from their saddles and
stormed an entrenched Spanish camp near Saragossa ... During the first phase of the siege they charged a
fortified city. They penetrated essentially right to its center. Unsupported and alone the lancers had to
charge back out." (John Elting - "Swords ...")
On 5th June 1809, near Sandomir, a single squadron of (Polish) 5th Horse Chasseurs and small troop of the
(Polish) 1st Horse Chasseurs "executed a brilliant charge against the Austrian infantry and threw back a
battalion of the Davidovich Regiment ... This attack cost the Austrians 500 men killed, wounded, and
prisoners." (- Roman Soltyk)
In 1811 at Albuera the tremendous impetus of the
Vistula Uhlans broke through and scattered the British
infantry and cavalry like chaff before the wind. Five
Colors and hundreds of prisoners were taken.
Colborne's brigade was routed. Scattered groups of
panicked redcoats either surrendered or ran for safety.
Cleve's KGL battery was attacked and 5 guns were
captured. Allies staffs were attacked and chased. The
Spanish cavalry fled before the uhlans.
The British dragoons fought for a short while, then fled
"faster than they arrived," as it is stated in official British
report. All French light cavalry put together never took
so many British colors and captured so many British
prisoners. History will never know what they would
have done to the British and Germans at Waterloo.
For more info read our article:
"Albuera 1811 - The bloodiest battle of the Peninsular War."
At Leipzig, the Polish 1st Horse Chasseurs (armed with lances in 1813) broke one infantry square of
Bianchi's Austrian division and one infantry square of General Helfreich's Russian 14th Infantry Division.
Both episodes took place not far from the Auenhain sheep-farm.
At Dennewitz in 1813, three squadrons of 2nd Uhlan Regiment broke three squares formed by Prussian
infantry of Tauentzien's corps. One squadron attacked Prussian battalion of 3rd Reserve Infantry
Regiment. The infantry was formed in a column with skirmishers as its screen. The uhlans routed the
skirmishers killing several and attacked the column. The Prussians were "savagely handled". On another
occasion the 2nd Uhlans and French chasseurs threw themselves against the Prussian infantry, cavalry
and artillery. They sabered the skirmishers, and pressed forward, passing between the battalions formed
in compact formations and engaging Tauentzien's cavalry.
During the melee the 1st Life Hussars (the famous Death's Head Hussars) arrived. Outnumbered the
uhlans attempted to disengage, passed in front of Krafft's brigade, received musket volleys and canister,
and after losing 102 men reached the French and Italian positions. On the way back they managed to
overrun Prussian munition column near Wolmsdorf. The Landwehr infantry fired on the uhlans but
instead they inflicted casualties on their own gunners.
Marshal Ney immediately ordered the Westphalian cavalry to support the Poles, but its>
commander did not move. "Ney is supposed to have sent him to Napoleon after 'ripping
off his epaulets." (- George Nafziger)
In 1813 in Saxony, several squadrons of Russian hussars led by the bloodthirsty and
gruesome Figner marched at night through enemys line. They have captured many
stragglers and then halted in a village. Several marauders who ventured into the village
were killed on the spot. Only one managed to escape and informed the French commander
who immediately dispatched the Polish uhlans.
The Poles pushed into the village while the Russians jumped out of their hiding places and
a fighting erupted. Von Lwenstern wrote that many hussars were unsaddled and littered on the ground.
The others fled with the Poles hot on their heels. The flight was slowed down by a narrow defilee and the
Poles again got their lance into work. According to von Lwenstern (pp 136-137) when they finally escaped
they were happy for the next days not to see the uhlans again. According to Lwenstern, the commander
of detachment, Figner, was killed at Reichenbach by drowning in a river being surrounded by Polish
cavalrymen.
In 1813 at Leipzig the 3rd, 6th and 8th Uhlan Regiment (mostly
veterans) and the Polish 1st Horse Chasseurs didn't shy away from
the enemy's armored cuirassiers. "They (Poles) made up for its lack
of numbers with equestrian skill and aggressive nature." (- George
Nafziger)
The four Polish regiments, supported with the Dragoons of Old
Guard led by General Letort himself, charged numerous times
against six Austrian and two Russian cuirassier regiments. Enemy's
force under General Nostitz included such superb outfits like the
Sommariva Cuirassier Regiment.
The Poles pointed their lances at cuirassiers' faces, necks and groins.
According to Philip Haythornthwaite, a British military historian,
"lance can be aimed at a target with greater accuracy than a sword."
The Poles also used lances as battering rams - striking at tops of
opponents' helmets with force. Russian hussar regiment and several
Prussian squadrons joined the cavalry battle before the Poles and the
Dragoons of Old Guard fell back, behind the French and Polish
infantry.
Article:
"Battle of Leipzig 1813."
(Battle of the Nations")
In 1812 the Poles fought their hated enemy,
the Russians. Such encounteres were
usually very violent and bloody. 'A short
way away to our left,' writes Dupuy 'the 9th
Polish Lancers pierced a square of
Muscovite chasseurs and wiped it out.' To
Thirion it had seemed 'these men [Poles]
had become fighting mad.
How many didn't I see who, with arm or leg bandaged, returned to the scrum at a flat-out gallop,
forcefully eluding those of their comrades who tried to hold them back." (Britten-Austin -"1812 The March
on Moscow" p 136)
Probably the most exotic enemy for the Poles were the Spaniards.
One of many encounters between the Poles and the Spanish forces took
place in 1808 at Somosierra. Because the Spanish forces could not easily be
outflanked in Somosierra Pass by infantry movement, and Napoleon was
impatient to proceed, he ordered his Polish Guard Lighthorse to charge
the Spaniards and their fortified artillery batteries. Some authors have
assumed that the French Emperor had gone out of his mind in ordering
the cavalry to charge batteries over several kilometers of very difficult
terrain.
Officer Kozietulski led his men for a charge with the official cry Vive
l'Empereur!. However, a popular legend has it that the true battle cry was
Forward, you sons of dogs, the Emperor is watching!. The Poles, despite very
heavy casualties, took all the cannons. Awed Napoleon saluted the Poles:
"I proclaim you my bravest cavalry!"
The Foot Grenadiers of Guard drained a bumper in the honor of the Poles.
British author William Napier writes: "This surprising exploit ... can hardly be paralleled in the annals of
war... The charge itself, viewed as a simple military operation, was extravagantly rash ...The Somosierra
being forced, the imperial army came down from the mountains ..." (Napier - "History of the War in the
Peninsula 1807-1814" pp 279-280)
"... talk of the charge of Somosierra evoked the same reactions in Warsaw as mention of the charge of the
[British] Light Brigade in London. The flower of the nation's youth was thought to have perished in a
distant land for the sake of a courageous gesture. In fact, the exemplary sacrifice of those few men ensured
the passage of a whole army." (Gates - "God's Playground. ..." 1982, p 301 ) (NOTE: in 1808 the Guard
Lighthorse carried no lances.)
Article: Somosierra 1808
The campaign in Russia in 1812 ruined the French cavalry and in 1813-1814 Napoleon lacked good quality
cavalry force. Because the Poles enjoyed great reputation as light cavalry, the Emperor entertained
thoughts of completely disbanding Polish infantry and organizing four new uhlan and two Polish-
Cossack regiments.
Polish uhlans (left) versus Russian cuirassiers (right) at Borodino.

Napoleon's retreat from Russia in 1812.
Emperor's personal escort was made of the
French Guard Horse Chasseurs and Polish
Guard Lancers.
.
Organization of Polish Cavalry.
Poland was the only country in Europe
which in some point had an army
with more cavalry regiments than
infantry regiments.
General Jomini wrote: "As a general rule, it maybe stated that an army in an open country should contain
cavalry to the amount of 1/6 its whole strength; in mountainous countries 1/10 will suffice." In Poland the
ratio was between 1/4 and 1/5. The Grand Duchy of Warsaw was the only country in Europe which in
some point had as many cavalry regiments as infantry regiments.
The Polish cavalry regiment consisted of staff and 3 or 4 squadrons of two companies each.
In 1810 cavalry company consisted of: 4 officers: 1 captain, 1 1st lieutenant, 2 2nd lieutenants
1 sergeant-major, 4 sergeants, 1 fourrier, 8 corporals, 2 trumpeters, 79 privates, 1 blacksmith
Total strength = 100 men (+ 2 enfants de troupe)
The 4-squadron regiment was commanded by colonel.
The squadrons were under 2 chefs and 2 adjutants-majors.
There were also standard-bearer, trumpet-major and few non-combatants.
The Poles numbered their cavalry regiments not by/within type but like the British la suite:
January 1809:
- 1st Chasseur-a-Cheval Regiment (745 men) - Colonel Przebendowski
- 2nd Uhlan Regiment (880 men) - Colonel Tyszkiewicz
- 3rd Uhlan Regiment (719 men) - Colonel Laczynski
- 4th Chasseur-a-Cheval Regiment (? men) - Colonel Mecinski
- 5th Chasseur-a-Cheval Regiment (596 men) - Colonel Turno
- 6th Uhlan Regiment (691 men) - Colonel Dziewanowski
In November 1809 were formed:
- 7th Uhlan Regiment (840 men in 4 squadrons) - Colonel Zawadzki
- 8th Uhlan Regiment (954 men in 4 squadrons) - Colonel Rozwadowski
- 9th Uhlan Regiment (936 men in 4 squadrons) - Colonel Przyrzychowski
- 10th Hussar Regiment "The Golden Hussars" (803 men) - Colonel Uminski
- 11th Uhlan Regiment (899 men in squadrons) - Colonel A. Potocki
- 12th Uhlan Regiment (943 men in squadrons) - Colonel Rzyszczewski
- 13th Hussar Regiment "The Silver Hussars" (1.048 men !) - Colonel Tolinski
- 14th Cuirassier Regiment (610 men in 2 squadrons) - Colonel Malachowski
The Poles formed one regiment of cuirassiers but Napoleon felt that they were too expensive and suggested
chasseurs or uhlans. So the King of Saxony (the head of the Duchy of Warsaw) issued decree that directed
the conversion of these cuirassiers into chasseurs. Poniatowski attempted to persuade him into converting
the cuirassiers into dragoons but the King repeated his statement. Poniatowski agreed but added that it
will take a long time due to practical obstacles. Soon however erupted war against Russia and there was
no time and money for the conversion.
- 15th Uhlan Regiment (916 men in 4 squadrons) - Colonel Trzecieski
- 16th Uhlan Regiment (661 men in 4 squadrons) - Colonel Tarnowski
In 1811 each cavalry regiment raised a depot squadron of 2 companies.
Due to financial difficulties in the Grand Duchy Napoleon in early 1812
took into French pay the 9th Uhlan Regiment.
When Napoleon liberated Lithuania (which had been part of Poland)
several new light cavalry regiments were raised:
- 17th Uhlan Regiment - Colonel Tyszkiewicz
- 18th Uhlan Regiment - Colonel Wawrzecki
- 19th Uhlan Regiment - Colonel Rajecki
- 20th Uhlan Regeiment - Colonel Obuchowicz
- 21st Uhlan Regiment - Colonel Lubanski
- Lithuanian Tartar Squadron - Mustapha Murza Achmatowicz
There were several regiments in the French service:
- 1st Lancer Regiment of the Guard (Old Guard)
- 3rd Lancer Regiment of the Guard (Young Guard)
- 1st Vistula Uhlan Regiment (became French 7th Lancer Regiment)
- 2nd Vistula Uhlan Regiment (became French 8th Lancer Regiment)
One of the regiments of Eclaireurs of the Guard was made of Poles.
In May 1815 (Waterloo Campaign) Napoleon issued a decree organizing the 7th Lancer Regiment
(Chavauleger-Lancier Polonais). It consisted of 350 men and only 13 horses. The lancers fought on foot in the
defense of the bridges in Sevres earning Marshal Davout's praise. After Napoleon's abdication all the
foreign regiments were disbanded. The Polish units were absorbed into the Russian army except the
lancers - they refused to serve for the Tsar, were disbanded and allowed to stay in France.
.
Weapons of Polish Cavalry
The primary weapons of Polish cavalry
were lance and slightly curved saber.
The uhlans were armed with saber, pistol and a lance.
The chasseurs were armed with sabers and carbines.
(They were issued lances for the 1809 and 1813 campaigns
to make up for the lack of cavalry carbines).
The Krakus Regiment carried lances but never carbines.
Some cavalrymen carried pistols or two.
The Poles were equipped with several types of sabers:
- Polish curved sabers (produced in liberated Galicia)
- Prussian 1721 Model hussar curved saber
- Prussian 1797 Model dragoon straight "pallash"
- Austrian 1803 Model hussar curved saber
- French IX, XI and XIII Model curved sabers
- Russian sabers of various models
The Poles carried captured Prussian and Austrian carbines
and French carbines Model 1763 and 1786. Many pistols were
the French Model 1777.
The Polish lance was 265-277 cm long. The Polish cavalry could be seen to have been instrumental in the
retention of the lance until its widespread readoption in the Napoleonic period. Napoleon sent Polish
lancers as instructors to the French lancer regiments. There were regulations for the exercise and
manoeuvres of the lance compiled entirely from the Polish system instituted by Prince Poniatowski and
General Krasinski. These were also adapted to the formations, movements and exercise of the British
cavalry by Reymond Hervey De Montmorency (London, 1820)
The Polish lance was quite light weapon, so much so that one could hold it between the looped forefinger
and the middle finger of the right hand raised above the head, delivering, in this manner a very powerful
thrust called "par le moulinet'. In the hands of an experienced uhlan it was an effective and terrible
weapon. (Nafziger and Wesolowski - "Poles and Saxons of the Napoleonic Wars" p 48)
Article: Cavalry Tactics and Combat.
.
Horses
Poland had large studs of horses
for light and medium cavalry.
The horses of central and eastern Europe being smaller and
more agile, the first application of their capabilities for war
purposes seems everywhere to have been as light cavalry
mounts. Prussian king Frederick the Great, considered the big
"German horses" as the best suited for heavy cavalry. The "Polish
horses" (Polish, Hungarian and Russian) were considered as the
best for the light cavalry and were obtained from the well-paid
Jewish dealers. The king and his generals rode on English
horses.
The Polish horses were used not only by the Polish and Prussian
cavalry, but also by the Saxon hussars and chevaulegers and
Prussian, Austrian and French light cavalry. The Russian cavalry
also used many "Polish horses."
Poland had large studs of horses for light and medium cavalry.
Napoleon purchased thousands of Polish horses, and thousands were simply taken by the French troops.
Even in 1812. According to Vaudoncourt some of the Lithuanian uhlans survived the campaign in Russia
in pretty good shape. Unfortunatelly, the 17th and 19th Uhlan Regiment were stripped of all their horses
in an effort to remount Napoleon's cavalry of Imperial Guard. (Nafziger - "Lutzen and Bautzen" p 9)
Most common colors of Polish horses were light and dark bays and chestnuts.
The big horses for Polish 14th Cuirassier Regiment were purchased in Germany.
In 1812 the Polish cavalry was excellent. Chlapowski writes: "They had a good soldierly appearance and
their horses were magnificent. ... the 5th Horse Chasseurs, who were very fine and even better mounted
than the 13th 'Silver' Hussars."
.
The Krakus Regiment
Napoleon called them my pygmy cavalry. But when they began
maneuvering and charging, and picking stones off the ground
all in a very fast pace, his amusement switched to admiration.
The Krakusi Regiment, pronounced crack-coosee, was formed
in 1813. On 25th September 1813 on the road to Bautzen the
Polish troops met Napoleon. The Emperor reviewed the Krakus
mounted on their peasant ponies and laughed out loud. He
called them my pygmy cavalry" But when they began
maneuvering and charging, all in a very fast pace, his
amusement switched to admiration. In the end of the review
individual riders presented their incredible skills. Stones were
placed on the ground and they came at speed picking them off
the ground.
Impressed Napoleon called for the commanders of French
cavalry and said: look at these boys. They are superb
horsemen, they captured allied general, Cossack standard and
dozens of prisoners. And they accomplished it in short time.
Then he asked the generals; who of you brought me a Cossack
as prisoner in the last or this campaign ? Then he turned to General Uminski and said: I want 3.000 of
such warriors." (Morawski & Wielecki - "Wojsko Ksiestwa Warszawskiego", Vol I p 122)
The privates were armed with lances (with or without pennants),
sabers and pistols. No carbines, no musketoons, no rifles. All quiet.
In 1813 the officers of Krakusi Regiment gave commands by
waving a handkerchief, in 1814 this function was performed
by using a horsetail on a pike in the manner of the wild
Tartars. See picture. It was excellent tool for small warfare as
the regular cavalry used the trumpets for communication,
more suited for noisy battlefield than for chasing the elusive
Cossacks.
They wore the folk costume of the Krakow region. The
headwear was called krakuska, it was without the visor, and
was red with black or white lambskin turban. Some privates
wore captured Cossack colpacks. In 1814 the privates adopted
an unusual melon-like crimson beret. Their single breasted and full skirted coat was either brown or white
with embroidery and appliques. The collar and cuffs were crimson with white piping. A crimson sash was
worn at the waist. The legwears were either wide pantaloons (Cossack type) or tight breeches.
The Krakus Regiment was a valuable unit for Napoleon. Some of the privates and officers spoke German
and Russian language. It was important because the war of 1813 was fought in Germany and the enemy
spoke German (Prussians and Austrians) and Russian language (Russians and Cossacks). Krakus'
uniforms and horses were not expensive. It was also important factor because the French Empire and the
Grand Duchy of Warsaw were exhausted financially and economically in 1813. The Krakus were excellent
horsemen, while the vast majority of French cavalymen in 1813 were very young men and poorly trained.
(In 1812 France lost tens of thousands of horses and battle hardened veterans in the snows of Russia.) And
above all, the Krakus apparrently knew how to fight with the elusive Cossacks.
On 5th September 1813 the Krakus met several sotnias (squadrons) of Cossacks. Two squadrons of
Krakus under Mjr Rzuchowski attacked from the front, while one squadron under Cpt Celinski moved
around enemy's flank to cut it off from Herrnhut. The Cossacks were routed and lost 98 men (30 killed, 18
wounded and 50 were taken prisoner). The Krakus also captured 100 horses. The Krakus lost 3 wounded.
(Lukasiewicz - "Armia Ksiecia Jozefa, 1813" p 239)
On 9th September 1813 at Strahwalde, Gen Uminski with 4 squadrons of Krakus and the Polish 14th
Cuirassier Regiment (1-2 squadrons) attacked several sotnias of Cossacks and 2 squadrons of Russian
dragoons. The Cossacks fled before contact was made. The Krakus pursued them for a while and then
made a turn and attacked the dragoons fleeing before the cuirassiers (they had no armor). The enemy lost
35 (incl. 10 prisoners), the Poles had 6 wounded.
NCO Godlewski of the Krakus captured standard of Grekov-V's Cossack Regiment. The trophy was
immediately sent to Napoleon and Godlewski was awarded with two awards: French Legion d'Honneur
and Polish Virtuti Militari. Unfortunately the standard was lost later on when the Russians captured an
adjutant with it. (Lukasiewicz - "Armia Ksiecia Jozefa, 1813" p 242)
On 16th October 1813 near Wachau (south of Leipzig) the Krakus routed the Lifeguard Cossacks.
(Morawski & Wielecki - "Wojsko Ksiestwa Warszawskiego", Vol I, p 122 and Lukasiewicz - "Armia Ksiecia Jozefa,
1813" p 281)
The Krakus however were not very successful with regular cavalry and artillery. In Gossnitz the
regiment of Russian Soumy Hussars attacked part of the Krakus Regiment and took 60 prisoners. Edouard
von Lowenstern writes: "In Gossnitz we bumped into the Krakau Cossacks, we flew at them, cut them up
and - as they were badly mounted - captured some 60 of them." We don't know what would happen if
there was the entire regiment of the Krakus.
.
The best regiments of Polish Cavalry
The best Polish cavalry regiment was the Lancers of Old Guard. The Regiment
of Vistula Uhlans was almost as good as the Guard. Both units were in the
French service and were paid by the French. They are NOT included in the
statistics below.
The Duchy of Warsaw had numerous regiments of uhlans. Some were excellent
(2nd, 3rd, 4th, 6th and the 8th Uhlans) while others were well below the
average (7th Uhlans). Henryk Dembinski thought there was very poor
discipline in the 7th Uhlans. ("W pulku tym byl taki zarodek nieporzadku, ze do
konca istnienia swego byl zawsze ruchawko.")
The 1st, 4th and 5th Horse Chasseurs were superb: well-armed, well-trained,
and well-mounted. The 13th Hussars had also good horses and was more
disciplined than the 10th Hussars. The most impressive looking were the
armored cuirassiers, big men mounted on German horses. Unfortunately there
were only two squadrons of these iron-clads. The poorest looking were the Krakus dressed in folk
costume and mounted on peasant ponies.
.
- 3rd Uhlan Regiment
31 Battles and Combats: 1807 - Szczytno, Passenheim, Ortelsburg,
1809 - Czestochowa, Nadarzyn (14th,17th,19th April), Grojec,
Raszyn, Grochow, Radzymin (26-27th April), Grochow, Slupca,
Wielatow, siege of Zamosc, Zawady, Zaleszczyki, Horodenka,
Tarnopol, Chorostkow, Wieniawka, 1812 - Mir, Borodino,
1813 - Gross-Schweidnitz, Altenburg, Penig, Wachau, Leipzig,
detachment dfending Zamosc
Colonels:
June 1807 - Wojciech Mecinski, Tadeusz Tyszkewicz
1812 - Augustyn Trzecieski, Alexander Radzyminski
January 1813 - Alexander Oborski
.
- 1st Chasseur-a-Cheval Regiment
21 Battles and Combats: 1806 - Pultusk, 1807 - Tczew, siege of Gdansk,
1809 - Raszyn, Radzymin, Gora, Rozki, Sandomierz (on the 6th,
7th,15th, and 16th June), Wrzawy, 1812 - Grodno, Romanow,
1813 - Rumburg, Kirschenstein, Seidenberg, Haesslich,
Altenburg, Penig, Wachau
Colonels:
December 1806 - Michal Dabrowski
November 1808 - Konstanty Przebendowski
January 1813 - Jozef Sokolnicki
.
19 Battles and Combats: 1807 - Tczew, Gdansk, Guttstadt, Heilsberg, Friedland,
1809 - Grzybow, Wiazownia, Gora, Kock, Sandomierz (17-18th May),
Rozki, Baranow, Nowe Miasto, Wrzawy, 1812 - Smolensk, Borodino,
Chirikovo, Woronovo
Colonels:
December 1806 - Kazimierz Turno
March 1810 Zygmunt Kurnatowski
.
- 13th Hussar Regiment ("Silver Hussars")
15 Battles and Combats: 1812 - Mir, Romanow, Smolensk, Borodino, Chirikovo,
Woronovo, Maloyaroslavetz, Borisov, Beresina, 1813 - Hellensdorf,
Peterswalde, Sere, Pirna (9th Oct), Dresden, Pirna (17 Sept)
Colonels:
June 1809 - Jozef Tolinski
Feb 1813 - Jozef Sokolnicki
.
- Krakusi Regiment (Napoleon's "Pygmy Cavalry" or "Napoleon's Cossacks")
14 Battles and Combats: 1813 - Skarszew, Friedland, Georgenwalde, Strohweide, Neustadt,
Frohburg, Luntzenau, Zehma, Rotha, Zetlitz, Wachau, Leipzig, 1814 - Claye, Paris
Colonels:
March 1813 - Alexander Oborski
January 1814 - Jozef Dwernicki
This unit existed only 2 years.
The 1st Chasseur-a-Cheval Regiment at Leipzig, 1813.
~
Uniforms of Polish Cavalry
The uhlans wore dark blue uniforms.
The chasseurs-a-cheval wore dark green.
All uhlans wore dark blue breeches with double side straps, and
dark blue coat (kurtka) with regimental lapels and yellow buttons.
The tall, top-square shako was called czapka or
rogatywka and was a traditional headwear in the
Polish army. The edges of the top were
reinforced with yellow metal. White cords (red
for elite companies) hung from corner to corner.
Tall black plume was worn on the front peak of
the czapka (red for elite company and white for
senior officers). There were also in use some
non-regulation plumes cut "a la russe" or uncut
long horse hair cascading down from the top.
(Nafziger and Wesolowski - "Poles and Saxons of the Napoleonic Wars" p 51)
A yellow "Amazon's Shield" bore regimental number and a white metal eagle. Some regiments
however preffered a sunburst plaque with the eagle superimposed (the regiments formed in
Lithuania wore a mounted knight instead of eagle).
The men of elite company of uhlan regiment wore one of the three types of headwear:
- czapka sewn around with black lambskin (it looked like bearskin)
- colpack/busbie with red bag
- bearskin
The lance pennants were of different colors:
- red over white in 2nd, 3rd, 15th and 16th Uhlan Regiment
- red over white and a dark blue triangle at the shaft of the lance in 7th, 8th, 9th, 11th and 12th
Uhlans
- blue over white in 17th, 18th, 19th, 20th and 21st Uhlans
Uniforms of Polish uhlans 1809-1812:
Regiment Collar - Piping Turnbacks - Piping Side straps on breeches
2nd Red - White Dark Blue - Yellow Yellow
3rd Crimson - White Dark Blue - White Yellow
6th White - Crimson Dark Blue - Crimson Crimson
7th Yellow - Red Dark Blue - Red Yellow
8th Red - Dark Blue Dark Blue - Red Red
9th Red - Dark Blue Dark Blue - White Red
11th Crimson - Dark Blue Crimson - White Crimson
12th Crimson - White Dark Blue - White Crimson
15th Crimson - White Crimson - White Crimson
16th Crimson - White Dark Blue - Crimson Crimson
17th Crimson - Dark Blue Dark Blue - Crimson Crimson
18th Crimson - Dark Blue Crimson - White Crimson
19th Yellow - Dark Blue Dark Blue - Yellow Yellow
20th Crimson - Dark Blue Yellow - Dark Blue Yellow
21st Orange Orange Orange or Crimson

Left: trumpeter (white uniform, red lapels), and officer (black belt), both men from 2nd Uhlans in
1810
Center: private of centre company, and private of elite company (red plume), 2nd Uhlans in 1810.
Right: private of elite company (red plume), private of centre company, 8th Uhlans in 1810-1812.
The Polish chasseurs-a-cheval wore dark green coat (called kurtka) with yellow buttons. The tight
breeches were dark green. The black leather boots were below knee. The men of elite company wore
black colpack with a bag in regimental color. Red plume and red cords were attached to the colpack.
The men of center companies wore shako with metal plaque and white cords. The plume was in
regimental color (tipped with dark green).
Uniforms of Polish chasseurs-a-cheval:
Regiment Coat Collar Cuffs Turnbacks
1st Dark Green Red Red Red
4th Dark Green Crimson Crimson Crimson
5th Dark Green Orange Orange Orange
- - - -
Left: trumpeter (white uniform) and officer of 1st Chasseur Regiment in 1812.
Right: private of centre company and private of elite company (red plume)
Both men from the 1st Chasseur Regiment in 1810-1812.
The Polish hussars wore dark blue dolman and dark blue pelisse
with black fur for the 10th Hussar Regiment, or white fur for 13th
Hussars. (Nafziger - "Poles and Saxaons of the Napoleonic Wars" p 50)
The tight breches were dark blue with yellow (for 10th) or white
(for 13th) single side stripes and thigh knots. For campaign they
wore grey trousers with crimson side straps and the inside of the
legs strengthened with leather. All hussars wore Hungarian boots.
The shako was black (in 10th) or light blue (in 13th), with a tall
black plume attached on top of it. It looked awesome.
The men of elite company wore black colpacks with red cords and
red plumes. The senior officers distinguished themselves with
gold or silver cords and white plumes.
PS.
The cuirassiers were dressed like their French counterparts. The
breeches were white leather, the plume was red, the black boots
were reaching above the knees. The collar and epaulettes were
red. The helmet and cuirass were of French model. (Note: there
were no cuirasses after 1812).
Sources and Links.
Nafziger and Wesolowski - "Poles and Saxons ..."
Kukiel - "Wojny Napoleonskie"
Bielecki - "Grand Army" 1995
Chlapowski - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer"
Digby-Smith - "1813: Leipzig"
Pawlowski - "Polish-Austrian War of 1809" 1999
Zych - "Armia Ksiestwa Warszawskiego 1807-1812" 1961
Lukasiewicz - "Armia Ksiecia Jozefa 1813" MON, 1986
Salter and McLachlan - "Poland the Rough Guide."
Kukiel - "Wojna 1812", tom 1-2, Krakw 1937
Kukiel - "Dzieje Oreza Polskiego w Epoce Napoleonskiej, 1795-1815" 1912
Pachonski - "General Jan Henryk Dabrowski", Warszawa 1981
Gembarzewski - "Wojsko Polskie. Ksiestwo Warszawskie 1807-1814" 1912
Gembarzewski - "Rodowody pulkw i oddzialw rwnorzednych" 1925
Soltyk - "Accounts of the operations of the Army under the orders of
Prince Poniatowski during the 1809 campaign in Poland against the Austrians"
Pulaski, Father of the American Cavalry
Photo Gallery - troops of Duchy of Warsaw
Lighthorse-Lancers of the Guard: Chevaulegere-Lanciers de la Garde: Chevauleger-Lanciers der Kaisergarde
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Polish_Guard_Lancers.html[2012-05-21 12:39:39]
Lighthorse [-Lancers] of the Imperial Guard
" Generals Walther, Lefebvre-Desnouettes and Letort (all from the Guard Cavalry)
all congratulated me on my successful charges. I was delighted when one of them
said: "If anyone is braver or fights better than us, it's you Guard Lancers !"
- senior officer of the Guard Lancers, Leizpig Campaign 1813
"These people only know how to fight !"
"You are worthy of my Old Guard
I proclaim you my bravest cavalry !"
- Napoleon
They were limitlessly confident in Emperor's genius.
"We could have been asked to conquer the moon,
and we'd have responded with Forward, march !"
- Officer Zaluski
"Forward , you sons of dogs ,
the Emperor is looking at you !"
- Kozietulski at Somosierra, 1808
Introduction
Commanders
Uniforms
Weapons
Horses
In France
Campaigns and battles:
- - - - - - 1808: in Spain
- - - - - - 1809: in Austria
- - - - - - 1810-11
- - - - - - 1812: Invasion of Russia
- - - - - - 1812: Flight from Russia
- - - - - - 1813: heavy fighting in Germany
- - - - - - 1814: in France
- - - - - - 1815
Battle Record
.
.
Napoleon and his Foot and Horse Guards, by W Kossak.
Forward ! They went out and f****ng showed what they got attitude.
For the charge at Somosierra they were admitted to the Old Guard.
"From then on they were a legendary regiment." (- Col. John Elting)

Introduction.
Napoleon obtained the services of some of the
finest soldiers who ever served under him.
They were the crme de la crme of the
light cavalry.
In 1807 Napoleon authorized the raising of
a guard regiment of Polish light horse. His
main object in so doing was probably
political, a first token of his promise to
establish an independent Polish state.
Whatever his motives, he obtained the
services of some of the finest soldiers who
ever served under him. Qualifications for
enlistment were high. Applicants must be
landowners or the sons of landowners.
Some financial backing was certainly
necessary, as those accepted had to
provide their own uniforms, saddlery and
horses.
The men came mainly from Murat's Polish 'Honor Guard' and volunteers.
Majority of them were nobles and were better educated than rank and file
of the French Guard who - in big part - could only read and write. This
situation however was only in the beginning, later on their ranks were
filled up with veterans selected from every Polish cavalry regiment.
The Poles reached Paris, having established a considerable reputation for
drunkenness and disorder on the way. Under General Lasalle they were
given an intensive course in horsemanship and discipline. They soon
proved their value in action.
In November
1808, Emperor
Napoleon was
advancing on
Madrid. Across
his road lay the
Sierra de
Guadarrama,
crossed by the
Somosierra pass
defended by
12,000
Spaniards.
Marshal Victor,
commanding
the advanced
guard, set about
forcing the pass
by conventional
means, sending
infantry to the
high ground on
either side.
Napoleon was
impatient. He
ordered light
cavalry to storm the pass. When one of the French commanders raised not
unreasonable difficulties, the Emperor turned to the Poles who were acting
as his escort and told them to charge. One hundred and fifty horsemen
charged uphill for a mile and a half, storming four successive batteries,
two of them covered by earthworks. As they approached the crest the
Spaniards fired their cannons and muskets and fled. Eighty-three of the
Poles were casualties, including all seven officers. It was an incredible feat
for light cavalry.
At that time they were armed only with light cavalry sabers and carbines.
They were issued with lances in the following year (in the end of 1809).
Their uniform was Polish from the start; the square-topped caps or czapka,
jacket or kurtka was dark blue with crimson facing and white piping, the
trousers were also dark blue with crimson stripes. Officers were
distinguished by silver lace and piping. When lances were issued they had
pennants in the Polish colors, red over white.
by Richard J. Lysiak
Guard Lighthorse, by W Kossak
Qualifications for enlistment were high . Applicants must be
landowners or the sons of landowners. Some financial backing
was certainly necessary, as those accepted had to provide
their own uniforms, saddlery and horses.
~
Uniforms.
"The English at Waterloo (1815) reported that
the Polish trumpeters, and even the officers,
wore their white full dress uniforms faced
with crimson in battle ..." - Henri Lachoque
Headwear - square top Polish shako called
chapka (see picture)
Jacket - dark blue (called "Turkish blue")
Collar - crimson (cramoise)
Cuffs - crimson (cramoise)
Lapels - crimson (buttoned across a la anglaise)
Breeches - dark blue with crimson stripes
Senior officers wore silver and crimson sash for
parades. According to Ronald Pawly the
officers' zigzag silver lace embroidered round
the edges of the collar, lapels and cuffs in a frame of 3 silver lines were
unique in French army.
Picture: Guard lancer in campaign dress,
ready for combat.
For parade
- the protective cloth-cover of the
headwear [1] was removed and
the headwear was decorated with a white
plume.
- the crimson lapels were opened [2].
- the looser overalls [3] were changed into
his tighter trousers.
The overalls were called pantalon de voyage
were reinforced with leather
on the inside of each leg and around their
bottoms.
- the points of his schabraque were unhooked. [4]
During campaign the lance pennon was protected with a cover.
According to Henri Lachoque "The English at Waterloo reported that the
Polish trumpeters, and even the officers, wore their white full dress
uniforms faced with crimson in battle ..." It can be true that the officers
wore the parade outfit instead of the typical campaign uniform shown
above. For them it was probably a special moment, the war just started and
they hoped Napoleon's army will reach Poland, crush the Russians, and
then liberate their homeland. It was the whole purpose of fighting for
Napoleon.
Note: during the Waterloo Campaign in 1815 there was only one squadron
of the Polish (Old) Guard Lancers. They were attached to the Red Lancers
and formed the First Squadron in that regiment. The Red Lancers were
nicknamed by some as the Younger Brothers of the Polish Guard Lancers.
~
Weapons.
"Major Fredro returned from leave in Poland
bringing back manuals and exhibiting
amazing skill in handling the lance."
- Henri Lachoque
In the beginning the Guard Lighthorse were
armed with sabers, pistols and carbines with
bayonets. The sabers and pistols were
primarily drawn from captured Prussian
stocks, generally being of indifferent quality.
The Prussian weapons were gradually replaced
with excellent French weapons.
Henri Lachoque writes, "The Polish lighthorse
... had become lancers to satisfy the demand of
their chief Count Krasinski. Their training in
the new weapon began in earnest when Major
Fredro returned from leave in Poland bringing
back manuals and exhibiting amazing skill in
handling the lance. ... Dautancourt proposed
permitting only the front rank of a squadron to
carry lances for fear that in charging those in
the 2nd rank might injure the horses and men
in front. Furthermore, a lighthorseman armed
with a lance, carbine, bayonet, saber, and 2
pistols would hardly continue to be a
lighthorseman ! But Dautancourt was voted
down. All troopers of the regiment were
armed with lances ... Experience proved
Dautancourt correct."
Thus the lance was issued in the end of 1809 to troopers of both ranks.
However soon it had become evident that the 2nd rank in a charge didn't
need lances. From then on the Polish Guard Lighthorse-Lancers were
armed in an "old Polish style", that means only part of the troopers of the
1st rank were armed with lances.
German officer, Wilhelm Balck, writes: "The employment of the lance
requires that troopers and remounts be well developed physically, and
that the trooper be thoroughly trained in handling his horse and his
weapon. This may, perhaps, make it necessary in a campaign to arm
recruits with the saber only." To read more about lance, click here >>
.
Company of 125 chevaulegere-lancers
was armed as follow:
1st rank
4 brigadiers - saber, carbine, bayonet, pistol and lance
44 cavaliers - saber, pistol and lance
2nd rank
4 brigadiers - saber, carbine, bayonet, pistol
44 cavaliers - saber, carbine, bayonet, pistol
Others
3 trumpeters - saber, 2 pistols
2 blacksmiths - saber, pistol
9 lanciers - saber, pistol, lance
9 carabiniers - saber, carbine, bayonet, pistol
1 marechal-des-logis-chef - saber, 2 pistols
1 fourrier - saber, 2 pistols
Since the primary weapon of the Polish Guard Lighthorsemen became
lance,
they were renamed to Guard Lighthorse-Lancers (or simply Guard
Lancers).

The Poles were eager to show their skill with their traditional lance.
In 1809 in Vienna, NCO Jordan, called upon Guard Dragoons,
to "fight" him. Two veterans stepped out, he unhorsed both.
~
Horses
In 1810 the horses of Guard Lighthorse-Lancers were between 14 1/4 and
14 1/2 hands tall in "uniform groups of chestnuts, bay, black and dark
grey." In 1813 they rode on superb horses contributed by the German
princes and 600 horses purchased in Hannover.
Colors of horses during peacetime:

I Squadron - on chestnuts

II Squadron - on bays

III Squadron - on blacks

IV Squadron - on grays
During wartime however they accepted whatever good horses they got,
regardless of their color, with the bays and chestnuts being probably the
most numerous. The the most important thing however was that the
lighter horse of greater speed and endurance was prefered. After all they
were light cavalry.
~
Commanders
Colonels, Majors, and Chefs
In 1807-1808 the regiment consisted of 60 officers and approx. 1,000 other
ranks in four squadrons. The colonel of the regiment was Wincenty
Krasinski. There were also two majors, Delaitre and Pierre Dautancourt (or
d'Autancourt). Bboth were Frenchmen. In the history of regiment were
total of 195 officers of these 22 officers (or 11 %) were Frenchmen.
~
1807-1808:
Colonel Wincenty Krasinski
Major Pierre Dautancourt (from Elite Gendarmes)
Major Antoine-Charles-Bernard Delaitre (from Guard Mamelukes)
Adjutant-major Ignace-Louis Duvivier (from Guard Horse Grenadiers)
Adjutant-Major Ladislas Poleretzky (from Guard Horse Chasseurs)
Quartermaster Antoine Raulet (from Guard Mamelukes)
Paymaster - ?

I SQUADRON - Tomasz Lubienski

II SQUADRON - Jan Kozietulski

III SQUADRON - Ignacy Stokowski

IV SQUADRON - Henryk Kamienski
~
Colonel Count Wincenty Krasinski (or Vincent de Corvin-
Krasinski) was a Polish nobleman who began his military
career at the age of eight in 1791 in the National cavalry.
After the partitions of Poland, he became an enthusiastic
supporter of Napoleon and when the French army entered
occupied Poland, Wincenty Krasinski created a cavalry
squadron at his own expense.In 1807 he became the
commander of the Guard Lighthorse Regiment. In 1811 Krasinski
advanced in rank to General de Brigade and in 1813 to General de
Division. He was awarded the Polish Virtuti Militari in 1810 and the
French Legion d'Honneur in 1811. General Count Wincenty Krasinski was
father of Zygmunt Krasinski, one of Poland's greatest romantic poets.
~
In 1804 Pierre Dautancourt participated in the arrest and
execution of Duke d'Enghien, who was a relative of the
Bourbon kings of France. The judicial murder of Enghien
shocked the aristocrats of Europe. In his will, Napoleon
wrote: "I caused the Duc d'Enghien to be arrested and
judged, because it was necessary for the safety, interest, and
the honour of the French people when the Comte d'Artois, by his own
confession, was supporting 60 assassins at Paris. In similar circumstances I
would act in the same way again." To read more about Duke d'Enghien
and his death click here (ext.link)
~
Major Antoine-Charles-Bernard Delaitre was born on January
13, 1776. He became chef descadron in 1805, and then in
1807 was major in the Polish Guard Lighthorse. Few years
later Delaitre left the Poles and in 1811 became colonel of 7th
Regiment of Horse Chasseurs. Baron of the Empire in June
1809. Major Delaitre was 33-years old when he led the
squadrons of Poles in 1809 in Wagram.
~
In 1812 the Regiment of Guard Lighthorse Lancers formed entire cavalry
brigade:
4th Guard Cavalry Brigade - General de Brigade Wincenty Krasinski
Commander of the regiment - General de Brigade Jan Konopka
First Grosmajor - Pierre Dautancourt
Second Grosmajor - Prince Dominik Radziwill
Adjutant-major -
Adjutant-Major -
Quartermaster -
Paymaster -

I SQUADRON - Jan Kozietulski
He led the phenomenal charge at Somosierra in 1808 .
In 1812 Kozietulski saved the life of Napoleon himself

II SQUADRON - Dezydery Chlapowski
In 1813-1814 he led the extremely successful charges
against the Russian, Prussian, Bavarian, and Austrian
cavalry. He was praised by many French generals.

III SQUADRON - Jan Jerzmanowski
Ultra loyal to the Emperor. Napoleon took him on
Elba and to Waterloo. The Emperor once said that
Jerzmanowski would be a perfect cavalryman if not
his difficult to pronounce name :-)

IV SQUADRON - Piotr Krasinski

V SQUADRON - Seweryn Fredro

VI SQUADRON - Stanislaw Rostworowski
PS.
Some sources mention only five squadrons (total of 10 companies).
One company of Vistula Uhlans was attached to this regiment
and numbered 11th Company.
~
Jan Konopka was born in 1775 (1777 ?). In Polish army since
1792, in 1794 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. In
1795 entered the ranks of the French 1st Hussar Regiment.
Then served in the Legion of Lombardy where was
promoted to the rank of captain. Between 1797 and 1802 Jan
Konopka served in the grenadier battalion of the Legion of
Italy. In 1802 served in a cavalry as chef de escadron. In 1807 left Naples
and returned to Poland where served as a major in Polish 5th Horse
Chasseurs. In October he was awarded the Cross of Legion d'Honour for
the Battle of Friedland.
In 1807 Jan Konopka became the commander of the Vistula Uhlan
Regiment, the famous Picadors of the Hell.
Shortly, in 1812, Konopka commanded the Guard Lighthorse-Lancer
Regiment. In July he received the command over the newly formed 3rd
Guard Lighthorse-Lancer Regiment.
~
Prince Dominik Hieronim Radziwill was born in 1786. He came
from one of the most prominent Polish aristocratic families of
Lithuanian extraction-the Radziwills. Peter Paul Bajer writes:
"While other families prospered only for three, four
generations, Radziwills have not only kept their magnaterial
profile for over five hundred years, but have done so 'in style',
acquiring and maintaining great wealth and influence until the
beginning of World War II." (Peter Paul Bajer - "Een korte geschiedenis van de
familie-Radziwill: Rijkdom, invloed en prestige")
Young prince's passion were horses, top quality horses. He entered the
Polish army in 1810 and became the colonel of 8th Uhlan Regiment. Prince
Radziwill took part in Napoleon's Invasion of Russia in 1812 as Second
Major of Guard Lighthorse-Lancer Regiment. He died of wounds after the
battle of Hanau in 1813. Prince Radziwill was awarded with the Polish
Order of White Eagle and French Legion d'Honneur (for battle of Smolensk
1812).
~
Jan Leon Hipolit Kozietulski was born in 1781. As a young man
he joined the Polish cavalry and took part in the campaign in
1806-07 in Eastern Prussia (battles of Pultusk and Eylau). In
April 1807 Kozietulski became the commander of the III
Squadron of the Guard Lighthorse. In 1808 where he took part in
the battle of Somiserra. Kozietulski was one of the officers who
led the charge against the Spanish artillery and infantry and in
Poland remains the best-known veteran of that battle. (Napoleon awarded
him the French Legion d'Honneur after the battle.)
Kozietulski distinguished himself in 1809 in Wagram, and for his merits, in
1811 he became a baron of the empire. During the Invasion of Russia in
1812 Kozietulski commanded the I Squadron and again distinguished
himself in the battle of Maloyaroslavetz where he saved the life of
Napoleon himself. His uniform, pierced with a lance and stained with
blood, is preserved to this day in the museum of the Polish Army in
Warsaw. Kozietulski took part in the Saxon Campaign in 1813 and
disinguished himself in the battle of Reichenbach. In 1814 during the
campaign in France he was made the major of the 3rd Guard Eclaireur
Regiment. The 3rd Eclaireurs fought well in the battle of Paris, defending
the Montmartre area. They refused to follow Marshal Marmont's French
troops and surrender to the Russians. The 3rd Eclaireurs left Paris hoping
to join Napoleon in Fountainbleu. All three regiments of eclaireurs were
disbanded in June 1814. Kozietulski returned to Poland and died in 1821 in
Warsaw.
~
The Poles entered France.
In Paris the Poles were warmly welcomed by the Imperial Guard.
Napoleon brigaded the Poles with the Guard Horse Chasseurs
his personal escort and favorite cavalry unit.
When the Poles reached France and Paris, dinners, parties, and other
gayeties were treats to them after long marching. Henri Lachoque
describes their entry into France: "A third detachment appeared in January.
Passing through Chalons it ran afoul of the chief of police who reported:
'Each trooper is a law unto himself and races through the streets at full
gallop. Drunkenness is rife and discipline nonexistent. Marshal Kellermann
gave the Poles a warm welcome. He had known them of old and spoke
their language, being a veteran of their war of independence from Russia.
... In Paris the Poles were warmly welcomed by the Imperial Guard and
entertained at banquets at the Emperor's expense. The regiment was proud
that its members all came from Old Poland rather than 'South Prussia'."
The Poles met the famous General Lasalle (see picture). An
officer of the Poles wrote: "It was in Lasalle's school that
we learned outpost duty. We have kept a precious memory
of this general in whom all the lovable and imposing
qualities of a born marshal were combined ... He should
have replaced Murat to whom he was vastly superior ... "
In honor of the Poles, Lasalle composed a verse to the tune
of their regimental march which he immortalized by singing it as he led
them into battle:
The Poles were in a daily contact with the battle-hardened veterans of the
Napoleon's Imperial Guard (Horse Grenadiers and Horse Chasseurs). Soon
the Poles were fully trained and acquired discipline that made the
regiment outstanding. Napoleon brigaded the Polish chevaulegeres with
the Horse Chasseurs, his personal escort and favorite unit.
~
Campaigns and Battles.
" The French were once in Poland ,
Now the Poles have come to Spain ...
For Poles and Frenchmen, in one breath,
Could put all men on earth to death !"
- General Lasalle
1808: Campaign in Spain
The Battle of Somosierra or Battle of Madrid, in itself
would be forgotten by most, except for the valor of
the troops involved. - napoleonseries.org
In 1808 the regiment
was moved from
Poland, through France
and to Spain. Officer
Chlapowski wrote, "I
spent 3 days in
Bayonne, just at the
time when the old
Spanish king, Charles
IV, his queen, and the
Prince of Peace
[Godoy] were leaving
for Valencay, where the
Emperor was to
imprison them. ... The
Emperor also invited Ferdinand to Bayonne, but refused to recognize him
as king and packed him off to Valencay as well. ... The Emperor and
Empress lived in the palace of Marac a quarter of a mile from the city on
the road to Pamplona. ...
A battalion of Old Guard Foot Grenadiers were camped in tents by the
chateau, so close that only a carriage could pass between them and the wall.
Right beside them were 200 Basques from the Pyrenees, who had formed a
guard of honor for the Emperor. Their costume was a short blue jacket,
short black breeches ... They were fine looking, lively people, and reputedly
good shots. Five hundred paces further on along the Pamplona road was a
squadron of our Polish Guard Lighthorse under Captain Dziewanowski."
(Chlapowski/Simmons - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" p 33)
Chlapowski and his troop went on to Vittoria, Miranda and reached the
battlefield at Somosierra, about which they had been told on the way. There
were still several bodies of Polish lighthorsemen in the snow, which
continued to cover the summit of Somosierra. Chlapowski found some
severely wounded men who had not yet been transported ! They told him
about the charge, claiming all the officers and over half the men had been
killed and wounded. The ambulances soon arrived and took the wounded
to Madrid. "The action fought at the pass of Somosierra on 30 November
1808 marked the culmination of a dramatic campaign that had seen the
French army more than avenge Bailen. The Spanish armies had been swept
aside, whilst the emperor had reached the very gates of Madrid. At the
heart of this situation, it has often been argued, was the influence of Bailen."
(Esdaile - "The Peninsular War" p 109)
According to napoleon-series.org the Battle of Somosierra or Battle of
Madrid, in itself would be forgotten by most, except for the valor of the
troops involved. The main participant of the charge was the III Squadron of
Polish Guard lighthorsemen. The Spaniards refused to flee, they stubbornly
defended their guns to the very last and inflicted heavy casualties on the
attackers. The charge took between 7 and 25 minutes (Marian Kukiel gave
8-10 min., Kossak 7-8 min., and Niegolewski simply "several minutes'). The
Poles took 16 guns in frontal assault and broke through enemy's lines. The
battle was won.
De Segur gave a fascinating description of the charge, "We charged at full
speed, I was about 10 paces in front with my head bent down, uttering our
war cry by way of distracting my attention from the din of the enemy's fire
which was all breaking out at once and the infernal hiss of their bullets and
grape shot.
...
Our warlike cries were becoming lost in the cries of pain of the unfortunate
Poles; I did not dare to turn my head, fearing that the sad spectacle would
cause me to give up.
...
One officer alone was following me, Rudowski, I believe, a colossus, like
most of these picked men. He was still on horseback, but wounded to
death, staggering, and on the point of falling off with his face to the enemy.
...
Nearly the whole of the squadron was laid low ... 20 alone had escaped this
massacre safe and sound. These had assisted their wounded to retire, so
that, over the whole of the remaining ground covered by our charge. I only
saw one trumpeter left standing, motionless in the midst of the firing which
was still going on. The poor child was weeping for his squadron..."
Article: Battle of Somosierra, 1808

Charge at Somosierra from the movie "Ashes" by Wajda.
1809: Campaign in Austria.
"It was at Wagram that the Polish lighthorsemen
... had a bloody encounter with an enemy regiment
of lancers. With their sabers they overwhelmed
their opponents and then seized their lances, for
the lance was the favorite weapon of the Poles."
- Charles Parquin
In April 1809 the Guard Chevaulegers were sent to Westphalia to deal with
the rebelion against King Jerome Bonaparte. "The western group of rebels,
about 1 200 strong, displayed a similar lack of organization and met a
similar fate. Reaching the town of Wolfhagen, they had just been joined by
a group of like-minded (Westphalian) cuirassiers when GB Philippe de
Rivet Comte d'Albignac appeared at the head of the I Squadron of Guard
Chevaulegers.
Lancers lowered, the Poles stormed into the market place,
scattered the terrified insurgents and came upon the now
furtive Westphalian heavy cavalrymen. Demanded to
explain his presence, the cuirassiers' commander claimed
that he had been pretending to make common cause with
the rebels in order to escape capture and d'Albignac
accordingly sent him back to his regiment.
The departure of the (Westphalian) cuirassiers and the
fearsome demeanour of d'Albignac's guardsmen cleared the
air of all rebelious ardour and most of the would-be rebels
were back at their hearths by sunset. The cuirassier officer
prudently disappeared during the night." ( - John Gill, p 426)
In 1809 Napoleon confronted his implacable continental foe the Austrian
Empire. The court in Vienna was a nest of hawks these days. The Austrian
army became even larger. The new guns, the smell and feel of the fresh
military clothing, the comradeship of fellow men all contributed to the
mens growing sense of excitement about meeting the French army in
battle.
"Napoleon wanted as many Austrian officers as possible captured and sent
to his headquarters; he also ordered prisoners captured by Eugene at Raab
escorted by Polish Lighthorse, picked for their intelligence, who were to
chat casually with them and obtain all possible information concerning
their regiments." (Elting - "Swords Around a Throne")
The Guard Lighthorse fought at
Wagram. Henri Lachoque writes,
"The weather cleared, revealing a
superb view. In the distance the
Poles saw the Kahlenberg, its
summit still haunted by the ghost of
[King] Sobieski who had delivered
Vienna from the Turks in 1683."
(Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory" p
161).
"Then he [Napoleon] gave the
following orders: the Polish Guard
Lighthorse supported by the Guard Chasseurs-a-Cheval were to advance
at the gallop in front of the left wing of the Army of Italy; the Guard Horse
Artillery were to follow them, deploy on their left and fire into the flank of
the Austrians attacking Massena ... It was clear that there was no stopping
Macdonald, who was making good progress with the cuirassiers
advancing behind.
The Emperor called me to him and told me to deliver orders, first to the
Guard Lighthorse to charge the enemy facing them, and second, to the
Guard Chaseeurs-a-Cheval to support the charge. When he had finished
speaking and raised my hat in salute, as was our custom on receiving
orders from the Emperor, a cannon ball hit my headwear and hurled it
through the air. The Emperor roared with laughter and said to me: "It's a
good job you're not taller !'" (Chlapowski, - p 84)
Chlapowski
delivered the
orders to the
Polish Guard
Lighthorse
and French
Guard
Chasseurs-a-
Cheval to
attack the
Austrian
Schwarzenberg Uhlans and Latour Dragoons. The two front squadrons of
the Poles were commanded by Delaitre and the other two by Kozietulski
(the "Hero of Somosierra").
Delaitre was senior to Kozietulski but he was short-sighted and wore
spectacles. Seeing the uhlans preparing to charge, and overestimating their
strength, he decided that the regiment should retire on the Guard
Chasseurs-a-Cheval who were in support to the rear. Being the senior
officer he ordered the entire regiment to turn right about face. Kozietulski
saw the danger that the uhlans would catch the regiment from behind, and
so immediately gave the same order again. So having twice turned about
face, the Lighthorse again found themselves facing the Austrian uhlans.
Kozietulski ordered: "Advance at the trot !" The Poles fought well, they
captured 150 prisoners including several officers and the Duke of
Auersberg. Majority of the prisoners were Poles who no longer wanted to
serve in the Austrian army. It was the greatest 'catch' the regiment enjoyed.
The majority of the Austrian uhlans (also Poles) however were loyal to the
Austrian monarch and gave a very hard time for the Lighthorse. The
Guard Lighthorse Regiment suffered 26 killed and wounded, making it the
most costly cavalry-vs-cavalry combat in the history of the regiment. Even
the Prussian Guard Cavalry and the Russian Cossacks, dragoons and
uhlans in 1813 and 1814 were unable to inflict heavier casualties on the
Poles.
Austrian uhlans.
The fight with the Austrian uhlans at Wagram
was the most costly cavalry - vs - cavalry combat
in the history of the Guard Lighthorse Regiment.
But once the Poles got lances too, there was
nobody to stop them.
~
1810-11: in Netherlands.
Napoleon visited the Boulogne Camp on the coast.
"But that time we had got the Emperor back on to dry land,
for as soon as the [British] frigate appeared, our
vice-admiral had ordered us to return to port."
- Officer Dezydery Chlapowski
In 1810 and 1811 the regiment rested and enjoyed good time in France.
Many lighthorsemen were awarded, for example Kozietulski received
Legion d'Honneur and the title of baron of Empire. Colonel Wincenty
Krasinski was promoted to the rank of general.
The Poles also escorted
Emperor and his wife on their
trip to Belgium and to
Boulogne Camp on the coast.
Chlapowski writes, "In Spring
1811 I was ordered to take 150
of our lancers and 150 Guard
Chasseurs-a- -Cheval to
Boulogne, where the Emperor
was to make a visit. He arrived
soon after us. There was one
division there, in the same
camp which the whole army had occupied in 1804 preparing for the
invasion of England, and from which it had set off for Ulm, Austerlitz, and
later, Jena in 1806.
There were also a few hundred barges still in Boulogne, which had been
collected to transport the army to England. The Emperor had the division
put though its paces, then went on board one of the boats. I was detailed to
bring along 50 chasseurs, and the whole flotilla put to sea. The weather
was quite calm all morning, and our oarsmen had an easy job of it.
But around noon a west wind sprang up and 3 English ships appeared: a
frigate and two brigs. They were in full sail and made such a good speed
for Boulgne that they got there before the last boats and captured two of
them, with 40 occupants apiece. But that time we had got the Emperor
back on to dry land, for as soon as the frigate appeared, our vice-admiral
had ordered us to return to port. From Boulogne only 25 horsemen
escorted the Emperor to Flushing. There were 14 ships of the line and 4
frigates in the port.
The Emperor spent the night in one of the ships, the City of Warsaw. The
next day he inspected all the vessels, and after lunch went on to Antwerp.
Kozietulski then arrived with his detachment, which I joined up with at
Utrecht. As senior officer, he took over command of the escort. From
Amsterdam, the Emperor went with a squadron each of lancers and
chasseurs to explore the coastline as far as Texel and Helder, then returned
to Amsterdam.
I spent the winter of 1811-1812 much as I had the previous year. There was
a lot of talk about war with Russia, but it was only in May that any
decision was made and we marched off by way of Rheims, Verdun, Mainz,
Dresden, and Glogau, to Poznan." (Chlapowski, - pp 100-101)
~
1812: Invasion of Russia.
"Napoleon ordered a squadron of Poles to throw themselves into the river.
Unhesitatingly these elite troops do so . At first they ride in good order ,
and when they can no longer touch bottom they redouble their efforts. ...
About to be engulfed, they renounce their efforts, and turning their heads
towards Napoleon, shout Vive l'Empereur ! as they drown."
- de Segur
The Guard Lighthorse-Lancers spent the winter of 1811-1812 happily in
Paris. Chlapowski wrote "... the Emperor decided on his return from
Holland to provide entertainment for his much younger bride, and so
every day there was a reception or ball, sometimes in the Tuileries,
sometimes at the house of one of his sisters ...
Finally, in April, war with Russia seemed certain. We left our barracks in
Chantilly in early May and marched to Theims, then Verdun. There our
Polish officers became very friendly with some Englishmen who were on a
private tour of the continent, and these men said they wanted France to
defeat Russia so that our country could be recreated. I met there a Lord
Blanchy, a Lord Bogle, and some of their company. From Verdun we made
for Longwy and the Luxembourg, which is a very strong fortress with a
large garrison. ... We then passed through some beautiful country. The
views around Trier in particular were fabulous. ... In Vilnius (Wilno) we
were idle for two weeks." (Chlapowski, - pp 103-105)
A deputation came from Polish parliament in Warsaw to ask the Emperor
to announce the union of Lithuania and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, but
the Emperor gave an ambiguous reply which saddened many lancers.
One squadron served as escort to Marshal Davout, another squadron to
the Emperor himself. The regiment reached Wilia River and Napoleon
ordered Kozietulski's troop to chase off some Cossacks who had collected
on the far bank. One of the Polish officers wrote: "Our boys jumped into
the water and some were drowned, but the Cossacks disappeared."
Chlapowski writes: "From Vilnius we
eventually marched off with the
Emperor to Glebokie on the Vitebsk
Road. A few miles short of this city
there was a bloody skirmish at
Ostrowno ... One of our squadrons,
which was escorting Murat (see picture
below) in person, lost heavily on this
occasion as the King of Naples cared as
little for his own safety as for that of
anybody else. ... we came several times
upon Russian rearguard of Cossacks
and Lifeguard Hussars, but they never
once stood to fight. All they did each
time was sent out flankers to harry us,
while the main body retired. We caught
a few red cossacks (Lifeguard Cossacks).
They are a very tall and powerful race."
Chlapowski continues: "News reached the headquarters at Dabrowna that
a Russian force had crossed the Dnieper River ... The Emperor sent four
squadrons of Polish Guards under Kozietulski to investigate. We set off
after midnight, and ... arrived at a spot half mile from Katane. There we
encountered our first Cossacks. Our main body halted by some building
and one squadron went out to meet them. The Cossacks retreated off to
our left, towards the Dnieper. At about this time the sun rose and we were
able to see the country round about. To our front stood a line of cavalry on
the crest of a hill, screened by a few hundred Cossacks. Kozietulski now
recalled the first platoon, which had already come to grips with the
Cossacks, and he formed the leading squadron into line. The regular
cavalry must have been able to see our other three squadrons in support,
as they did not move from their position.
But the Cossacks approached with increasing boldness, firing with their
ancient pistols. As we sent nobody out to skirmish with them, they came
closer and closer, shouting; 'Lachy !' (slang for Poles) when they discovered
we were Polish.
A Cossack officer on a fine grey
horse came as close as a 100 paces,
perhaps less, and in good Polish
challenged us to meet him in single
combat. Kozietulski forbade any of
us to move. The Cossack jumped
from his horse and cried; 'Now you
can catch me !' He then took off his
cap and waved it in the air, then
having concluded that he would not
provoke us, he leapt on his horse and
rejoined his men.
The Cossacks must have fired a hundred shots at us, but not one hit its
target. Cossack will not charge even a lone squadron if is in good order.
They like best to rackle individuals, whom they taunt in order to lure them
out of the way, entrap them, and take them prisoner. For that reason you
should never let impetous, bold, or excitable troopers go out and skirmish
with Cossacks." (Chlapowski - pp 111-112)
The beautiful city of Smolensk is located on the left bank of Dnieper River.
Chlapowski writes: "From the Emperor's tent we could see all of Smolensk
... There were masses of Cossacks circling in front of the city. Between the
French line and the city walls was a massive gully into which the Cossacks
had spilled. As I was on duty that day, I was ordered by the Emperor to
take a squadron and force the Cossacks wiwthdrew.
Coming up out of the ditch on the far side, I deployed the squadron in a
single line, as I expected the enemy to shoot at us from the walls.
Sure enough, they fired a number of howitzer shells, one of which
exploded in the middle of the squadron. A few men were wounded, and
some horses broke ranks in fright, so the Cossacks seized the moment to
charge us. They were upon us very quickly, and I had to parry one of their
lances with my saber. I damaged the lance but did not cut right through it,
and it struck my horse's head, wounding it from its ears to the nostrils.
Captain Skarzynski accounted for 2 or 3 Cossacks. Cossack lances are
longer than ours, and in a close fight they handled less well. Our squadron
repulsed this attack and sent the Cossacks back to the shelter of their
walls."
After the battle of Smolensk Napoleon's army kept following the Russian
army and reached the village of Borodino. On the day of battle the Guard
Lighthorse-Lancers spent the whole time in a hollow, and only once
moved to higher ground, and that was when the French, Polish and Saxon
cuirassiers charged the Russian infantry in Raievski Redoubt. The regiment
moved in support and charge in turn if the heavies were repulsed. The day
after battle the Poles and the Red Lancers set off to the south of the great
Moscow Road.
In the Polish Guard Lancer Regiment served men from eastern
parts of Poland and from Lithuania who spoke some Russian
language. These were used as translators or put into the
advance guard. They would speak Russian to anybody they
came across and pass themselves off as Russian troops. Some of
the locals knew that the Russian army had uhlan regiments, so they
mistook the Polish Guard for one of those units. The Dutch 'Red Lancers'
had no knowldge of Russian language, so General Colbert (see picture)
added 1 or 2 Poles to each Dutch outpost.
At Famonskoie the Cossacks ambushed and captured a whole Dutch
detachment. General Colbert mounted his horse and set off with 2
squadrons in pursuit, but the Cossacks made off with their prisoners so
quickly that all that could be seen were their hoof prints in the mud. The
Poles moved on the Moscow-Kaluga Road and captured a post chaise, in it
was Minister Guriev. General Colbert sent him to the Emperor under
escort.
In Moscow, officer Chlapowski was ordered to leave 1 officer and 25
lancers in the Kremlin where Napoleon was. Chlapowski was given
quarters in the palace of Prince Lubanov, Colonel Krasinski in the palace of
Baryshnikov, the great banker. To Chlapowski's disgust, many soldiers
tried to sell their comrades goods they had looted for free. There were
stockpiles of fur coats and hats. He writes: "Before leaving we equipped
our entire regiment with fur hats." The French officers found few French
actors in Moscow and arranged daily performances. The audience
consisted exclusively of soldiers.
~
1812: Flight from Russia.
One of the Polish lancers lost his headwear in a skirmish .
Jerzmanowski ordered him to go back and retrieve it
to prevent the enemy from claiming any trophy taken
from this regiment. It was unusual order since many
French troops panicked before Cossacks and left
behind their wounded, weapons, not to mention
headwears.
In late October the Guard Lighthorse-Lancers left
Moscow and after several days was in Mozajsk.
Near Malo-Yaroslavetz the Cossacks attacked
Napoleon's headquarters at Gorodnia [Horodnia].
The only troops with the Emperor was the Duty
Squadron of the Guard Lighthorse-Lancers under
Kozietulski (see picture).
Kozietulski's men threw themselves at
the swarm of Cossacks, Kozietulski was
pierced by lance "which entered his
shoulder as far as the bone." His
uniform, pierced with a lance and
stained with blood, is preserved to this
day in the museum of the Polish Army
in Warsaw.
There then appeared the Old Guard Horse
Grenadiers in line formation and the Cossacks
disappeared into the forest. (In Museum of the Polish Army in Warsaw is
exhibited his uniform with the visible hole in the sleeve and stained in
blood). The Cossacks returned in large numbers and surrounded the Red
Lancers on three sides. The Dutch lost more than 100 men while the Poles
lost 20 killed and wounded.
Chlapowski writes: "This was the fault of General Colbert, (ext.link) who
over-reacted to the threat to an isolated squadron by hurling everything he
had at the enemy. We could have avoided suffering losses if he had
charged with only a few squadrons and followed up with the rest of the
brigade at a slow and orderly pace. You should never engage your whole
strength at once, especially when dealing with Cossacks. This was the
worst loss we suffered during the entire Russian campaign.
The Dutchmen were less experienced than our men and did not know how
to handle Cossacks. Every time they were in the rearguard they would lose
a few men, and the Cossacks were becoming increasingly bold in attacking
them. So one day Colbert ordered a squadron of our boys to swap their
white greatcoats for the Dutch ones." (to confuse the enemy) The
Dutchmen were brave men, no doubt about it, but not well suited for this
campaign. The Poles, whose homeland habitually suffered bitter winters
and cold winds from the east, will have been better prepared for the
hardships, mentally and perhaps physically.
After the battle of Krasne Napoleon moved toward Smolensk. Marshal
Murat ordered the Guard Lighthorse-Lancers to follow him at the trot and
then ordered to charge right in to the village occupied by Russian jagers.
The Poles suffered 10 killed and wounded before they reached the center
of the village.
The cavalry was unable to gallop in deep snow,
they lost several horses to close range fire, came
out the other side and formed up again.
Napoleon was furious at Murat and sent a single
infantry company of the Foot Grenadiers of Old
Guard (see picture) who took the village without
a single shot. The Foot Grenadiers also freed
several Poles who had been unhorsed and taken
prisoner by the jagers. Chlapowski was greatly
impressed with the Grenadiers, saying that they
"stood as solid as a wall."
During the retreat from Russia the 7th Company
of Polish Guard Lighthorse-Lancers and the
French Guard Horse Chasseurs formed
Napoleon's escort. Napoleon said to the Poles: "I count on you. In case of
certain danger I want you to kill me rather than let me be captured." The
Poles responded: "We shall all be hacked to pieces rather than permit
anyone to approach you !" The rest of the Guard Lighthorse-Lancers
escorted Emperor's money and baggage. Henri Lachoque writes: "Dressed
in a Polish costume consisting of a green pelisse and a cap of marten fur,
Napoleon had so far traveled in his closed carriage." (Lachoque - "The
Anatomy of Glory" p 251)
The lancers also guarded their regimental cook Garlinski "like hawks". He
busy himself cooking whatever the lancers collected, flour, beef and horse
meat. Every morning before setting off, every lancer would receive a round
of bread and a piece of meat. They crossed the Niemen River at Kovno, left
the hostile territory behind and entered Lithuania and then Poland.
Napoleon in Russia, winter 1812.
During the retreat from Russia the French Guard Horse Chasseurs
and the Polish Guard Lancers formed Napoleon's personal escort.
Napoleon said to the Poles: "I count on you. In case of certain
danger I want you to kill me rather than let me be captured."
The Poles responded: "We shall all be hacked to pieces rather
than permit anyone to approach you !"
~
1813: heavy fighting in Germany.
Only very few regiments attained the perfection of changing formation
at gallop without losing its order. At Reichenbach despite the fact they
were under heavy artillery fire, the Guard Lancers made half-turn and
crushed enemy's cavalry without losing its alignment.
After the
retreat from
Russia and
massive
losses the
regiment
was forced
to accept
many
young
soldiers
without
battle
experience.
In April 1813 the regiment had only 531 men in 3 squadrons and was part of 1st
Guard Cavalry Division. In mid August 1813 the strength of the regiment
increased to 1380 men in 7 squadrons !
In 1813 the Guard Lancers took part in many battles and combats. At Dresden
they suffered from Allies artillery fire. Officer Julian Krasinski had his head
taken off by cannonball in front of the regiment. Officer Kruszewski was
mortally wounded.
At Hanau "Colonel Dautancourt and his Polish lancers sabered the Bavarian
light-horse (see picture) so effectively that General Nansouty announced that
the Colonel [of Guard Lighthorse-Lancers] 'might consider himself promoted to
major general." (Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory" p 323)
On September
16th 1813 at
Peterswalde the
Poles put to rout
the Prussian Life
Hussars. NCO
Mierzejewski
wounded
Colonel Friedrich
von Blucher, a
relative of the
well-known
General Blucher,
and took him prisoner. Officer Jankowski was awarded with a star of the Lgion
d'honneur and the whole regiment won fame.
In May 1813, near Gorlitz (today Zgorzelec), General Walther was ordered to
take all regiments of the cavalry of Imperial Guard and move to the right.
Walther's force met Russian rearguard at Reichenbach. Chlapowski describes
the actions of his regiment: "We marched off by platoons, and crossing the fields
at a trot we covered about 0.5 mile until we came to a deep ditch full of trees.
There we had to halt and cross slowly in pairs. As soon as my 2 squadrons had
crossed, General Lefebvre-Desnouettes ... ordered me to see off a mass of
Cossacks that had appeared to our front. I formed line with my two squadrons
and advanced toward the enemy.
The Cossacks retired before us firing their side arms. We followed them for 300
paces, while the next two squadrons under Jerzmanowski (in 1815 commander
of Elba Squadron) crossed the ditch behind us. We came upon a second ditch ...
The Cossacks halted on the far side, and kept up a lively fire from behind the
trees. They began moving against us again, but as soon as we begun to cross
this ditch in a couple of places, they resumed their retreat.
When we had crossed the second ditch, we saw a line of regular cavalry beyond
the Cossacks. After we had advanced 500 paces I could make out four
squadrons: two of dragoons in the center, with one of lancer on either side.
Once my squadrons had crossed the ditch and reformed into line, we began
slowly to advance.
General
Lefebvre-
Desnouettes
(see picture)
arrived in a
rush and said I should
charge. But he did not
say this as an order, and
he added that he trusted
my judgement. ... We
were still about 500
paces from the enemy,
so I said to the general,
who was riding beside
me: 'If you permit me to
advance at a walk for
another 150 paces, and
then to move straight
into a charge, I vow I
can shatter the enemy's center.' He agreed and returned to the squadrons that
were crossing the ditch behind us.
We continued at a walk for another 300 paces, and I instructed both squadrons
to go hell for leather as soon as I sounded the charge. They were not lower their
lances, however, but should point them at the enemy's faces. ...
We were perhaps 200 paces away when I ordered, 'Charge !' and in the blinking
of an eye we were upon them. ... The melee lasted but a few seconds.
From the moment we struck, the enemy fell into confusion and began to retreat,
even including the uhlans who had no foe to their front.
I did not see how many men fell because I had passed through their line so
quickly. My squadrons had themselves become disordered and individuals
were chasing after those of the enemy whose horses were weakest, and
ordering them to dismount."
"But shortly I
saw a second
enemy line
approaching,
all of them
uhlans. I
stopped my
horse, and had
only begun to
restore order
to the ranks
when this line
began a
charge. I was
obliged to
reform as best
I could,
'Forward !
March !'
otherwise they
would have
caught us stationary, which you should never let the enemy do. ...
As they charged, the Russian uhlans lost some of their dressing, but they still
came on and broke into our line. They outnumbered us, and we should certainly
have been beaten if Jerzmanowski had not come up with his two squadrons. He
was the very best field officer in the regiment ... and with a fine, cool
judgement. At just the right moment he struck the enemy from our left flank,
having come up close at a walk to save energy for his charge."
"The [Russian] uhlans retreated almost faster than they had charged. A dozen or
so fell into our hands. ... The uhlans had disappeared, and our four squadrons
reformed into line.
We had advanced quite a way ahead of the Guard Chasseurs-a-Cheval
... and so General Lefebvre-Desnouettes ordered us to halt."
"Then another
regiment
regiment of
Russian uhlans
appeared ... and
advanced toward
us in line. But
when it was still
500 paces away it
broke into a
gallop. Lefebvre-
Desnouettes ...
again wanted us
to counter-
charge.
Jerzmanowski,
who knew the
general very well,
told him there was no point in charging, as the enemy had begun to gallop far
too soon; they would soon lose formation and would never reach us."
"Sure enough, their line shortly broke up, a few dozen pulled ahead and the
majority began to slow down. Nobody came any closer to us than 100 paces. ...
General ordered two platoons to form skirmish order and go out to meet them.
They brought back half a dozen or more of the slowest horsemen. We
discovered they weren't lances, but regular Ukrainian Cossacks. ... The Cossacks
had retreated and were reforming a very long way away from us.
This proved them to be very young recruits, whose officers were probably no
better. ... Now General Walther appeared, and after complimenting us on our
charge he ordered us to march off by platoons to the left and advance up the
slope ... "
There was unwritten law to not maneuver in front of enemy's cavalry - too often
it ended up in a disaster. Only very few regiments attained the perfection of
changing the formation at gallop without losing its order and in front of the
enemy. At Reichenbach the Guard lancers got under artillery fire, made half-
turn and crushed enemy's cavalry without losing its alignment.
Chlapowski writes: "When we were about 60 paces from the hussars they
turned and fled, and did not stop until they had passed through a regiment of
cuirassiers, behind which they began to reform. ... Shortly after we had charged
the hussars, the Guard Chasseurs-a-Cheval came over to support us.
General Walther must have seen the line of enemy cuirassiers. First came the
Mamelukes ... and launched a charge straight into the cuirassiers. The enemy
commander could not have believed that a single squadron would attack his
brigade. ... It's true that our four squadrons were also advancing toward the
cuirassiers, but they gave us no chance to attack as they retreated in a rabble
upon their second line. We were promptly ordered back to our original position,
facing Miloradoich's guns. ... a hail of balls and shells came in our direction ...
One shell exploded between me and Cpt Jankowski. A fragment struck his lip ...
and another hit me with more force on the right shoulder. But I was able to stay
on my horse, and only dismounted when the fighting was over. ... Generals
Walther, Lefebvre-Desnouettes and Letort all congratulated me on my
successful charges. I was delighted when one of them said: "If anyone is braver
or fights better than us, it's you Poles !"
Napoleon's Guard Lancers vs Russian cavalry at Reichenbach in 1813.
"Then another regiment regiment of Russian uhlans appeared ... and advanced toward us in line.
But when it was still 500 paces away it broke into a gallop. Lefebvre-Desnouettes ... again wanted us
to counter-charge. Jerzmanowski, who knew the general very well, told him there was no point in
charging,
as the enemy had begun to gallop far too soon; they would soon lose formation and would never
reach us."
"Sure enough, their line shortly broke up, a few dozen pulled ahead and the majority began to slow
down.
Nobody came any closer to us than 100 paces." - Chlapowski
The Guard
Lancers then
marched to
Haynau and
camped there
until Napoleon
arrived.
Napoleon
ordered the
Cavalry of the
Imperial Guard
circle the town of
Lignica (?) in
order to catch
any enemy that
might still be
retreating.
Chlapowski writes: "As soon as my two squadrons had crossed, I led them
rapidly out of the village ... "
When we arrived in the open again I saw four squadrons standing in line. So I
turned my line to face them and just as we did so, they began to advance and
their trumpeters sounded the charge. I advanced to meet them. ... They stopped,
turned right around, and began to retreat just as we fell upon them. As might be
expected, they routed. Their slowest troopers fell into our hands and we'd have
captured more if their infantry had not been in column close by. ...
We camped that night at the spot where we had captured these troopers. They
turned out to be from the Prussian Guard Cavalry Regiment, and included
hussars, dragoons, and a few Berlin cossacks, whose beards were longer than
those of the Don Cossacks. ... On May 30 we went with Flahaut (Napoleon's
ADC), on a reconnaissance toward Jaworz ... Flahaut climbed to the top of a
windmill, from which he could see several Cossack regiments ..."
Note: The routed Prussian unit was not the prestigous Garde du Corps [Garde
zu Pferde] but rather the Guard Light Cavalry Regiment [Leichtes Garde-
Kavallerie-Regiment].
Guard Lighthorseman vs Prussian Death Head's hussar.
This picture is not authentic in its details but is evidence
of the enduring interest in the regiment.
~
1814: in France.
Napoleon abdicated on 6 April. Krasinki, wearing his parade uniform
announced the news to his lancers and all began to weep.
They regreted they had not all been killed before hearing
that anyone had dared demand Napoleon's abdication.
Loud cries for vengeance were heard.
In 1814 as the Emperor struggled to
thwart the advance of the Russian,
Prussian and Austrian armies on
Paris, his tactics put the Polish
lancers to the most gruelling of
physical and psychological tests.
They distinguished themselves in
every engagement they fought:
Brienne, Montmirail, Vauchamps,
Montereau, Craonne, Rheims and
Paris. In these battles they fought as
part of the Guard Cavalry Division
and not as a regiment only. But still
certain individuals managed to distinguish themselves in combat.
"Major Skarzynski of the Old Guard Lancers performed prodigies of valor.
Overwhelmed and ridden down by a flood of Cossacks, he wrenched an
"especially heavy" lance from one of them and - wild with the outraged
fury of despair - spurred amuck down the road, bashing every Cossack
skull that came within his reach. Rallying and wedging in behind him, his
Polish handful cleared the field. The same day Napoleon made Skarzynski
the Baron of the Empire. (Snatching a lance from a Cossack, he created a
void around him by knocking over the fugitives in his path and running
the rest through with his lance." - Henri Lachoque)
The lancers took part in the capture of the bridge at Berry-au-Bac.
"Nansouty, with the Polish Lancers and the 2nd Guard Cavalry Division,
was ordered to seize the crossing; the Cossack vedettes posted on the left
bank retired across the bridge at a gallop, with the Poles close on their
heels. The attack was so sudden and so fierce that the enemy had no time
to man their defences; both cavalry and infantry fled through the village,
leaving their 2 guns and 200 prisoners in the hands of the French.
Prince Gagarine was captured by an old sergeant of (Old Guard)
Dragoons, a veteran of Egypt and Italy with 23 years' service, who was
decorated by the Emperor on the following day. The passage was now
open; Ney's corps crossed first, followed by Old Guard (infantry) under
Friant, and took post between Berry-au-Bac and Corbeny, with Nansouty's
(Guard) Cavalry in advance. The other troops followed, and they were not
all across until the 7th." (Houssaye - "Napoleon and the campaign of 1814" pp
142-143)
Napoleon abdicated on 6 April. On April 7th he called for volunteers from
his Old Guard to serve in his guard on Elba Island. The Allies allowed for
500 infantrymen, 120 cavalrymen and 120 artillerymen. Generals Petit and
Pelet were soon swamped with requests. Many officers asked to serve as
simple privates.
Krasinki, wearing his parade uniform announced to his lancers that "God
has visited misfortune upon the Emperor" and all began to weep. They
regreted they had not all been killed before hearing that anyone had dared
demand Napoleon's abdication. Loud cries for vengeance were heard
along with "Vive l"Empereur!" Lances were raised and the cavalry
spontaneously moved toward Fontainebleau. They passed through
Nainville before Sebastiani's ADC halted them. Krasinski galloped off to
headquarters to protest that his duty and honor called him to Napoleon's
side, since it was not to France but to Napoleon that his lancers had
pledged their lives.
The Guard Lighthorse-Lancer Regiment was split into three groups:
- one squadron of Poles under Jerzmanowski remained with Napoleon
- the remaining squadrons of Poles left for Poland
- all Frenchmen under Dautancourt were turned over to the Guard Horse
Chasseurs
The Poles sent the following memorial to Napoleon: "Sire: Released from
our obligations, we come with one accord to place at Your Imperial
Majesty's feet the arms that no man could take from us by force. ... As
Poles we have served the most amazing man of the century ... Sire, accept
the homage of our eternal loyalty, maintained under the most trying
circumstances ..." Then, with trumpets soundingm this fine unit marched
past the chateau and on to Paris, Nancy, and Poland, after serving more
than 7 years and winning the esteem of Emperor, the Imperial Guard, and
the French Army.
Guard Lancer, by Andrea.
"Major Skarzynski performed prodigies of valor.
Snatching a lance from a Cossack , he created a
void around him by knocking over the fugitives
in his path and running the rest through with
his lance." - Henri Lachoque
~
1815: in Belgium.
"The Poles' silver trumpets may have sounded
the last charge of the Guard [at Waterloo]."
Henri Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory"
When Napoleon was forced to abdicate, Jerzmanowski was chosen as the
commander of cavalry volunteers who were allowed to accompany the
Emperor to Elba Island. Jerzmanowski didn't like only one thing about
Napoleon: the Emperor was unable to correctly pronounce his name ;=)
These men were carefully selected and served as guard of Napoleon:
- infantry battalion (607 foot grenadiers and foot chasseurs of Old Guard)
- cavalry squadron (125 Polish Guard lancers, and 7 Guard chasseurs-
acheval)
- artillery battery (100 gunners of Old Guard)
Mark Adkin writes: "A squadron of Polish lancers under Chef d'Escadron
Jerzmanowski and Major Roul - 125 men divided into a mounted company
of 22 under Capitaine Schultz (a giant over 2.13 metres who was present at
Waterloo); a dismounted company of 96 under Capitaine Balinski... There
was also a group of 7 chasseurs and Mamelukes commanded by
Lieutenant Seraphin (a Mameluke...) The lancers had a white standard
emblazoned in crimson with the words, 'Polish Light-Horse, Napoleon
Squadron' with a crowned 'N' on the reverse." (Adkin - "The Waterloo
Companion" p 14)
Henri Lachoque wrote: "Major Raoul, carrying a brace of loaded pistols,
and two Polish Guard Lancers escorted Napoleon every day." There were
horse races in which the Poles competed against the Elbans on their wild
horses. For the opening of the carnival Princess Pauline organized a
costume ball at which Malet appeared as the Sultan and Captain Schultz of
Polish lancers as Don Quixote, to whom he bore a striking resemblance.
On Napoleon's return from the Elba Island, Jerzmanowski's squadron
formed a supernumerary but senior squadron to the 2nd Regiment of
Guard Lancers (Red Lancers). A Young Squadron had been planned but
not completed. Only a single squadron of the Poles was at Waterloo. "The
Poles' silver trumpets may have sounded the last charge of the Guard [at
Waterloo]." (Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory" p 471)
The war was over and the veterans returned home. "... Lieutenant
Markiewicz of the Polish Lancers lived in 3 centuries. He was born in
Cracow in 1794 fought in Russia, charged at Waterloo and was still alive in
1902." (Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion" p 207)
Spring 1815 : Napoleon with his die-hards, the
Old Guard Grenadiers and Old Guard Lancers.
~
Battle Record of the Polish Lighthorse-Lancers
of the Imperial Guard.
.
The undefeated: Old Guard
Horse Grenadiers (right) and
the Old Guard Lancers (left).
The two cavalry regiments
were never defeated by enemy's
cavalry in combat.
For more info click here
.
.
Battle Record:
14th July 1808 - Medina del Rio
Seco
10th Oct 1808 - Burgos
30th Nov 1808 - Somosierra
22nd May 1809 - Essling
6th July 1809 - Wagram
28th June 1812 - Wilno
22nd July 1812 - Mohylw
16th Aug 1812 - Smolensk
7th Sep 1812 - Borodino
25th Oct 1812 - Malo-Yaroslawec
17th Nov 1812 - Krasnoje
28th Nov 1812 - Berezina
2nd May 1813 - Weissenfelds/Ltzen
19th - 21st May 1813 - autzen
22nd May 1813 - Reichenbach
21st Aug 1813 - Grlitz
27th Aug 1813 - Drezno
16th Sep 1813 - Peterswalde
24th Sep 1813 - Hochkirchen, Altenburg
18th - 19th Oct 1813 - Leipzig
30th - 31st Oct 1813 - Hanau
30th Oct 1813 - Nieder - Isingheim
27th Jan 1814 - St. Dizier
29th Jan 1814 - Brienne
1st - 2nd Feb 1814 - La Rothire
10th and 14th Feb 1814 - Chaumpaubert
11th Feb 1814 - Montmirail
12th Feb 1814 - Chteau - Thierry
14th Feb 1814 - Vauchamps
14th Feb 1814 - Villeneuve
18th Feb 1814 - Montereau
24th Feb 1814 - Troyes
3rd March 1814 - Rocourt
4th March 1814 - Braisne
5th March 1814 - Berry-sur-Aube
7th March 1814 - Craonne
8th March 1814 - Laon
13th March 1814 - Reims
18th March 1814 - Fere Champenoise
20th - 21st March 1814 - Arcis-sur-Aube
23rd March 1814 - Vitry
26th March 1814 - St. Dizier
29th March 1814 - Bourget
30th March 1814 - Paris
16th June 1815 - Quatre Bras
18th June 1815 - Waterloo
Napoleon's Polish Lancers (tribute video)
" ... I ordered, 'Charge !' and in the blinking of an eye we were upon them.
...
The melee lasted but a few seconds. From the moment we struck, the
enemy
fell into confusion and began to retreat" - Officer Dezydery Chlapowski
Battle of Reichenbach, 1813
Sources and Links.
Zaluski - "Wspomnienia o pulku lekkokonnym Gwardii Napoleona I"
Bielecki - "Somosierra 1808"
Gates - "The Spanish Ulcer"
Kukiel - "Dzieje Oreza Polskiego w Epoce Napoleonskiej, 1795-1815"
Gembarzewski - "Wojsko Polskie. Ksiestwo Warszawskie 1807-1814"
Rousselot - 'Napoleon's Guard Cavalry"
Bielecki - "Szwolezerowie Gwardii"
Bukhari - "Napoleon's Guard Cavalry"
Gill - "With Eagles to Glory"
Chlapowski - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" (translated by Tim Simmons, USA)
(Tim Simmons writes: "Chapowski certainly admired the French army, but he did not write his memoirs in order to glorify
Napoleon or to puff up the reputation of the French military machine. He was a foreigner of junior rank who at the same time
had priviledged access to the Emperor's Court. As such, he betrays neither the implausible boasting of Marbot, nor self-
justification of Marshal Macdonald. He is able to say that the fighting at Aspern in 1809 convinced him that the French infantry
was the best in the world, yet he makes no bones about the rout of Ney's conscripts at Lutzen ...")
The Vistula Uhlans : Lanciers polonais de la lgion de la Vistule: Polnische Ulanen
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Polish_Vistula_Uhlans.html[2012-05-21 12:39:45]
Vistula Uhlans, the "Picadors of the Hell"
"Some of the most feared cavalry in Napoleon's armies
were the Polish lancers of the Vistula Uhlans."
- wikipedia.org 2007
The regiment "performed its drill with such speed and accuracy
that all the French officers declared there was no finer
cavalry regiment in the army ..." Dezydery Chlapowski
Introduction
Organization
Commanders
Uniforms
.
.
Campaigns and battles
- - - The regiment of Polish uhlans
- - - was formed in 1790s ... in Italy.
- - - In 1800 at Hohenlinden, the Uhlans
- - - and French chasseurs have captured
- - - Prince Lichtenstein and took 800
- - - Austrian prisoners.
- - - In 1807 at Struga (Strigau), 240 Uhlans
- - - routed 1.400 Prussian infantry and cavalry
- - - and captured 4 guns and 830 prisoners.
- - - In 1808 at Saragossa, the uhlans,
- - - fed up with Spanish sniping,
- - - stormed an entrenched camp.
- - - After the battle of Mallen,
- - - the Spaniards nicknamed them
- - - "Los Diablos Polacos."
- - - At Ybenes in 1809 the Uhlans
- - - lost all four Colors to the Spaniards.
- - - At Talavera the Uhlans crushed
- - - the British 23rd Light Dragoons.
- - - Glory at Ocana. The cavalry charge was
- - - "executed with great vigor, especially by
- - - the Poles" - William Napier
Officer of the Vistula Uhlans.
In 1806 the fortress of Stettin surrendered to the French cavalry .
(An incredible thing in the annals of military history) But there
was no fighting, the P r u s s i a n s were bullied into surrender.
During the siege of Saragossa " ... fed up with Spanish sniping,
the Lancers of the Vistula climbed down from their saddles and
stormed an entrenched Spanish camp near Saragossa .. During
the first phase of the siege they charged a fortified city. They
penetrated essentially right to its center. Unsupported and
alone the lancers had to charge back out."
(- Col. John Elting, US Army)
- - - 1811 : Glory at Albuera.
- - - The uhlans and hussars destroyed British
- - - infantry brigade, routed British dragoons
- - - and Spanish cavalry. Five Colors were taken.
- - - 1812.
- - - Napoleon ordered the uhlans go to Russia,
- - - but French marshals refused to follow this
- - - order and kept them as personal escorts.
- - - Decline of uhlans' esprit de corps.
- - - 1813:
- - - At Dresden the uhlans led a massive
- - - cavalry charge under Marshal Murat.
- - - 1814 : more fighting.
- - - 1815 : The Vistula Uhlans were highly
- - - praised by Marshal Davout.
Introduction.
In 1808 Emperor Napoleon stated that the Vistula Uhlans
were to be treated on a par with French chasseur regiments.
"The Decree of 11 Nov 1807 transferred the Legion Polacco-Italienne
into the service of Westphalia, but this was reveres by the Decree of
20 March 1808, which brought them back into French service. In a
letter to Davout dated 31 March 1808 Napoleon renamed the legion
the Vistula Legion ... He also stated that the infantry regiments were
to be treated on a par with French line regiments and cavalry with
the French chasseurs-a-cheval regiments.
The Legion and its Lancer Regiment went to Metz and Bayonne,
where they and detachments from all other Poles in French service,
began organizing the Vistula Legion by the end of May 1808. Later,
the Vistula Legion organized its depot in Sedan... The lancer
regiment was organized like a French chasseur-a-cheval regiment."
(Nafziger - "Poles and Saxons" pp 77-78)
French names of the 1st Vistula Uhlans (Lancers) / 7th Lighthorse
Lancers:
March 1808 - Rgiment de Lanciers de la Lgion de la Vistule
June 1808 - Rgiment de Lanciers de la Vistule
February 1811 - 1er Rgiment de Lanciers de la Vistule
June 1811 - 7eme Rgiment de Chevau-lgers Lanciers
(January 1814 - amalgamated with the 8th Lancer Regiment)
1815 - 7eme Rgiment de Lanciers
French names of the 2nd Vistula Uhlans (Lancers) / 8th Lighthorse
Lancers:
May 1811 - 1er Rgiment de Lanciers de la Vistule
June 1811 - 8eme Rgiment de Chevau-lgers Lanciers
(January 1814 - disbanded, incorporated into the 7th Lancer
Regiment)
In September 1808 Napoleon promoted 18 men of the Guard
Lighthorse Regiment to second lieutenants in the Vistula Uhlan
Regiment. In 1809 the Guard Lighthorse were about to become
Guard Lighthorse-Lancers (or Guard Lancers) and several Vistula
uhlans were sent as lance instructors to the Guard Lighthorse.
By the way, many of the Vistula Uhlans were pro-Republican and
Napoleon was not too happy about it, while many of the guardsmen
were "sons of the first families in Poland". The Guard Lighthorse-
Lancers (Guard Lancers) were favored by the Emperor.
In early 1811 the 1st Vistula Uhlan Regiment was, briefly, the 1st
Lancer Regiment in the French army.
In April of the same year, with the activation of the six French lancer
regiments, "they were redesignated the 7th - which after their years
of excellent service, was practically an insult." (Elting - "Napoleonic
Uniforms" Vol 1)
The 2nd Vistula Uhlan Regiment was raised in 1811 and soon were
renamed to 8th Lancers in the French army. Colonel of the 8th
Lancers (2nd Vistula Uhlans) was Tomasz Lubienski.
On 13th December 1813 Napoleon merged the 7th and 8th Lancer
Regiment (1st and 2nd Vistula Uhlans) into a new 8th Lancer
Regiment. The officers of the 7th vigorously protested and sent a
memorandum of protest to Napoleon. So the Emperor again changed
his mind and ordered to rebuild the 7th with three squadrons.
In 1814, after Napoleon's abdication the 7th and 8th Lancers were
disbanded.
In May 1815 (Waterloo Campaign) the 7th Lancers was formed again.
However they had only 13 horses for 350 men. In July they fought on
foot near Paris, and were highly praised by Marshal Davout. When
the war was over, the 7th Lancers was one of the Polish units who
refused to serve under the Tsar of Russia and was disbanded in
France. (The Duchy of Warsaw became Congress Kingdom of
Poland, a semi-autonomous state in personal union with Russia
through the rule of the Russian tsar. Tsar's brother, Grand Duke
Constantine, took over the Polish army. Earlier he commanded the
Russian Imperial Guard.)
Vistula Uhlans.
For campaign the colorful lance pennons
were protected with a special cover.
~
Organization.
"The lancer regiment was organized
like a French chasseur-a-cheval regiment."
(Nafziger - "Poles and Saxons" pp 77-78)
The 1st Regiment of the Vistula Uhlans consisted of four squadrons.
Each squadron was made of 2 companies. Each company had 2
platoons.
Company:
= 4 officers
= 13 NCOs
= 2 trumpeters
= 108 troopers
= 1 blacksmith
In 1807 the elite company was formed, and its members received fur
caps and black horses.
Every squadron had its flankers armed with carbines.
The flankers were the best horsemen in the regiment.
Organization of the regiment in May 1808:
(Source: S.H.A. cote XL-6):
Colonel Jan Konopka
Major Klicki
Chef-de-Escadron Ruttie
Chef-de-Escadron Kostanecki
Paymaster - Belleville [Frenchman]
~

I SQUADRON

II SQUADRON

III SQUADRON

IV SQUADRON
.
In December 1812:
(Source: S.H.A. cote XC-184):
Colonel Stokowski (with Grande Armee)
Major Huppe or Hupet
Paymaster Belleville [Frenchman]
~

SQUADRON - de Mories [Frenchman]
(with Grande Armee)

SQUADRON - Lenkiewicz
(in Bayonne, France)

SQUADRON - Dembinski
(in Spain)
~
Commanders.
Commanders of 1st Vistula Uhlan (Lancer) Regiment / 7th
(Lighthorse) Lancer Regiment:
- - - July 1st 1807 - Colonel Jan Konopka
- - - May 1809: (temp. commander) Chef-de-Escadron Andrzej Ruttie
- - - July 1809: (temp. commander) Chef-de-Escadron Telesfor
Kostanecki
- - - August 1809: (temp. commander) Chef-de-Escadron Adam
Hupp (or Hupet)
- - - September 1809: (temp. commander) Chef-de-Escadron Telesfor
Kostaniecki
- - - August 1810: Colonel Jan Konopka
- - - August 1811: (temp. commander) Mjr. Dembinski - not officially
- - - October 1811 (took command in Jan 1813): Colonel Ignacy
Stokowski
- - - Sept 1811 - Feb 1812: Mjr. Andrzej Ruttie
- - - Feb 1812 - Jan 1813: (temp. commander) Mjr. Feliks Debinski
- - - Aug 1813: Colonel Kazimierz Tanski
- - - December 1813: Mjr. Adam Hupp (or Hupet)
- - - April 1814 - Dec 1815: Colonel Adam Hupp (or Hupet)
Commanders of 2nd Vistula Uhlan (Lancer) Regiment / 8th
(Lighthorse) Lancer Regiment:
- - - 1811 - Colonel Tomasz Lubienski
Colonel Jan Konopka
Jan Konopka was born in 1777. He was the son of Anna, a distant
relative of the Princes of Conde. (ext.link) Konopka served in the
Polish army since 1792. He took part in the PolishRussian War of
1792 (War in Defence of the Constitution). After the war Konopka
emigrated to France and volunteered for the French army. In 1795
entered the ranks of the French 1st Hussars. In 1797 he joined the
Polish Legions in Italy (Legion of Lombardy) and took part in the
Legion's campaigns and battles. Between 1797 and 1802 Jan Konopka
served in the grenadier battalion of the Legion of Italy. In 1802
served in a cavalry as chef de escadron. In 1807 Konopka left Naples
and returned to Poland where served as a major in Polish excellent
5th Horse Chasseur Regiment. In October he was awarded the Cross
of Legion d'Honneur (ext.link) for the Battle of Friedland.
In 1807 Jan Konopka became the commander of the Vistula Uhlan
Regiment.
In December 1808 he was awarded Comm. of Legion d'Honneur for
the Battle of Tudela. After the defeat at Jevennes (Ybenes) in March
1809, Konopka left his regiment in May. In the heat of battle several
wagons were left by the Poles on the side of the road. In one of them
were neatly packed all four colors of the regiment. Nobody defended
the colors as the uhlans assumed they were left in the depot !
Next months he spent in France. In August 1810 Konopka returned to
his uhlan regiment.
In 1811, for the Battle of Albuera, Jan Konopka was promoted to the
rank of French general de brigade.
Napoleon made Konopka the Chief Inspector of Training for the
newly formed French lancer regiments.
Shortly, in 1812, Konopka commanded the Old Guard Lancer
Regiment. This appointment however was not well taken by many
guardsmen. (The were proud warriors who already enjoyed a great
reputation in Napoleon's army. Most of them came from the gentry,
were literate, and their regiment had excellent battle record. And
then came somebody from the outside and took over the regiment.
And on top of this he was bragging about his old regiment's exploits.
And by the way, most of the Vistula Uhlans were peasants.)
Thus in July 1812 Konopka received new command, this time over
the newly formed 3rd Young Guard Lancer Regiment. Unfortunately
his regiment was destroyed by Cossacks and Russian cavalry at
Slonim and Konopka was taken prisoner. After being released from
prison in 1814 Konopka was offered the command of Polish cavalry
brigade but he declined. Exhausted by wounds and fatigue he died
the same year in Warsaw.
~
Uniforms.
Picture: headwear worn by Polish cavalry
and some infantry.
The uhlans' headwear was the Polish
traditional tall, square topped shako, called
czapka (pronounced chapka). It was also
nicknamed rogatywka.Czapka or czapka
means simply headwear. The czapka (chapka)
was black over dark blue, with dark blue
top pipped white, in front was Maltese
Cross and a French cocade (the sunburst plaque was introduced in
1811). The plume was white till 1811, then replaced by a carrot-
shaped pompon. In 1807 the uhlans of Elite Company received fur
caps. For how long these headwears lasted we don't know.
The czapka was sturdier than shako but not as heavy as the helmet.
It gave some protection against the weaker saber blows.
We have noticed that the word chapska is used in several web
artciles.
This is however not correct. This is like saying shsako instead of
shako.
Czapka (pronounced chapka) or rogatywka is correct.
Pompons:
I Squadron - red
II Squadron - sky blue
III Squadron - orange
IV Squadron - violet
The short-tailed dark blue coat was called kurtka and had yellow
lapels and yellow shoulder straps.
The uhlans of Elite Company wore white (not red) epaulete on the
right and white aiguillette on the left shoulder. The Bardin
regulations in 1812 introduced dark blue shoulder straps with yellow
pipping.
The tight breeches were dark blue with 2 yellow stripes down the
outer seam separated by dark blue.
The overalls were dark blue with a single yellow stripe and a black
leather inserts on the inside.
Regiment Coat Breeches
Collar
Cuffs
Lapels
Shoulder
straps
Turnbacks Pipping
1st
Uhlans
(7th
Lancers)
dark
blue
dark
blue
yellow yellow yellow
dark
blue
2nd
Uhlans
(8th
Lancers)
dark
blue
dark
blue
dark
blue
dark
blue
yellow yellow
The 2nd Vistula Uhlan Regiment became
the 8th Lancer Regiment in French service.
Picture by Herbert Knoetel, a German artist.
~
Campaigns and Battles.
From the warm Italy and Spain
to the snows of Russia.
Bonaparte conceived of an invasion of Egypt in 1798, which satisfied
his personal desire for glory and the Directory's desire to have him
far from Paris. The military objective of the expedition was to
threaten the British dominance in India. French troops also deposed
Pope Pius VI, establishing a republic in Rome.
Britain and Austria organized a new coalition against France in 1798,
including for the first time Russia, although no action occurred until
1799 except against Naples. Thus France's enemies included Austria
and Russia, the partitioners of Poland. Many Polish soldiers, officers
and volunteers emigrated to other countries, especially France and
Italy. They formed several troops and fought for France against
Poland's enemies, Russia and Austria. For example the Polish
Legions in Italy garrisoned Mantua fortress, then they quelled
peasant unrest in Rimini and retook Verona. In May 1798 the Poles
helped the French to capture and later, garrison, Rome. They fought
the anti-French forces from Kingdom of Naples, defeating them at
Magliano and Civita Castellana.
.
The regiment of Polish uhlans
was formed in 1790s ... in Italy.
In 1797 the Polish Legion in Italy numbered 7,000-8,000 infantry and
artillery.
They were NOT mercenaries fighting for money, like for example the
superb Swiss infantry.
They were great patriots.
In 1798, near Garigliano River roamed stallions of the Neapolitan
King's horse guard.
Eliasz Tremo suggested to generals Kniaziewicz and Dabrowski to
organize a cavalry regiment. This idea was approved by French
General Jean-tienne Championnet. It was not long before 120 Poles
mounted their stallions.
Unfortunately the first action of the uhlans ended up in tragedy. On
the night of 9th January 1798 Chef Tremo and few dozens of troopers
were attacked by guerillas at Sessa and slaughtered. (Source: "Pismo
pulkownika Wojciecha Dobieckiego do sp. jenerala Tanskiego", "Czas"
dodatek miesieczny 1859, t.15, s. 205-206)
Alexander Karwowski became the first commander of the cavalry
regiment of Polish-Italian Legion (Legion Polacco-Italienne). There
were no Italians in this regiment. The rank and file were veterans
from Polish, Austrian and Russian army. There were also few
Germans.
The uhlans fought in Trebbia, Bosco and Novi.
.
Battle of Hohenlinden, 1800.
The Uhlans and French chasseurs have captured
Prince Lichtenstein and took 800 Austrian prisoners..
While
Bonaparte
was in Egypt,
a number of
France's
enemies
formed a new
alliance called
the Second
Coalition, and
attempted to
roll back his
previous
conquests. By
the end of the
year, Napoleon had returned from Egypt, and took control of France
in a coup d'tat. In 1800, Bonaparte won a victory at the Battle of
Marengo and drove the Austrians back toward the Alps. In
Germany, General Moreau defeated Archduke Johann at the Battle of
Hohenlinden (see picture), forcing him to sign an armistice. In terms
of the number of troops involved Hohenlinden was the largest in the
French Revolutionary Wars and quite possibly European history
until the Battle of Wagram in 1809.
At Hohenlinden, NCO of the uhlans, Jan Pawlikowski, and a French
horse chasseur attacked 59 Austrian infantrymen. Two officers were
"neutralized" and the remaining surrendered. General Decean met
Pawlikowski with his captives and wanted to promote him.
Pawlikowski replied: "Nie umiec czytac, nie umiec pisac, nie moze byc
oficer". (I can't read, can't write, can't be an officer.)
The uhlans also have captured Prince Lichtenstein. Officer Wojciech
Dobiecki wrote that Lichtenstein was captured by private
Trandowski of 6th Company. Trandowski was promissed a bottle of
good wine if he brings a prisoner. So he set at the gallop and
"snatched" the Prince who stood in front of the Austrian troops.
After battle Liechtenstain was exchanged for polish officer Fiszer
who was captured by the Austrians near Offenburg. This is
estimated the uhlans and French horse chasseurs captured total of
800 prisoners. (Source: "Pismo pulkownika Wojciecha Dobieckiego do sp.
jenerala Kazimierza Tanskiego", "Czas" dodatek miesieczny 1859, t.15.)
In 1800 the regiment of Polish uhlans numbered 700 men and only
400 horses.
.
In 1807 at Struga (Strigau), approx. 240 Uhlans
routed 1.400 Prussian infantry and cavalry
and captured 4 guns and 830 prisoners.
The King of Naples, Joseph Bonaparte (Napoleon's
brother), wanted to have the Uhlan Regiment of
Polish-Italian Legion as his personal escort. The
uhlans however, after 8 years of campaigning in
Italy were homesick and vigorously protested.
Thus the French let them go and on January 30,
1807 the regiment joyfully began their march home.
After 114 days they arrived in the city of Legnica,
in Silesia.
Meanwhile in Silesia, Napoleon's younger brother,
Jerome Bonaparte, sent General Lefebvre-
Desnouettes with battalion of Saxon infantry, and
Bavarian troops (7 infantry companies, 1 squadron of chevauxlegers
and 2 guns) against small Prussian corps under Major von Losthin.
Major Losthin's forces consisted of 8 infantry companies (1,100-1,200
bayonets), squadron of hussars (80 sabers), squadron of dragoons (80
sabers), squadron of Bosniaks (80), and 4 guns. Losthin's force did
not exceed 1,500 men.
The Bavarians and the white clad Saxons (see
picture) met Losthin's Prussians at Kunt (today
Katy Wroclawskie in Poland). The Saxons had
no heart for fighting and after short combat
threw their muskets down. The Prussians
captured 2 Bavarian guns.
General Lefebvre-Desnouettes unexpectedly
met several uhlans on their way to Poland. He
had learned that the uhlans were unaware of
situation in Silesia. He sent Captain Fijalkowski
to Legnica with orders to the regiment to
mount up and come. Already at midnight the
trumpeters sounded "on horse!" At first the
half-asleep officers thought that there was a fire in the town.
The regiment was ready in 7 minutes, making an excellent
impression on Lefebvre Desnouettes. Unfortunately only 240-250
uhlans had horses and only these men were taken by the Frenchman.
They rode toward the village of Jawor (Jauer), then rested a little bit
and continued with the night march. In the morning the uhlans have
encountered Losthin's force. Levebvre-Desnouettes had total of 400-
600 men: 240-300 uhlans under Mjr Swiderski, and Bavarians (two
infantry companies, tiny troop of chevaulegeres, and 3 guns).
The Bavarian infantry was formed in skirmish chain and exchanged
few shots with the Prussian skirmishers when the Vistula Uhlans
charged. Lefebvre-Desnouettes ordered the I and III Squadron to
attack, while the II Squadron was to cut off the enemy.
Losthin deployed 6 guns under Captain Hahn on his right, on a hill,
while the infantry was in closed column on the road. (This is not
clear to me if the infantry was formed in line, or column, or in
"several small squares".) Losthin's cavalry moved forward, with the
brown-clad hussars leading the attack. Behind were dragoons and in
the tail rode the Bosniaks.
Lefebvre-Desnouettes personally led the uhlans. He was an
exceedingly brave man and for several years commanded the light
cavalry of Napoleon's Imperial Guard. Behind him rode officers
Swiderski, Fijalkowski, Stokowski and Schultz. All veterans and fine
cavalrymen.
The uhlans, at once crushed the Prussian cavalry. (Prussian cavalry
enjoyed great reputation in Europe.) Losthin's shocked infantry
surrendered but when the the uhlans left them in pursuit of the
cavalry some of the Prussians began firing at the backs of the Poles.
The uhlans returned and finished their business. The infantrymen
again surrendered and did it quite convincingly.
Prussian hussars in 1806
The Prussian commander thanked his fast horse that his was able to
escape. The Poles also freed 2 Saxon battalions who before had
surrendered to the Prussians. The uhlans had only several men
wounded and killed. They brought captured Prussian infantry (30
officers and 800 privates), 4 guns and 4 ammunition wagons, in a
triumphant entrance to the city. To the disgust of Lefebvre-
Desnouettes, the Saxons and Bavarians joined the Poles in the parade
march.
Several weeks after the battle at Struga the Vistula Uhlans were
inspected. The oldest soldiers and those unfit were relieved, except
Private Rosnowski who refused to leave. (He was the oldest member
of this regiment and one of the first who entered the ranks). The
remaining 300-400 first class veterans were joined by several
hundreds o recruits and the regiment moved toward Klodzko.
The I and II Squadron were mostly veterans, the III and IV were full
of recruits.
Near the fortress walls of
Klodzko, band of uhlans
led by Stokowski routed
several troops of Prussian
hussars (see picture).
Another troop of uhlans
escorted artillery and
convoys. In June the
fortress surrendered to the
French and their allies.
Jerome Bonaparte
inspected the uhlans. The
elite company was formed,
and its members received
fur caps and black horses.
Few days later the uhlans
escorted Napoleon from
Ruda Slaska to Wroclaw
(Breslau) where they met Prince Poniatowski.
PS.
The French counted the battles at Katy [Kunt] and at Struga [Strigau]
as one and issued one report. The Prussians published an article
about the two battles in Vertraute Briefen written by Werner (it was
published in Wroclaw). Werner wrote that the moral strength of the
uhlans - all 6-8-year service veterans, patriotic, were invincible for
troops not equal to them.
In the French Archives, Jerome Bonaparte's papers (French Archives
C 1), is an official report written by Jerome about the engagement at
Struga. He wrote that 250 Polish uhlans commanded by Major Piotr
Swiderski fought at Struga. They suffered 7 killed and 15 wounded
(incl. Ltn. Schultz and Ltn. Fijalkowski). He also mentioned that
although the regiment had 400 men, only 280 had horses and were
able to participate in the combat. In the papers of officer Jan
Swiderski is a letter from Levebvre Desnouettes written on 15th May
in Szczawno (on the day of battle) describing the battle at Struga
(War Archives in Vincennes, Serie C 1. Correspondance du Roi
Jrme 1806-1813).
.
In 1808 at Saragossa, the uhlans,
fed up with Spanish sniping,
stormed an entrenched camp.
The Spanish War
of Independence
(called Peninsular
War in English
speaking world)
pitted Spain, Great
Britain, and
Portugal against
Napoleonic
France. The war
began when
French troops
occupied Portugal
in 1807 and Spain
in 1808. It was the first large-scale guerilla war, from which the
English language borrowed the word. It was a war of contrasts; a
war fought in the icy passes of the high Pyrenees and on the burning
wastes of the Sierra Morena. It was a war of infinite cruelty.
Picture: Spanish infantry, by L F Funcken.
There were several Polish troops in Peninsula, mostly infantry, but
there were also the Guard Lighthorse and the Vistula Uhlans. The
uhlans participated in the siege of Saragossa, at the battles at Osera
(July 28th) and Tudela (November 23rd). At Saragossa, fed up with
Spanish sniping, they "climbed down from their saddles and stormed
an entrenched Spanish camp near Saragossa ... During the first phase
of the siege they charged a fortified city. They penetrated essentially
right to its center. Unsupported and alone the lancers had to charge
back out." ( - John Elting)
.
After the battle of Mallen,
the Spaniards nicknamed them
"Los Diablos Polacos."
In June 1808 at
Mallen,
General
Lefebvre-
Desnouettes
ordered the
Vistula Uhlans
to outflank the
Spanish
guerillas. The
enemy fled
across Ebro
River with the
uhlans hot on
their heels.
French writers
(Thiers,
Grasset)
mention how
big impression
made the
lance-armed
uhlans on the
Spaniards. The
Spaniards
nicknamed
them "Los
Diablos Polacos" (The Devils Poles). On the way back one officer and
several uhlans drowned in the river. (Kirkor - "Legia Nadwislanska
1808-1814" p 46)
Picture: Spanish guerillas attacking French convoy. (We would like
to know the author of this picture.)
.
.
.
.
At Ybenes (Jevennes) in 1809 the Uhlans
lost all four Colors to the Spaniards.
In 1809 at Ybenes (Jevennes) the Spaniards, mostly cavalry, attacked
the Regiment of Vistula Uhlans and captured all their Colors. It was
a night attack, or rather very early morning, and was a surprise for
the Poles. The uhlans were heavily outnumbered, surrounded, and
forced to make their way through enemy's lines. The fighting
withdrawal was successful although costly.
The serpentine
road led uphill
(see photo) while
the Spanish
cavalry
regiments incl.
the Carabineros
Reales (Royal
Carabiniers)
pressed very
hard. In the heat of the battle several wagons were left by the uhlans
on the side of the road. In one of them were neatly packed all four
colors of the regiment.
Nobody defended the colors as the uhlans assumed they were left in
the depot. They had no idea that before leaving for campaign one of
the senior officers secretly decided to take all Colors. (They were
detached from wooden poles, rolled and packed into the wagon.)
The uhlans were horrified when they learned what happened.
Napoleon was furious. In 1808 one of his army corps (under Dupont)
was defeated by the Spaniards at Bailen, and now, in 1809, the
enemy took all Colors of one of his best regiments.
.
At Talavera the Vistula Uhlans
crushed the British 23rd Light Dragoons.
According to wikipedia.org (2006) "The Battle of Talavera was a bloody
yet inconclusive battle 70 miles Southwest of Madrid. Although the
French army withdrew from the field, the British soon withdrew
from Spain, leaving their wounded to the Spanish, who left them to
the French, reducing trust between British and Spanish forces for the
rest of the Peninsular War. ..."
At Talavera the Vistula Uhlans were
part of Merlin's division. In the last
stages of the battle Wellington
unleashed part of his cavalry. When the
British 23rd Light Dragoons (450 men)
broke through the French 10th and 26th
Horse Chasseurs, General Merlin
ordered the Vistula Uhlans (390 men) in
the first line and the Westphalian
lighthorsemen (144 men) in the
secomnd line, to charge.
The Poles hit the enemy frontally and
crushed them. Meanwhile the French
chasseurs came against the flank of the
dragoons. The British regiment lost 207 killed, wounded and missing,
and 105 were captured (according to Oman, Vol II, p 545-549).
It gives horrendous 70 % casualties.
.
Glory at Ocana. The cavalry charge was
"executed with great vigor, especially by
the Poles" - William Napier
On November 19th the uhlans fought at Ocaa and it was one of
their best combat performances. Many officers, NCOs and privates
were awarded with Legion d'Honneur. In the Peninsular War, the
Battle of Ocana resulted in a victory of the French under Marshal
Soult against the Spanish under General Don Juan de Arizagua. It
was the Spanish army's greatest single defeat during the entire
conflict.
While in the center fought the Spanish and French infantry, the
cavalry clashed on the flank. William Napier writes, "The Spaniards
came on at a trot, and Sebastiani directed Paris, with a regiment of
light cavalry and the Polish lancers, to turn and fall upon the right
flank of the approaching squadrons, which being executed with great
vigor, especially by the Poles, caused considerable confusion, with
the Spanish general endeavored to remedy by closing to the assailed
flank. Many were slain, several hundred wounded, and 80 troopers
and above 500 horses were taken. The loss of the French bore no
proportion in men, but General Paris was killed, and several superior
officers were wounded." (Napier - "History of the War in the Peninsula
1807-1814" Vol II, p 247)
.
Glory (and slaughter) at Albuera in 1811.
The uhlans and hussars destroyed British
infantry brigade, routed British dragoons
and Spanish cavalry. Five Colors were taken.
In May 1811 at
Albuera
[Albuhera] the
uhlans covered
themselves with
glory. They
destroyed British
brigade, defeated
dragoon regiment
and captured 5
British Colors. No
other Napoleonic
troop, infantry or
cavalry, ever
captured so many
British colors. Unfortunately Albuera had little effect on the course of
the war in Spain.
"[At Albuera] The brave French infantry struggled with breaking
through the British and Spanish lines.
Then the Vistula Uhlans turn came. The charge sounded and the
uhlans went on, charging everything they came across and hacking
right and left at the enemy. The blood of officers and men alike was
at fever heat. It was a glorious sight, one eminently calculated to stir
the blood to madness. Colborne's brigade was completely overawed.
Many redcoats made a wild dash for liberty. The uhlans gallop off in
pursuit. Sir John Colborne's battalions were routed with immense
slaughter and thoroughly reduced to the sorest straits. Severeral
hundred prisoners were made, and 5 standards were captured. Still
continuing their triumphal ride, the uhlans attacked the Germans
(KGL) and Spaniards."
Article: Battle of Albuera, 1811
"The bloodiest battle of the Peninsular War."
Emperor
Napoleon and his
marshals were so
impressed with
the Vistula
Uhlans'
performance that
they decided to
form their own six
(seven) lancer
regiments. The instructors came from the Vistula Uhlan Regiment
and from the Guard Lancers. Colonel of the Vistula Uhlans, Jan
Konopka, became Chief Inspector of Training for the newly formed
French lancer regiments.
Shortly after the Napoleonic Wars the British 16th Light Dragoon
Regiment was equipped as lancers. According to a British website
"During the Peninsula wars the British army suffered terrible
casualties from the Polish Vistula lancers, so the 16th Light
Dragoons, now as lancers tried to emulate them not only in skill at
arms, but also in appearance." The Polish connection is not hard to
miss, the uniforms, lances and pennants can all be traced in style to
the Polish regiments that inspired them...the 17th Lancers were
involved and which is still celebrated every year "The Charge of the
Light Brigade". Article: "The Charge Of The Light Brigade" - by Lord
Tennyson (ext.link)
.
1812.
Napoleon ordered the uhlans go to Russia,
but French marshals refused to follow this
order and kept them as personal escorts.
In the Invasion of
Russia
participated only
60 uhlans out of
approx. 720. This
small group was
led by Lieutenant
Boguslawski.
This troop was
attached to the
Polish 1st Guard
Lighthorse-Lancers (Old Guard) as the 11th Company. The
remaining of the Vistula Uhlan Regiment was either in Spain or in
depot in France. Actually Napoleon ordered all the uhlans go to
Russia, but some French marshal refused to follow this order and
kept them as personal escorts. Spain was a dangerous place.
Picture: Vistula Uhlans in Spain, by J Kossak.
On 16th September 1812, Chef Cotty with 60 Vistula Uhlans and 70
young Red Lancers scouted on the road to Borowsk in Russia. Cotty's
force was then ambushed by Cossacks, they were attacked in the
wood from both flanks and rear. The Poles and Dutch were routed.
Boguslawski was furious with careless Cotty. The heated exchange of
opinion ended up in a duel. (Kirkor - "Legia Nadwislanska 1808-1814"
p 324)
.
Decline of uhlans' esprit de corps.
Until 1812 the Vistula uhlans were one of the finest cavalry
regiments in the World.
Then two things happened that weakened the morale of the
regiment:
In early 1812 Napoleon took majority of the Polish troops from
Spain on his war against Russia
(called the Second Polish War) while the Vistula Uhlans stayed in
Spain. The uhlans were unhappy
with these arrangements and it had a negative impact on their
morale and discipline. Instead of
fighting the primary enemy of Poland in that time, Russia, they were
skirmishing with the British,
escorting French marshals, and chasing the elusive guerillas in the
remote mountains of Spain.
Neither Britain nor Spain ever occupied Poland.
The esprit de corps decreased further after large number of uhlans
were selected to the Old Guard
Lighthorse-Lancers. These veterans were replaced with young
recruits. The Vistula Uhlans were still
a superb unit but not as good as before.
.
1813.
At Dresden the uhlans led a massive
cavalry charge under Marshal Murat.
After
the
disaster in 1812 in Russia Napoleon could not believe himself
invincible. His enemies were suggesting that since his good genius
had failed him once, it might again. The Russian victory was a huge
blow to Napoleon's ambitions of European dominance. In 1813 huge
armies mobilized. The combined allied armies were nearly half
million strong. Public demonstrations in Prussia against the French
persuaded the king of Prussia, Frederick William, to change sides.
Austria declared war on France in August.
During the campaign of 1813 the Vistula Uhlans (as the 7th and 8th
Lancers) fought at Lutzen, Dresden and Reichenbach. At Dresden the
uhlans spearheaded one of the massive cavalry charges led by
Marshal Murat. (Nafziger - "Napoleon's Dresden Campaign" p 172)
The uhlans then became part of French garrison in Dresden. (By now
large part of both regiments was formed by recruits.) The city
became surrounded by Allies. Not long after Napoleon's defeat at
Leipzig, Marshal St. Cyr and the garrisson of Dresden attempted to
break through enemy's lines. It failed and St. Cyr surrendered. The
captured uhlans (446) were taken into Hungary and there were kept
until the end of war. Approx. 230 uhlans were with other French
troops and these moved to France.
.
1814: more fighting.
In the end of 1813
the Russians,
Austrians and
Prussians,
continued their
offensive against
Napoleon by
crossing the Rhine
River into France.
David Chandler
writes, "The
Campaign of France lasted from January to April 1814. Faced by
overwhelming numbers of Allied troops, and able to call upon the
services of only scratch forces of conscripts and boy-soldiers,
Napoleon performed wonders of defensive fighting, winning a series
of minor battles on one sector after another.. But the Allies were now
aware of Napoleon's methods, and little by little they advanced on
Paris." (Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" p 305)
During the campaign of 1814 the 1st Vistula Uhlans (7th Lancers in
the French service) fought at Montereau, Neuilly-Saint-Front,
Chalons and Chartres. The Battle of Montereau was fought near
Montereau-Fault-Yonne on February 18, and resulted the victory of
Napoleon against Austrians and the Wrttembergians under Royal
Prince of Wrttemberg. By early afternoon artillery of the Imperial
Guard had arrived, silenced Wrttembergs batteries and
bombarded the village. At 3:00PM a French attack captured a ridge
forming the key to Wrttembergs defence. Wrttemberg ordered a
retreat, but soon turned into a rout by a cavalry charge, which sweep
into the village and Allied rear. The cavalry charge also prevented
the Allies from detonating demolition charges on two key bridges.
.
1815:
The Vistula Uhlans were highly
praised by Marshal Davout.
In 1815 Napoleon escaped from Elba, marched to Paris, where he
resumed power, driving King Louis XVIII from the throne.
Napoleon then attacked Blucher's Prussians at Ligny and then
Wellington's British-German-Netherland army at Waterloo. At
Waterloo Napoleon was defeated by Wellington, whose forces were
aided by Blucher's army. The allies then marched without much
opposition to Paris, and forced Napoleon to abdicate again.
The 7th Lancers lacked horses (only 13 horses for 350 men !) and
equipment and they were not combat ready for neither Ligny nor
Waterloo. On the road near Rambouillet the 1st Vistula Uhlans (7th
Lancers in the French service) met their beloved Napoleon. The
Emperor was on his long way to St. Helen. (Marchand - "Memoires"
1952 VOL I, p 192)
Not discouraged the Vistula Uhlans (now 7th Lancers) kept fighting,
their last action was on July 7th, after Napoleon's 2nd abdication.
They distinguished themselves in the defense of bridge at Sevres and
were were highly praised by Marshal Davout. (Due to lack of
mounts most of the lancers fought on foot.)
Parade of the Vistula Uhlans.
After Napoleon's second abdication in 1815
Polish troops were disbanded and returned
to their homeland. The 7th Lancers however
refused to surrender to the Russians and
stayed in France.
Sources and Links.
Kirkor - "Legia Nadwislanska 1808-1814"
Gembarzewski - "Wojsko Polskie. Ksiestwo Warszawskie 1807-1814"
Picture of officer of the Vistula Uhlans by Steven Palatka.
Ce blog est consacre aux soldats Polonais
ayant combattu avec les Aigles Francaise. >>
2e rgiment de Lanciers polonais de la lgion de la Vistule
Belgian troops in the French Army : Infantry : Cavalry : Artillery.
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Belgians_in_French_Army.htm[2012-05-21 12:39:48]
Belgians in the French Army.
Every year approx. 10.000 Belgians were
conscripted to serve under the French colours.
Arrival of Napoleon in Antwerp in 1803.
(source: Kroniek van Belgie)
Introduction.
"The Belgians are good fellows, b u t
they lack patriotism on the battlefield
because they have no true homeland
to fight for ... but France will take care
of that !"
- Napoleon to Count of Ursel in 1810
The Austrian Netherlands were one of the first areas that had been
invaded by the French during the French Revolution. This territory
compromised the country that we know as Belgium today, but
without the provinces of Liege and Limbourg and the greatest part
of the province of Namur. After the Prussian defeat at Valmy 1792,
the French succeeded in driving back the allied armies out of France
and little by little the Austrians were pushed back into the
Netherlands. After the Battle of Fleurus the Austrian Netherlands
were occupied by the French before being annexed to the French
Republic as the "Dpartements Belges". After the signing of the
Peace of Campo-Formio in 1797, Belgium officially became part of
the French Republic. Every year approx. 10.000 Belgians, out of a
population of 3 million, were conscripted to serve under the French
colours. Between the years of 1796 and 1799, the French government
demanded 30.000 Belgian recruits per year, but the measure was so
unpopular, that the Belgians rose in rebellion in the year 1798. This
revolt known as the "Boerenkrijg" or "Peasant revolt" was subdued in
a matter of months.
The
painting
depicts the
drastic
measures
taken by
the French
in order to
crush the
Belgian
peasant
revolt in
1798. As a
gesture to France's northern neighbours and to restore order and
peace, Napoleon decreased the number of conscripts asked for when
he was made First Consul. French became the official language
although the half of the country spoke Flemish (a Dutch dialect).
Painting: Armed peasants receiving their blessing
prior to the Battle of Hasselt in 1798 during the
Boerenkrijg. (source: Voor Outer en Heerd)
The Battle of Hasselt on the 5th of december 1798,
was the "last stand" of the Belgian peasants.The
rebels were poorly armed - illustrations show
farmers with pitchforks. There, the French troops
("sanskulotten") managed to crush the rebellion. The total losses in
the war, on the rebels side, are estimated at 15,000. The rebellion
failed in its object and the rebels were treated harshly by the French
force of occupation.
See gallery "Boerenkrijg 1798-1998 gedenkplaat." (ext.link)
~
Belgians in the French army.
More then 14.000 Belgian veterans of the French army
were nominated to wear the Medal of St. Helne.
The Belgians who had fought in the ranks of the French prior to it's
annexation in 1795, were mostly Belgians from from the French
speaking areas or patriots from the Flemish regions from the middle
or higher classes who had fled to France after the unsuccessful
Revolution against the Austrians 1787-1790 (properly known as the
Rvolutions Brabanconne et Ligeoise). No less than 5.500 Belgians,
divided among the Lgion Liegoise, de Lgion Belgique, de Chevau-
lgers de West-Flandre and les Dragons de Bruxelles fought
alongside the French in the years 1792-1794. The Belgians
distinguished themselves at Jemappes (1792). They took by storm the
Quaregnon redoubt, thereby breaking through the central Austrian
position.
Approx. 112.000 Belgians, Walloons and Flemish, served in the
French Revolutionary and Imperial Army. In 1815 after Waterloo, in
Napoleon's coach that was captured, the Allies found a pre-written
proclamation to the Belgians. In it, the Emperor had written that he
welcomed them back into his Empire and that they were "digne", or
worthy, of being called Frenchmen ! More then 14.000 Belgian
veterans of the French army were nominated to wear the Medal of
St. Helne. This was a medal of honor that was distributed by
Napoleon III in 1857 in accordance to the testament of his great
uncle. (source: Albert A. Nofi "The Battle of Waterloo")
Many Belgians served in the following French units:
- 12th Light Infantry Regiment
- 20th Dragoon Regiment
- 14th Cuirassier Regiment
Some were also found amongst the ouvriers and the armuriers
of the French artillery as well as the artillery trains.
This is a recruting leaflet that was hung up in Brussels in 1811.
It calls young B e l g i a n s to enlist in the cuirrassier regiment:
"Make haste young Belgians that feel inspired to serve the homeland !
The moment has come to obtain a quick promotion. Remember that the
Cuirassiers are the lite of all the armies in E u r o p e and you can b e
certain to find officers there that are true p a t r i o t s , as well as
experienced chefs who will put all their means to your disposal
to ensure that your noble career in this arm will be as pleasant as
it is glorious."
.
112th Line Infantry Regiment.
"The Victors of Raab."
In 1794 was formed 112th Demi-Brigade from the following troops:
battalion of the 56th Infantry, battalion of the Volontaires du Doubs,
and battalion of Volontaires des Deux-Sevres. In 1796 the 112th
Demi-Brigade was incorporated into 88th Demi-Brigade before being
reraised in 1801 as the 112th Demi-Brigade. In 1803 this unit was
disbanded and reraised again from Belgian troops. It was named the
112th Line Infantry Regiment.
The 112th Line distinguished itself during the campaign against
Austria in 1809. The 112th supposedly had their depot in
Alessandria, in Northern Italy. Therefore they mostly saw service in
Italy, Tirol and Austria. The regiment fought at Volano in Tirol, and
at Raab made a valiant attack against the Austrian centre. After the
battle, in which the regiment had lost 76 dead and 375 wounded,
Prince Eugne of Beauharnais congratulated the commander and
announced that from now on the 112th would be allowed to carry
the Legion of Honor affixed on their standard. They would be
saluted as the "Victors of Raab".
In the morning before the battle of Wagram Napoleon, inspecting the
troops on the Island of Lobau, stopped before the 112th and said:
"My braves of the 112th , today will be a day of glory for you, the
Victors of the Raab" Twenty one men of the regiment were
mentioned as candidates for the Legion of Honour. Captain Charles
Goethals was decorated on the field of battle for having captured 12
prisoners!
Commanders :
1794 - Pierre-Andre Miquel
1801 - Rossignol
1802 - Trepied
1803 - L'Olivier
1807 - Penne (His name is on the Arc de Triomphe)
1811 - Benuzan (Seriously wounded at Katzbach in 1813)
1813 - Huchet de la Bedoyre
Battle Record :
1793 - Nerwinden, Hondschoote, and Wattignies
1794 - Maubeuge, Le Quesnoy, Valenciennes, Conde, Sprimont, and
Aldenhoven
1807 - Volona and Col de Tarvis
1808 - La Fluvia, Cardedeu, and Molins-del-Rey
1809 - Valls, Raab, and Wagram
1813 - Mersebourg, Lutzen, Bautzen, Loewenberg, Goldberg,
Katzbach, Leipzig, and Hanau
1814 - Fre-Champenoise
Personally, I have my doubts about the dates of the battles of Volona
and Col de Tarvis. From what I have read in the "Histoire MIlitaire
des Belges" and "A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic
Wars" by Esposito and Elting, these battles took place in 1809, prior
to the Battle of Raab and Wagram. Col de Tarvis and Volona are
locations between northern Italy and southern Austria and I can't see
why battles would'nt have taken place there in the year 1807 when
all the action was against the Prussians and Russians up north. Of
course I could be wrong, but it just doesn't seem logical. I do not
believe that the 112th saw any major action in 1807.
Napoleon adressing the 112th Line on Lobau Island
before the Battle of Wagram in 1809.
(source: Histoire Militaires des Belges)
.
27th Chasseurs and 20th Dragoons.
The 27th Chasseurs was originally raised in September 1806 as the
"Chevau-lgers du Duc d'Arenberg". It was made up of Belgians and
given to the duke Prosper of Arenberg to command. In the spring of
1807 this regiment was sent out with the 3rd Dutch Hussars for
service in Swedish Pommeria under Marshal Brune. It saw its first
action against the Swedish dragoons in August near Anclam. After
the fall of Stralsund, the Belgians served under Bernadotte in
northern Germany. Their tasks there were mainly rearguard actions.
In the next summer, the Spanish troops in Denmark and Northern
Germany mutinied. The young Belgians were then sent there in
order to fight the rebellious Spaniards who did not succeed in
following their leader Romana back to Spain on British vessels.
In May 1808, the regiment became 27th Chasseurs a Cheval and in
the autumn received order to move into Spain together with the
troops of Nassau. The chasseurs saw action in 1809 at Guadalaxara,
in 1810 at Moron and Los Carwalos, in 1811 at Badajoz and Albuera.
After a successful encounter against the Spanish cavalry on the 15th
May 1810 they succeeded in relieving the Spanish siege of Huelva. In
September 1811 they were succesful in taking both banks of the River
Taag in order to follow up the fleeing remnants of Castanos' Spanish
army. In October of the same year, the 27th Chasseurs were less
lucky. At Arroyo del Molino they were driven back by the Spanish
and British cavalry, leaving their beloved commander, the Duke of
Arenberg behind to be captured by the British. In 1813 the 27th
Chasseurs saw action at Dresden, Naunburg, Leipzig and Hanau, in
1814 at La Rothiere, Nogent, Monterau, Bar-sur-Aube and finally at
St. Dizier.
Commanders:
1811 - d'Arenberg
1813 - Strub
1813 - Bruno de Saint-Georges
20th Dragoons and 27th Chasseurs.
(Source: Kroniek van Belgie).
Belgian officers and generals.
Many Belgians would also attain
high posts for their military and
civil contributions during the
French Empire: Andr Boussard
from Binche, Jean-Antoine de
Collaert from Liege, Jean-Baptiste
Dumonceau from Brussels, Jean-
Baptiste van Merlen from
Antwerp, Michel Terhove from
Tongeren and Charles Goethals
(born in Maubeuge). Also a
certain Marie-Jeanne Schellinckx
from Ghent deserves a special
mention here, for she would
become famous for being one of
the few women who fought
actively as a soldier in the Grande
Arme! She even became
lieutenant and received the
"Lgion d'Honneur" for her heroic
contribution during the battle of
Jena in 1806.
Marie-Jeanne Schellinckx .
The Xena of the Napoleonic Wars.
Marie-Jeanne Schellinckx was
born in Ghent in 1757 and died in
Menen in 1840. She worked as
waitress/inn-keeper, together
with her husband, and in 1792
together they enlisted in the
"Legion des Belges et Liegeois".
Marie-Jeanne fought at Jemappes
where she receiving several saber
cuts. She was also present at
Arcole and Austerlitz where she
was hit by a musketball in her
thigh. Military surgeon then
discovered that the wounded
brave soldier actually was a
woman ! Marie-Jeanne remained
in the French army and fought at
Jena. She was promoted to
lieutenant and (some sources say
in 1806, others in 1808) received
Legion of Honor. In 1808 she left
the army and Napoleon granted
her yearly pension of 700 Francs.
Andr-Joseph Boussart.
Le Brave Wallon
Andr Boussart
was a different
type of
commander than
his colleage J.B.
Dumonceau:
always in the
thick of the battle,
a natural born warrior. He was
born in Binche in 1758. In the age
of 17 he enlisted in the the
Austrian army. Like many
Belgian revolutionaries, he was
obliged to flee to France after the
revolution had failed. In 1792, at
the outbreak of the war against
Republican France, he was
appointed as captain of the
"Dragons d'Hainaut", regiment of
Belgian patriots serving in the
French Arme du Nord. Boussart
distinguished himself at Jemappes
and was promoted to lieutenant-
colonel on the field of battle by
General Dumouriez.
During the French retreat from
Netherlands in 1793, Boussart
participated in rear-guard actions
and in the Valley of the Ourthe
halted the Austrian troops for
almost 8 hours. After the fall of
Robespierre, he was reappointed
to his dragoon regiment by the
Directory, which has now been
rebaptized the 20th Dragoon
Regiment. At their head, Boussart
followed the young Bonaparte to
Italy in 1796-1797. He was
wounded at Mondovi during a
charge against the Piedmontese
cavalry and distinguished himself
at Lodi and Rivoli. Bonaparte
named him chef de brigade.
Together with his 20th Dragoon
Regiment, Boussart followed
Bonaparte to Egypt where he saw
action at the Pyramids. Then
participated in the campaign in
Syria. Boussart remained in Egypt
with his dragoons when
Bonaparte left for France. He was
promoted to general of brigade
by General Menou and was
present at the battle of Heliopolis
and at the battle of Alexandria.
The small French force
capitulated and all the reamining
troops in Egypt, including
Boussart, were sent back to
France.
Boussart saw action once again in
1806 at Jena, Prenzlau and during
the ensuing campaing in Poland.
At Pultusk his horse was
wounded and during the pursuit
of the Russian rear-guard near
Ostroleka he was almost
captured. Boussart was also at
Eylau and Friedland.
In 1808 Boussart was knighted as
count and shortly afterwards,
received a portion of land in
Westphalia. In the summer, he
was sent to Spain where he
served in the cavalry division of
Latour-Mauborg. Boussart was
taken prisoner at Bailen, but had
the luck to be sent to France with
several other officers instead of a
slow death on the Spanish
prisonships off Cadiz or on the
Island of Cabrera.
He was back in the Peninsula
already in November,
commanding the cavalry of
Marshal Moncey's III Corps.
Boussart saw action at Tudela and
the siege of Saragossa. In the
middle of 1809, Boussart was
appointed as commander of the
cavalry of "l'Arme d'Aragone"
under Marshal Suchet. He
distinguished himself at Ocana
and Lerida where he destroyed
British/Spanish force that was
sent to relieve the city.
During the siege of Tarragona in
1811, Boussart ordered his
cavalrymen to dismount in order
to climb the Alcova Hill and
managed to chase the Spanish
force from their positions.
For this and other actions,
Boussart was promoted to the
rank of general of division.
Boussart became friends with
Marshal Suchet. In October 1811,
Boussart saw action against
Blake's British/Spanish forces at
Sagunto. He was seriously
wounded during a skirmish at
Torrente, near Valencia. After the
fall of Valencia, Boussart became
civil administrator of the city in
order for him to recover from his
wound. There he was nicknamed
" le Brave Wallon" by the Spanish
population. From the summer of
1812 onwards, his health
deteriotes. After 30 years of
military service and 23 wounds,
this warrior died in southern
France in 1813.
Supposedly his last words to his
brother on his deathbed were:
"Ah my dear Isaac, let the
Emperor know that the only thing
I have to regret as I die, is that I
will not have the chance to do
more in his service and for my
country."
Jean-Baptiste Dumonceau, the
Unblemished General.
His name is inscribed on the Arc
de Triomphe in Paris.
Dumonceau
was born in
Brussels in
1760. He was
an architect at
the outbreak of
the Revolution
Brabanconne in
1787. At this
point, he showed himself a true
patriot and enlisted in the Belgian
army against the Austrians. He
served as commander of the well-
known "Canaries" (for their
yellow outfits). This was a corps
of volunteers from the region of
Namur. The "Canaries" were
made of men not really meeting
the army requirements (age,
height, etc.) but full of patriotic
zeal. Dumonceau turned them
into crack troops. After the
revolution failed Dumonceau fled
to France. There, he became chef
of the I Batallion of the "Legion
des Belges et Liegeois". He fought
at the battle of Jemappes where
he captured the Quaregnon
Redoubt, thereby breaking
through the central Austrian
position. After the battle of
Neerwinden in 1793 he was
promoted to the rank of general
of brigade and as such played an
important role in the victories at
Tourcoing and Fleurus.
Jean-Baptiste Dumonceau became
a close associate and advisor to
General Pichgru during his
conquest of Holland, and by 1799
he has been promoted to General
of the Batavian Army (Army of
Holland). As commander of the
Batavians under General Brune,
he succeeds in containing the
advance of the British-Russian
army at Den Helder and in
destroying their plans of invasion
in northern Holland at Bergen-
op-Zoom.
During the campaign against
Austria in 1805, he is commander
of the Batavian troops in
Marmont's II Corps. After the
capitulation of Mack at Ulm,
Dumonceau was in Mortier's VIII
Corps and present at the battle of
Durrenstein.
When the Batavian Republic was
rebaptized into the Kingdom of
Holland in 1806, Dumonceau
became member of King Louis
Bonaparte's Conseil d'Etat and
ambassador in Paris. During this
period, Dumonceau was knighted
by king Louis as "Count of
Bergendal". In the summer of
1809, he briefly became
commander in chief of the
"l'Armee d'Anvers" at Walcheren
during the British invasion. In
1810 Jean-Baptiste Dumonceau
was elevated to the rank of
marshal (of Holland) by King
Louis Bonaparte. However,
Napoleon never officially
recognized this promotion. On
the contrary, at the end of the
year, Dumonceau is demoted to
divisional general and appointed
as governor of a department in
northern Holland. Only after the
disasterous campaign against
Russia, Dumonceau was recalled
into the army. In 1813, he was
appointed as commander of the
2nd division in Vandamme's I
Corps. He saw action at the battle
of Dresden where he was
wounded. Few days after at the
battle of Kulm Jean-Baptiste
Dumonceau was captured by the
Allies.
Jean-Baptiste Dumonceau, Count
of Bergendal, has received the
honor of being inscribed on the
Arc de Triomphe in Paris. In the
French militairy history of the
First Empire, he is widely known
as "the Unblemished General" for
his outspokeness, honesty and
loyalty. His son, Francois
Dumonceau, also served in the
French army. He became officer
in the 2nd Guard Lancers
(commonly known as the "Red
Lancers") nd would write his
memoires which are well worth
the read !
Author: Jason Seigers
(Belgium)
Sources and Links.
Standaard Uitgeverij - "Kroniek van Belgie" (Chronicle of Belgium) 1987
Jacques Legrand - "Chronique de la Revolution" 1988
Uitgeverij Brepols - "Voor Outer en Heerd" 1998
Vicomte Charles Terlinden - "Histoire MIlitaire des Belges"
Letters of Flemish and French soldiers written home while serving in the French Army
information on the Boerenkrijg (in Flemish)
Russian Army : Russische Armee : L'arme russe : Officers : Discipline : Strength
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Russian_army.htm[2012-05-21 12:39:57]
Russian Army of the Napoleonic Wars
"The whole appearance of a Russian army denotes hardihood and bravery,
inured to any privations . They subsist well on black bread: few cattle are
seen following the army. Their commissaries have little to do; and the great
burden of managing the commissariat, which is so irksome to a B r i t i s h
commander on service, seems perfectly light to a Russian chief."
- British General Sir Charles Stewart
"If the Frenchmen had the firmness and the docility of the Russians
the world not be great enough for me." - Napoleon
"...the Russians are very brave." -Karl v.Clausewitz, Prussian officer
If imitation is the sincerest form of flattery then the R u s s i a n s
must have been most flattered when in 1815 the Prussian army
adopted the style and design of Russian uniforms.
Two of the four bloodiest napoleonic battles
were between French and Russian armies.
Introduction : brief history of Russia and her army.
Russia vs Napoleon: campaigns and battles.
. . . . . 1799 - 1806 :
. . . . . few victories and some crushing defeats.
. . . . . 1806 - 1807 :
. . . . . "The First Polish War."
. . . . . Bloodbaths at Eylau and Heilsberg
. . . . . and the massive defeat at Friedland.
. . . . . Peace Treaty with France.
. . . . . 1808 - 1811
. . . . . Russia's wars with Sweden,
. . . . . Persia and Ottoman Empire.
. . . . . 1812 :
. . . . . "The Second Polish War."
. . . . . (Invasion of Russia).
. . . . . "All Europes bayonets on my frontier
. . . . . wont make me alter my language.
. . . . . 1812 - 1813 :
. . . . . "The French fled in a manner in which
. . . . . no other army has ever fled in history."
. . . . . 1813 :
. . . . . "I shall not make peace as long
. . . . . as Napoleon is on the throne."
. . . . . 1813 - 1814 :
. . . . . "The Russians learned [how to win].
. . . . . 1815 :
. . . . . Waterloo Campaign.
.
Supply system and administration of the army.
" The Russians were never as effective
in foraging as were the French soldiers."
Medical Services.
Russian troops suffered from hunger
poor health care and venereal diseases.
Strength and Organization.
The Russian army was as vast as the
territory from which it was drawn .
Recruitment.
"The educated man serves in artillery.
The dandy in the cavalry.
The idler in the navy.
The fool serves in the infantry."
Discipline.
" Recruit three ,
beat to death two,
train one . "
Rank and File.
NCOs and Officers.
The NCOs were professional and brave
but the junior officers were especially
ill qualified. Grand Duke Constantine
used to say: "An officer must never use
his common sense or intelligence.
Kutuzov
The man who defeated Napoleon.
Russian infantry storming the suburbs of Paris in 1814.
.
Brief History of Russian Empire and Army.
"Russia, as much by her position
as by her inexhaustible resources,
is and must be the first power in the world."
- Chancellor Rostopchin
Russia was "the most formidable and brutal,
the most swinish tyranny that has ever
menaced and disgraced European civilization."
- William Napier, British army
When Revolution in France erupted Russia promised that the rule of mobs in France would soon end
and true order of matters would be restored. Russian aristocrats were shocked when the citizens in
France proclaimed "libert, egalit, fraternit" and the country of high culture, the language of which
was spoken in salons from Madrid and London to Berlin, Warsaw, Vienna and Rome found itself in the
hands of the revolutionaries. This drew Russia into a series of wars against France and her neighbors,
which had far-reaching consequences for Europe.
Russia was torn between Asia and Europe and only sparsely settled. The vast land together with the
long winters produced the melancholy and mystery not felt in any other country. According to Paul
Austin when in 1812 Napoleon's army entered Russia, the troops were "a bit frightened at the sight of
so sparsely populated and poverty-stricken a countryside. Dedem finds himself in 'a desert' ... Bonnet
of the 18th Regiment of Line Infantry, Ney's III Army Corps ... is shocked to see how the peasants'
clothing consists of only "a shirt, a pair of coarse cloth trousers, a hooded cloak of sheepskin and some
kind of a fur cap." ...
As for their villages, they're even more squalid than the Polish ones. ... General Claparede, writes home
to his young bride: 'The inhabitants and their houses are very ugly and extremely dirty, and the latter
only differ from the peasants' log cabins in possessing a chimney or two.' ... Although General
Compans, commanding Davout's crack 5th Division, is finding the countryside 'quite attractive' ..."
(Austin - "1812 The March on Moscow" p 59)
The city of Vitebsk made poor impression on the French "From the outside the houses, all higgledy-
piggledy, small, low and built of wood, have the most wretched appearance" according to General
Berthezene. But the road to Moscow is a masterpiece - according to Captain Breaut des Marlots "you
can march along in 10 vehicles abreast." Moscow made impression on the enemy: "The sun was
reflected on all the domes, the spires and gilded palaces. The many capitals I'd seen - such as Paris,
Berlin, Warsaw, Vienna and Madrid - had only produced an ordinary impression on me. But this was
quite different !" - wrote Bourgogne. Griois writes: "In no way did it resemble any cities I'd seen in
Europe."
Moscow and St.Petersburg were the largest Russian
cities.
St.Petersburg was a planned city of canals and
straight streets, reflecting the rationalizm of Peter the
Great. By contrast, Moscow had grown more
spontaneously, and its many large gardens and old
churches made it seem more rural, religious, and
'Russian' than St.Petersburg. Richard Rhein writes,
"Moscow in 1812 was a sprawling city of about
250,000 inhabitants during the fall. Throughout the
winter months, when the nobles and their serfs
returned from their country estates, the populationwould increase by about 100,000."
The inhabitants of St.Petersburg were more open to foreign ideas
and less slothful and superstitious than those of Moscow.
Serfdom was not the original status of the Russian peasant. It was one of the consequences of the Tartar
devastation during the 13th century when peasants became homeless and settled on the land of
wealthy Russians. By the end of the 16th century the Russian peasant came under the complete control
of the landowner and during the middle of the 17th century serfdom became hereditary. Their
situation became comparable to that of slaves in USA and they could be sold to another landowner in
families or singly.
By the 19th century it was estimated that about 50 per cent of Russian peasants
were serfs. Willian Napier calls it "the most formidable and brutal, the most
swinish tyranny that has ever menaced and disgraced European civilization."
(Napier - "History of the War in the Peninsula 1807-1814" Vol IV, p 167)
The peasants and serfs were engaged in agricultural work on fields and farms
and with herding the livestock. From May through October they commonly
worked barefoot. In colder times they had their feet wrapped in clothes over
which was fitted a basketwork affair. They wore rough shirts and trousers
made from canvas and often slept on straw or dry hay.
By 1800, the nobles of the empire made up more than 2 % of the population.
The nobles measured their wealth primarily by the number of male serfs they
owned. Most young nobles were forced by economic need to serve in the military.
William Napier of the British army, called Russia "the most formidable and brutal,
the most swinish tyranny that has ever menaced and disgraced European civilization."
(Napier - Vol IV, p 167)
Russian army.
"War and Peace" (1968) is an 8-hour epic film based on L Tolstoy's book.
The production design and set pieces were delivered on a massive scale,
with battle scenes that are basically re-enactments of history.
.
.
.
From Mongol Yoke to the "Time of Troubles."
Polish troops occupied Moscow in 1610.
The invading Mongols (see picture) accelerated the fragmentation
of the Ancient Rus'. Although a Russian army defeated the
Golden Horde at Kulikovo Pole in 1380, Tatar domination of the
Russian-inhabited territories, along with demands of tribute from
Russian princes, continued until about 1480.
Ivan IV the Terrible (see picture), first
Muscovite tsar, is considered to have founded
the Russian state. He oversaw numerous
changes in the transition from a medieval
nation state to regional power. Ivan the Terrible is described as intelligent and
devout by some; given to rages and prone to outbreaks of mental illness by others.
One day in a fit of rage he killed his eldest son with a blow to the head. (Ivan beat
his pregnant daughter-in-law for wearing immodest clothing, causing a
miscarriage. His son upon learning of this, engaged in a heated argument with his
father, which resulted in Ivan striking his son in the head, causing his son's accidental death.) Ivan the
Terrible became also famous for torturing and executing many people.
The early part of his reign however was one of peaceful reforms and modernization.
"He went beyond the recruitment of foreigners (for example the Italians who built the Kremlin for his
grandfather), to nurture native-born engineers, fortifications specialists, gunsmiths, and artillerists. The
development of the auxiliary services that absorbed the new technology of the Gunpowder Revolution
was uneven over the course of the sixteenth century, but a permanent infantry force, field artillery,
transport corps, combat engineer corps, and military-industrial base did emerge. The Muscovite army
of Ivan IV was a reflection of the society that produced it. Social scientists have remarked that a nation's
military is a reflection of its unique terrain constraints, historical experience, ideology, and
technological level. The Muscovite army did not develop along "Western lines", but this was not
necessarily due to backwardness or an inability to absorb new ideas and methods. The Muscovite army
was created to fight in Russia's wooded steppes and plains, criss-crossed by huge rivers. Muscovy was
the hostage of its location ..." (Dianne Smith - "The Muscovite Army of Ivan IV, the Terrible.")
Ivan the Terrible was initially successfully in military matters, defending Russia's borders to the east
and south. However, he suffered defeats when trying to expand his territories westward against
Poland.
Death of Ivan's childless son Feodor I was followed by a period of civil wars and foreign intervention
known as the Time of Troubles. It was a period of Russian history comprising the years o interregnum
between the death of the last of Moscow Rurukids Dynasty, Tsar Feodor I, in 1598 and the
establishment of the Romanov Dynasty in 1613. The succession disputes during the Time of Troubles
caused the loss of much territory to the Poles and Swedes. The throne was vacant; the nobles quarrelled
among themselves; the leader of the Orthodox Church was imprisoned; Catholic Poles occupied the
Moscow Kremlin and Smolensk; the Protestant Swedes occupied Novgorod; the Tatars devastated the
south borderlands of Russia completely; bands of brigands swarmed everywhere. Thousands of
Russians were dying in riots. The Poles and German mercenaries suppressing riots in Moscow
massacred 7 000 Muscovites and set the city on fire. The Poles and Lithuanians exterminated the
population and clergy of Vologda.
In 1512, Grand Duchy
of Moscow began a
war with Poland and
Lithuania for the
lands of present-day
Belarus and Ukraine.
In 1514 a huge
Russian army under
Chelyadnin besieged
and captured the city
of Smolensk. Then
the Russian army,
some 40 000 - 80 000
men under
Chelyadnin, met 20
000 - 30 000 Poles and
Lithuanians under
Ostrogski at Orsza.
The Poles and
Lithuanians crushed
the Muscovites. They
took many prisoners
incl. Ivan Cheladnin,
and all 300 guns.
Due to the spectacular proportions of the defeat, information about the battle was suppressed in
Muscovite chronicles. Even reputable Russian historians such as Sergei Soloviov rely on non-Russian
sources.
In 1519 the Russian forces attacked the lands around Kreva, while their allies, Tartars, ravaged Polish
Lvov and Lublin. No side could gain advantage. The war lasted until 1520; in 1522 a peace was signed.
The next war in 1534-37 resulted in 5-year ceasefire, but negotiations for a more permanent treaty
failed.
The Muscovite soldier was known for obedience and endurance.
Antonio Possevino writes, "The Polish king told me that he had found Muscovite soldiers in Livonian
fortresses who had subsisted on a diet of water and oat dust. Most were dead, but those who managed
to survive, although scarcely breathing, were still fearful that their surrender would constitute a
betrayal of their oath to serve their Prince to the death. Many observers, however, were quick to
comment that Russians fought better on the defensive and did not oppose the enemy vigorously on
the regular field of battle." (Possevino - "The Moscovia.")
Russian troops in XVI Century.
Picture by Sergei Ivanov.
The troops called streltsy (literally "shooters") were one of the most known Russian troops in that times.
The streltsy were created by Ivan the Terrible between 1545 and 1550. They were armed with the
arquebus and axes and saw first combat at the Siege of Kazan in 1552. The Moscow Streltsy guarded the
Kremlin, performed guard duty in Moscow, and participated in military operations. They also carried
out general police and fire-brigade functions. Even though initially they demonstrated their fighting
efficiency in several engagements the strelsty started to display their backwardness compared to the
regular regiments. Furthermore, the Moscow Streltsy began to actively participate in a struggle for
power between different government groups and showing hostility towards any foreign innovations.
(The strelsty revolted under Peter the Great. The rebellion was put down with savage reprisals,
including public executions and torture. These executions included being broken by the wheel and
being buried alive. The corps was abolished in 1689. Picture: "Morning of Execution of Streltsy" by V
Surikov ext. link)
In 1610 at Klushino
(Kluszyn) the Polish-
Lithuanian army
defeated much stronger
Russian army led by
Prince Shuyski, Tsar's
brother. The charge of
winged-knights was
decisive in the extreme.
From Maskewicz's
memoirs: "We [Poles]
swooped down on them,
sword in hand - whether
they had managed to
reload or not, I would
not know because they
took for the rear and did
not stop galloping until
they reached the
Muscovite reserve at the
rear camp gate, where
their several tidy
formations became
chaotically entangled."
Casualties (killed and
wounded): Poles and
Allies 400, Russians and
Allies 5 000.
Muscovy lost control over western territories and even Moscow was occupied (ext.link) by Polish
troops in 1610. The Time of Troubles was brought to an end when a patriotic volunteer army expelled
the Poles from the Moscow Kremlin and anational assembly, elected to the throne Michael Romanov.
The Romanov Dynasty ruled Russia until 1917.
The Ingrian Wars against Sweden lasted until the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617.
Besides the war with Poles mentioned above, Russia was involved in the following wars:
1590 - 1593 war with Sweden
1604 - 1606 civil war in Russia
1606 - 1607 civil war in Russia (peasant rebellion)
1606 - 1609 war with Poland
1670 - 1671 civil war in Russia (peasant rebellion)
1676 - 1681 war with Turkey
Many people believe that the first regular regiments in Russia were raised by Tzar Peter the Great, but
in reality they were formed 50 years earlier. Already in 1630 the first enlisted units were raised and in
1640s sort of conscription was introduced. The regulars formed the bulk of the Russian army during
the XVII century. In 1663 the Russian field army against Poland was made of 25 000 infantry, 15 000
cavalry (reitars), 10 000 dragoons, 2 000 light cavalry, and other troops. In 1680 the Russian army
consisted of 38-48 regiments of conscripted infantry, 21 regiments of Moscow streltzy, 25-26 regiments
of cavalry and 4 regiments of Cossacks. The feudal levy supplied 25 000 men or 15 % of army (In 1651
the feudal levy gave as many as 37 500 men).
.
.
.
Tzar Peter the Great and the
"Progress Through Coercion."
Russia's new modern army.
Tzar Peter the Great (see picture) achieved Russia's expansion and its transformation
into the Russian Empire through several major initiatives. He established Russia's
naval forces, reorganized the army according to European models, streamlined the
government, and mobilized Russia's financial and human resources.
The army was new and huge. By 1725, Russia had an army of about 200 000 regular
troops and about 100 000 Cossacks. Army recruits were sometimes chained together
on their way to military service. Beginning in 1712, recruits were branded on their
left arms, thereby facilitating the apprehension of runaways. By the time of his death
in 1725 Peter the Great had placed Russia among the foremost European powers,
and had created a military system that has infuenced the European balance of power
until the present day.
The reformed Russian army won a major victory at Poltava in 1709.
The battle began before dawn on June 28, with the Swedes advancing against the Russian fortified
lines. The better trained Swedes pressed in on the Russians' redoubts. By dawn they captured several
redoubts and then their infantry had been ordered to withdraw and reorganise. One Swedish
detachment of 2 500 men hadn't been told about it and became isolated in the Russian defensive line
and was forced to surrender.
The Russians infantry (20 000 men) moved out of its fortified camp. The Swedish infantry (5 000 men)
started to move forward. Both sides delivered several voleys and then the Swedes charged. The Russian
right however outflanked the Swedish infantry and several regiments were surrounded. The Swedish
cavalry tried to buy the infantry time to get away. Their charges however failed and King Charles
ordered the army to retreat. The Russian cavalry had mopped up the stragglers on the battlefield and
returned to their own lines. Many of Cossacks changed sides joining the Russian army right after the
battle.
The battle have ended Sweden's role as a Great Power. It the most famous of the battles of the Great
Northern War (45 000 Russians defeated 15 000 Swedes + 8 000 sieging Poltava). Several thousand
prisoners were were put to work building the new city of St. Petersburg. Swedish King Charles
managed to escape and spent five years in exile there before he was able to return to Sweden.
Infantry of Tzar Peter the Great.
.
.
.
Palace Coups.
Peter III changed the army's uniform
to look like Prussia's, insulting the
Russian soldiers greatly.
The third of a century between the reigns of Peter the Great and Catherine the Great was an era of
palace coups, court favorites, heightened noble privileges, and several distinctly nongreat monarchs.
During the rule of Peter's successors, Russia took a more active role in European statecraft. Russia's
greatest reach into Europe was during the Seven Years' War. In 1760 Russian forces were at the gates of
Berlin.
Fortunately for Prussia, Russian monarch Elizabeth died and her successor, Peter III, allied Russia with
Prussia. Although he was tolerant of Catherine the Great's marital indiscretions, he was little worried
about bastard children eventually following in his footsteps to the Russian throne. At one point, he
exclaimed, "God knows where my wife gets her pregnancies!"
Although he was a grandson of Peter the Great, his father was the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, so Peter
III was raised in a German environment. Russians therefore considered him a foreigner. Making no
secret of his contempt for all things Russian, he went so far as to have a ring made with a picture of
Prussian king Frederick the Great set in it which Troyat claims, "he would kiss fervently at every
opportunity."
Peter III changed the army's uniform to look like Prussia's, insulting the soldiers greatly - the Russian
army had been fighting the Prussians for almost a decade, and were fairly indignant about suddenly
having to look like them: "The hearts of the greater number of them were filled with grief, and with
hatred and contempt for their future Emperor."
Tzar Peter III (1728 1762)
Peter was born in Germany. He was Tzar of Russia for only few months.
Peter and Catherine the Great had 9 children. Although he was tolerant
of Catherine's marital indiscretions, he was little worried about bastard
children eventually following in his footsteps to the throne. At one point
he exclaimed, " God knows where my wife gets her pregnancies ! " :-)
.
.
.
The mighty Russia is born.
Russia's diplomats and army made it
one of the most powerful states in the world.
Tzarina (Empress) Catherine the Great was born Sophia Augusta Frederika of Anhalt-Zerbst in 1729 in
Stettin, then Germany, now Szczecin in Poland. Her father, Prince Christian Augustus of Anhalt-
Zerbst, was a minor princeling among the fragmented principalities in Germany. Catherine took power
after a conspiracy deposed her husband, Peter III (17281762), and her reign saw the high point in the
influence of the Russian nobility. Her foreign minister, Nikita Panin, exercised great influence. He
dedicated much effort to setting up a "Northern Accord" between Russia, Prussia, Poland, and Sweden,
to counter the power of the BourbonHabsburg League. Catherine agreed a commercial treaty with
Britain but stopped short of a military alliance.
During the XVIII and XIX century Russia's diplomats and army made it one of the most powerful
states in the world. Catherine the Great worked hard at organising the state, involved herself in the
affairs of Europe, and initiated an aggressive foreign policy which over few decades was to add the
whole of Finland, what are now Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine, most of Poland, the
Crimea, some of what is now Romania, the Kuban, Georgia, Kabardia, Azerbaidijan, part of Siberia and
Kamchatka to her dominions, as well as part of Alaska (ext.link) and a military settlement north of San
Francisco (ext.link).
Taking Ukraine. Lithuania and part of Poland "not only increased the size of Russia, it also brought her
frontiers 600 km further into Europe... By 1799 Russian armies were operating in Switzerland and
Italy." (Zamoyski - "Moscow 1812" p 17)
Russian Chancellor Rostopchin wrote, "Russia, as much by her position as by her inexhaustible
resources, is and must be the first power in the world." Many in Europe were alarmed at this
seemingly inexorable onward march of Russian power. There was talk of ravening Asiatic hordes and
some fear, that Russia might engulf the whole of Europe as the barbarians had done with ancient
Rome.
Catherine the Great (Russian: Yekaterina II Velikaya).
Historians have not always been kind to her memory,
and all too often one reads accounts of her private life,
ignoring her many achievements.Her love affairs have
been vulgarized. For example, despite an urban myth
connecting her death with a sexual incident involving
a horse, there is no basis to this story. She suffered a
stroke in 1796 and died in her bed.
.
.
.
Russia and her army under Tzar Paul.
Paul ordered more than 20,000 Cossacks
to cross Central Asia and invade British India.
Tzar Paul was determined that the soldiers should be treated well. The monarch increased the pay for
ordinary soldier and intended to curb the drunkenness of the officers, their gambling and the frauds
they perpetrated at the expense of the soldiers. The monarch dismissed 340 generals and 2,261 officers.
Approx. 3,500 officers resigned.
Tzar Paul however failed to grasp the difference between mechanical drills amd what was really
practicable in combat. In 1796-98 were issued 'The Infantry Codes.' General Suvorov dismissed them as
a rat-chewed package found in a castle and made no attempt to enforce them among his troops.
Polish revolutionary leader Tedd Kosciuszko fought the Russian on several occassions, and wrote:
"When they are on the offensive they are fortified by copious distributions of alcohol, and they attack
with a courage which verges on a frenzy, and would rather get killed than fall back. The only way to
make them desist is to kill a great number of their officers ...The Russian infantry withstand fire
fearlessly, but their own fire is badly directed ... they are machines which are actuated only by the
orders of their officers."
"Paul hated revolutionary France and feared its advances in the eastern Mediterranean. ... Russian
forces fought on both land and sea. Most notable were Gedneral Suvorov's victories against the French
in Italy and Switzerland. ... But discord among coalition members led to Russia's withdrawal from the
Second Coalition in 1799. ... Hoping, with Napoleon's backing, to gain Constantinopole and Balkan
territories, Paul agreed to support France against England. Shortly before his overthrow, Paul ordered
more than 20,000 Cossacks to cross Central Asia and invade British India." (Moss - "A History of Russia"
Vol I, pp 338-9)
Russian military parade under Tsar Paul.
Beautiful picture by Benois.
.
.
.
General Alexander Suvorov.
He was reckoned one of a few generals in history
who never lost a single battle. Russians revere Suvorov
as Britons do King Arthur.
Suvorov was immensely popular with the troops. He died in 1800. After the service there was some
difficulty about getting the coffin through the entrance to its resting place in a side chapel, whereupon
a party of soldiers rushed to the front, seized hold of the coffin, and bore their hero aloft and through.
'No more nonsense !' they shouted, 'there is nobody who can stop Suvorov !" (Duffy - "Eagles over the
Alps" p 266)
ARTICLE >>
Suvorov
Suvorov was born to a family of S w e d i s h origin
which had settled in Russia . Suvorov's advice to
generals was simple: "Act solely on the offensive.
Speedy marches, impetus in the attack, cold steel.
Never split your forces to guard a variety of points."
~
Russia against Napoleonic France.
As a major European power, Russia could not escape the wars
involving revolutionary and imperial France.
Tsar Alexander I succeeded to the throne after his father was murdered. Young
Alexander sympathised with French and Polish revolutionaries (Kosciuszko Uprising),
however, his father seems to have taught him to combine a theoretical love of mankind
with a practical contempt for men. These contradictory tendencies remained with him
through life and are observed in his dualism in domestic and military and foreign policy.
Napoleon thought him a "shifty Byzantine". Castlereagh of Britain gives him credit for
"grand qualities" but adds that he is "suspicious and undecided". Alexander however was
the most influential person in Allies headquarters in 1813-1814.
When Tzar Alexander came to power he halted the germanization of the army and in
1802 many Prussian distinctions were abolished.
The Russian army however had many characteristics of ancien regime, senior officers
were largely recruited from aristocratic circles, and the Russian soldier was regularly
beaten and punished to instill discipline. Furthermore, many lower-level officers were poorly trained.
In 1806 the outdated system of dividing the army into columns and brigades of various strength was abandoned.
Also most of the inspections were abolished and replaced by numbered divisions.
In 1810 General de Tolly introduced military attaches. These were military agents who collected information and
were attached to Russian political missions in Paris, Warsaw and Vienna.
In 1810-1812 de Tolly, Volkonskii and others analyzed the French army, its organization, structure and methods of
combat. They introduced many changes, including brigades and divisions with permanent structure and staff,
infantry and cavalry corps etc.
The influence of modern military ideas from France was a gust of fresh air. "Napoleon had many admirers in Russia
particularly among the young - some of whom would be drinking his health even after the war with France had
began." (- Adam Zamoyski)
Population of Russia and other countries:
Denmark - 1 million
Naples - 5 millions
USA - 6,5 millions
Spain - 11 millions
Russia - 40 (with annexed territories)

.
.
.
1799 - 1806
Few victories and some crushing defeats.
Although Russia took no part in the War of I Coalition against France, as a major European power, Russia could not
escape the wars involving revolutionary and imperial France. These campaigns began in late 1790s and ended in
1814-1815 and were ones of the most intensive fightings in Russia's history. It was a long and rocky period with
many changes in the army.
The War of the II Coalition (17991802) was the second attempt by European powers led by Austria and Russia to
defeat Revolutionary France and to roll back her previous conquests. Austria and Russia raised fresh armies for
campaigns in Germany and Italy. Russian general Suvorov won several large battles driving the French under
Moreau out of Italy, and forcing them back on the Alps Mountains and the coast around Genoa. However, the
Russian army in Switzerland was defeated by Massna, and Suvorov's army was eventually withdrawn for political
reasons.
In Germany, Archduke Charles of Austria drove the French under Jourdan back across the Rhine. By the end of the
year, Napoleon had returned from Egypt and took control of France in a coup d'tat. He took command of the army
in Italy and won a victory at Marengo driving the Austrians back toward the Alps. In Germany, Moreau defeated
Archduke Johann at Hohenlinden, forcing him to sign an armistice. In February 1801 the Austrians signed the Treaty
of Lunville, accepting French control up to the Rhine River. Russia left the coalition because the British insisted that
they would have the right to search any vessel on the sea.
In all of Europe, Austria and Russia had probably the most to lose from the exportation of
French idees of liberte, egalite et fraternite. The Orthodox Church in Russia designated
Napoleon as the anti-christ and the enemy of God for having founded a new Hebrew
Sanhedrin, which is the same tribunal that once dared to condemn the Lord Jesus to the cross.
Styling themselves the defenders of the Ancien Regieme, Kaiser Francis II of Austria and Tzar
Alexander I of Russia set out to defeat Napoleon and restore the balance of power in Europe.
The War of the III Coalition (1803-1806) however saw the defeat of an alliance of Russia,
Austria, Great Britain and others by France. Actually it was the French victories at Ulm and
Austerlitz that effectively brought the Third Coalition to an end. On 26 December 1805, Austria
and France signed the Treaty of Pressburg, which took the former out of the war, reinforced the earlier treaties, made
Austria cede land to Napoleon's German allies, and imposed an indemnity of 40 million francs on the defeated
Habsburgs. Russian troops were allowed to head back to home soil.
The Battle of Austerlitz also
known as the Battle of the
Three Emperors was fought
on 2 December 1805. It was
one of Napoleon's greatest
victories and Allies' worst
defeats. The Russians and
Austrians suffered 25 000
casualties out of an army of
75 000, which was 33 % of
their effectives. The French
lost about 15 % of effectives.
The Allies also lost 180 guns
and 50 standards ! Tzar
Alexander wept like a child
during the retreat after
battle.
Napoleon's words to his
troops after the battle were
"Soldiers! I am pleased with
you." The victory was met by
sheer amazement in Paris. Today the battle is regarded as a tactical masterpiece and is compared to other great
tactical battles like Cannae.
The Tzar reflected upon what had gone wrong and pondered the words of his once trusted foreign policy adviser,
Prince Adam Czartoryski. Prince Czartoryski was de facto Chairman of the Russian Council of Ministers in 1804-06.
The Pole had written a candid letter to the monarch explaining in no uncertain terms how and where the tzar had
gone wrong: "Your presence transferred the responsibility of the generals to yourself, and you had neither the
experience nor the knowledge necessary for taking command." (In 1789 the Pole visited Great Britain. On a second
visit in 1793 he made many acquaintances among the British aristocracy and studied the British constitution.)
"Despite Alexander's bitter
disillusionment of the great battle,
Russia was the first of the defeated
allies to recover its spirits. News of
Austerlitz reached Moscow on 12
December 1805 'Moscow is sad, as
gloomy as an autumn night,' wrote
contemporary Russian writer,
Zhikharev. But within few days the
mood had already improved. As late
as January 1806 the papers
published articles doubting the
veracity of the reports of the
disaster, attributing them to French
propaganda.
An article in the Bulletin of Europe
asked 'Why, because of all the
successes of the French, should anyone despair ? Russians had become used to victories but, while the news of
Austerlitz was a severe blow to Russian vanity, it caused no great alarm and provoked no outcry for change.
Informed individuals considered the role of the Austrians in the campaign, the good fortune of the French and
Kutuzov's 'excessive compliance to his sovereign' to be the root causes of the catastrophe.
Only Czartoryski seems to have had the courage to blame Alexander for Russia's misfortune in an April 1806 letter
filled with the wisdom of hindsight: 'If you had listened to the advice we were giving you, at first not to go to the
army, and afterwards not to remain with it, but to ask the King of Prussia for an interview in order to move him to
decisive action, the battle of Austerlitz would not have been fought and lost, or, if lost, would not have had the
results which followed upon it.'
The finger pointing extended to all levels as the Russian Army sought to explain its catastrophe. Buxhovden, who
performance at Austerlitz was most open to censure among the allied generals, was quick to blame Langeron and
Prshibyshevsky, claiming they had become so fixated on adhering to the letter of the original plan that they had
failed to react to events." (Goetz - "1805 : Austerlitz" p 301)
Negotiations between France, Britain and Russia, during the early months of 1806, broke down.
Prussia had been lashed to fury by the discovery that Napoleon had attempted to bribe Britain with Hanover, which
he had so recently ceded to Prussia. The Prussians were also strongly oposing the establishment of the French-
backed Confederation of the Rhine. In August 1806, the Prussian king, made the decision to go to war independently
of any other great power. The Prussian ultimatum reached Napoleon on the 7th October. Wishing to strike her before
succour reach her from Russia, Napoleon anticipated her ultimatum by marching against her towards the Elbe River.
Approx. 150,000 French soldiers moved with such speed that Napoleon was able to destroy the fearsome Prussian
army in two quick battles, Jena and Auerstadt. These defeats were a heavy blow to the Fourth Coalition which
included Prussia, Russia, Great Britain and several smaller states.
.
.
.
1806 - 1807 :
"The First Polish War."
Bloodbaths at Eylau and Heilsberg
and the massive defeat at Friedland.
After crushing Prussia the French entered Poland to a rapturous welcome. Napoleon however was hesitant about
reenacting the Kingdom of Poland. In spite of the ovations given him by the Poles, he wrote: "Only God can arbitrate
this vast political problem ... It would mean blood, more blood, and srtill more blood ..." But it was not long before
the Duchy of Warsaw became a bastion of France in central and Eastern Europe, and Polish troops stood ready to
fight for Napoleon and independence. The war in 1807 was called by Napoleon the "First Polish War" and resulted in
the formation of the Polish state. It greatly angered the Russians.
The Russian army in 1806 was an army in transition. "Among the army's deficiencies certain things stand out. There
were few large scale maneuvers to familiarize everyone with the difficulties of moving large formations in concert.
For most of the year, individual regiments were even billeted among scattered villages so that regimental esprit the
corps was impossible to develop. Initiatiative at all levels was discouraged. Units maneuvered according to parade
ground drill while the tactical situation around them collapsed.
Absteeeism and drunkenness not to mention gambling and fraud plagued the officer corps. A surprising number of
irregulars, supernumeraries, and non-combatants accompanied the army, clogging the roads and consuming scarce
provisions. Irregula cossack formations behaved like freebooters, coming and going as they pleased. In a private
communication, Wilson observed, In some respects this army resembles the Turkish army with its large, disorderly mass
of camp followers.
Yet, among continental armies, the Russians consistently provided the sternest battlefield opposition to the French."
(Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows" p 63)
Napoleon then turned
north to confront the
Russian army. The
Russians had been
located and beaten at
Eylau and Hoff and
then forced to
withdraw further
north. Eylau was a
bloodbath. "After 14
hours of continuous
battle, there was still
no result but
enormous loss of life.
Authorities differ
greatly, but a
reasonable estimate of
Russian casualties is
about 15 000, the
French somewhere
between 10 000 and 15
000 (some sources
state as many as 25 000 casualties on both sides). The Russians left 3 000 prisoners for the French. The French had
gained possession of the battlefield nothing but a vast expanse of bloodstained snow and frozen corpses but
they had suffered enormous losses and failed to destroy the Russian army. It was left to Marshal Ney to sum up.
Riding over the fields of Eylau the following morning, Ney said, Quel massacre! Et sans rsultat "What a massacre!
And for no outcome." Eylau was not the decisive victory characteristic of Napoleon's earlier campaigns ..." (-
wikipedia.org)
The rest of the winter and spring passed in quietness. Napoleon had said that the army would go into winter
quarters. The news from France were not good. The unusually heavy French casualties at Eylau had had the worst
effect. The military police combed the rear areas to round-up deserters. Nevertheless Napoleon had begun to
contemplate a renewal of the campaign so early as the end of April. In early June, Russian General Bennigsen decided
to attack the advanced corps of Marshal Ney. This movement failed. "Bennigsen, having failed in this attempt at a
surprise stroke, had nothing to do but fall back along the main road which leads to Konigsberg, for his numbers were
inferior to those which the Emperor could bring now against him ... On the other hand he felt fairly sure ... of being
able to maintain the defensive indefinitely as he so fell back ... first of all he had heavily fortified Heilsberg, a place
on the main road ... and next because he had proved during all the winter fighting the stubbornness of the Russian
line." (- Hilaire Belloc)
According to Shikanov the Russians lost 6 000 men at Heilsberg. The French lost 12 600 (1 398 killed, 10 359 wounded
and 864 prisoners). Each side had 7 generals wounded. Loraine Petre writes: "The loss in this great battle was
enormous on both sides. Soult's corps alone admittedly lost 6 601 the total loss of the French was probably at least 10
000. Yet there were engaged on their side only the corps of Soult, Murat, and one division of Lannes. The Russians
had lost 2 000 or 3 000 killed and 5 000 or 6 000 wounded; in all, not less than 7,000 or 8,000 besides prisoners. the 1st
and 2nd Divisions, and the greater part of the Russian cavalry, had not been engaged at all. With such losses, it is
easy to judge how fierce was the struggle." (Petre - "Napoleon's campaign in Poland, 1806-1807" pp 302-303)
Georges Blond writes: "Bennigsen, always as doleful as a sick dog, led his troops in retreat along the right bank of the
Alle River in the direction of Konigsberg." Friedland was a battle Bennigsen should never have fought. It would have
been wiser to have fallen back, behind the Pregel River, and united there with Lestocq's Prussian corps, which had
been moving parallel with the Russian army but nearer the Baltic Sea. Bennigsen's defeat at Friedland strengthened
the peace party at the Russian court. Grand Duke Constantine (Tsar's brother, commander of the Russian Imperial
Guard), Prince Czartoryski (a Pole, friend and advisor of Tsar), Kurakin (Ambassador of Russia in Vienna in 1806
and in Paris in 1808), and many others, were now in the ascendant.
The bloodbath at Eylau.
The loss in this battle was enormous on both sides.
Riding over the battlefield the following morning,
Marshal Ney said, "What a massacre !"

Heilsberg was another bloody battle between the French and the Russians.
"Heilsberg cannot be described as a French success. As at Eylau, Napoleon
is left in possession of a battlefield, not a decisive victory."
(Summerville - "Napoleon's Polish Gamble" p 124)
Articles:
Battle of Heilsberg.
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Peace Treaty with France.
Following the defeat at Friedland, the Tzar had to make peace with Napoleon at Tilsit. Napoleon and Tzar Alexander
met at Tilsit on a raft in the middle of the Nemunas. The treaty ended war between Russia and France and began an
alliance between the two empires which rendered the rest of Europe almost powerless. However, Napoleon's
matrimonial plans to marry the tsar's sister were stymied by Russian royalty.
France and Russia secretly agreed to aid each other in disputes - France pledged to aid Russia against Turkey, while
Russia agreed to join the Continental System against Britain. Napoleon also convinced Alexander to instigate the
Finnish War against Sweden in order to force Sweden to join the Continental System. Russia agreed to evacuate
Wallachia and Moldavia, which had been occupied by Russian troops. The Ionian Islands, which had been captured
by Russian navy, were to be handed over to the French.
The Russo-French alliance gradually became strained. France was concerned about Russia's intentions in the
strategically vital Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. At the same time, Alexander viewed the Grand Duchy of
Warsaw, the French-controlled reconstituted Polish state, with suspicion. The requirement of joining France's
Continental Blockade against Great Britain was a serious disruption of Russian commerce, and in 1810 Alexander
repudiated the obligation.
Napoleon and Tzar Alexander in 1807
The treaty ended war between Russia and France and began an alliance
between the two empires which rendered the rest of Europe powerless.
However, Napoleon's matrimonial plans to marry the tsar's sister were
stymied by Russian royalty.
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1808 - 1811.
Russia's wars with Sweden,
Persia and Ottoman Empire.
Russia fought not only with France. The Russo-Turkish War 18061812 was one of many wars fought between the
two countries. The Ottomans, encouraged by the Russian defeat at Austerlitz, deposed the Russophile hospodars of
Moldavia and Wallachia. The tzar was reluctant to concentrate large army against the Ottomans while his relations
with France were still uncertain. Thus relatively small Russian force marched against the Ottomans. The Sultan
reacted by blocking the Dardanelles to Russian ships and sending a massive force to capture the city of Bucharest.
On June 2, 1807, approx. 5 000 Russian troops under Miliradovich checked the enemy at Obilesti. On June 18 in
Armenia, 7 500 Russians defeated Turkish force of 20 000 men.
The tzar used the time of peace with France (Tilsit Treaty) to transfer more Russian troops on the Turkish front.
However the strong Russian army of 75 000 men under the 76-year-old Prozorovsky made little progress in more
than a year. In 1809 he was succeeded by Prince Bagration, who promptly crossed the Danube River and proceeded
to lay siege to Silistria. In 1810 the Russians defeated the Ottoman reinforcement heading for Silistria. The garrison
surrendered on May 30. Kamensky then laid siege to another fortress, Shumla. The Russians suffered horrible
casualties before the citadel fell into their hands. In August the Russian army under Kamensky had surprised and
routed a huge Turkish force at Batyn.
Kamensky died soon thereafter and the new commander, Kutuzov, in accordance with his cautious character,
evacuated Silistria and started to retreat northward. Kutuzov's withdrawal induced a Turkish force of 60 000 men
against the Russian army. On June 22, 1811, Kutuzov's army repulsed the enemy near Rousse. The old general then
crossed the Danube back to Bessarabia. Few months later, a separate detachment secretly returned and, surprising
the Turks at night, routed them thoroughly. (Approx. 10 000 Ottomans were killed that night !) The Turkish
commander surrendered to Kutuzov on November 23. According to the Treaty of Bucharest, the Turks ceded
Bessarabia to Russia. The treaty was approved by Alexander I of Russia on June 11, just thirteen days before
Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 commenced.
After the tzar concluded the Treaty of Tilsit with Napoleon, he suggested that the Swedish King should join the
Continental System. The king was apprehensive of the system's ruinous consequences for Sweden's maritime
commerce. Most Swedish officers however were skeptical about their chances in fighting the Russian army, In Russia,
Swedish King's stubbornness was viewed as a convenient pretext to occupy Finland. In February 1808, 25 000 Russian
troops crossed the border. As a result of the war, the eastern third of Sweden was established as the autonomous
Grand Duchy of Finland within the Russian Empire.
There were also problems with Persia.
In June 1806 Napoleon explained his plan: "The ultimate object of my policy is to make a triple alliance of myself, the
Porte [Turkey] and Persia, aimed against Russia." On 4th May 1807 France and Persia signed the Treaty of
Finkenstein. Napoleon dispatched General Gardanne to Tehran. For Napoleon, the Persian alliance served a dual
purpose. While it created a temporary diversion against Russia, it also threatened British interests in India. "France
guaranteed Persia's territorial integrity and acknowledged her legitimate rights to Georgia, from which, and from all
other Persian territory, France would make every effort to drive Russia." (- Iradj Khan)
The Russo-Persian War began like many wars as a territorial dispute. The Persians wanted to securing land near the
Caspian Sea's coast (modern Azerbaijan) and the Transcaucasus (modern Georgia and Armenia). Russia was equally
determined to control these territories. Furthermore, Russia's 1801 annexation of Georgia, angered the Persians.
The Russians were unable to use their massive army against the Persians, because tzar's attention was on wars with
France, the Ottoman Empire, and Sweden. Therefore, the Russians were forced to rely on superior technology,
training, and strategy in the face of an overwhelming disparity in numbers. Some estimates put the Persian
numerical advantage at 5 to 1. (The rulers of Persia tried to modernize their army, seeking help from French and
British experts, but this merely delayed the Persian defeat.) The desperate Persians declared a holy war on Russia in
1810; however, this was to little avail. Russia's superior weaponry and tactics ensured a series of victories. The
Persians finally surrendered in 1813-14 and ceded the vast majority of the previously disputed territories to Russia.
"This painting by Franz Roubaud illustrates an episode when 493 Russians
for 2 weeks repelled attacks by a 20 000 - strong Persian army. They made
a "live bridge", so that 2 cannons could be transported over their bodies."
(- wikipedia.org)
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1812
The Second Polish War (Invasion of Russia)
"All Europes bayonets on my frontier
wont make me alter my language.
Russia took no active part in the war of the V Coalition. Major battles between France and Austria, unfolded over
much of Central Europe with very high casualty rates. The resulting Treaty of Schnbrunn was the harshest that
France had imposed on defeated Austria in recent memory.
The war of the VI Coalition began in 1812 with Napoleon's Invasion of Russia. Napoleon army, the famous Grande
Arme consisted of more than half million men, crossed the Neman River on 23 June. Russia proclaimed a Patriotic
War, while Napoleon proclaimed a Second Polish war. But against the expectations of the Poles, who supplied almost
100,000 troops and having in mind further negotiations with Russia, he avoided any concessions toward Poland.
Refusing to be cowed by the monstrous international army on his borders,
the Russian monarch made crystal clear to Napoleons messenger Narbonne:
All Europes bayonets on my frontier wont make me alter my language.
Reformed Russian army performed very well in 1812 and ended up as the
winners. By the way, many battles were fought with the Russians being
weaker in numbers than the French.
- Smolensk: French 50 000 vs Russians 30 000
- Shevardino: French 30 000 vs Russians 20 000
- Valutina Gora: French 40 000 vs Russians 20 000
- Mohilev: French 25 000 vs Russians 20 000
The French won several major battles (incl. Borodino and Smolensk) and the Russians won some. Some French
victories were very costly. For example there were probably 75,000-90,000 killed and wounded at Borodino:
- Kutuzov's losses: 45 000 - 50 000 killed and wounded, incl. 23 generals
- Napoleon's losses: 30 000 - 40 000 killed and wounded, incl. 36 generals
Borodino was a bloody meat grinder, devoid of the subtle strokes so common in Napoleon's earlier victories in Italy,
at Austerlitz, Jena and Friedland. Neither Napoleon nor any of his generals had ever before seen such horrors or so
many slain in such a small area. The battlefield was covered with blood, with horses and men lying singly or in
heaps. Eugene Labaume inspected the battlefield and saw "mounds of wounded, and the little spaces where there
weren't any were covered with debris of arms, lances, helmets or cuirasses, or by cannonballs as numerous as
hailstones after a violent storm." Antoine van Dedem recalled "Mountains of dead on both sides ..." Surgeon Roos
wrote that "The numbers of wounded turning up were enormous." (Britten-Austin - "1812 The March on Moscow" p
283)
The Emperor had the chance to trap the
Russians after Borodino but Junot so
mishandled his VIII Corps that the enemy
was able to extricate themselves from the
trap. After the battle, Napoleon made
remark that he likes when there are 3
enemy to 1 dead Frenchman. According
to Gelder however, Marshal Murat "had
the corpses of the French dead stripped.
He wanted to make Napoleon believe all
those he saw were Russians." (Austin -
"1812: The March on Moscow")
Casualties:
- French: 7 500 - 10 000
- Russian: 5 000 - 7 500
So heavy casualties make the Valutina
Gora one of the bloodiest battles of the
Napoleonic Wars. After the battle
Napoleon made remark that he likes when there are 3 enemy to 1 dead Frenchman. According to Gelder however,
Marshal Murat "had the corpses of the French dead stripped. He wanted to make Napoleon believe all those he saw
were Russians." (Austin - "1812: The March on Moscow")
Generally the Russian victories in 1812 are far less known known as most of the western authors used mainly French
sources. The Russians won several smirkishes, small combats and even large battles. Majority of these engagaments
however took place during Napoleon's flight from Russia. Just few examples below:
- combats: Borisov, Jakubovo, Jonkovo, Liakhovo, Mir, Romanov, Smoliany
battles:
- Polotzk 2nd
- Krasnoi (Krasne)
- Vinkovo
(French losses 3,600-4,000 , Russian losses 500-1,800)
- Berezina
(French losses 35 000 - 55 000, Russian losses 15 000)
At Berezina Napoleon had 35,000 French, Swiss and Polish troops and 35,000 stragglers. They faced 40,000 Russians.
Additional 30,000 Russian troops were not far from the battlefield. The French losses in the crossing operations were
very heavy. While some 25,000 French troops and a further 15,000 Russians became casualties. The French Old Guard
was down to 2,000 men and the Young Guard was reduced to 1,000 men. At least 10,000 French stragglers were
massacred by Cossacks, while another 20,000 died in the near freezing water or were crushed to death in the panic to
cross the bridges. Since then "Brzina" has been used in French language as a synonym of disaster. For example,
You met your Berezina ! or It's a disaster ! [C'est la brzina ! ]
- Viazma (French losses 8 000 - Russian losses 2 100)
At Viazma, approx. 25,000 Russians defeated 35,000 French, Poles and Italians. Kutuzov was unable to hold back his
troops in their anxiety to catch up with the fleeing French. Davout's highly trained I Army Corps was cut off from
Napoleon's army. Eugene's and Ney's corps and Poniatowski's Poles turned back to free Davout. The fighting was
hard. The French at the cost of many killed, wounded and prisoners managed to break through. Davout's corps was
rescued although was in total disarray.
Articles:
War of 1812: Invasion of Russia.
Borodino, the bloodiest battle of the Napoleonic Wars.
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1812 - 1813
Prussian military theorist, Karl von Clausewitz writes, "Buonaparte was not certain of maintaining himself through
the winter in Moscow, it became necessary for him then to commence his retreat before the winter set in, and the
preservation or the reverse of Moscow could have no immediate influence on his plans. His retreat was unavoidable,
and his whole campaign a failure, from the moment that the Tzar Alexander refused him peace. Everything was
calculated on this peace, and Buonaparte assuredly never for a moment deceived himself on this point. As no
proposals for peace came from Petersburg (and already a forthnight had been wasted in inactivity) Buonaparte
determined to make the first advance, and on the 4th October sent Lauriston to Kutusov with a letter for the Tzar
Alexander. Kutusov received the letter, but not the bearer. Buonaparte suffered 10 days more to elapse, and then
renewed the attempt, beginning at the time to think on his retreat. Kutusov received Lauriston this time, which
produced some specious negotiations, by which Buonaparte was misled to postpone his retreat for some days
longer."
Picture: Russian army at Tarutino Camp.
Napoleon army began to retrace its steps along the
road from Borodino to Moscow. The French were
burdened by wagons overloaded with loot and
wounded and sick soldiers. They filed past the
battlefield at Borodino which was still litered with
corpses and military equipment. Kutuzov
positioned himself such that he remained a threat to
Napoleon. Napoleon was preceded by Ozharovski's
small light force. He raided ahead of the French in
an attempt to destroy all of the supplies possible.
Miloradovich's and Platov's light troops hounded
the flanks and rear of Napoleon's army.
Clausewitz: "Kutusov saw his army melting in his grasp, and the difficulty he would have in bringing any
considerable portion of it to the frontier. He saw that the result of the campaign must in any case be a colosal one; he
foresaw with much acuteness the total destruction of his enemy: Tout cela se fondra sans moi, were his words to those
about him. Could an accelerated catastrophe - or rather, ought it - have such a value in his eyes as to make him put a
portion of his own remaining strength in hazard ? ... Kutusov determined not to throw his whole strength upon his
adversary, but to follow him unceasingly with great and small detachments, to harass and exhaust him. This he
deemed sufficient for his object. Most commanders in his place would so have reasoned."
The invasion of Russia was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars. The campaign reduced the French and allied
invasion forces to less than 2 % percent of their initial strength. One of Russian generals wrote: "The French fled in a
manner in which no other army has ever fled in history." Russian victory in 1812 and Tsar's determination to
continue the war in 1813 and 1814 "gave teeth to Britain's gold".
Napoleon suffered his first of this scale defeat and the old Kutuzov was the first general before whom Napoleon was
fleeing. Russia had withstood Napoleon's best punch and returned to him a deathblow in the next years crowned
with marching into Paris and occupation of France.
In January however the exhausted Russian armies halted of the Polish frontier. Kutuzov opposed carrying the war
into Central Europe to liberate the same countries that had supported Napoleon's bid to conquer Russia. Other
generals expressed concerns over their very long line of communications. The old Kutuzov favored a slower advance
that would allow him to reorganize his army after the winter campaign. The situation however changed quickly,
Kutuzov died and the Tzar was detrmined to continue the offensive.
Some Russian generals yearned for peace in 1813 and 1814. There were several reasons for this; they were war weary
after campaigning much longer than the Austrians and Prussians, and they thought Russia has no interest west of
Rhine. They understood however that their master, the Tzar, was consumed by the idea of invading France.
Napoleon and his army leaving Russia.
After the disaster in Russia Napoleon
could not believe himself invincible.
Kutuzov's troops during the pursuit of Napoleon.
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1813
"I shall not make peace as long
as Napoleon is on the throne."
After the disaster in 1812 in Russia Napoleon could not believe himself invincible. His enemies were suggesting that
since his good genius had failed him once, it might again. The Russian victory was a huge blow to Napoleon's
ambitions of European dominance. Seeing an opportunity in Napoleon's historic defeat, some Prussian troops re-
entered the war. Public demonstrations in Berlin and elsewhere against the French persuaded the king of Prussia,
Frederick William, to change sides.
With amazing speed, Napoleon concentrated fresh forces and attempted to reorganize the wreck that was emerging
from Russia. He quickly built up his forces in the east from 50,000 to 150,000 and eventually to 450,000 (although
only 250,000 were under his direct command). The Confederation of the Rhine furnished Napoleon with thousands of
soldiers, with Saxony and Bavaria as principal contributors. In addition, to the south Murat's Kingdom of Naples and
Eugene's Kingdom of Italy had a combined total of 100,000 men under arms. In Spain an additional 150.000-175,000
French troops were being pushed back by Spanish, Portuguese and British forces numbering around 150,000-190.000
men. The French were also mercilessly harrassed by the Spanish guerillas.
In 1813 Russia had opened the campaign single-handed, and in which was afterwards joined by Prussia and Austria.
The Russian army was the driving and decisive force in the war on land. Witnesses described the King of Prussia as
Tsar's aide-de-camp or lackey. Russian victory in 1812 encouraged the Austrians to stand up and fight. Without
Russia, the Austrians would be under French boot for long. The Tzar was determined to defeat Napoleon and
'liberate Europe'. He said "I shall not make peace as long as Napoleon is on the throne." And so he did.
The overall command however was at the hands of Austrian Karl Phillip Frst zu Schwarzenberg. Schwarzenberg
had served as a politician as well as a general. Few years ago he served as an ambassador in Russia and France. As
general however he did not win the confidence of either the Tsar of Russia or the King of Prussia.
Two million troops fought in the war of the VI Coalition. Besides the invasion of Russia, the War included the battles
of Ltzen, Bautzen, Dresden and the epic Battle of Leipzig (Battle of Nations), which was the largest battle of the
Napoleonic wars, and, indeed, the largest in Western history prior to the First World War.
Prussian landwehr and Russian regulars in 1813.
Picture by Oleg Parkhaiev.
" ... tell the Emperor that I am facing Russians.
If they had been Prussians, I'd have taken the
position long ago." - Marshal Ney in 1813
Battle - of - Leipzig
1619 October 1813
battalion = 400 - 1 000 men
squadron = 75 - 150 men
Russians
215 infantry battalions
234 cavalry squadrons
Austrians
Prussians
Articles:
War of 1813: Campaign in Germany.
Leipzig: the Battle of the Nations.
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1813 - 1814
"The Russians learned [how to win].
Picture: Russian and Austrian armies enter France in
Januart 1814. Tsar Alexander in green uniform and on
white horse, followed by Colonel of Lifeguard
Cossacks in red coat.
The final campaign of the war of VI Coalition, the
defence of France, saw Napoleon temporarily regain
his former mastery; he repulsed vastly superior
armies, which many believe to be the most brilliant
feat of generalship of his career. The Campaign of
France has been greatly admired, and has been held
up as the greatest effort of Napoleon's genius. If, on the one hand, we think this opinion places it too high, on the
other, it is certainly a great example of what his genius could do in circumstances which, since the defeat at Leipzig,
had become so desperate that no other general of the time would have even attempted to make head against them.
"To find a parallel we have to go back to Frederick the Great in his struggle against almost all the rest of Europe." (-
Loraine Petre, London 1914)
The driving and decisive force in this campaign were the Russian and Prussian armies. Both monarchs were in a
close relationship and the King of Prussia very often supported the Tsar. The Tzar, and the two leading Prussian
generals, Blucher and Gneisenau, insisted on immediate pursuing the French troops and decisive campaign against
Paris. For them any peace terms would be dictated in Paris and they were anxious to stomp their boots on French
soil. Blucher was disposed to make a severe retaliation upon Paris for the calamities that Prussia had suffered from
France. Tsar Alexander looked for revenge for Napoleon taking Moscow in 1812. Tzar's advisor, Heinrich von Stein,
branded the French Emperor "the enemy of the human race."
Many Russian generals however yearned for peace. There were several reasons for this; they were war weary after
campaigning much longer than the Austrians and Prussians, and they thought Russia has no interest west of Rhine.
They understood however that their master, the Tzar, was consumed by the idea of invading France. And there was
the Crown Prince of Sweden, Bernadotte, who warned against the dangers of invading France and popular
resistance. He did not hide his interest in the future of the French government. Lord Castlereagh of Great Britain
undertook to try to persuade the Tsar of the necessity for reopening negotiations but all his arguments failed to
produce any effect on Alexander.
The Allies made preparations to ensure a flow of provisions and supplies, and Great Britain continued to provide
their amies with generous subsidies. From the beginning of this campaign Napoleon had "put on his Italian boots"
and disconcerted the Allies by the rapidity of his maneuvers. Blucher was badly beaten at Champaubert, Montmirail,
Chateau-Thierry and Vauchamps. Loraine Petre writes, "In the 4 days' fighting at Champaubert, Montmirail,
Chateau-Thierry, and Vauchamps, Blucher's army of about 56,000 men had lost over 16,000 ... Napoleon's loss had
been only about 4,000." (Petre - "Napoleon at bay, 1814" p 71, publ. in London 1977)
Schwarzenberg was caught at Montereau and defeated. The King of Prussia and Emperor of Austria had been
quickly demoralized by the defeats and talked about general retreat but the Tsar was more determined than ever. He
imposed his will on Schwarzenberg and the wavering monarchs. Allies' armies were again advancing against
Napoleon. Napoleon defeated the Russians at Craonne but his casualties were very heavy. At Laon he was unable to
dislodge the Prussians and Russians. The French had taken Reims, but they had lost Soissons. The surrender of
Soissons compromised Napoleon's strategic plan.
On the 23rd the Allies captured a despatch from Napoleon's Minister if Police (Savary) to the Emperor. The minister
informed that the treaury, magazines, and arsenals were empty, and that the populace was clamouring for peace.
Schwarzenberg still could not make up his mind to advance on Paris. The Tzar and few others however realized that
Paris, not Napoleon, should now be objective. He sent for Barclay de Tolly, Toll and Diebitsch. Loraine Petre writes,
"Barclay's opinion was taken first; he was all for following Napoleon. Diebitsch, really in favour of Paris, but not
liking to run counter to his chief [Barclay], proposed sending 40,000 or 50,000 men to Paris and following Napoleon
with the rest. Toll, having no ties to Barclay, said plainly that he would like to send only 10,000 cavalry against
Napoleon to mask the movement of the rest of the united armies on Paris. That fitted in precisely with Tzar's views.
The allied armies reached Paris, with some Russians shouting "Paris ! Paris !", breaking their ranks and pressing
forward to see the glorious city. The Allies brought 90,000-100,000 troops (60,000 of them were Russians). Although
the overall command of the Allies armies had Schwarzenberg, the command in the battle of Paris was given to
Russian General Mikhail Bogdanovich Barclay de Tolly.
There were as many as 18,000 killed and wounded in the battle of Paris. Marshals Mortier, Moncey and Marmont
fought until King Joseph Bonaparte abandoned Paris desiring Marmont to conclude a convention for its surrender.
Tzar Alexander triumphantly entered the city and the Russians camped in front of Napoleon's palace. Napoleon
made remark: "The Russians learned [how to win]." The wars were over and the period of nine consecutive
campaigns in which the Russian troops participated came to an end;
- Finland was captured
- Sweden was defeated
- war with Turkey was won
- Caucassus was taken
- Poland was taken too
- Germany and Prussia were liberated from French yoke
- Paris was captured and the mighty Napoleon was crushed and abdicated.
The Tzar (mounted on white horse) and Allies enter Paris in 1814.
In front of the monarchs are the red-clad Lifeguard Cossacks.
Articles:
Battle of Paris.
Opinions on the Russian troops fighting in 1814 at Craonne:
According to French author Henri Houssaye, neither Russian guns nor prisoners were captured
and "one quarter of the men engaged were killed or wounded; the Russians lost 5000, the French
5400 men, and among the wounded were Victor, Grouchy, and 7 other generals.
Russian author Mikhailovski-Danilevski writes : "He (Vorontzov) left in the hands of the French
neither prisoners nor guns, neither gun-carriage nor ammunition wagon: the enemy's only trophies
were the dead bodies of our countrymen. Like Waterloo, Craonne might have proved the last day of
Napoleon's career, if during the time he was straining every effort to annihilate the Russians on the
plateau, by bringing all his troops into action, Generals Wintzingerode, Kleist and Langeron had
charged the French rear as had been ordered. Success would have been certain, especially if Blucher,
instead of disseminating his forces, had marched to that point with all his corps, and had reached the
ground in proper time. ...
"The French acknowledged the loss of 8,000 men killed and wounded. In the number of the latter
were 8 generals, among whom were Grouchy and Marshal Victor. Our loss amounted to 6,000. The
Marioupol Hussar Regiment, in the course of 3 hours, lost 22 officers. Most of the generals were
wounded, and 2 of them died of their wounds; the latter were Lanskoi and Ushakov who were
reckoned among the most distinguished leaders of our cavalry. ... Lanskoi would not consent to the
amputation of his leg, which had been shot through with a bullet ... Ushakov, on being mortally
wounded, called out to his regiment [Courland Dragoons]: "Halt, Courlanders !" and breathed his
last. While speaking of those who laid down their lives at Craonne, can we pass unnoticed the
young and accomplished Count Stroganov who was struck by a cannonball."
British author Frederick William Orby Maycock writes: "So ended one of the most desperately
contested battles in which Napoleon had ever taken part; the Russians were forced from their
formidable position, but the victory was a barren one, for they left not a man nor a gun behind them
and the French were much too shaken to pursue. ...
Out of 20,000 men actually under fire, the Russians lost 5,000, while the French brought just over
30,000 men into the field of battle, and lost 8,000; such an appaling butcher's bill speaks volumes
for the reckless courage with which both sides had fought. Though the action was described in the
[French] bulletins as a decisive victory, Napoleon was in reality greatly chagrined by the useless
slaughter, more especially as the casualties among the Guard had been unusually heavy, and it was
impossible to replace the losses among his veteran troops.
Vorontzov had fought the action with remarkable skill and determination, while the steadiness and
dogged courage of his heroic infantry had been beyond all praise. Blucher had been within an ace of
inflicting a crushing defeat on his great opponent, for had not the turning movement miscarried,
principally owing to Wintzingerode's incapacity, coupled with faulty staff work ..."
1815.
Waterloo Campaign.
France of 1815 was no longer the almighty Empire of 1805-1812. After Napoleon's triumphant arrival in Paris, the
Allies (Russians, Austrians, Prussian, British, Spaniards, and German and Netherland troops) undertook to provide
over 800 000 men between them. According to David Chandler, France's resources (300 000 including reserves) "were
stretched pathetically thinly."
The plan devised by General Gneisenau was founded on the enormous numerical superiority of the Allies. Gneisenau
said: "For great armies, the fourth of which (the Russian Army) will form the Reserve, will enter France
simultaneously and march straight on to Paris. Whatever happens to one of the three armies (Prussian, British-
Netherland, and Austrian) of the first line, whether it be beaten or not, the two others will continue to advance
leaving detachments in their rear to watch the fortresses. The mission of the Russian Army is to retrieve any
misfortune which may overtake either of the armies of the first line."
Strategic situation during the Waterloo Campaign in 1815.
Russian troops under Barclay de Tolly (right upper corner)
.
Commander-in-Chief: Fieldmarshal Barclay de Tolly.
Chief-of-Staff: GL Baron Diebitsch (Dybicz)
Chief-of-Artillery: GL Prince Yachwill
Chief-of-Engineers: GM Baron Sievers
GUARD INFANTRY CORPS GRENADIER CORPS I CAVALRY CORPS
1st Guard Infantry Division
1st Brigade
- - - Preobrazhensk Lifeguard Infantry
2nd Grenadier Division
1st Brigade
- - - Semenovsk Lifeguard Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Izmailovsk Lifeguard Infantry
- - - Lifeguard Jagers
- - - Lifeguard Marines (half battalion)
Lifeguard Foot Artillery
(36 guns)
2nd Guard Infantry Division
1st Brigade
- - - Lithuanian Lifeguard Infantry
- - - Finland Lifeguard Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Lifeguard Grenadiers
- - - Pavlovsk Lifeguard Grenadiers
- - - Lifeguard Sappers (battalion)
Lifeguard Foot Artillery
(36 guns)
1st Grenadier Division
1st Brigade
- - - Kaiser of Austrias Grenadiers
- - - King of Prussias Grenadiers
2nd Brigade
- - - Graf Arakcheiev's Grenadiers
- - - Pernau Grenadiers
3rd Brigade
- - - 1st Grenadier-Jagers
- - - 3rd Grenadier-Jagers
Foot Artillery (36 guns)
Guard Light Cavalry Division
1st Brigade
- - - Lifeguard Uhlans
- - - Lifeguard Dragoons
2nd Brigade
- - - Lifeguard Horse-Jgers
- - - Lifeguard Hussars
- - - Lifeguard Cossacks
- - - Lifeguard Black Sea Cossacks (squadron)
- - - Lifeguard Ural Cossacks (squadron)
Lifeguard Horse Artillery (12 guns)
- - - Kiev Grenadiers
- - - Taurida Grenadiers
2nd Brigade
- - - Moscow Grenadiers
- - - Ekaterinoslav Grenadiers
3rd Brigade
- - - 8th Grenadier-Jagers
3rd Grenadier Division
1st Brigade
- - - Siberia Grenadiers
- - - Little Russia Grenadiers
2nd Brigade
- - - Fanagoria Grenadiers
- - - Astrakhan Grenadiers
3rd Brigade
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1st Cuirassier Division
1st Brigade
- - - Kavalergarde [Chevaliers Garde]
- - - Lifeguard Horse [Garde du Corps]
2nd Brigade
- - - Lifeguard Cuirassiers
- - - Her Majestys Life Cuirassiers
Lifeguard Horse Artillery (12 guns)
1st Uhlan Division
1st Brigade
- - - Lithuanian Uhlans
- - - Yambourg Uhlans
2nd Brigade
- - - Orenbourg Uhlans
- - - Siberia Uhlans
Horse Artillery (12 guns)
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I INFANTRY CORPS II INFANTRY CORPS III INFANTRY CORPS IV INFANTRY CORPS
5th Infantry Division
1st Brigade
- - - Perm Infantry
- - - Mokhilev Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Sevsk Infantry
- - - Kalouga Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 23rd Jagers
- - - 24th Jagers
Foot Artillery
(12 heavy, 24 light guns)
1st Brigade
- - - Briansk Infantry
- - - Nizov Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Azov Infantry
- - - Koporsk Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 18th Jagers
- - - 54th Jagers
Foot Artillery
1st Brigade
- - - Tula Infantry
- - - Navazhinsk Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Tenginsk Infantry
- - - Estland Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 25th Jagers
- - - 55th Jagers
Foot Artillery
1st Hussar Division
1st Brigade
- - - Grodno Hussars
- - - Soumy Hussars
2nd Brigade
- - - Loubny Hussars
- - - Olviopol Hussars
1st Brigade
- - - Tobolsk Infantry
- - - Minsk Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Vohlin Infantry
- - - Kremenchoug Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 4th Jagers
- - - 34th Jagers
Foot Artillery
1st Brigade
- - - 1st Marines
- - - 2nd Marines
2nd Brigade
- - - 3rd Marines
- - - Voronezh Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 31st Jagers
- - - 47th Jagers
Foot Artillery
1st Brigade
- - - Chernikhov Infantry
- - - Murom Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Revel Infantry
- - - Selenguinsk Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 20th Jagers
- - - 21st Jagers
Foot Artillery
1st Dragoon Division
1st Brigade
- - - Moscow Dragoons
- - - Kargopol Dragoons
2nd Brigade
- - - Mitava Dragoons
- - - New Russia Dragoons
1st Brigade
- - - Moscow Infantry
- - - Pskov Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Sophia Infantry
- - - Libava Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 11th Jagers
- - - 56th Jagers
Foot Artillery
1st Brigade
- - - Shirvan Infantry
- - - Ufa Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Tomsk Infantry
- - - Butirsk Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 19th Jagers
- - - 40th Jagers
Foot Artillery
1st Brigade
- - - Odessa Infantry
- - - Tarnopol Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Vilno Infantry
- - - Simbisrsk Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 49th Jagers
- - - 50th Jagers
Foot Artillery
3rd Dragoon Division
1st Brigade
- - - Courland Dragoons
- - - Smolensk Dragoons
2nd Brigade
- - - Tver Dragoons
- - - Kinbourn Dragoons
1st Brigade
- - - Poltzk Infantry
- - - Yeletz Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Rilsk Infantry
- - - Ekaterinbourg Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 33rd Jagers
- - - 57th Jagers
Foot Artillery
1st Brigade
- - - Riazan Infantry
- - - Brest Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Vilmannstrand Infantry
- - - Belozersk Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 30th Jagers
- - - 48th Jagers
Foot Artillery
23rd Infantry Division
1st Brigade
- - - Uglitz Infantry
- - - 35th Jagers
2nd Brigade
- - - Borodino Infantry
- - - Tarutino Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - Penza Infantry
- - - 51st Jagers
Foot Artillery
3rd Hussar Division
1st Brigade
- - - Izoum Hussars
- - - Elisavetgrad Hussars
2nd Brigade
- - - Pavlograd Hussars
- - - Irkoutzk Hussars
V INFANTRY CORPS VI INFANTRY CORPS VII INFANTRY CORPS VIII INFANTRY CORPS
1st Brigade
1st Brigade
1st Brigade
- - - Smolensk Infantry
- - - Narva Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Alexopol Infantry
- - - New Ingermanland Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 6th Jagers
- - - 41st Jagers
Foot Artillery
1st Brigade
- - - Vitebsk Infantry
- - - Kozlov Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Kolyvan Infantry
- - - Kurinsk Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 13th Jagers
- - - 52nd Jagers
Foot Artillery
1st Brigade
- - - Ladoga Infantry
- - - Nizhniigorod Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Poltava Infantry
- - - Orel Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 5th Jagers
- - - 42nd Jagers
Foot Artillery
2nd Dragoon Division
1st Brigade
- - - St. Petersburg Dragoons
- - - Riga Dragoons
2nd Brigade
- - - Finland Dragoons
- - - Kazan Dragoons
- - - Arkhangelgorod Infantry
- - - Schlisselbourg Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Old Ingermanland Infantry
- - - Ukrainian Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 7th Jagers
- - - 37th Jagers
Foot Artillery
1st Brigade
- - - Apsheron Infantry
- - - Nasheburg Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Riazhskii Infantry
- - - Yakutzk Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 10th Jagers
- - - 38th Jagers
Foot Artillery
1st Brigade
- - - Bialystok Infantry
- - - Crimean Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Kursk Infantry
- - - Yaroslavl Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 39th Jagers
- - - 53rd Jagers
Foot Artillery
2nd Hussar Division
1st Brigade
- - - Ahtirka Hussars
- - - White Russia Hussars
2nd Brigade
- - - Alexandria Hussars
- - - Marioupol Hussars
1st Brigade
- - - Tambov Infantry
- - - Vladimir Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Kostroma Infantry
- - - Dnieper Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 28th Jagers
- - - 32nd Jagers
Foot Artillery
22nd Infantry Division
1st Brigade
- - - Viatka Infantry
- - - Staroskol Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Vyborg Infantry
- - - Olonetz Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 45th Jagers
- - - 56th Jagers
Foot Artillery
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- - - Vielikie Louki Infantry
- - - Galizia Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Saratov Infantry
- - - 4th Marines
3rd Brigade
- - - 12th Jagers
- - - 22nd Jagers
Foot Artillery
1st Brigade
- - - Ohotzk Infantry
- - - Neislott Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Kamchatka Infantry
- - - Mingrelia Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - 27th Jagers
- - - 43rd Jagers
Foot Artillery
4th Dragoon Division
1st Brigade
- - - Harkov Dragoons
- - - Ingermanland Dragoons
2nd Brigade
- - - Kiev Dragoons
- - - Narva Dragoons
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CORPS IN FRANCE
(after Waterloo)
CORPS IN GEORGIA CORPS IN FINLAND
1st Brigade
- - - Infantry
- - - Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Infantry
- - - Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - Jagers
- - - Jagers
Foot Artillery
12h Infantry Division
1st Brigade
- - - Infantry
- - - Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Infantry
- - - Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - Jagers
- - - Jagers
Foot Artillery
.
1st Brigade
- - - Infantry
- - - Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Infantry
- - - Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - Jagers
- - - Jagers
Foot Artillery
1st Brigade
- - - Infantry
- - - Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Infantry
- - - Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - Jagers
- - - Jagers
Foot Artillery
Cavalry Brigade
- - - Borisoglebsk Dragoons
- - - Nizhegorod Dragoons
21st Infantry Division
1st Brigade
- - - Infantry
- - - Infantry
2nd Brigade
- - - Infantry
- - - Infantry
3rd Brigade
- - - Jagers
- - - Jagers
Foot Artillery
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II CAVALRY CORPS III CAVALRY CORPS IV CAVALRY CORPS
2nd Cuirassier Division
1st Brigade
- - - Ekaterinoslav Cuirassiers
- - - Gloukhov Cuirassiers
2nd Brigade
- - - Astrakhan Cuirassiers
- - - Pskov Cuirassiers
2nd Uhlan Division
1st Brigade
- - - Polish Uhlans
- - - Tatar Uhlans
2nd Brigade
- - - Vohlin Uhlans
- - - Vladimir Uhlans
3rd Cuirassier Division
1st Brigade
- - - Military Order Cuirassiers
- - - Little Russia Cuirassiers
2nd Brigade
- - - Starodoub Cuirassiers
- - - Novgorod Cuirassiers
3rd Uhlan Division
1st Brigade
- - - Chuguyev Uhlans
- - - Zhitomir Uhlans
2nd Brigade
- - - Serpukhov Uhlans
- - - Taganrog Uhlans
1st Horse-Jager Division
1st Brigade
- - - Chernigov Horse-Jager
- - - Seversk Horse-Jager
2nd Brigade
- - - Arzamass Horse-Jager
- - - Nezhinsk Horse-Jager
2nd Horse-Jager Division
1st Brigade
- - - Livland Horse-Jagers
- - - Dorpat Horse-Jagers
2nd Brigade
- - - Pereyeslav Horse-Jager
- - - Tiraspol Horse-Jagers
The numerous Russian corps were formed into two armies: First and Second.
Barclay de Tolly took command of the First Army (175.000-200.000 men):
- III Corps
- IV Corps
- V Corps
- VI Corps
- VII Corps
- Grenadier Corps
- II Cavalry Corps
- Artillery Reserve
The Second Army was behind the First Army to support it. It consisted of:
- Guard Corps
- I Corps
- II Corps
- I Grenadier Division
- I Cavalry Corps
The First Army crossed Poland, Prussia, and several German states rapidly.
They advanced in three columns:
- right column under Dohturov, advanced through Kalisz (today in central Poland), Leipzig, Hanau, towards Mainz
- central column under Sacken, advanced through Breslau (today Wroclaw in Poland), Dresden, towards Oppenheim
- left column under Langeron, advanced through Prague (today in Czech Republic), Neckar, towards Mannheim
The advance guards of the three columns reached the Rhine River before the hostilities broke out upon the Belgian
frontier. The Russians crossed the Rhine on 25 June and followed the Austrian Army of the Upper Rhine. A Russian
advanced guard led by Lambert was attached to Wrede's IV (Bavarian) Corps. Chernishev's cavalry and Cossacks
crossed the Moselle River and carried by storm, on 3 July, the city of Chlons-sur-Marne. The French garrison had
promised to make no resistance, and yet fired upon the Russian cavalry; whereupon the Russians immediately
dismounted, scaled the ramparts, broke open the gates, sabred a part of the garrison, made the remainder prisoners,
including the French General Rigault, and pillaged the town. The bulk of the Russian army reached Paris in mid
July. The news of the capture of Paris by the Prussian and British troops led to a suspension of hostilities; which was
concluded on 24 July 1815.
~
Supply System and Administration of the Army.
The Russians were never as effective in foraging
as were the French.
The distances to cover for
the horse or ox drawn heavy
wagons were incredible. For
example the distance from
central Russia to Germany
was 1 000 miles in straight
line. The roads were few
and most were in poor
condition. Sometimes along
with the rolling wagons
moved cattle - sort of fast
food McDonalds on the
hoof. For example, in 1810
the regiments began their
march from winter quarters
towards the Danube River
accompanied by a mass of
horses, oxen and even few
camels.
The Russian infantrymen carried small amount of food in their backpacks, larger amounts were
delivered by transports from magazines in Russia. Additionally the troops could either purchase more
foods from foreign sources (in 1813-1814 a lot of food was purchased in Germany) or take it by force if
stationed in friendly or occupied country (read examples below).
During campaign in Austria in 1805, the Russian troops much relied upon Austrian magazines,
transportation and supply system. When the system crushed down, they simply took what they
needed from the local populace. They seized bread from the Austrian civilians by force, and
even carried off Austrian NCOs' and officers' baggage !
After 1805 the situation didnt improve. S. G. Volkonski wrote All winter 1805-1806
Bennigsens soldiers were fed on potato without salt. They were like shadows, they fell ill and
died from famine. (Otechestvennaia Voina I Russkoie Obschestvo 1812-1912 1911, Vol III , part
Vozhdi armii)
In 1812 in Russia the dragoons and horse gunners from Tarutino Camp paid visits to villages
nearby. In Orehovka the Russian dragoons broke locks and got into houses taking all valuable
goods.
In the beginning of 1813 campaign, the Russian and Prussian armies quartered in Silesia and
greatly burdened the local population. The Russian supply wagons were empty and the
magazines were far behind in ruined by war country. The Russians were aided by the Prussian
supplies and by requisitions in occupied Duchy of Warsaw, Napoleons ally. The requisitions
were collected in bigger cities like Warsaw and Krakow and then sent westward toward Odra
(Oder) River. Other big transports went from the city of Torun by the Vistula River. Flour was
delivered by the Silesians from the city of Wroclaw (then Breslau).
According to Muraviev-Karski, in 1813 the Russian soldiers stationed near Otendorf, lost
patience and attacked armed Czech peasants and the Austrian troops. Then the guardsmen (!)
robbed everything without mercy: food, drink and money.
The problems with supplies continued during the campaign in 1814 in France, where according
to General Paskevich even the grenadiers were hardly getting a crust of bread. General
Pahlens hussars arrived at Brienne but found this place already packed with Vasilchikovs
cavalry and Sackens infantry. The food was scarce, most common were half baked potatos and
brandy. Brienne was partially devastated and presented a sad sight even for the Russians. The
next day the hussars ate nothing at all and slept on the ground wrapped in their greatcoats.
There were no arrangements made to find quarters, there was no food delivered to the troops.
The entire battle at Brienne was fought by the Soumy Hussar Regiment with empty and
growling stomachs.
Tzar Alexander punished the commissariat and provision services
by depriving the officials the right to wear the army uniform
for enrichment from money trusted to them.
Usually the privates drank water or whatever they
found at civilians (milk, beer etc.) If a place was not
healthy then instead of using local water they drunk
diluted wine or kvas and snacked on bread or suhary.
The officers drunk tea with rum, and in winter a
better quality wine.
The soldiers carried tools, which helped them during
foraging and preparing the food. In 1802 was ordered
that each cuirassier squadron has to carry 16 kettles,
16 scythes, 8 axes, and 8 spades. The dragoons
carried the same tools as the cuirassiers with additional 7 more axes and 4 hoes. Each hussar squadron
however had to carry only kettles (20) and scythes (16).
The Russians however were never as effective in foraging as were the French. With the exception of
few months in 1812 the situation with food was always troublesome in the Russian army. There were
cases when Russian soldiers were without food for 7 days, had nothing to eat but a piece of a hide,
steeped in water that they might be enabled to chew it when softened. But then they remained under
arms and then on the field of battle for 18 hours.
During campaign each cavalry squadron sent his foraging group. Lwenstern describes how during the
1806-1807 campaign he was sent with 50 men for foraging for the entire squadron. They treated the
Polish population as enemy and everything they took was by force. If the civilians protested entire
villages were plundered, individual houses were burned and women and girls were raped. The Soumy
Hussar Regiment marched through Goldap, Augustowo (Augustow ?) and Olecko. Everywhere they
went they created havoc and earned the dreadful name Pahlens wilde Jagd casting a shadow on good
name of their commander, general Pahlen. On their coming to Olecko the entire village fled with their
belongings to the forest. (Lwenstern - Mit Graf Pahlens Reiterei gegen Napoleon 1910, p 25)
The numerous wars were a heavy burden on the finances and the economy of the state, which affected
the supply system for the army. According to a report by General de Tolly to the Tzar the cost of the
war with France between 1812 and 1815 was more than 23 million. The issue of assignats amounted to
more than 43 milion and debts in consequence of loans, etc. were above 22 million. (Bloch - Modern
Weapons and Modern War 1900)
There were only few countries that could match or surpass the Russian financial and
economical efforts. For example Great Britain, the paymaster of coalitions against
France, paid huge sums. Only between 1811 and 1815 Great Britain averaged 120
million per annum in war expenditures. (Norman J. Silberling - "Financial and Monetary
Policy of Great Britain During the Napoleonic Wars." Quarterly Review of Economics. 1924)
In 1813 the British subsidies and % share in total Russian military expenditure
increased
from 1 % in 1805 to 19 % ! For Austria the subsidies in 1813 reached 3 % of total military
expenditure. Large shipments were sent to Prussia.
Besides the economical and financial problems, the bureaucracy, corruption and mismanagement
affected the army life. The governor of Moscow, Rostopchin, wrote that the corruption in army
hospitals makes one groan. When Prince Viazemski visited Paris he was asked how is the life in
Russia? Viazemski replied; They are stealing.
Many Russian generals, officers and the administration officials stole as much as they could and
whenever was an opportunity. They for example made false reports giving inflated number of soldiers
to get more food and money and then stole it or sold for own profit. The legend of Russian light
cavalry, Kulniev, used to get more horses than his squadrons needed, only afterwards the superfluous
mounts disappearing without a trace. According to Lwenstern during the 1806-1807-campaign people
responsible for supplying the fighting army, Meierovich, Arbusov and Konsorten, were stealing. They
deserved gallows, as their tables in Knigsberg were heavy from foods while the hussars starved.
(Lwenstern - Mit Graf Pahlens Reiterei gegen Napoleon 1910, p 19)
In 1807 - according to Yermolov - the troops had neither bread nor salt, the dry crackers
were rotten and in small quantities. Soldiers were so hungry they ate oxen skins and the
number of deserters and runaways increased. Bagration asked Yermolov to report about
this tragic situation. Yermolov did what was asked for, strict orders were soon issued and
... everything remained the same. It was not until Grand Duke Constantine and the
Imperial Guard joined the army the situation changed for the better.
The first transport with provisions was sent but unfortunately it was halted by other
troops and never arrived to its destination. The second transport was send under escort and reached
Bagrations troops.
Soon it was announced that the monarch want to see the troops. Before the Tzar and King of Prussia
arrived the better dressed and fed men were selected and gathered. The sick, weak and dressed in
tatters were hidden in a forest on a remote outpost. S. Volkonski wrote that there were shortages of
food even in the headquarters. For example for 10 days after the battle at Pultusk there was lack of
bread. Even the guardsmen had to eat potatoes while those in non-guard troops were without food for
several days.
An unknown from name officer of Azovski Musketier Regiment wrote: I am so numbed, mentally and
physically, by hunger, cold, and exertion, that I hardly have the strength or the desire left to write this
down. No army could suffer more than ours has done in these days. It is no exaggerated calculation to
say that for every mile between Jonkerdorf and this place the army has lost 1.000 men who have not
come within sight of the enemy... The poor soldiers glide about like ghosts."
Sir Robert Wilson wrote: "If I had been told that men could live as the poor Russians have been
doing ... I could not have believed it. Black bread, snow for water, and snow only to lie on, is
tremendous suffering."
How messy the supply system was show the case of two huge transports that reached the army in
Silesia in 1813. One of them consisted of 3 000 peasants carts and wagons and was in previous year
destined for the Russian army in Moldavia. This transport was somehow separated from the troops
and slowly wandered westward. These wagons and carts and their drivers spent part of the winter in
Duchy of Warsaw and then joined the westward moving armies in Silesia in 1813 !
These transports consisted of dry-bread and dry suhary (see picture), which were issued to the troops
within the following months and even in 1814. (Bogdanovich - Istoriya Voiny 1813 Goda 1863 Vol. 1, pp
439-440, after Kankrin -Ueber die Militrkonomie im Frieden und Krieg I , pp 87-88)
.
~
Medical Services.
Russian troops suffered from hunger
poor health care and venereal diseases.
Generally the Russian troops, and especially the Cossacks, cared about higiene. Before every march the
men had to wash their faces, necks and hands with a cold water. During longer breaks in marching the
troopers had to wash their feet. This however helped little for their health if there was no food and they
slept on snow.
There were also injured and
wounded soldiers. When
they reached a hospital after
journeying for several days
their condition was pitiable.
The wounded had their
shirts torn up and black
from dirtiness, which
resulted in epidemics and horrifying loss of men. It was given example when from one transport out of
1 015 wounded and ill men only 85 returned ! (Otechestvennaia Voina I Russkoie Obschestvo 1812-1912
1911, Vol III , part Vozhdi armii)
They suffered in pain, trembled in fever and some even called for death to relieve them. Others bore
pain with astonishing fortitude and when they were asked if it hurts, they would say only one word:
Nichevo! (Its nothing !)
The wounded required immediate and professional
medical care, but there were only 422 doctors (the
best of them were Germans) and 9 hospitals with 5
700 beds for almost half million army. In such
situation the priests and barbers helped with some
sort of medical assistance. The hospital were
cramped, dirty, primitive, where bandages were
scarce, equipment was infected and the care-takers
often got rich from the wounded and dieying.
Each regiment had a wagon with apothecary boxes,
which contained medicines, bandaging material and
surgical instruments. The army train had wagons for injured and wounded, each carried from 4 to 6
men. It was not enough and peasants vehicles were used.
Without numerous acts of compassion the situation would be catastrophic. For example in 1812
General Vorontsov took 350 wounded to his estate where they were taken care at his own cost. During
the parting he gave clothes and 10 roubles in cash for every one.
Largest hospitals in 1811:
= St.Petersbourg - 4 390 sick in two hospitals
= Special Mobile Hospital (with the Army of Moldavia) - 3.000
= Jassy - 3 000
= Brailov - 3 000
= Moscow - 1 840
= Riga - 1 220
= Slonim - 1 220
= Bucharest - 1 000
= Fokshani - 700
= Grodno - 610
= Vilnius - 610
= Azov - 610
= Kamieniec Podolski - 610
In 1814 and 1815 several hundred of Russian soldiers stationed in France as occupation force, were
infected with venereal disease.
~
Strength and Organization of Russian Army.
The Russian army was as vast as the
territory from which it was drawn .
In 1800 the Russian army was as vast as the
territory from which it was drawn. It was
calculated that the army amounted to 400 000 - 500
000 men, plus 100 000 irregulars. The Russians were
capable of astonishing feats and total, blind
obedience to orders.
The basic block of the army was regiment.
Infantry regiment had 2-3 battalions, each with 4
companies.
Cavalry regiment had 4-10 squadrons, each of 2 companies.
On administrative level until 1808 the regiments were grouped in so called "inspections." These were
the areas from which the regiment was raised. The role of inspections during peacetime was
administrative, especially important during mobilization for war.
.
Number of regiments.
INFANTRY CAVALRY
1804
3.5 guard regiments
13 grenadier regiments
84 musketier regiments
22 jager regiments
1811
6 guard regiments
50 jager regiments
1816
8 guard regiments
7 carabinier regiments
50 jager regiments
For more details click here
1805
Guard Cavalry: 4 regiments
Army Cavalry: 40 regiments
Cossacks
1812
Cossacks
1814
Cossacks
For more details click here
Two or three regiments formed brigade, two or three brigades formed division. In the first phase of
Napoleonic wars (for example in 1806-1807 campaign) most of the Russian divisions were mix of
infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineers. In the second phase (campaigns in 1812, 1813, 1814, 1815)
there were formed infantry divisions and cavalry divisions. Infantry division had infantry and foot
artillery, while cavalry division had cavalry and horse artillery.
Russian division in 1807:
- - - - - Infantry Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 battalions]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - Jager Regiment [2-3 battalions]
- - - - - Cavalry Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - - - - Dragoon Regiment [5 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - Dragoon Regiment [5 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - Hussar Regiment [10 squadrons]
- - - - - Artillery
For detailed Russian order of battle in Heilsberg 1807 click here >>
Russian division in 1812-15:
- - - - - Jager Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - - - - Jager Regiment [2 battalions]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - Jager Regiment [2 battalions]
- - - - - Artillery
For detailed Russian order of battle in Leipzig 1813 click here >>
Two or three divisions formed corps. Several corps made an army.
For example in June 1812 the First Western Army comprised of:
- I Infantry Corps
- II Infantry Corps
- III Infantry Corps
- IV Infantry Corps
- V Infantry Corps
- VI Infantry Corps
- I Cavalry Corps
- II Cavalry Corps
- III Cavalry Corps
- Cossacks Corps
The Second Western Army consisted of :
- VII Infantry Corps
- VIII Infantry Corps
- IV Cavalry Corps
- several Cossack regiments
- 27th Infantry Division
Strength of Russian armies and independent corps in June 1812.
Troops Strength
FIRST WESTERN ARMY
General Barclay de Tolly
SECOND WESTERN ARMY
General Bagration
THIRD WESTERN ARMY
General Tormasov
ARMY OF DANUBE
Admiral Chichagov
Corps (in Riga, Baltic Sea)
General Essen
Corps (in Finland, Baltic Sea)
General Steingel
I Reserve Corps (in Toropetz)
General Meller-Zakomelski
II Reserve Corps (in Mozyr)
General Ertel
110,000 [1] - 130,000 men [2]
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35,000 [1] - 50,000 men [2]
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45,000 - 60,000 men
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55,000 - 60,000 men
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35,000 - 40,000 men
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15,000 - 20,000 men
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25,000 - 30,000 men
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35,000 - 40,000 men
-
[1] - according to A. Levitski
[2] - according to L. Beskrovnyi
[1] - according to E.Tarle
[2] - according to A. Levitski
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-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
~
Recruitment.
The educated man serves in artillery
The dandy in the cavalry
The idler in the navy
The fool serves in the infantry.
- a Russian saying
Fathers and mothers of Russian recruits were not happy when their sons were called up to arms, as
there was little chance to see them again. Usually in the moment as the young men were about to leave
their homes for the recruiting post a tearful discord of mournful wailing mingled with cries. The
women were making the sign of the cross and calling out their blessing on the departing ones.
Until 1793-1805 the term of service in the army had been "so long as one's strength and health allow",
that meant for life. Later on was shortened to 25 years. In 1810-1811 was even considered shortening
this term to 12 years but the growing possibility of war against France halted this discussion. Janet
Hartley writes, "Once a soldier was conscripted, he was in practice - as symbolised by the loss of his
beard - separated forever from village, family and peasant society, and, in effect, regarded as dead.
Most Russian veterans ended up in garrison regiments or were cared for by monasteries, as an
obligation imposed on them by the state. The few who returned to their village were generally old, sick
or maimed, and found themselves outcasts, who were unwanted, unwelcomed and uable to contribute
to the economic life of the village." (Janet Hartley, chapter "The Patriotism of the Russian army in 1812" in
Charles Esdaile's Popular Resistance in the French Wars)
Avoidance of being taken into army was a serious problem in Russia. Big forests, sparsely populated
land, horrible corruption in administration and in the army made this problem very difficult to fight.
Often large number of young men hid in the woods at the first rumor of a levy. Others bribed the
authorities or self-mutilated their bodies to avoid service. For many decades those who self-mutilated
were harshly punished until Tsar Alexandr lightened the sentences.
Approximately 20 % of male population (clergy, Jews) were not subject to call up.
The Finns were exempted from the horrors of being recruited for most of the period,
though there were volunteers.
Recruitment "out of every 500 souls":
1811 - 4 recruits, minnimum height of 2 arshin and 3 vershok
1812 - 20 recruits, 18-40 year-old, height of 2 arshin2 vershok
1813 - 8 recruits
1814 - 1 recruit
A recruit had to satisfy three physical requirements:
age
height
fitness
The doctors also looked closely for those who had physical or mental problems, were squinted or
without front teeth. Bald men were accepted although some considered baldness as sign of weaker
health or other problem. The recruits no longer had their hands marked with tattoo-like cross; neither
they were kept in chains to make difficult any runaway.
In the army also served nobles. They could enter the service as private, NCO or as an officer. Those
who were illiterate were accepted but only in the rank of private. (War Ministry Centennial 1802-1902.
General Staff. Book I, Section III (pages 1-30). St. Petersburg 1912)
In 1809 Tsar Alexandr raised the minimum age of acceptance to 19, which to some degree improved the
physical strength and stamina of the troopers. But when the threat of a new war against Napoleon put
a shadow over Russia, the need for bigger army was such that in 1811 it was lowered to 18, and officers
accepted even under-age boys.
The maximum limit of age was extended in 1806 from 30 to 36 and in 1808 even 37-years old were
accepted. In 1815 the wars ended and it was again lowered to 35, at least theoretically. But during the
dramatic campaign in 1812 the maximum age was set up at 40. Generally the officers interpreted the
regulations and requirements quite flexibly and even much older men were accepted.
In the first phases of the Napoleonic Wars the authorities in the Russian army considered the height of
recruits as a general criterion of good health, martial looks and strength. Generally the official height
requirements in Russian army were similar to other European armies. In 1812, when was a dramatic
need to increase the army, the minimum was set at as low as 4 feet and 11 inches. In 1815, when the
wars ended, it was heightened to as much as 5 feet and 3 inches.
No height requirements were applied when a vagabond was captured by police and turned over to the
army.
Tsar Alexandr also heightened the fitness requirements.
The soldier spent his time on training, drilling and
in the monotony of garrison life. In the summer the
air was thick with flies and fleas. There was lack of
decent food, and the NCOs could turn the life of
privates into a living hell. During winter the sound
of coughing in the morning could drown out the
sound of officers orders. But as it seems though,
there were not many better choices for young men
at this time.
Being a soldier meant being fed and clothed in
states expense. Being a soldier also meant that
their social status changed. The private was
reminded time after time that he is not a peasant,
he is a soldier. The private also received money, for example in 1801 the cavalryman annual pay was 12
roubles. (Keep - Soldier of the Tsar - Army and Society in Russia 1462-1874 1985, p 184)
~
Discipline.
Gen. Arakcheyev when angry would tear soldiers mustaches.
On the first night of his honeymoon, Grand Duke Constantine
abandoned his nuptial duties in order to drill his troops.
Private Moskalev who deserted three times
received sentence ; 15 000 blows !
For the serfs and peasants the brutality of landlords was a common thing in life and there was not
much to surprise the soldiers in this aspect. The majority of officers considered the best soldiers to be a
humble and unthinking serf. Even during the Crimean War the world known writer Lev Tolstoy was
struck by the difference between the confident bearing of the French and English prisoners and the
servility and unmurmuringly submitting to officers of the Russian troops. (By the way, Cossacks were
not serfs, they were free and had own land.)
Officers behaviour toward his subordinates supposed to be caring and patient - as father does toward
his children. Such officer was nicknamed father" by his happy troops. Unfortunately not every officer
represented this attitude, and although the saying recruit three, beat to death two, train one is an
exaggeration, many officers indeed mistreated their subordinates, abused them verbally and
physically, and the punishment was swift and tough. Tzar Alexander abolished cruel punishment and
torture in the army, but the brute General Arakcheyev when angry would tear soldiers mustaches and
Konstantin would use his fists freely.
The paternalistic principle was compatible with beating as such. One of the major punishments was
running the gauntlet (from Prussian shpitzruten). See picture below. The victim was subjected to the
humiliation of a public beating by his peers. The privates were lined up in two opposing ranks to form
a "street" through which the fellow, stripped to the waist, staggered along while the men on either side
struck him with switches or thongs. To prevent him from moving too fast a NCO who held a musket
with the bayonet fixed and pointed to the rear preceded him. An officer rode alongside on horseback to
ensure that the blows were properly administered. Drummers beat their drums loudly drowned
victim's mad cries. Private Moskalev who deserted three times received sentence; 15 000 blows !
Generals Barclay de Tolly, Volkonski, Kutusov and few others advised moderation in discipline.
(The gauntlet was also applied in other European countries where it was on the statue-book, Russia
was not alone. Discipline in the Prussian army was harsh and in the British armed forces was applied
flogging. The only exception in corporal punishment was France.)
Running the gauntlet in XVII century
in western Europe.
Predictably, the harsh discipline often backfired. In 1814-1815, during Allies occupation of France, the
Russians tasted the free-loving spirit of the godless French and some prefered it over return to the
Holy Russia. Artillery officer Baranovich wrote that up to 40 000 privates and NCOs deserted the army
and stayed in France.
In 1814 Rostopchin wrote to wife that even in the Guard Cavalry Regiment (Chevalier Garde) 60 men
with weapons deserted only in one night ! He added that the French farmers liked the robust
guardsmen, paid them well and offered their daughters to marry. The army set special detachments of
police who were sent from Russia to Paris to catch the deserters.
(Today thousands of Frenchmen has Russian ancestors. One of the XX century French detective writers,
George Simenon, the author of Inspector Maigret, said with pride that his ancestor was a Russian
soldier Semenov. His name was altered to French Simenon. Baliazin Woldemar - Barklai de Tolli. Vernost
i terpenie. 1998, p 502)
~
Rank and file.
Their education, religion, drinking problems and more.
The vast majority of Russian soldiers were uneducated countryfolks.
The illiteracy ratio was higher than in other European armies. In 1790s in Russia only 1
private in 24 was literate, 1 in 6 among corporals and 4 in 14 among the sergeants. The worst
situation was in the infantry. Those of the soldiers who came from the Baltic Provinces, Poland or
Ukraine had better chances of education than those from the southern and eastern provinces, or Russia
itself. De Tolly was one of the few generals who strongly believed that education of soldiers was one of
the most important things. Barclay and his officers taught many soldiers how to read and write.
The Russian soldiers had a bad reputation for drinking. The troopers received 3/8 litre of liquor but
prefered kvas, a native beer. Anything stronger than beer was often diluted with water. Each private,
combatant and noncombatant carried a wooden bottle protected by leather.
In June 1812, an officer of 26th Jger Regiment recalled: "Here the column [of infantry] was allowed a
short halt. The soldiers were issued a portion of spirits at an unusual time -after the midday meal- and
then yet another glass for each man. Afterward it was ordered to take spirits, of which we had no
shortage, along on the road ... The ample spirits rejuvenated our soldiers. They forgot the heaviness of
their loads, the exhausting marches, and by their talk scorned the imminent dangers. In our ranks
singing broke out. The more fanciful started dancing, entertaining themselves and cheering up the
others. Our drunken march continued the whole night without rest, so that even the sober became
tired." (Kharkevich (compiled by) - "1812 in Diaries, Notes, and Memoirs of Contemporaries; Material of the
Military Archive of the Main Staff. Series III. Wittgenstein's Corps.")
According to Bulgarin, in 1807 at Heilsberg, Grand Duke Constantine brought 2 wagons of grain
wine and suhary for his uhlan regiment before they go into action.
Polish revolutionary leader Tedd Kosciuszko fought the Russian on several occassions. Kosciusko
wrote: "When they are on the offensive they are fortified by copious distributions of alcohol, and they
attack with a courage which verges on a frenzy, and would rather get killed than fall back. The only
way to make them desist is to kill a great number of their officers."
However, with the excpetion of few individuals, there
was no drinking before the battle of Borodino in 1812.
Instead, on the Russian side, took place a religious
ceremony. "A church procession was coming up the
hill from Borodino. First along the dusty road came
the infantry in ranks, bareheaded and with arms
reversed. From behind them came the sound of
church singing. Soldiers and opolchenie ran
bareheaded toward the procession. .... The opolchenie,
both those who had been in the village and those
who had been at work on the battery, threw down
their spades and ran to meet the church procession.
Following the battalion that marched along the dusty
road came priests in their vestments- one little old
man in a hood with attendants and singers. Behind them soldiers and officers bore a large, dark-faced
icon with an embossed metal cover. ... Behind, before, and on both sides, crowds of opolchenie with
bared heads walked, ran, and bowed to the ground.
At the summit of the hill they stopped with the icon; the men who had been holding it up by the linen
bands attached to it were relieved by others, the chanters relit their censers, and service began. The hot
rays of the sun beat down vertically and a fresh soft wind played with the hair of the bared heads and
with the ribbons decorating the icon. The singing did not sound loud under the open sky. An immense
crowd of bareheaded officers, soldiers, and opolchenie surrounded the icon. Behind the priest and a
chanter stood the notabilities on a spot reserved for them. ...
Someone, a very important personage judging by the haste with which way was made for him, was
approaching the icon. It was Kutuzov, who had been riding round the position and on his way back to
Tatarinovo had stopped where the service was being held. ... With a long overcoat on his his
exceedingly stout, round-shouldered body, with uncovered white head and puffy face showing the
white ball of the eye he had lost, Kutuzov walked with plunging, swaying gait into the crowd and
stopped behind the priest. He crossed himself with an accustomed movement, bent till he touched the
ground with his hand, and bowed his white head with a deep sigh. Behind Kutuzov was Bennigsen
and the suite. Despite the presence of the commander in chief, who attracted the attention of all the
superior officers, the militiamen and soldiers continued their prayers without looking at him.
When the service was over, Kutuzov stepped up to the icon, sank heavily to his knees, bowed to the
ground, and for a long time tried vainly to rise, but could not do so on account of his weakness and
weight. His white head twitched with the effort. At last he rose, kissed the icon as a child does with
naively pouting lips, and again bowed till he touched the ground with his hand. The other generals
followed his example, then the officers, and after them with excited faces, pressing on one another,
crowding, panting, and pushing, scrambled the soldiers and opolchenie." (Leo Tolstoy - "War and Peace"
Book X, Chapter 21)
~
NCOs and Officers.
The NCOs were professional and brave
b u t the junior officers were especially
ill qualified . Grand Duke Constantine
used to say : "An officer must never use
his common sense or intelligence.
"They [officers] usually spent their time
drinking, gambling or sleeping"
- Sir Wilson
In 1812, the year of Napoleon's invasion of Russia, officers who came from aristocrats, gentry, and
landowners with or without serfs consisted of 78 % of all officers. From officers' families who were
noblemen and landowners were 9.6 %, and from clergy families came 2.6 % of officers. In comparison
in France only approx. 25 % of officers came from nobility and landowners.
The majority of Russian officers (64.3 %) were between ages of 20 and 30 years. The
vast majority (90.4 %) among majors, lieutenant colonels and colonels were
between 25 and 45. (Tzelorungo - "Kapitan N. Portret russkogo ofitzera 1812 goda" in
"Rodina" #6/7 1992 pp 10-11)
For comparison the French senior officers were in similar age, the colonel was on
average in his early 40s, and the battalion commander in late 30s. (Sokolov -
"Kapitan N. Portret frantzuskogo ofitzera 1812 goda" in "Rodina" #6/7 1992 pp 14-15)
Officers who came from Russia, Ukraine and White Russia (Belarus) made of 87 %
of officers, Lithuanians, Fins, Georgians, Tatars and others consisted of 7 %, and
those who came from Poland 4 %. The foreigners who came from Western Europe
consisted in fact only 2 % of all officers.
The foreigners were volunteers, political emigrants, or simply were career and adventure seekers.
During the reign of Tzar Paul the number of Germans in officer corps notably increased. The
monarch hoped for western influence and new ideas on Russian military and he feared the hostile
toward him nobles and native generals. Russia embraced them all. Below only few names of the long
list of "foreigners".
- Madatov and Zhevahov, commanders of hussars, came from the Caucasus region.
- Ilia M. Duka (1768-1830) from the cuirassiers was a Serb.
- Ivan Shevich, the commander of Guard Cavalry Division, was a Serb.
- Kutaisov, commander of artillery at Borodino, was son of captured Turk.
- Nikolai I. Depreradovich (1767-1843), commander of 1st Cuirassier Division, was also a Serb.
- Emmanuel, the commander of dragoon brigade, was born in Serbia.
- General Bennigsen, the commander of Russian army, was a German.
- Anastasi Yurkovski (1755-1831) came from Hungary. He had a long history of fighting against the
Turks.
- Wintzingerode (1761-1818) came from the Hessian army.
- Orurk (ORourke) had Irish and French ancestors.
- General Diebich or Diebitzsch came from Prussia. See picture -->
- Friedrich Tettenborn came from the Austrian army.
- Chaplitz (Czaplic) was a Pole.
- de Lambert was a French royalist.
- Anton Chalikov, commander of Lifeguard Uhlans, came from Georgian nobles.
- Andrei Zass had ancestors from Westphalia.
- Zukatto (Zuccato) was a descendand from an old Venetian family.
Furthermore, even some army commanders were considered being
"foreigners". For example, the tall man with pale face, General Bennigsen,
was born into a Hanoverian family in Brunswick. Bennigsen commanded the
Russian army during the so-called First Polish War (battles of Eylau,
Heilsberg and Friedland).
The bald and calm General Barclay de Tolly was a member of the Scottish
Clan Barclay, was born in Duchy of Courland and Semigallia and raised in
Livonia. De Tolly commanded the Russian army in 1812, during the Second Polish War (Napoleon's
Invasion of Russia), until Kutuzov replaced him. De Tolly also commanded the allied army attacking
Paris in 1812.
The presence of so many foreigners among the generals and officers of the Russian army
annoyed those of Russians with nationalistic orientation. For example, the fiery fighter
General Bagration (see picture) complained that there were so many Germans that a
Russian could not breathe. But Bagration himself was not native Russian, he came from
Georgia. The real Russians called the officers who used French language instead of
Russian as fagots. (Begunova - Povsednevnaya zhizn russkogo gusara v tsarstvovanie Alexandra
I 2000, p 283)
The goals and general format of the Russian officer corps was the same as in the rest of Europe.
However the low level of professionalism and education in Russian society and hence in the officer
corps, little regard for individual, system of supression, bureaucratic corruption, court intrigues and
camarilla, made them inferior in some aspects (but not in bravery) to officers from western European
armies.
British Colonel Sir Neil Campbell writes, "The [Russian] officers who possess education are so few in
proportion to the whole number in the army that they are to be found only in the Guards, on the Staff
and in a few of the favourite regiments of cavalry.
The staff officers are generally ten times as numerous as those attached to the generals of other nations;
and the whole of them, excepting the chief, spend their days for the most part in eating and drinking,
gambling and sleeping - all these operations too being performed in the same room, and by parties
relieving each other !"
The famous Fieldmarhal Suvorov rated the Russian staff officers and generals very lowly. "As long as
the two armies [Russian and Austrian] were together in Italy, Suvorov never consulted the Russian
generals, 'making no scruple of saying to them openly before the Austrians ... that they were too
ignorant to be consulted upon anything ... " (Duffy - "Eagles over the Alps" p 27)
Most infantry officers applied to the regiment of choice and served
as privileged lower ranks (with the NCO ranks of sub-ensign
[podpraporshchik]) until they were commissioned. The term
bourbon in army slang meant an officer who was promoted from
NCO or private. : - )
According to Petre the infantry officers were not worthy of the
rank and file and NCOs. The lower officer ranks were especially ill
qualified, especially in infantry. The best situation was in the
artillery and in the Guard.
Many officers were corrupted to the bone, embezzling army funds,
and wasting their time and money on gambling. Many ran up huge
debts. For example Major Lwenstern won and lost about half a
million roubles in 1810 ! In 1811-1812 Tzar Alexander increased the
pay for all officers. For example colonel got increase from 900 to
1.040-1.250 roubles.
Rather than working through the problems, Russian officers often
retreated to hanging around together smoking and drinking late
into the night, perpetuating the irresponsibility. The drinking was probably the worst
among cavalry officers. When several hussar regiments quartered in one place their officers
gathered and got drunk. They liked to drink as they called it in Polish style, from very big
glasses.
The Soumy Hussar Regiment had its own customs. A wooden bracket was brought, and big
quantity of brandy, champaigne and wine were poured into it. Then a horseshoe was heated
until it became red and was thrown into the bracket with alcohol. The horseshoe had to protect against
thiefs. The hussars gathered around the bracket and drank. Hay was brought into the room and
scattered all around on the floor to protect against bad accidents. The thick layer of hay also served
as a bed when they drank too much and passed out. Several privates were posted on guard looking for
accidental fires from drunk officers smoking their pipes.
There was some drinking before or after combat. The battle of Borodino began with the
French 106th Line Infantry aproaching the village of Borodino in the morning. The fog
obscured the troops movements. The position was defended by the Lifeguard Jager
Regiment. Some say it was poorly defended. Sherbinin was furious, he wrote: "Oh yes,
there was indeed a mist that day, not in the air, but rather in the head of the drunken
(Col.) Makarov, who passed out around 6 a.m. and could not order his battalion to arms."
Alexander Mikaberidze writes: "Official reports and other materials contain no criticism of
the Lifeguard Jagers, one of the elite units of the Russian Army, and Makarov, who was
accused of such gross ineptitude, was later awarded the Order of St.Vladimir [3rd Class]
and given command of another elite unit ... The whole affair was largely suppressed, but it
did find voice in personal memoirs and letters of participants."
But not all gambled and got drunk, some had an interest in the finer things of life.
De Tollys house was a kind of regimental club for officers where they could read books
and discuss their problems or military matters. There were also officers who carried their
books on campaign in their knapsacks and had disputes about the culture and arts.
Popular were French poet Jean Jacques Rousseau and English writer Jonathan Swift.
Especially those in the Guard as being better educated were interested with the western
culture and many were no strangers to European life-style. These bright and open minds
studied in German and French universities and often spoke several languages. After the Napoleonic
Wars they returned home with the intention of transplanting France into Russia. They also formed
Masonic lodges and secret societies, which had the goal of obtaining a constitutional system for Russia.
The self-esteem and confidence of
Russian officer was much
heightened after the long stretch of
victorious campaigns over the
Swedes, Poles, Persians, Turks, and
especially over Napoleon himself in
1812, 1813 and 1814. There were
also the grand entry into Paris (see
picture) in 1814 and the military
parades in that city.
Eduard von Lwenstern of Soumy
Hussar Regiment described how proud he was in 1813 when Tzar Alexander and the Russian, Prussian
and Austrian troops entered Leipzig and how all balconies, roofs and windows in the city were full of
people waving their white flags of surrender. Another officer described how the crowds in Berlin
enthusiastically greeted Russian troops.
PS.
The Prussian and Russian officers respected each
other but there was no comradeship. Prussian
pedantery and seriousness made no friends among
the easygoing Russians. Furthermore, the aloofness
of some German-speaking officers (Austrians and
Prussians) annoyed Russian officers who thought
without the Russian army in 1812-1814 there would
be no independent Prussia and Austria. And the
rest of Germany (Bavaria, Saxony, Wurttemberg)
would be still under the Napoleonic yoke.
In 1814 there were several brawls among the
captured Allies officers. The Russians and Prussians
accused their Austrian counterparts (see picture) of cowardice and called them krautz.
~
Kutuzov - The Man Who Defeated Napoleon
"Although it has been fashionable for many historians
to discount K u t u z o v ' s showing as a commander,
there is little doubt that he was a general of great ability.
... He was a cunning and able strategist ..."
- David Chandler, British historian
Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-Kutuzov was born in 1745 in St Petersburg as the son of a
lieutenant-general, military engineer, retired general Illarion Matveevich Kutuzov who had served Tzar
Peter the Great. David Chandler writes, "Kutuzov received a commission in the Russian artillery under
Tsarina Catherine II. He later transferred into the newly raised Jager or light infantry corps, which in
due course he rose to command." (Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" pp 229-230)
Kutuzov military career:
1757 - sent to engineering and artillery school.
He became one of the best students.
1764-69 as junior officer he participated in the campaign against Poland
1770 - requested to be posted to the Turkish front
1770-74 in the war against the Turks Kutuzov lost an eye in combat
1777 - colonel
1784 - general major
1787-92 Kutuzov distinguished himself in the campaign against Turkey. He participated in the
capture of Ochakov and Izmail, and in the battle of Rimnik. Kutuzov was promoted to the rank
of general-leutenant.
1793-98 ambassador at Constantinopole and then in Berlin. He was also a governor-general of
Finland and governor-general of Saint Petersburg.
1805 - Kutuzov was appointed to command the Russian army sent to aid Austria. Arriving in
the theater too late to prevent the Austrian disaster at Ulm, he fought an effective rear-guard
action against the French, eluded one trap after another, and thanks in no small measure to
Murat's errors of judgement, succeeded both in moving his army back to the north bank of the
Danube and thereafter linking up with Buxhovden's reinforcements around Olmutz. Burdened
by the presence of both Tsar Alexander and Kaiser Francis at his headquarters, he allowed
himself to be forced into what he considered to be premature and ill-considered action at
Austerlitz.
1806-11 Kutuzov served as governor-general of Lithuania
1811-12 Kutuzov again took command against the Ottomans and defeated them in a brilliant
campaign that brought Bessarabia to Russia. His army however was needed in the upcoming
war with the French, so Kutuzov concluded the Treaty of Bucharest, which stipulated for
annexation of Bessarabia into Russia.
For this success he was made a prince.
Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-Kutuzov was a well-educated multilingual man. He didn't not like
showy uniforms for himself, he scorned his officers who favored them. The pomp and circumstance of
19th Century armies, meant nothing to him. The aristocrats didnt like Kutuzov, they thought that he
was too simple minded and his lifestyle was too close to a lifestyle of a peasant. He was certainly a
colourful character not above heavy drinking and fond of young women.
Kutuzov was a cautious and calculating general, known for shrewdness. In 1805 he
announced armistice between Russia and France to French Marshal Murat, who
had been hotly pursuing him. The flamboyant and perfumed Murat was
convinced. Napoleon was furious, and exclaimed to Murat that he had been
duped.
Some Prussian generals considered Kutuzov as the most cunning of all allied
generals.
Kutuzov had a broad knowledge of the infantry and jagers. Kutuzov wrote several
notes about their tactics and recommended wider use of skirmishers. He cared about the morale of his
troops by doing the religious mass before Borodino and giving short personal speeches to every
regiment. It was far more effective than any of the eloquent proclamations issued by other generals.
Kutuzov was against Russian involvement in the war of 1805 believing it should have been solely an
Austrian problem. When the war began, he advised delaying an all out campaign until the following
year when Prussia would join them.
When in 1812 Kutuzov was appointed
commander-in-chief and arrived to the army
he was greeted by the entire army with great
joy. Within two weeks he decided to give
major battle near Borodino in what has been
described as the bloodiest battle in human
history up to that date.
Article:
Battle of Borodino, 1812.
Napoleon kept pursuing Kutuzov. The old
general realized that the Russian army would
not survive another such battle and ordered to leave Moscow. He was not fixed on defending
geographical objects like many other generals. He said; "As long as the Russian army exists, and is in a
condtition to oppose the French, we preserve the hope of winning the war."
Kutuzov's army have crossed the Moskva River, turned to the west and pitched camp in Tarutino. At
the same time Cossacks and hussars continued moving along the Ryazan Road misleading Murat's
French cavalry. Murat made camp but Kutuzov ordered Bennigsen and Miloradovich to attack him. In
the darkness most of the Russian troops got lost in a wood. By the morning only Cossacks reached the
original destination. They attacked Murat's troops and captured the French camp with transports and
cannons. Since other Russian units came late the French and Polish troops were able to recover. When
the Russian reinforcements emerged from the forest they forced Murat to retreat. At Vinkovo the
French and Poles suffered 4 500 killed, wounded and prisoners, while the Russians lost 1 200 killed.
(Part of the French cavalry was drunk and was either killed, wounded or taken prisoner, while much of
the fighting was done by the Poles.)
Historians
consider that, next
to the battle of
Borodino and the
occupation of
Moscow by the
French, the most
important episode
of the war of 1812
was the
movement of the
Russian army
from the Ryazan
to the Kaluga
Road and to the
Tarutino camp.
See map.
It was the so-
called flank march across the Krasnaya Pakhra River. Kutuzov's new position was very good. He was
closer to region rich in food and supplies and could threaten the flank and communication lines of
Napoleon's army. Napoleon was brilliantly outmaneuvered by Kutuzov. Kutuzov set up a military
camp at Tarutino where he received reinforcements and had time to train new recruits.
That old fox Kutuzov cheated me off by his flank march, Napoleon later admitted. The respite
enabled the Russians to build up the muscle for a future campaign. Kutuzov also sent energetic officers
with fast moving detachments to join the guerillas in their fight against the French occupants. They set
Russia on fire.
The Russian army then attacked the French at Malo-
Yaroslavetz, this battle discouraged Napoleon from
continuing his march on the southern road to
Smolensk. Napoleon unwillingly returned on the route
from which he came, a road now totally devastated. All
the decisions of Kutuzov earned him the title of "Old
Fox" by Napoleon himself.
The old general's cautious pursuit evoked criticism, but
at any rate he allowed only a remnant of Napoleon's
half million army to escape. His wise strategy let the
hunger, winter, and the Cossacks take its toll on the
invaders.
Several Russian and Prussian generals and Sir
Wilson of Britain urged Kutuzov to more energetic
pursuit. Kutuzov however thought Russia had been
bleeding far more than Britain, Austria and Prussia
and there was no need to bleed even more. Kutuzov
disappointed the Prussians too because he was
reluctant to continue his pursuit across the Vistula
River and into Poland and Prussia. Kutuzov's death
gave birth to new hopes for the Prussians.
Kutuzov was promoted to the rank of fieldmarshal
and had been awarded the title of His Serene
Highness Prince of Smolensk. The Tzar wrote him:
"The Glory of Russia is inseparable from you." Early in 1813 the old Kutuzov fell ill and died.
Memorials have been erected to him in Moscow and in St. Petersbourg where he is buried. Among
Russian generals Kutuzov has been held second only to his teacher Suvorov.
In Soviet Russia Kutuzov was turned into a mythical commander dominating his times. 'Scholars
sought to best themselves in glorifying Russian actions and Kutuzov's role in them, often leading to
comical incidents. At one scholarly meeting at the University of Leningrad, a scholar presenting his
paper was interrupted by an angry fellow historian who told him, "Comrade Stalin (ext.link) showed
us that Kutuzov was two heads above Barclay de Tolly, while your paper shows he was only one head
above him." :-)
In the same way, some scholars took Stalin's hypothesis at face value and sought to prove it by an
outlandish formula: Kutuzov was two heads above Barclay de Tolly, who was one head above any
French marshal and on a par with Napoleon: therefore Kutuzov was two heads above Napoleon !' (
Alexander Mikaberidze - "The Battle of Borodino")
If you speak Russian please visit this webpage where you will find a very interesting discussion for
and against Kutuzov.

Statue of Kutuzov in Moscow
~
"The glory of Russia is inseparable from you."
- Tzar Alexander in 1813
Sources and Links.
Anenkov - "Istoriya Konnogo Polka 1731-1848" 1849
Austin, Paul Britten- "1812: The March on Moscow"' 1993
Begunova - "Povsednevnaya zhizn russkogo gusara v tsarstvovanie Alexandra I" 2000
Beskrovny - "Borodinskoie srazhenie" 1971
Bezotosnyi, Vasiliev, Gorshman, Parhaiev, Smirnov - "Russkaia armiia 1812-1814" 2000
Bogdanovich - "Istoriya Otechestvennoy Voiny 1812 Goda" 1859-1860
Bogdanovich - "Istoriya Voiny 1813 Goda" 1863 Vol. 1
Bondarenko - "Kavalergardy: istoriia, biografii, memuary" 1997
Bowden - "Napoleon and Austerlitz" 1997
Bulgarin - "Vospominania" Part 3 and 4
Clausewitz - "The Campaign of 1812 in Russia" 1992
Curtis Cate - "The War of The Two Emperors" 1985
Davydov - "In the Service of the Tsar against Napoleon: the memoirs of Denis Davidov, 1806-1814" 1999
Duffy - "Austerlitz 1805" 1977
Elting Esposito - "A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars" 1964
Glinka - "Ocherki Borodinskogo Srazhenia" Part I and II
Glinka - "Pisma russkogo ofitzera" Part I-V
Hatov - "Obshchii opyt taktiki" 1807
Heath P. P. H. - "Brienne" 1987
Houssaye - "Napoleon and the Campaign of 1814" 1994
Hpfner - "Der Krieg von 1806 und 1807" vol 3, 1991
Keep - "Soldier of the Tsar- Army and Society in Russia 1462-1874" 1985
Kersnovski - "Istoriya russkoi armii", 4 volumes
Kukiel - "Wojna 1812" 1937
Lwenstern - "Mit Graf Pahlens Reiterei gegen Napoleon" 1910
Mikhailovskii-Danilevski - "Relation de la Campagne de 1805" 1846
Mikhailofsky-Danilefsky - "History of the Campaign in France" 1839
Moss - "A History of Russia" Vol I, 2002
Parquin - "Napoleon's Victories: From the Personal Memories of Capt. C. Parquin ..." 1893
Petre - "Napoleon's Campaign in Poland, 1806-1807"
Petre - "Napoleon at Bay, 1814" London
Plotho - "Der Krieg in Deutschland und Frankreich in den Jahren 1813 und 1814" 1817
Plotho - "Relation de la Bataille de Leipzig"
Podmazo - " Shefy i Komandiry Reguliarnykh Polkov Russkoi Armii (1796-1815)"
Riehn - "1812: Napoleon's Russian Campaign" 1991
Seaton - "The Russian Army of the Napoleonic Wars" 1973
Schubert - "Unter dem Doppeladler. Erinnerungen eines Deutschen in russischem Offiziersdienst 1789-1814"
Slovak - "La bataille d'Austerlitz d'apres des documents inedits" 1908
Shepelev - "Chinovnyi mir Rossii XVIII-nachalo XX v" 1999
Shikanov - "Pervaia Polskaia Kampania 1806-1807" 2002
Soltyk - "Napoleon en 1812. Memoires Historiques et Militaires sur la Campagne de Russie." 1836
Sporschil - "Die Grosse Chronik. Geschichte des Krieges des Verbundeten Europa gegen Napoleon Bonaparte in den Jahren 1813, 1814 und 1815" 1844
Stein - "Geschichte des Russischen Heeres" 1885
Tolstoy L. - "War and Peace", New York 1994
Ulianov, Leonov, Parhaiev - "Regularnaia Pehota 1801-1855"
Viskovatov - "Historical Description of the Uniforms and Armaments of the Russian Army"
Viskovatov - "Hronika Rossiyskoy Imperatorskoy Armii" 1852
Wilson - "Narrative of Events during the Invasion of Russia"
Zweguintzov - "L'Armee Russe" 1973
Zvegintsov - "Russkaia armiia. Chast' 4-ya, 1801-1825." 1973
Yermolov - "Zapiski A.P. Yermolova 1798-1826"
Mark Conrad's "Russian Military History" . 2
Russian Generals of the Napoleonic Wars
Proyekt 1812
Russian Infantry : Russische Infanterie : Grenadiers : Jagers : Tactics : Uniforms
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Russian_infantry.htm[2012-05-21 12:40:11]
Russian Infantry of the Napoleonic Wars
"The [Russian] infantry was generally composed of athletic men
... but generally of short stature, ... inured to extremes of
weather and hardship ; to the worst and scantiest food ;
to marches for days and nights. " - Sir Robert Wilson
"... in the charge of their close columns, their determined bearing of the bayonet,
and their order for close action, they are equaled only by the British."
- Sir Robert Wilson
In 1799 in Italy, Suvorov sent Russian officers to the Austrians
to instruct them how to employ the bayonet. The Austrians felt
humiliated and offended.
In 1812 the 26th Jager Regiment sang while marching:
"We are not afraid of [French Marshal] Oudinot -
he is nothing but a piece of sh...t ! "
Harkevich - "1812 god v dnevnikakh ,
zapiskakh i vospominaniiakh sovremeninikov"
Introduction: Russian Infantry.
Weapons and Equipment.
Muskets, Rifles, and Bayonets.
Uniforms.
Parade and Campaign Outfits.
Strength and Organization:
Companies, Battalions
Regiments , Brigades
Divisions and Corps.
Training and Tactics.
Musketry, Bayonet attacks
Tactical Formations.
Best Infntry Regiments.
Miscellaneous.
Prince Bagration and Russian infantry in 1812.
.
Introduction: Russian Infantry.
"Bullet's an idiot, bayonet's a fine chap"
Picture: Russian infantry on the march in 1812, the year of
Napoleon's invasion of Russia. Picture by Chagadayev.
According to Loraine Petre the powers of marching of
Russian foot soldiers were marvellous. Most of the roads in
eastern Europe were in poor shape. Furthermore, mud and
snow, made them often even less passable. Such situation
was, for example, during the campaign in Eastern Prussia
and Poland in 1806 and 1807. Petre wrote that "For days at
a time they [the Russians in 1806-07] would march
regularly every night and yet fight all day with the very
minimum of rest and food. they would march regularly
every night and yet fight all day with the very minimum of
rest and food.
An unknown from name officer of Azovski Musketier Regiment wrote: I am so numbed, mentally and physically, by
hunger, cold, and exertion, that I hardly have the strength or the desire left to write this down. No army could suffer
more than ours has done in these days. It is no exaggerated calculation to say that for every mile between Jonkerdorf
and this place the army has lost 1 000 men who have not come within sight of the enemy... The poor soldiers glide
about like ghosts."
During long marches infantry movements were sometimes sped up by the use of wagons and carriages.
In 1812 at Vyazma one battalion of the 5th Jger Regiment was transported on horseback to the battlefield.
In June 1813, General Worontzov transported 6 grenadier and 1 jger battalion on wagons to keep up with
light cavalry and Cossacks. Only higher orders prevented the brilliant capture of Leipzig.
Despite the abuse and mistreatment (read "Discipline in
Russian army" >> ) and poor food, it was the private and not
the Russian officer or general, who won the admiration of
western observers and military men. Sir Robert Wilson
campaigned with the Russians. He writes, "The [Russian]
infantry was generally composed of athletic men between the
ages of 18 and 40, endowed with great bodily strength, but
generally of short stature, with martial countenance and
complexion; inured to extremes of weather and hardship; to
the worst and scantiest food; to marches for days and
nights."
Charles Emmanuel de Warnery writes in 'Remarques sur le
militaire...' that the Russian privates surpassed all European
counterparts since "they are always in good humor, even
when in the greatest misery." (By the way, Napoleon's
pampered Old Guard was nicknamed 'The Grumblers'. The
Bavarians and the British troops can be also be considered as being well fed and supplied.)
For information on education of Russian rank and file,
their drinking problem, and more, click here >>
For Russian NCOs and officers click here >>
There are many stories about the tenacity of Russian infantry.
French officer, Baron de Marbot writes, "The Russians
had to be beaten down man by man ... our [French]
soldiers fired upon them at 25 paces, they continued
their march without replying, every troop filed
past,without saying a word,or slackening its pace for a
moment. The streets were filled with dying and
wounded, but not a groan was heard ... You might
have said that they were firing at shadows. At last we
charged the Russians with the bayonet and only when
we pierced them could be convinced that they were
dealing with men. " (- Baron de Marbot after the Battle of
Golymin in 1807)
The Russian infantry was most known for their tenacity, defensive actions, the use of field fortifications and great
courage under artillery fire. Sir George Cathcart, who saw the Russians in 1813-1814 gives them the honorable
testimonial that they are 'incapable of panic.'
At Pultusk in December 1806 Marshal Lannes and General Suchet led infantry assault on the Russian positions.
"Around 1 p.m. as Suchet's wing marched toward Barclay's position, Marshal Lannes rode up to help supervise the
advance. After the French infantry passed through a woodlot they became the prime target for the Russian artillery.
Inspired by Lannes' presence, the French infantry ignored their losses, climbed the slope in front of the Russian
position, and charged. Russian sources paid tribute to their conduct: 'The attack of the French at this place was the
most fierce and dashing.'
The 34th Ligne's charge stove in the first line of defence. Barclay's horse guns were facing west to check an advance
along the road to Golymin. The retreat of the Russian infantry exposed the battery's left flank and Suchet's surging
French infantry overran the battery.
The Russian jagers fell back on their reserve: two battalions of Tengin Musketeers stationed
parallel to the road. Here they rallied while the reserve launched a counterattacked. A furious
melees ensued. Russian soldiers grappled with Captain Templier to possess the eagle of the 34th
Ligne. The Russians tore the eagle from its perch leaving Templier clutching the less valuable
battalion color. The Russian counterattack drove back the 34th Ligne and recaptured the 6 horse
guns. In response, the second battalion of the 88th Ligne passed through the 34th and charged to
stabilize the position. ... Then began a close range musketry duel." (Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows" p
164)
At Mohrungen in January 1807, two battalions of the Yekaterinoslav (Ekaterinoslav) Grenadiers
and two weak battalions of the 5th Jagers engaged two battalions of the famous 9th Light Infantry
in a bayonet fight. The melee occurred in the village of Pfarrersfeldchen. The Russians killed three
eagle bearers, one after another. Russian Adjutant Borodkine grappled with Carabinier Fouquet
and tore the flag from his grasp. Among the casualties were a commander of Russian grenadier
battalion, and commander of the second battalion of the 9th Light Infantry.
In the wood east of Pfarrersfeldchen the 27th Light Infantry encountered the newly-raised 25th
Jagers. While advancing the Russians crossed a ditch and became disordered. The French charged immediately and
the jagers fled before making contact. Two companies of the jagers however rallied and checked the French advance.
The Russian infantry suffered horrible casulaties at Hoff in 1807. Markov wrote: Having approached our positions,
the French tried to cross the bridge but were halted by the artillery fire. Napoleon moved forward his artillery and
forced our horse artillery to withdraw. As the French advanced, Dorokhov counter-attacked and drove them back
across the bridge. The Olivipol Hussars pursued them to the opposite bank but were routed and driven back upon
the Izoum Hussar Regiment. Yahvils horse artillery halted the French. The French cavalry then resumed its charges,
routed our hussars and charged the Kostroma Regiment." (Karpov - "Deistvia Russkikh voisk v Kampaniu 1806 i 1807
godov ")
At Hoff part of the Russian infantry was deployed behind a small bridge. The Dniepr Musketiers stood in line behind
the Kostroma Musketiers and were unable to see the charging cuirassiers. After routing the three battalions of the
Kostroma the French also cut up one battalion of the Dniepr. The garden walls and fences became obstacles for the
fleeing infantry. Furthermore, the men of the Kostroma had to wait for the Dnieper Musketiers to clear off Hoff
before they could continue their flight.
The French cuirassiers caught up with them and did terrible
execution. The Kostroma Musketier Regiment lost 5 of its 6
standards. The sixth was briefly in cuirassiers' hands until one of
the Russian hussars tore it from their hands. The Kostroma
Musketiers also lost 4 of its 6 light cannons. Whether these guns
were massed in one battery or split into 2-guns platoons is
unknown. Furthermore, the Kostroma suffered 458 killed,
wounded, or missing, and barely escaped a total annihilation.
Russian infantry crossed their bayonets with the Tirailleurs du Po and Tirailleurs Corse at
Eylau in 1807. On February 7, the 1,200 Corsican and Piedmontese soldiers were ordered by General Legrand to
secure the town. They ahve entered Eylau and after exchange of musket shots at close range they assembled on two
streets for a bayonet charge. The Russians stubbornly continued to defend their positions and the house-to-house
combat was very bloody. The Corsican and Piedmontese soldiers set several buildings on fire and bayoneted those
who tried to escape the flames. The few prisoners were not spared.
Fresh Russian battalion arrived and infiltrated into proeviously secured buildings. General Legrand then supported
the Corsicans and Piedmontese with two battalions of the the French 26th Light Infantry Regiment. The French
charged and captured Russian gun, before turning it around and firing at the fleeing enemy.
In 1814 at La Rothiere, the Russian infantry attacked the center of French positions with
magnificent steadiness. Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii writes, "Heedless of the heavy fire of the
enemy, the infantry neither halted nor wavered for an instant. Without firing a single shot our
regiments advanced in perfect order, and that of the Dnieper, which led the Prince's column, was
headed by the regimental singers."
At Borodino Prince Bagration, dressed in his parade uniform, led 2nd Grenadier Division in a
bayonet attack. Dmitrii Buturlin writes, "... [the Russian] entire line of the left flank suddenly
moved in a bayonet attack. The assault was dreadful ..." An eyewitness wrote, "It was a personal,
private struggle of a man against man, of a warrior against warrior .." Jean-Jacques Pelet was with
Friant's 2nd Division and saw the Russian assault. He wrote: "As Bagration's supporting troops
arrived ... boldly advancing over the bodies of the fallen to retake the lost fleches. The Russian
columns ... were living bastions. As soon as they emerged into the open field, our canister knocked them down, but
these brave warriors let nothing bother them and continued to come at us as before."
Despite the French, German and British army's fame from bayonet use, it was probably the Russian army who used
the bayonet the most times in Napoleonic wars. The suvorovian motto was '"The Bullet's an Idiot, the Bayonet's a
Fine Chap' (pulia duraka, no shtyk molodets). The Russian bayonet attack was fierce and well-known throughout
Europe. In Russian military manual issued in June 1812 was clearly stated "The bayonet is the true Russian weapon
and the push of the bayonet is far more decisive than musketry"
Sir Robert Wilson wrote: "... in the charge of their close columns, their determined bearing of the bayonet, and their
order for close action, they are equaled only by the British."
At Morungen in 1807, the Russian
Yekaterinoslav (Ekaterinoslav)
Grenadiers used musket butts
against French voltigeurs . The
grenadiers said : "These shorties
are not worthy of our bayonets"
and drove them away, just with
musket butts , guffawing with
laughter. Sir Robert Wilson -
"Campaigns in Poland 1806 and
1807"
(Among their ranks were more
than 100 proud veterans of Suvorov's campaign
in Italy and Switzerland.)
The Russian infantry covered themselves in glory at Eylau in 1807. James Arnold writes: The commander of the
Viborg Musketeers, Colonel Yegor Pillar, called for volunteers. Captain V.I. Timofeyev answered and found himself
in command of an assault group featuring about 250 volunteers: When we approached Kutschitten, the French
(probably voltigeurs) opened fire from behind a hedge covered with snow; seeing that our fire could not (damage)
the enemy I strictly forbade to fire and attacked with the bayonet without firing a shot, and the French, surprised
by our resolution, dropped their muskets and cried for mercy.
Timofeyev followed up this initial success against the French skirmishers with a bayonet charge into the village. Most
of Kutschitten was in flames. The fusilier companies of the 51st and 108th Ligne formed in haphazard columns
between the burning buildings and tried to stop the Russian advance. Timofeyev struck an ill-formed French column
and sent it running. These panicked soldiers routed into another formation and plunged it into disorder. Timofeyev
could see the French rear ranks struggling to deploy into line so as to use their muskets to defend themselves. The
captain recognized that momentum was everything in such affairs and pressed his advantage by impetuously
charging the disordered mass. His audacity was rewarded when the French broke and ran. The Russians gleefully
recaptured 3 artillery pieces, re-crewed them, and opened fire against the fleeing French. (Arnold - "Crisis in the
snows" pp 340-342)
The French however were not push-overs. At Valutina Gora in 1812, "a considerable column of Russian grenadiers
made a bayonet charge against a battalion of the 7th Light and another of the 12th Line. In this bloody melee
lieutenant of voltigeurs of the 12th (M.Etienne) flung himself on the Russian general and having hit him twice on the
head with his sabre, took him prisoner in the midst of his men." (Britten-Austin - "1812 The March on Moscow" p 212)
The Russians however were convinced they
are the masters of bayonet. Unter-Offitzer
(NCO) Tikhonov writes, "The Frenchmen
were courageous, as they remained firm
under artillery fire ... and even made a stand
against the cavalry, and no one could best
them as skirmishers. But they could not
resist our bayonet."
A witness of the battle of Smolensk recalled that "I found the commander of the regiment, Major-general Tsibulsky,
in full uniform, mounted on horseback among his marksmen. He replied that he was unable to restrain his men, who
after exchanging a few shots with the French repeatedly tried to dislodge them by bayonet assaults, without awaiting
orders. Even as he spoke, there was a shout of "Hurrah" from the line of men.
He [Tsibulsky] began to shout, even drove the marksmen back with his sword. At his presence, his command was
obeyed, but only a few paces from him the cry of "Hurrah!" resounded again and again, and the men flung
themselves on the enemy.... Light wounds were ignored until the wounded fell from exhaustion and loss of blood."
(Tarle - "Napoleon's Invasion of Russia")
In February 1814 at La Rothiere, General Blucher (see picture) directed Russian 2nd Grenadier Division
toward the burning village. The Astrakhan Grenadier and Little Russia Grenadier Regiments charged
into La Rothiere and drove Marshal Ney's Young Guard at bayonet point. Several battalions of the
Imperial Guard were rallied in the northern part of the village "by officers beating men back into the
ranks." Hilaire writes, "The carnage became dreadful; General Decouz, an officer of known worth,
commanding the 2nd Young Guard Division, was dangerously wounded. General Baste, who just
recently commanded the Sailors of the Guard, fell dead, after prodigious acts of valor."
The battle of Shevardino was a very bloody affair. The French
held their ground but Bagration was a hard, stubborn sod.
Three times the redoubt changed hands and one French
battalion (of 61st's Line Regiment) was almost completely
annihilated inside the redoubt ! De Segur writes: "Next day
when the emperor reviewed that regiment, he inquired where
was its III Battalion ? 'In the redoubt' replied the colonel. But
the affair did not stop there; a neighbouring wood still
swarmed with Russian skirmishers..." The French 111th Line
Infantry Regiment was so badly mauled that after the battle it
was reduced from 5 to 3 battalions.
In 1814 at Craonne Sparre's [French] dragoon brigade came
from behind the corner of the Marion Wood and charged the
Russian guns on the flank. The gunners were sabered and 12 pieces captured. The victory was however short lived.
Two Russian infantry regiments counterattacked with the bayonet and drove them back on the battery which they
had just captured and were forced to abandon the guns. Grouchy was then wounded. The dragoons remained
inactive under the Russian canister fire until two infantry regiments attacked them. The dragoons fled and carried
back with them Boyer's infantrymen. "The panick spread to Ney's young soldiers, and they broke and fled, in spite of
the exhortations of the marshal, who used the flat of his sword freely in his efforts to stem the rout." (Houssaye -
"Napoleon and the campaign of 1814" p 152)
One of the bloodiest fights of the Napoleonic Wars took place at Borodino. It was specifically the struggle for the
Great Redoubt, or Death Redoubt. General Wolzogen writes, "Our [Russian] troops reached the hill and then to a
general hurrah they carried the summit and the fortification." To inspire the defenders of the redoubt Yermolov: "...
threw [a bunch of the medals of the Military Order] at a time and each time throngs of our soldiers went after them."
Morand's 1st Division [from Davout's corps], unsupported, rapidly fell back. The 30th Line Infantry Regiment had lost
2/3 of its strength and Bonnamy was captured after receiving 13 wounds ! Bonnamy was in "a frightfully battered
state and reeling from side to side ... 'Doctor !' was Kutuzov's cry on seeing him, and after exchanging a few words
with the wounded man, he had him carried away." The French general was captured by NCO Zolotov of the 18th
Jager Regiment, who was promoted to lieutenant after the battle.
French Inspector of Reviews Deniee, totting up the losses, finds among the casualties no fewer than 14 generals of
division, 33 generals of brigade, 37 colonels and 86 ADCs. Neither Napoleon nor any of his generals had ever before
seen such horrors or so many slain in such a small area. Baron de Marbot writes, "Never did (a battlefield) present so
horrible an appearance. Everything concurred to make it so; a gloomy sky, a cold rain, a violent wind, houses burnt to
ashes, ... soldiers roaming in all directions amidst the dead ..."
Not only the Russians-vs-French encounters were bloody affairs. The Russians-vs-Poles clashes were very violent.
Prussian officer, Graf Henkel von Donnersmark, writes, "While General Vasilchikov's cavalry were mounting their
bold attack [at Leipzig in 1813] ... the [Russian] infantry of Sacken's corps was not idle. The general had advanced on
the right wing and soon clashed with Dabrowski's Poles [at Gohlis]. Honour should be given to whomsoever earns it,
even if it is the enemy, and in this case I must admit that the Poles repeatedly beat off the Russian assaults even
though heavily outnumbered. Finally, they had to fall back, but they marched off in good order and took up another
position closer to Leipzig. When the Poles and Russians clashed in this campaign, they always did so violently, asking
for, and giving, no quarter, so deep was the hatred between these two nations that are at once so similar and so
dissimilar."
At Borodino the Poles and Russians fought for the
large Utitza Wood. The Russian forces in this sector
consisted of Stroganov's elite 1st Grenadier Division,
and Konovnitzin's 3rd Infantry Division. They faced
Poniatowski's two infantry divisions. The battle began
with a sharp firefight between the Polish and Russian
skirmishers. Poniatowski's infantry then stormed and
seized the village. The grenadiers counterattacked and
retook it. Poniatowski supported 16th Division with
several battalions and pushed back the grenadiers.
Alexander Mikaberidze writes, "The Poles finally
launched an assault and in a bitter hand-to-hand
fighting, seized the Kurgan. The Russians managed to
remove their guns from the hilltop and retreated
eastward to regroup." General Nikolai Tuchkov was on
the top of the mound when a Polish musketball pierced his chest. With Tuchkov seriously wounded, Baggovout
assumed command.
Ronald Pawly writes, "The ground between the trees was so choked with dead men and horses that the Red Lancers
had to lift scores of corpses out of their way before they could clear a space to make their bivouac." (Pawly - "The Red
Lancers" pp 37-38)
On March 7th 1814, at Craonne, the Russian infantry covered themselves with glory. At 2 PM General Vorontzov
having made his regiments form in squares, ordered the retreat of the infantry to begin in ordinary time, and by
alternate squares, and the artillery to follow. All the dismounted cannon, 22 in number, with the gun-carriages, were
carried off to the rear, as well as the wounded whom it was possible to remove. Vorontzov often rode up to the
squares, and allowing the French Guard Cavalry to come within 50 paces, give the word of command to fire. His
coolness inspired both officers and men with the confidence so necessary in critical moments. The Russian retreat is
described in more detail by Frederick William Maycock. He writes:
"As soon as Napoleon saw the Russians preparing to move off,
he hurried forward his guns and launched Nanousty's cavalry
against the hostile squares. The French charged with such fury
that it seemed that nothing could withstand their onlaught, but
when the smoke cleared away, the hostile squares were still
unshaken, while the few Russian squadrons charged gallantly
to cover their comrades' retreat." The Hirvan Infantry Regiment
found itself isolated and surrounded by the French cavalry.
Their cartridges being exhausted, the men, with drums beating,
forced their way three times with the cold iron, through the
(French) dragoons who were striving to cut them off. The
infantrymen brought with them not only their wounded
colonel, but also the wounded and dead officers !
.
"When desperately wounded, the Russian soldier would drag himself
eastward simply to die a few yards nearer his homeland."
(Haythornthwaite - "Russian Army" Part I)

Battle of Hollabrunn, Austerlitz Campaign of 1805 (from movie "War and Peace")
French infantry versus Russian infantry under Prince Bagration.
This is one of the best battle scenes ever made.
Weapons and Equipment.
" Lads , shoot at everything French ,
and keep up the scare with bayonets!"
- NCO of grenadiers
Maloyaroslavetz 1812
In the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars the inferior quality of powder and muskets plagued Russian infantry.
Prussian tests showed that Russian muskets were 1/3 less accurate than the weapons wielded by their foes.
Another problem was the outdated metallurgical and gunpowder industries. Between 1805 and 1809, the
manufacturers limited production to 2 calibers, and in 1809 to one caliber. But the old weapons were still in use. In
the beginning of 1812 the armament of the infantry included Russian and foreign weapons of 28 different calibers.
Factories at Tula and Sestrovetsk produced between up to 170 000 weapons a year.
The Russian musket of 1805-pattern weighed 5.16 kg while the 1808-pattern only 4.46-4.47 kg.
The 1808-pattern musket was 145.8 cm long (with bayonet 183 or 188 cm) and it had caliber 17.78 mm.
Although many regiments were armed with the new musket of 1808-pattern, in some units were still used old
Russian muskets of various calibers. Many muskets were so worn out with firing that they were non-functional.
Many muskets were purchased in other countries, including 60 000 from Great Britain.
The Moscow Grenadier Regiment received large number of British Brown Bess muskets.
There were also thousands of captured weapons.
The French Charleville musket was considered by many Russians as the lightest and best made.
The British muskets were slightly larger and more durable than the French weapons. The Prussian,
Swedish and old Russian muskets were considered as unwieldy.
The ammunition (60 cartridges) was kept in a cartridge pouch worn on a deerskin crossbelt 6.7 cm wide, over the left
shoulder.
In November 1808 was ordered that the bayonet should always be carried fixed,
as for the grenadiers and musketiers, as for the jgers.
Between 1803 and 1812 the factories in Toula (Tula) issued 20 000 rifles. In June 1808 however the rifle was withdrawn
and used only by NCOs and 12 marksmen in each jager company. The rifle had barrel with 8 grooves, it was 66-cm
long and of 16.51 mm caliber. It weight (without bayonet) was 4.09 kg and its total length with the sword-bayonet
was 153.7 cm.
British infantry muskets from Nosworthy's
superb "With Musket, Cannon, and Sword."
T h e Moscow Grenadier Regiment received
large number of British Brown Bess muskets.
The British muskets were slightly larger and
more durable than the French weapons.
French musket Charleville.
The Russians (and also the Americans in 1812-1815) however
found the French muskets preferable to the British Brown Bess.
For more info read article: "Infantry Combat and Tactics" >
Russian musket, rifle and bayonets.
In 1809 the manufacturers limited production to one caliber.
But the old weapons were still in use. In 1812 the armament
incl. Russian and foreign weapons of 28 different calibers !
Besides weapons the infantrymen carried tools. The second rank of every company carried 20 ax (each 73.2-cm long),
10 shovels and 5 picks (kirok) and hoes (motika). The iron parts of axes and shovels were kept in special covers made
of used cloth.
In 1811 halberds were withdrawn from all grenadier regiments, and the sergeants and NCOs who had them were
given muskets with bayonets and, consequently, cartridge pouches with crossbelts.
~
Uniforms of Russian Infantry.
"I don't like war, it spoils the soldiers, dirts their uniforms ..."
- Grand Duke Constantine
"A soldier has no time for smartness on campaign."
- Kutusov in 1812
Many Russian generals in that time were excessively concerned with details of dress, which in the case of some
officers became an obsession. Their soldiers were busy for hours polishing the leather pouch and carbine belt, boots,
buttons, and headgears. Tsar Alexandr had more relaxed attitude on uniforms than his father, although still not being
as practical as was Suvorov or Kutuzov who were rather exceptions in this aspect. While seeing the soldiers during
campaign polishing their white leather belts, Kutuzov stopped and said: "I dont want any of that. I want to see
whether youre in good health, my children. A soldier has no time for smartness during a campaign.
Once a year each infantryman received 2 pairs of boots, 3 pairs of stockings, 1 headwear, 1 knapsack, 1 coat, 1 pair of
trousers. Once every two years he received 1 greatcoat. The Russian cloth factories were obliged to sell part of their
production in a fixed price for the army. In general the production was insufficient and additional uniforms were
purchased from Britain, the major supplier of clothes and arms to Russia.
The style and design of Russian uniform changed several times, being influenced by the Prussians and
the French. The Prussians under Frederick the Great (see picture) covered themselves with glory
during the Seven Years War and Tsar Paul took them as example on which he dressed his troops
disregarding the Russian national tradition and different climate. For example coats were tighter and
soldiers had to wear the very unpopular in Russia gaiters. They also wore Prussian caps, adopted the
Prussian motto of Gott Mit Uns (God With Us) and had to powder and plait their hair.
The greatness of Frederick the Great faded away in the military glory of Napoleon Bonaparte and during the reign of
Pavels son, Tsar Alexandr, the Prussian military fashion was replaced by the French. But when Russias political and
military position in Europe was greatly strengthened after defeating Napoleon, the Russian uniforms became the
model for several western armies. If imitation is the sincerest form of flattery then the Russians must have been most
flattered when in 1815 the Prussian army adopted to big degree the style and design of Russian uniforms.
Greatcoats
(shineli).
The average and minimal temperatures in Russian regions differ.
In the European regions of Russia the average winter temperature
sometimes falls below -15 C; however, sometimes it is much
colder: even down to -30 C for a month or two. One of the factors
for these temperatures is Russia's geography: it is as northerly as
Canada. So any invader of the Russian soil (Swedes under Charles,
French, Germans and Poles under Napoleon, and Germans under
Hitler) faced not only the Russian generals but also General Winter,
General Snow, Colonel Moon, and Fieldmarshal Sun.
(Thanks God, Major Sharpe was not there.)
Such weather required warmer clothes for the troops. The Russian
infantrymen wore voluminous greatcoat (called shineli) made of rough cloth. The army had to wear the greatcoats for
seven months, from October 1st to May 1st.
Left: Russian grenadier in 1802-1805 wearing the old-fashioned mitre
cap and greatcoat. Picture by Viskovatov, Russia.
Right: Russian infantrymen and grenadiers in 1804-1807, wearing
shakos and greatcoats. Picture by Patrice Courcelle, France.
The greatcoat was a very popular wear although restricted the
movements of soldiers. Officer Shimanski writes, "Running in a
greatcoat, I was fatigued..." (Russian greatcoats were longer than
those worn by the French and German troops).
Furthermore, in a very cold weather they additionally wrapped a
cloth made of linen or wool around their feet, inside of the boots. This cloth was
called onuchi (pronounced as onoochee) and had to be washed quite often as the
feet easily sweated.
The greatcoat was either brown-
grey, grey, brown, dark green
or black. In 1811 the greatcoat
cuffs became colored, which do not appear to have been universal.
In the beginning of 1814 campaign was ordered to wear on the
greatcoat a white cloth strip to be tied around the left arm as a
"field sign" to distinguish Allied troops.
For parade the greatcoat and haversack were removed.
In 1808 the round knapsacks used by lower ranks since 1802 were
exchanged for rectangular ones and made of black leather. In the
beginning of Napoleonic Wars the Russian infantry usually
removed the knapsack before combat. It happened in Austerlitz
and in December 1806 at Garnovo. At Garnowo the infantry (in the wood) to make the good reception of the French
threw off their knapsacks. A vicious hand to hand combat in the wood followed. Davout's infantry pushed the
Russians back and they were unable to recover their 4 000 knapsacks. Later on however this custom was almost
abandoned. Between 1812 and 1815 however there were only few cases where the backpacks were actually taken off
before combat. And even then it was done by one or two battalions rather than entire brigades. The backapacks were
not left on the ground but were taken to the rear by other battalions.
In 1809 was ordered that :
- the greatcoat is to be rolled 6.5 inches wide and worn over the left shoulder
so that the soldier can freely hold the musket behind it.
- the lower ends of the greatcoat are to be tied
with a strap and buckle 3.4 inches from the end.
- greatcoat and knapsack leather straps are not to be whitened.
- the left knapsack strap is to be worn over the left shoulder on top of the greatcoat.
Picture: NCO of Orel Infantry Regiment in 1812-13, by Oleg Parkhaiev, Russia.
Leather crossbelts.
The leather crossbelts were made of deerskin.
They were white for musketiers and grenadiers
and black for jgers. Several jger regiments
which were transferred from musketiers in 1810
still retained their white crossbelts.
The crossbelts supposedly have being cleaned
and whitened by the soldiers, but that was not
rigorously obeyed during campaign.
Coats.
In 1802 was ordered that the green coat (not the winter greatcoat mentioned above) would be "double-breasted, of
dark-green cloth, with a standing collar of a special color for each Inspectorate; with cuffs the same color as the collar;
with dark-green flaps on the cuffs; with red kersey lining, with brass buttons and two shoulder straps, of a special
color for each regiment in an Inspectorate... In November 1807 was issued an order for all grenadier regiments:
"collars and cuffs of coats, as well as collars of greatcoats, are directed to be of red cloth".
In 1814 a single breasted coat was introduced.
Shoulder straps.
In April 1812 the musketier regiments were assigned shoulder straps according to seniority within divisions. In 1810
all grenadiers were ordered to wear red shoulder straps. In 1814 the grenadier and the newly formed grenadier-jger
regiments were ordered to adopt yellow shoulder straps with initials in red, instead of the red shoulder straps with
yellow initials. Regiments who wore yellow shoulder straps were ordered to change into blue ones and those with
light blue change to green piped red. However, not all the changes were actually adopted before the end of
Napoleonic wars.
Headwears
(shakos and mitre caps).
Picture: headwears of Russian infantry in 1802-05, by Oleg Parkhaiev
1 - grenadier mitre-cap (1802) of Life Grenadiers
2 - grenadier mitre-cap (1802) of Pavlovsk Grenadiers
3 - fusilier mitre-cap (pattern 1802) of Astrakhan Grenadiers
4 - grenadier shako (pattern 1805)
5 - jager shako (pattern 1803)
6 - grenadier officer shako (unofficial)
7 - kaski (pattern 1802) of Lifeguard Preobrazhensk
In the beginning of the Napoleonic wars the grenadiers wore mitre
caps.
In 1802 the caps were almost of the same form and size as the ones
under Tzar Paul. In February 1805, however, the mitre caps worn in
grenadier regiments
were replaced with new ones.
In 1803 all lower ranks in musketeer regiments who
before were authorized hats were given shakos.
Note: The elite Pavlovsk Grenadirs wore old-fashioned mitre-caps until the end of Napoleonic Wars. For their gallant
fight at Friedland in 1807, Tzar Alexander ordered that, alone of the infantry, this regiment should henceforth retain
its mitres "in the state in which they left the battlefield as visible mark of its bravery and Our grace." The caps
however were not worn by the officers.
In 1809 there were several changes introduced in the grenadier regiments.
The shako cords (etishkety) were introduced:
- - - white for privates
- - - white with a mixture of black and orange for NCOs and musicians
(In 1811 white cords with only their tassels having black and orange mixed in.)
Colors were assigned for shako pompons:
- - - white around green center for I Battalion
- - - green around white center in the II Battalion
- - - red around yellow center in the III Battalion
Company-grade officers of grenadier regiments were ordered to wear a shako instead of the hat when in formation,
with silver cords with a mixture of black and orange, only the tassel and ring being wholly silver. The powdering of
the hair was discontinued for officers in grenadier regiments.
In 1811 the carabiniers and strelki (in jager regiments) were ordered to have tall black plumes on their shakos of the
same pattern as those confirmed at this time for grenadier regiments:
- - - black for privates
- - - black with a white top with an orange stripe down its middle for NCOs
- - - red for drummers and fifers.
Within few days however the plumes were abolished for the strelki.
The grenadiers and strelki (in jager regiments) were ordered 3-flamed grenades on their shakos.
In 1811 all grenadiers, carabiniers, strelki, fusiliers, and officers
had their thick brum-like plumes replaced with narrow ones.
See picture.
In 1812 a new shako called kiver was introduced. See picture.
It was received only by some units, other regiments wore the old ones,
even as late as 1814.
Tsar Alexander once said he was personally responsible for creating
the new shako.
The shako of the grenadiers and musketiers had brass chinscales.
The jgers however had their shako held on the head with the help of
one leather chin belt.
There were white cords (peltizi), silver for officers, attached to the shako.
During campaign the white cords were often looped around the pompon.
During campaign (and quite often in combat!) the shako was
protected with a special cloth cover and the cords were removed. If shako was covered, the tall black plume
could be removed and kept atop of the knapsack. The shako cover was made of thick cloth saturated with
wax. The cover was most often black. In some cases on the cover was a company number in yellow,
although it was unofficially.
During long marches and in the camp the soldiers wore more comfortable forage round cap.
.
Legwears.
In summer the line infantryman wore tall, black boots, as seen
on the picture. They were worn in 1805 during the Austerlitz
Campaign, and in 1806-1807 during the Eylau and Friedland
Campaigns.
In 1812 the black boots were replaced with elegant one piece
trousers-gaiters (picture in the middle). They were white for
both, line infantry and jagers. They were worn during parade,
and probably by some troops in battle if the monarch was
present and the weather was really nice.
For winter the white trousers-gaiters would be replaced with trousers-gaiters with black
leather "false booting." (picture, far right -->) They were white for the line infantry, and
dark green for the jagers. They were worn more often than the elegant trousers-gaiters.
During campaign, and in many battles, the infantrymen wore trousers. They were worn
before and after 1812. These were made of canvas or linen and could be grey, brown,
green. The trousers were comfortable and liked by the men, they were worn despite the
repeated orders from regimental officers.
.
Sabers and cartridge boxes.
In 1810 the carabiniers and strelki (in jager regiments) were given
short swords patterned after the swords in the rest of the infantry.
A yellow brass badge was fixed to the cartridge box.
It differed in shape between various branches:
- - - in the guards heavy infantry the plate had a St.-Andrew's star
- - - for grenadiers it was in the form of a grenade with three flames.
- - - for musketiers in the form of a grenade with one flame.
- - - for the jgers it had a regimental number.
Uniforms of officers, NCOs
drummers and fifers.
Left: officer and private of 21st and 22nd Jagers in 1805-
1807.
Right: NCO of jagers in 1812-1816. Pictures by Viskovatov.
Officers' uniforms resembled those of the rank-and-file,
though their coats had longer tails. The junior officers
were distinguished with epaulettes. The senior officers'
(majors, lieutenant colonels, and colonels) epaulettes had a
fringe hanging from the edge. Officer wore a gorget at his
neck bearing a black and gold double eagle.
The gorgets were silver for 2nd lieutenants, silver with gilt
edge for lieutenants, silver with gilt edge and eagle for 2nd
captains, gilt with silver eagle for captains. The officers
also wore the sash wrapped twice around the waist and
knotted on the left side. The sash was of silver fabric, with
3 interwoven horizontal lines of black and orange.
During campaign the officers wore green frock coats, grey
breeches or grey trousers with red stripes, and bicorn hat
or shako. They also carried the black knapsack but the
gorget and sash were omitted.
NCO's pompon was quartered in red and white and his collar's upper edge was pipped white. The drummers and
fifers wore infantry coats with the addition of 6 white shevrons on each sleeve, 6 white lace loops on the breast, and 3
on each cuff flap. The grenadiers' drummers wore red instead of black plume. Drums were copper with white cords,
and hoops painted in white and dark green triangles. The drum apron was usually of light brown hide.
.
Illustrations.
Headwears, Collars, Shoulder-Straps, and Cuffs
of Russian infantry in 1802-1805.
Picture by Oleg Parhaiev.
Finnish Inspection
1 - Vielikie-Louki Musketeers, 2 - Riazan Musketeers,
3 - Nevski Musketeers
St.Petersbourg Inspection
4 - Life Grenadiers, 5 - Pavlovsk Grenadiers
6 - Kexholm Musketeers, 7 - Belozersk Musketeers,
8 - Yeletz Musketeers, 9 - Tenguinsk Musketeers,
10 - Litovsk Musketeers, 11 - Petrovsk Musketeers
Lifland Inspection
12 - St.Petersbourg Grenadiers, 13 - Taurida Grenadiers
14 - Chernigov Musketeers, 15 - Tobolsk Musketeers,
16 - Sievsk Musketeers, 17 - Dneprovsk Musketeers,
18 - Revelsk Musketeers, 19 - Sophia Musketeers
20 - Koporsk Musketeers, 21 - Kalouga Musketeers
Lithuanian Inspection
22 - Yekaterinoslav Grenadiers, 23 - Pskov Musketeers,
24 - Rostov Musketeers, 25 - Muromsk Musketeers,
26 - Arhangelgorod Musketeers, 27 - Nizovsk Musketeers
28 - Toula Musketeers, 29 - Volynhie Musketeers,
30 - Mohilev Musketeers
Brest Inspection
32 - Azov Musketeers, 33 - Vyborg Musketeers,
34 - Old Ingermanland Musketeers, 35 - Apsheron
Musketeers,
36 - Riazhsk Musketeers, 37 - Podolsk Musketeers
38 - Vilno Musketeers, 39 - Penza Musketeers
part of Ukrainian Inspection
40 - Kiev Grenadiers,
41 - Little Russia Grenadiers,
42 - Smolensk Musketeers
Picture below:
Uniforms of Russian infantry during
the Austerlitz Campaign in 1805.
Picture by Andre Jouineau, France.
Upper row: NCO, musketier, grenadier, grenadier with rolled greatcoat, drummer
Lower row: infantryman in greatcoat, officer in parade uniform, officer in campaign uniform.
Picture below:
Uniforms of Russian infantry during
Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812.
Picture by Andre Jouineau, France.
1812
Shoulder Leather
Infantry Division Regiment
Straps Crossbelts
Guard
Preobrazhensk Lifeguard
Semenovsk Lifeguard
Izmailovsk Lifeguard
Lithuania Lifeguard
Finnish Lifeguard
Jagers Lifeguard

1st (Grenadiers)
Life Grenadiers
Pavlovsk Grenadiers
St. Petersbourg Grenadiers
Yekaterinoslav Grenadiers
Count Arakcheiev Grenadiers
Taurida Grenadiers

2nd (Grenadiers)
Kiev Grenadiers
Moscow Grenadiers
Fanagoria Grenadiers
Astrakhan Grenadiers
Little Russia Grenadiers
Siberia Grenadiers

3rd
Chernihov
Mouromsk
Revel
Koporsk
20th Jgers
21st Jgers

4th
Tobolsk
Volhynie
Kremenchoug
Minsk
4th Jagers
34th Jagers

5th
Perm
Sievsk
Mohilev
Kalouga
23rd Jagers
24th Jagers

6th
(quartered in
Finland)
Azov
Uglitz
Nisov
Briansk
3rd Jagers
35th Jagers

7th
Pskov
Moscow
Libava
Sofia
11th Jgers
36th Jgers

8th
Archangelsk
Schlusselbourg
Old Ingermanland
Ukraine
7th Jagers
37th Jagers

9th
Nashebourg
Apsheron
Riazhsk
Yakoutzk
10th Jagers
38th Jagers

10th
Yaroslav
Kursk
Crimea
Bialystok
8th Jagers
39th Jagers

11th
Kexholm
Yeletz
Polotzk
Pernau
1st Jagers
33rd Jagers

12th
Smolensk
Narva
Alexopol
New Ingermanland

6th Jgers
41st Jgers

13th
Vielikie Louki
Saratov
Galich
Penza
12th Jgers
22nd Jgers

14th
Tula
Tenguinsk
Navazhinsk
Estonia
25th Jagers
26th Jagers

15th
Vitebsk
Kozlov
Kolyvan
Kura
13th Jagers
14th Jagers

16th
Nyslott
Ohotzk
Kamchatka
Mingrelia
27th Jagers
43rd Jagers

17th
Riazan
Briest
Bielosersk
Willmanstrand
30th Jgers
48th Jgers

18th
Vladimir
Tambowsk
Dnieper
Kostroma
28th Jagers
32nd Jagers

19th
(stationed in
Georgia and
Caucasus)
Kazan
Suzdal
Belev
Sevastopol
17th Jagers
..th Jagers

20th
(stationed in
Georgia and
Caucasus)
Troitsk
Tiflis
Kabardia
...
9th Jagers
15th Jagers

21st
(quartered in
Finland)
Neva
Petrovsk
Lithuania
Podolia
2nd Jagers
44th Jagers

22nd
Vyborg
Viatka
Staryi Oskol
Olonetz
29th Jagers
45th Jagers

23rd
Rilsk
Yekaterinbourg
Selenguinsk
-
18th Jagers
????

-

-

24th
Hirvan
Boutyrsk
Ufa
Tomsk
19th Jgers
40th Jgers

25th
1st Marines
2nd Marines
-
-
-
-
(quartered in
Finland)
3rd Marines
Voronezh
31st Jgers
47th Jgers
-

-

26th
Nizhegorod
Ladoga
Poltava
Orel
5th Jgers
42nd Jgers

27th
Odessa
Vilno
Tarnopol
Simbirsk
49th Jgers
50th Jgers

28th
garrison units
in Siberian and Orenburg
territories
29th
garrison units
in Siberian and Orenburg
territories
30th, 31st,
32nd, 33rd,
34th, 35th,
36th, 37th,
38th, 39th,
40th, 42st,
42nd, 43rd,
44th, 45th,
46th, 47th
In March 1812 was ordered to form
18 new infantry divisions (30th-47th)
from the 2nd 'replacement' battalions
(without their grenadier companies)
and 4th 'reserve' battalions.
(The 2nd 'replacement' battalions
were not detached from 19th-20th Div.
stationed in Georgia and the Caucasus.
Their 'reserve' battalions were disbanded.)
Picture: opolcheniie (militia troops) in 1812, by Dmitrii
Zgonnik.
The opolchenie (militia) was raised in autumn of 1806. It
was reraised again in 1812. Serfs formed the bulk of the
opolchenie, they were chosen by ballot from every 4-5
men per 100 aged 17 to 45 and required the permission of
their landlord. The middle classes; clerics, professionals
and intelligentsia joined the opolchenie voluntarily. The
NCOs came from training battalions and retired soldiers.
The officers came from noblemen and those who had
served in the Army before. The nobility elected the
generals and officers of the opolchenie.
Some sources state the opolchenie numbered not less than
420,000 men, a more realistic figure would be just over
200,000 men. The opolchenie took an active part in the
military actions at Borodino, Polotsk, Viazima, Krasnoi
and Charniki, and many other battles. These cohorts
were used as a source of replacements to fill out the
depleted line units late in the war as well as employed as
independent combat units.
At Maloyaroslavets, pike armed Opolchenie were used
to fill in the 3rd rank of the units that had been mauled
at Borodino. There are repeated references to the St.
Petersburg Opolchenie being absorbed into line units
during the period around the second battle of Polotsk.
They were not confined to direct military uses but also allowed the release of regulars from logistic tasks. These
included maintaining garrisons, trains, parks, camps, stores, and worked as nurses, miners, policing, guarding
prisoners and so forth. (Source: "The Opolchenie" by Dr S. Summerfield)
~
Russia was the land of useless formalities.
The taste for parades was carried beyond all bounds.
Furthermore , due to shortages of ammunition
some troops were trained to fire with clay bullets.
Map: fight for the Pratzen Heights, Austerlitz's
climax. The Russian (and Austrian) infantry was
outmaneuvered, outshot and outfought by the French
infantry.
In the beginning of the 19th century the Russia
infantry was trained according to linear tactics
explained in "Voinskim Ustave o polevoi piehotnoi
sluzhbe 1796 goda." It suffered horrible defeats in 1805
at Austerlitz and in 1807 at Friedland. The army
required changes in organization, training and tactics.
In 1807 A. I. Hatov published "General Essay on
Tactics" (Obshchii opyt taktiki). In 1808 was published
book "Notes on the Latest Changes in the Drill". In
1808 gathered a committee to create regulations
(ustavy) for infantry, cavalry and artillery.
Unfortunately it produced very little. By the
beginning of the Great Patriotic War in 1812 only
ustavy for the infantry were ready. It was called
Voinskii ustav o piehotnoi sluzhbe. It consisted two parts.
The first one was called "School of recruit or soldier"
(Shkala rekrut ili soldat) and emphasized accuracy of
fire. The second was called "School of company
training" (O rotnom uchenii)
Unfortunately Russia was the land of useless
formalities. The taste for parades was carried beyond
all bounds. Parade ground precision was what was
instilled into recruits while for example musketry
training was neglected. Only few high ranking
commanders had more practical mind.
General Mikhail Kutusov writes, "Teach them (infantrymen) to turn and to march as a front in
platoons and in sections. Do not look for any kind of beauty, or burden the men with anything which
might detract from the essentials of the business."
General Barclay de Tolly stressed the importance of target-practice in 1810 and in 1811.
Barclay's works were titled "Instructions for Target Practice" and "Code of Infantry Service."
In the summer of 1811 were conducted divisional maneuvers.
In such maneuvers participated infantry, cavalry and artillery.
Special attention was paid to the cooperation of the three arms
and to skirmishing but multi-divisional maneuvers were rare.
During the army maneuvers in May 1812 the 3rd Infantry Division under General Konovnitzin was held up as a model for
the army. In the battle of Borodino, the 3rd Infantry Division heroically defended Bagration Fleches against Davout's
French infantry and then together with the elite 1st Grenadier Division fought with Prince Poniatowski's Polish infantry.
Allotment of bullets annually
to practice aimed fire:
grenadier (heavy infantry) - 3
musketier (line infantry) - 3
jager (light infantry) - 6
The Russian infantry advanced in four cadences:
- tchyi shag of 60-70 paces per minute
- skoryi shag of 100-110 paces per minute
- udwonyi shag of 140-160 paces per minute
- rapid pace used by skirmishers and sometimes by the formed infantry
.
"The Russians withstand fire fearlessly,
but their own fire is badly directed ... "
Generally the Russian infantryman was not the best shooter in Europe to say the least. The men were trained in firing quick volleys by
entire platoons and battalions. Only few commanders trained their troopers in aiming their muskets and emphasized the accuracy of
fire. Polish General Kosciuszko writes, "The Russian infantry withstand fire fearlessly, but their own fire is badly directed ..."
Kutuzov insisted that troops must be inspected and tested in aimed fire. Barclay de Tolly writes: "The purpose of the training is not in
that the men would pull the triggers evenly and all at the same time, but that they would aim well..." He also issued several orders on
the training in aimed fire.
Kutusov's and de Tolly's efforts brought little fruit because the individual soldier was allowed only 6 or even less rounds per year. In
comparison the British 'Rifles' and Prussian jgers and Schtzen were allowed 60 rounds per man.
To make things worse for the Russians it was ordered that regiments, which participated in combat were to be given no ammunition
for training. Such were the shortages of ammunition that some troops were trained to fire with clay bullets. (Zhmodikov "Tactics of the
Russian Army..." Vol. II, p. 12)
Besides the shortages of lead bullets, the Russian powder was of lower quality. Many muskets were so worn out with firing that they
were non-functional. Prussian Colonel Muffling mentions that in 1814 three newly raised Russian battalions were attacked by French
cuirassiers. The Russians delivered volley at 60 paces killing not a single man or horse ! Not discouraged by their failure they held their
ground. The cuirassiers retired.
General Langeron described a firefight at Austerlitz: "Soon, the French lines initiated a very sharp and very murderous fire of musket
and canister upon the brigade of Kamensky which in a moment had many men rendered hors de combat. (Kamensky's brigade)
answered with a less sharp and badly directed fire, the majority of our soldiers fired in the air... in justice I ought to say that despite
the superior number of the enemy, despite their little experience of war and the effect on them of an unforseen attack on their rear,
despite the noise of gunfire, which many of them were hearing for the first time, they maintained themselves admirably for nearly 2
hours and in these two hours more than half of the two regiments were left dead." (Langeron - "Journal inedit de la Campagne de 105;
Austerlitz" p 75)
The Russian infantry defended villages in the following way: the jagers were in skirmish order and occupied the outer buildings and
gardens. Inside the village in the streets stood individual companies, they if necessary supported the most threatened parts of the
skirmish line. Behind the village stood reserve; one or several battalions formed in column(s).
Church and cemetary were defended by grenadiers.
.
Tactical formations:
lines, squares and columns.
The line formation had been standard during the XVIII Century but lost popularity after the French triumphs with columns during the
Revolutionary Wars. Column was the favorite formation for the Russians. Any movement in line was inconvenient, while columns
moved faster and easier maneuvered. Russian infantry battalion (4 companies, 8 platoons) could be formed in one of several types of
columns. Column however was defficient in firepower, only the front ranks could use their muskets effectively. The column had no
chance in a musket duel against the line. The deeper the column was the heavier casualties it suffered from artillery fire. Not only a
direct hit could kill many soldiers, a cannonball rolling and ricocheting was breaking men's legs.
The battalion-size column of Russian infantry on the battlefield could be either company or half-company wide. If it was one company
wide then the four companies stood one behind the other with full or half intervals. It means the distance between companies was
prescribed as equal to full or half frontage of a company. This type of column was the best formation for movement and maneuver.
There was also closed column with only 3 paces intervals between companies.
Bayonet charges were caried out either in "attack columns" (half-intervals) or in closed columns.
Closed columns and hollow squares were used against cavalry. At Laon in 1814 the Russian squares withstood several cavalry
charges. Steffens writes, "On the day of the severest fighting, Gneisenau and Muffling sat on chairs placed on the very edge of the
precipice ... It was a clear bright spring day ... We saw all with perfect ease. ... In one place a Russian square was furiously attacked;
they were shot at with musket-ball, while a mass of French cavalry tried to hew a road into the midst of them; but they were not to be
broken; they waved every way, and curved and bent but always drew closer again into a dense mass as if they had been one single
living body. It was a grand, a wonderful sight !
They were held together by the strength of perfect obedience; the will of each individual seemed merged into thaty of the whole mass.
The (Prussian) generals themselves viewed the spectacle with amazement; Gneisenau (chief-of-staff) was loud in his delight." (Steffens -
"Adventures on the road to Paris during the campaign of 1813-14")
Russian infantry battalions (left) advancing
against Austrians, France's allies in 1812.
Battle of Borodino, 1812.
Russian infantry formed in squares and waiting for the French cuirassiers.
Battle of Borodino. Picture by V Shevchenko.
Left - Russian battalion square called "square against cavalry."
Right - Russian battalion square called "simple square."
The squares could be formed from column or line (see below).
Deployment of Russian battalion of 8 platoons (or 4 companies/divisions)
from closed column of division into line. (Diagram based on Zhmodikov-
"Tactics of the Russian Army in the Napoleonic Wars", II)
To deploy a column of platoons in line, Khatov recommended forming
a column of divisions first and only then deploying it into line.
Rear divisions (a division consisted of 2 platoons) were to march
by files to the right or left and then forward into alignment with
the front division.
He admonished readers against deploying under heavy enemy fire.
Closed column of divisions formed on the right could be deployed
into line either on the 2nd division, as shown in Fig. 19; either
on the 3rd division; either to the left; either to the right.
.
Deployment of troops and
the use of terrain as a cover.
At Eylau in 1807 General Bennigsen formed several of his infantry divisions in the following formation:
in the first line stood four battalions, in the second two, and in reserve six battalions. See diagram below.

Infantry division at Eylau in 1807.
The four musketier battalions of the first line were deployed in three-rank deep lines.
Line formation was the best for musketry. It also suffered little from enemy artillery fire.
The battalions of the second line were formed in columns. Column was the best formation
for movement and attack. Their task was to seal any breaches by a quick counter-attack.
The columns however were vulnerable to artillery fire. In the third line stood battalions
formed in lines, so they could halt with musket fire any enemy who broke through the
first two lines. They could also form either attack columns and counterattack with bayonet
or form so-called march columns and redeploy where needed.
Between battalions of the first line stood the regimental light cannons. The heavier pieces
(6 and 12pdr) were deployed between infantry divisions or were formed in grand batteries.
NOTE: some divisions were formed in diffent formation than the one above.
In 1812-15 the Russian infantry division (usually of 12 battalions) was formed in two or three lines.
The first line was formed of the jagers. Once there was no need for skirmishers the jagers formed the reserve.
The intervals between battalions allowed artillery and cavalry to move freely between them.

Infantry division at Borodino in 1812.
The were no musketier regiments of 3 battalions (see Eylau), instead there were infantry regiments
of 2 battalions each. The battalions of the first (and second) line could be formed in line or column.
There were no regimental light cannons deployed between battalions of the first line at Borodino.
The heavier pieces (6 and 12pdr) were deployed between infantry divisions and corps or defended
the field fortifications. Each infantry division had not only the 8 infantry battalions, there were
also the 4 jagers battalions. The jagers could be deployed as a screen in front of the division or
as a reserve, behind the division.
Unfortunately the Russian infantry were often so placed that it was possible to inflict on them heavy casualties with artillery before
they were even charged with infantry or cavalry. I would say they were the opposite of the British infantry in this aspect.
At Borodino Kutuzov ordered the III Grenadier Corps be placed so the French would not be able to see it. Later that day
General Leontii Bennigsen visited this splendid corps and ... ordered to move it forward without even informing the
commander-in-chief. At Eylau in 1807 Bennigsen formed his infantry in the open in deep columns. The columns stood in
several lines. In such formation they were able to withstand most of the French attacks but it was extremely costly.
Only few generals really used terrain as a cover for their infantry. For example at Borodino some infantry columns used
depressions and ravines as shelter from French artillery fire. Russian artillery officer, N.E.Mitarevski, wrote that his
gunners "couldn't see friendly infantry, but when it was necessary, they appeared as if from out of the ground." (Zhmodikov - "Tactics of
the Russian Army ..." Vol. II)
Far more often however the Russian infantrymen were not allowed to use terrain as cover
or lie down on the ground to lessen the casualties. As an example is a situation that took
place at Leipzig in 1813. Digby-Smith writes,
"The situation of the Russians on Klux's right, in the open fields ... was much worse.
Lacking any cover at all, they suffered very heavy losses from artillery fire. Shahovskoi ...
reported to Prinz Eugen that his men were being destroyed. The prince rode slowly along
the line. At each battalion, his question 'How many men have you lost ?' would be
answered with a silent gesture to the lines of dead lying where they had fallen. ... [Prinz
Eugen] did nothing to alleviate the situation ... That the prince ... lacked sufficient initiative
to move his divisions out of the French line of fire, or at least have them lay down, beggars
belief. It was Borodino all over again (where Prinz Eugen had commanded the 4th Infantry
Division); the Russian commanders had learned nothing and continued to squander their
men to absolutely no avail." (Digby-Smith - "1813: Leipzig" p 86)
.
Even some Russians considered the French skirmishers
to be superior to the Russian skirmishers in agility and
marksmanship.
There were not many admirers of skirmish formation in Russia, one of the few were Suvorov and Kutusov.
Kutusov wrote several sets of notes on light infantry already in the 1780s.
Jgers (light infantry) were usually the ones sent out to skirmish.
If there was insufficient number of jgers, the musketier or grenadier
regiments sent out their own skirmishers.
During the early campaigns the Russian skirsmishers were rather poor as comparing to their French counterparts. One Russian author
wrote: "our grenadiers, of great height and with large plumes, were sent to skirmish: the weak and small French shot them from
behind the rocks, as they wished." One of the few exceptions were the 1st Jagers. According to James Arnold this regiment "had the
best skirmish troops in the Russian army. They had trained hard in the Finnish forrests around Karelia and were comfortable fighting
in broken terrain." (Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows" p 112)
The skirmish line was formed by the Russian infantry this way:
- the soldiers of 1st rank formed the front chain
- the soldiers of 2nd rank formed the second chain
- while the 3rd rank formed a reserve behind the center.
They were trained to use terrain features, to fire from standing, kneeling or lying position. See
picture by V Shevchenko.
The skirmishers acted in pairs with 2 - 5 paces intervals between pairs, maneuvered according to
drum signals and moved at a run (150-200 paces per minute).
The troops were sent to skirmish by platoons or companies, which relieved each other in turn, or
even by entire battalions and regiments. (The French were not the only one able to do it.) For
example a day before the Battle of Eylau, the Arkhangel Musketier Regiment was deployed as
skirmishers to cover the withdrawal of the 4th Division. At Krasne in August 1812, the 49th
Jger Regiment was placed in front of the village in skirmish order.
There were however disagreements about the use of large number of skirmishers. Published in
1811 "On Jger Training" recommended the use of entire jger battalion (4 companies of 2
platoons each) in skirmish order. The grenadier and strelki platoon were kept in reserve behind
both flanks of the skirmish line formed by the remaining six jger platoons.
Barclay de Tolly was against using large number of skirmishers. He wrote in 1812; "in the beginning of a battle one is to push out as
few skirmishers as possible, but to keep small reserves, to refresh the men in the chain and [to keep] the rest behind formed in column.
Heavy losses cannot be attributed to skillful actions of the enemy, but to excessive numbers of skirmishers confronted to the enemy
fire."
At Berezina in 1812, a large number of jagers and line infantry were thrown into skirmishing in the overgrown terrain. They were
shattered by French cuirassiers and 1,500 were taken prisoners ! (Riehn - "1812: Napoleon's Russian Campaign" p 384)
In 1813 de Tolly prescribed forming only 1/3 of the whole number of men sent to skirmish. (Zhmodikov - "Tactics of the Russian Army"
Vol. II p. 29)
Russian General Prince Eugene Wurttemberg wrote that in Russian army was a tendency to push out a lot of skirmishers and only in
1813 the right proportion was found (only part of battalion and not the entire unit was sent out as skirmishers). For example at
Borodino in 1812 Bagration's positions were covered with a very thick and long skirmish line. In the brushes west of Semenovskaia
village were deployed 6th, 49th and 50th Jager Regiments, while the 5th, 41st and 42 Jagers took positions along the tiny Kamenka
Stream (near the fleches) and extended as far south as Utitza wood. In the Utitza Wood were placed 20th and 21st Jagers and even 2
battalions of combined grenadiers.
It was often said that until 1806 the Russian skirmishers were below European average. During the numerous wars however they
improved. The Prussians, who fought the Russians in 1812, considered the jgers to be competent skirmishers. According to Prussian
officer von Clausewitz, the Russian jgers at Borodino fought in the skirmish line with great dexterity. (Clausewitz - "The Campaign of
1812 in Russia" 1992, pp 162-157)
Chichagov however claimed that Russian infantry had not enough wit and adroitness to fight in skirmish order. Barclay de Tolly
considered the French skirmishers superior to the Russians in agility and marksmanship and more effective in the woods. Only after
1812 the abilities of French skirmishers declined.
Picture: NCO of carabinier company of 13th Jager Regiment in 1812.
Russian light infantry (Jagers) in action in 1814:
"At 2:00 AM on 2 January, the Russian offenssive finally began with a two-pronged landing attempt on
the isle of Ft.Vauban. Six jager companies clambered into 24 boats downstream of Sollingen with the
objective of reaching the northeast side of the island. A smaller detachment of two jager companies set
sail in canoes upstream of Sollingen in the hope of disembarking on the southern tip of the island. Until
that hour, the night had been clear and quiet, yet fog quickly blanketed the river after the noon set.
Slightly disoriented by the fog, the boatmen lost control of their craft in the Rhine's swift current. As the
boats separated, the Russian soldiers could feel the vessels gain speed. Some managed to muscle their
way back to the right bank by way of frantic rowing, but the current slammed others onto the left bank;
none of the boats reached the isle of Ft.Vauban.
On the left bank [of Rhine River], the jager engaged the French posts guarding this stretch of the Rhine.
Alerted by the crackle of musketry, Ft.Vauban's garrison took up arms and formed a line of skirmishers
along a jetty. French small-arms fire turned a second Russian attempt to reach the isle by boat. Despite
this setback, the engineers of the Austrian 10th Pontoon Company started work on the bridge. To protect
the engineers, Eugene directed some infantry and 2 guns to a sand bar. The artillery forced the French to
withdraw from the jetty and allowed the Russians to make a third attempt to reach the island. ...
Sometime after 10:00 AM, the Russians entered Ft.Vauban, whose defenders fled across the Rhine to
Drusenheim, after losing 18 men. One hour later, Russian troops reached the left bank and occupied
Ft.d'Alsace; the entire operation cost Eugene 40 casualties. Around 1:00 in the afternoon, the Austrian
engineers completed the bridge to the island. Two Cossack regiments crossed, forded the Red Rhine, and
struck the roads to Lauterbourg, Hagueanu, and Strasbourg. Pysnitzky's 4th (Infantry) Division followed
the Cossacks, occupying the bridgehead and forwarding an advance guard to Roeschwoog to cut the
road from Lauterbourg to Strasbourg." (Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon", pp 272-273)
~
Strength and Organization of Russian Infantry
Companies, Battalions and Regiments.
In 1800 Russian monarch ruled the lives of 35 milion souls in the European part of the empire. In comparison France
had 30 milions, Austria 25, Britain 18, and Prussia only 5. France however was able to recruit more men than Russia
and in shorter time because had much smaller territory, better administration and finances.
There was a big gap between the theoretical and the actual strength of the Russian army. One example below:
Pskov Musketier Regiment, 13 February 1807
enlisted
actually in
the ranks
senior
officers
9 2
junior
officers
51 27
NCOs 120 70
privates 1,745 939
Source: regimental history of Pskov Infantry
Regiment published in 1883 in Moscow
By September 1805 Russia had:
- 13 grenadier regiments (heavy infantry)
- 84 musketier regiments (line infantry)
- 22 jger regiments (light infantry)
Generally the jgers, were superior marksmen to the musketiers. (Petre-"Napoleon's Campaign in Poland,1806-7")
Additionally in every jager company all NCOs and 12 best marksmen were armed with rifles.
The jagers were the shortest men in the army. The minimum height requirement in 1812 for the jgers was below 2
arshin and 2 vershok. In 1813 it was heightened to 2 arshin and 4 vershok. If there was lack of short recruits the jagers
took replacements from already trained soldiers. In 1812 was ordered that half of the replacements would be taken
from the 2nd rankers in the musketier regiments. (- Ulianov p 11)
In October 1810 there were:
- 14 grenadier regiments
- 96 - 14 (became jgers) = 82 musketier regiments
- 32 + 14 (new regiments) = 46 jger regiments
In 1811:
- 97 infantry regiments
- 50 jager regiments
In 1811 the regiment comprised of three battalions:
two field (I and III) and one (II) depot battalion.
In 1811 in every jager battalion was formed a grenadier (carabinier) company.
In November 1811 many regiments (but not the grenadier regiments) received a fourth battalion, known as a "reserve
battalion". In March 1812 the 4th "reserve" battalions joined the second "depot" battalions in the so-called Supply
Army. The grenadier companies were taken away from the depot battalions and formed converged grenadier
battalions and divisions.
The Russians were probably impressed with the system established in France where every year the best soldiers were
selected in every regiment and then sent to the Old Guard. It was ordered in Russia that every year each grenadier
regiment will receive 15 best soldiers (good marchers and marksmen, disciplined men) selected from every regiment
of two assigned divisions. And each guard regiment received 6 such men. See below an example:
Infantry Division
- - - - - - - - Infantry Regiment: 15 best grenadiers and strelki sent to a grenadier regiment, and 6 best to the Guard in St.Petersbourg
- - - - - - - - - - Jager Regiment: 15 best carabiniers and strelki sent to a grenadier regiment, and 6 best to the Guard in St.Petersbourg
Infantry Division
Thus if theoretically there were 144 regiments (96 infantry and 48 jager) and each sent 15 men, it gives 2 160 selected, superb soldiers. These were
distributed among the 12 (or more) grenadier regiments. Thus each grenadier regiment received not only raw recruits, as all other regiments, but also
the 180 well-trained troopers drawn from the line and light regiments.
In 1813 three jger regiments (51st, 52nd and 53rd) and four infantry regiments were raised.
Soon however the new infantry units were converted into jgers
becoming the 54th, 55th, 56th and 57th Jager Regiment.
In 1813-1815 Russian infantry consisted of
- 57 jger regiments
- 97 infantry regiments
In April 1814 the 1st, 3rd, 8th, 14th, 26th, and 29th Jger Regiment became grenadier-jgers.
They however kept their old numbers.
In August 1815 (several weeks after Waterloo) the grenadier-jgers were renamed 1st-6th Carabiniers
and their numbers were replaced by other jager units. In 1816 the 7th Carabinier Regiment was formed.
In 1815-1816 seven jager regiments were disbanded:
1815:
51st became 8th, (the 8th after being converted into 3rd Carabiniers released its number)
52nd became 47th, with the 47th taking the released number 14th (14th Jagers was converted into carabiniers)
53rd became 20th, with the 20th taking the released number 1st (1st Jagers was converted into 1st Carabiniers)
54th became 21st, with the 21st taking the released number 3rd (3rd Jagers converted into 2nd Carabiniers)
55th became 26th, (the 26th after being converted into 5th Carabiniers released its number)
56th became 29th, (the 29th after being converted into 6th Carabiniers, released its number)
1816:
57th became 46th, with the 46th taking the released number 17th (17th Jagers converted into 7th Carabiniers)
In October 1814 the Kexholm Grenadier Reg. was renamed to His Majesty Kaiser of Austria Gren. Reg.
The St. Petersbourg Grenadier Regiment was renamed to His Majesty King of Prussia Grenadier Regiment.
The two units formed the 1st Brigade of the 1st Grenadier Division of Grenadier Corps.
The Russian infantry in 1813-1814 was in a poor shape. The sorry state was due to one of the most exhausting military
campaigns in history. The regiments began 1812-Campaign in almost full strength, well-clothed and well-armed.
They fought in large battles (Polotzk, Smolensk, Viazma, Krasne, Berezina and the bloodiest of all, Borodino) and
covered long distances, from central Russia to western Europe. When the regiments marched into Germany and
France they consisted of small core of crusty veterans. Gradually they were supplied with raw new recruits but very
rarely brought up to full strength. The regiments were weak, instead of the usual 2-3 battalions many fielded only
one. Only the regiments of grenadiers had 2 battalions on average and some of the guard units had even 3.
Organization of regiment until 1810:
- jager regiment had 3 jager battalions (x 4 jager companies)
- musketier regiment had 1 grenadier battalion (x 4 grenadier companies)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - 2 musketier battalions (x 4 musketier companies)
- grenadier regiment had 1 grenadier battalion (x 4 grenadier companies)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - 2 fusilier battalions (x 4 fusilier companies)
Organization of regiment until 1810.
GRENADIER REGIMENT
(heavy infantry)
Grenadier Battalion
Fusilier Battalion
Fusilier Battalion
MUSKETIER REGIMENT
(line infantry)
Grenadier Battalion
Musketier Battalion
Musketier Battalion
JAGER REGIMENT
(light infantry)
Jager Battalion
Jager Battalion
Jager Battalion
Grenadier Battalion

Grenadier Battalion

I Jager Battalion

Grenadier Platoon - Grenadier Platoon
Company

Company

Company

Company
Company

Company

Company

Company
Jager Platoon - - - - - Jager Platoon
Company

Company

Company

Company
I
Fusilier Battalion

Fusilier Platoon - Fusilier Platoon
Company

Company

Company

Company
I
Musketier Battalion

Musketier Platoon - Musketier Platoon
Company

Company

Company

Company
II
Jager Battalion

Company

Company

Company

Company
II
Fusilier Battalion

Company

Company

Company

Company
II
Musketier Battalion

Company

Company

Company

Company
III
Jager Battalion

Company

Company

Company

Company
Organization of regiment after 1810:
- jager regiment had 3 jager battalions (x 1 carabinier and 3 jager companies)
- infantry regiment had 3 infantry battalions (x 1 grenadier and 3 infantry companies)
- grenadier regiment had 3 grenadier battalions (x 1 grenadier and 3 fusilier companies *)
* - only in His Majesty's Grenadier Regiment
(or Life Grenadiers) all were grenadier companies.
Staff of infantry regiment in 1811-1815:
= 1 Chef (Shef) - in the rank of general (he often served as commander of a brigade or division and was not present)
= 1 Regimental Commander (Polkovyi Komandir) - in the rank of colonel
= 1 Battalion Commander (Batalionnyi komandir) - in the rank of leutenant-colonel
= 4 Majors (Majory) - they were second in command in the battalions
= 1 Kaznachei - clerk/cashier, in the rank of lieutenant
= 1 Quartermaster (Kvartirmeister) - in the rank of lieutenant
= 1 ADC to Chef (Adjutant Shefa) - in the rank of leutenant or ensign
= 2 ADC to btn. commanders (Batalionnyi Adjutant)
= 5 Captains (Kapitan)
= 1 Regimental Drummer (Polkovoi Baranashchik)
= 2 Battalion Drummer (Batalionnyi Barabanshchik) - they stood with the grenadier platoons>
= Non-combatants: surgeons, crafstmen, 9 musicians (they stood with grenadier platoon) 8 fifers
In 1812 Barclay de Tolly (Minister of War) issued order that if company's strength fell below 44 men
the regimental musical band would be disbanded and the musicians will serve as soldiers.
Infantry company:
= 1 First Lieutenant (Poruchik)
= 1 Second Lieutenant (Podporuchik)
= 1 Senior NCO (Feldfebel)
= 1 Portupei-Praporshchik - (NCO, came from gentry)
= 1 Podpraporschik
= 1 Kaptenarmus (a NCO responsible for clothing, ammunition, weapons etc.)
= 6 Junior NCOs (Mladshyi Unterofitzer)
= 3 Drummers (Barabanshchik)
= Grenadier Platoon had 2 drummers and 1 fifer
= Strelki Platoon had 1 drummer and 1 fifer
= 141 privates grenadiers and fusiliers
Organization of infantry company according to diagram in
Zhmodikov's "Tactics of the Russian Army in the Napoleonic Wars" Vol. II (p 9):
= 1 Captain (Kapitan)
= 1 First Lieutenant (Poruchik)
= 1 Second Lieutenant (Podporuchik)
= 1 Ensign (Praporshchik)
= 1 Senior NCO (Feldfebel)
= 11 NCOs (Unterofitzery)
= ?? Privates
In 1810 it was ordered that the grenadier company will be divided into grenadier and strelki platoon.
The grenadiers and strelki were saved from any corporal punishment, they were elite troops of the battalion. The men
of grenadier platoon were expected to be good marchers, brave, strong physically and mentally, with good
disciplinary record. From the Instructions by Barclay de Tolly, dated February 22 1815 (old style): "The 'strelki' of the
grenadier companies, in addition to the excellent conduct and bravery, must distinguish themselves by the art of
marksmanship." No longer height requirement was obligatory. (- Ulianov p 28)
Organization of regiment 1811-1815
Note 1 : the battalions in His Majesty's Grenadier
Regiment (Life Grenadiers, Tzar's Own Grenadiers) had
4 grenadier companies each,instead of 1 gren. and 3 fusil.
Note 2 : in 1812-1814 the losses were very heavy
and many regiments fielded only 1-2 battalions.
GRENADIER REGIMENT
(heavy infantry)
I Grenadier Battalion
III Grenadier Battalion
INFANTRY REGIMENT
(line infantry)
I Infantry Battalion
III Infantry Battalion
JAGER REGIMENT
(light infantry)
I Jager Battalion
III Jager Battalion
I
Grenadier Battalion

Strelki Platoon - - - Grenadier Platoon
Grenadier Company

Fusilier Company

Fusilier Company

Fusilier Company
I
Infantry Battalion

Grenadier Company

Infantry Platoon - Infantry Platoon
Infantry Company

Infantry Company

Infantry Company
I
Jager Battalion

Strelki Platoon --- Carabinier Platoon
Carabinier Company

Jager Platoon - Jager Platoon
Jager Company

Jager Company

Jager Company
III
Grenadier Battalion

Grenadier Company

Fusilier Company

Fusilier Company

Fusilier Company
III
Infantry Battalion

Grenadier Company

Infantry Company

Infantry Company

Infantry Company
III
Jager Battalion

Strelki Platoon --- Carabinier Platoon
Carabinier Company

Jager Company

Jager Company

Jager Company
When battalion of 4 companies of 2 platoons each was formed in line (not column)
the grenadier platoon stood on the right, while the strelki platoon stood on the left.
The remaining 3 companies (or 6 platoons) occupied the center of the line.
~
The best regiments of Russian infantry.
"The tenacity of Russian grenadier equals that
of the very best French and English regiments."
Picture: Russian infantry versus cavalry.
The best were the Guard regiments.
General Sir Charles Stewart writes, "There is, however, a wide
difference between the staple of the Russian army and the Tsar's
Guards. The latter are very select, both cavalry and infantry, nothing
indeed, can be superior. The grenadiers are generally very tall men."
Note: the Guard regiments are not included here.
Article: "Russian Imperial Guard."
The grenadier regiments were outstanding troops.
Jean-Jacques Pelet was with Friant's 2nd Division when the Russian
2nd Grenadier Division attacked at Borodino in 1812. He writes, "As Bagration's supporting troops arrived ... boldly
advancing over the bodies of the fallen to retake the lost fleches. The Russian columns ... were living bastions. As soon as
they emerged into the open field, our canister knocked them down, but these brave warriors let nothing bother them and
continued to come at us as before."
At Eylau in 1807 the Russian grenadiers distinguished themselves in a counterattack against Augereau's corps. The
combination of the artillery fire and tactical counterattacks from Russian infantry began driving Augereaus infantry
backward when more Russian reserves entered the fight. Major-General Zapolsky advanced with a brigade-sized force
from the Seventh Division supported by his proprietary regiment, the Ekaterinoslav Grenadiers. This elite unit marched to
within short musket range of Desjardins shaken French. In an action that would earn him the coveted Order of St. George,
3rd Class, Zapolsky ordered his men to fire a volley and charge with the bayonet. The French return volley was feeble.
Apparently their muskets repeatedly misfired because the falling snow melted on uniforms warmed from exertion and
dripped onto the primings. Absent working firearms, the smaller French had little chance in a hand to hand grapple with
the imposing Russian grenadiers. The Ekaterinoslav Grenadiers bayoneted those who resisted and drove the survivors
rearward, capturing 130 men in the process. (Arnold - "Crisis in the snows" p. 291)
There were other fine troops. In April 1813 for their distinction during the 1812 campaign, the His Majesty Grenadiers (Life
Grenadiers, Tzar's Own FGrenadiers) and the Pavlovsk Grenadiers became part of the Imperial Guard, and the Kexholm
and Pernau Infantry, for similar distinction, became Grenadiers.
In April 1813 the 1st, 5th, 14th, and 20th Jgers were awarded badges for their shakos with the inscription For excellence
(Za otlichie). In April 1814 the 1st, 3rd, 8th, 14th, 26th, and 29th Jgers, in recognition of the distinction they showed in the
war, were renamed to Grenadier-Jgers.
Bayonet Fight
(French and Russians fighting for the Great Redoubt at Borodino.)
At Borodino in 1812, the Colonel of French 30th Line Infantry Regiment was captured
in the Great Redoubt by NCO Zolotov of the 18th Jager Regiment. The Russian
pushed and prodded the Frenchman with a bayonet and then marched him as a
kind of living trophy straight to headquarters, paying no heed to the trail of blood
the general was leaving behind from his wounds.
We have selected eight regiments (3 grenadiers, 3 infantry, 2 jagers) which - in our opinion - were the
best. They have distinguished themselves on the battlefield, captured enemy's color and guns, or put up
a gallant fight to beat off the enemy.
Abbrevations of ranks:
GL - Gieneral-Lieutenant
GM - Gieneral-Major
Plk. - Polkovnik (colonel)
Pplk. - Podpolkovnik (lieutenant-Colonel)
His Majesty Grenadier Regiment
Other names: Life Grenadiers, Tzar's Own Grenadiers
It was the senior grenadier regiment. In 1805 it had 3 grenadier battalions instead of the usual 1
grenadier and 2 fusilier battalions. In 1809, although the regiment was a line unit it was part of 1st Guard
Division. In terms of height and physical strength of the troopers this regiment was probably the best
right after the Guard. In April 1813 for their distinction during the 1812 campaign, His Majesty
Grenadiers became part of the Imperial Guard.
Chef: 1801-1825 Tzar Alexander
Commander: 1809-1817 GM Graf Pavel A. Stroganov (in 1812 GL)
Pavlovsk Grenadier Regiment
The grenadiers wore old-fashioned mitre-caps until the end of Napoleonic Wars. They covered
themselves in glory at Eylau in 1807. James Arnold writes: "In one of the days most heroic actions, the
Pavlov Grenadiers found themselves attacked simultaneously in front and rear by Kleins [French]
dragoons. The first rank held firm while the second and third turned to defend successfully the rear. "
In 1807 for their gallant fight at Friedland Tzar Alexander ordered that, alone of the infantry, this
regiment should henceforth retain its mitres "in the state in which they left the battlefield as visible mark
of its bravery and Our grace." (The mitre caps however were not worn by their officers.) In 1812 at
Polotzk one battalion and detachment of Grodno Hussars, was cut off by French cuirassiers and four
infantry battalions. The Pavlovsk grenadiers however fought so valiantly that they even captured and
brought in 100 prisoners !
In 1812 at Loshmiana they met French infantry. Soon there were only scattered debris of the enemy.
At Kliastitzi (see picture)
the depot battalion of this
regiment, while under hail
of fire, passed through a
flaming bridge and took
by storm the buildings
defended by the Swiss and
French infantry.
At Krasne in 1812 the
Pavlovsk grenadiers were
under heavy artillery fire
when they received order
to attack a column of
French sappers, pioneers
and miners. The fight was short, the enemy perished. When another column of infantry appeared, the
grenadiers charged with bayonets and put the enemy into flight. The French commander tried to stop
the flight and was taken prisoner. (Glinka - "Pisma russkogo ofitzera" Part II)
In 1813 for their valor in combat the Pavkovsk grenadiers were admitted to the Guard. In 1814-1815 in
France due to their mitre caps they were the third most often depicted troops, after the wild Cossacks
and the Scottish Highlanders in their kilts. The mitre caps were retained to the beginning of the XXth
Century (600 caps were still in 1917). Some caps still bearing the scars and bullet holes of Friedland! J. S.
Stanhope wrote: "and the marks made by the musket balls in these caps are considered as so many
decorations, and , therefore are never repaired."
Chefs:
1807 - Oct 1813 GM Dmitrii P. Neverovski (in 1812 GL)
1813 - 1815 GM Petr S. Makarov
Commanders:
1812 - 1813 Plk. Egor H. Rihter
Georgian (Caucasus) Grenadier Regiment
At Aslan-Doos, together with 17th Jger Regiment (total 2,200 men and 6 guns) they defeated 24,000
Persians with 12 guns. In 1810 they gallantly stormed Ahalakalak. In 1811 they were renamed to
Caucasus Grenadier Regiment.
Chef: 1810-1811 Plk. Petr S. Kotliarevski
Commander: Sep 1807 - 1811 Mjr. Fedor I. Ushakov
Moscow Infantry Regiment
This unit was one of the oldest regiments, it was formed in 1700. In 1805 at Durenstein they defeated the
French 100th Line Infantry Regiment. The enemy lost 100 men, 1 Color and 1 Eagle. In the same
campaign they also captured Color of 103rd Line Regiment. At Krems in 1805 they captured a squadron
color of French 4th Dragoon Regiment. In 1812 they fought gallantly at Gorodechna(o) and in 1814 at
Brienne and La Rothiere.
Chef:
1803-1814 GL Dmitrii S. Dohturov (in 1810 General of Infantry)
Commanders:
1808 - Oct 1812 Plk. Fedor F. Monahtin
Sep 1813 - 1815 Pplk. Ivan F. Kostromitinov (in April 1814 Plk.)
Pernau Infantry Regiment
The Pernau was formed in 1806 and , in 1807 at Heilsberg, they captured French Color. At Eylau they
captured another trophy, battalion color of French 55th Line Infantry Regiment. The Pernau fought with
valor in the war against Sweden. In 1807 at Friedland they captured battalion Color of the 69th Line
Regiment. In 1812 they distinguished themselves at Wiazma. At Borodino they repulsed several cavalry
charges. In April 1814, for their exploits in previous campaigns, they were admitted to grenadiers.
Chef:
1806-1814 GM Pavel Choglokov (in 1813 GL)
Commanders:/b>
1812 - 1813 Pplk. Alex. A. Lachinov
1813 - 1817 Pplk. Alex. N. Zhemchuzhnikov (in May 1814 Plk.)
Poltava Infantry Regiment
In 1812 at Krasne they captured Color of 35th Line Regiment and Color of 4th Chasseur-a-Cheval
Regiment. In 1813 at Leipzig they captured 11 guns.
Chefs:
1807 - Dec 1812 Plk. Anton I. Libgart
1813 - 1814 GM Pavel N. Ushakov-III
Commanders:
1808 - 1812 Pplk. Ivan T. Konshin
1812 - Feb 1813 Pplk. Nikita F. Boboiedov
1813 - 1816 Pplk. Davydov
1st Jger Regiment
This regiment "had the best skirmish troops in the Russian army. They had trained hard in the Finnish
forrests around Karelia and were comfortable fighting in broken terrain." (Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows" p
112)
Not only these jagers were efficient skirmishers, they were also well-trained in closed order maneuvers.
The 1st Jagers fought at Hoff in 1807. At 2 PM they were engaged in
musketry with two battalions of the famous Tirailleurs du Po. The 1st
Jagers however got upper hand and the Piedmontese needed
reinforcements.
The Tirailleurs Corses (picture) arrived and tried to drive the jagers out of
the wood. The Corsicans however failed in their mission and fell back. The
1st Jagers then opened fire on the Piedmontese's front and flank.
Fortunately the intervention from the French cavalry saved the isolated
battalion.
(The Tirailleurs du P were formed in 1803 of northern Italians. According to John Elting "they
rapidly became a crack battalion". The Tirailleurs Corses and the Tirailleurs du Po "earned
reputation for gallantry beginning with their defense of Napoleon's right flank at Austerlitz. At
Ebelsberg in 1809 they again fought aggressively and with courage. They also distingusihed
themselves in the fight for the Traun bridge.)
At Borodino in 1812, the 1st Jagers attacked the enemy from the flank.
Petrov of the 1st Jagers wrote: "... Colonel Karpenko then deployed my I
Battalion from column into line and brought up Mjr Sibirtsev's III Battalion
[formed] in column of attack at a distance of 15 paces from the rear rank of
my battalion. The mound, or more accurately, the narrow oblong ridge, ...
lays with its top at the distance of a pistol shot from the right end of the upper bridge and at [a distance
of a] musket [shot] from the lower pontoon one, in front of which the enemy troops stood, having just
crossed [the river].
Colonel Karpenko with my battalion ... having run up at the mound, fired an aimed volley at the enemy
with the whole line while smoke from the volley was still curling in the face of the enemy and their men,
stricken and bewildered by the volley of my battalion, were in confusion, our jagers ... charged with the
bayonet. ... At the same time, our III Battalion ... being half-wheeled to the right, rushed from behind of
mine [battalion] to the lower pontoon bridge, which was 40 paces from the upper one and, also after a
volley by the front company, charged with the bayonet ..."
The flank attack was one of the most
powerful forms of attack. Even a small
troop was able to rout a large force.
During Suvorovs campaign in Italy an
Austrian grenadier battalion (600 men)
deployed into line and marched on the
advancing French. They then stopped
and fired volleys into the flank of the
French columns (approx. 2,000 men of
the 5th Light Infantry). Since the French
did not break, they took the cold steel to
them.
The French then broke immediately and
retreated, with the grenadiers following
them still in line. Souvarov was so
impressed that he decorated the captain
in command with the Maria Theresa
Order on the spot.
Another example of very succesful flank
attack is the British 52nd Light
versus battalion of the French Middle
Guard at Waterloo in 1815.
Chefs:
1802 - 1806 Plk. Davydovskii-I
1807 - 1810 Plk. (GM in 1809) Baron Grigorii Rosen
1810 - 1811 Plk. (GM in 1812) Moisei Karpenko
1811 - 1814 GL Prince Holstein-Oldenburg
Commanders:
1804 - 1806 Plk. Kozlov
1811 - 1814 Plk. (GM in 1812) Moisei Karpenko
17th Jger Regiment
In the war against Persia, at Askerani, approximately 360 jgers (+120 musketiers) of this regiment, with
2 guns, were surrounded by 20,000 Persians. They withstood all attacks for two weeks, although only 150
survived. At Ashlan-Doos, together with an infantry regiment (2,200 men and 6 guns) they defeated
24,000 Persians with 12 guns. They also captured 5 Colors and 500 prisoners, while 1,200 Persians were
killed and wounded. In 1816 they became the 7th Carabinier Regiment. (Kersnovskii - "Istoriya russkoi
armii" Vol I, pp 194-293)
Chefs:
1811 Plk. Ivan A. Snaksarev
1811 - 1815 Plk. Illia P. Zhivkovich
Commanders:
1809 - 1810 Plk. Petr S. Kotliarevski
1814 - 1815 Pplk. Ivan I. Parfenov
28th Jger Regiment
This regiment was raised in 1806. In 1813 at Plagwitz they captured Color of the 146th Line Regiment. In
August 1813 at Lowenburg they captured Color of 148th Line Regiment.
Chef: 1808-1814 GM Petr I. Kornilov-I
Commander: 1808 - July 1813 Pplk. Fedor S. Tandelfeld
Russian infantry capturing French flag at Eylau, 1807.
Gen Raievski 'The Hero of Borodino' and the Russian infantry in 1812.
At Borodino in September 1812, the attacking Westphalian infantry met
the Russians marching with fixed bayonets. A Russian officer recalled:
"When they saw us, they melted down as quickly as snow in the spring!"
Miscellaneous.
Although in general the Russian
infantrymen were brave men, there
were also deserters and cowards.
Several examples of cowardice and
not so gallant behaviour below:
According to Kutuzov, at
Austerlitz in 1805, two battalions of
Novgorod Musketier Regiment "ran
away without offering the slightest
resistance". The Podolsk Musketier
Regiment lost all six Colors at
Austerlitz.
At Bautzen in 1813, behind the
Russian infantry was posted a screen
of Cossacks, whose function was to
act as military police and stop any
frightened individual. (Nafziger - "Lutzen and Bautzen" p 225)
At Austerlitz General Losakov was so scared of the French and of being killed that he abandoned his musketier
regiment and fled to the city of Lvov. After war he was degraded from general to the rank of private.
At the final stage of the Battle of Borodino, General Yermolov had established a special cordon behind the Redoubt
to turn back infantrymen who claimed they have to carry, or even escort, the wounded to the ambulances. It was the
typical excuse of frightened soldiers in every army.
Sources and Links.
Viskovatov - "Hronika Rossiyskoy Imperatorskoy Armii"
Zhmodikov- "Tactics of the Russian Army in the Napoleonic Wars"
For more bibliography see our article " Russian Army of the Napoleonic Wars".
Pictures by Viskovatov, Chagadayev, Oleg Parhaiev and others.
Photos from the movie "War and Peace".
Russian Cavalry: Russische Kavallerie: Cuirassiers: Dragoons: Hussars: Uhlans: Uniforms: Tactics
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Russian_cavalry.htm[2012-05-21 12:40:25]
Russian Cavalry of the Napoleonic Wars
"The heavy cavalry are undoubtedly very fine ; the men gigantic ,
the horses good, the equipment superior and in perfect condition.
The light cavalry are less striking ( . . . ) but
some of the hussars and lancers are good."
- General Sir Charles Stewart
In January 1807 near Waltersmhl,
the French and Russian c a v a l r y
fought and neither side pulled off
so it kept running till nightfall."
At Brienne in 1814, the Russian dragoons and hussars attacked French infantry under Duhesme.
The French received them in columns instead of squares. Unable to withstand the charge the inf.
began to fall back and colided with the Young Guard. The Russians then overran two batteries
before they could deploy and fire . One of the batteries was dragged away as a trophy . Prussian
officer Muffling (he was with Wellington at Waterloo) participated in this charge. He wrote, We
rode into the Young Guard and our right wing got as far as the Reserve... We captured 2 batteries
and the enemy fell into the greatest disorder. Only the gathering darkness saved the Young Guard
and Duhesmes division from a complete disaster.
Introduction.
Strength and organization.
Uniforms.
Greatcoats, jackets, leather belts
shabraques and horse harness
- - - Uniform of cuirassier
- - - Uniform of dragoon
- - - Uniform of hussar
Training and tactics.
(Lines and columns)
Horses
(Height, colors and cost).
Weapons and body armor.
Straight and curved sabers , lances
and the heavy broadsword(pallash)
The cuirass.
Carbines , rifles , pistols ,
muskets and musketoons
Hair styles, mustaches etc.
Picture: French cuirassiers vs Russian dragoons in 1812, by Afanasii Shelumov.
Cuirassiers. - - - Dragoons. - - - Horse Jagers. - - - Uhlans. - - - Hussars.
Best cavalry regiments.
Introduction: Russian Cavalry.
"As a horseman, the Russian regular cavalryman had no experience,
except in the schools. He was not born to the use of horses and he
had to learn both how to ride and how to care for them. Yet the
Russian cavalry distinguished itself throughout the campaign
and was often victorious over the French with all its training."
Petre - "Napoleon's Campaign in Poland 1806-7"
Cavalry is the branch of army, which reaps the fruits of victory or covers a retreat. With strong cavalry the
effects of defeat are not always fatal. Every country had its own cavalry troops and they differed, some were
better quality than other. Of all arms, cavalry is probably the most difficult to handle in the field. It couldnt
engage an enemy except where the ground was favourable for the horses. It was easily disperesed and easily
got out of hand. Cavalry ought to be at once the eye, the ear and the feeder of an army. With good cavalry an
army is in comparative security, and in a condition to march into an enemys country. Cavalry had to be
opportunistic, picking its moment with care.
The true worth of cavalry was the threat it posed to an enemy disrupted and defeated by infantry and artilery
and the reaction it created. Throwing cavalry against a prepared enemy was an extreme and desperate measure
or a mistake.
Grand Duke Constantine, Tzar's brother, was the Inspector of Cavalry. (He also commanded
the Imperial Guard.) Constantine's first campaign took place under Suvorov. In command of
the Guards he had a share of the responsibility for the Russian defeat at Austerlitz; while in
1807 neither his skill nor his fortune in war showed any improvement.
As a military commander he insulted and mistreated his officers and beat his soldiers.
After the peace of Tilsit he became an ardent admirer of Napoleon and an upholder of the
Russo-French alliance. He therefore lost the confidence of his brother, Tzar Alexander. "This
view was not held by Constantine; even in 1812, after the fall of Moscow, he pressed for a
speedy conclusion of peace with Napoleon, and, like field-marshal Kutuzov, he too opposed
the policy which carried the war across the Russian frontier to victorious conclusion upon French soil." (-
wikipedia.org)
There was no shortage of horses in Russia and Ukraine, especially for the medium, light and irregular cavalry.
There was no shortage of men neither. Loraine Petre writes, "As a horseman, the Russian regular cavalryman
had no experience, except in the schools. He was not born to the use of horses and he had to learn both how to
ride and how to care for them. Yet the Russian cavalry distinguished itself throughout the campaign and was
often victorious over the French with all its training."
Picture: Standard-bearer of His Majesty Cuirassier
Regiment
This regiment was also called Leib Cuirassiers,
Life Cuirassiers , or Tzar's Own Cuirassiers .
("Uniforms of the Napoleonic Wars")
This is often said that the Allies' cavalry (Russian, British,
Austrian and Prussian) were superior to the French in
horsemanship and swordsmanship. The French however
surpassed them in organization and tactics. The larger the
formation the more advantage it gave to the French.
Wellington once said "I considered our (British) cavalry
so inferior to the French from the want of order, that
although I considered one squadron a match for two
French, I didn't like to see four British opposed to four
French: and as the numbers increased and order, of
course, became more necessary I was the more unwilling
to risk our men without having a superiority in
numbers."
Probably it was not so extreme with the Russian cavalry,
as they scored some great wins in very large cavalry
battles(Heilsberg, Friedland, Leipzig, La Rothiere). The
one at Heilsberg was quite spectacular.
The Russian cavalry however was more cautious (timid ?) than their French counterparts
when it came to attacking infantry squares en masse. At Leipzig in 1813, one Russian cavalry
division was sent against French squares (and several Prussian and Austrian regiments as
well). While in 1814, at Brienne and La Rothiere, two cavalry divisions participated in such
massive charges against infantry. At Borodino in 1812, one cuirassier division and few hussar
and dragoon regiments charged at once. At Heilsberg in 1807, three or four brigades. At Fere
Champenoise in 1814, two Russian cavalry divisions and several regiments of German
cavalry (Wurttemberg, Austrian etc.)
In contrast, the French attacked the allied infantry at Waterloo with four or five cavalry
divisions. At Dresden with five or six divisions, and at Leipzig with seven French and two
Polish cavalry divisions.
Below several examples of Russian cavalry in combat against the French, Poles, Saxons and
Turks.
In the first one or two campaigns against Napoleon, many Russian cavalry reiments had
only few veterans in their ranks. According to Lwenstern, in 1806 only few men in his
regiment (Soumy Hussars) participated in previous wars and knew how to do a proper
reconnesance or set the outposts. It resulted in situation where squadron couldnt really take a
rest in camp. Even a gossip was enough to stir it up and sometimes sleep was interrupted
several times. Such situation made their horses and men stressed and tired.
For example in 1806 the news about French advance arrived when Russian dragoons and
hussars were in Nowe Miasto (Guttstadt). The single word French! shouted in the night
drove the Russian officers out of their sleep. Chaos erupted and all run to horses.
Lwensterns gray horse became overexcited and caused difficulties to mount. Then the horse
runs straight into the mass of dragoons despite protests of his master. This chaos would never
happen if there was set a chain of pickets and guards and proper reconnaissance was done.
In 1805 at Austerlitz, Grand Duke Constantine attempted to stop the
French who marched through the vineyards south of Blasovitze.
Constantine rode to the front of his uhlans (Grand Duke Constantine Uhlan
Regiment), greeted the troopers and embraced their commander Baron
Meller-Zakomelski. Then he turned to the regiment and shouted:
Lads! Remember whose name you carry!
I trust you, dont disappoint me !
Electricied by Constantine words the uhlans quickly moved forward
without the support from other troops. General Kellermanns cavalry
division consisted of French 2nd, 4th, 5th Hussars and 5th Chasseurs (total 1 267 men, with
many veterans in the ranks).
Kellermanns cavalry stood in front of Cafarellis infantry division and watched the Russian
uhlans coming. What happened next is described different by both sides. According to
Russians the uhlans overturned three lines of French cavalry. According to French sources
the French cavalry voluntarily retreated behind own infantry and artillery.
Unfortunately the uhlans didnt stop there and said, OK, come out you bastards and we will
cut you to ribbons. The uhlans rushed after Kellermanns cavalry and got under heavy
canister and musket fire from infantry. The fire unsaddled many riders but quite amazingly
others pushed forward and managed to penetrate the French position. The uhlans got under
fire from the second line of infantry (2,000-3,000 muskets). This is said that some of the
uhlans that lost their mounts were so angered that attacked the infantry on foot. Baron
Meller-Zakomelski rode in the head of the uhlans and was hit by a bullet. He had trouble
breathing and was surrounded by the French 5th Hussars. Meller-Zakomelski was taken
prisoner by trumpeter Pincemaille, who himself was wounded. Hundreds of uhlans were
hors de combat, and only approx. 200-250 of the toughest and luckiest rode back toward
Bagrations troops where Manteufel rallied them.
Due to excellent coordination between French cavalry, infantry and artillery the
uhlans have suffered horrible losses. According to Bogdanovich the uhlans
suffered 508 casualties (!) Mihailovski-Danilevski and Gavlovski however give
different number: 400 and 680 respectively. This action although very costly gave
time for other Allies troops to restore order and regain composure. In the end of
the battle General Bagration ordered the remaining uhlans to escort 16 guns, an
order they fullfiled to the word.
Constantine however was proud of his brave cavalry, a single regiment attacked two
divisions, 800 men against five thousands infantry and cavalry supported by artillery. Later
on he ordered the Russian infantry halt and present their arms when the uhlans were passing
by. Few days after the battle he wrote report to the monarch praising them. In second report
written in 1806, which was based on Manteufels report, he presented to awards for Austerlitz
36 officers, and praised more than 200 privates and NCOs.
-
(The uhlans waited two years for another chance to cross their weapons with the
French light cavalry. It took place in June 1807. This time for the enemy there was
no infantry and artillery to retreat behind and the uhlans got their fair chance. The
French hussars and Saxon chevauxlegeres and cuirassiers entered the town of
Friedland. But here the funny Chalikov with one squadron of uhlans threw
them out of the town.
French light cavalry formed themselves west of Friedland, but then 4 squadrons of
uhlans and 2 squadrons of Military Order Cuirassiers attacked them. The enemy was defeated
and didnt stop its flight until they reached the woods of Heinrichsdorf.)
.
Nicolas Dahlmann (picture) had set off on patrol with two squadrons and the
Guard Mamelukes in December 1806. Near Lopacin they ran into the Russian rear
guard under Pahlen. Pahlen's force consisted of the Soumy Hussars, 21st Jagers (2
battalions) and a horse battery (12 pieces). "... instead of charging blindly ahead,
Dahlmann sent scouts to find a way across the marsh that bordered the Sonna River.
... Dahlmann saw that he confronted six Russian horse guns divided into three
sections. The Russian guns ineffectually pelted his troopers while they filed across
the marshy ground. ... Some horse gunners defended themselves with saber,
handspike, or rammer while others crouched beneath the equipment to evade the blows.
Dahlmann personally sabered several gunners as his troopers overrun a section of guns.
Next into the lists came two squadrons of the Sumsk Hussars who assignment was to support
these guns. ... A brief hack-and-slash melee took place and the Sumsk Hussars withdrew.
Dahlmann's troopers pursued along the river until they approached a village where a
concealed party of jagers stopped them with a punishing volley. ... The four remaining
Russian guns retired to a new position near the village while his Sumsk Hussars fixed
Dahlmann by bluffing a charge. The affair had grown serious enough that Murat forwarded
reinforcements. In response, Lasalle led his hussars in a charge against the Sumsk Hussars.
Like most cavalry combats, this encounter was over quickly but not before the 5th Hussars
had lost one captain and three troopers dead on the field and another four officers and nine
troopers wounded." (Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows" pp 123-124)
The Moscow Dragoons engaged General Rapp's 5th and 9th Dragoons near Golymin in
December 1806. Many horses sank in the mud and the regiments were unable to maintain
order. Rapp won by sheer weight of numbers. The Moscow Dragoons however managed to
cover the withdrawal of Shcherbatov's infantry.
The (Russian) Tartar Horse Regiment of 5 squadrons advanced against the 17th Light
Infantry at Pultusk in December 1806. The 9th and 10th Hussars (3 + 3 squadrons) led by
Treillard however counter-charged and after a short melee the enemy withdrew.
At Eylau in 1807 the Russian cavalrymen covered themselves with glory. The 44th Ligne
and 16th Legere frantically tried to form square. Three sides managed to form but it was too
late. The Russians poured through the open, fourth side and began the slaughter. The next
day, neatly arrayed bodies two and three ranks deep would clearly delineate where the
French had tried to complete their squares. Caught out of formation, unable to use their
weapons to defend themselves, the survivors broke and fled. Russian hussars and dragoons
plunged their swords into the exposed backs of the fleeing French.
A cannon ball broke the staff of one of the 44th Lignes eagles. Before the
eagle bearer could pick up the eagle, a canister round struck him in the
chest. As he staggered, a Russian dragoon slashed him across the head
causing him to lose consciousness. The St. Petersburg Dragoons added to
the luster they had earned the previous day by capturing the eagle. (
Arnold Crisis in the snows p. 292)
During the pursuit of the Russian army in early Februrary 1807 one squadron of the 12th
Horse Chasseurs bagged an entire squadron of Russian dragoons !
Many combats fought during the battle of Pultusk in 1806 were quite confusing. "Initially
the 17th Legere and the second battalion of the 88th Ligne calmly formed squares and
repulsed repeated cavalry charges. But when they formed columns to resume the advance
they encountered trouble. Meanwhile, the Russians handled Vedel's units more roughly.
Major-General Kozhin led his cuirassiers and two squadrons of the Kargopol Dragoons
against the front and left flank of Vedel's columns. Heretofore, the weather had featured
thick, low lying clouds, periodic snow showers, and a stiff, icy wind.
Kozhin's troopers struck at a time when a snow squall reduced visibility. Consequently, the
first the French knew about it was when saber-wielding horsemen appeared in their midst.
Caught out of square, the French suffered terribly. To Dominique d'Heralde, a surgeon
serving with the ambulance corps just behind the front, it appeared that, 800 of our braves,
standing in the mud up to their knees, received and gave deadly blows.
The Russians hacked the first battalion of the 88th Ligne to pieces, mortally
wounding the unit's commander, and apparently captured its eagle.
Lieutenant Voisin valiantly tried to rally the battalion but only some 70 to
80 men responded. The rest had either fallen in combat or fled. ...
Lastly, the regiment suffered losses to friendly fire. D'Heralde ... related: I
was on foot. The mud made it impossible to flee. A volley from the 64th Ligne
directed against the Russian dragoons, killed or wounded many of the French
around me. The 88th Ligne would fight in numerous battles during the Napoleonic Wars.
Never again would it suffer such losses." (Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows" p 159)
As experience grew, however, the Russian cavalrymen did better in combat. The Cossacks
and hussars usually crept behind the enemy, or on his flanks, before striking. The enemy also
helped by being not too careful.
On 27-28 May (8-9 June) 1807 General Guyots light cavalry brigade crossed the Pasleka
(Passarge) River at Kleinenfeld. The French didnt do proper reconeissance, and were
attacked and routed by S.Petersbourg Dragoons, Lifland Dragoons, Elisavetgrad Hussars and
Cossacks. The French lost 120 killed and wounded and 120 prisoners. (At Waterloo in 1815
General Guyot commanded the Guard Heavy Cavalry Division made of Horse Grenadiers
and Dragoons)
This is said that in winter of 1794-1795 the French hussars captured the icebound Dutch
ships.[For more info read "French Cavalry Defeats Dutch Fleet?" by Peter Davis >> (ext.link)]
The Russian cavalrymen had their
actions 'on ice' too. On March 6-9
1809 Yakov Kulniev was ordered to
capture the Swedish Aland Islands
(see map). Kulnievs force
consisted of 200 Cossacks and 172
Grodno Hussars. At 3 am the
Russians appeared on the frozen
sea. They could see the wheel trails
and footsteps of the Swedish
troops on the snow that passed
through this area before. After long march they spotted on the skyline the rocks of an island.
As they advanced further the Swedish pickets fired upon them.
Kulniev formed his Cossacks in skirmish chain, hussars 200 paces behind them and formed in
line. In reserve was one sotnia (hundred) of Cossacks. Kulniev placed himself in the very
front and with a loud God with us! and drawn saber rushed forward. Although the Swedes
fled toward the rocks, leaving behind 80 killed, wounded, and captured, they continued firing
from behind rocks and trees. Due to difficult terrain the Russians fought on foot. Finally the
Russinas got upper hand and the Swedish garrison surrendered. Kulniev was awarded with
St. Anna Order of 1st Class, while the privates were awarded with 2 silver roubles each.
In January 1807 the Soumy Hussars discovered through spies that
Marshal Bernadotte (see picture) and his troops were resting
carelessly at Mohrungen. According to Lwenstern the Soumy
Hussars and Courland Dragoons quietly sneaked in under the cover
of the night near the position occupied by the enemy. They fell upon
Bernadottes troops who didnt have even set outposts.
The hussars were busy chasing after the half-naked French
stumbling out of the houses. Lwenstern himself captured 14
prisoners on that night, although many of them soon managed to
escape in this chaos. The captured booty was impressive. Three Russian squadrons rushed
toward other part of the town and toward the French camp but were vigorously
counterattacked. They lost officer Kreutz. Kreutz was surrounded, and when his horse fell on
an ice patch he was taken prisoner. Lwenstern however exagerate the number of prisoners
giving it at one thousand. (Lwenstern - Mit Graf Pahlens Reiterei gegen Napoleon Berlin 1910,
Ernst Siegfried Mittler und Sohn, pages 14-15.)
According to Eduard Lwenstern,
in 1807 the Soumy Hussars was
attacked near Golymin with big noise
by the French 4th and 7th Dragoons
and was overthrown. The fleeing
Russian hussars run toward the
Ingermanland Dragoons but these
dragoons didnt let them pass
without jeering. :-)
In 1814 in Nangis, the French
dragoons, veterans from Spain attacked Pahlens cavalry. The Russian center was broken and
the Chuguiev Uhlans, Soumy and Olviopol Hussars and some Cossacks fled. Even General
Witgenstein and his chief of staff had to run for life. The hot pursuit only slackened near
Maison-Rouge.
Between September 22nd and 25th 1812
Ivan Dorohovs group of about 2 000
troopers and 2 guns (Cossacks and two
squadrons of Lifeguard Dragoons) attacked
the enemys convoys and transports. They
captured 1 500 prisoners and 80
ammunition wagons.
Against them Napoleon has sent 150-250
French Guard Dragoons and 300 infantry.
On September 25th they had come across
Dorohovs group. The French were
ambushed and then crushed by two
squadrons of Lifeguard Dragoons.
(Bezotosnyi V. M., Vasiliev A. A., Gorshman
A. M., Parhayev O. K., Smirnov A. A. - Russkaia armiia 1812-1814 Vlados, Moskva 2000, page 19)
According to French General Caulaincourt the annihilation of 150 dragoons caused more
consternation in Napoleons headquarters than the loss of 50 generals. (Curtis Cate - The
War of The Two Emperors p. 305, 1985 Random House, Inc, NewYork)
Napoleon promptly has sent against Dorohov the remainder of the Guard Dragoon Regiment.
They were joined by the Guard Horse Chasseurs with five infantry and eight cavalry
regiments. Forty guns supported the pursuing force.
Often the excitement of inexperienced officers seemed
to overcome whatever tactical judgement they possessed.
On June 14th 1812 part of the Yamburg Dragoons covered
the distance of 105 verst from the village of Zbegi, through
Shaty, Zheimy to Vepry, all without sleep and feeding the
horses.
Two young officers then led the two squadrons as they
ran into a body of French horse chasseurs (see picture)
and accepted the fight. In the ensuing combat with French
cavalry most of the Russians were killed, wounded, and
taken prisoners. (Krestovski - Istoriya 14-go Ulanskago
Yamburskago Eya Imperatorskago Vysochestva Velikoi
Knyazhny Marii Aleksandrovny Polka St. Petersburg 1873, pp
180-182)
In July 1812 at Ostrovno, the Ingermanland Dragoons were sent against the right flank of
French corps. The dragoons however were driven back by the Polish 6th Uhlans and lost 200
prisoners. (Some sources gives two regiments, the 6th and 8th Uhlans, or instead of the 8th,
the French 8th Hussars or a Prussian hussar regiment).
If cavalry cuaght infantry by surpirse and not formed in squares it often resulted in
slaughter. In mid May 1813 column of French infantry was crossing a stream near the town of
Bishofsverda. The Harkov Dragoons sprung forward and fling themselves upon the enemy.
The column was broken and suffered 100 casualties. (Bogdanovich M. - Istoriya Voiny 1813
Goda St. Petersburg 1863, Vol 1, p 228)
At the end of the battle of Shevardino in 1812, the Russian command saw 8 or 10 battalions
of French infantry (25th and 111th Line Regiment), which under cover of smoke and
darkness, sought to move between the village of Shevardino and the redoubt.
The Russians counterattacked with two cuirassier regiments (Little
Russia and Gloukhov). One flank of the cuirassiers was covered with 2
squadrons of Kharkov Dragoons and the other flank with 2 squadrons
from Chernigov Dragoons. The French 111th Line Infantry Regiment
tried to form squares against the charging cavalry. One battalion was
destroyed while other battalions became disordered. Louis Gardier of
111th wrote: "... Russian cuirassiers, who claimed to be our allies and
indeed looked like the Saxon cuirassiers, appeared. Assuming that they
arrived to charge the enemy, we allowed them to pass nearby. But they
rallied behind us and charged, killing anyone who came under their
sabers." The cuirassiers killed 300 men and captured 3 guns.
In 1812 at Polotzk, the Riga Dragoons, Grodno Hussars, one squadron of His Majesty
Cuirassiers and one of Her Majesty Cuirassiers attacked the French artillery and cavalry,
which was deployed in three lines. (In the first line: Castexs cavalry brigade, in the second
Corbineaus brigade, in the third line the 4th Cuirassiers.) The Russians overthrew
Red Lancer
Corbineaus and Castexs brigades and captured the guns. They were then counterattacked
and routed by the 4th Cuirassiers and lost 13 out of the 15 captured guns.
This combat reminds me of the encounters between the French and British cavalry.
In May 1813 at Reichenbach, the Russian artillery fired on the Red
Lancers. (See picture) This bombardement was immediatelly
followed by a spirited cavalry charge conducted by Korfs cavalry.
The lancers were driven off, lost 5 officers and 176 other ranks as
prisoners. (Bogdanovich M. - Istoriya Voiny 1813 Goda St. Petersburg
1863, Vol 1, page 282)
In 1814 at Brienne, General Vasilchikov led the 3rd Dragoon
Division (Panchulidsevs), 2nd Hussar Division (Lanskois) and
Cossacks against the French infantry division commanded by
Duhesme. The infantry received them in columns instead of squares.
Unable to withstand the attack they began to fall back and colided
with the infantry division of Young Guard. Vasilchikovs cavalry
also overran two batteries before they could deploy and fire. One of
these batteries was dragged away as a trophy. (Petre F. L. - Napoleon
at Bay, 1814 on p 23 Petre gives 8 guns as being lost to Russian cavalry)
Prussian officer Muffling participated in this attack and wrote: We rode into the Young
Guard and our right wing got as far as the Reserve We captured two batteries and the
enemy fell into the greatest disorder. Only the gathering darkness saved the Young Guard
and Duhesmes division from a complete disaster. It was a brillaint cavalry charge.
Antoni Rozwadowski of
Polish 8th Uhlans described
fighting with the Russian
cavalry at Borodino: On that
day (Sep 5th) the 6th Uhlans
formed the first line, and we
the 8th were formed in
echelon when Russian dragoons attacked. According to Rozwadowski the soil was dry and
a huge, thick cloud of dust made his 8th invisible to the enemy. The Russians continued their
advance against the 6th before the 8th attacked the left flank of the dragoons. The enemy fled
in great disorder.
After this action the 8th and 6th Uhlans moved to a new position behind a wood. There the
regiments were formed in column, one after another and only the brigades stood in echelon.
Soon the uhlans noticed Russian cavalry again charging against them. At a long distance the
enemy looked similar to the dragoons just recently defeated and the Poles rushed forward
certain of victory. When both sides were closer the uhlans realized that these dragoons
were cuirassiers and the 6th fled toward the 8th. The 8th was disorganized and both
regiments fled and broke the Prussian hussars who stood in the rear. Only the next cavalry
brigade who stood in echelon to the Poles counterattacked and threw the Russian cuirassiers
back. (Rozwadowski Antoni - Memoir Biblioteka Zakladu Ossolinskich, rekopis 7994)
In 1807 near Golymin, Lasalles and Milhauds light cavalry brigades (both
understrength) crossed their sabers with the Military Order Cuirassiers and
Pskov Dragoons. The Russian heavies drove them back, Colonel Demeneot of
13th Chasseurs received a saber cut to his left arm/hand? Lasalle and
Milhaud rallied their troopers and with the support of Kleins dragoon
division strucked the enemy from the flank. The Russians were routed and
fled under the cover of artillery.
In 1807 after the Battle of Friedland, Napoleon sent the French Guard Dragoons and the
Saxon cavalry in pursuit of the defeated Russian infantry. (Elting J.R., Esposito V. - A Military
History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars, New York 1964, description to Map 82)
The dragoons had strength of 2 squadrons or less than 300 men. But these troops met with a
strong force of Russian light cavalry, were defeated and pursued all the way to the main
French army, creating confusion in the ranks of infantry and artillery.
On March 13th (25th) 1814 General Pahlen with 2 cuirassier and 2 hussar regiments passed
through Lenharre and furiously attacked the left flank of French cuirassier division. The
French heavies were pushed back. General Belliard sent in as support a dragoon division
commanded by Roussel (?) but the French dragoons panicked and hooved away. The fleeing
toward Conantray French cuirassiers and dragoons were saved from destruction by the 8th
Horse Chasseurs and the young infantry who held fast. General Gerard lost his personal
baggage and was able to flee only due to his fast horse. Not far from Laubrisell (?) the
Ekaterinoslav Cuirassiers captured 1 gun and the Soumy Hussars chased after French
infantrymen.
At La Rothiere in 1814, the Russian infantry marched forward headed by the regimental
singers while Lanskoi's 2nd Hussar Division charged and broke the French cavalry.
Meanwhile the infantry found themselves under heavy cannonade of French artillery.
General Nansouty (see picture) ordered Generals Colbert, Guyot, and Pire to
charge with the cavalry of the Imperial Guard. Horse batteries of Old Guard
supported them. The French guardsmen broke the hussars and pursued in their
turn. Vasilchikov sent in the 3rd Dragoon Division.
The Russian dragoons formed in two lines attacked Nansoutys Guard Cavalry
frontallly and from the flank. The enemy was broken and pursued beyond La
Rothiere itself leaving behind 24 guns of Old Guard which soon became the
trophy of the dragoons. (Petre gives 24 guns as being lost. Petre - Napoleon at Bay, 1814 p 33)
The fleeing guardsmen were saved by part of the V Cavalry Corps, which regiments
advanced in column of squadrons, wheeled to the left and struck the pursuing Russians. The
Russian dragoons were pushed back but not without a fight and they still managed to bring
back the captured guns of Old Guard. The Russian dragoon division must have made
impression on the French because in the Journal Historique de Cavalry Legere du 5e Corps
de Cavalerie pendant la Campagne de France en 1814 participant of this fight, officer Petiet,
gives the strength of the dragoons at six thousands. In fact their strength was only between
1.200 and 1.600 men.
General Lambert (1772-1843) was a French emigree serving in the Russian
army. In 1806 Lambert distinguished himself at Blonie and Czarnowo, and in
1812 at Gorodechno, Charukovo and Minsk. Minsk was an important supply
base for the Grand Army with 2,000,000 ratios. At Novyi Swierzyn Lambert
surprised Polish troops, killed and wounded 400 and took 800 prisoners. At
Koidanov he again attacked the Poles, killed and wounded 1.000 and took
3.000 prisoners. At Borisov Lambert defeated the Poles once again. This time he
was seriously wounded. Lambert distinguished himself at Berezina where thousands of
French soldiers were killed and taken prisoner. In 1813-1814 Lambert, the French emigree,
participated in numerous battles, incl. the capture of Paris.
Generally the Turkish cavalry outclassed the Russian cavalry in horsemanship and
swordsmanship (but not in training and discipline). Often the Russian horsemen needed
support from infantry and artillery to beat the enemy. The most useful against the Turks were
the Cossacks.
In 1811 at Kalafati the Turkish cavalry came out fired up by their leaders. From the huge
cloud of dust the angry screaming Allah ! Allah ! was heard. They defeated the Russian
dragoons who sought refuge behind their own infantry. Only the volleys fired by infantry
halted the Turks. In 1810 at Shumen the Turkish cavalry plagued the marching Russians, who
had to form wagon circles. When the Russians arrived at Shumen they came under attack
from a large force of Turkish cavalry. In the corners of the squares formed by infantry were
positioned light guns, while wagons and some cavalrymen were placed in the middle of each
square.
In 1814 after Allies' defeat at Montmirail Vasilchikov's hussars and dragoons
covered their retreat and counter-attacked "with the greatest impetuosity."
In 1814 after another Allies' defeat, this time at Craonne, Vasilchikov's
cavalry enabled the Russian infantry and artillery to retire in good order.
Mikhailovski-Danilevskii writes: "At this moment Vasilchikov came up with
Lanskoi's Hussar Division and Ushakov's Dragoon Division. Their appearance
in the action was the more necessary, that the field was becoming wider, and allowed the
enemy's cavalry to turn our flanks. Vasilchikov, Lanskoi, and Ushakov, by continually
renewed attacks, gave aid to the infantry, several of the cavalry regiments charging 8 times. ...
The Marioupol Hussar Regiment, in the course of 3 hours, lost 22 officers. Most of the
generals were wounded, and 2 of them died of their wounds; the latter were Lanskoi and
Ushakov who were reckoned among the most distinguished leaders of our cavalry. ...
Lanskoi would not consent to the amputation of his leg, which had been shot through with a
bullet ... Ushakov, on being mortally wounded, called out to his regiment [Courland
Dragoons]: Halt, Courlanders ! and breathed his last. While speaking of those who laid down
their lives at Craonne, can we pass unnoticed the young and accomplished Count Stroganov
who was struck by a cannonball." (Mikhailovski-Danilevskii - "History of the Campaign in France"
)
Cavalry supported infantry and artillery not only on the battlefield. After the defeat in 1814
at Montmirail Sacken's Russian infantry retired to Vifort wading through deep mud. The
Prussian brigade also fell back. The Russian cavalry fastened long lines to the guns and, with
50 men to each piece, dragged them through the woods. Despite the cavalry's exertions it was
found necessary to abandon 8 guns.
.
Russian cavalry participated in the Waterloo
Campaign in 1815. General Chernyshev's
cavalry and Cossacks crossed the Moselle River
and carried by storm, on 3 July, the city of
Chlons-sur-Marne.
The French garrison had promised to make no resistance, and
yet fired upon Chernyshev's troops; whereupon the Russians immediately dismounted, scaled
the ramparts, broke open the gates, sabred a part of the garrison, made the remainder
prisoners, including the French General Rigault, and pillaged the town. The bulk of the
Russian army reached Paris in mid July. The news of the capture of Paris by the Prussian and
British troops led to a suspension of hostilities; which was concluded on 24 July 1815.
French carabiniers versus Russian hussars.
Battle of Borodino 1812. Keith Rocco, USA.

Napoleon after the bloody Battle of Eylau in 1807
Here he [Napoleon] saw the pitiful sight of the 44th Ligne and 16th Legere
lying as if asleep in the position they had occupied at the moment they were
surprised by the Russian cavalry.
Napoleon proceeded to the site of the epic stand of the 14th Ligne. There were
French dead everywhere and Marshal Bessieres observed that they were stacked
like slaughtered sheep. Say that they are like lions, Napoleon retorted.
At Rivoli I gave this demibrigade the surname the Brave; at Eylau it has given
the fullest demonstration of this honor. (Arnold Crisis in the snows p. 358)
~
Strength and Organization.
The Russians tried to avoid having large squadrons
as celerity and precision of movement couldnt be
attained with unwieldly troops.
Russian cavalry in 1804-1805:
- 3 600 Guard cavalry
- 46 200 Army cavalry (of whom 3 900 were mounted on pack hores)
In 1805:
- 50 000 cavalry
Russian cavalry in 1811-1812:
- 5 600 Guard cavalry
- 70 200 Army cavalry (of whom 7 800 were mounted on pack hores)
In 1812 there were 350 000 infantry and 75 000 cavalry.
The basic tactical unit was squadron. The Russians tried to avoid having large squadrons as celerity and
precision of movement couldnt be attained with unwieldly troops. Several squadrons formed regiment.
There were many regiments in the Russian cavalry.
In 1805:
- Guard cavalry: 2 cuirassier, 1 hussar, and 1 Cossack regiment
- Army cavalry: 6 cuirassier, 20 dragoon, 3 horse, 1 uhlan, and 9 hussar regiments.
In the beginning of 1812:
- Guard cavalry: 2 cuirassier, 1 dragoon, 1 uhlan, 1 hussar and 1 Cossack regiment
- Army cavalry: 8 cuirassier, 36 dragoon, 5 uhlan, and 11 hussar regiments
In 1813:
- Guard cavalry: 3 cuirassier, 1 dragoon, 1 uhlan, 1 hussar and 1 Cossack regiment
- Army cavalry: 9 cuirassier, 18 dragoon, 12 uhlan, 12 hussar and 8 horse jger regiments
Two or three regiments formed brigade, two or three brigades formed one cavalry division.
The number of divisions varied. In December 1812 there were the following cavalry divisions:
- - - - - Guard Light Cavalry Division - (Lifeguard Dragoons, Lifeguard Uhlans, Lifeguard Hussars,
Lifeguard Cossacks)
- - - - - 1st Cuirassier Division - (regiments: Guard Cavalry/Chevaliers Garde, Lifeguard Horse, His
Majesty, Her Majesty)
- - - - - 2nd Cuirassier Division - (regiments: Yekaterinoslav, Pskov, Glukhov, Astrakhan)
- - - - - 3rd Cuirassier Division - (regiments: Military Order, Little Russia, Novgorod, Starodub)
- - - - - 1st Dragoon Division - (regiments: Riga, Kargopol, Finland, Mitava)
- - - - - 2nd Dragoon Division - (regiments: Courland, Moscow, New Russia, Kazan)
- - - - - 3rd Dragoon Division - (regiments: Harkov, Ingermanland, Tver, Kiev)
- - - - - 4th Dragoon Division - (regiments: St.Petersbourg, Kinbourn, Smolensk, Narva)
- - - - - 1st Uhlan Division - (regiments: Lithuania, Yambourg, Orenbourg, Siberian)
- - - - - 2nd Uhlan Division - (regiments: Polish, Zhitomir, Tatar, Vladimir)
- - - - - 3rd Uhlan Division - (regiments: Volin, Chuguyev, Taganrog, Serpukhov)
- - - - - 1st Horse Jager Division - (regiments: Nizhinsk, Chernikhov, Arzamass, Sieversk)
- - - - - 2nd Horse Jager Division - (regiments: Livland, Pereyeslav, Tiraspol, Dorpat)
- - - - - 1st Hussar Division - (regiments: Grodno, Elisavetgrad, Izoum, Soumy)
- - - - - 2nd Hussar Division - (regiments: Marioumpol, Akhtirka, Alexandria, Irkoutzk)
- - - - - 3rd Hussar Division - (regiments: Pavlograd, White Russia, Olviopol, Loubny)
Nizhnigorod Dragoons and Borisoglebsk Dragoons formed an independent brigade and were stationed in
Georgia.
In April 1813 His Majesty's Cuirassiers became Lifeguard Cuirassiers.
The cuirassier and dragoon regiments carried standards.
The light cavalry regiments carried none until later on when some were awarded with
such for their exploits. Not all standards carried by a regiment enjoyed the same
prestige. Only the first one (called white standard) was considered as the regimental
standard, while the others (colored) were considered as merely squadron standards.
The cuirassier and dragoon regiments had 4-5 squadrons each.
The I Squadron in every regiment was Chefs Squadron, also called Leib Squadron.
The Leib Squadron commonly consisted of the tallest men in the regiment.
The V Squadron was called Commanders Squadron.
The II, III and IV Squadron were the center squadrons.
CUIRASSIER / DRAGOON REGIMENT

Staff
- -
I (Chef's or Leib) Squadron
- -
II Squadron
- -
III Squadron
- -
IV Squadron
- -
V (Commander's) Squadron

Reserve Half-Squadron
The hussar and uhlan regiments had 8-10 squadrons each.
The I Squadron in every regiment was Chefs Squadron, also called Leib Squadron.
For tactical reasons the regiment was divided into 2 battalions, each with 4-5 squadrons.
HUSSAR / UHLAN REGIMENT

Staff
- -
- -
II Squadron
- -
III Squadron
- -
IV Squadron
- -
V Squadron
- -
VI Squadron
- -
VII Squadron
- -
VIII Squadron
- -
IX Squadron
- -
X (Commander's) Squadron
- -
Reserve Squadron
In 1810 was ordered that the reserve half-squadrons and squadrons were abolished and in their place
during war every cuirassier and dragoon regiment left one of its center squadrons (II, III or IV) in
quarters. This squadron was also called Reserve Squadron (Zapasnyi Eskadron).
Every light cavalry regiment had to leave one of its center squadrons of I Battalion and one of center
squadrons of II Battalion in its quarters. The reserve squadrons had to sent men and horses to the
squadrons in the field.
During the campaign in 1812 the reserve squadrons were also taken into field service. In June there were
entire regiments organized of such squadrons and they were called svodno, or svodnyi. These cavalry
regiments (svodnyie polki) were formed into brigades. The reserve squadrons performed quite well. For
example in 1812 they defeated at Berezina the Baden and Hessian cavalry, and at the Battle of Polotzk the
Svodno Guard Cavalry Regiment captured 15 enemys guns. (Bezotosnyi, Vasiliev, Gorshman, Parhayev,
Smirnov - Russkaia armiia 1812-1814 Vlados, Moskva 2000, p 150)
There were also regiments formed on temporary basis. For example in 1812 in the city of Riga was so
called Combined Light Cavalry Regiment commanded by Pplk. Kunitski. It consisted of the IV and IX
Squadron of the Grodno Hussar Regiment and the IV and IX Squadron of Polish Uhlan Regiment.
In December 1812 was issued an order that every cavalry regiment will have 6 field and 1 reserve
squadron. But the army had no peace time to fully implement this order and some regiments would have
between 2 and 8 squadrons.
According to the new organization the 6 squadrons in every regiment were formed into 3 divisions.
Every squadron consisted of 2 half-squadrons each of 2 platoons, called vzvody.
(Squadron = 2 half squadrons of 2 platoons each)
CAVALRY REGIMENT (Dec 1812 - 1815)
Staff:
1 Chef (Shef) - often served as commander of brigade or division and was not present
1 Regimental Commander (Polkovyi Komandir) - in the rank of colonel
? Divisional Commander(s)
? Majors (Majory)
1 Kaznachei clerk/cashier
1 Quartermaster (Kvartirmeister) - in the rank of lieutenant
? ADCs (Adjutanty Shefa)
? Captains (Kapitan)
1 Regimental Trumpeter
? Divisional Trumpeters
Non-combatants: surgeons and their aids, crafstmen, blacksmith, musicians ? etc.
- -
- -
II Squadron
- -
III Squadron
- -
IV Squadron
- -
V Squadron
- -
VI Squadron
- -
Depot Squadron
Flankers
(horse skirmishers)
Every squadron had 16 flankers (horse skirmishers), which were posted, in the end files of every platoon.
That means that, for example in 1812-1815, the flankers occupied the flanks of each of the 24 platoons (6
squadrons x 4 platoons), with 4 flankers per platoon.
In hussar regiment all troopers were trained to function as skirmishers and sometimes they were used in
big numbers like for example in 1806 at Pultusk and Golymin, or in 1812 at Kobrin.
During the 1806-1807 campaign Lwenstern was sent with flankers of Soumy Hussars against French
dragoons positioned in a wood near Makow. Lwenstern fired few pistol shots at a gray-hair dragoon.
The French veteran responded with his own fire. Both however were unharmed and none was rushing to
cross his saber with the opponent. Soon the trumpets sounded and recalled the flankers.
The dragoons and cuirassiers had their own flankers.
In 1814 Grand Duke Constantine brought several cavalry regiments in the vicinity of Fre Champenoise
where the French were retreating under the cover of their foot and horse skirmishers. Constantine sent
forward flankers of Lifeguard Dragoons and Guard Cavalry Regiment (Chevaliers Garde, Kavallergarde)
and they pushed back the French skirmishers.
~
Russian Cuirassiers.
"Large and stout ..."
The Russian cuirassiers were heavy cavalry.
One witness described them as Large and
stout: the discipline and well-dressed state
of these men are very imposing. The
minimum height for the Russian cuirassier
was 170 cm. For comparison the minimum
height for the French dragoon was 162 cm,
and for cuirassier 172 cm.
The Russian cuirassier rode on a strong
horse, between 151 cm and 160 cm in
height. It was a bigger animal than French
dragoon's horse (153 - 155 cm in 1812) but
slightly smaller than French cuirassier's
mount (155-160 cm in 1812).
Russian cuirassier was armed with a
straight saber, type of broadsword. Although it was heavier weapon than the sabre carried by the French
dragoons and cuirassiers, it was shorter (Russian blade 90 cm, French blade 97.5 cm). The new saber issued
to Russian cuirassiers, pattern 1809, was lighter but longer (97 cm).
The Russian cuirassier was armed with 2 pistols, heavy pallash that later was replaced by a straight saber,
and cavalry carbine or rifle. In 1812 the carbines were taken away and each cavalryman had only 2 pistols
and saber. The flankers however kept their rifles. Until 1812 there was no body armor.
The Russian cuirassiers were elite troops as their ranks were filled up with the best soldiers selected from
dragoon, uhlan, jager and hussar regiments. The cuirassiers distinguished themselves in Heileberg (1807),
Borodino (1812), Leipzig (1813), and Fere Champenoise (1814). On 8th February 1807, His Majesty
Cuirassiers routed French II Battalion of 24th Line Infantry, inflicted very heavy casualties and captured its
Eagle.
The only major cavalry combat the
French cuirassiers ever lost was the
one at Heilsberg in 1807. It was
Russian cuirassiers' glory day.
Their attack upon French cavalry,
for daring and gallantry could not
be exceeded. The Russian
cuirassiers succeeded in defeating
a body of enemy estimated at two
times their number (!)
De Gonneville of the 6th
Cuirassiers writes: "At this
moment the grand duke of Berg
(Murat) came up to us; he came
from our right rear, followed by
his staff, passed at a gallop across
our front, bending forwards on his
horse's neck, and as he passed at
full speed by General Espagne, he flung at him one word alone which I heard, "Charge !" In the front was
GdB Fouler's brigade (7th and 8th Cuirassiers). Murat throws himself into the thick of the fighting,
heedless of all danger. On the fields by Langwiese - 1 km southwest from Lawden - developed a cavalry
battle bewteen Uvarov's cavalry and d'Espagne's cuirassiers and Latour-Mauborg's dragoons.
It was a bloody fight and costly for the French. Wounded were GdD d'Espagne, GdB Fouler, and colonels
of 4th, 6th and 7th Cuirassiers. Colonel Fulgent of the 4th Curassiers received a serious head wound from
a sabre from which he eventually died. Also wounded were Colonel Davenay and Colonel Offenstein of
the 6th and 7th Cuirassiers respectively. The only regimental commander to escape unscathed that day
was Merlin of the 8th Cuirassiers, but one of the squadron flags of 8th was captured. Among the dragoons
were wounded colonels of 4th, 14th and 26th Dragoons. Colonel Chipault of the 4th Cuirassiers had
received 56 sabre cuts ! Murat's 6.000-9,000 cavalrymen were thrown back by 3,000-4,500 Russians and
Prussians. By day's end, each cavalryman sabre will be dripping with blood.
The fight between the Hessian and Baden light cavalry and the Russian cuirassiers (reserve squadrons) in 1812 near Berezina needs
some explanation. Some sources present it as as major defeat of the Russian troops. The results however were mixed for the excellent
Hessian and Baden cavalry. On November 28th Russian infantry came out of forest and formed a single square. The square was
attacked by Hessian Garde-Chevaulegers but without success. Then the Hessians and the Baden hussars, total of 350 men, charged
again and this time the square was broken. (Bericht des Obersten von Dalwigk an Se. Hoheit den Herrn General-Lieutenant Prinzen Emil von
Hessen, ber die Gefechte, welchen das Grossherzoglich-Hessische Garde-Chevaulegers-Regiment whrend des Feldzugs von 1812 in Russland
beigewohnt hat in Zeitschrift fr Kriegswissenschaft pub. in Stuttgart and Tbingen in 1823 pp 58-61)
Part of the Hessians escorted the prisoners, while the Badeners continued their advance. They rushed against Russian guns before two
reserve squadrons of cuirassiers (total 160-180 men) strucked them. Commander of the Baden hussars, Colonel von Laroche, was
wounded among many others, while only 50 Hessians and 50 Badeners survived and were able to rally. According to regimental
history of the Baden hussars lost Colonel Laroche, Captain Bishoff, Lieutenant von Preen, von Ammerongen, von Ritz, and 150 men
killed, wounded and missing.
Regiments:
- His Majesty Cuirassiers (formed in 1702) - in 1813 became Lifeguard Cuirassiers
- Her Majesty Cuirassiers (formed in 1704)
- Yekaterinoslav Cuirassiers (formed in 1708)
- Military Order Cuirassiers (formed in 1709)
- Glukhov Cuirassiers (formed in 1783)
- Little Russia Cuirassiers (formed in 1786)
- Astrakhan Cuirassiers (formed in 1811)
- Novgorod Cuirassiers (formed in 1811)
- Pskov Cuirassiers (formed in 1701 as dragoons) - in Dec 1812 became cuirassiers)
- Starodoub Cuirassiers (formed in 1783 as dragoons) - in Dec 1812 became cuirassiers)
Military Order Cuirassiers captured eagle and drapeau of the II Battalion
of 24th Line Infantry Regiment at Eylau in 1807. Picture by N. Zubkov.
NOTE: in 1807 the Russian cuirassiers wore no armor.
Russian cuirassiers (left) vs Grouchy's French dragoons (right) at Borodino 1812.
~
Russian Dragoons
The universal cavalry.
Until the end of 1812 the dragoons were the most numerous branch of cavalry and numbered up to 36
regiments. Then several regiments were converted into cuirassiers, horse jagers and uhlans. In 1813-15
there were only 18 dragoon regiments.
The Russian dragoons were armed as follow:
Officers, NCOs and trumpeters - straight saber, 2 pistols.
Troopers - straight saber, 2 pistols, musket with bayonet (the flankers were armed with rifles)
Several regiments however carried either curved sabers or the heavy pallash.
In November 1812 all muskets and bayonets were given away to the militia
(called opolchenie) and only the flankers kept their rifles.
The dragoons were often assigned the lions share of fighting in battles, were also used as occupation
force, formed patrols, were in anti-partisan sweeps (Caucasus), guarded the convoys and transports
(Germany 1813), fought dismounted in capturing or holding a village (Brienne 1814 and Mohrungen 1807)
or bridge (Saltanovka, 1812). The dragoons helped to pull the cannons with ropes on the muddy roads of
France (1814), escorted the wounded and important persons, and served as military police (Ingermanland
Dragoon Regiment in 1812 and 1813). The dragoons were also used during sieges, in 1813 two regiments
supported the infantry and artillery in the siege of Modlin, in 1810 Tver Dragoons (dismounted) served in
the siege of Ruschuk. At times the dragoons served as escort of army headquarters (Borodino) or as
gendarmes. In 1814, near Meaux in France, the Kiev Dragoons assisted in putting up a bridge by two
companies of pioneers and one company of pontooners.
The dragoons however had several weaknesses. They were vulnerable when facing lance-armed cavalry,
and Napoleon had a lot of lancers and uhlans. The dragoons were also trained in some infantry duties,
and for this reason their horsemanship and their swordsmanship put them in a slight disadvantage when
facing other cavalry. (This is to say that all cavalry could fight dismounted, but the dragoons could do this
job better.) If the dragoons struck the enemy cavalry in the flank, they were victorious. They were also
quite successful against infantry.
Regiments:
- Chernihov Dragoons (formed in 1668, in Dec 1812 became horse jagers)
- Kiev Dragoons (formed in 1668)
- Sieversk Dragoons (formed in 1668, in Dec 1812 became horse jagers)
- Moscov Dragoons (formed in 1700)
- Nizhnigorod Dragoons (formed in 1701)
- Kazan Dragoons (formed in 1701)
- Pskov Dragoons (formed in 1701, in Dec 1812 became cuirassiers)
- Vladimir Dragoons (formed in 1701, in Dec 1812 became uhlans)
- Taganrog Dragoons (formed in 1701, in Dec 1812 became uhlans)
- Ingermanland Dragoons (formed in 1704)
- Narva Dragoons (formed in 1705)
- St.Petersburg Dragoons (formed in 1707)
- Kargopol Dragoons (formed in 1707)
- Riga Dragoons (formed in 1709)
- Smolensk Dragoons (formed in 1765)
- Siberia Dragoons (formed in 1775 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 became uhlans)
- Starodub Dragoons (formed in 1783 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 became cuirassiers)
- Orenbourg Dragoons (formed in 1784 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 became uhlans)
- Irkutzk Dragoons (formed in 1787 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 became hussars)
- Kinbourn Dragoons (formed in 1798)
- Harkov Dragoons (formed in 1798)
- Tver Dragoons (formed in 1798)
- Kourland / Courland Dragoons (formed in 1803)
- New Russia Dragoons (formed in 1803)
- Borisoglebsk Dragoons (formed in 1803, in 1815, they became Gendarmes)
- Pereyaslav Dragoons (formed in 1803, in Dec 1812 became horse jagers)
- Livland / Livonia Dragoons (formed in 1805, in Dec 1812 became horse jagers)
- Zhitomir Dragoons (formed in 1805, in Dec 1812 became uhlans)
- Finland Dragoons (formed in 1806)
- Mitava / Mitau Dragoons (formed in 1806)
- Arzamass Dragoons (formed in 1806 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 became horse jagers)
- Dorpat Dragoons (formed in 1806 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 became horse jagers)
- Nezhinsk Dragoons (formed in 1806 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 became horse jagers)
- Serpukhov Dragoons (formed in 1806 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 became uhlans)
- Tiraspol Dragoons (formed in 1806 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 became horse jagers)
- Yambourg Dragoons (formed in 1806, in Dec 1812 became uhlans)
The best regiment was probably the St Petersburg Dragoons. This unit was one of the best cavalry
regiment in the army. St Peterburg Dragoon Regiment captured 4 French Colors: two of infantry, one of
dragoons and one of cuirassiers. There was no other dragoon regiment in Europe with so many French
trophies.
The Pskov Dragoons led by Zass, were one of the best trained troops. They were able to charge, overthrow
the enemy, pursue, and then rally. No chaotic, long pursuit ending with the enemy's reserve
countercharing and throwing them back.
In 1812 at Janowo, Lwenstern saw probably the worst dragoon outfit, the Siberian Dragoons. He claimed
that the squadron commanders knew little about their service and manouvering. (Lwenstern - Mit Graf
Pahlens Reiterei gegen Napoleon p 80)
At Davidogrudok he saw the Irkoutzk Dragoons, an unit with many troopers coming from Siberia and the
area close to the border with China. These men rode on small horses suitable for light cavalry or irregulars
rather than for dragoons. Their officers were of low quality by every standard. He rated them however
above the Siberians.
Battle of Katzbach 1813, by O Parkhaiev.
Russian dragoons pursuing French cavalry.
~
Russian Horse Jgers.
The jagers were equivalent
of French chasseurs-a-cheval.
Picture: Livland (Livonia) Horse Jagers in 1812-1814, by Viskovatov.
In December 1812 eight dragoon regiments were converted to horse jgers.
The jagers were equivalent of the French green-clad chasseurs-a-cheval.
(I don't understand why Russia needed horse jagers, there was more than
enough light cavalry.)
The horse jgers were armed as follow:
Officers, NCOs and trumpeters - curved saber, 2 pistols
Troopers - curved saber, 2 pistols, carbine
The horse jgers however carried their old dragoon weapons until 1817
when it was introduced a new model of carbine and it had a bayonet.
Regiments:
- Arzamass Horse Jgers (formed in 1806 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 converted
into horse jagers)
- Livland / Livonia Horse Jgers (formed in 1805 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 converted into horse jagers)
- Pereyeslav Horse Jgers (formed in 1803 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 converted into horse jagers)
- Sieversk Horse Jgers (formed in 1668 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 converted into horse jagers)
- Tiraspol Horse Jgers (formed in 1806 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 converted into horse jagers)
- Chernighov Horse Jgers (formed in 1668 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 converted into horse jagers)
- Nezhinsk Horse Jgers (formed in 1806 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 converted into horse jagers)
- Dorpat Horse Jgers (formed in 1806 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 converted into horse jagers)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
~
Russian Uhlans
Poles, Lithuanians, Russians,
Cossacks and Tartars.
Picture: private and staff officer of Volhin/Volynie Uhlan Regiment 1808-1811,
by Viskovatov.
Until the Campaign of Austerlitz in 1805, there were three so-called horse
regiments: Polish, Lithuania and Tartar, and one uhlan regiment, the Grand
Duke Constantine Uhlans. In 1807 the horse regiments were renamed to uhlan
regiments. The men were recruited from all classes of free Russian and foreign
persons who were not subject to the poll tax and not under other service
obligations. The length of service was prescribed to be not less than 6 years
instead of 25 years !
In 1808 there were six regiments; Polish, Lithuanian, Tartar, Grand Duke
Constantine's, Vohlin, and Chuguyev Uhlans. In December 1812 seven dragoon
regiments were converted into uhlans. These new units were called by some as
the dragoons with sticks as they didnt even receive their new uniforms until the end of 1814.
The uhlans were armed as follow:
Officers, NCOs and trumpeters - curved saber, 2 hussar pistols
Troopers - curved saber, 2 hussar pistols, lance
The flankers, called in ulan regiments karabiniery, were armed with rifles.
In uhlan regiments served higher number of nobles than in the dragoon and horse jger units. The first
uhlan regiments were recruited mainly from Poles and Lithuanians living in western Russia. (Poland had
a high ratio of petty gentry who owned horses in contrast to Russian peasants and townfolks.) The Tatar
Uhlan Regiment however was composed of Tartars. The idea for forming a Tatar unit was also proposed to
Napoleon and Tatar Squadron was incorporated into Napoleon's Imperial Guard. The uhlans of the new
regiments formed in December 1812 were made of Russians and Ukrainians.
Russian generals had mixed feelings about their Polish and Lithuanian cavalrymen. The problem was not
their horsemanship and skills with weapon as these were good, but with their commitment to the Russian
cause. For example in summer 1812 the uhlan regiments had several times more deserters and missing
men than casualties in combat. For this reason General Bagration, didnt want the Lithuanian Uhlan
Regiment being included in his rear guard. I think Bagration exagerrated a little bit.
In many cases however the uhlans served quite well for the Russians. In 1807 Grand Duke Constantine
Uhlans advanced out of Friedland and against the French hussars and Saxon cuirassiers. The Saxons stood
behind the French. The uhlans routed the hussars who fled behind the Saxons. The uhlans attacked then
them too and the Saxons were overthrown as well. The enemy fled for some distance and then attempeted
to gather. But the uhlans broke them again and the enemy took refuge in the wood. The Russians captured
- according to Bulgarin - 60 POWs, there were also killed and wounded on both sides. Jomini also
mentions shortly this combat in Vie Politique et Militaire de Napoleon in Vol. II, p 412.
Regiments:
- Polish Horse (formed in 1797 as Polish Horse) - in 1807 became Polish Uhlans
- Lithuanian-Tartar Horse (formed in 1797), in 1803 this regiment was split into two
- - - Lithuania Horse, in 1807 became Lithuanian Uhlans
- - - Tatar Horse, in 1807 became Tartar Uhlans
- Grand Duke Constantine Uhlans (formed in 1803 as uhlans) in 1809 became Lifeguard Uhlans
- Volhin / Volynie Uhlans (formed in 1807 as uhlans)
- Chuguyev Uhlans (formed in 1798 as Cossacks, in 1808 became uhlans)
- Borisoglebsk Uhlans (in 1812 they were converted from dragoons into uhlans)
- Orenbourg Uhlans (in Dec 1812 they were converted from dragoons into uhlans)
- Serpuhov Uhlans (in Dec 1812 they were converted from dragoons into uhlans)
- Taganrog Uhlans (in Dec 1812 they were converted from dragoons into uhlans)
- Vladimir Uhlans (in Dec 1812 they were converted from dragoons into uhlans)
- Yambourg Uhlans (in Dec 1812 they were converted from dragoons into uhlans)
- Zhitomir / Jitomir Uhlans (in Dec 1812 they were converted from dragoons into uhlans)
~
Russian Hussars
The flamboyant, hard drinking and dashing hussars
enjoyed a great popularity in Russia.
Picture: Battle of Kliastitzy 1812, Russia.
Charge of Russian hussars at Kliastitzy, by
Oleg Parhaiev.
The flamboyant, hard drinking
and dashing hussars enjoyed a
great popularity in Russia.
There were poems, books and
stories written about them. In
1815 Alexander Pushkin, who is
considered to be one of the greatest poets, wrote Novel About the Lifeguard Hussars" and in 1833
another poem titled". In 1832 Lermontov wrote a poem also titled Hussar. The XX century bard, Bulat
Okudzhava wrote a song Piesna o molodom gusare (Song about young hussar). In 1962 was made film
Gusarskaia Ballada (Hussar Ballad) directed by Eldar Ryazanov and in 1984 a TV movie titled Dva
gusara (Two Hussars) directed by V. Krishtofovich.
In no other branch of the army, were so many volunteers and footloose lads. Many came from families
with a long military tradition and were excellent swordsmen and horsemen who were familiar with horses
since they were kids. Hussars gaiety around a bottle of wine, or vodka, and their rolling swagger were
well known. Opening the bottle of wine with a saber cut and drinking from womans shoe were ones of
their many customs. In every hussar regiment existed camaraderie and pride of belonging to a special
group within the army. There was saying: Regiment is your family and Honor of your regiment - is
honor of your family. They drowned their sorrows for fallen comrades with wine or sang about women,
horses and fighting.
'The Devil Got Hold of Me and I Mounted a Nun' was one of their many little songs.
They also caused troubles, at Druia (Druja) group of hussars from Soumy Regiment beat the hell out of the
Jews praying in synagogue. It created such uproar that only the intervention from the Rabbi saved the
lives of troublemakers. In 1814 at Charmont at France the Soumy Hussars saw all quarters taken by
Illovaiski XIIs Cossacks, and they quickly got very cranky. The hussars kicked out all the bearded
warriors out of their rooms and took them for themselves. No officer dared to intervene when in the
raining night the Soumy hussars arrived into Droupt St. Ble (according to Lwenstern) and began kicking
in the doors and breaking into houses.
The Russian hussars were between 165cm and 169cm tall.
They rode on medium and medium-small but agile horse (between 1.42m and 1.51m).
The French hussars rode on larger mounts (149-153 cm in 1812).
The hussars were armed as follow:
officers, NCOs and trumpeters - curved saber and 2 pistols
trooper - curved saber, 2 pistols and carbine
flanker - curved saber, 2 pistols and musketoon
In 1812 lance was introduced and in November 1812 all carbines were taken away, only pistols were left.
The flankers however kept their musketoons. The officers and NCOs wore their bandolier over the left
shoulder, while the troopers wore it on the right.
Regiments:
- Ahtirka Hussars (formed in 1651 or 1659 as Cossacks, in 1765 became hussars)
- Izoum Hussars (formed in 1651 as Cossacks, in 1765 became hussars)
- Soumy Hussars (formed in 1651 as Cossacks, in 1765 became hussars)
- Alexandria Hussars (formed in 1784)
- Elisavetgrad Hussars (formed in 1784)
- Marioupol Hussars (formed in 1784)
- Olviopol Hussars (formed in 1784)
- Pavlograd Hussars (formed in 1784)
- White Russia Hussars (formed in 1803) - in 1816 renamed Prince of Oranges Hussars
- Grodno Hussars (formed in 1806)
- Loubny Hussars (formed in 1807)
- Irkoutzk Hussars (formed in 1787 as dragoons, in Dec 1812 became hussars)
The army cheered the hussars on numerous
occasions. They were outstanding fighters, equal
to the Prussian, British, Polish, German and
French hussars and probably also to the famous
Hungarian hussars (at least between 1806 and
1815). Hussar is a hussar.
In February 1807 at Hoff, the Izoum Hussars
met regiment of French hussars (it was either
the 1st or the 3rd Hussars). Despite loud orders
shouted by French and Russian officers the
troopers were immovable. Then, according to
S.G. Volkonski, one of the squadron
commanders of the Izoum Hussars rode
forward and was met by a French officer. They
fought and the Russian won by throwing his opponent off horse. This act encouraged
the Russians who charged forward while the enemy fled. (The Izoum Hussars were also
numerically stronger than their French counterparts).
During the Austerlitz Campaign in 1805, the Pavlograd Hussars won fame for
delaying Napoleons advance for a whole day. (Haythorntwaite - The Russian army during
Napoleonic Wars - Cavalry, p 44)
In the battle of Eylau in 1807, a large Russian hussar regiment penetrated the
disordered masses of French troops (after Augereau's failed attack), slashing and cutting,
to the proximity of the hill where stood Napoleon and his staff.
At Eylau the famous French Guard Horse Grenadiers crossed their sabers with
Russian hussars and some Cossacks. Being disordered after crushing the Russian
infantry, the grenadiers were surrounded by fresh and much stronger cavalry force. The
Russians called for surrender.
General Lepic responded: "Take a look at these faces and see if they
want to surrender !" Then he shouted to the grenadiers "Follow me !"
and set off at the gallop back through enemy lines. The grenadiers
rallied, and together with the chasseurs came back, and routed the
Russian horse.
James Arnold writes: While one wing of the Guard heavy cavalry
shattered a nearby square of Russian infantry the other two squadrons
engaged a Russian cavalry force featuring elements of three different
hussar regiments. A Russian hussar officer was immensely proud of his troopers
conduct, writing that they even dared to show their points to the feared Grenadiers a
cheval. In a surprising reversal of fortune, the hussars drove back the heavy cavalry of
the Imperial Guard. Lepic led his wing through the disordered first line, made a
partial wheel to the left, and charged the Russian hussars. In this second encounter, the
grenadiers triumphed. Covered by the intervention of the Guard grenadiers, the
chasseurs reformed and charged again. Twice the squadrons of the Guard overran the
Russian mass, knocked out their artillery, then ran over them in the opposite direction.
According to the Russians themselves, Marshal Murats cavalry broke through their
infantry, but then was halted by fresh forces and had to fight their way back. In the tail
of the retreating French cavalry were the Guard Horse Grenadiers. The Russians and
Cossacks surrounded them and called to surrender.
Russian sources; memoirs of General Bennigsen, memoirs of Denis Davydov, memoirs of
Yermolov; and the Journal of Actions of Imperial Russian army 1807, describe this
episode. Two squadrons of French guard cavalry were locked between the lines of
Russian infantry. Mass of Russian cavalry surrounded them but the French refused to
surrender. A short fight developed, some guardsmen were killed, many escaped trough
intervals between the cannons of Russian right flank battery, while few were taken
prisoner. Shikanov mentions only 51 privates and 1 officer of Horse Grenadiers captured
prisoner. (Shikanov V.H. - Pervaia Polskaia Kampania 1806-1807 Moskva Reytar 2002, p
173)
In the end of July 1812, Lieutenant Tzytliatzev of Grodno Hussars took one NCO and
12 privates on a raid. First they captured 40 prisoners near the town of Drissa, and then
they crossed a river and on the other bank captured a transport of wagons escorted by
160 troopers. The resistance was weak and the escort quickly surrendered. The hussars
took 200 prisoners. Tzytliatzevs casualties were low, 1 man and 2 horses were
wounded.
On May 25th 1807 Yakov Kulniev with two squadrons of Grodno
Hussars observed the French across Pasleka River before sending Rudiger
with one squadron. The French had no time to form a square and fled
losing 100 men as prisoners. Near the village of Kommersdorf, Kulnievs
hussars spotted an enemy camp. To their dissapointment it was full of
wounded and sick French soldiers. The poor fellows were shocked seeing
the Russians in the midst of their camp. The Grodno Hussars continued
their raid and captured an artillery convoy with cannons, mortars and 40 wagons full of
gunpowder, cannonballs and grenades. The escort of this convoy gave no problems for
the hussars, except five dragoons who galloped away. Kulniev send after them NCO
Gasenko with three hussars. After a short fight two dragoons were laid on the ground
and three were taken as prisoners.
Meanwhile the French command learned about these events and sent a large body of
troops, which encircled the Russians. The hussars filled one of the captured carriages
with gunpowder, and put wooden logs under the wagons full of grenades. They began
crossing the river when three squadrons of French cavalry arrived. In that moment the
hussars set fire to the logs causing a tremendous explosion. When the smoke fell down
Kulniev with hussars were on one side of the river and the French pursuers on the other.
In 1813 at Katzbach a total of 10 cavalry regiments under Vasilchikov were thrown at
once into action against the French. The fields were awash with colorful uniforms of
hussars, though there were also very sizeable pockets of the Cossacks. The Alexandria
and Marioupol Hussars advanced against the enemy from the front, while General
Lanskoi, the beau sabreur, with the Ahtirka and White Russia Hussars moved against
enemys flank. The Cossacks moved against the rear of the enemy.
The French chasseurs and hussars (Sebastiani's II Cavalry Corps) stood near
the artillery when the Russians strucked them. The 4th Light Cavalry
Division (under Exelmans) suffered the most. General Sbastiani called - in
vain - General Brayers division for support. The Russian hussars
demolished the French in such a way that in recognition for this exploit the
tsar awarded all four hussar regiments with special badges affixed to their
shakos.
At Dresden in 1813, the Grodno Hussars and Loubny Hussars attacked the 5th
Voltigeur Regiment of Young Guard already formed in square. The square was broken
and 310 Frenchmen were killed, wounded and taken prisoner. The Young Guard felt
vulnerable against the aggressive cavalry as many muskets were useless in the rain. The
Russian and Prussian hussars were driven off by artillery fire and the Young Guard
resumed its advance. The Grodno Hussars then again attacked the Young Guard and
broke another square.
In Feb 1813 at Kalish (Kalisz today) the Russian Alexandria Hussars were unable to
break three weak Saxon grenadier companies.
In October 1813, north of Leipzig, the French infantry was retreating
from Eutritzsch when General Blcher expressed a wish to attack them.
General Vasilchikov heard his words and responded If your Excellency
will permit, I will try with my hussars. Permission was given and
Vasilchikov issued orders. The 2nd Hussar Division (Ahtirka, Alexandria,
Marioupol, and White Russia Hussars) led by Lanskoi swept proudly
past, and then charged the French infantry. Large portion of the infantry
was soon in disorder with many fleeing across the Parthe River.
The hussars then noticed several hussar, chasseur and dragoon regiments,
which belonged to the III Cavalry Corps under General Arrighi (see
picture). Two hussar regiments struck the right flank of Arrighis cavalry.
As the Prussian witness, Graf Henkel von Donnersmark wrote, they went
on at a cracking pace. The French chasseurs and hussars fled, some
galloped toward Leipzig itself, while others sought refuge on the other
bank of the Parthe River. There they continued toward the positions occupied by the
infantry and artillery of the VII Corps. The pursuit was long, reaching Leipzig itself. The
hussars captured a half thousand prisoners and 5 guns. Von Donnersmark remarked
that this attack was one of the best that I ever saw Russian cavalry made. The defeat of
Arrighis cavalry shook morally the infantry on the other side of the river. The hussars
suffered very light casualties up to this point but when they were returning from the
long pursuit they got under fire from the French infantry.
Blucher's ADC, von Nostitz writes: "... the attack was executed by four hussar regiments
with great determination, and to Blucher's intense delight - he watched it - the guns
were captured together with 500 prisoners."
Prussian officer Graf Henkel von Donnersmark: "The cavalry of our corps, under the
active and brave General Vasilchikov who distinguished himself at every occassion,
made na excellent attack on General Arrighi's cavalry. ... Then the trumpets sounded,
and the Marioumpol, Alexandria and White Russia Hussars trotted off. I could not resist
the temptation to go with them ... Our cavalry went on at a cracking pace and the
officers, who had burned with envy when they heard how Yorck's cavalry had
distinguished itself the previous day [at Mockern], kept shouting Pashol, pashol ! (Go , go
!) to their men. The enemy regiments did not stand the shock, but turned and fled
towards Leipzig with us on their heels like a thunderstorm. Now and again there were
minor clashes during the chase ... In this attack on Arrighi's cavalry, we came almost up
to the suburbs of Leipzig. We took a lot of prisoners, and I captured a French squadron
commander and took his sabre. Our losses were not inconsiderable, for on the way back
we took fire from a French infantry column."
At Brienne in 1814, General Vasilchikov sent out Russian 2nd Hussar
Division and 3rd Dragoon Division, followed by some Cossacks against
French infantry division under Duhesme. The French received them in
columns instead of squares. Unable to withstand the charge the infantry
began to fall back and colided with the Young Guard. The Russians then
overran two batteries before they could deploy and fire. One of the
batteries was dragged away as a trophy. ... Prussian officer Muffling (he
was with Wellington at Waterloo) participated in this charge. He writes, We rode into
the Young Guard and our right wing got as far as the Reserve... We captured 2 batteries
and the enemy fell into the greatest disorder. Only the gathering darkness saved the
Young Guard and Duhesmes division from a complete disaster.
At Craonne in 1814, the Russian hussar division was so involved in fighting that all
their generals were either wounded, injured or killed.
In 1813 in Saxony several squadrons of Soumy Hussars and one squadron of
Alexandria Hussars led by the bloodthirsty and gruesome Figner marched at night
through enemys line. They have captured many stragglers who otherwise would reveal
their presence. They halted in a village and Figner ordered complete silence. Several
marauders who ventured into the village were killed. Only one managed to escape and
informed the French command.
The Polish uhlans came
and pushed into the
village. The hussars
jumped out of their
hiding places and a
fighting erupted in the
short and narrow streets.
Von Lwenstern wrote that many hussars were unsaddled and littered on the ground.
The others fled with the Poles hot on their heels. The flight was slowed down by a
narrow defilee and the Poles again got their lance into work. According to von
Lwenstern (pp 136-137) when they finally escaped they were happy for the next days
not to see the uhlans again and were able to catch their breath again.
Figners detachment then moved toward Knigswartha (?). They attacked French 10th
Hussars. The French hussars wearing their sky blue dolmans didnt expect the enemy
from this side and fled without resistence. The Russians chased them until the line of
enemys infantry and artillery. Musket volleys and canister halted the pursuers. Near
Lauban the Russians were attacked by Saxon hussars. Lwensterns friend was taken
prisoner. The Russians retreated through a village toward the positions where stood the
rest of Figners detachment. Group of Don Cossacks (Karpovs division) was ordered to
attack the pursuing Saxons but showed little zeal. Furious Figner rode to their officer
and strucked him with horsewhip. (According to Lwenstern, the commander of
detachment, cruel Figner, was killed at Reichenbach by drowning in a river being
surrounded by Polish cavalry.)
On 21st January 1807 near Langheim, the Russian hussars and Cossacks captured the
entire squadron of French 3rd Hussar Regiment, including Capitaine St. Auban Le Brun.
On February 14th 1807, the French 5th, 8th, 9th, 12th, 16th and 21st Dragoons (total of
18 squadrons) led by General Milhaud were at Burkersdorf, a village between Eylau and
Knigsberg. These regiments formed the 3rd Dragoon Division that was retreating after
a reconnaisance in force. (At Waterloo Milhaud led eight cuirassier regiments). An
inferior force of 400 Soumy Hussars and 350 Cossacks followed Milhaud for some time.
According to Lwenstern the first encounter took place in the morning and the French
appeared to be eager to fight. But he exagerrate somehow that after the first hoorah!
the dragoons fled. Actually two hussar squadrons and 200 Cossacks attacked the frontal
six squadrons but were pushed back. Then four hussar squadrons came out of village
and struck with great impetuosity the French flank. Milhaud ordered the nearest
dragoon brigade to face the attackers but it failed to do so on time. Instead the brigade
was broken and fled. Whereupon the two other brigades, seeing the rout, turned about
and hooved away. The dragoons could not be rallied until they had gone 3 miles to the
rear.
Milhaud was infuriated at their
perforance and ashamed at the
swift defeat. He attempted to
commit suicide by attacking the
hussars while being
accompanied by only four
dragoons. Yermolov mentions
that two of the exhausted French
squadrons fled across a frozen
lake. The Soumy Hussars and
the Cossacks caught up with them and took as prisoners. Sir Robert Wilson writes that
the French dragoons lost 400 killed and 288 captured as prisoners. Bennigsen gives the
French casualties at 400 and one standard (guidon?). Lwenstern wrote that the hussars
didnt allow the French to gather, chased them to Ludwigsdorf (Ludwigswalde ?) and
captured 300 prisoners. He explains that Colonel Ushakov send for two squadrons who
were 2 miles away from Burkersdorf but these forces came too late to participate in the
battle. (Lwenstern - Mit Graf Pahlens Reiterei gegen Napoleon Berlin 1910, Ernst Siegfried
Mittler und Sohn, p 18)
Shikanov gives 180 prisoners and squadron standard/guidon of the 8e Dragons.
(Shikanov V.H. - Pervaia Polskaia Kampania 1806-1807 p 178)
Lwenstern also described how the village quickly became a market place where
captured watches, weapons, uniforms, tobacco, pistols and horses were offered for sale.
(To read more about General Milhaud "The highly controversial but talented soldier"
read Terry Senior's article, ext.link.)
On 24th January 1807, one squadron of Russian hussars demolished two squadrons of
French dragoons, and captured two officers.
Nicolas Dahlmann (picture) had set off on patrol with two squadrons and the Guard
Mamelukes in December 1806. Near Lopacin they ran into the Russian rear guard under
Pahlen. Pahlen's force consisted of the Soumy Hussars, 21st Jagers (2 battalions) and a
horse battery (12 pieces).
"... instead of charging blindly ahead, Dahlmann sent scouts to find a way
across the marsh that bordered the Sonna River. ... Dahlmann saw that he
confronted six Russian horse guns divided into three sections. The Russian
guns ineffectually pelted his troopers while they filed across the marshy
ground. ... Some horse gunners defended themselves with saber, handspike, or
rammer while others crouched beneath the equipment to evade the blows.
Dahlmann personally sabered several gunners as his troopers overrun a section
of guns.
Next into the lists came two squadrons of the Sumsk Hussars who assignment
was to support these guns. ... A brief hack-and-slash melee took place and the Sumsk
Hussars withdrew. Dahlmann's troopers pursued along the river until they approached
a village where a concealed party of jagers stopped them with a punishing volley. ... The
four remaining Russian guns retired to a new position near the village while his Sumsk
Hussars fixed Dahlmann by bluffing a charge. The affair had grown serious enough that
Murat forwarded reinforcements. In response, Lasalle led his hussars in a charge against
the Sumsk Hussars. Like most cavalry combats, this encounter was over quickly but not
before the 5th Hussars had lost one captain and three troopers dead on the field and
another four officers and nine troopers wounded." (Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows" pp 123-
124)
According to Eduard Lwenstern, in 1807 at Golymin, the Soumy Hussars were
attacked by the French 4th and 7th Dragoons and overthrown. The wildly fleeing
Russian hussars run toward the Ingermanland Dragoons but these dragoons didnt let
them pass without jeering !
Russian hussar.
"Three German light-horsemen (chevaulegeres) put at me.
I quickly succeeded in closing with one of them.
My sharp saber took him just in the jagular.
The other two fired at me and fled yelling."
- hussar officer, Leipzig 1813
There were several generals who won fame
while leading or commanding the hussars.
Chaplitz, Dorohov, Kulniev, the balding
Prince Vadbolski, and the gallant Lanskoi
were among the best. Dorohov was
wounded in the battle of Maloyaroslavetz
and left the army. He was almost deaf.
Dorohov and Kulniev were the typical Russian hussars, brave and hard drinking.
However Kulniev kept his hussars on a short leash, not allowing any looting or
mistreating the populace. Kulniev was known for his rages. At Kliastitzy in 1812, French
cannonball killed him. Chaplitz distinguished himself at Kobrin, Slonim and Berezina.
At Slonim Chaplitz's force destroyed the 3rd Guard Lancer Regiment (Young Guard)
commanded by Jan Konopka, the Hero of Albuera.
Kulniev and his Grodno Hussars in 1812.
~
Uniforms.
Huge sums of money were spent on trivia part of
uniforms like pompons, plumes, cords and so forth.
Grand Duke Constantine was the Inspector of Cavalry and he paid great attention to the neatness and
accuracy of the uniform. For example fully dressed and shaved model-uhlans were sent to every squadron
of his newly formed regiment and all the troopers had to be patterned after the models in great exactness.
The sky would fall on earth if they didnt look as ordered. When in 1804 the drill of cavalry was disrupted
by an information received by regiments that the war against Napoleon would come soon, the Grand
Duke Constantine Uhlan Regiment had their craftsmen brought from as far as St. Petersburg and tailors
from Austria so they wouldnt be surprised by war while being in poorly made outfits !
Generally, the most expensive uniforms were those of hussars and the cheapest were those of dragoons.
The cost of officer uniforms was certainly higher than that of private. In 1803 the cost of uniform with
ammunition box and the shabraque was 250 roubles for staff officer and 230 roubles for the subaltern
officer.
In winter of 1812 (during the pursuit of Napoleon's Grand Army) the situation with uniforms was bad.
The guard cuirassiers instead of wearing their splendid uniforms wore dirty rags and civilian clothes.
When in mid December Constantine saw their officers, he was so horrified that forbade them to enter his
headquarters ! But Kutuzov was more understanding and had no objections to the way they looked. This
problem was 'solved' when Tsar Alexandr arrived in the army and ordered to arrest every officer who was
not properly dressed. Additionally the tsar ordered from St. Petersburg 54.000 new uniforms and 54.000
new greatcoats for his army. (Bogdanovich M. - Istoriya Voiny 1813 Goda St. Petersburg 1863, Vol I, p 140)
During the Campaign of France in 1814, the Russian troops had more the look of Frenchmen than
Russians. They have stripped the uniforms from killed Frenchmen or exchanged their own worn out
outfits with the French prisoners. Only the Imperial Guard and all the cuirassiers still presented a
magnificient sight.
.
Greatcoat
(Shineli)
In 1802 was ordered that the cavalry greatcoat should be of infantry design with small alterations, for
example instead of having 7 it had to have 6 buttons. The greatcoat was made of gray-brown rough cloth
for troopers and silver-gray for the officers. In 1808 was ordered that the greatcoat would have the collar
and shoulder straps in regimental color. In some regiments the collars bore patches in regimental color.
The cuirassiers wore greatcoat underneath of the armor, which was then visible to the enemy and
communicated that they are not merely the armor-deprived dragoons. It was however possible to wear the
greatcoat over the armor. In such case it was thrown over the left shoulder like did the hussars with their
pelisses (in the right hand was the saber or pistol).
According to Lwenstern the young soldiers had some difficulties to mount on horse when the
voluminous greatcoat was wet and heavy. It made the veterans laugh.
If the weather was warmer the greatcoat was rolled and attached to the saddle in front of the horseman.
In this way it gave some protection to the abdoman against bayonets and lances.
Privates of Kurland and Pereyeslav Dragoons
in 1803-1806 wearing their greatcoats.
Picture by Viskovatov.
Russian cuirassier in 1812 wearing
greatcoat underneath of the armor
.
Coat
(kolet).
The coat was called - from Prussian - the kolet, and was white for
cuirassiers (see picture) and green for dragoons (see picture right). It was
short tailed and double-breasted jacket with 2 rows of buttons. On May
20th 1814 (JC) was ordered that the kolet has to be single breasted, of one
row of buttons.
In winter the troopers wore under the coat a warm undercoat called
fufaika.
On March 17 1802 (JC) one shoulder strap in regimental color was
introduced for the privates and NCOs. It was worn on the left shoulder and helped to hold the leather belt
in place. Two shoulder straps were adopted in 1809. Dragoon's and cuirassier's coats had no lapels (except
Lifeguard Dragoons).
Uhlan's coat however had lapels (see picture below).
In Russian army the epaulettes were worn only by officers, generals and uhlans. It was an old Polish
tradition which probably had the purpose to emphasize their social make up. Troopers epaulettes were
made of white cloth, were worn on both shoulders and fringed until 1807, then they were replaced by
fringeless ones. The officers wore only one silver epaulet. There were however few exceptions, for example
the Polish Uhlan Regiment wore the fringed white epaulettes even in 1814. Grand Duke Constantine
Uhlan Regeiment was distinguished from the other uhlans by wearing the striking red/yellow epaulettes
instead of the white ones.
Russian uhlan 1812-1814
Picture by Viskovatov.
(He's wearing coat with lapels.)
.
Leather Belts
Cuirassiers' pouch belt, the waist belt, the carbine and rifle belt, all were white and made of leather.
The army cuirassiers wore the carbine/rifle belt and the pouch belt over the left shoulder.
The guard cuirassiers wore the belts crossed; one belt over the left and another belt over the right
shoulder.
It was the most visible difference from a distance between the army and the guard cuirassiers. The pouch
for ammunition was made of black leather, and bore a brass plate with the imperial two-headed eagle.
Exception was Military Order Cuirassier Regiment, which bore the St. George star on their pouches.
In 1809 for dragoons was introduced a new musket belt modelled on infantry one.
Uhlans' waist belt and slings were dark red instead of white, but the carbine/rifle belt was white. Hussars'
carbine/musketoon belt was white and was worn over the left shoulder. The pouch belt was made of dark
red leather and was worn over the right shoulder.
.
Trumpeters' Uniform
Left: Trumpeter of Lithuania Uhlans in 1808-1811.
Right: Trumpeter of His Majesty Cuirassiers in 1803-1808.
Both pictures by Viskovatov.
The shevrons on cuirassier trumpeters sleeves were white with facing color
threads - two lines along both edges and a diamond shape in the centre. The
trumpeters of Military Order Cuirassier Regiment had their shevrons in orange
with 3 black lines.
The shevrons on dragoon and horse jager trumpeters sleeves were white.
Uhlan trumpeters had swallows nests and white shevrons on their sleeves.
In 1812 the trumpeters shevrons in the newly formed uhlan regiments were
white (V. V. Zvegintsov) although not all sources agree on it and rather suggest
they were in the color of buttons.
The trumpets were brass. Uhlan's trumpets were brass, while silver trumpets
were given as awards. (For example for the Tartar and Volin Uhlans.)
Cuirassier regiments used kettledrums until December 1811.
After that year they were discontinued and only the guard cuirassiers kept them shortly.
Left: Trumpeter of dragoons in 1812 (Napoleon's Invasion of Russia).
Right: Trumpeter of Grand Duke Constantine's Uhlans (at Austerlitz in 1805).
Trumpeters of uhlan, horse jager and hussar regiments had tall red plumes.
Trumpeters of cuirassier and dragoon regiments had red horse hair crest on their
helmets.
.
Horse Harness
The harness and saddle of dragoons, uhlans and horse jagers
were of black leather and in Hungarian design. The dragoons
also had black leather straps to hold the muskets.
.
Shabraque.
(Cheprak and Valtrap)
In cuirassier regiments the shabraque (color cloth put over saddle) was called
cheprak and was worn under the saddle. Cuirassiers' shabraques were in
regimental colors. For example His Majesty Cuirassier Regiment had light blue
shabraques with white guard lace and with a sky blue stripe. The Lifeguard
Horse Regiment had a dark blue shabraque edged with two gold laces; the Guard
Cavalry Regiment (Chevaliers Garde, Kavallergarde) had a red shabraque edged
with two golden laces. Until 1809 the corners of the shabraque of army cuirassiers
were round (according to Zvegintsov, Kosmolinski in Sovietskiie muzei - Ot
Austerlitza do Tilzitza and others) and then replaced by squared ones for the
NCOs and privates.
Other sources dont confirm it and the squared corners are given for the entire period of Napoleonic Wars.
In its rear corners and on the holster caps was a crowned imperial cypher A over I in yellow or white.
These cyphers stood for Alexandr and Imperator (Emperor). The exception were His Majesty Cuirassier
Regiment and Her Majesty Cuirassier Regiment, which bore St. George star. The shabraques of Guard
Cavalry Regiment and Lifeguard Horse Regiment bore St. Andrew 8-corner star with 2-head eagle in the
center of it.
The shabraque in dragoon, hussar and uhlan regiments
were worn over the saddle and were called valtrap. The
shabraque was edged with white or yellow lace. In 1808 the
old valtrap was replaced by a dark green for all dragoon
regiments with edging and cyphers in the rear corners in
regimental color. The length and width, in the back, of the
valtrap was 111 cm. The shabraque of Lifeguard Dragoon
Regiment was edged with 2 yellow laces.
Hussar's, uhlan's, and horse jager's valtrap was worn over
the saddle and had pointed rears and rounded front corners. It bore a crowned Imperial cypher A over
I in the rear corners.
Uhlans' valtrap was dark blue with edging in regimental color. Horse jgers' valtrap was dark green, with
edging in regimental color. The Lifeguard Horse Jger Regiment however had red valtrap edged with
white lace and with white cyphers in the rear corners.
Uniforms of Russian Cuirassiers
Uniform of cuirassier in 1805-
1807 (Austerlitz, Eylau, Hoff,
Heilsberg, Friedland) :
- helmet with catepilar crest*
- no cuirass**
- white coat
- open collar
It was cut back to expose a black stock
worn around the throat.
Uniform of cuirassier in 1812-
1815 (Borodino, Leipzig,
Dresden, Kulm, La Rothiere,
Fere Champenoise, Paris) :
- helmet with thin crest*
- black cuirass**
- white coat
- the collar was closed
Tall black boots and white
breeches for parade. They were
rarely worn in combat. Short
boots called korotkiye sapogi
and the grey or brown-grey
reituzy (see picture ->) were for
campaign and used also in
combat.
The tall and the short boots had spurs. In 1802 was ordered that the reituzy would be
made of gray cloth and strengthened with leather. The gray varied in shades from light
gray to brown-gray. They had to have 18 buttons covered with gray cloth on the outer
seams. In 1813-1815 the reituzy had black leather reinforcement extending around the
rear of the leg, although in some cases they are depicted without it.
In 1814 were introduced the double stripes in regimental color on outer seams and the
buttons - finally - disappeared.
* - In 1803 was issued order to the cuirassiers (and dragoons) to wear helmets. The helmets did deflect the cuts
although there were also helmets dented or cut through. It was made of black, lacquered and pressed leather and
had two leather visors, the one in front had a brass edging. The body of the helmet was 22-26 cm high, and
above it was affixed a leather comb reaching up in front for 10 cm. The caterpillar crest was black for the
privates, black with white tip for NCOs, red for trumpeters and white with a black tip separated by an orange
line for the officers. On the brass front plate of the helmet was a brass stamped device, a two-headed crowned
eagle in cuirassier and dragoon regiments. The exception was the Military Order Cuirassier Regiment that
instead of the eagle bore St. George star. The front plate in the guard regiments was made of copper.
In 1808 the caterpillar crest was replaced by a thinner black horsehair crest making the helmet more balanced
and elegant. The officers kept their old caterpillar crest until 1811-1812, but only for parade and review. The
leather chinstraps were - at least theoretically - replaced in 1808 by brass ones, modeled after the French, which
gave more striking and martial sight. Those of the dragoons who served as the escort of army headquarters had
attached green branches to their helmets as did the Austrians.
** - In 1802 the cuirasses (front and back plates) were stored in arsenals. According to Hatov one of the most
important things about cavalry was its speed of movement and shock action. For this reason they should not be
burdened with anything including the body armor that would slowed them down. Having no armor the
cavalrymen were to attack the infantry only when it was broken or at least wavering and the signs of disorder
were visible. In such moments infantrys fire was not well aimed and not intensive. (Hatov A. I. - Obshchii opyt
taktiki 1807, Part I, page 189) In January 1812 however a decree was issued regarding the manufacture of the
cuirass. It was bullet proof for above 50 paces. To make it entirely bulletproof was useless as it required a
thicker plate and would make it much heavier. Too heavy armor hindered the movement of the horseman and
put him in a disadvantage in a hand-to-hand combat.
1812-1815
Uniforms of cuirassier regiments (1st-12th).
Uniforms of Russian Dragoons
Uniform of dragoon in 1805-1807
(Austerlitz, Eylau, Hoff, Heilsberg,
Friedland) :
- helmet with catepilar crest*
- green coat **
- open collar
It was cut back to expose a black stock worn around the
throat.
Uniform of dragoon in 1812-1815
(Borodino, Leipzig, Dresden, Kulm,
La Rothiere, Fere Champenoise, Paris) :
- helmet with thin crest*
- green coat
- the collar was closed
There were two types of dragoon boots; the
taller ones, reaching above half-calf, (in Dec
16 1806 [JC] they were heightened up to
below the knee !) and the short boots called
korotkiye sapogi.
The short boots were usually worn together
with the gray reituzy for campaign and
fighting, while the taller boots (+ white
breeches) were mainly for parade and a ceremony and rarely worn for combat. The tall
and the short boots had spurs.
In 1802 was ordered that the reituzy would be made of gray cloth and strengthened with
leather. The gray varied in shades from light gray to brown-gray. They had to have 18
buttons covered with gray cloth on the outer seams. In 1813-1815 the reituzy had black
leather reinforcement extending around the rear of the leg, although in some cases they
are depicted without it.
In 1814 were introduced the double stripes in regimental color on outer seams and the
buttons - finally - disappeared.
* - see cuirassier's helmet above.
** - Originally the dragoons' coat was light green. On November 7 1807 (JC) was ordered that the coats has to
be dark green, with red turnbacks. In fact they were almost blackish, especially in the beginning of the campaign
before the sun and rain faded the dye.

1812
Uniforms of dragoon regiments (1st-30th).
Uniforms of Russian Hussars
The hussars wore shakos.
Hussar regiment of 8-10 squadrons was usually divided into two battalions. The cords
and pompon were white for the squadrons of I Battalion, and red for the squadrons of II
Battalion. The shako had a lace upper band and cockade on the front. The lace
disappeared later on with the new types of shakos. The cord was wrapped few times
around the upper edge of the headgear, with tassels hanging at the right side. In 1809 a
new shako was introduced, it was modelled after the French headwear.
In 1812 was adopted a lower shako (called in western literature as kiver) although the
older shakos were used as late as in 1813 and even in 1814. The kiver was in the form of
a cone and had on each side a V shaped leather belt as a strenghtening. Another belt
was around the bottom of the shako to regulate it according to the size of head.
During campaign the white cords were often removed and the shako was
protected with cover made from thick black or grey cloth (see picture ->)
Until 1810 the tall plume was bushy, then was replaced by a thin one. The plume was
white for the troopers, red for the trumpeter, and red with its top in black and orange
for trumpeter-major.
In 1814 in recognition for their exploits Tsar Alexander awarded some regiments with
special badges affixed to their kiver shakos.
The hussar wore two coats, dolman
and pelisse (mentik). Both coats often
had red-brown leather patches sewn
on the elbows as reinforcements. The
pelisse had 3 rows of buttons,
numerous braids and lambskin
edging.
From April through September, it was
worn thrown back over the left
shoulder (in the right hand was the
saber). Between September and March
it was worn with the arms in the
sleeves as protection from cold.
According to regulations the black
sheeps-fleece trim was prescribed
only for NCOs, while for officers was
gray and for the privates was white.
However the privates in White Russia
Hussar Regiment and the
Elisavetgrad Hussar Regiment wore
black fur as early as in 1807. In Oct
1808, the chef of Grodno Hussar
Regiment asked the commander of the Russian army in Finland, for the white trim on
pelisses be replaced with black for all ranks, following the example of other regiments.
(In 1812 lances were issued to the troopers of the first rank in the hussar regiments. It
was also ordered that the hussars who carry lances should either wear no pelisse or wear
it with arms in sleeves and never be thrown over the shoulder so they do not interfere
with handling of the lances.)
Hussars' breeches were white until 1807.
On March 12, 1807 (JC) the Loubny Hussar Regiment replaced their white breeches with
dark ones, on November 21 (JC) the Grodno did the same, and on February 4, 1809 (JC)
all the other regiments followed them.
The trousers were worn over or instead of the breeches and
were made of gray cloth. They had buttons on the outer
seams covered with gray cloth. The trousers were with or
without the black leather reinforcement on the inner seams
and bottom.
The trousers were replaced by wider overalls that often had
the red-brown leather patches in the shape of a heart sewn
on the knees. Since 1814 the overalls had facing colored
stripes and the buttons disappeared. There were however
irregularities with the overalls, for example in 1814 the
Izoum Hussars wore dark blue overalls with red stripes,
possibly acquired from a French source.
The waist belt and slings were made of dark red leather.
1812:


Ahtyrka hussar (top left), Soumy hussar (top right)
and Marioupol hussar (bottom).
Pictures by Andre Jouineau, France.
Uniforms of hussar regiments (1st-12th).
~
The emphatic defeats in 1805 initiated
organizational and tactical changes.
The emphatic defeats in 1805 initiated organizational and tactical changes. In 1807 A. I. Hatov wrote
Obshchii opyt taktiki, a work devoted to the cavalry, its use in combat and its tactics. According to Hatov
the cavalrys crucial role was to cover the retreating army, pursue the defeated enemy, scout for the army
and could also decide the outcome of the battle. Cavalry actions were considered in a tight relation to
infantry, and not as independent.
Hatov thought any firing from horse while standing as peculiar. The only accepted exception was when
the flankers (horse skirmishers) used their firearms. Although their fire was known as being rather
harmless they played important role of protecting the troops during march and on the battlefield from
being harassed or disordered by enemys skirmishers. According to Hatov the firearms were given to the
cavalry mainly to use on occassions when was lack of infantry or was a need to occupy an important
position. (Hatov A. I. - Obshchii opyt taktiki 1807, Part I, p 186)
The new preliminary regulations for cavalry service were issued under the name of Predvaritelnoie
postanovleniye o stroievoi kavaleriiskoi sluzhbe and consisted of two chapters:
- in Osnovaniye ucheniya was explained the organization of squadron and regiment,
and the order and character of cavalry in general. It was also explained the deployment
of regiment on 6 squadrons in line with intervals. (Predvaritelnoe postanovleniye o
stroevoi kavaleriiskoi sluzhbe. - 1812, pp 3-26)
- in O eskadronnom uchenii (or Eskadronnoie Uchenie) were explained the types of manuevers
and movements for the squadron. It was recommended that the attack should be conducted
in the following manner: the first 50 paces should be covered in walk (shagom), next 100 paces
in a trot (rysiu), further 80 paces in gallop and after that, the final command alliur! was given.
In general the new regulations differed only lightly from the previous ones in 1796 and in
1807-08 and were somehow less innovative than those for the infantry.
The Russian cavalryman of XIX century was a universal soldier.
He was trained to use his edged weapon and his firearm, and to fight on horse and dismounted.
In one of the small engagements of March 1807, the Elisavetgrad Hussars dismounted to give support
for the 21st Jagers.
In August 1810 a dismounted cavalry regiment participated in the Storming of Rushchuk defended by
the Turks.
On July 11th (23rd) 1812 was fought a small battle at Saltanovka. The terrain was very wooded so
General Vasilchikov dismounted part of his cavalry in an effort to capture a bridge.
At Shevardino in 1812, the New Russia Dragoons and the Kiev Dragoons were fighting dismounted (v
pieshem stroiu) supporting the foot skirmishers.
On August 16th 1812, the Orenbourg Dragoons were in the rear guard of the retreating army. When
enemys flankers attacked them, these dragoons dismounted and made use of their carbines. With the
support of 2 horse guns they held off all attacks until evening and then withdrew in good order passing
through the burning city of Viazma. (Bezotosnyi V. M., Vasiliev A. A., Gorshman A. M., Parhayev O. K.,
Smirnov A. A. - Russkaia armiia 1812-1814 Vlados, Moskva 2000, p 107)
At Kulm in 1813 part of the Guard Cavalry Regiment (Chevaliers Garde, Kavallergarde) dismounted,
grabbed their firearms and fought for few hours supporting the foot skirmishers.
At Brienne in 1814, two dragoon regiments from Panchulitzevs 3rd Dragoon Division dismounted and
together with infantry attacked Brienne. The Russians captured half of the town.
"Later that morning (20 January 1814) Sherbatov's Cossacks, as noted, left Chalaines, relieved by the
Cossack regiment that formed the advance guard of Panchulitzev's dragoon division. Panchulitzev's
troopers (of 3rd Dragoon Division) dismounted and maintained a lively skirmish with the French
dragoons, likewise dismounted and positioned on the left bank behind abatis and barricades." (Leggiere -
"The Fall of Napoleon" p 467)
In 1807, a single squadron from the Ingermanland Dragoons was dismounted and attacked the town of
Mohrungen. Shikanov describes the attack as executed by the Courland Dragoons. Firstly, 18 volunteers
and 2 officers dismounted and crawled toward the French. They quietly removed the pickets and then
entire squadron of dismounted dragoons attacked. Behind the dismounted squadron was another
squadron, this one was on horses. They captured 350 prisoners and freed 100 Russian and Prussian POWs.
They also captured numerous carts and wagons belonging to MdE Bernadotte and 12.000 dukats. In this
action also participated Soumy Hussars although they were not the main assault force on the town.
In the cavalry manuals printed in 1797, 1805, and 1812 it is stated that cavalry was to be formed in 2 ranks
and not in three (as it is given by one popular western author.)
The distance between the horses tails in the first row and heads of horses in the second row had to be
about 1 pace (shag). The bigger men and horses were in the first row and the shorter ones in the second.
The demi-conversions were executed by 3s and not by 2s as it was in the French and Polish cavalry.
.
Training and drill.
The training and drill were the major activities of the cavalry regiments during peacetime.
For 25-35 weeks each year the regiments were scattered in the countryside, having their companies and
squadrons separated by considerable distances. An average cavalry regiment in 1805 was quartered in
three or four villages and never in one place.
Such dispersal of troops lowered the quality of training and maneuvering in bigger formations. Only for
few weeks the officers had their troops together. But still, big part of the time was spend on parades and
reviews rather than on exercising the cooperation between regiments and on acting by entire brigades. The
consequences of the pernicious practice of scattering their cavalry in small pockets were evident at
Austerlitz.
The parades became a regular feature of army life and in 1820s (few years after Napoleonic Wars ended)
almost everything was focused on them. Those who insisted on training for real combat were considered
as being Cossacks.
The training of the troopers also suffered when the colonel would take away dozens of soldiers from the
regiment into his service to his estate.
Cavalry training started with the basics.
First was drill and training on foot before they learned how to use their carbines. Mounting, dismounting
and controlling the horse in various gaits (speeds of riding) were crucial skills a horseman had to learn.
Even the basics could cause troubles for the beginners: as for example putting swiftly the saddle on horses
back when the animal kept stepping sideways and moving round and round in a circle.
The more advanced training was to teach the horsemen to fall into platoons, squadrons and battalions. It
was important that the troops in a line did everything together and all the maneuvers were done almost by
instinct.
On weekends were studied army regulations concerning the duties of the soldiers. The horseman had to
learn how to use weapons on horseback and this included drawing and firing pistols and also drawing
and using the saber.
In early spring 1804, when the ground was not yet dry enough after thawing snows, all
squadrons of Grand Duke Constantine Uhlans gathered around the town of Mahnovka for 6
weeks of horse training (dlia konnyh uchenii). When in May the training was over, they
returned to their allocated quarters. Each half-squadron quartered in different settlement.
Three sentries guarded each such settlemet. One sentry consisted of 1 NCO and 7 privates and
was stationed in the middle of that settlement, by the main street. The other two sentries
consisted of 1 NCO and 3 privates each and were stationed at the both ends of the main street.
Smoking was strictly forbidden for the sentries. When the men were resting after maneuvers their horses
were kept either in private stables or on the pastures.
In July all squadrons were again gathered at Mahnovka for 2 more weeks. They executed all maneuvers by
squadrons and finally by entire battalions. GL Baur arrived for inspection and the review was staged so
the squadrons could present their skills.
Due to lack of broken horses the squadrons were understrength, their platoons were formed only on 9
instead of on 15 files (There were 400 new horses, which had to be trained). The inspector however was
pleased with what he saw and thanked the squadron commanders and officers in platoons for their good
job. The privates were awarded with 1 charka of vodka and 1 pound of beef per head.
In September arrived Grand Duke Constantine, the Inspector of Cavalry, and all the squadrons went back
to Mahnovka. Constantine stayed for seven weeks, inspecting all troops on that area. He watched the
uhlans maneuvering by squadrons and battalions and agreed with the opinion previously given by GL
Baur that the regiment was well trained and in full readiness for whatever may happen.
The quality of training varied, there were regiments poorly trained and disciplined and those who were
outstanding. For example at Borodino Colonel Zass (he was admired by some Prussian officers, incl. von
Schubert) took his Pskov Dragoons and attacked the enemys infantry and cavalry. The dragoons broke
and pursued the enemy becoming disordered. But then the trumpeters sounded and the dragoons rallied
by their commander. It all was being done under fire. The order was restored and the regiment conducted
another successful charge. Such exploits depended on the quality of training and careful preparations,
which in turn depended on the quality of officers and the commander himself. (The Pskov Dragoons
became cuirassiers and were issued ... French armor.)
.
Tactical formations: lines.
If the regiment was deployed in line the intervals between squadrons were on the length of platoon and
between regiments on the length of entire half-squadron.
In the line formation the chef of the regiment had to be 50 paces in front of the center of the regiment. To
the left of him, in half of the horse length behind was his adjutant. Polkovnik (colonel) was 10 paces behind
the chef, but in case the chef was absent then he would have to take his place. The first major took place in
front of the I and II squadron, podpolkovnik (colonel-lieutenant) in front of the III and IV squadron and
the second major in front of V and VI squadron. The podpolkovnik and the first and second major had to
be placed 15 paces in front of the first row of troopers. The squadron commanders had to be about 8 paces
in front of their squadrons.
.
Columns were used for march and
on the battlefield (maneuver, charge).
There were several types of columns used by the cavalry for march and attack.
The most common columns used for marching were the narrow columns by 3s or 6s - depending on the
width of the road. On a very narrow road or when they had to pass a defile the regiment marched by a
single file.
A column by platoon could be used for marching and as well on the battlefield. Each platoon had its
commander one pace in front of the center of the first rank. The distance between each platoon in
regimental column had the width of so many paces as many files were in that troop. The distance between
squadrons was doubled.
There were columns on wider front too: a column by half-squadron and column by squadron and these
were quite popular and frequently used in combat. The battlefield at Borodino was full of regiments
maneuvering and attacking in columns by squadrons.
At Shevardino (1812) the 2nd Cuirassier Division commanded by GL Ilia M. Duka, was deployed in
regimental columns (v polkovyh kolonnah) by squadrons with intervals. Such formations were easier to
control, and due to much shorter frontage were not so vulnerable to being broken up by obstacles
(abandoned equipment, or trees and guns) as were the entire regiments formed in lines. Such columns
made it difficult for enemy at a distance to estimate the strength of the unit and if needed facilitated a
speedy deployment into line.
~
Horses and their height, color and cost.
A horse produced only for its beauty
was a rare thing in Russia.
The history of cavalry horse in Russia is an interesting story. It was under Tsar Peter the Great that several
new state-owned studs were organized to produce mounts for the army. Most of these horses had
European and not Tatar origins. Graf Orlov began his breeding experiments in the 1760s at Ostrov near
Moscow. His mounts were the first saddle breed developed in Russia. During the Russo-Turkish wars,
Orlov brought to Russia a large number of Arabians. He tried ten crossing types, Anglo-Asian was
unsatisfactory but Arabian-Asian yielded Sultan II, a producer of good military mounts. In addition to
Arabians, Orlov used the English Thoroughbred, the Karabakh horses, the Turkish, and even the Danish
mounts.
The first private stud farms devoted to the breeding of Don horses appeared at the end of the XVIII
century and became well established and popular. Traditionally the Don horse has roamed in herds,
enduring harsh winters with little food. Its name comes from the Don River in Central Russia, then the
heartland of Cossack country.
During Napoleonic Wars many regiments of Russian cavalry rode on the Don horses. Originally the Don
horse was a small mount, but during the 1800's large numbers of the Persian Arabs and Karabakh horses
were bred to the Don. The Arabian horses were introduced to the Don Cossacks herds as war booty. The
influx of foreign breeds resulted in larger horse, which combined the stamina of the older breed and the
more refined conformation of the foreign stocks. The Don horse had a chiseled head, a little bit elevated
forehead, proportioned ears, a muscular chest and strong, fine legs. Their neck was rather lean, their chest
was muscular, their mane and tail were thin and their feet were usually sound and hardy.
The features of Don horse were speed, agility, physical and mental strength, incredible stamina and a
legendary economy of needs. It was excellent mount for cavalry and its only minus was not a particular
comfort of riding. Graf Henkel von Donnersmark of Prussian cavalry writes, "The captured [French] horse
was big but in poor condition, so I exchanged it with a Russian officer for a strong Cossack horse; now I
owned 3 such Don mounts. They are excellent for use on campaigns where there are lots of hardships, but
they do have some beauty defects."
The Bashkir horse was another surprisingly enduring both under the saddle and when used as a draft
horse. Its qualities were appreciated in 1812-1814. Big herds of Bashkirs grazed on the pastures and could
survive winter temperatures up to - 40 C ! The Bashkir had a long and massive body, wide and straightish
back and breast cage was wide and deep. The limbs were relatively short and head was large, the horse
was not a beauty contender. Russia has been a land of hard practical uses of horses in difficult terrain and
harsh climate, with the poorest of foods and having to cover vast distances.
During the Napoleonic Wars the Russian horse although enjoyed an unsurpassed endurance it lacked the
weight and bone for a shock effect in battle. This situation was often remedied by purchases of mounts in
Germany, Poland and Prussia. For example during the campaigning in 1813 and 1814, Tsar Alexandr
purchased large number of big and strong horses from Germany and Prussia for his cuirassiers and from
Prussia and Poland for his light cavalry.
Another source of cavalry horses were southern parts of the Russian Empire, today the western and
southern part of Ukraine. In 1813 was ordered that the population of Podolia (Podolsk) and Volhynia
(Volhynsk) provinces instead of delivering one recruit from prescribed number of souls will send
horses. The options were either 3 big horses for the cuirassiers or 4 medium size mounts for dragoons or 5
for the uhlans. In this way the cavalry obtained 13 000 valuable mounts. (Otechestvennaia Voina I Russkoie
Obschestvo 1812-1912 (Yubileinoye izdaniye) Vols 7, Moskva 1911 in Vol III , part Armiya v 1805-1814 gg)
The service life of the horse in light cavalry was determined on 8 years.
The imperial A brand was on every cavalry horses haunch.
NCO of Vladimir Dragoons in 1811
mounted on a tough Don horse.
Colors of horses.
There was no uniformity of color of the horses in squadrons and regiments, except the Imperial Guard.
Outside of the Guard much depended on the commander of regiment and on the availability of mounts.
There could be individual squadrons or even regiments enjoying uniformity of color among their horses
but it was not common. The trumpeters were not obliged to ride on greys. It was in contrast to the French
cavalry which had its squadrons distinguished by different colors while the trumpeters rode greys and
whites.
Height and cost of horses.
On April 30, 1802 (JC) the height requirements and cost of horses were specified.
The height of cuirassier's horse was set between 2 arshin 4 vershok and 2 arshin 2 vershok and cost 100
roubles.
Horses for dragoons were between 2 arshin and 2 vershok and 2 arshin and 1 vershok and cost 50 roubles.
Horses for uhlans and hussars were between 2 arshin 2 vershok and 2 arshin and cost 40 roubles.
The price could be increased by 15 roubles if the mount was of higher quality. The biggest horses were in
the Guard Cavalry Regiment (Chevaliers Garde) and Lifeguard Horse Regiment. The two superb
regiments formed the 1st Cuirassier Brigade of the 1st Cuirassier Division. At Fre Champenoise in 1814,
officer A. Y. Mirkovich from the Lifeguard Horse Regiment lost his mount in combat. When he was given
another by one of the troopers, Grand Duke Constantine smiled and said: Well, Mirkovich I see you are
already riding on the elephant !
Height of horses.
The height given in cm is not always consistent
with the height given in hands as they are usually
given by two or three different sources.
army cuirassiers dragoons
uhlans
lancers
jagers
chasseurs
hussars
Russia
151-160 cm
14.35-14.85 hh
142-151 cm
14.1-14.35 hh
142-151 cm
14.1-14.35 hh
?
142-151 cm
13.85-14.35 hh
Austria ? ? ? 14.3-14.4 hh 14.2-14.3 hh
Britain - 15.25 hh * - - 15 hh *
France 1812
155-160 cm
15.3-15.7 hh
153-155 cm
15-15.3 hh
143-146 cm
14.3-14.7 hh
149-153 cm
14.6-15 hh
149-153 cm
14.6-15 hh
* - the 2nd Dragoon Regiment (the famous Scots Grey) had 48% of cavalrymen mounted on 15 hands tall mounts, 36% on 15.5 hh
horses, 2 % on 16 hh and the rest on 14.5 hh horses. It gives an average of 15.22 hands tall horse. Similar count based on 299 horses in
the British 10th Hussar Regiment in 1813 gives an average of approx. 15 hands tall horse.
~
Weapons and body armor.
From the musketoon could be fired
a shot for scatter-gun effect.
Russian cavalry was armed with various firearms (pistols, carbines, musketoons, muskets and rifles),
lances and edged weapons (pallash, straight and curved saber). Most of the firearms were produced by
Russian factories while some were purchased in Germany and Great Britain. There was also certain
amount of Austrian and French (captured) weapons.
Straight and curved sabers, lances
and the broadsword (pallash).
The basic weapon of cavalry was the saber. (The officers weapons were of better quality, most often their
hilt was gilded.) Unlike the use of the pistol or carbine the saber required the physical contact with the
opponent. The curved saber was used in its best when swung in an arc to achieve a cutting effect by a
motion towards the center of the enemy with the horsemans arm extended. It also allowed to cut with a
slicing action, where the blade's edge was drawn across the opponent with a quite good result. Straight
saber may also cut, but this is directly dependent for its effect on the weight of the blade and the position
of its center of balance. The cut was a more instinctive blow than a thrust, and in cavalry mles the
average cavalryman will tend to cut even if his sword is more suited to the thrust.
Light cavalry saber - Pattern 1798:
- Total length: approx. 100 cm
- Blade's length: 87 cm
- Width of blade 4,1 cm
- Blade's curvature averaged 6,5/37 cm
The guard was made of cross-guard with the knuckle bow and a double langet.
Its hilt comprised of a wooden grip, which was covered in leather and protected by a guard.
The weight of the saber with the wooden scabbard was 1,8 kg and 2,1 kg in the steel scabbard.
The light cavalry saber - Pattern 1798 was used by the hussars and uhlans,
and by the dragoons of the Caucasian Inspection till 1809. Duke Constantine
Uhlans (Lifeguard Uhlans) carried this wepon until 1812.
The light cavalry saber - Pattern 1809 replaced the old saber (mentioned above)
in the Lifeguard Uhlans, Lifeguard Hussars, and in the dragoon regiments of the
Caucasian Inspection. By 1812 this weapon replaced the old sabers also in all the
hussar and uhlan regiments.
Light cavalry saber - Pattern 1809:
- Total length: approx. 103 cm
- Blade's width: 3 cm (3,6 cm)
- Blade's curvature averaged 7/36.5 cm
The blade featured one wide fuller.
The iron hilt with 3 hops consisted of a wooden, covered in leather grip,
and a guard that was made of three bars and a cross-guard piece.
The steel scabbard was common although could be find also ones made of
wood and having iron settings. The weight of the saber with the steel scabbard was 1,9 kg.
The cuirassiers carried the heavy cavalry saber - Pattern 1798 until 1809-1810.
It was a vicious old weapon with a straight blade. The blade was not for fencing finesse
but it was a rather cutting machine.
- Blade's width: 4 cm
- Weight 2.1 kg
After war in 1805 the Russians introduced cavalry saber - Pattern 1806 for their dragoons.
It had a straight 89-cm long blade, was 3.8-cm wide, and weighted 1.65 kg. This weapon was copied after
the sabers of French dragoons and had a point enabling the man to thrust more effectively than with the
curved saber or with the old heavy cavalry sabers. However the length of the blade was insufficient to
make the dragoons equal to their French counterparts in a line vs line combat. It also didnt have the
curvature needed to match the French hussars sabers in individual combat.
Before 1806 the dragoons carried their saber from a frog instead of slings as did the cuirassiers. But when
they received the new sabers of 1806 Pattern the scabbard had rings for suspension on slings.
The new heavy cavalry saber - Pattern 1809 (1810) was one of the most obvious images of the Russian
cuirassiers, perhaps second to the black armor. The troopers in the front rank charged with wrist turned
inward, their hands at eye level and the point lower than hand. The troopers in the second rank attacked
saber high. It was THE weapon for the heavies as it had a straight 97-cm long blade allowing the greatest
reach when used its point. This weapon was modeled on French cuirassiers saber. The scabbard was made
of iron.
In 1811, some dragoons received from arsenals in Moscow and Kiev the so-called Imperial pallash.
It was Austrian broadsword weapon. (Bezotosnyi, Vasiliev, Gorshman, Parhayev, Smirnov -
Russkaia armiia 1812-1814 Vlados, Moskva 2000, p 15)
Russian cavalry sabers, by Oleg Parkhaiev.
1 - dragoon saber 1806
2 - cuirassier saber 1810
3 - cuirassier saber 1798
4 - light cavalry saber 1798
5 - light cavalry saber 1809
In 1801 was ordered that the privates in horse regiments (Polish and Tartar-Lithuanian) would cary lances
with woodwork painted in red. In May 1806 the privates of Grand Duke Constantine Uhlan Regiment
replaced their carbines with lances that had their woodwork painted in black. The adopted in 1806-1807 by
all horse/uhlan regiments lance shaft was black. According to Polish tradition, only the troopers in the
first rank were armed with lances and the Russians followed this pattern. The total length of the lance
averaged between 280 and 290 cm.
The pennant was called horonzhevka from Polish choragiewka.
In 1812 selected troopers of uhlan regiments were sent as instructors to drill hussars with the use of the
lance. Between April and May most of the hussar regiments were armed with lances. Three hussar
regiments campaigning on Crimean Peninsula and along the Danube River were issued lances a little bit
later.
Officially the lances of hussars were without pennants. Unofficially the Pavlograd and the Izoum hussars
attached pennants (turquoise-white and red-dark blue, respectively) to their lances and probably at least
the Ahtyrka did the same. According to Kutuzovs headquarters journal of military operations (8 Oct.
1812): Mjr. Hrapovitski, in order to confuse the enemy, has ordered his hussars to put pennants on their
lances (M. I. Kutuzov. - Sbornik dokumentov Vol. 4, Part 2. Moscow, 1955, p 130)
During the campaigns of 1813-1815 it was left up to hussars if they want to abandon or keep their lances.
This is interesting that the Lifeguard Hussar Regiment never carried lances.
.
The cuirass.
In 1802 (three years before Austerlitz) the cuirasses, front and back plates, were stored in arsenals.
According to Hatov one of the most important things about cavalry was its speed of movement and shock
action. For this reason they should not be burdened with anything including the body armor that would
slowed them down. Having no armor the cavalrymen were to attack the infantry only when it was broken
or at least wavering and the signs of disorder were visible. In such moments infantrys fire was not well
aimed and not intensive. (Hatov A. I. - Obshchii opyt taktiki 1807, Part I, page 189)
Thus the Russian cuirassiers wore no armor at Austerlitz, Hoff, Heilsberg and Friedland.
In January 1812 (few months before Napoleon's Invasion of Russia) however a decree was issued
regarding the manufacture of the cuirass. It was bullet proof for above 50 paces. To make it entirely
bulletproof was useless as it required a thicker plate and would make it much heavier. Too heavy armor
hindered the movement of the horseman and put him in a disadvantage in a hand-to-hand combat.
In March 1812, Minister of War asked the director of the Sestroretzk Armaments to prepare 6,214
cuirasses. The distribution of the armor had to go according to divisional lists, regiment after regiment.
The first who received the armor was the Guard Cavalry Regiment (Chevaliers Garde), the next was the
Lifeguard Horse Regiment, who needed 10 days to sort out through the plates so the size of the armor
would match the size of the men. Then armor was given to His Majesty Cuirassier Regiment (Tzar's Own
Cuirassiers), and for the remaining units. The last regiment on the list, the Novgorod Cuirassier Regiment
received the transport of armor in mid or late August, not long before the battle at Borodino was fought.
Converted from dragoons Starodub Cuirassier Regiment received theirs as late as in August 1813.
In September 1812 Inspector of Cavalry asked director of the Sestroretzk Armaments to supply body
armor also for the reserve squadrons, but only for those from the regiments in the elite 1st Cuirassier
Division. On November 23 the director reported that he has 653 cuirasses ready and within one month, in
December, they were sent to the headquarters of the army in the city of Vilnius (Vilno, Vilna). Thus the
reserve squadrons in the Battle of Polotzk and other engagements before that period had no body armor
and statements (from some western authors) to the contrary are false.
The Russian cuirass consisted of two iron plates painted with black oil and edged with red fabric. These
two plates were held together with two straps, which had brass end pieces. For the privates these straps
had iron shoulder scales, and for the officers they were brass. On the inside of the armor there was a
lining of white quilted canvas to make carrying of this weighty equipment more comfortable. The cuirass
was 3-3.5 mm thick and it weighted between 7kg and 7,5 kg, depending on the size. Some sources give
even 8-9 kg. The cuirass was 45 cm high and had max. width of 39 cm.
This is quite interesting that several French participants of the battle at Borodino wrote about the Russian
cuirassiers wearing not the full armor but only the front plates. They even describe how during pursuits
they were able to inflict wounds to cuirassiers backs. Louis Lejeune made one of the first pictures
representing Borodino La bataille de la Moskova le 7 Septembre 1812 and in its corner is seen Russian
cuirassier wearing the front plate only and attacking the square of 84th Line Infantry.
The newly formed Pskov Cuirassier Regiment was allowed to wear the collected/captured at Dolgomost
French armor. Wearing their white coats and the foreign armor made them unusual sight in the Russian
army.
In 1814 Tsar Alexander of Russia gave 460 cuirasses to the Prussian elite Gardes du Corps.
The trumpeters never wore the cuirass.
Very impressive cuirass of an officer of
the Russian Lifeguard Horse 1796-1801
Officer of Ekaterinoslav Cuirassiers in 1812.
From "Uniforms of the Napoleonic Wars"
.
Carbines , rifles , pistols ,
muskets and musketoons.
The cuirassiers were armed with carbines, although their flankers carried rifles. In 1812 these weapons
were taken away from them and given to the militia. Only the 16 flankers in every squadron retained their
rifles. Such partial disarming of the cavalry was not unusual during the Napoleonic Wars. In the French
army, during the last campaigns even the Horse Grenadiers of Old Guard had to give away their carbines
to the infantry. In September 1814 was ordered that every cuirassier regiment has to be armed with 1120
carbines and 112 rifles.
Each dragoon carried a 142cm long musket, bayonet and 2 pistols.
The musket was shorter than French dragoon's musket, it means less cumbersome for a horsemen but also
of shorter range. It was carried on the saddle, on the right side. The flankers in dragoon regiments were
armed with rifles. In November 1812 was ordered that only pistols and 16 rifles per squadron can be left
while the muskets were given to the infantry.
Carbine 1809-Pattern
- Caliber: 17.78 mm
- Total weight: 2.87 kg
- Length of barrel: 637.5 mm
- Ammunition: 23.85 gr
- Weight of charge: 7.46 gr
Rifle 1803-Pattern
- Caliber: 16.51 mm
- Length of barrel: 32.2c cm
- Weight of charge: approx. 7 gr.
The uhlans in the first rank were armed with lances, while those in the second rank were issued carbines.
Additionally every uhlan carried saber and 2 pistols. Every squadron had 16 flankers, called carabiniers-
uhlans, which were armed with rifles.
The hussars, except their flankers, were equipped with carbines.
The carbine was carried on the bandolier, was hooked in place with an iron hook and weighted approx. 3
kg. In 1812 the troopers in the first rank gave away their carbines to the depot and reserve squadrons so
they could easier handle the freshly issued lances.
In the same year was ordered that also the second rank in the hussar regiments had to give away their
carbines and the white leather crossbelt to the enlarged infantry and militia. The hussars were left only
with pistols and the 16 flankers per squadron were allowed to keep their musketoons. In September 1814
(after the Campaign of France) was ordered that every hussar regiment has to be again armed with
carbines. This time each regiment had assigned 1120 carbines and 112 rifles.
The musketoons appeared in Russian cavalry in 1790s.
This smoothbore weapon had a shortened barrel and was easier to use on a horse than the longer musket.
Although it was less accurate than the rifle, musket, and carbine it was more effective at close range due to
the way it was employed, like a miniature cannon.
The musketoons opened out barrel mouth had the vertical size about 3 cm and the horizontal size 5 cm,
from which could be fired a shot for scatter-gun effect. The first musketoons were sent to Her Majesty
Cuirassier Regiment and in 1798. The Lifeguard Hussar Regiment received their own pattern. The new
musketoon of 1812 Pattern was modeled on the 1798 and weighed 2,65 kg. It was almost two times lighter
than infantry firearms and was issued to all flankers in hussar regiments. These flamboyant hussars often
used their mini-canisters during skirmishes.
Musketoon 1775-Pattern (used also in 1812-14):
- Caliber: 20.32 mm
- Weight: 2.8 kg
- Length of barrel: 447 mm
- Width in the end: 37/25 mm
- Ammunition: canister of 5-7 balls each 4.25 gr
The pistols were light and short weponas and carried in saddle holsters. There were several models of
pistols used, some of them of foreign origin. Their length slightly varied from model to model and was
between 45 cm and 60 cm. Pistols had three major problems: misfires, poor accuracy and short range of
fire, only up to 30 m.
Pistol 1809-Pattern.
- Caliber: 17.78 mm
- Length of barrel: 263 mm
- Weight of charge: 6.3 gr
Range of fire:
cavalry rifle (1803) - 1 000 paces
cavalry carbine (1809) - 250 paces
infantry musket (1808) - 300 paces
Note: the effective range of fire was much shorter than the ranges given above. Out of 100 cavalrymen
armed with rifles only 40-45 hit the target (board of 180 x 120 cm) at 250 paces. But at 400 paces only 25
hits were recorded. For smoothbore carbines the result was even worse, 20-25 bullets hit the target. These
results were achieved on training ground, without the stress of the battle, without dust and gun powder,
with the horse not being excited, and with all weapons working and in excellent shape.
Russian cavalry firearms, by O Parkhaiev.
1 - cavalry rifle 1 8 0 3
2 - hussar musketoon!
3 - pistols
~
Mustaches and Hair Styles.
The new recruits had their heads and beards shaven.
The new recruits had their heads and beards shaven. Some of them tried in vain to bribe the barbers. The
cavalrymen and Cossacks, privates and officers, all wore mustaches. (The only few exceptions were
officers of dragoon and cuirassier regiments.)
The mustaches and whiskers, which were grown in a curve towards the mouth, were important badges of
honor worn usually by veterans or the elites to show they mean business. The mustaches could be
darkened or combed according to regimental tradition, be straight or twirled down or up. The burly
General Yermolov of artillery believed that facial hair were useful mean of intimidating other people.
Nesterov served in Grand Duke Constantine Uhlan Regiment and his mustaches were so long that they
reached down to the waistline and his eyebrows were to the middle of his face. :-)
In 1806-1807 the pigtails were discarded for the lower ranks. Later on they were abolished for the officers
too.
When the hussars had to abandon their innumerable plaits from the temples, they were quite unhappy.
They considered this as a blow to their self-esteem and complained that they will become no better than
dragoons.
~
The Best Regiments of Russian Cavalry.
We have selected five regiments (one cuirassier, one dragoon, and three hussars) which distinguished
themselves on the battlefield, captured enemy's color and/ir guns, or put up a gallant fight to beat off the
enemy. There were more regiments worth mentioning, for example the Mariupol Hussars. In 1812, near
Smolensk, the Mariupol and Elisavetgrad Hussars impressed Sir Robert Wilson. He considered their
courage and skill in the maneuver as unsurpassable. In the battle of Valutina Gora the charge of
Maroumpol Hussars near the village of Lubino caused considerable damage to enemy's infantry
(described as "chopped on the spot"). At Vilno they captured Color of the 9th Cuirassier Regiment.
Most of the cuirassier and hussar regiments were very good.
The Guard regiments are excluded.
Abbreviations of ranks:
Mjr. - major
Plk. - polkovnik (colonel)
GM - gieneral-major
GL - gieneral-leitnant
GoK - gieneral ot kavalerii (general of cavalry)
Grodno Hussar Regiment
"The Grodno hussars were, as usual, brilliant in combat."
- Ernst M. H. von Gaffron, Prussian cuirassier
Chefs:
1806 - 1811 GM Dmitrii D. Shepelev,
1811 - July 1812 GM Yakov P. Kulniev,
1812 - 1814 Plk. (in May 1813 GM) Fedor Ridiger or Friedrich Rdiger
Commanders:
1811 - Oct. 1812 Plk. (in May 1813 GM) Fedor Ridiger or Friedrich Rdiger
This regiment was formed in June 1806 from squadrons
taken from the Alexandria, Izoum, Olviopol and
Soumy hussar regiments. The Grodno Hussars were led
by Yakov Kulniev, a fiery fighter and tough
disciplinarian. He was a legend in Russia and died in
combat in young age. In 1806-1807 the Grodno Hussars
fought at Mishinitzy where they defeated French
chasseurs and broke an infantry square. On May 25th
1807 two squadrons led by Kulniev fought at
Kommersdorf. They captured many prisoners,
ammunition wagons, and destroyed enemy's camp,
blew up wagons and carriages and got out of the
encirclement. At Friedland they participated in the
cavalry battle. Then, when the French cut off one
battalion of the Pavlovsk grenadiers, the Grodno
Hussars came with rescue and fend off all attacks made
by French cuirassiers.
In 1808-1809 the Grodno Hussars participated in the
campaign against Sweden: near Viano Farm executed a "powerful charge, driving the
Swedes off the field." In March 1809 they participated in the famous march on the frozen
Baltic Sea.
In July 1812 French General de Brigade Jean Saint Geniez was taken prisoner at Onikszty
by Kornet Glebov. St. Geniez was the first French general captured by the Russian army
during this war.
Between 3rd and 17th July the Grodno Hussars were active in small warfare and
captured up to 2000 prisoners. In July, at Filipova, the Grodno Hussars (8 squadrons)
defeated the French 7th and 20th Horse Chasseurs (total of 8 squadrons), and Polish
Uhlans (4 squadrons). The enemy was pursued and 170 were taken prisoner.
On July 18-19th 1812 at
Druia, the Grodno
Hussars and Cossacks
defeated French 11th
and 12th Chasseurs
and Polish 10th
Hussars. In the end of
July, within the period
of several days
Tzytliatzev with 20
hussars captured 200
prisoners. On Oct. 6-
7th (18-19th) they
fought with distinction
at the Second Battle of
Polotzk. In April 1813
the Grodno hussars
were awarded with
silver trumpets for
1812 war.
In 1813 the Grodno Hussars fought in Luneburg, Lutzen, Bautzen and Dresden where
they broke infantry square formed by the 5th Voltigeur Regiment of Young Guard. The
enemy lost 10 officers and 300 men killed, wounded and taken prisoner.
On October 14th 1813, they fought gallantly at Leipzig, and won the praise of the
witnesses of the battle. A Prussian cuirassier Ernst M. H. von Gaffron wrote: "As far as I
remember the Grodno hussars were first through the village of Crbern, then our
regiment, as we went straight into the attack... The Grodno hussars were, as usual,
brilliant in combat."
At Leipzig they also attacked artillery deployed between Holzhausen, Zuckelhausen and
Sttteritz and seized a couple of guns. On the 3rd day of battle of Leipzig this regiment
conducted three consecutive charges. During one of them NCO Gruzenko was the first
who got to enemy's battery and killed an officer. The French cavalry counterattacked
and Gruzenko had to abandon his trophy. Frustrated he spiked the gun, then drew his
pistol and killed the draft horses. Several French dragoons attacked him but being a
good swordsman he unsaddled the first attacker with a quick cut. The other dragoons
kept respectful distance and let him go.
At Probstheida the Grodno and Soumy Hussars "furiously attacked" and overthrew part
of French infantry under Marshal Victor. For Leipzig their officers were awarded with
Russian and Prussian awards (from the Prussian King, Frederick William, was the Pour
le Mrite order).
During the Campaign of France in 1814, the Grodno Hussars fought at Brienne, Bar sur
Aube, Arcis and Paris. In 1814 they were awarded with badges on their shakos. When
the Napoleonic Wars ended this regiment had 400 men who were awarded with
Military Order for bravery in combat.
Brilliant charge of the Grodno Hussars at
Kliastitzy in 1812. Picture by O Parkhaiev.
.
Loubny Hussar Regiment
"The Scum of All Vagabonds
Who Were Ripe for Gallows".
Chefs:
1807 - Aug 1813 GM Alexei P. Melissino
Aug 1813 - Jan 1814 GM Evgenii V. Davydov
1814 - GM Ivan Troshchinski
Commanders:
1808-1810 Plk. I. A. Maximovich-Vasilkovski.
This regiment was raised in 1807 in similar way as were formed the first uhlan
regiments, it means from all classes of free Russian and foreign persons who were not
subject to the poll tax and not under other service obligations. The length of service was
prescribed to be not less than 6 years instead of 25 years. In their ranks served Russians,
Tatars, Greeks, Serbs, Hungarians, Poles, Moldavians, Turks, Jews and even Italians.
One could find among them men of all walks of life, artists, gentry, vagabonds,
foreigners and "those of the worst sort." But in combat "the scum" fought like Verzeifelte
against the enemy.
The Loubny Hussar Regiment was organized and led by a male beauty GM Alexei P.
Melissino. Melissino was well educated, spoke fluently in several languages and was so
well and proportionately build that served as a model for the monument of the Tzar
Peter the Great. Although he was an agreeable person he had a strange thread in his
character that caused the "the scum of all vagabonds" quivering from fear. He kept them
under iron fist. Alexei Melissino himself was "brave like a lion" and expected not less
from his thugs. At Dresden having thrown his horse on bayonets he was killed by 3
musketballs fired by the Young Guard. (Other source described that a cannonball killed
him in front of his regiment).
.
Pavlograd Hussar Regiment
(Led by a Pole, commanded by a Georgian.)
Chef:
1806-1814 GM Efim I. Chaplitz (in 1812 GL) - he was a Pole
Commanders:
Dec 1806 - 1810 Plk. Baron Alexandr V. Rosen
1810 - 1815 Plk. (GM in Sept. 1813) Prince Spiridon E. Zhevahov.
(Zhevahov, or by Georgian name Dzhavahishvili, came from
Georgian princeses and served in this regiment since 1797.)
The Pavlograd Hussars was one of the most popular cavalry
regiments in Russia. In this regiment served Russians, Lithuanians,
Poles and Ukrainians. Between July 1806 and Sept 1814 their chef
was GM (GL since Oct 1812) Efim I. Chaplitz. He was officer with
Polish origins and participated in the wars against Turks, Poles,
fought in Caucassus, and against the French in 1805, 1806 and 1807.
In 1812 he sent "shock waves" through Lithuania by demolishing
one of Napoleon's guard cavalry regiments at Slonim, the 3rd
Lancers (Young Guard).
In 1805 the Pavlograd Husars were part of the hard fighting Bagration's Rear Guard and
won fame for delaying French advance. At Enns, disregarding the canister fire they
burned a bridge. (Duffy - "Austerlitz 1805" 1977, p 56)
In 1805 at Hollabrunn they fought until were cut off from the main body of Bagrations'
corps. Spiridon Zhevahov led his squadron against the encircling forces and the rest of
the regiment followed them. For Hollabrunn/Shngrabben they were allowed to carry
two standards in every squadron as a special honor. (Alla Begunova however (after
Strukov's "Istoricheskiy ocherk o regaliah i znakah otlichiya Russkoi Armii" 1902, Vol III,
p 19) gives them only 1 St. George standard for the entire regiment.)
The Pavlograd Hussars also fought in Durrenstein and Austerlitz, where while trying to
cover the withdrawal of defeated infantry, they put on a desperate fight against
cuirassiers. According to Kutuzov's "Sbornik dokumentov" they lost 243 men at
Austerlitz alone !
In 1807 the Pavlograd Hussars were again part of the hard fighting rear guard under
Bagration.
In 1812 after the battle of Kobrin, General Chaplitz sent two squadrons of Pavlograd
Hussars on the road from Kobrin to Slutzk. The hussars met two squadrons of Saxon
(light ?) cavalry with two guns. They met and "cut to pieces" one part of the Saxon force
and chased the other part toward Kobrin itself, the guns were captured as well.
They also fought at Slonim in 1812, where together with other troops they defeated
Napoleon's 3rd Lighthorse-Lancer Regiment (Young Guard). At Berezina they routed
French cavalry and captured Color (squadron guidon ?) of French 3rd Lancers.
In 1813, between January and April, the Pavlograd Hussars participated in the blockade
of Torun (Thorn), then fought at Lepzig and were part of corps liberating Holland. In
November-December the Pavlograd Hussars, together with infantry, artillery, and
Cossacks captured Amesterdam, Rotterdam and Breda.
In 1814 at Craonne, the Pavlograd Hussars conducted 8 charges (!) and despite the
exhaustion of horses and men they formed the rear guard of the retreating Russian
forces. They paid heavy price for their heroics - this is said that out of 900 men 450 were
either killed, wounded, injured or taken prisoner (few). After the battle at St. Dizier the
Pavlograd Hussars again covered the retreat of infantry on the road to Bar-le-Duc. In
1814 they were awarded with badges on their shakos for this campaign.
In one of the greatest novels of all times, "War and Peace" by Leo Tolstoy,
the Pavlograd Hussars are mentioned on several occassions.
.
St. Petersbourg Dragoon Regiment
(No other Russian regiment, foot or horse,
have captured four enemy Colors.)
Chefs:
1807 - 1813 GM Graf von Ivan V. Manteufel
1813 - 1815 Plk. Hristofor S. Borisov
Commanders:
1810 - 1811 Mjr. Petr N. Kozyrev
Oct 1812 - Oct 1813 Mjr. Ivan A. Annenkov.
There were several poor dragoon regiments, and many regiments were of average
quality.
The hard-fighting St Petersburg Dragoon Regiment however was not one of them.
On November 20th 1805 at Raussnitz, trooper Chumakov of St
Petersburg Dragoons captured Color of the I Squadron of 11th
Dragoon Regiment. In February 1807 the St.Petersburg Dragoons
distinguished themselves near Eylau and captured another color.
It happened like this. The French 46th Line Infantry Regiment
marched in snow while being fired upon by Russian artillery and
skirmishers. The fire didnt stop the French from crossing their
bayonets with the Russian infantry and the II Battalion of the famous 18th Line Infantry
Regiment (nicknamed "The Brave") joined their comrades. Meanwhile the S.Petersburg
Dragoons crossed a frozen lake, then moved around own infantry, and began deploying
into charge. The 18th Line suddenly saw a dark mass of cavalry coming at them and
leaving no time for forming the square. The French infantry wavered and fired. The
dragoons attacked from the front and against the left flank of the enemy. The infantry
lost any order and a desperate struggle was around the French standard.
Trooper Podvorotny drove the French battalion standard-bearer to the ground and
seized the Eagle. Trooper Deriagin and others cut down the escort of the standard,
Adjutant Fomine, dragoon Erofeiev and trumpeter Logvinov were also involved in this
bloody struggle.
Marshal Soults Journal of the IV Corps: The 18th Regiment was near
to arriving at the summit, when a large body of enemy cavalry
surrounded it, charged it, repulsed it. Colonel Langlois wrote that
General Lavasseur, all the senior officers, as well as large number of
officers and soldiers of this regiment were seriously wounded and, the
worst of all, the Eagle was lost. The damage was indeed enormous: 44
officers killed, wounded and captured as prisoners - including
Lavasseur, Ravier and Pelleport. The 18th Regiment also lost more than
500 other ranks, including several hundred prisoners. The situation
could develop into a slaughter if not the charge by the 13th Horse
Chasseurs who saved the 18th Line. This regiment was so shaken that it was kept in
reserve when the Battle of Eylau was fought. The losses of the dragoons were only 20
men killed and 18 wounded. The French army Bulletin dated 9 February 1807 tried to
downplay the loss of the regiments Eagle and the Emperor ordered that the 18th Ligne
be given replacement eagle.
On next day private Sirnikov captured the eagle and drapeau of I
Battalion of 44th Line Infantry Regiment.
The St Petersburg Dragoons also fought at Heilsberg and Friedland,
at Gutstadt - according to Yermolov (Ermolov) - they stood under
cannonade with incredible composure.
In 1812 at Berezina, the St Petersburg Dragoons captured Color
of the French 14th Cuirassier Regiment (composed of Dutchmen).
The dragoons were awarded with badges on helmets with the inscription "For
distinction".
Their standard was decorated with black/orange ribbons and inscription telling about
their exploits.
NOTE:
In western literature I have found that some authors (after Petre and Sir Wilson) claim
that the St. Petersburg Dragoons were either, defeated, annihilated or lost its standards
at Hoff. This is not true. This regiment was not present at Hoff and there is nothing about
this combat in the regimental history (covering the years between 1707 and 1898)
published in 1900. Although the actions and casualties suffered by this regiment on the
day before and day after Hoff are described in detail. Wilson wrote about the Battle of
Eylau (on page 96) that these dragoons "emulous to retrieve the misfortune of the
previous day , charged a column of enemy." This is unclear what misfortunes he had on
mind. The retreat of the whole detachment under de Tolly or the defeat of the Russian
cavalry (hussars and Cossacks) ? Additionally the only Russian troops who lost
standards at Hoff were infantry and not cavalry. Petre on p 158 wrote that the St.
Petersburg Dragoons were defeated at Hoff and refers to Sir Wilson p 95 and 96. But
Wilson on these pages wrote about a Russian regiment of Horse falling back on own
infantry. In my opinion this is a misinterpretation of Wilson's words or simply a mistake.
Petre (after Sir Wilson) made several mistakes in his description of the battale of Hoff.
For example he wrote that Russian General Bagration contested his ground at Hoff so
gallantly that "he never receded one foot." But the problem is that Bagration was not
there.
.
Military Order Cuirassier Regiment
Chef:
1809-1814 GM Andrei I. Gudovich
Commanders:
1809 - 1810 Plk. Fedor von Raden
1811 - Pplk. (Plk. in July 1813) E. F. Stakelberg
Their helmets and leather pouches bore St. George star instead of the eagle, their collars
and shoulder straps were black. It was one of the toughest cuirassier outfits in Europe.
For their competence and bravery they obtained superior results and set example that
inspired others to strive for glorious achievements.
At Eylau in 1807, officer Serguienko and private Illin captured eagle and drapeau of the
II Battalion of French 24th Line. (This loss is confirmed by French sources in Andolenko.
Capitaine de Castelverd states that the French unit "was completely overcome.")
James Arnold writes: Captain N.L. Sergueienko led his cuirassier squadron against the
24th Ligne. The 24th Ligne had already suffered severely, but the regiment had a proud
reputation and a devoted group of grenadiers refused to yield. They formed around the
eagle of the regiments third battalion and tried to defend themselves with their
bayonets. The cuirassiers methodically hacked them down. A cuirassier trooper drove
his horse toward the eagle bearer and cut him down just before his wounded horse
collapsed. The dismounted trooper valiantly continued to contest and seized the trophy.
He handed the eagle to Captain Sergueienko, who by now was also wounded.
Sergueienko preserved the eagle while the cuirassiers slaughtered the fleeing French
soldiers. (Arnold Crisis in the snows p. 295)
The cuirassiers also captured a French battery but due to the lack of horses these had to
be left behind. Such was their involvement in fighting at Eylau that in the end a mere
captain led them ! This regiment fought with distinction also in Heilsberg and Friedland.
Vasilii Alferov was awarded with #2523 St. George Cross (Military order) For
Distinction for capturing 2 guns on 24th Jan (5th Feb) 1807.
In 1812 at Krasne they destroyed infantry column. ("Russkaia armiia 1812-1814" p 69) In
April 1813 this regiment was awarded with 22 St. George trumpets for campaign of 1812.
Military Order Cuirassiers captured eagle and drapeau of the II Battalion
of 24th Line Infantry Regiment at Eylau in 1807. Picture by N. Zubkov.
Sources and Links.
See our article "The Russian Army."
Russian Artillery : Russische Artillerie : Uniforms : Equipment : Organization : Tactics
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Russian_artillery.htm[2012-05-21 12:40:35]
Russian Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars
"The [Russian] artillery seems particularly fine and well appointed."
"The Russian artillery is of the most powerful description."
- Sir Robert Wilson
Officer Vasili Kostenetzki was a colossus who could break a horseshoe
with his bare hands. He also carried a pallash of enormous size and length
which he used at Borodino against the French infantry and Polish uhlans.
Introduction.
Generals
Officers
and Gunners.
Strength and
organization.
Equipment
and horses.
Uniforms.
Tactics.
Rockets.
Russian artillery at Borodino, 1812.
"Tell the commanders and all officers of artillery
that they should bravely stay to the last moment
and then fire at the enemy with canister."
- Gen. Kutaisov, Borodino 1812
Introduction: Russian Artillery.
The Russians were very fond of their artillery.
On picture: the largest cannon until 20th century,
the Tsar Cannon with stunning 40 tons weight and
5 m length ! In 1812 the retreating napoleonic
troops burned the wooden carriages but the super-
gun survived.
The French artillery was considered as the best in
the world in XVIII and XIX century. During the
Napoleonic Wars the quality of French equipment,
the training of gun crews, the education of officres, the tactics, and the effectivenness of
artillery fire were pretty consistent. It was not the case with the Russians. Although the
Russian artillery was numerous and powerful (with many guns of heavy caliber) its
quality varied. In late 1790s until 1805 it was rather average, then began improving, and
performed admirably in 1807 and 1812. It peaked during the Campaign of France in
1814. Then the quality of Russian artillery began decreasing, although it was still
numerous and powerful.
In 1797 the Director of Russian Artillery, Petr Ivanovich Melissino, had been forced to
resign and the artillery arm found itself in poor state. During the campaign of 1797 the
horses were poor and they were badly fed and badly tended. "The Austrians in Italy
noted that the Russian artillerymen fired with gusto, but little coordination or accuracy,
and they ran quickly through the reserves of ammunition in their little caissons, which
held less than half the number of rounds of the Austrian counterparts." (Duffy - "Eagles
over the Alps" p 30)
The gunners learned to fire their pieces at wooden boards 9 feet high.
They were also able to fire 25-30 live rounds per year.
(For more info read Arnold's "Crisis in the Snows" pp 60-61)
The artillery's performance at Austerlitz in 1805 was poor. The French skirmishers
sometimes shot apart Russian batteries that stood unprotected by friendly skirmishers.
Friendly infantry often marched across the front of the heavy artillery just as it was
about to open fire. Infantry and cavalry failed to support the guns at critical moments.
At Austerlitz the French captured 142-176 Russian guns and approx. 400 ammunition
wagons and caissons.
The situation improved after the disastrous Austerlitz Campaign. General Arakcheyev
applied himself to learning what had gone wrong by interviewing each officer and
having him sketch the movements of his battery during the battle of Austerlitz. Sir
Wilson, who campaigned with the Russian army in 1806-07 wrote, "The Russian artillery
is of the most powerful description. No other army moves with so many guns, and with
no other army is it in better state of equipment, or is more gallantly served."
At Pultusk in Decembver 1806, the Russian artillery smashed the attacking columns of
French infantry. "Gazan's division now stood in the front line and here it was subjected
to a mericless bombardement from the powerful Russian artillery numbering about 70
guns. According to the Journal of Military Actions: 'all our batteries opened fire at the
enemy columns advancing at our center [and] they were stopped and overthrown by
successful actions of these batteries.' The artillery fire was so effective that throughout
the battle neither Gazan's regiments nor Suchet's reserve, the 40th Ligne, came close
enough to the Russian position to fire their muskets. The French gunners struggled
manfully to suppress the Russian artillery but they had no noticeable effect." (Arnold -
"Crisis in the Snows" p 165)
At Hoff in 1807 the French 26th Light Infantry captured Russian battery of 4 pieces. One
battalion of the regiment was formed in square while the lead battalion formed line and
advanced against the artillery. The canister made no impression on the French and they
reached the guns. A bloody melee took place. The French bayoneted the gunners and
horses, and cut the traces. Seeing Russian infantry counter-attacking the French fell
back behind the second battalion. The fresh battalion deployed from square into line,
charged, overthrown the infantry and recaptured the guns. Then Russian cavalry
intervened forcing the victorious battalion to form square. Russian skirmishers moved
up to join their cavalry.
Riehn described Russian artillery in 1812 (Napoleon's invasion of Russia) as very good,
well equipped and quite mobile. (Riehn - "1812: Napoleon's Russian Campaign")
George Nafziger considered the Russian artillery in 1812 as "highly professional and
very well trained" and their horses as "the finest horses available". About the unicorns
he wrote that they "had a greater range and more accuracy than the howitzers used by
the other European armies." (Nafziger - "Napoleon's Invasion of Russia")
In 1813 even the Prussians admitted the efficiency of Russian artillery fire.
In 1814 the Russian foot artillery was considered to be the best of Allies' foot artillery.
Their service at La Rothiere was admirable. Lorraine Petre writes, "The (Russian)
artillery was the best the Allies had ..." (Petre - "Napoleon at bay, 1814" publ. in London
1977) At Craonne, the French admitted that the crusty Russian gunners served their
guns better than it did their own gunners. Houssaye writes: "but the gunners were
untrained, and suffered heavily from the fire of the better-served Russian guns."
(Houssaye - "Napoleon and the campaign of 1814" p 150)
Unfortunatelly, after Napoleonic wars the quality of artillery decreased. There was more
focus on parades and uniforms than training. In 1817 Tsar Alexandr was so pleased with
the performance of horse artillery during parade that he gave each private 20 and each
NCO 50 roubles. It surprised his adjutants and generals, who recalled that men had
received only 5 roubles for the heroic and lengthy fighting at Borodino. The parades
became a regular feature of army life and in 1820s. Those who insisted on training for
real combat were considered as being Cossacks. :- )

Russian artillery in 1812. (Picture from wargame ?)
"By this time they were all approaching Tushin's battery
and a cannonball struck the ground in front of them.
'What's that that has fallen ?' asked the accountant.
'A French pancake,' answered Zherkov.
Tolstoy - "War and Peace", Campaign of 1805
~
Generals, Officers and Gunners.
"The artillerymen are of the best describtion, and the NCOs equal ,
but the artillery officers of inferior rank have not the same title
to estimation as in the other European services, for their education
is not formed with the same care, and their service does not receive
the same encouragement." - Sir Robert Wilson
The Russian gunners were known for their physical strength. The French recalled that at
Borodino the Russian gunners were "formidable duelers" when faced with French
grenadiers. Officer Vasili Grigorievich Kostenetzki was very popular among gunners.
This colossus could break a horseshoe with his bare hands. He also carried a pallash of
enormous size and length which he used at Borodino against the French infantry.
The gunners were trained in their companies (batteries). Unfortunately we
don't have much information on how and where the officers and generals
were trained. Between 1800 and 1825 the First and the Second Moscow
Academy provided 890 artillery officers. The guard artillery's instructional
companies trained additional 900 officers and NCOs. For nobles who
volunteered to join the artillery, qualifications were still higher than for
those in infantry and cavalry, and even in the guard.
In 1811 artillery officers below lieutenant-colonel (podpolkovnik) became one rank above
infantry and cavalry officers. The Guard was not included in it. The rank of major was
discontinued in artillery and engineers.
Sir Robert Wilson campaigned with the Russians for several years. He wrote: "The
(Russian) artillerymen are of the best describtion, and the NCOs equal, but the artillery
officers of inferior rank have not the same title to estimation as in the other European
services, for their education is not formed with the same care, and their service does not
receive the same encouragement. To them is the toil and the responsibility, but the
honor is by no means assured them. Some favorite officer, completely ignorant of the
science and practice of the artillery, is frequently in the day of action appointed for the
day to the command of their batteries, and the credit is in the dispatches given to him
for a service which depended on loong previous systematic arrangements and laborious
attention, with which he never was acquainted: an unustice mortifying to the corps,
injurious to the individual artillery officer, and gravely detrimental to the general
interests."
There was a problem with artillery officers leaving their positions stating that they had
run out of ammunition. In 1813 Barclay de Tolly issued instructions stating that battery
commanders were forbidden to abandon their assigned positions unless they were
specifically ordered to do so. If they ran out of ammunition and had not been relieved,
they were to hold their position until either ordered to displace to the rear or were
resupplied.
.
Alexei Arakcheiev "The Bulldog"
Inspector General of Artillery
and ultra-conservative politician
Count Alexei Aleksandrovich Arakcheiev was Russia's foremost artillery
expert. In 1803 he served as the Inspector General of Artillery and
reorganized this arm. Arakcheiev introduced lighter gun carriages and
lighter caissons. Since 1808 Arakcheiev published "Artillery Journal."
In 1808-1810, he served as the Minister of War and was one of the
politicians responsible for war against Sweden. He urged generals to
cross the frozen Baltic Sea and capture Finland.
Arakcheiev was nicknamed "The Bulldog" because of the systematic rudeness displayed
in barking out orders. He was a harsh disciplinarian, feared not only by the rank and
file, but also by officers and generals. He led a Spartan lifestyle. Strangely Arakcheiev
never distinguished himself in combat. According to Prussian officer Clausewitz,
Arakcheiev was a Russian in every sense of the word, of great energy and cunning.
(Clausewitz - "The Campaign of 1812 in Russia" p 9)
Arakcheiev developed into one of Tzar's most trusted confidants. After the Napoleonic
Wars the Tzar had withdrawn from domestic politics and Arakcheiev became de facto
the ruler of Russian Empire. Arakcheiev designed and organized the hated military
colonies.
.
Alexei Yermolov
Alexei Petrovich Ermolov was a robust bear of a man and ardent character.
The tyrant, Tzar Paul, disliked General Yermolov for his liberal views.
Yermolov first served under Suvorov in Italy and then fought against
Persia. He distinguished himself at Austerlitz (1805), Eylau (1807),
Borodino (1812) and Kulm (1813). In 1807 Yermolov commanded horse
artillery of the hard fighting Bagration's rearguard. In the battle of Eylau,
Yermolov took 36 horse guns, rode to Anklappen and opened a
tremendous fire on the French. (It was Davout's corps in the process of
outflanking the Russian army.)
At Borodino in 1812, Kutusov dispatched him to handle the crisis at Raievski's Redoubt.
Yermolov brought 36 guns from the reserve, and showered the French with canister
halting their advance. Despite horrible casualties suffered by the Russians at Borodino,
Yermolov was spoiling for another battle. He was vigorously protesting against
abandoning Moscow without a fight.
Yermolov was not only a talented gunner, he also served as chief of staff of the army,
and even as the commander of the Guard.
- in 1811 appointed the chief of staff of the 3rd Western Army.
- in 1812 became chief of staff of the 1st and 2nd Western Army.
- in January of 1813 commander of artillery in Kutusov's column.
- in May of 1813 appointed as commander of Artillery Reserve.
- in October 1813 commanded the Guard Infantry (two divisions).
.
Alexander Kutaisov
Son of a Turk, he studied artillery
Nikitin
in Vienna and Paris. Commander
of Russian artillery at Borodino.
As a 10-year-old Alexander Ivanovich Kutaisov was already serving in the Russian
Guard. His father was a Turk captured by Russians in the Russian-Turkish war.
Kutaisov spoke fluently in three European languages and was quite talented painter. In
1810 he studied languages, mathematics and artillery in Vienna and in Paris.
Kutaisov distinguished himself at Golymin, Eylau and Friedland. At the
age of 22 Kutaisov was already a general. During the 1812 campaign he
was the youngest of Russian generals and commanded the artillery of the
First Western Army. During the battle of Borodino, Kutuzov did not allow
Kutaisov, his chief of artillery, to leave him and the headquarters.
Kutaisov however was eager to particpate in the battle. He defied
Kutuzov and followed General Yermolov to the front line. Yermolov
made comment: "You always rush where you are not suppose to be, do not you
remember the Commander-in-Chief's recent reprimand that no one could find you. I
am going to the Second Army to act on the behalf of the commander but what will you
do there ?" (Kutuzov earlier made angry reproach that he was never around when he
was needed.) Few minutes later young Kutaisov was killed. Yermolov writes, "After
some time Kutaisov's horse came back and the blood-stained saddle led us to believ this
brave general had been killed."
Kutuzov lamented "The army lost its artillery commander in a battle where much
depended on artillery".
The evidence however suggest that his death, although a serious blow to the army, did
not have as serious consequences as claimed later. Liprandi (himself an artillery officer
at Borodino) produced a meticoulous study of the Russian artillery at Borodino. It
showed that "all 296 guns of the reserve artillery took part in the Battle of Borodino. The
main artillery reserve was under direct control of Kutaisov and all of its companies
(batteries) were committed to the battle on his orders. The Russian artillery, in the most
vulnerable places, was continuously reinforced from the reserves, which ensured solid
defence of these directions ..." Kutaisov should not be held solely responsible for the
perceived failure of the artillery. (- Alexander Mikaberidze)
.
Nikitin.
THE horse gunner.
At Borodino Nikitin's battery suffered badly but continued firing to the
very end. Nikitin distinguished himself at Krasne and Maloyaroslavetz. At
Krasne his 7th Horse Artillery Company fired canister at the retreating
French, then mounted and charged with swords in hand. They captured 2
guns and 300 men. At Malo-Yaroslavetz in 1812 his gunners captured
enemys battery !
In 1813 at Lutzen, Nikitin with 40 horse guns rushed to the frontline and produced a
"tremendous fire".
In 1814 at La Rothiere Nikitin pushed 24-36 guns within musket range (!) of the French
voltigeurs and opened fire. At Craonne he used artillery to cover the retreat of infantry
and cavalry: in the first line were placed 36 6pdr guns, 60 paces back were 28 12pdr
guns. The first line fired canister, the second fired shells.
~
Equipment (annons and unicorns) and horses.
"The piece is well formed, and the cartridge solid,
without being heavy, the harness and the rope-tackling
is of the best description..." - Sir Robert Wilson
The Russians kept their canons and unicorns polished. The
wooden parts of guns, limbers and ammunition boxes were
painted in green (some call it apple-green, others grass-green),
while all the metal parts were painted in black.
Sir Robert Wilson writes, "The piece is well formed, and the
cartridge solid, without being heavy, the harness and the
rope-tackling is of the best description..." The axles were made
of wood and demanded constant greasing. For this reason
each piece had a bucket filled with grease. "To avoid dirtying the gun barrels under
campaign conditions, they were plugged with wooden stoppers on leather straps. The
touch holes were covered by a lead plug fastened with leather straps." (Mark Conrad -
"The Russian Army of 1812")
In 1802 was introduced Markevich's aiming sight.
Laying the piece in the horizontal plane was done with help of handspikes.
Aiming was aided by Kabanovs sighting piece, which had to be removed before each
shot.
The guns were
divided into two
groups:
cannons
(pushki)
unicorns
(yedinorogi)
The unicorns
(until 1805 they
had a unicorn
engraved on the
barrel) were
something
between typical
cannon and
howitzer
(gaubitsy). They were excellent weapons and fired cannonballs, canister and explosive
shells. The maximum firing range for pood unicorn was 2300 m, and for pood - 1500
m.
The Russians also tested captured French guns. They were especially interested in the
effectiveness of French canister.
Weight of Russian carriages:
- for medium 12pdr cannon - 577 kg
- for small 12pdr cannon - 495.5 kg
- for 6pdr cannon - 331-393 kg
- for pood unicorn - 593-688 kg
- for pood unicorn - 336 kg
- for pood horse unicorn - 360 kg
In battle the caissons were positioned 30-40 meters from the guns.
According to the regulations, no more than 2 gunners were to remain next to a caisson
during battle. According to Mark Conrad, 3 horses were harnessed to the cart with a
caisson box. One horse was between the two shafts while the other two were on either
side of it. The gun crew was not carried on the caisson, but a mounted man sat on the
left horse.
The powder wagon required 3 horses.
It was very important to keep the artillery well-supplied with powder and projectiles.
At Leipzig the Russian gunners near Crobern left their position as soon as their
ammunition wagons were empty and gone. The gunners and train-drivers went to the
rear and crowded the streets of Crobern.
Arakcheiev System ('1805-System')
barrel's
weight
carriage's
weight
horses
per gun
ammunition
wagons
12pdr cannon
(caliber 120 mm)
800-kg 640-kg 6 * 3
6pdr cannon
(caliber 95 mm)
350-kg 395-kg 4 * 2
pood unicorn
(caliber 152 mm)
490-kg 670-kg 8 * 3
pood unicorn
(caliber 120mm)
335-kg 395-kg
4 *
(6 in horse
artillery)
2
pood = 16.38 kg or 36.11 lb.
* - on muddy roads or in a hilly country the guns were drawn
with double and even triple teams of horses.
Comparison of the ammunition provision for the 12pdrs cannons
suggests that in a firefight the Russian would have been out shot
by the French heavy hitters.
1. French artillery - 222 rounds
2. Russian artillery - 172 rounds
3. Austrian artillery - 150 rounds
4. Prussian artillery - 114 rounds
5. British artillery - 84 rounds
(- Anthoy Dawson )
Russian artillery train at Leipzig in 1813.
Courtesy of Wolfgang Meyer, Germany.
Sir Robert Wilson gave a description of the Russian artillery
horses and drivers:
"The draft horses are small, but of great muscular strength,
strongly loined, and with high blood. ... The power of these
animals is however so great, that on taking up positions, they
will plunge through the ditches filled with yielding snow,
although so deep as to cover their back, and bury the guns
altogether; and when the center and right wing retired through
the Alle, after the battle of Friedland, at a point discovered on
the emergency, they were partly swimming, and afterwards
compelled to ascend the banks, which were almost
perepndicular. ...
The drivers are stout men; like all other drivers, they require
superintendance in times of danger, to prevent their escape
with the horses, but on various occassions they have also shown great courage and
fidelity; and they have the essential merit of carefully providing subsistence for their
horses."
~
Strength and organization of Russian Artillery.
Russia had the most numerous artillery in Europe. It also had a high number of heavy
pieces.
In 1812 the field artillery comprised of:
- 176 12pdr cannons
- 524 6pdr cannons
- 524 foot unicorns (10pdr and 20pdr)
- 132 6pdr horse cannons
- 132 horse unicorns (10pdr)
The Guard artillery numbered 64 guns.
"Each artillerist in a gun crew was assigned
a number which designated his responsibilities:
- No. 1 worked the cleaning rod
- No. 2 carried the charge pouch
- No. 3 had the slow-match and matches
- No. 4 - the tube pouch and prickers
These artillerymen were called cannoniers (kanonira) and were required to know all the
procedures for loading and firing. The other crew numbers, who fulfilled the role of
assistants, were called gandlangera (from German, meaning "long arms"). They carried
extra charge pouches and ropes with hooks, which were used when rolling guns into
position or moving them around."
(Mark Conrad - "The Russian Army of 1812")
(There were 10 privates and 2 NCOs in each infantry company trained in artillery
duties. In case of heavy casualties among gunners these infantrymen were taken as
replacement. Such change often took place in the heat of the battle.)
The artillery pieces were formed int tactical units:
- platoon (2 guns) was commanded by subaltern officer
- two platoons (4 guns) formed division
- three platoons (6 guns) formed half-company
- two half-companies (12 guns) formed company
In combat the company's guns (12 pieces) were placed as follow:
- on the left stood 2 unicorns
- in the center stood 8 cannons
- on the right were 2 unicorns.
In 1812, Russian field artillery comprised of:
- 44 heavy artillery companies (each of 240 men serving 20pdr unicorns and 12pdr
cannons)
- 58 light artillery companies (each of 160 men serving 6 10pdr unicorns and 6 6pdr
cannons)
- 22 horse artillery companies (each of 160 men serving 6 10pdr unicorns and 6 6pdr
cannons)
- depot companies where the artillery recruits were trained.
Heavy
Artillery
Company
Light
Artillery
Company
Horse
Artillery
Company
Pieces
12pdr cannons 8 - -
6pdr cannons - 8 8 or 6
pood unicorns
4 - -
pood unicorns
- 4 4 or 6
Crew
staff officers 1 1 1
officers 6 6 6
NCOs 24 24 24
bombardiers 50 35 72
gunners 50 35 134
gandlangerov 150 120 -
non-combatants 59 42 44
Several companies of artillery formed battalions, and two or three battalions formed
regiment.
In 1803 Russian artillery comprised of 1 Guard, 9 foot and 2 horse artillery battalions.
The regiment was an administrative unit. In 1805 there were 11 foot and 1 horse
regiment of artillery.
In 1806 artillery regiments were disbanded and
artillery brigades were formed (24-36 guns each):
- 1 Lifeguard Artillery Brigade
- 15 field artillery brigades
- 1 Georgian Artillery Brigade
- 1 Caucasus Artillery Brigade
- 1 Siberian Artillery Brigade
In Fall 1814 the reserve and secondary reserve (zapasne) brigades
were disbanded. The field artillery comprised of the following troops:
- 28 foot artillery brigades (attached to infantry divisions)
- 15 horse artillery companies (attached to cavalry divisions)
- 2 heavy artillery companies (in Georgia and Caucasus)
- 1 heavy and 1 light artillery company (on the Orenbourg line)
- 24 pontoon companies (incl. 16 without pontoons) serving in fortresses and with
artillery parks.
Organization of Russian artillery
few weeks before the battle of Borodino.
Artillery
Brigade
attached to:
heavy
guns
light
guns
horse
guns
Lifeguard Guard Infantry Division - 24 -
1st 1st Grenadier Division 12 24 -
2nd 2nd Grenadier Division 12 24 -
3rd 3rd Infantry Division 12 24 -
4th 4th Infantry Division 12 24 -
23rd 23rd Infantry Division - 12 -
Lifeguard Horse 1st Cuirassier Division - - 16
1st Reserve
I Cavalry Corps
Artillery Reserve
-
?
-
-
12
?
2nd Reserve
II Cavalry Corps
Artillery Reserve
-
24
-
-
12
24
27th Infantry Division 12 - -
3rd Reserve III Cavalry Corps
Artillery Reserve
-
-
-
-
12
24
4th Reserve
IV Cavalry Corps
Artillery Reserve
-
-
-
-
12
12
Don Cossack
Cossack Corps
Conv. Grenadier Division
-
-
-
-
12
12
Two or three foot artillery batteries were
usually attached to every infantry division.
HEILSBERG 1807
'Corps'
GL Dohturov
BORODINO 1812
II Infantry Corps
GL Baggovout
3rd Division
- - - Infantry Brigade
- - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 btns.]
- - - - - Grenadier Regiment [3 btns.]
- - - Artillery
- - - - - Heavy Battery [12 guns]
- - - - - Light Battery [12 guns]
7th Division
- - - Cavalry Brigade
- - - - - Dragoon Regiment [5 sq.]
- - - - - Horse Battery [12 guns]
- - - Artillery
14th Division
- - - Artillery
- - - - - Infantry Regiment [2 btns.]
- - - Jager Brigade
- - - - - 4th Jger Regiment [2 btns.]
- - - Artillery
- - - - - IV Heavy Battery [12 guns]
- - - - - VII Light Battery [12 guns]
- - - - - VIII Light Battery [12 guns]
- - - Jager Brigade
- - - Artillery
- - - - - XVII Heavy Battery [12 guns]
- - - - - XXXII Light Battery [12 guns]
- - - - - XXXIII Light Battery [12 guns]
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
~
Uniforms of Russian Artillery.
Picture: officer and private of foot artillery in
1812, by Andre Jouineau, France.
The Russian foot gunners wore dark green
coats, black collars, white breeches and shakos.
In winter they wore greatcoats. Cords and
pompons decorated the shako. The cords
(peltizi), were silver for officers and red for the
privates. During campaign the cords were often
looped around the pompon or removed.
During campaign (and quite often in combat)
the shako was protected with a special cloth
cover. The cover was made of thick cloth saturated with wax. The
cover was most often black. In some cases on the cover was a
company number in yellow, although it was unofficially.
There was also a badge of two crossed barrels on the shako.
Underneath of the badge was another badge:
- three-flame grenade for privates and NCOs of 1st-2nd Artillery
Brigades
These were the best "brigades" and they were attached to the grenadiers.
- one-flame grenade for privates and NCOs of 3rd-26th Artillery Brigades
In summer 1812 the foot gunners no longer wore black, tall boots of the previous
campaigns. Instead they wore the elegant white one piece trousers-gaiters. See picture.
For winter these would be replaced with one piece trousers-gaiters with black leather
"false booting." During campaign, and in many battles, the foot gunners wore trousers.
These were made of canvas or linen and could be grey, brown, green.
.
Picture: trumpeter and private of horse
artillery in 1812, Andre Jouineau, France.
The Russian horse gunners wore dark green
coats, black collars, white breeches and
helmets. On campaign and in combat the
breeches were covered with grey trousers.
The horse gunners were armed with
broadsword. It was replaced in 1814 with
light cavalry saber 1809-Pattern.
Instead of the white breeches the reituzy were worn during
campaign and used also in combat. In 1802 was ordered that
the reituzy would be made of gray cloth and strengthened
with leather. The gray varied in shades from light gray to
brown-gray. They had to have 18 buttons covered with gray
cloth on the outer seams. In 1813-1815 the reituzy had black
leather reinforcement extending around the rear of the leg,
although in some cases they are depicted without it. In 1814
were introduced the double stripes in regimental color on
outer seams and the buttons - finally - disappeared.
.
Below: uniforms of Russian artillery in 1803-1807.
Pictures by Viskovatov.
.

Right: horse gunner in 1803-1806.
~
Tactics of Russian Artillery.
While Napoleon's artillery prepared the way for the final blow
that would decide the battle , the Russians packed their line
with numerous guns, making it difficult to break through.
The main difference between the Russian and French artillery was the fact that Napoleon
used artillery offensively while for the Russians the main purpose of artillery was to defend
their cavalry and infantry. The same can be said about the supportive role of Prussian and
British artillery.
While Napoleon's artillery prepared the way for the final blow that would decide the battle,
the Russians packed their battle line with numerous guns, making it difficult to break
through. They also kept a strong artillery reserve as an emergency. It could be used against
the enemy's attempting to outflank their positions (in 1807 Yermolov with 36 horse guns at
Eylau) or against enemy's making a breakthrough (in 1812 Yermolov with 36 horse guns at
Borodino).
The Russians were one of the first to successfully use the grand batteries on the battlefield. At
Eylau in 1807 they formed three batteries: of 70 guns, 60 and 40 guns. In December 1806 at
Pultusk one Russian battery consisted of 70-72 guns.
Russians loved their guns and hated losing them. The very small number of guns they
abandoned during all the campaigns speaks volumes for the exertions of their gunners and
horses. General Barclay de Tolly insisted on changing this tactic. He felt that no officer should
be punished for losing a gun if it was done while inflicting serious harm on the enemy.
General Kutaisov required from his gunners to inflict as heavy as possible casuatlies on the
enemy. Before the Battle of Borodino he ordered: "Tell the commanders and all officers, that
they should bravely stay to the last moment and then fire at the enemy with canister, and not
leave the guns before the enemy sit on them. The artillery should endow itself; the loss of
equipment will be equalized by the casualties among the enemy's troops."
In 1814 at Craonne, there was a terrible artillery duel between the French and Russian
batteries. At the end of the battle the Russians carried off to the rear all their dismounted
cannon, 22 in number, with the gun-carriages. Nothing was left for the enemy.
In 1814 after the defeat at Montmirail, Sacken's Russian infantry retired to Vifort wading
through deep mud. The Prussian brigade also fell back. The Russian cavalry fastened long
lines to the guns and, with 50 men to each piece, dragged them through the woods. Despite
the cavalry's exertions it was found necessary to abandon 8 guns.
The Russian company (battery) was usually deployed not more than 100 m forward of the
front of infantry.
The intervals between guns could be 6, 18, 36, or even 50 paces. In earthworks they were
deployed in tighter formations, for example, at Shevardino 12 guns occupied the redoubt. The
intervals allowed the limbers (drawn by teams of horses) to pass between guns.
To turn the gun around with prolonge (the gun was drawn by men for shorter distance) it
required intervals between 16 paces (for 6pdr) and 20 paces (for 12pdr).
The artillery pieces were formed int tactical units:
- platoon (2 guns) was commanded by subaltern officer
- two platoons (4 guns) formed division
- three platoons (6 guns) formed half-company
- two half-companies (12 guns) formed company
In combat the company's guns (12 pieces) were placed as follow:
- on the left stood 2 unicorns
- in the center were 8 cannons
- on the right were 2 unicorns.
In battle the caissons were positioned 30-40 meters from the guns.
According to the regulations, no more than 2 gunners were to remain next to a caisson
during battle.
The small number of guns the Russians abandoned during the wars
speaks volumes for the exertions of their gunners and horses.
"This painting by Franz Roubaud illustrates an episode when 493 Russians
for 2 weeks repelled attacks by a 20 000 - strong Persian army. They made
a "live bridge", so that 2 cannons could be transported over their bodies."
(- wikipedia.org)
Russian cannons took a safe position in a readoubt.
Picture by V. Shevchenko.
Russian artillery in combat.
At Eylau in 1807 the Russian began their artillery bombardement already
in the morning. The bombardment woke him [Jomini] and he opened his
window to see the sad spectacle of a large number of fugitives from Soults
corps running precipitously down the street. It seemed that there was no
safe place to flee as Russian cannon balls plowed through the streets.
Another imperial aide wrote, Several of our battalions were surprised and
fled in disorder through Eylau, under the impression that they were
pursued. Soldiers running to join their regiments tangled with men who
simply ran in fear. Panic set in. The walking wounded emerged from
Eylaus hospitals to flee in terror as fast as they could limp and crutch.
(Arnold Crisis in the snows p 280)
The Russians then formed
three powerful batteries:
of 70 (72 ?)guns, 60 and 40
guns. French two infantry
divisions under Marshal
Augereau lost according
to Augereau himself 5 200
killed and wounded out of
7 000 ! Augereau was ill,
having had to be helped
onto his horse, and
perhaps for this reason
employed a complex
formation that soon
became lost in the snow.
His VII Army Corps
veered off line and
advanced straight into the
Russian centre.
Meanwhile, St Hilaire's
infantry division,
advancing in the proper direction, was unable to have much effect.
Augereau's corps was almost wiped out. Bennigsen took full advantage;
falling on St Hilaire's division with more cavalry, and bringing up his
reserve infantry to attack the devastated French centre.
(Some military experts consider the allied cavalry charges at Eylau and
Waterloo as their most effective. The timing of the charges was perfect.)
In December 1806 at Pultusk (today town in Poland), a French infantry
division under Gazan advanced against Russian cavalry. The Russians
waited until the enemy came close enough, and then, wheeling leftwards
and rightwards exposed the French to the fire of 70 guns deployed behind
them. Gazan advance was immediately halted until the fire of the artillery
was diverted by d'Aultanne's appearance.
In 1813 at Bautzen "The fine maneuver of (Marshal) Ney
on Preititz was neutralized by a few pieces of Kleist's
Russian artillery, which took his columns in flank, checked
them and decided the marshal to deviate from the excellent
direction he was pursuing. A few pieces of light artillery,
thrown at all hazards upon enemy's flank, may produce
most important results..." (Jomini - "The Art of War")
A Russian officer of this battery wrote in more detail about
this action. "I managed to find an advantageous position to
place our battery. I led it and placed it on a small rise with a marshy valley
in front of it, that protected us from any cavalry charge... Just as our 12
guns took the position, a caisson in the enemy battery exploded from our
second shot. In a few minutes, we silenced 8 French guns and forced them
to draw back...
(Prussian) General Blucher, having seen the successful action
of our battery, sent his ADC to our colonel-lieutenant with
acknowledgements. Encouraged by such attention from the
foreign general, we started to fire obliquely at enemy
columns ...
Marshal Ney, worried by the actions of our battery, and
fearing that our troops, after the taking of the wood, would
be able to outflank him, sent his infantry there. The French rushed into the
woods at a run, dodging and falling from our cannonballs and shells; also
he sent cavalry against us, but the marshy valley prevented them from
attacking our battery. Then he placed a strong battery, and a hot
cannonade started again."
In 1812 at Smolensk, one Russian cannonball hit obliquely a unit of
charging French cavalry. The unit became very confused and fled back in
great disorder. (Muraviev - Memoirs in 'Russkii Arkiv" Book III)
In this battle, von Suckow sees "One platoon of a battalion which had
presented its flank to the Russians, we'd noticed, had lost an entire rank
from a single cannonball - 22 men falling to the same shot."
"Packed together, we formed a sure target for the Russian artillery,
which had ridden up towards us. As usual the Russian gunners were
aiming too high and a lot of their cannonfire passed overhead ... But the
second line, a brigade of Italian horse chasseurs, were worse off; and their
officers were having their hands full getting their men to stay put." ( - a
Bavarian officer, Borodino 1812 )
In 1812 at Borodino a French chasseur regiment stood under Russian
artillery fire for 8 hours and lost only 97 out of 280 men. In the same year,
at Smolensk, 12 Russian guns inflicted 120 casualties on four squares of
French infantry. It took only 3 minutes for the gunners to inflict this kind of
carnage.
During advance against Russian position at Craonne Marshal Victor was
wounded in the thigh and the command devolved on Boyer de Rebeval.
His infantrymen found themselves in the open and under heavy artillery
fire. The young conscripts were shaken. They did not dare either to advance
or to retire. A retirement to the shelter of the wood would have involved a
risk of panic. "The young soldiers behaved better than might have been
expected, but they lost terribly; the 14th Light Infantry Regiment lost 30
officers out of 33, and the regiment was mown down like a field of corn."
In 1805 at Austerlitz, the Russian horse battery advanced against French
infantry formed up across the road to Blaziowitze. The French stood
motionless under the fire of 8 guns firing directly at them. Within moments
400 soldiers were either killed or wounded. General Cafarelli wrote: "Our
soldiers, motionless, endured this fire with the greatest intrepidity."
At Lutzen in 1813, Tsar Alexandr ordered Nikitin to bring 40 horse guns
and batter the French lines, adding, "I will watch your action." Nikitin
brought forward the Lifeguard Horse Company (Battery), 8th Horse
Company (Battery), and part of 1st and 3rd Horse Company. As soon as
the French began wavering, the New Russia Dragoons and Chernighov
Horse Jagers drew sabers and rushed forward. The Prussians seconded
them with the Brandenburg Cuirassiers. The French were broken and 4
guns were captured.
At Reichenbach in 1813, the Russian artillery fired on the Red Lancers.
This bombardement was immediatelly followed by spirited cavalry charge.
The lancers were driven off, lost 5 officers and 176 other ranks as prisoners.
(Bogdanovich - Istoriya Voiny 1813 Goda publ. 1863, Vol I, p 282)
At Krasne in 1812, the gunners of 5th Horse Artillery Company charged
with sabers in hands and captured French battery.
At Etoges in 1814, the French cavalry surrounded a Russian horse
battery. The gunners drew sabers and fought their way through. Their
guns were also saved.
At Borodino in 1812, the line of Russian artillery was extended "as far as
eye could see" and its terrifying fire continued until evening. The
Westphalian infantry found themselves under heavy bombardement and
were shouting "We are not staying here ! We are not staying here !" [Wir
bleiben nicht hier !] Soon there was not much infantry standing around, the
French, Polish and German foot soldiers took cover in the ravines, woods,
and folds of terrain. The elite Vistula Legion, and the infantry of Morand's
and Gerard's divisions were ordered to lie down on the ground while the
officers "awaited death standing."
Murat's cavalry however stood in the open and protected the long line of
French artillery. Benedikt Peter from the Wurttemberg Jger-Regiment zu
Pferd Knig No 4, wrote that Murats cavalry stood behind the artillery.
The French were under heavy cannonade from the Russian guns and
looked like smashed battleship of which only separate and broken parts
are seen on the water.
Alexander Mikaberidze writes [the French cavalry] "... remained exposed to
the Russian artillery for the best part of 3 hours. Polish Colonel
Malachowski [from Polish 14th Cuirassier Regiment] lamented that: 'our
cavalry was exposed to the fire, without taking any precautions against it.
... a hail of cannon-balls reaped men and horses from our lines. The gaps
were filled in with new soldiers, who assumed places of their fallen
comrades.'
Griois was amazed at the sight of 'cannon-balls, bullets,
shells and canister raining down from every direction
and creating large gaps in our [French] cavalry, which
remained exposed and motionless for several hours.' He
could see that 'the plain was covered with the wounded
men making their way back to ambulances and of
riderless horses galloping around in disorder. I noticed
a Wurttemberg (Westphalian ?) cuirassier regiment,
which was particularly hard hit with the enemy
cannon-balls and their helmets and cuirasses kept flying apart in shattered
fragments.'
Combe complained that 'The enemy redoubt directed its main fire against
the artillery deployed on our right flank but some of its guns also targeted
us. Cannon-balls hit us and ricocheted through our ranks, as we stood at
attention with our sabres raised to our epaulettes. We remained in this
terrible position for 6 hours.'
The [horse] carabiniers of the II Cavalry Corps bitterly complained at
having to suffer these casualties. At one moment, the exasperated Sergeant-
Major Ravat shouted, 'Either we charge or we leave the field !' but was
quickly silenced by Captain du Barail's response: 'One more word and I
will break your gob ..." (Mikaberidze - "The battle of Borodino")
Napoleon's army crossing the icy Berezina River in winter 1812.
Russian horse gunners (in helmets) open fire on the French.
Interesting tactics was used by Nikitin in 1814 at Craonne. Mikhailovski-
Danilevski writes: "In the meantime, Sacken had ordered General Nikitin to
draw out the whole artillery, and after allowing the troops to pass, to open
his fire. (...) In the first line of the battery were placed 36 light, and in the
second, at the distance of 60 paces, 28 heavy guns, opposite to the
intervals in the first line. When everything was ready, Sacken ordered
the regiments, as they marched past the guns, to remain on the flanks of
the batteries. As soon as they came in line with the artillery, the
cannonade opened; the first line firing by alternate guns with roundshot
and grape (canister), the second firing in like manner with roundshot
and grenades.
The carnage among the French was now horrible, yet they continued to
advance in close columns along the narrow ridge. The thicker they pressed
on, the greater was the havoc; till at length the slaughter was such that their
advance was impeded by vast heaps of the dead and dying. ... The
cannonade lasted not more than 20 minutes, the enemy having at length
desisted from his attacks: this was about 5 PM in the afternoon. Vorontzov
now sent a part of his corps to Chevregny, and the rest to Laon, where the
whole Army of Silesia had been ordered to concentrate." (Mikhailovski-
Danilevskii - "History of the Campaign in France")
Map: deployment of Russian and French artillery at Borodino in 1812.
Note: some artillery batteries, having exhausted their ammunition, either left their positions or were replaced with reserve artillery.
Some guns were damaged and replaced with new pieces. However, if a battery halted its fire and wanted to withdraw due to heavy
casualties among its crew, it was supplied with infantrymen who had basic artillery training . Mikhail Petrov wrote after Borodino :
" The larger part of its men [ Gulevich's battery ] , halted its fire and wanted to withdraw to the right bank of the stream. Colonel
Karpenko dispatched me with 2 officers and 40 jagers [of 1st Jager Regiment], who were speciafically trained for such incidents at
the division quarters in Slonim before the war. I replenished the battery's crew with these men, which allowed it to continue firing.."
Many gunners in the Redoubt were killed and wounded and the men of the Ufa Infantry Regiment were used to man the cannons.
~
Rockets.
"Following the development and use of military missiles in Europe, the "Rocket
Enterprise" was founded in Moscow around 1680. A signaling rocket developed in
Russia in 1717. According to Russian archival records, in 1732 was produced 20 rocket-
launching devices for the Russian border fortress of Brest. In 1814 I. Kartmazov
reportedly tested battlefield missiles.
In 1815 artillery engineer Alexander Zasyadko developed battlefield missiles for the
Russian army. He also developed techniques for mass production of rockets and led the
formation of the first missile unit in the Russian army around 1827." (source:
www.russianspaceweb.com/rockets)
Sources and Links.
Illustrations by Viskovatov and Parhaiev, Russia
Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows"
Bogdanovich - "Istoria otechestvennoy voiny 1812 goda"
Buturlin - "Histoire Militaire de la Campaigne de 1812"
Clausewitz - "The Campaign of 1812 in Russia"
Davidov - "In the Service of the Tzar against Napoleon..."
Glinka - "Ocherki Borodinskogo Srazhenia" Part I and II
Houssaye - "Napoleon and the Campaign of 1814, France" publ 1914
Kersnovskii - "Istoriya russkoi armii" Vol IV
Kukiel - "Wojna 1812" Krakow 1937
Mihailovski-Danilevski - "Relation de la Campagne de 1805"
Nafziger - "Napoleon at Leipzig" Chicago 1996
Petre - "Napoleons Campaign in Poland, 1806-7"
Smirnov - "Arakcheyevskaya Artilleria" - Reitar Publications 1998
Stein - "Geschichte des Russischen Heeres"
Sytin - "Voennaya Entsiklopediya"
Wilson - "Narrative of Events during the Invasion of Russia"
Yermolov - "Zapiski A.P. Yermolova 1798-1826"
Mikaberidze - "The battle of Borodino"
Redoubts
Russian Guard Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery : Russische Garde : Uniforms : Organization
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Russian_guard.htm[2012-05-21 12:40:41]
Russian Guards of the Napoleonic Wars
"There is, however, a wide difference between the
staple of the Russian army and the Tsar's Guards.
The latter are very select , both cavalry and infantry , nothing indeed, can be superior.
The grenadiers are generally very tall men. The cuirassiers are equally large and stout.
The discipline and well-dressed state of these men are very imposing."
"... a sight too magnificent to be described !"
- Burgresh in 1814
Introduction.
Guard Infantry.
Guard Cavalry.
Guard Artillery.
Decline of the Guard
after the Napoleonic
Wars.
Miscellaneous.
.
.
.
.
At Austerlitz the Lifeguard Horse captured
Eagle of the French 4th Line Infantry Reg.
Picture by Mazurovski.
Introduction.
"It is impossible by any description to give an exaggerated idea of
the perfect state of these troops; their appearance and equipment
were admirable." - General Sir Charles Stewart
Picture: Russian military parade under Tzar Paul, by Benois.
Guard's prestige came from their position of being the monarch's
guard. Decades before the Napoleonic Wars the Russian Guard
served political functions, prepared nobles to officer rank and
provided officers to the army. The Guard was less and less
participating in combat and no guard regiments as such participated
in the bloody Seven Years War against the Prussians. They became
very comfortable in St. Petersburg where they were stationed.
Although not all the guardsmen were nobles, the rest of the army
couldn't compare to them in social tone. With a membership
composed in large part of the blue-blooded sons of the best families,
the well-tailored white and green uniforms, were a frequent sight at
parades and celebrations. The life of private in the guard was more
comfortable than officer's in the army. They were seen outfitted for
sentry duty accompanied by servants bearing their masters'
weapons.
The Guard received the best uniforms, the best weapons and the best
recruits and officers. One Englishman wrote: "... a wide difference
between the staple of the Russian Army and the Tzar's Guards. The
latter are very select, nothing, indeed can be superior. The grenadiers
of the guard are generally very tall men, the discipline and well-
dressed state of these men are very imposing." Sir Robert Wilson
campaigned with the Russians. he writes, "... there cannot be a nobler
corps, or one of more warlike description, and the simplicity of the
dress gives to the man the full character of his figure and mien."
The 'mad' Tsar Paul however disliked the Guards and made several
changes. He imposed discipline and accountability on commanders.
Paul also got rid of officers not on active duty. The Guard had to
learn the Prussian drill, considered as the best in Europe. These
changes made him strongly unpopular in influential military circles.
This is not very surprising that in his murder were involved officers
of the Guard.
Son of Tsar Paul, Alexander, took the Guard into the field. They
participated in every major campaign and gradually became
excellent troops. The Russian Guard had in common several features:
discipline, confidence and a desire to excel in combat. Their
endurance became equaly impressive.
The Guard had no problems with attracting the volunteers. The
officers were drawn from the nobility and were 2 ranks above the
army officers. They were notable for their education, good manners
and were the focal point of the balls and every other kind of society.
There were many officers who had been enlisted in Guard regiments
as children and reached high rank without gaining much experience.
(Goetz - "1805: Austerlitz" p 38)
In 1808 the monarch issued statement that he will not be bothered by
numerous young nobles appearing before Him wishing to be
registered into the Guard but who could not show an attestation
from the director of the First Cadet Corps that they were qualified to
be accepted.
Not only the officers were superb, the privates were fine soldiers as
well. Lord Cathcart wrote in January 1814 that "The reinforcements
which have joined the Russian Guard are very fine, and I have never
seen these regiments appear in so great force, or in better condition,
at any period of the campaign."
In 1805-1807 the privates of Guard were equal to NCOs in army
regiments.
Distinguished NCOs of the Guard were transferred to line regiments
as officers.
The Guards at Austerlitz, Borodino and Leipzig.
Austerlitz
1805
Borodino
1812
Guard Infantry Division - GL Malutin
- - - - 1st Brigade - GM Leontii
Depreradovich-I
- - - - - - - - Preobrazhensk Lifeguard
Regiment [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - Semenovsk Lifeguard
Regiment [2 btns.]
- - - - 2nd Brigade - GM Vasilii Lobanov
- - - - - - - - Izmailovsk Lifeguard
Regiment [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Jgers [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - Life Grenadier Regiment [3
btns.]
- - - - Lifeguard Artillery Battalion - GM
Ivan Kasperski
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Heavy Battery [12
guns]
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Horse Battery [10 ?
guns]
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Light Battery
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Light Battery
Guard Cavalry Division - GL Andrei
Kologrivov
- - - - 1st Brigade - GM Ivan Jankovich
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Cossack Regiment
[5 sq.]
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Hussar Regiment
[5 sq.]
- - - - 2nd Brigade - GM Depreradovich-
II
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Horse Regiment [5
sq.]
- - - - - - - - Guard Cavalry Regiment [5]
For more info
click here (ext.link)
.
V [GUARD] INFANTRY CORPS - GL
LAVROV
Guard Infantry Division - GL Lavrov
- - - - 1st Brigade - GM Baron Rosen-I
- - - - - - - - Preobrazhensk Lifeguard
Regiment [3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - Semenovsk Lifeguard
Regiment [3 btns.]
- - - - 2nd Brigade - Col. Hrapovitzki
- - - - - - - - Izmailovsk Lifeguard
Regiment [3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - Lithuanian Lifeguard
Regiment [3 btns.]
- - - - 3rd Brigade - Col. Baron Bistrom
- - - - - - - - Finnish Lifeguard Regiment
[3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Jger Regiment [3
btns.]
- - - - Lifeguard Artillery Brigade
- - - - - - - - Graf Arakcheiev's Heavy
Battery [12]
- - - - - - - - I Lifeguard Heavy Battery
[12]
- - - - - - - - I Lifeguard Light Battery [12]
- - - - - - - - II Lifeguard Light Battery
[12]
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Equipage [2 guns]
1st Cuirassier Division - GM Borozdin-II
[Depreradovich fell ill, was not present in
battle.]
- - - - 1st Brigade - GM Shevich
- - - - - - - - Guard Cavalry Regiment [4
sq.]
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Horse Regiment [4
sq.]
- - - - 2nd Brigade - GM Borosdin-II
- - - - - - - - His Majesty Cuirassier
Regiment [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - Her Majesty Cuirassier
Regiment [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - Astrakhan Cuirassier
Regiment [4 sq.]
- - - - Lifeguard Horse Artillery - Col.
Kozen
- - - - - - - - I Lifeguard Horse Battery
[12]
- - - - - - - - II Lifeguard Horse Battery
[12]
in I CAVALRY CORPS under GL
UVAROV
- - - - 1st Brigade - GM Chalikov
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Dragoon Regiment
[4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Uhlan Regiment [4
sq.]
- - - - 2nd Brigade - GM Orlov-Denisov
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Hussar Regiment
[4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Cossack Regiment
[4 sq.]
Leipzig
1813
V [GUARD] INFANTRY CORPS - GL YERMOLOV
1st Guard Infantry Division - GM Rosen
- - - - 1st Brigade - GM Prince Potemkin
- - - - - - - - Preobrazhensk Lifeguard Regiment [3 btns.] - Old Guard
- - - - - - - - Semenovsk Lifeguard Regiment [3 btns.] - Old Guard
- - - - 2nd Brigade - GM Baron Bistrom
- - - - - - - - Izmailovsk Lifeguard Regiment [2 btns.] - Old Guard
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Jgers Regiment [2 btns.] - Old Guard
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Marines [1/2 btn.]
2nd Guard Infantry Division - GM Udom
- - - - 1st Brigade - GM Kryzhanovski
- - - - - - - - Lithuania Lifeguard Regiment [2 btns.] - Old Guard
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Grenadier Regiment [2 btns.] - Young Guard
- - - - 2nd Brigade - GM Scheltuchin-II
- - - - - - - - Finnish Lifeguard Regiment [2 btns.] - Old Guard
- - - - - - - - Pavlovsk Grenadier Regiment [2 btns.] - Young Guard
Artillery Reserve
- - - - - - - - II Lifeguard ? Heavy Battery [12 guns]
- - - - - - - - I Lifeguard Light Battery [12 guns]
- - - - - - - - II Lifeguard Light Battery [12 guns]
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Sappers [1 btn.]
In RESERVE CAVALRY CORPS under GL PRINCE GOLITZIN-V
1st Cuirassier Division - GL Depreradovich
- - - - 1st Brigade - GM Arseniev
- - - - - - - - Guard Cavalry Regiment [6 sq.]
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Horse Regiment [6 sq.]
- - - - 2nd Brigade -
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Cuirassier Regiment [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - Tzarina's Cuirassier Regiment [4 sq.]
Guard Light Cavalry Division - GL Shevich
- - - - 1st Brigade - GM Chalikov
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Dragoon Regiment [6 sq.]
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Uhlan Regiment [6 sq.]
- - - - 2nd Brigade -
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Hussar Regiment [6 sq.]
- - - - - - - - Lifeguard Cossack Regiment [5]
- - - - - - - - Black Sea Cossacks [1]
Artillery Reserve
- - - - - - - - I Lifeguard Horse Battery [12 guns]
- - - - - - - - II Lifeguard Horse Battery [12 guns]
- - - - - - - - Horse Battery [12 guns]
~
Guard Infantry.
" The Prussians are excellent troops ,
but after seeing the Russian foot guard
I cannot look at them."
- Eyewitness in 1814
In 1800 the Guard infantry
comprised of only four units:
- Preobrashensk Lifeguard
Grenadier Regiment [4 battalions]
- Semenovsk Lifeguard
Grenadier Regiment [3 battalions]
- Ismailovsk Lifeguard Grenadier
Regiment [3 battalions]
- Lifeguard Jgers [1 battalion]
In the end of XVIII century the
Guard infantry was more
preoccupied with parades and
power struggle in St. Petersburg
than with glory on the battlefield.
It all changed in 1805.
At Austerlitz
in 1805, the
French
infantry
divison under Rivaud (3 battalions of 8th Line, 3 of
45th Line and 3 of 54th Line Infantry) met four
battalions of the Russian Guard Infantry. "As the
Russian Guard approached, Constantine ordered
the four battalions of Preobrazhensky and
Semenovsky to fix bayonets and charge the French. At 300 paces, the
Russian guardsmen, surged forward with their customary 'urrah !' This
charge, launched at too great distance, met with Rivaud's seasoned
troops who deployed and stood to receive the attack. The skirmishers
that Rivaud had deployed in front of his first line were swept away by
by the charge, but the Russian troops were winded by the time they
reached the main French line and the French fire inflicted heavy losses.
Despite this, the three battalions of Rivaud's first line were driven back
on the second line of battalions where the impetus of the Russian attack
was halted. Colonel Rall, commanding the Russian Guard position
battery, advanced his guns in support of the infantry. Before he could
get them into position, however, Constantine received word of
Kutuzov's orders for a general withdrawal from the heights. ... By
around 12:30, the Russian Guard infantry, covered by their cavalry and
the (Austrian) kaiser Cuirassier Regiment had disengaged, reformed,
and set off for Krenowitz." (Goetz - "1805: Austerlitz" p 188)
By 2 PM
however, the
overall situation
of the Russo-
Austrian army
was very
desperate. Most
of the allied
troops were
routed and
fleeing. Part of Russian Guard Infantry (5-6 battalions) reached the
bridge over the Rausnitz Stream at Krenowitz in good order and had
deployed in line. Four or five battalions stood 400 paces from the bridge
while one battalion (Lifeguard Jagers) had occupied Krenowitz. Behind
the Guard Infantry a mass of stragglers streamed toward the bridge.
While the skirmishers of Drouet's infantry division opened fire on the
Guard, one battery of Guard Horse Artillery arrived and unlimbered not
far from the Russians. Soon the Preobrashensk Lifeguard suffered
serious casualties.
In about the same time two battalions of the Semenovsk Lifeguard were
attacked by French cavalry under Dahlmann and Rapp. "Although
Dahlmann is not specifically mentioned in French accounts, it seems his
squadrons were unable to make any headway against the
3rd/Semenovsky. A lieutenant of the Mamelukes, however, managed to
hack his way into the square of the 1st/Semenovsky, suffering multiple
bayonet wounds and having his horse killed beneath him. His comrades
immediately exploited the breach in the square, breaking it and sending
the battalion fleeing toward Krenowitz, leaving 10 men and their
battalion standard in the hands of the mamelukes.
The hole left in the Russian line by the rout of the 1st/Semenovsky
necessitated a general retreat and the remaining battalions began filing
down the slope, still harassed by Drouet's skirmishers on their left and
now Rivaud's arriving on their right. The 3rd/Ismailovsky had already
crossed the Reusnitz Brook along with 3 of Kostenetsky's guns, taking
position on the heights on the opposite side. The light guns
accompanying the infantry also seemed to have crossed to the elft bank
by this point except for the 1 gun with the Semenovsky Regiment that
had been taken by the French. The infantry, however, were suffering
from the steady fire of the French skirmishers and horse artillery. In
addition, the French Guard cavalry still roamed nearby, waiting for
opportunities to charge when they could catch the Russian Guard
infantry unprepared." (Goetz - "1805: Austerlitz" p 229)
But in general the Russian Guards (infantry, cavalry, artillery) fared
much better than the rest of the Allied army at Austerlitz. French
records indicate a total of only 110 prisoners taken from the Guards
while Russian returns give additional 607 casualties. This represents
very small percentage of the forces most heavily engaged. In all, the
allied armies had lost 27,000 killed and wounded and prisoners, which
was almost 40 % of their effectives ! (For the French the losses amounted
to 15 % of their army).
In 1806 was raised Lifeguard Jger Regiment [2 battalions] from:
- Lifeguard Jager Battalion
- detachment of Semenovsk Lifeguard Grenadier Regiment
- detachment of Ismailovsk Lifeguard Grenadier Regiment
- "Gatchina Company"
In early June 1807 the Guard infantry took part in combats near
Gutschadt and Altkirchen.
Most of the Guard units were present at Heilsberg. On 14th June 1807
the Guard took part
in the battle of Friedland.
The privates of Guard infantry were strong, handsome and tall men. In
1806 -1807 the minimum height requirement for guardsmen was 171 cm,
while for the recruits entering the army infantry only 155 cm.
In 1808 was raised Guard Militia Battalion. It was formed from peasants
of Tsar's estates.
Several battalions of Guard infantry participated in the war with
Sweden in 1809.
In February 1811 the Preobrazhensk, Semenovsk and Ismailovsk
Lifeguard Grenadier Regiment changed their organization; each
battalion now comprised of 1 grenadier and 3 fusilier companies. All
companies however still wore red shoulder straps and tall black plumes
of grenadiers.
In March was ordered that every year each grenadier regiment has to
send to St. Petersburg the smartest and most knowledgeable men with
good character (4 grenadiers and 2 strelki per grenadier regiment) chosen
from their veterans.
French cuirassier
In 1811 two new regiments were formed, the Lifeguard Finnish and the
Lifeguard Lithuanian.
"In 1811 the Finland Guard Regiment became a light regiment." (Nafziger
- "Napoleon's Invasion of Russia" p 79, 1998)
In 1812 the Guard infantry consisted of six units:
- Preobrashensk Lifeguard Infantry Regiment
- Semenovsk Lifeguard Infantry Regiment
- Ismailovsk Lifeguard Infantry Regiment
- Lifeguard Jgers Regiment
- Lithuanian Lifeguard Infantry Regiment
- Finnish Lifeguard Infantry Regiment
Picture: Russian Guard infantry in 1812.
In 1812 the Guard infantry covered themselves
with glory. General Kutusov praised them highly
in his report: "The Izmailovsk and the Lithuanian
Regiments covered themselves with glory in full
view of the whole army." Colonel of this unit,
after losing 777 men, wrote: "The enemy fire
destroyed our ranks, but failed to produce any
disorder among the men. The lines simply closed
up again and maintained discipline as coolly as
if they had been on a musketry exercise." After
Borodino they were awarded with St. George's
Color.
French officer witnessed the Russian Guard
infantry in Borodino "...emerged into the open
terrain, our canister knocked them down, but
these brave warriors let nothing bother them and
continued to come at us as before." (Pelet -
"Memoirs sur les Guerres de Napoleon Depuis 1796 Jusqu'en 1815" p 247)
Colonel Alexander Kutuzov (not General Kutusov, the commander-
in-chief) writes, Arriving there, we fully experienced the severity of the
enemy canister fire. Colonel Hrapovitsky, who remained in front of
the troops, ordered the [three battalion] columns to deploy en echeque.
the enemy, trying in vain to defeat our regiment, increased the artillery
fire, and although it devastated our ranks, it failed to produce any
disorder among the men Soon, the enemy cavalry appeared to the
right from us and forced the I Battalion to leave its position in en
echeque and line up with the columns of the II and III Battalions. At the
same time, Colonel Hrapovitsky ordered columns to form squares
against the cavalry.
The enemy cuirassiers made a vigorous
attack but quickly paid a heavy price for
their audacity. All squares, acting with
firmness, opened fire and delivered
battalion volleys from the lateral faces. The
enemy's armour proved to be a weak
defence against our fire and added no
courage to them. The cavalrymen quickly
showed us their backs and fled in disorder.
A fresh cavalry made of horse grenadiers
[carabiniers ?] tried to remedy the failure of
the attack but was received in the same
manner, and fled back in shame.
Around 12 p.m. our gallant
commander Colonel Hrapovitsky
was wounded in the thigh and
ankle by canister Shortly before
that Colonel Kozlyaninov, the acting commander of the regiment, was
also wounded by canister. After the enemy cavalry was repelled, the
enemy resumed artillery fire and his canister showered our immobile
columns. On General Konovnitzin's order, Colonel Musin-Pushkin
dispatched the III Battalion to occupy the heights to the left. Led by
Captain Martynov, the III Battalion captured these heights and sent out
skirmishers. Captain Martynov was wounded and his successor Staff
Captain Katenin, received order from General Vasilchikov, to make an
oblique movement forward and march to cover a battery deployed on
battalions right flank, about 200 paces away.
The enemy artillery fire, which was directed at that battery, did not
prevent our column from accomplishing this mission in complete order.
While the III Battalion was accomplishing these feats, General
Konovnitsyn, remaining with us and sharing the same dangers, ordered
to have the columns of the I and II Battalions deployed in oblique
and then formed squares against cavalry. The French cavalry again
resumed its charges but was repulsed by the crossfire of these two
battalions. The cavalry did not dare to harass our battalions ever since
and only observed us from a distance. The French artillery, however,
inflicted horrible casualties on us, but the approaching enemy
skirmishers were driven back on multiple occasions. Around 5 p.m.
Colonel Musin-Pushkin was wounded in the chest and I assumed the
command of both the regiment and brigade." (- Colonel Alexander
Kutuzov to Lavrov, 1 [13] September 1812)
"The French blasted canister at us and then their cuirassiers charged.
Our battalions were formed in squares, and they surrounded us on all
sides. We allowed them to come closer and then fired at 50 paces, killing
and wounding many of them. We shouted Urrahhh! and charged the
cavalry with bayonets. The [French] cuirassiers fled." (- an officer of
Lithuanian Lifeguard Regiment)
Officer Udom writes, the Lifeguard Lithuanian Regiment was sent
to the Second Western Army of General of Infantry Prince Bagration
near the village [of Semeyonovskoie] On regiment's arrival to this
site, the enemy made a strong attack on our battery and, upon being
informed by Artillery Colonel Taube, I led the II Battalion of the
regiment and drove the enemy back, which, however, was soon
reinforced and compelled our entire line to retreat for 50 paces. The
enemy showered us with cannonballs and canister and attacked with
cavalry. My three battalions were arranged in squares awaiting cavalry
and despite being surrounded by a superior enemy, they met him
gallantly.
They allowed the French [cavalry] to approach to close range before
delivering a battalion volley, and, yelling 'Hurrah!'; they drove the
enemy, inflicting heavy losses. Our soldiers were so incensed that no
prisoners were taken. We lost no wounded on that occasion. The enemy
made a second attack on the regiment, but was met with equal
courage and fled to the right, while the height was occupied by the
enemy skirmishers. To counter them, I dispatched the II Battalion to
drive the enemy back and capture the heights. Although this was
accomplished with considerable success, the enemy was reinforced with
several columns in this direction and supported the skirmishers, which
made it impossible for my regiment to capture the heights. I was
wounded in the right hand by a bullet. So the regiment was left in the
hands of Lt. Col. Schwartz, [he] charged with the I Battalion to the
mentioned heights and, having sent out skirmishers, he captured it. Both
sides suffered heavy casualties ... The enemy, meantime, was reinforced
again.
My regiment had lost too many people by now and on the order of
General Vasilchikov the regiment retreated, fighting back, to the
woods, where it dispatched skirmishers for cover and then joined a
battalion of the Lifeguard Izmailovsk Regiment. In this battle, the
regiment had 143 NCOs, 53 musicians, 1,543 privates, 1 non-combatant.
The regiment lost up to 400 killed and about 443 wounded, with 130
missing in action. (- Udom to Lavrov, 31 August [12 Sept] 1812 Borodino)
Lifeguard Lithuanian Regiment vs French cuirassiers at Borodino, by Chagadayev.
The Russian Foot Guard allowed the French cuirassiers to approach before firing
and engaging them. Many of the cavalrymen remained on the field while "the
few survivors were captured, disarmed and placed in the middle of the square."
(- A. Marin)
"The French cavalry again resumed its charges but was repulsed by the crossfire
of these 2 battalions. The cavalry did not dare to harass our battalions ever since
and only observed us from a distance . The French artillery , however , inflicted
horrible casualties on us."
At Krasne in 1812, the Lifeguard Jager Regiment captured hundreds of
prisoners.
In April 1813 the Life Grenadier Regiment (Tzar's Own Grenadiers, His
Majesty Grenadiers)
was admitted into the guard and renamed to Lifeguard Grenadier
Regiment.
Also the famous Pavlovsk Grenadier Regiment became guard.
In 1813 the Guard infantry consisted of:
- Preobrazhensk Lifeguard Infantry Regiment - status of Old Guard
- Semenovsk Lifeguard Infantry Regiment - status of Old Guard
- Ismailovsk Lifeguard Infantry Regiment - status of Old Guard
- Lithuanian Lifeguard Infantry Regiment - status of Old Guard
- Finnish Lifeguard Infantry Regiment - status of Old Guard
- Lifeguard Jager Regiment - status of Old Guard
- Lifeguard Grenadier Regiment - status of Young or New Guard
- Pavlovsk Lifeguard Grenadier Regiment - status of Young or New
Guard
- Guard Marine Battalion was formed from the Equipage of the Guard
Battalion.
They were classified and uniformed like jgers, in contrast to the line
marine regiments classified as line infantry.
- Guard Sapper Battalion was classified as jgers, although they wore
white leather carbine and pouch belts and white trousers in winter like
the line infantry. To make things more complicated their shako cords
and shoulder straps were these of heavy infantry and gunners, red.
- Guard Garrisson Battalion
The campaigns in 1812, 1813 and 1814 were a glory time for the Guard
infantry.
They fought well at Leipzig and Kulm.
At Kulm, one French battalion and one of Lifeguard Izmailovsk
Infantry Regiment advanced against each other. Both units were formed
in columns and were covered with skirmishers. Although the French
skirmishers pushed back the Russian skirmishers it made no impression
on the Russian column. The guardsmen "marched with the bayonet, a
loud urrah ! preceded this, their commander rode ahead; the French
turned and fled." The Russians caught up with a large number of the
French near a brook among brush "where the French, having crowded,
fell on one another." Officer Shimanski wrote, "Here I saw, for the first
time how they were punished by bayonets." (- Memoirs of L. A.
Shimanski)
After Kulm the Austrian Emperor, Francis II
(see picture), was so impressed with the valor
of the Russian Guard that he ordered to build a
monument to salute them.
On the first day of the battle of Leipzig, the
Lifeguard Jagers were given the honor of being
the spearhead of a new attack on the
Guldengossa village. In the distance, to the left
of the guardsmen, deployed the II Battalion
from the Prussian 7th Reserve Infantry
Regiment led by Major Schutter, and to the
right the Fusilier Battelion from the 2nd West
Prussian Infantry Regiment commanded by
Major Hund. Behind these troops 4 battalions of Russian Foot Guard
and 4 battalions of Russian grenadiers marched. The Lifeguard Jagers
entered Gulden Gossa with brave General Bistrom (he was slightly
stuttering) taking up the front. They entered the streets, clambered over
the wounded and killed which carpeted the ground, their drummers
loudly beating the pace. The French rapidly fell back. The Russians and
Prussians continued their pursuit out of the village and across the fields
and didn't cease until they noticed Murat's cuirassiers moving south.
The French counterattacked and retook Gulden Gossa. Then Raievski,
"the Monument of 1812" and "the Hero of Borodino", rode to the Guard
Infantry. The bandage that covered his head wound was blood stained.
He shouted to the guardsmen, "I will lead you !" and they responded
with thunderous cheers. Raievski took four regiments (Pavlovsk,
Grenadiers, Jagers, and Finnish) and stormed the University Wood.
They were followed by von Jagow's 3 Prussian battalions and 2
battalions of Russian grenadiers. In the lead of this strong force marched
the Lifeguard Jagers, followed by the Lifeguard Grenadiers. The French
hurriedly fell back towards Liebertwolkwitz. There were quite heavy
casulaties on both sides with Generals Maison and Raievski being
among the wounded.
It was the Young Guard and Maison's 16th Division attempting to take
the village the next time. Maison had said to his soldiers: "The decisive
hour has now arrived for France. This evening we must either win or all
die !" The young soldiers suffered badly from Russian artillery fire but
held their ground until two regiments of Russian 2nd Guard Division
and two grenadier regiments came and dislodged them. The situation
worsened for the French after 12 Russian horse guns opened fast fire on
their flank. Behind the guns was Pahlen's cavalry corps (uhlans, hussars
and Cossacks). Russian 2nd Cuirassier was deployed in front of
Stormthal.
About 5 pm the French again attacked Gulden-Gossa. Maison's 16th
Division fought particularly well. They crossed bayonets with Russian
guardsmen and were decimated by the artillery. Several battalions of
Prussian infantry and Russian grenadiers attacked them. The fighting
was ferocious, Maison was almost captured and barely escaped, and
Raievski was wounded again.
Picture:
Allies
enter
Paris in
1814, by
Weygand.
In 1814
the
Russian
Guard
infantry
was
present in the battle of Paris and afterwards set their tents around
Napoleon's Palace of Tuilleries.
In August 1818, the Guard had the 25-year term of service shortened by
3 years in recognition of their special service duties and their deeds
during the wars.
.
.
Chefs and colonels.
RANKS: GL - Gieneral-Leitnant, GM - Gieneral-Major, Plk. - Polkovnik (Colonel)
Pplk. - Podpolkovnik (Lieutenant-Colonel), Mjr. - Major
Regiment Chef (Shef) Colonel (Polkovnik)
Lifeguard
Preobrazhensk
Leib-gvardii
Preobrazhenskii
Tsar Alexander
1803-1807 GL Graf Petr Tolstoi
1807-1810 GM Mihail
Kozlovski-I
18010-1812 Plk. Baron Egor
Drizen
1812-1820 GM (GL in 1813)
Baron Grigorii Rosen-II
Lifeguard
Semenovsk
Leib-gvardii Semenovskii
1802-1808 GM Nikolai
Zubov
1808-1815 Plk.
Meshcheriakov
1804-1806 Mjr. Petr Strashnikov
1811-1815 Pplk. Petr Loeble
Lifeguard
Izmailovsk
Leib-gvardii Izmailovskii
Grand Duke Nikolai
1799-1808 GL Petr Malutin
1808-1811 GM Pavel Bashutzki
1811-1818 Plk. (GM in 1812)
Matvei Hrapovitzki
Lifeguard Jgers
Leib-gvardii Yegerskii
1806-1812 GL Prince Petr
Bagration
1813-1830 Grand Duke
Constantine
1806-1809 Plk. Graf Emmanuel
de St.Priest-I
1809-1821 Plk. (GM in 1812)
Karl Bistrom
Lifeguard
Lithuanian
Leib-gvardii Litovskii
1815 Grand Duke
Constantine
1811-1817 Plk. (GM in 1812)
Ivan Udom
Lifeguard Finnish
Leib-gvardii Finliandskii
Grand Duke Constantine
1811-1816 Plk. (GM in 1813)
Maxim Kryzhanovski
Lifeguard
Grenadiers
Leib-gvardii Grenadierskii
In April 1813 the Life
Grenadiers
became Lifeguard
Grenadiers
Tsar Alexander
1799-1807 GM Vasilii Lobanov
1807-1808 Plk. Alexander
Zielenin
1808-1809 GM Vasilii Lobanov
1809-1817 GL Graf Pavel
Stroganov
Lifeguard
Pavlovsk
Grenadier
Leib-gvardii Pavlovskii
Grenad.
In April 1813 the
Pavlovsk Grenadiers
became Lifeguard
Pavlovsk Grenadiers
1803-1807 GM Nikolai
Mazovski
1807-1813 GM (GL in 1812)
Dmitrii Neverovski
1813-1815 GM Petr Makarov
Tzvileniev-I
Lohov
1810 Mjr. Ivan Mohov
1810-1812 Mjr. (Pplk. in 1811)
Petr Tarnovski
1812-1813 Plk. Egor Rihter
1813-1815 Plk. Petr Tarnovski
Uniforms of Guard Infantry in 1800
The guardsmen wore uniforms resembling those of the line.
Additionally their collars bore 2 yellow lace loops (petlizi) and 3 such
loops on each cuff flap. Their cartridge boxes bore the star of St.
Andrew with 4 grenades in the corners of the flap. Officers' gorgets
bore regimental battle honors.
Regiment Mustaches
Drum-
sticks
Coats Breeches
Collars
Cuffs
Pipping
Leather
belts
Preobrazhensk
Lifeguard
Regiment
straight * coffee green white
red
red
red
white
Semenovsk
Lifeguard
Regiment
twirled
up *
black green white
blue
blue
red
white
Izmailovsk
Lifeguard
Regiment
twriled
down *
white green white
d.green
d.green
red
white
Lifeguard
Jagers
no
mustaches
no
drums
green white black
* - the thing with mustaches was soon discontinued
=
Uniforms of Guard Infantry in 1812
Pictures by Andre Jouineau, France.
- Preobrazhensk
Lifeguard Regiment (left),
- Semenovsk Lifeguard
Regiment (center),
- Finnish Lifeguard
Regiment (right)
The Preobrazhensk
Regiment was the senior
regiment of Russian
infantry. Tzar Peter the
Great formed this unit in
1695 and they were the
first unit organized in
modern European style.
During the Napoleonic
Wars Tzar Alexander
often wore their uniform,
for example in 1807 during
the signing of Peace
Treaty at Tilsit. (Davidov -
"In the Service of the Tzar against
Napoleon:the memoirs of Denis
Davidov ..." 1999, p 58)
~
Guard Cavalry
Colonel Pourailly inexplicably ordered the 24th Light Infantry Regiment
to deploy
both battalions in line despite the presence of cavalry . The Lifeguard
Horse s t r u c k
the French on their left, while the Lifeguard Hussars attacked their right.
The French
broke and fled, abandoning their Eagle that, unseen, was trampled under
the hooves
and feet.
The fleeing infantry passed through Napoleon's Headquarters in their
panic flight.
De Segur writes: "The unfortunate fellows were quite distracted with fear
and could
listen to nothing ; . . . they shouted mechanically 'Vive l'Empereur !' while
they fled
faster than ever."
The Guard cavalry consisted of all branches of cavalry. The cuirassiers
wore white uniforms, the dragoons and horse jagers wore green, the
uhlans wore dark blue, and the hussars and Cossacks wore red coats.
During the Austerlitz Campiagn in 1805 the Guard cavalry comprised of:
- Guard Cavalry Regiment (Chevaliers Garde, Kavallergarde)
- Lifeguard Horse Regiment (Horse Guard, Garde du Corps, Garde zu
Pferde)
- Lifeguard Hussars
- Lifeguard Cossacks
At Austerlitz, the Guard Cavalry Regiment (Chevaliers Garde) were
defeated by arguably the best heavy cavalry in the world, Napoleon's
Guard Horse Grenadiers. In another encounter the Lifeguard Hussars
delivered a volley at the charging French Guard Horse Chasseurs but
were ovethrown. The Lifeguard Horse however enjoyed a great success.
They have captured Eagle and flag of the French 4th Line Infantry
Regiment (its chef was Napoleon's brother) and routed several infantry
units.
Article:
"Napoleon's Guard Cavalry vs Tzar's Guard Cavalry."
(Austerlitz, The Battle of Three Emperors, 1805.)
The Russian Guard cavalry participated in the campaign in Eastern
Prussia in 1806-1807. Although there were many young men in the ranks,
the veterans already made the majority. Officer D.V. Davydov wrote in
his autobiography that when he was accepted into the Guard cavalry "he
smelled like milk while the guardsmen smelled like from gunpowder." :-)
Picture: the Lifeguard Horse routing French cuirassiers at Friedland in
1807. Picture by Viktor Mazurovsky.
At Friedland in 1807, General Bisons infantry division was formed in two
lines of battalion columns, which were in the act of forming squares when
the Russian cavalry and Guard cavalry struck them with impetuosity.
The French fled to the rear with little or no resistance to the Russians.
Seeing the panick, General Marchands infantry division lost their cool too
and raced to the woods. Only three infantry regiments were able to
form squares and stand firm amid the chaos. According to Shikanov, it
was the Russian guard cavalry and Cossacks who attacked Marchands
division and Latour-Mauborgs dragoon division.
The 69th Line Infantry was swept away and its both battalion
commanders, the regimental commander Colonel Frirjon, and many
officers were the casualties. Other regiments panicked. Only the
counterattack conducted by Latour-Mauborgs dragoons and the
approach of Duponts infantry saved them from a total destruction. The
Eagle-bearer of 69th was sabered but falling down he covered the Eagle
with his body. The Russians somehow didnt pick it up or maybe there
was no time to do it as the French dragoons soon counterattacked. Later
on on this area was Russian Pernau Infantry and they found the Eagle.
The French sources also claim that the 69th Line was destroyed by cavalry
and not by infantry.
Shortly before Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, was issued an order
that all army cavalry regiments will supply the best soldiers to the
cuirassiers and to the guard cavalry. This process was under way already
after 1806-1807 campaign. When there were not enough veterans, recruits
filled the ranks. For example, in 1814 one squadron of the Lifeguard Horse
Regiment was formed entirely of recruits.
Lwenstern described a review of cavalry regiments in which participated
Tzar Alexander, his brother Constantine and General Uvarov. The Tzar
began selecting the best hussars and dragoons. According to Lwenstern
all the selected men looked very healthy and beautiful. Only one man was
selected from Lowenstern's Soumy Hussar Regiment into the prestigous
Guard Cavalry Regiment (Chevaliers). The best of the picked men were
taken into Lifeguard Dragoon Regiment. Only few joined the Lifeguard
Uhlans and Lifeguard Horse. The worst (physically) of the selected men,
according to Lowenstern, went into the Lifeguard Hussars.
At Borodino the Guard Cavalry (Chevaliers) stood in squadron columns
with intervals; in the first line were I and IV Squadron, and in the second
the III and V. The Lifeguard Horse was deployed to the left of the Guard
Cavalry. Its four (I, III, IV, V) squadrons were formed in one line,
squadron by squadron with intervals. When the trumpets crashed out
with brazen voice the two regiments began their magnificient advance
against the Saxon cuirassiers.
Two small squadrons of Polish cuirassiers moved to the right in an
attempt to protect the flank of Saxon cuirassier against the Guard Cavalry
Regiment (Chevaliers). The fighting itself took place on a rye field and the
onrush on both sides was so terrific that some of the most forward horses
and men went down like poppies in a hurricane. The Saxons and Poles
were utterly discomfited. They were pursued until the positions of the
French artillery and to make things worse the fleeing Saxon Zastrow
cuirassiers were mistakenly attacked by the French horse carabiniers.
In 1813 the regiments that were admitted into the Guard before 1813 were
named Old Guard. Those admitted in 1813 were called Young (or New)
Guard.
The guardsmen in the Old Guard were two ranks above the army and
those in the Young (New) Guard were one rank above the army
counterparts. The Old and Young Guard filled their ranks the same way.
In 1814 the Lifeguard Horse Jager Regiment was formed in ... Paris.
It became one of the favorite units of the monarch.
In Spring 1814 the Guard cavalry comprised of:
- Guard Cavalry Regiment (Chevaliers Garde, Kavallergarde)
- Lifeguard Horse Regiment (Horse Guard, Garde du Corps, Garde zu
Pferde)
- Lifeguard Dragoon Regiment
- Lifeguard Uhlan Regiment
- Lifeguard Horse Jager Regiment
- Lifeguard Hussar Regiment
- Lifeguard Cossack Regiment
There was also the Black Sea Cossack sotnia and the Lifeguard Ural
sotnia.
The Lifeguard Ural sotnia remained in Russia for guarding the palaces at
Petersburg during the wars of 1812-1815.
The Guard Cavalry enjoyed several successes during the Campaign of
France in 1814. On March 13th (25th) 1814 Pahlen outflanked the left wing
of the French near Lenharre, while General Depreradovich moved
against their right flank. The spearhead of the attacking force was formed
by the Lifeguard Uhlans having behind the Guard Cavalry (Chevaliers).
The uhlans in the instant broke the French cavalry led by Bordesoulle and
rushed in pursuit. The uhlans captured 6 guns, the Guard Cavalry
(Chevaliers) also took 6 guns, while the Lifeguard Horse captured 3 guns.
We found the following names for
this cuirassier regiment:
Guard Cavalry Regiment
Gentlemen of the Guard
French: Chevaliers Garde
German: Kavallergarde
Russian: Kavalergradski Polk
Russian: Kavalergardy
Chef: General-Lieutenant Fedor P.
Uvarov (General of Cavalry in Oct
1813).
Sometimes Tsar Alexander is given
as the "First Chef" and Uvarov as
the Second Chef.
Commander: General-Major Nikolai
I. Depreradovich (in Aug 1813 GL)
This regiment was formed in 1796
during the reign of Tsar Paul as
Kavalergradski Korpus and in March
1800 became regiment. It was the most popular regiment among the
Russian aristocrats. Tsar Alexander sometimes wore their uniform,
for example during Allies entry to Paris in 1814. (Sources however
disagree on this matter.)
Despite the fact that this unit was raised 80 years after the Lifeguard
Horse Regiment (Horse Guard, see below), it became the most
prestigious regiment. This fact caused a bitter rivalry between the two
regiments.
Tzar's brother, Grand Duke Constantine
(commander of the Imperial Guard) hated the
pampered Guard Cavalry Regiment since its
officers were involved in the plot and killing of his
father Tzar Paul. Some of the privates who came
from gentry fancied well shaved faces. It angered
Grand Duke Constantine. In 1802 was issued order
to the squadron commanders of this regiment: "...
and control very strictly that privates and NCOs
though they came from gentry all have mustaches, and if somebody
cannot have the nature ones, he must use false mustaches." :-)
When in March 1812 the two regiments marched out of St. Petersburg
to join the army, the Guard Cavalry Regeiment wore their
voluminous greatcoats while the Lifeguard Horse outshined them by
wearing the outfits prescribed rather for parade than for marching.
According to the wish of Constantine, their weapons and equipment,
as well their horses, had to be kept in the highest possible cleanness.
For this order were made responsible the squadron commanders and
in case of failing they would make all the march on foot.
In February 1813 when Tzar Alexander ordered new field uniforms
has to be issued, the Lifeguard Horse without waiting for
implementation of this order dressed themselves from the money
given by Grand Duke Constantine. They again looked better than the
Chevaliers ! In December 1813 Constantine remarked that the
Chevaliers had their horses dirty and weapons not polished, and
even their mustaches were out of shape !
Despite the rivalry, the two regiments were brigaded together.
They often formed the 1st Brigade of 1st Cuirassier Division.
The Guard Cavalry Regiment went to Austerlitz without any battle
experience and were soundly defeated by Napoleon's Guard Horse
Grenadiers (all battle hardened veterans, many awarded for bravery).
At Austerlitz the Chevaliers wore no armor. They received cuirasses
in 1812.
The Chevaliers were not present neither in the blood-bath in Eylau
nor in Heilsberg. At Friedland in 1807, the Guard Cavalry Regiment
(Chevaliers) advanced against the Dutch 2nd Cuirassiers and some
lovely fighting along the line developed. Both troops wore no armor
and for a while the fight was stationary. The Russians lost Colonel
Ozharovski-II and 52 men, while the Dutch suffered somehow
heavier casualties, incl. Ltn-Col. van Langen. The Dutch couldn't take
any more and fled. (In 1810 the 2nd Dutch Cuirassiers was renamed
the 14e Rgiment de Cuirassiers and taken into French service.)
At Borodino in 1812, the Guard Cavalry Regiment (Chevaliers) and
the Lifeguard Horse (Horse Guards) defetaed the Saxon cuirassiers.
Their courage and demeanor under artillery fire put credit on them.
They were awarded with St. George standard for the campign of
1812.
At Conantray in 1814, the Guard Cavalry Regiment (Chevaliers)
routed the veteran French "Spanish dragoons."
At Fre Champenoise they executed the final charge that broke
Pacthod's infantry. According to French writer, Henry Houssaye, it
was here where they became enraged at the French who shot at
Russian messengers. Houssaye wrote that the guardsmen rushed
upon the French and were sabering them down until the Tsar with
officers intervened and with some difficulties stopped the slaughter.
Mihailovski-Danilevski mentions only the final charge, breaking the
square and taking prisoners. The Guard Cavalry Regiment
(Chevaliers) was awarded with 15 St. George trumpets for Fre
Champenoise.
Battle of Fere Champenoise, France 1814, by O Parkhaiev.
Chevaliers Garde vs French infantry formed in squares.
We found the following names for
this cuirassier regiment:
Lifeguard Horse Regiment
Horse Guard
French: Garde-a-Cheval, Garde du
Corps
German: Garde zu Pferde
Russian: Leib-gvardii Konnyi Polk
Russian: Konnaia Gvardia
Chef: Grand Duke Constantine
(Tzar Alexander's brother).
Commander: 1803-1811 General-
Major Ivan F. Yankovich,
Commander: Feb. 1813 - General-
Major M. A. Arseniev
This regiment was formed in 1721
from Prince Menshikov's Dragoons
and was the senior regiment of
cavalry until the Guard Cavalry
Regiment (Chevaliers) were formed.
Then the Lifeguard Horse was ordered to sent "their best men" as an
help in forming the new unit. It angered Grand Duke Constantine,
who was the chef of the Lifeguard Horse. From that time irreconcible
enmity against Uvarov and his Chevaliers was born in the hearts
Constantine and his Lifeguard Horse.
At Austerlitz the Lifeguard Horse captured Eagle of I Battalion of 4th
Line Infantry Regiment while in the same battle their rivals, the
pampered Chevaliers lost one entire squadron. The Lifeguard Horse
also overran the II Battalion of the 24th Lgre whose Eagle was
nearly captured. (Colonel Pourailly inexplicably ordered the 24th
Light Infantry Regiment to deploy both battalions in line despite the
presence of cavalry . The Lifeguard Horse struck the French on their
left, while the Lifeguard Hussars attacked their right. The French
broke and fled, abandoning their Eagle that, unseen, was trampled
under the hooves and feet. The fleeing infantry passed through
Napoleon's Headquarters in their panic flight. De Segur writes: "The
unfortunate fellows were quite distracted with fear and could listen
to nothing ; . . . they shouted mechanically 'Vive l'Empereur !' while
they fled faster than ever.")
They were awarded with a standard for their performance at
Austerlitz.
In 1806-1807 the Lifeguard Horse Regiment was at Heilsberg and at
Friedland where they defeated a "hollandish" regiment. General
Yermolov in his memoirs also mentions that they made attempt to
attack a French artillery battery but without success.
At Borodino in 1812, the Lifeguard Horse and the Chevaliers defeated
the Saxon cuirassiers.
In April 1813, the Lifeguard Horse was awarded with new St. George
standards for war of 1812. These standards bore inscription "For
capturing enemy standard at Austerlitz and for distinction in
repulsing the enemy from Russia in 1812."
During the campaign in Germany in 1813, the Lifeguard Horse were
present in Lutzen, Bautzen, Dresden, Kulm and Leipzig.
In 1814 at Fre Champenoise, the French infantry was formed in
squares and their cavalry masked 6 guns. Grand Duke Constantine
arrived and ordered the Lifeguard Horse to attack. These sturdy men
thundered forward, broke the French cavalry, 4 of the six guns, and
attacked one of the squares. The infantry broke and fled in all
directions making Constantine extatic. The Lifeguard Horse were
awarded with 22 St. George trumpets for Fre Champenoise. For their
loyalty and service the monarch awarded them with St. Andrew Star
on their shabraques.
The Lifeguard Horse present the captured French Color to the Tzar.
Picture by Viktor Mazurovsky, Russia.
Lifeguard Dragoon Regiment
German: Leibgarde Dragoner Regiment
Russian: Leib-gvardii Dragunskii Polk
Commander: Colonel (in 1812 GM) Petr A. Chicherin II
The Lifeguard Dragoon Regiment
was formed in 1809 by taking 5 of
10 squadrons of Grand Duke
Constantine Uhlan Regiment. These
dragoons were modeled on
Napoleon's Guard dragoons ("po
obraztzu dragunov napoleonskoi
gvardii" in Bezotosnyi, Vasiliev,
Gorshman, Parhaiev, Smirnov -
"Russkaia armiia 1812-1814" 2000, p
19)
It was not a showy outfit as the
hussars and uhlans and not so
prestigious as the Lifeguard Horse
(not to mention the Chevaliers). But
the Lifeguard Dragoons were
superbly trained and disciplined.
In 1812 after the battle of Tarutino,
the Lifeguard Dragoons were sent
together with Cossacks and light troops toward Mozhaisk where they
harrased the enemy's transports and convoys. Two squadrons of
dragoons ambushed and destroyed two squadrons of French Guard
Dragoons. (Bezotosnyi, Vasiliev, Gorshman, Parhayev, Smirnov -
"Russkaia armiia 1812-1814" 2000, p 19)
At Kulm in 1813, the Lifeguard Dragoons spearheaded the massive
cavalry charge against Vandamne's infantry. The dragoons attacked
frontally and ran down one regiment, while other regiments attacked
enemy's flanks. In April 1813 the dragoons were awarded with St.
George standards.
At Leipzig the French cuirassiers routed the Lifeguard Dragoons in
the cavalry battle fougth near Gulden-Gossa's ponds.
In 1814 the Lifeguard Dragoons fought at Fre Champenoise for
which they were awarded with 22 St. George trumpets.
Russian Lifeguard Dragoons versus French Guard Dragoons.
Lifeguard Uhlan Regiment
German: Leibgarde Uhlanen
Russian: Leib-gvardii Ulanskii Polk
Commander: General-Major Anton
S. Chalikov
Anton Chalikov came from
Georgian nobles. He was known for
speaking in rhymes and joking a lot.
His Georgian name was
Shalikoshvili. Chalikov was a brave
man and was awarded with
Russian, Prussian, Austrian and
French (royalist) orders.
In 1809 Grand Duke Constantine
Uhlan Regiment was admitted into
the Guard.
Its first 5 squdrons formed
Lifeguard Uhlans and the
remaining 5 suqdrons formed
Lifeguard Dragoons.
It was on 18th November 1812 at
Krasne, that the French 18th Line
Infantry Regiment, nicknamed The Brave (battle honors: Rivoli
1796, Austerlitz 1805 and Borodino 1812) lost its eagle. Marshal Ney
led his troops in a frontal attack that ended in failure. According to
Colonel Pierre Pelleport, the 18th Regiment was virtually destroyed
by the Lifeguard Uhlans.
By Pelleport's order, the eagle was placed at the head of the regiment
although other troops sought to hide their own eagles by dismantling
them or hurrying them to the rear. Approx. 600 of the Frenchmen
became casualties, including 350 dead and few survived by the skin
of their teeth. The infantry fled pell-mell across the white field,
carrying with them the few officers who were trying vainly to rally
them. Officers Koracharov and Bolchwing and uhlan Darchenko of
the II Squadron captured the eagle and flag (drapeau) of the 18th Line
and were awarded with the St. George order.
The Lifeguard Uhlan Regiment was awarded with St. George
standards with the inscription "For capturing enemy standard at
Krasne and for distinction in repulsing the enemy from Russia in
1812." The 18th Line Regiment had requested a replacement eagle for
the one lost at Krasne and Napoleon approved the request in 1813.
At Kulm in 1813, the Lifeguard Uhlans fought valiantly: 14 of their
officers were killed and wounded, their commander was knocked off
his horse.
At Leipzig in 1813 the Lifeguard Uhlans pushed back French
cuirassiers who earlier broke Lifeguard Hussars and Lifeguard
Dragoons.
In 1814 at Sommepy the uhlans broke French cavalry, captured
several hundreds of prisoners and a battery. The uhlans also fought at
Fre Champenoise and Paris. They distinguished themselves at Fre
Champenoise. The Lifeguard Uhlan Regiment was awarded with 22
St. George trumpets for campaign of 1814.
Lifeguard Uhlans captured French Color
at Krasne in winter 1812, by Oleg Parhaiev.
Lifeguard Hussar Regiment
Russian: Leib-gvardii Gusarskii Polk
German: Leibgarde Husaren
Chef: General of Cavalry Petr H. Wittgenstein
Commander: 1808 - Oct 1813 General-Major (in Aug 1813 GL) Ivan E.
Shevich
In 1775 was formed a single
squadron of guard hussars by
taking the best troopers from the
existing tvelve hussar regiments.
This squadron accompanied the
empress during solemn occassions
and served as her escort. Tsar Paul
ordered to increase its strength from
one to four squadrons and in 1796
entire regiment was formed.
Their uniform was copied from that
of the Prussian hussars of Frederick
the Great and their squadrons were
given silver trumpets. The
Lifeguard Hussars were the
ultimate in flamboyance, for parade
their officers wore leopard pelts.
Dancing, drinking and romancing
were the highlights of their life in
the capital. The sight of the guard
hussar in his parade dress could
reverse the flow of the blood in woman's veins. Company
commander, Denis Davidov, with 2 crosses for bravery around his
neck and 2 other decorations on his chest, mentions how his head
"was kept in a spin" after being on leave and enjoying Moscow's
pleasures. (Davydov - "In the Service of the Tsar against Napoleon: the
memoirs of Denis Davidov, 1806-1814" 1999, p 69)
Austerlitz was their very first appearance on the battlefield and the
French Guard Cavalry routed them. During the campaign in Eastern
Prussia in 1806-1807 the Lifeguard Hussars fought at Heilsberg and
Friedland. For the entire campaign they were awarded with 112
crosses. (Benkendorf - "Kratkaya Istoriya Leib-Gvardii Gusarskogo Ego
Velichestva Polka" 1879)
In 1812 the Lifeguard Hussar's first encounter with the French
invaders was a specific one. Roman Soltyk writes: " a strong troop
of Muscovite hussars halted at about a 100 paces from our weak
advance guard. Coming toward us, the officer shut out in French:
Qui vive ? "France!" - our men reply quietly. "What are you doing
here ? F off !" - shouted the hussar.
Before the Battle of Ostrovno in 1812, two squadrons of Lifeguard
Hussars acted as the rear guard of the retreating Russian corps. They
routed French 8th Hussars but during the pursuit the 16th Horse
Chasseurs strucked them in the flank. The Russians were routed and
as a result a Russian horse battery and 150 prisoners were captured.
Meshetich, who participated in this fight, gave other version of these
events in Istoricheskie zapiski. He wrote that the 2 squadrons
noticed French advance posts in a wood and rushed forward but
were met by fire from dismounted chasseurs deployed on both sides
of the road. Behind the wood stood mass of French cavalry, which
soon advanced and threw the Lifeguard Hussars back. The horse
battery led by Kardyba was away from the hussars but lost half of its
12 guns.
At Borodino the Lifeguard Hussars attacked the square of 84th Line
Infantry but without horse artillery and success. They fought well at
Vinkowo against French (drunk) cuirassiers, and at Tarutino and
Krasne where they captured enemy's battery.
In 1813 they fought at Lutzen, Bautzen, Leipzig and several small
engagements. Unfortunately, at Leipzig they were crushed by French
cuirassiers despite a ferocious resistance and sacrifice of their officers.
In April they were awarded with St. George standards for the entire
campaign. In 1814 they fought at Fre Champenoise.
~
Guard Artillery
"The artillery seems particularly fine and well appointed.
Left:
Lifeguard
foot gunner
in 1812.
Picture by
Andre
Jouineau.
The foot
gunner wore
white
breeches,
dark green
coat, black
collar and
cuffs with
guard loops.
The shako-
cords and
shoulder
straps were
red. The
shako had two-head eagle and tall black
plume. The foot gunner was armed with tesak,
a short straight saber.
Right: Lifeguard horse gunner in 1812. Picture by Andre Jouineau.
The horse gunners wore dark green uniform, and shako with white
tall plume (instead of helmet of line horse artillery).
=
Many foreigners were impressed with Russian artillery. "The
[Russian] artillery seems particularly fine and well appointed.
The horses of the brigades belonging to the Guards are more round,
compact, and perfect than those in any other service."
=
In 1796 was formed one battalion of His Majesty Mikhail Pavlovich's
Artillery.
In 1801 it was renamed Lifeguard Artillery Battalion and consisted
of:
- 2 companies of position artillery
- 2 companies of light artillery
- 1 company of horse artillery
In 1805 the horse company was detached from the battalion and
named Lifeguard Horse Company.
Between 1810 and 1812 it was commanded by Captain Rostislav
Zaharov.
In 1811 the Lifeguard Artillery Battalion was renamed Lifeguard
Artillery Brigade.
The horse artillery consisted of 2 companies.
Guard Artillery at Borodino in 1812:
- with V (Guard) Infantry Corps: Lifeguard Foot Artillery Brigade
under Colonel Eiler
- - - - - 1st Lifeguard Position Artillery Company (12 guns) - Staff
Captain Bazylevich
- - - - - (also called His Majesty Position Artillery Company, Batereinaia rota Yego
Velichestva or Velikogo Kniazia Mihaila Pavlovicha)
- - - - - 2nd Lifeguard Position Artillery Company (12 guns) - Colonel
Baron Taube
- - - - - (also called Graf Arakcheyev's Position Artillery Company, Batereinaia rota
gienerala ot artilerii grafa Arakcheieva)
- - - - - 1st Lifeguard Light Artillery Company (12 guns) - Captain
Veliaminov
- - - - - 2nd Lifeguard Light Artillery Company (12 guns) - Captain
Gogel
- with 1st Cuirassier Division: Lifeguard Horse Artillery under
Colonel P. A. Kozen
- - - - - 1st Lifeguard Horse Artillery Company (8 guns) - Captain
Zaharov
- - - - - 2nd Lifeguard Horse Artillery Company (8 guns) - Captain
Rahl-II
In the end of 1812 the Lifeguard Sapper Battalion was formed.
In April 1813, with the division of the Guard into Old and Young
(New), the guard artillery was assigned to the Old Guard.
In October 1813 three more companies of artillery were formed:
- 1 company of position artillery
- 1 company of light artillery
- 1 company of horse artillery
~
Decline of the Guard
after the Napoleonic Wars.
When the occupation of France ended the Russian Guard marched
home. As a welcome for the guard regiments, Giacomo Quarenghi
built the Narva Arch in St. Petersburg. A triumphal chariot crowned
it with Nike, the goddess of victory. On low pedestals in the niches
between the columns were figures of warriors in ancient Russian
armour and were listed the names of regiments which participated
in the Great Patriotic War of 1812. The Guard held numerous
1825 in St.Petersburg
parades.
For the Russian nobles serving in the Guard regiments, the
campaigns in Germany and France were like an entrance into a new
cultural world which heretofore only single individuals or private
persons had had any conception of. Janet Hartley writes, "Officers,
and soldiers, had seen how people lived outside Russia: 'By
comparison, the question naturally arose, why isn't it like here ?'
asked Alexander Bestuzhev. Patriotic officers now demanded that
Russians should have at least as much as the European peoples who
they saved (made more galling by the fact that the defeated powers
of France and Poland had been granted constitutions, the former
with Alexander's agreement and the latter by his expressed desire.)
'The Poles received a constitution' noted A. Muraviev bitterly, while
'Russians as a reward for their heroic exertions in the year 1812 got
military colonies. !' (Charles Esdaile - "Popular Resistance in the French
Wars" p 195)
Many officers began to consider the possibility of transmitting to
their homeland the best of the constructive reforms, and with the
fiery enthusiasm of youth they leaped across the wide chasm
separating the levels of Russian and French cultural development.
But Alexander, frightened by the liberal movements in Germany,
changed the course of his policy, and the young nobles were left in a
position clearly at variance with the dominant system.
In
1825
there
were
more
than 2
000
soldiers in Senate Square in St. Petersburg taking part in an uprising.
Due to lack of unity of command and little support from the civilians
the uprising failed.
Harsh discipline was reintroduced and the emphasis was again on
parades and reviews. The quality of the Guard and the Army
gradually declined and reached a shameful low with the toothless
display during the Crimean war.
~
Miscellaneous.
Picture: Napoleon reviewing
Tzar's Guards in 1807.
Napoleon once said, "I was
surprised at the precision and
assurance of this infantry, so
well disciplined and of such
extraordinary firmness would
be the first in the world if, to
these qualities, it united a little
of the electric enthusiasm of
the French (infantry)."
After signing the peace treaty between Russia and France at Tilsit in
1807, Napoleon was invited to review the Russian Guards. Then the
French and Russian guardsmen met at the tables.
Georges Blond writes, "The [French] engineers had built a large
wooden hut in which the officers of the [French] Guard were to feast
their erstwhile opponents. On the 30th the sun shone briliantly in a
cloudless sky. In a well-chosen meadow, a cannon-shot from the
town, planks nailed to trestles formed picninc tables for the
'brotherly feast', arranged around a square in which the band would
play. The meal consisted of soup, beef, mutton, pork, goose and
chicken. To drink: beer, brandy in barrels at the ends of the tables.
The Guards ate standing.
The Russians, initially
suspicious and awkward, were
reassured by the French.
Coignet has left a detailed
account of this feast, and
although he may have
exaggerated some details, he
did so inadvertently, having
written his memoirs more than
30 years after leaving the
service and one can understand
that this was in no way a
formal banquet. 'These hungry
men [the Russians] could not
restrain themselves: they knew nothing of the reserve which one
should exhibit at table. They were given brandy to drink, which was
the drink of the meal and, before offering them a glass, it was proper
to drink and then to pass them a goblet in white metal containing a
quarter of a litre. The contents immediately disappeared; they
swallowed a morsel of meat as large as an egg with each swig. They
were quickly uncomfortable and by signs, invited us to unbutton, as
they were doing. We saw that, in order to exagerrate their manly
chests, they were swathed in cloth, which we were disgusted to see
them discard." ( Georges Blond - "La Grande Armee" p 158)
We don't know if there is a Russian account of this event.
It would be quite interesting to compare the two versions.
.
Sources and Links.
For bibliography see our article "The Russian Army".
Pictures by Mazurovski, Parkhaiev, Chagadayev and Viskovatov.
Picture of O Chevalier by Gordeiev.
Pictures by A Jouineau
Ivan Fedorovich Udom-I
Anton Stepanovicch Chalikov.
Mihail Andreievich Arsenev.
Cossacks : Kosaken : Cosaques : Kozacy : Tactics : Uniforms : Organization
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/cossacks.htm[2012-05-21 12:40:47]
Cossacks of the Napoleonic Wars
"These organised bandits are wily. They do not like infantry fire very much
they detest artillery, but when they are three to one they become impudent."
- Schwarzenberg, Austrian commander-in-chief
"The French typically found the cossacks contemptible, their tactics cowardly,
their mounts ugly ... French conceit came at a cost. During the Polish campaign
a considerable number of French troopers encountered the sharp end of a cossack
lance. ... During the winter campaign in Poland, the cossacks dominated
neutral ground between armies." (James Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows" p 59)
"Cossacks are the best light troops among all that exist."
"If Napoleon had had Cossacks in his army
he'd have been Emperor of China long ago."
- A Cossack officer to Caulaincourt in 1812
Introduction.
Generals.
Weapons.
Strength, organization, deployment.
Cossacks campaigning in Europe.
"Save us Lord, from Cossacks".
Cossacks in combat.
Cossacks' tactics.
Miscellaneous.
Cossacks in early spring 1813, by Wojciech Kossak.
On the ground are corpses of French soldiers and horses.
Introduction.
"The Cossacks Watched
While the Russians Slept"
The name Cossack is derived from the Turkic word quzzaq and mean simply "adventurer" and
"freeman". This name has been shared by several groups throughout the history of Europe and Asia.
The most prominent and numerous are the Russian Cossacks of the Don, Ural and Siberia regions. Also
famous were the Ukrainian Cossacks who lived on the southern steppes of modern Ukraine. They
grew astronomically during the 15th-17th centuries due to numerous runway peasants from Russia
and Poland respectively. Cossacks paid no taxes and enjoyed a large measure of autonomy in the
management of their communal affairs.
Janet Hartley writes: "Cossacks are not a separate ethnic group (although they were designated as such
in the Soviet period); they comprise mainly Russian and Ukrainian peasants and fugitives who had
fled to the southern borderlands. They nevertheless regarded themselves as a separate group within
the Russian empire, with separate institutional and social structure, who owed a loyalty to their
Cossack host as well ass to the Russian tsar. The 18th and the early 19th century saw the
transformation of CCossack communities from active resistors to central tsarist authority to loyal
servitors of the state, but this did not mean that they had lost their sense of separate identity or thheir
distrust of Russian officials and grandees." (Charles Esdaile - "Popular Resistance in the French Wars" p186)
Cossacks played a key role in the expansion of the Russian Empire into Siberia, the Caucasus and Asia.
They also served as guides to most Russian expeditions formed by civil geographers, traders, explorers
and surveyors. In 1648 the Russian Cossack Simeon Dezhnev opened a passage between America and
Asia.
The Cossacks fought numerous wars with the Poles, Russians, Turks and Tartars. In the XVI century,
with the dominance of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth extending south, the Cossacks were
regarded by the Poles as their subjects. Registered Cossacks were a part of the Commonwealth army
until 1699. In the XVI century, to protect the borderland area from Tatar invasions, Cossacks carried
out sentry and patrol duties, observing Tatars and nomads of the Horde in the steppe region.
Cossacks started raiding Ottoman territories and merchant port cities. By 1615 and 1625, Cossacks had
even managed to raze townships on the outskirts of Istanbul, forcing the Ottoman Sultan to flee his
palace ! In about the same time the Tartars, Turks' allies, were raiding Poland and Lithuania. Treaties
between the Poles and Turks called for both parties to keep the Cossacks and Tatars in check. In
internal agreements, forced by the Polish side, Cossacks agreed to burn their boats and stop raiding.
However, boats could be rebuilt quickly, and the Cossack lifestyle glorified raids and booty.
Cossack numbers expanded with peasants running from serfdom in the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth. Attempts by the Polish nobles to turn the warmongering Cossacks into serfs eroded
the Cossacks' once strong loyalty towards the Commonwealth. Cossack ambitions to be recognised as
equal to the Poles were constantly rebuffed, and plans for transforming the Polish-Lithuanian Two-
Nations Commonwealth into Three Nations made no progress. Tensions increased when Poland's
policies turned from tolerance to suppression of the Orthodox church, making the Cossacks strongly
anti-Catholic and anti-Polish. It resulted in several Cossack uprisings against the Poles.
The relations of Cossacks with Russia were varied, at times this involved combined military operations,
and at others there were Cossack uprisings. One particular example was the destruction of the
Zaporozhian Host, which took place at the end of the XVIII century. Nevertheless by the XIX century,
Russia managed to fully annex all the control over the Cossacks.
The tactics used by the Cossacks in XVI-XVII century was very different from that used during the
Napoleonic Wars. The Cossacks used boats for long range raiding against the Turks, and wagon forts
in the field against the Poles. The open and flat land of Ukraine did not limit wagons' manouverability.
Western Europe just did not contain these steppe like areas. The slowly moving wagon forts (ext. link)
were defended with Cossack infantry and few light guns. The wagon fort could have 3 or more
defensive walls made of wagons.
Picture: Cossacks writing incredibly insulting reply to
Turkish Sultan's demand for surrender. They laugh
their socks off over each word. Picture by Illia Repin.
Cossacks' letter to the mighty sultan is a document
having a literary origin which was taken up in folk
culture
(XVI-XVII century)
"Cossacks to the Turkish Sultan !
Thou Turkish Satan, ... Greetings !
What the devil kind of knight art thou that
cannot slay a hedgehog with your naked arse ?
The devil shits, and your army eats.
Thou a son of a bitch wilt not ever make subjects of
Christian sons ...
Thou art the Babylonian scullion,
Macedonian wheelwright,
brewer of Jerusalem,
goat-fucker of Alexandria,
swineherd of Greater and Lesser Egypt,
... So the Cossacks declare, you lowlife. ...
The date we write not for no calendar have we got;
the moon is in the sky, the year is in a book, and
the day is the same with us here as with thee over there,
and thou canst kiss us thou knowest where !"
During the Napoleonic Wars the Cossacks participated in numerous campaigns and battles. In late
1790s they went with Suvorov to Italy and Switzerland. In 1805 they took part in the disastrous
Austerlitz Campaign. In 1806 and 1807 the Cossacks were in Eastern Prussia with Bennigsen's army.
"The French typically found the cossacks contemptible, their tactics cowardly, their mounts ugly,
shaggy, and small. French conceit came at a cost. During the Polish campaign a considerable number of
French troopers encountered the sharp end of a cossack lance. ... During the winter campaign in
Poland, the cossacks dominated the neutral ground between armies." (Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows" p
59)
There were several Cossack regiments fighting against the Swedes and Turks in 1808, 1809 and 1810.
In 1812 and 1813 the Cossacks, portrayed by some as Satans bastard offspring, were constant menace
for the Frenchmen, Germans, Poles and Italians. The relentless pursuit by the Russian light troops and
Cossacks, the winter and the tsar's and people's determination resulted in a truly disastrous defeat on
Napoleon.
Napoleon's Grand Army (Grande Armee) ceased to be grand, it even ceased to be an army !
Fewer than 100 000 of the 500 000 that Napoleon had used for the invasion returned west.
In 1814 the dreaded Cossacks entered Paris. They were received with the best foods but they preferred
to cook their own meals. The beautiful houses, palaces and courts, and the products of luxury which
they encountered in Paris did not tempt them. In the beginning the Parisians were scared of the the
unique troops. Russian and Cossack officers gathered in certain restaurannts and hammered on the
tables yelling bistro ! which is Russian word for "quickly". Hence the name bistro for this type of
restaurant. The no-nonsense tough warriors bivouacked in the square of the Carousel before his
majesty's windows, and dried their shirts and trousers on the iron railings of the palace. They also
camped out on the famous Champs Elysees.
The Cossacks were again in Paris in 1815. A large group of Cossacks was despatched to find the
Prussians and English armies advancing on Paris and they were the first Allies' troops who marched
through Paris very shortly after Waterloo.
Uniforms of Cossacks of the Napoleonic Wars.
Left: Don Cossack and Bug Cossack
Center: Ural Cossack
Right: Ukrainian Cossack
~
Cossacks' generals.
During Platov's visit in England he was enthusiastically
greeted by the Londoners. He was awarded a golden sword
and ... a honorary degree by the University of Oxford.
The most famous Cossack commander was Ataman Matvei Platov (1757-
1818).
Platov begun service in the Don Cossack Chancellery in 1766, becoming an
esaul in 1769. He distinguished himself in the 1771 Crimean campaign, and
was promoted to command of a Cossack regiment in 1772. Between 1774 and
1784 he fought against the Crimean Tatars in 1774 and in 1782 under
Suvorov in the Kuban Valley, Chechnya and Dagestan.
Upon Alexander I's ascension to the throne, he was appointed Ataman
(Headman) of the Don Cossacks. In 1805, Platov ordered the Cossack capital to be moved from
Staro-cherkassk (Old Cherkassk) to a new location, known as Novo-cherkassk (New Cherkassk).
Platov distinguished himself in 1806-7, 1812 and 1813 in the campaigns against the French. Platov
scourged the French during their retreat from Moscow in 1812, and again after their defeat at
Leipzig.
During his visit in England he was enthusiastically greeted by the Londoners. Platov was awarded
a golden sword and a honorary degree by the University of Oxford. A full-length portrait was
painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence for the Waterloo Chamber created at Windsor Castle by George
IV, then Prince Regent.
Alexandr Ivanovich Chernyshev (1785-1857) was a famous Cossack raider. He
entered the army at the age of 15, and advanced rapidly through the ranks,
participating in all of Russia's campaigns against Napoleon. During the period
18071812 Tzar Alexander sent Chernyshev to Napoleon to serve as a channel of
communications. Napoleon took a liking to Chernyshev. In 1812 Chernyshev was
promoted to general-major, and in 1814 to general-lieutenant. Chernyshev was not
well-known in Europe but in Russia in that time he was very popular. In 1812
Chernyshev's aggressive pursuit and hit and run tactics demoralised the French.
In 1813 and 1814 his raids very deep into enemy territory were quite spectacular. Chernyshev's
Cossacks raided Kassel, the capital of Westphaly. After being driven out of Kassel, King Jrme
Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, managed to return on the 16th of October, before deciding to seek
refuge in France on learning of the result of the battle of Leipzig. (In 1815 at Waterloo, Jerome's
division attacked Hougoumont.)
In 1819, Chernyshev became a member of the committee Tzar Alexander established to reform the
organization and legal structures of the Don Cossack host.
Nikolai Vasilievich Illovaiski (1772-1828) was another talented Cossack commander. Nikolai
Mozhak writes: "He was enlisted to the military service in the age of 6 as a private cossack. In the
age of 8 he took part in his first military expedition to the Crimea for suppressing the Crimea
Tatars that supported Turks." Illovaiski participated in campaigns against the Turks, Poles and the
French. In 1813 after the Battle of Bautzen he left the army, his health was failing, and went back to
the Don.
~
Cossacks' weapons.
"He knows how to use this weapon [lance]
with great skill and security,
nevertheless the fact that it is 1.5 foot
longer as the Polish lance." - Prokesch
The rank-and-file carried 8-foot long lance with a steel spearhead surmounting a steel ball to
secure easy withdrawal of the point. Some Cossacks were also armed with curved sabers and 1-8
(!) pistols. Some carried carbines or muskets or other firearms. Furthermor, each sotnia (squadron)
had muskets for 11 Cossacks trained as marksmen.
The officers were armed with sabers, but they have never mastered this weapon.
"... in 1812 ... a Prussian uhlan major fought a man-to-man duel with a Cossack officer (armed
with saber) between their two regiments and captured him ..." ( - John Elting)
In 1814 near St.Dizier, the Guard Mamelukes "took a crack at some Cossacks whom 'they sabered
in their accustomed style." - General Lefebvre-Desnouettes
Hungarian hussar "Samuel Hemmer... had engaged a large Cossack patrol by himself in 1812."
Hollins - "Hungarian Hussar 1756-1815"
Prokesch writes, "... the lance is their main weapon. The Cossack knows how to use this weapon
with great skill and security, nevertheless the fact that it is one and a half foot longer as the Polish
lance. He knows how to use his sabre just as well; officers and NCOs practice them for use
against the Turks. The pistol is of less value to him. He considers it not really as a weapon, but
only as a tool to scare the enemy. He fires only to fire, not to hit anything, and in common there
are few Cossacks which use their pistols... Tettenborn armed his Cossacks completely with French
muskets... The Cossack loves the use of a firearm, because of the reason that he fears the one of the
enemy. He wants to take artillery with him, and the name Poushki (cannon) is for him a word of
joy, as well as of fear...A tenth of every squadron consists of marksmen; Strelki. Rifle and pistols
are mostly Turkish or Persian booty." (Prokesch - "Ueber den Kosaken, und dessen Brauchbarkeit im
Felde")
Don Cossack 1801-1809
~
Strength, organization and
deployment of the Cossacks.
Cossack regiment had a simple
organization. It had colonel, called
polkovnik (probably from Polish
pulkovnik), small staff, and 5
squadrons or troops called sotnia.
On paper the strength of single
regiment was more than 500 men.
In the field hovewer there were
only 300-450 men in the ranks.
The most numerous, the regiments
of Don Cossacks, were named after
their commanders. The Ukrainian and other Cossacks were numbered and named according to
their nationality or district.
Since 1799 the ranks for cossack officers had been regulated.
The Don Cossack regiment numbered 591 men: 18 officers, 10 uriadnik (NCOs) but in April 1812
increased to 22, 50 diesiatnik and 500 privates. There was only 1 non-combatant, the putzer
(colonel's servant). Only the colonel had the right to bring a private wagon. For this reason each
Cossack could have a second horse as a pack animal.
The NCO was the real soul of Cossack regiment. He owed his position from his service and his
fame. If he became commander of a detachment then he sometimes changed in a tyrant for his
subordinates; and he used his position to accumulate trophies and loot.
Each regiment of Don and Bug Cossacks carried 5 flags in various colors painted with religious
pictures or martial emblems. Sisoiev-III's Regiment carried in addition a St.George flag. If a
regiment returned to its homelands without its colour, it was dishonoured. The flags for the
regiments of the Ural Cossacks were not recorded.
Each sotnia had muskets for 11 Cossacks trained as marksmen.
In 1802 in the Black Sea area were formed 10 regiments (and 10 foot cossack regiments).
Each regiment consisted of 5 sotnias.
In 1811 from the Kalmucks living in Astrakhan, Saratov, and
Caucasus provinces and in the Don area were formed: 1st and 2nd
Kalmuck Regiment, 1st and 2nd Stavropol Kalmuck Regiment,
and 1st and 2nd Bashkir Regiment. Each regiment had 5 sotnias.
The Kalmucks and Tartars were also accepted into the regiments
of the Don Cossacks. In their ranks served approx. 8% Kalmucks
and 1 % Tatars. According to Richard Riehn, in 1812 there were:
- 4 Tatar regiments
- 2 Kalmuk regiments
- 1 Chechen regiment
- 2 Bashkir regiments
Later were formed 2 Kalmuk and 18 Bashkir regiments.
In 1811 there were 2 Cossack horse batteries.
In 1812 a half-battery was formed (captured Turkish cannon barrels were used).
In summer 1812 from natives of two provinces, Kiev and Kamieniec Podolski, were formed 1st,
2nd, 3rd, and 4th Ukrainian Cossack Regiments. Each regiment had 8 squadrons (troops).
.
COSSACK REGIMENT
1 polkovnik (colonel)
1 podpolkovnik (colonel-lieutenant)
- his was present in less than half of all Don regiments
1 voiskovoi starshina
1 quartermaster - in the rank of sotnik (lieutenant)
1 polkovyi pisar also called kaznachei (regimental clerk, cashier)
2 pisar (clerks in the rank of NCO)
1 judge
1 putzer (colonel's servant, non-combatant)
I Sotnia (Troop)
called Right Flank Sotnia - or - Colonel's Sotnia
1 yesaul (captain), 1 sotnik (lieutenant) and 1 horunzhii (ensign)
4 uriadnik (NCOs), 10 diesiatnik, 100 privates
::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: :::::
II Sotnia (Troop)
::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: :::::
III Sotnia (Troop)
::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: :::::
IV Sotnia (Troop)
::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: :::::
V Sotnia (Troop)
called Left Flank Sotnia - or - Lieutenant-Colonel's Sotnia
::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: :::::
.
Two or three regiments (sometimes more) formed Cossack brigade. Cossack regiments and
brigades were attached to the regular troops. They made life easier for the uhlans and hussars, as
they did the scouting and patroling. There were also two or three Cossack corps composed of
several brigades. (The Cossacks were rarely formed in divisions.) There were also several
individual regiments assigned as escort to army headquarters
Cossack brigades and corps on 10th August 1813 in Saxony:
Cossack Corps - Ataman Platov
- - - - Brigade - GM Kudashov: 3 Cossack regiments
- - - - Brigade - Col. Bergman: 4 Cossack regiments
- - - - Brigade - GM Shcherbatov: 4 Cossack regiments
- - - - Brigade - : 1 Cossack regiment, and Don Cossack Battery
Cossack Corps - GM Chernyshev
- - - - Brigade - Ltn.-Col. Lapuhin: 3 Cossack regiments
- - - - Brigade - Illovaiski-IX: 3 Cossack regiments
- - - - Brigade - Colonel Melnikov-V: 2 Cossack regiments
- - - - Brigade - Colonel Benkendorf: 3 Cossack regiments
- - - - Brigade - GM Narishkin: 2 Cossack regiments
Cossacks in Vasilchikov's Cavalry Corps
- - - - 'Brigade' - GM Karpov-II: 9 Cossack and 1 Kalmuck regiments
Cossacks in Korff's Cavalry Corps
- - - - Brigade - GM de Witte: 3 Cossack regiments
- - - - Attached units: 5 Cossack regiments
Cossacks in Pahlen's Cavalry Corps
- - - - Brigade - : 4 Cossack regiments
Cossacks in Laptiev's XII Infantry Corps
- - - - Brigade - GM Stahl-I: 5 Cossack regiments
- - - - Brigade - GM Prendel: 2 Cossack regiments
- - - - Brigade - : militia
Attached to de Tolly's army headquarters: 4 Cossack regiments
Attached to Wittgenstein's army headquarters: 1 Cossack regiment (and militia)
Transporting prisoners: 2 Bashkir regiments
Cossack regiments were deployed along Russia's long borders.
In 1811 the assignment of Cossack regiments was as follow:
- in Finland: 3 regiments
- along the border from Poland to the Dniester: 13 regiments
- with the Army of Moldavia: 29 regiments
- in the Don: 12 regiments
- in Georgia: 8 regiments
- in Orenbourg (eastern Russia): 4 regiments and 1 Kalmuck Regiment
- in the Caucasus: 6 so-called 'Colonial Regiments' and 3 of so-called 'Voisko'
In 1812 the Cossack regiments were assigned as follow:
- 88 regiments of Don Cossacks
- - - - - - Lifeguard Regiment (542 + 43 noncombatants) guard unit for the Tzar, counted as regular
cavalry
- - - - - - Ataman Regiment (877 + 2 noncomb., in 5 sotnia) guard unit for the Ataman of the Don
Cossacks
- - - - - - 60 regiments (590 + 1 noncombatant each. In the field however, they averaged 360-450
men.)
- - - - - - In 1812 further 26 regiments were raised. The 86 regiments were assigned as follow:
- - - - - - 64 were stationed along the western broder, 10 stationed in Caucasus, 8 in Georgia, 2 in
Crimea,
- - - - - - 1 in Moldavia, and 1 in Finland
- 10 [20] regiments of Black Sea Cossacks, former famous Zaporozhians.
- - - - - - Lifeguard Black Sea Sotnia - a guard unit for the Tzar, counted as regular cavalry
- - - - - - 10 regiments (5 sotnia each) on the Kuban River, in 1813 1 regiment fought with the napol.
troops
- - - - - - 10 druzhina (5 sotnia each) - Cossacks on foot and 9 of them were stationed in Caucasus
- 10 regiments of Ural Cossacks
- - - - - - Lifeguard Sotnia (125 + 6 noncomb.) a guard unit for the Tzar, counted as regular cav.
- - - - - - 10 regiments (3 faced the napoleonic troops, and 7 stationed in Ural facing the Kirgiz)
- 10 regiments of West Siberia Cossacks
- - - - - - Ataman Regiment (5 sotnia)
- - - - - - 9 regiments (5 sotnia each)
- - - - - - 10 town commands (total of approx. 1000 foot Cossacks)
- - - - - - 2 horse batteries
- 4 [8+4] regiments of Orenburg Cossacks (Orenburg, Stavropol, Ufa districts)
- - - - - - Orenburg Ataman Regiment (1177 + 1 noncombatant in 10 sotnia)
- - - - - - 3 regiments (5 sotnia each), they were moved against the napoleonic troops.
- - - - - - 4 detachments (500 mounted and 500 foot soldiers each) in Orenburg frontier facing the
Kirgiz
- 3 regiments of Bug Cossacks (5 sotnia each), in fall 1812 the 4th was raised. Three faced the
napoleonic troops
- 1 'regiment' (?) of Danube-Mouth Cossacks (5 sotnia) for occupation duties in Moldavia
- 3 regiments of Astrahan Cossacks (5 sotnia each) stationed in their home territory
- Cossacks in East Siberia
- - - - - - 10 border settlement detachments (total 800 horsemen)
- - - - - - 12 trans-Baikal border settlement detachments (total 900 horsemen)
- - - - - - 8 town commands incl. Kamchatka and Yakutzk (total 1850 horsemen)
- 1 regiment (1178 men in 10 sotnia) of Stavropol Kalmucks, from the middle Volga River. They
in the field since the beginning of the war against Napoleon.
- 2 regiments (5 sotnia each) of Kalmucks of the lower Volga. Both regiments were in the field
since the outbreak of the war against Napoleon.
- 4 regiments (5 sotnia each) of Crimean Tatars. They were named after the towns of their
districts: Perekop, Eupatoria, Simferopol, Feodosia. Each regiment had five flags. The first three
regiments listed took part in the campaign against Napoleon.
- 2 regiments (622 men in 5 sotnia each) of Teptyars from the Ural Mountains. They were
uniformed like the Orenburg cossacks. Both regiments were in the field since the beginning of the
war against Napoleon.
- 2 regiments (579 men in 5 sotnia each) of Meshcheryaks from the Ural Mountains. By 1
November the 1st regiment was at Nizhnii-Novgorod while the 2nd was still on the march.
- 4 regiments (600 men in 5 sotnia each) of Buryats from the Trans-Baikal. Weapons were sabers
and bows and presumably also lances. No flags. They saw service on the East-Siberian Line.
- 1 regiment (515 men in 5 sotnia) of Tungus in the Trans-Baikal.
- 2 regiments (5 sotnia each) of Bashkirs from the Ural Mountains. They were in the field since
the beginning of the war. In 1812 a further 18 regiments (579 men each) were levied. In Fall they
left the home territory for Nizhnii-Novgorod, which they reached in December. Weapons
consisted only of lance, saber, and bow. No flags.
~
Cossacks campaigning in Europe. "Save us Lord, from Cossacks".
"The ease with which the Cossack is able to feed himself and his horse
are very important assets for use in the field. His small needs are a
complete miracle to foreigners." (Prokesch - "Ueber den Kosaken ....")
According to western standarts
the Cossacks were poor people.
But the bearded warriors "with
six looted watches in each
pocket" frightened the
westerners. There were cases in
Italy and Germany when
townspeople came out to greet
them as liberators, only to be
quickly despoiled of clothes,
watches and all cash. The naked
men and women fled in horror.
Sir Wilson campaigned with the
Russians in 1813 in Germany. He
writes, "The country through which we are passing is in great distress. The Cossacks have
devoured or destroyed the little that the stagnation of commerce had enabled the inhabitants to
provide. ... In many parts of Germany it is said that the cossack terror is so great that prayers are
put up: "De Cossaquibus, Domine, libere nos !" In other churches they have added the term Cossack
to the original Devil as more expressive of his mischievous proceedings. It is a great pity that they
should be so lawless, for they counterbalance the service which they render."
Reverend Schlosser, vicar of Gross-Zschocher writes, "A swarm of about 20 to 30 Cossacks had
broken into my house the day before, each with an empty bottle which they wanted to have filled
with brandy. As we could only give them a little each they became angry, grabbed me, pushed me
up against the wall and threathened me with pistols and sabres, shouting furiously. My good wife
fell about the dirty neck of the most furious one and my little daughter clung about her knees and
wept loudly, crying for mercy. But I would have been done for had not an Austrian NCO come in
just in time. He saved my life by explaining the situation to the Cossacks and protecting me."
(Digby-Smith - "1813: Leipzig" p 137)
The idea of being captured by the Cossacks was a nightmare for the western troops. But it was not
always as bad as the westerners imagined. One of Napoleonic officers described what happened
when he was taken prisoner during the 1806-07 campaign in Eastern Prussia and Poland. "One
[dragoon squadron] charged right into and through us. I fell between two horses, struck in the
throat. I lost consciousness, and don't know how long I lay there, nor did I know who stripped my
uniform off me. When I came to, I was lying on the ground surrounded by a group of Cossacks. ....
A Cossack officer ordered me to stand, but I could not raise myself as my neck and shoulder were
stiff. He gave me his hand and helped me up, ordered one of his Cossacks to dismount and put
me on his horse. ... I sat with my teeth rattling from the cold, as I was undressed. A Cossack
colonel rode up ... and gave me a nip of vodka. ... My headwear had gone missing ... We joined
some other prisoners who had already been brought in ... We were led to some kind of a stone
building in the city [Danzig, Gdansk] and after 2 days to Farwasser where we were put up on a
Swedish ship ... " (Chlapowski/Simmons - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" p 27)
During the retreat from Russia in 1812, the Emperor's carriages were in the middle of the column
formed by the Imperial Guard. In front were the artillery and cavalry, and flanked on both sides
by battalions of the Old Guard in single file surrounding several cannons. In this formation the
French could respond immediately to an attack.
Commander of the Cossacks, Platov, had promised his daughter to "bring Napoleon back alive."
The Emperor, surrounded by the 2nd Foot Chasseurs, ordered his tents and wagons burned,
commanding the officers to do likewise. Those who survived "learned through resignation and
hope - if not to be happy - at least how to eat horse meat with relish." When one depressed
marshal complained the old timers muttered: "Shut up, you old fool ! If we must die, we will die."
Near Gorodnia [Horodnia] the Cossacks attacked Napoleon's headquarters. The only troops with
the Emperor was the Duty Squadron of the Guard Lancers under Kozietulski. Kozietulski's men
threw themselves at the swarm of Cossacks, Kozietulski was pierced by lance "which entered his
shoulder as far as the bone." (In Museum of the Polish Army in Warsaw is exhibited his uniform
with the visible hole in the sleeve and stained in blood). It was a dramatic fight. There then
appeared the French Old Guard Horse Grenadiers in line formation and the Cossacks
disappeared into the forest. The Cossacks returned in large numbers and surrounded the Red
Lancers on three sides. The Dutch lost more than 100 men while the Poles lost 20 killed and
wounded.
Napoleon and his Guards in Russia, winter 1812.
During retreat from Russia one company of Old Guard Lancers
and the French Guard Horse Chasseurs formed Napoleon's escort.
Napoleon said: "I count on you. In case of certain danger
I want you to kill me rather than let me be captured."
The Poles responded: "We shall all be hacked to pieces
rather than permit anyone to approach you !"
(Henri Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory" p 251)
In 1813 the Crown Prince of Sweden, Bernadotte, concentrated his army around Berlin, while the
Cossacks patrolled the region between Beelitz and Juteborg. Bernadotte was very concerned about
the fact that Napoleon could attack him. Bernadotte issued instructions to several Russian
generals, "Napoleon is moving to Baruth escorted by two cavalry regiments, he marches at the
rear of his army. The Crown Prince will award 500,000 rubles to the Cossack regiment that can
capture Napoleon ..." "Despite the reports of Napoleon's march to Silesia, the thought that the
French emperor would open the campaign against him drove Bernadotte to the point of
paranoia." (Leggiere- "Napoleon and Berlin")
In 1813 at Kulm, the Cossacks captured French
generals Haxo and Vandamme. Dominique-Joseph
Vandamme was captured when while in the middle
of a column of retreating French infantry a small band
of Cossacks rode up seized him and his aide General
Haxo and rode off before the surprised infantry could
open fire !
While a prisoner, Vandamme was accused of looting
by Tsar Alexander. The general quickly replied: "At
least I have never been accused of killing my father."
(Tsar Alexander was implicated in the assasination of
his father, Tsar Paul.) Another version of his reply: "I
am neither a plunderer nor a brigand but in any case,
my contemporaries and history will not reproach me
for having soaked my hands in the blood of my father." In 1815 Vandamme joined Napoleon and
fought at Ligny.
In early November 1813 Holland revolted against French rule. In mid November General Dirk van
Hogendorp proclaimed Holland free and Prince of Orange the highest political authoprity in the
country. The Allies responded to the new developments in Holland with sending Beckendorff (or
Benkendorf, Benckedorf) with 3,500 men (incl. 1,500 Cossacks) to the Netherlands. Count
Alexander von Beckendorff was a general and diplomat, and his sister was a socialite and political
force famous at Paris and London. Beckendorff's left was secured by Narishkin's three regiments
of Cossacks, and his right by Balabin-II's five regiments of Cossacks.
News that Cossacks had crossed the frontier sparked the revolt in Amsterdam.
In 1813 and 1814 the Allies made preparations to ensure a flow of provisions and supplies, and
Great Britain continued to provide their amies with generous subsidies. But war is war and quite
often the soldiers went hungry. Disease and hunger as well as bullets claimed the lives of
thousands of Russian, Austrian and Prussian soldiers. Heinrich Steffens of the Prussian army
writes, "I remember once resting for the night as a village which had been deserted ... Our party,
servants and all, consisted of about 14 or 15 men. As we sat around the hearth in the large
kitchen, by a bright fire, the pot with water and salt all ready for the turkey to boil all night, that
we might enjoy a rich breakfast in the morning, a huge party of Russians burst violently in: we
tried to persuade them to desist from molesting us, but, though they saw that we were Prussian
officers, they attacked us fiercely. We were discreet enough not to meet them with our drawn
swords, and I had long observed that my arm was too weak to make any impression on a Russian
shoulder; I struck those who came upon me, therefore, crossways on the face. We succeeded in
driving them away; but we were assailed on several other occassions, and if the war had lasted
much longer it was too plainly to be seen how such outrages would have increased."
Shortage of food and shelter led to the decline of order and discipline in the ranks. Houssaye
writes, "The Cossacks also took 15 of the leading men of the town (Montmirail), stripped them
naked and gave them 50 lashes with the knout. There then followed the scenes of violence,
outrage, and loot which invariably accompanied the occupation of a town by the invaders. At
Sens the pillage lasted for 9 days, from February 11 to 20, and during the whole of this time the
town was in possession of a raging mob who broke into all the houses and churches, bent on loot
and outrage. A supreme touch of irony was added by the Hereditary Prince of Wurtemberg, a
well-known dandy, who as he left this town of Sens, where he had presided over the pillaging, as
a last act requisitioned 24 pairs of white gloves." (Houssaye - "Napoleon and the campaign of 1814" p
44)
The Allies entered Paris twice, in 1814 and in 1815. In the beginning the Parisians were scared of
the Cossacks. Russian and Cossack officers gathered in certain restaurants and hammered on the
tables yelling bistro ! which is Russian word for "quickly". Hence the name bistro for this type of
restaurant. Nicholas V. Feodoroff writes, "The reminder of the presence of Cossacks in Paris is the
word bistro. When the Cossacks had their bivouacs on the Champs Elysees, they would ran fast
(bistro in Russian) to have coffee or cognac at the nearest caffee." (Feodoroff - "History of the
Cossacks") The accuracy of the two stories however has been disputed on the grounds that bistros
only started to be called bistros several decades later.
The dreaded Cossacks were received with the best foods but they preferred to cook their own
meals. The no-nonsense warriors bivouacked in the square of the Carousel before his majesty's
windows, and dried their shirts and trousers on the iron railings of the palace. The Cossacks also
camped out on the famous Champs Elysees.
Cossacks attacked Napoleon near Brienne in France.
Cossacks in Paris in 1814.
~
Cossacks' tactics. Cossacks in combat.
"The Cossack fears horsemen of no nation, except the Turks.
For the P o l i s h lancers he has admiration , because these
were capable to fight in closed , as well as in open order ,
and because he had to cope with them almost all the time
during the latest war.
The French, as long as they possessed cavalry, held back
their own in closed order and sent forward the Polish for
light duties. The German and French light cavalry are not
feared by the Cossack. He will not stand and oppose their
formed attacks, and in open order he will surpass them in
manoeuvrability."
- Austrian officer A. Prokesch
Ueber den Kosaken, und dessen Brauchbarkeit im Felde
Although Cossack tactics in open battles were generally
inferior to those of regular troops, nevertheless Cossacks
were excellent for scouting and reconnaissance duties, as
well as undertaking ambushes. Napoleon once said that
"Cossacks are the best light troops among all that exist."
According to Austrian officer A. Prokesch "A characteristic
which makes the Cossacks especially useful for the light
war, is their total indifference for a thousand things, which
are called obstacles in the military sense ... During the
attack on Holland the adroitness with which six Cossack
regiments under Narischkin and Stael operated between hundreds of waterways and many
fortified places astonished all experienced military buffs....
In October 1813 near Kassel, three Cossack regiments destroyed the Hussar Regiment Jerme
(Jerome Bonaparte was Napoleon's brother) in such a way, that no man or horse managed to
escape; a Young Guard detachment of 3,500 men strong, at Langengebode on the road to Hanau,
was attacked by 800 Cossacks. They were pinned down until daybreak, when three Bavarian
battalions arrived, taking prisoner the whole detachment; the elimination of the noble Polish
Lancer Regiment under General Kanopka at Slonim (in 1812), and many other surprise-attacks
executed by Cossacks are well-known.
The most famous are without doubt the failed but brilliant undertaking by Czernitschev and
Tettenborn on Berlin, and the capture of Bremen by the latter. Both events illustrate and prove the
statements that were made; as such, a short and reliable description of these will be beneficial...
The statement that these troops cannot be used in regular formations is fairly common, and much
speak for this. The way of doing battle is for the Cossacks the dispersed formation; the close
formation is less natural to him. But one makes a mistake if he concludes from this that there are
no cases in which they would have to be used in closed column, in which role it will serve well...
Examples of how the Cossack can be used against foot and guns there are many. To these belong
the combats which Tettenborn fought against General Morand during March 1813. ... All
Frenchmen admit that it was the irregular cavalry which formed the biggest problem for their
own horse. What should one do with these horse?, they say: If one wants to capture them, they
escape; if one wants some rest, one is not able to drive them away; if one forms a close formation,
it is being surrounded; if one extends its own line to the same length of theirs, they concentrate
before one realises it, and break through; if one throws them back a hundred times, they still will
return, and our horses will be destroyed by this." (Prokesch - "Ueber den Kosaken, und dessen
Brauchbarkeit im Felde")
Although the Cossacks were one of the finest light cavalry in the world, they were from
perfection.
In 1799 in Italy, "The allied chief of staff Major-General Chasteler was the single person
who was willing to take proper account of the Cossacks' limitations and potentials. Denisov had
to explain to him that the Cossack officers were unable to read maps, and that most of them were
too poor to own watches." (Duffy - "Eagles over the Alps" pp 30-31)
Cossacks sometimes failed to inform the headquarters of the movements of the enemy !
During pursuit they could be easily sidetracked upon encountering a baggage train :-)
.
Lava - tactical
formation
In combat the Cossack regiments (of 5 sotnia each) used the so-called lava formation. The word
lava is an abbreviation of the tartar word oblava, which means hunting by driving game into an
enclosed space.
The great extent of front covered by the lava made it possible simultaneously to envelop one flank
of the enemy, to direct attacks against his rear, and to take advantage of any opening by partially
assembling.
In taking up the lava formation a sotnia first formed line of half-platoons 50 paces to the front, on
the center platoon and then deployed that line so that there will be 1 Cossack for every 4 paces of
front. In this manner sotnia covered a front of 400 m. One platoon followed the deployed line in
close order. If this platoon also deployed, 1 NCO and 6 Cossacks remained with the guidon to
mark the rallying point, the so-called majak (lighthouse).
In the War of Liberation (1813-14) similar formation was used by the Prussian Landwehr cavalry.
The Prussian Landwehr cavalry used single-rank formation, generally avoided the shock
delivered by bodies in close order, and attacked flank and rear of the enemy.
William Balck writes, To attack them (Cossacks) in close order is futile as the Cossacks in lava
formation evade every collision and can not be caught at any point. But even granting that the
Cossacks possess superior skill in handling their sabres and lances, a statement that is contested
by the Russians themselves, cavalry of the line is superior to them in speed, and in size and
weight of mounts. The superior stature of their mounts gives the cavalrymen of the line a distinct
advantage over the Cossack in hand-to-hand combat.(William Balck - "Tactics")
Prokesh however claim that the Cossacks were able to use close formation. He writes, "The way of
doing battle is for the Cossacks the dispersed formation; the close formation is less natural to him.
But one makes a mistake if he concludes from this that there are no cases in which they would
have to be used in closed column, in which role it will serve well..."
.
The Cossack jumped from his horse and cried;
"Now you can catch me !"
Britten-Austin described Cossacks' tactics during Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812. "Each
morning it's the light cavalry, joined by Joachim Murat (ext. link) in person, that opens the march,
the hussar and chasseur regiments ... Day after day the Russian rearguard carries out the same
maneuvre. By pretending to make a stand, it lures Murat into mounting a full scale attack - and
then melts away into forests. Towards midday the heat becomes intolerable; and the chasseurs
and hussars 'seeing the Russians dismount, unbridle their horses and give them something to eat.
Yet General St. Germaine kept us standing in battle array, bridle on arm, at our horses' heads.
(Britten-Austin - "1812 The March on Moscow" p 124)
Picture: Red Lancer pursued by Cossacks.
Napoleon's cavalry struggled in the small warfare against
the Cossacks, including the elite unit of light cavalry, the
2nd Lancer Regiment of the Imperial Guard, the famous
Red Lancers. Austin writes, "Approaching stealthily,
Cossacks nevertheless (again) carry off the Dutch regiment's
outpost picket. And again 'only one man escaped flat out at
a gallop and brought the news to our camp. Even an hour
and a half's pursuit couldn't catch up with the Cossacks.'
Mortified by this second surprise of the campaign, Colbert
doubles the 2nd Regiment's outposts; and, to make
assurance doubly sure, mingles the Dutchmen with the
warier, more experienced Poles." (Britten-Austin - "1812 The
March on Moscow" p 333)
Dezydery Chlapowski of the Old Guard (Polish) Lancers
describes how they fought with Cossacks: "News reached
the headquarters at Dabrowna that a Russian force had
crossed the Dnieper River ... The Emperor sent four squadrons of Polish Guards under Kozietulski
to investigate. We set off after midnight, and ... arrived at a spot half mile from Katane. There we
encountered our first Cossacks. Our main body halted by som ebuilding and one squadron went
out to meet them. The Cossacks retreated off to our left, towards the Dnieper. At about this time
the sun rose and we were able to see the country round about. To our front stood a line of cavalry
on the crest of a hill, screened by a few hundred Cossacks. Kozietulski now recalled the first
platoon, which had already come to grips with the Cossacks, and he formed the leading squadron
into line. The regular cavalr must have been able to see our other three squadrons in support, as
they did not move from their position. But the Cossacks approached with increasing boldness,
firing with their ancient pistols. As we sent nobody out to skirmish with them, they came closer
and closer, shouting; Lahy ! (slang for Poles) when they discovered we were Polish. A Cossack
officer on a fine grey horse came as close as a 100 paces, perhaps less, and in good Polish
challenged us to meet him in single combat. Kozietulski forbade any of us to move.
The Cossack jumped from his horse and cried; 'Now you can catch me !' He then took off his cap
and waved it in the air, then having concluded that he would not provoke us, he leapt on his horse
and rejoined his men. The Cossacks must have fired a hundred shots at us, but not one hit its
target. Cossack will not charge even a lone squadron if is in good order. They like best to rackle
individuals, whom they taunt in order to lure them out of the way, entrap them, and take them
prisoner. For that reason you should never let impetous, bold, or excitable troopers go out and
skirmish with Cossacks." (Chlapowski - pp 111-112)
In late Fall of 1812 Napoleon believed that the capture and destruction of Moscow had
strengthened his own bargaining power and sent two messengers to Alexandr, asking for an end
to hostilities. The tsar disappointed the French and refused to enter any talks. By this time
Napoleon's communication lines became overextended and the Cossacks and hussars began their
brilliant campaign of attacking enemy's transports, magazines, and convoys. During the dark and
cheerless days the enemy was slowly retreating, burdened by loot and only the cries "Cossacks!"
kicked them into activity.
On 12th (24th) September there was a fight at Desna, on 17th (29th) September at Chirikovo, on
19th (Oct. 1st) September at Olshanki, on 23rd (Oct. 5th) September at Kobrin, on 26th (Oct. 8th)
September at Shebrin and at Nikolske, on 4th (16th) October at Koziany, on 7th (19th) October at
Slonim and at Ushachi, on 14th (26th) October at Vysokiye Steny, on 19th (31st) October at
Kolotzki Monastyr, on 20th October (1st Nov.) at Gzhatzk and at Tsarevo-Zaimishche, on 3rd
(15th) November at Koidanov, on 18th (30th) November at Zembin and at Pleshchinitza, on 25th
November (7th Dec) at Smorgonie, on 12th (24th) December at Shavle and on 22nd (Jan. 3rd 1813)
December action at Libava.
The relentless pursuit by the light cavalry and Cossacks, the winter and the tsar's and people's
determination resulted in a truly disastrous defeat on Napoleon. The Grand Army ceased to be
grand, it even ceased to be an army. Fewer than 100,000 of the 500 000 that Napoleon had used for
the invasion returned west.
.
"Never get into a skirmish with Cossacks"
- was the Poles' advice. However a formal
charge sent them flying."
Picture: Polish Guard Lancers charging.
During Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 the Cossacks
were almost everywhere. Henri Lachoque writes, "At Katyn
the Poles had great difficulty getting rid of several hundred
scouting in front of a mass of Russian cavalry. Lahy ! Lahy !
[Poles in old Russian slang] the Russians cried, firing off
their carbines at some distance from the leading squadron to
provoke the Guard Lancers. 'Never get into a skirmish with
Cossacks' was the Poles' advice. However a formal charge
sent them flying."
"Nearing Bouikhovo after nearly 3 hours' ride, Calkoen's
squadron [of Red Lancers] were advancing a few hundred yards ahead of the Poles when Ltn.
Doyen led his point troop up a hillock. They were immediately attacked from all sides by the
Cossacks. Ltn. van Omphal's troops were at once sent to help them disengage, but were
outflanked in their turn. The Red Lancers fell back towards the Polish squadron, who had halted
and taken up battle formation. Under this cover the Dutch Lancers regrouped and charged the
Cossacks again ..." (Ronald Pawly - "The Red Lancers")
In 1812 at Famonskoie the Cossacks ambushed and captured a whole detachment of the Red
Lancers. General Colbert mounted his horse and set off with 2 squadrons in pursuit, but the
Cossacks made off with their prisoners so quickly that all that could be seen were their hoof prints
in the mud.
At Smolensk in 1812, Chlapowski had another encounter with the Cossacks: "From the Emperor's
tent we could see all of Smolensk ... There were masses of Cossacks circling in front of the city.
Between the French line and the city walls was a massive gully into which the Cossacks had
spilled. As I was on duty that day, I was ordered by the Emperor to take a squadron and force the
Cossacks wiwthdrew. Coming up out of the ditch on the far side, I deployed the squadron in a
single line, as I expected the enemy to shoot at us from the walls. Sure enough, they fired a
number of howitzer shells, one of which exploded in the middle of the squadron. A few men
were wounded, and some horses broke ranks in fright, so the Cossacks seized the moment to
charge us.
They were upon us very quickly, and I had to parry one of their lances with my saber. I damaged
the lance but did not cut right through it, and it struck my horse's head, wounding it from its ears
to the nostrils. Captain Skarzynski accounted for 2 or 3 Cossacks. Cossack lances are longer than
ours, and in a close fight they handled less well. Our squadron repulsed this attack and sent the
Cossacks back to the shelter of their walls."
Headwear of Old Guard Lancer.
When one of the Old Guard Lancers lost his headwear in 1812
officer Jerzmanowski ordered him to go back and retrieve it to
prevent the enemy from claiming any trophy taken from this regiment.
It was unusual since many napoleonic troops panicked before
Cossacks and abandoned not only their baggage and weapons
but even their wounded comrades.
.
Cossacks versus regular troops.
If one wants to capture them, they escape;
if one wants some rest, one is not able to drive them away;
if one forms a close formation, it is being surrounded;
if one extends its own line to the same length of theirs,
they concentrate before one realises it, and break through;
if one throws them back a hundred times, they still will return ..."
There were numerous encounters between the Cossacks and regular troops.
French infantry officer, Barres, writes, "On the 14th (October 1813), in the forenoon, we crossed
the Elbe River at Wittemburg and camped near Daben, a small town. We marched very quickly,
the Cossacks surrounding us and opening to let us pass. They picked off a numebr of stragglers."
(Barres - "Memoirs of a French napoleonic officer ..." p 179)
In August 1813, Chernishev with 5 Cossack regiments and 4 guns attacked the village of Weddin
defended by a small Polish force (squadron of 4th Uhlans, three infantry companies and 2 guns).
The ensuing battle raged for 11 hours (!) and Cossacks made 10 attempts to capture the village.
Approx. 500 Cossacks dismounted to combat as skirmishers, but to no avail. (Nafziger - "Poles and
Saxons of the Napoleonic Wars" p 121)
Sometimes the encounter with the Cossacks had no happy end. "... a Young Guard detachment of
3,500 men strong, at Langengebode on the road to Hanau, was attacked by 800 Cossacks. They
were pinned down until daybreak, when three Bavarian battalions arrived, taking prisoner the
whole (French) detachment ..." (Prokesch - "Ueber den Kosaken, und dessen Brauchbarkeit im Felde")
The Cossacks were especially eager to attack weakened troops, for example,
during pursuit after battle. After the defeat at Dennewitz in 1813, Marshal Ney
wrote: "The XII Corps which yesterday was marching on Domitsch, ran into a few
Cossacks; the troops gave into such a panic-stricken terror that it was very
difficult to rally them." He also informed Marshal Berthier, the chief-of-staff of the
army, about 6 000 deserters who threw away their muskets in order to run faster !
The Cossacks also scored victories against regular cavalry.
In October 1813 near Kassel, "three Cossack regiments destroyed the Hussar
Regiment Jerme in such a way, that no man or horse managed to escape ..." (-
Prokesch)
"During Blchers retreat from Meaux to Soissons in March 1814, Colonel Nostitz attacked with 40
Cossacks a whole squadron of Vlites of the Guard (Young Guard) on open terrain near the
Bridge of Wailly. The Cossacks withstood the fire of the vlites, and then threw themselves upon
them, and the whole squadron was defeated." (Prokesh - "Ueber den Kosaken ...")
In 1812 at Ostrovno, the French 16th Horse Chasseur Regiment was attacked by Cossacks. The
chasseurs delivered a volley at close range (30 paces) The Cossacks however closed with them and
drove them back in disorder. Some Frenchmen fled into the ravine and some behind the squares
of 53rd Line Infantry Regiment.
In early January 1814 Marshal Marmont sent d'Audenarde's dragoon brigade (from Doumerc's
Cavalry Corps) toward Mannheim. The two dragoon regiments (500 men each) cut through the
small detachment of 100 Cossacks and then threw back another detachment of 300 Allies cavalry.
Audenarde continued east until he met Karpov's 2 000 Cossacks. The 1 000 dragoons had little
time to deploy before Karpov's bearded warriors charged. The French lost 225 killed, wounded
and prisoners, and fell back to Mutterstadt.
In 1813 at Hagelberg, Aleksandr Benkendorf galloped with Cossack regiments in front of the
whole French position, from the far right to the far left wing. Musketry accompanied the Cossacks
and they were received by grapeshot. Nevertheless, a Cossack regiment (300-400 men) defeated
squadron of cuirassiers (made of raw recruits) and some light infantry, in full view of the excellent
French artillery. Then the Cossacks captured 2 cannons and several wagons which they took with
them.
In 1812 Kulniev's force of hussars and Cossacks deployed before the village of Drouia. To their
front stood squadrons of French horse chasseurs. Nafziger writes, "The Cossacks continued to
hold the French until four squadrons of the Grodno Hussars arrived. The hussars immediately
attacked the French and pushed them back to a ravine by Litichki. Here the French reformed their
cavalry into four columns. Ridiger, seeing the remaining four squadrons of his regiment closing
in, moved on the French flanks and threw them in great disorder to the village Jaga. The French
reformed their cavalry there. ... part of the chasseurs dismounted and formed a skirmish line. The
Russian hussars charged again while the Cossacks attacked the French in the flank. The French
fell back with the Russians in pursuit until they reached Tschernevo." (Nafziger - "Poles and
Saxons" pp 114-115)
Only few times the French cavalry was able to corner the Cossacks and put them to the sword.
In 1814 Montelegier's 2nd Brigade (2nd, 6th, 11th Dragoon Regiment) left Colmar and near
St.Croix met Scheibler's flying column. The Cossacks, Bavarians and Austrians threw back the 2nd
and 6th Dragoons. The 11th Dragoons however countercharged and overwhelmed the enemy. The
Allies rallied. But when Collaert's 1st Brigade appeared on Scheibler's line of retreat, the Bavarians
and Austrians began their withdrawal. The Cossacks attempted to flee but were cornered by the
dragoons and many were cut down. The Bavarians and Austrians lost order and fled with the
dragoons hot on their heels. To Schleiber's horror the inhabitants of St.Croix barricaded the streets
and opened fire. The Allies had to force their way through the town. They lost 210 killed while the
French dragoons suffered only 80 killed. Scheibler received 3 saber cuts but somehow managed to
escape.
Cossacks attacking Napoleon's Honor Guard in 1814.
Picture by Eduarde Detaille (France).
The Cossacks get little
credit for their actions in
battle. Only at the battle
of Borodino do they get
the recognition they
deserve. Platov's
Cossacks crossed the
Voina River further
north than Uvarov's
cavalry, and made raid
on French flank and
rear. Word the much
feared Cossacks were to
the rear had spread
terror as far south as
Napoleon's
headquarters in
Shevardino Redoubt.
Napoleon sent
Grouchy's III Cavalry
Corps to deal with
Uvarov and Platov. It
allowed the Italian and
Bavarian cavalry to
regain composure. The Emperor also sent the infantry of Vistula Legion into Eugene's rear.
The Young Guard had made ready to receive the enemy. Napoleon also shifted his position north,
remaining there until about 3:00 p.m. These forces halted the rampaging Cossacks and threw
them back. The diversion however had paralyzed the French left and part of the center from
about noon to 2:00 p.m.
Alexander Mikaberidze writes, "... Platov and Uvarov bypassed the left flank of Napoleon's army
and launched a sudden attack in the Valuievo-Bezzubovo area. The panic among the transport
and troops of the left flank temporarily distracted Napoleon from further attacks against the
Second Western Army for about 2 hours.... During the time thus won, Kutusoff rearranged his
forces and strengthened the center and the left wing."
.
At Romanov in 1812,
the Poles were
heavily
outnumbered and
soundly defeated by
Platov's force.
According to George
Nafziger in the
combat of Romanov
participated several
Cossack regiments:
- Kouteinikov's
Cossacks
- Karpov's Cossacks
- Illovaiski's
Cossacks
- Ataman Regiment
The Cossacks were
supported by regular cavalry (hussars, dragoons and uhlans), infantry and 12 pieces of artillery.
Some Poles blamed French General Latour-Mauborg for their defeats at Mir and Romanov (see
below). They claimed that he had the Polish and French cavalry regiments separated by too long
distances. It encouraged the Cossacks to attack the isolated units with overwhelming force.
In 1812 at Mir, the Cossacks with some artillery and several cavalry regiments scored another
victory over Polish cavalry. Platov with eight Cossack regiments and two Don batteries deployed
in the woods south of Mir. One Cossack regiment (Sisoiev-III's) was posted on the southern edge
of the village. In front of Mir stood Platov's advance posts. One brigade of the French [Polish] 4th
Light Cavalry Division advanced on Mir with the 3rd Uhlans leading the way. Behind the 3rd
were the 15th and 16th Uhlan Regiment.
The 3rd Uhlans threw back Platov's advance posts and traversed the village at a gallop.
The 3rd Uhlans then attacked Sisoiev-III's Cossack Regiment but Platov's counterattacked
with the bulk of his force. The Cossacks had struck Poles' front, flanks and rear nearly
annihilating the 3rd Uhlans. Turno brought up the 15th and 16th Uhlans and held Platov
for a while before being thrown back.
George Nafziger writes, "Turno was the reinforced by the
arrival of ... 2nd, 7th and 11th Uhlans. At the same time,
Platov was reinforced by the arrival of GM Vasilchikov with
the Ahtirka Hussars, the Kiev and New Russia Dragoons,
the Lithuania Uhlans and the 5th Jagers. However night fell
as they arrived and the battle broke off. On the 10th, Platov
drew up his rearguard (Ahtirka Hussars, Kiev and New
Russia Dragoons, Illovaiski #5, # 10, # 11 and # 12, and two
horse batteries) along the road to Mir, and placed the rest of
the Cossacks in an attempt to ambush the Polish cavalry as
it resumed the advance." Kouteinikov's force (half of the
Ataman Cossacks, Grekhov-VIII's Cossacks, Haritonov's
Cossacks and Simferopol Tartars) moved to Simiakovo.
The 4th Light Cavalry Division followed Platov. The 7th
Uhlans took the lead while Turno's 3rd, 15th and 16th
Uhlans were on the edge of Simiakovo. The 2nd and 11th
Uhlans were on the northern edge of the village. Platov's
regiments attacked the 7th Uhlans and threw them back.
They also attacked the 3rd, 15th and 16th Uhlans.
The cavalry battle raged for 6 hours !
Kouteinikov's 2,100 men arrived and charged throwing back the left wing. Platov pushed Turno
back and advanced on Mir where he encountered Polish 4th Chasseurs and horse battery. Now it
was Platov's turn to loose ground, he abandoned Mir and withdrew to the woods."
Picture: masses of Cossacks at Mir in 1812.
Picture by Krasovski, Russia.
In 1812 at Borodino, one squadron of Polish 13th Hussar Regiment ("Silver Hussars")
advanced en fourageurs through bushes against a Cossack regiment led by Karpov-II.
Although the hussars were in small groups the enemy hesitated and then fled.
The Old Guard Lancers met the Cossacks several times in 1813. In May 1813, near Gorlitz (today
Zgorzelec), General Walther was ordered to take all regiments of the cavalry of Imperial Guard
and move to the right. Walther's force met Russian rearguard at Reichenbach. Chlapowski
describes the actions of his regiment: "We marched off by platoons, and crossing the fields at a
trot we covered about 0.5 mile until we came to a deep ditch full of trees. There we had to halt
and cross slowly in pairs. As soon as my 2 squadrons had crossed, General Lefebvre-Desnouettes
... ordered me to see off a mass of Cossacks that had appeared to our front. I formed line with my
two squadrons and advanced toward the enemy.
The Cossacks retired before us firing their side arms. We followed them for 300 paces, while the
next two squadrons under Jerzmanowski (in 1815 commander of Elba Squadron) crossed the ditch
behind us. We came upon a second ditch ... The Cossacks halted on the far side, and kept up a
lively fire from behind the trees. They began moving against us again, but as soon as we begun to
cross this ditch in a couple of places, they resumed their retreat. When we had crossed the second
ditch, we saw a line of regular cavalry beyond the Cossacks. ...
"Then another regiment regiment
of Russian uhlans appeared ... and
advanced toward us in line. But
when it was still 500 paces away it
broke into a gallop. Lefebvre-
Desnouettes ... again wanted us to
counter-charge. Jerzmanowski,
who knew the general very well,
told him there was no point in
charging, as the enemy had begun
to gallop far too soon; they would
soon lose formation and would
never reach us."
"Sure enough, their line shortly
broke up, a few dozen pulled
ahead and the majority began to
slow down. Nobody came any
closer to us than 100 paces. ...
General ordered two platoons to form skirmish order and go out to meet them. They brought
back half a dozen or more of the slowest horsemen.
We discovered they weren't lances, but regular Ukrainian Cossacks. ... The Cossacks had retreated
and were reforming a very long way away from us. This proved them to be very young recruits,
whose officers were probably no better. ... Now General Walther appeared, and after
complimenting us on our charge he ordered us to march off by platoons to the left and advance
up the slope ... "
In early 1814 "Major Skarzynski of the Old Guard Lancers performed prodigies of valor.
Overwhelmed and ridden down by a flood of Cossacks, he wrenched an "especially heavy" lance
from one of them and - wild with the outraged fury of despair - spurred amuck down the road,
bashing every Cossack skull that came within his reach. Rallying and wedging in behind him, his
Polish handful cleared the field. The same day Napoleon made Skarzynski the Baron of the
Empire. (Snatching a lance from a Cossack, he created a void around him by knocking over the
fugitives in his path and running the rest through with his lance." - Henri Lachoque)
In 1813 the Poles formed the so-called Krakusi (Light)
Cavalry Regiment. They wore modest outifts and
were mounted on hardy little ponies. Many privates
and officers spoke either German or Russian
language. Some Frenchmen called them the Polish
Cossacks. The Emperor reviewed the Krakusi mounted
on their ponies and laughed out loud. He called them
my pygmy cavalry." But when they began
maneuvering and charging, all in a very fast pace, his
amusement switched to admiration. In the end of the
review individual riders presented their incredible
skills. Furthermore, the Krakus apparrently knew how
to fight with the elusive Cossacks.
- On 5th September 1813 the Krakus met several
squadrons of Cossacks. Two squadrons of Krakus
under Mjr Rzuchowski attacked from the front, while one squadron under Cpt Celinski moved
around enemy's flank to cut it off from Herrnhut. The Cossacks were routed and lost 98 men (30
killed, 18 wounded and 50 were taken prisoner). The Krakus also captured 100 horses. The Krakus
lost 3 wounded. (Lukasiewicz - "Armia Ksiecia Jozefa, 1813" p 239)
- On 9th September 1813 at Strahwalde, General Uminski with 4 squadrons of Krakus and the
Polish 14th Cuirassier Regiment (1-2 squadrons without armor) attacked several squadrons of
Cossacks and 2 squadrons of Russian dragoons. The Cossacks fled before contact was made. The
Krakus pursued them for a while and then made a turn and attacked the dragoons fleeing before
the cuirassiers. The enemy lost 35 (incl. 10 prisoners), the Poles had 6 wounded. NCO Godlewski
of the Krakus captured standard of Grekov-V's Cossack Regiment. The trophy was immediately
sent to Napoleon and Godlewski was awarded with two awards: French Legion d'Honneur and
Polish Virtuti Militari. Unfortunately the standard was lost later on when the Russians captured
an adjutant with it. (Lukasiewicz - "Armia Ksiecia Jozefa, 1813" p 242)
The Cossacks did pretty well against the
French dragoons. What that division
[Milhauds dragoons at Eylau in 1807] did
is unclear, its performance obscured by a
veil of official secrecy. However, at least
two Eylau veterans offer evidence about
what took place. A cuirassier officer wrote
that during the campaign Milhauds
dragoons suffered a series of unfortunate
affairs. They became known army-wide
as cossack game. In a letter written after the battle, Alexandre Coudreux spoke more directly. He
grieved for the honor of the dragoons because the army had seen entire divisions about face in
front of a handful of Cossacks. Henceforth, Coudreux used the term dragonaille, a feminized
version of the word roughly translated as girly dragoons. (Arnold Crisis in the snows p 324)
The red-clad Lifeguard Cossack Regiment was the creme-de-la-creme of the Cossacks. The were
however counted as regular cavalry and many of them actually came from the regular cavalry.
They were selected for their valor, height, and strength. Chlapowski of Napoleon's Old Guard
Lancers wrote: "From Vilnius we eventually marched off with the Emperor to Glebokie on the
Vitebsk Road. A few miles short of this city there was a bloody skirmish at Ostrowno ... One of
our squadrons, which was escorting Murat in person, lost heavily on this occasion as the King of
Naples cared as little for his own safety as for that of anybody else. ... we came several times upon
Russian rearguard of Cossacks and Lifeguard Hussars, but they never once stood to fight. All they
did each time was sent out flankers to harry us, while the main body retired. We caught a few red
cossacks (Lifeguard Cossacks). They are a very tall and powerful race."
Picture: General Graf Vasilii Orlov-Denisov,
Colonel of the Lifeguard Cossack Regiment.
(The chef of the regiment was Tsar Alexander).
Orlov-Denisov was born in 1775. His military career began in January 1789. In October he became
sotnik commander of Cossack squadron. In 1799 - colonel. Orlov-Denisov distinguished himself in
1807 at Guttstadt and Heilsberg. In December 1807 he became general-major. In 1808 Orlov-
Denisov was named colonel of the prestigous Lifeguard Cossacks. Orlov-Denisov and his
regiment took part in the Russo-Swedish War in 1808-1809. In 1811 - general adjutant. In 1812
Orlov-Denisov distinguished himself at Loubino, Borodino, Tarutino, Maloyaroslavetz, Gzhatzk,
Krasne, and Liakhovo. In 1813 - general lieutenant.
In 1813 at Leipzig, the Lifeguard Cossacks counter-attacked the French and Saxon cuirassiers
(great picture by G Rava of Italy) from the front, while the Prussian Neumark Dragoons and
Silesian Cuirassiers struck from the flank. It was too much for the cuirassiers, they were pushed
back everywhere, and pursued until the positions of Drouot's batteries. The pursuers were halted
only by artillery fire and a counter-attack made by the Old Guard Dragoons.
Marbot explained why this happened, "This treatment resulted in the enemy centre yielding and it
was about to give way when the Tzar of Russia who had witnessed the disaster, rapidly advanced
the numerous cavalry of his Guard which, encountering the squadrons of Latour-Maubourg in
the state of confusion which always follows an all-out charge, repelled them in their turn and
took back 24 of the guns which they had just captured."
Tsar Alexander seeing the charge of the Lifeguard Cossacks, exlaimed: "They are going into fight
as if they were coming to a wedding." Few decades later, this regiment proudly took the world-
known Mendelson's "Wedding March" (ext.link) as their regimental music.
~
Miscellaneous.
Three generals were able to win Cossacks' esteem:
- Russian General Alexander Suvorow. For the
Cossacks he was through and through soldier. Simple
manners, brave and so successful.
- Prussian General von Blucher, the commander in
chief of the Prussian army. The Cossacks pondered at
his combative character and thought that he must
have had Cossack grandparents ! : - )
- French Marshal Joachim Murat, the commander of Napoleon's cavalry.
Marinated in perfumes and flamboyantly dressed, he led the cavalry in such a
way that the Cossacks wished to have him as their king. On several occassions they surrounded
him expressing their admiration ... and received money and watches.
The Cossack sense of being a separate community gave them a sense of loyalty to the Tsarist
government and Cossack regiments were frequently used to suppress domestic disorder,
especially during the Russian Revolution of 1905. During the February Revolution of 1917, the
Cossacks appear to have shared the general disillusionment with Tsarist leadership. While only a
few units were involved, their defection came as a psychological blow to the Government of Tzar
Nicholas II. In the Russian Civil War that followed the October Revolution, the Cossacks found
themselves on both sides of the conflict. Many officers and experienced Cossacks fought for the
White Army, and some for the Red Army.
Following the defeat of the White Army, a policy of De-cossackization took place on the surviving
Cossacks and their homelands since they were viewed as potential threat to the new regime. This
mostly involved dividing their territory amongst other divisions and giving it to new autonomous
republics of minorities, and then actively encouraging settlement of these territories with those
peoples.
During World War II the Cossacks found themselves on both sides of the conflict once again.
While most historians agree that the majority of the Russian Cossacks fought in the ranks of the
Red Army, a substantial number of them also served with the German Nazis. This can be
explained by harsh repressions that many of them suffered under the collectivization and De-
cossackization policies pursued by Joseph Stalin.
After several months' training the horse gunners of the
US Army were able to perform some Cossack tricks.
Their Cossacking was enthusiastically received during
a military parade in New York in 1916 (or 1917)
Sources and Links
Charles Esdaile - "Popular Resistance in the French Wars" (2005)
Chlapowski - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" translated by Tim Simmons
Dr. Freiherr von Baumgartner - "Vollstndiges Verzeichnis aller
Kosaken-Formationen 1812" publ. 1943 (transl. by Mark Conrad)
Ukrainian Cossacks (ext.link)
The Old Cossacks (ext.link)
Austrian Army : sterreichische Armee : Organization : Strength : Commanders
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Austrian_army.htm[2012-05-21 12:40:55]
Austrian Army of the Napoleonic Wars
"... the Austrian army ... carried most of the burden of the war on land.
Though repeatedly defeated, it always rose again..." - Gunther Rothemberg
Austria was the most implacable of Napoleon's continental enemies:
Austria at war with France - 108 months
Prussia at war with France - 58 months
Russia at war with France - 55 months
"Oldest and, next to the English, the most persistent of those foemen
were the whitecoat Kaiserlichs." - John Elting
" The great confusion of nationalities is a serious evil [ in the Austrian Army ] .
In the British army, every man can at least speak English, but with the Austrians,
even the NCOs of the non-German regiments can scarcely speak German."
In 1809 the Austrian army was the third largest army in the World.
.
Introduction.
.
The Austrian Army.
- - Privates, officers and generals.
- - Strength and deployment of the army.
- - Organization of the Austrian army.
.
Austria's wars with France.
.
Austrian Commanders.
- - Archduke Charles
- - Schwarzenberg
- - Chief-of-Staff Radetzky
.
Austrians vs Bonaparte's Guard
(Marengo, Italian Campaign 1800)
.
.
.
.
.
Introduction.
"The Hapsburg territories were immense,
and a key unifying factor was the army
itself, that embraced all nationalities ...."
The
Habsburg
Empire, or
Austrian
Empire, was
predominantly mountainous country in Central Europe. The major river was the Danube. The
only plains of importance was the Hungarian Puszta (in hungarian it means "plains", a vast
wilderness of grass and bushes).
From earliest times Austrian territory has been a thoroughfare, a battleground, and a border
area. The monarchy, although repressive of free speech and worship, was far from absolute;
taxation and other powers rested with the provincial estates for a further century.
Empress Maria Theresa's vicious struggle with Prussia in the War of the Austrian Succession
and the Seven Years War opened a long struggle for dominance in the German lands. The
Seven Years' War was a major military conflict that lasted from 1756, and involved all of the
major European powers of the period. The war pitted Prussia and Britain (the British had the
largest, navy in the world, while Prussia had the most formidable land force on continental
Europe) and a coalition of smaller German states against Austria, France, Russia, Sweden,
and Saxony. Russia temporarily changed sides in the later stages of the war. This war is often
said to be a continuation of the War of the Austrian Succession (1740 - 1748), in which Prussia
had gained the rich province of Silesia from Austria.
The central administration ruled the 'German' parts of the Habsburg or Austrian Empire;
Hungary was ruled by its own 'Diet' (parliament) which enjoyed a degree of independence.
The various possessions never really formed a single country - each province was governed
according to its own particular customs. Serious attempts at centralization began under
Empress Maria Theresa and especially her son Joseph II in XVIII century, but many of these
were abandoned following resistance to his more radical reforms. The Habsburg or Austrian
Empire spread from Italy to the Netherlands and from Poland to the Balkans, incorporating:
- 5.6 mln Germans
- 3.8 Czechs, Moravians and Slovaks
- 3.4 mln Hungarians
- 1.6 Romanians
- 1.6 Croats and Serbs
- 1 mln Poles and Ukrainians
- 2 - 3 mln others
The Serbs and Croats were considered as
frank men, "doughty fighters" and heavy
drinkers. "The ordinary Croats did not
strive for rank or status, but were typically
tall and strong folk who showed
'astonishing courage in the face of hunger
and thirst, frost and heat, and the greatest
physicall suffering, even under the knife of
the surgeon. Death holds no terror for
them. In their homelands everything
reminded the stranger that 'you are in a
colony of soldiers ... Croatian loyalty was
legendary ... And yet, if the Croats detected
or imagined a breach of faith on the part of
the authorities, they resorted to something potentially much more dangerous, namely defying
their officers and making off homewards, by force if necesarry, and regardless of the stage of
the campaign or the presence of the enemy." (Duffy - "Instrument of War" Vol I, p 312-13)
The Poles and Ukrainians were seen as drinkers and idle men. The Poles were unwilling to
fight for the Austrian monarch. "After the battle of Dresden 3,000 Austrian deserters of Polish
nationality were taken prisoner into the [Poniatowski's VIII] corps; 30 to each company. "
(Digby-Smith - "Leipzig" p 316)
The Hungarians enjoyed great reputation as horsemen and fighters. The Romanians were
short, robust, revengeful and cruel. The Germans and Czechs were described as being too fat
and slow but clean and educated.
Napoleon's victories encouraged rulers of certain territories of the Habsburg Empire to assert
their independence from Vienna. In December 1805, the prince-elector Duke of Bavaria
proclaimed himself King, followed by the elector Duke of Wrttemberg. The Margrave of
Baden was given the title of Grand Duke. Each of these new countries became French allies.
The Treaty of Pressburg between France and Austria, signed in Pressburg on 26 December,
enlarged the territory of Napoleon's German allies at the expense of defeated Austria. In July
1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was established. This confederation, under French
influence, put an end to the Holy Roman Empire.
In August 1804 Kaiser Francis II assumed the title of first Emperor of Austria.
Population of Austrian Empire
(German: Kaisertum sterreich)
and other countries:
Denmark - 1 million
Naples - 5 millions
USA - 6,5 millions
Spain - 11 millions
Russia - 40 (with
annexed territories)

NOTE:
In January 1812 the Civil Code of Austria (Allgemeines brgerliches Gesetzbuch) was introduced.
It was enacted in 1811 after about 40 years of preparatory works. Karl Anton Freiherr von
Martini and Franz von Zeiller were the leading drafters of the code. Comparable to the
famous Napoleonic Code (enacted in 1804), it was based on the ideals of freedom and
equality before the law. One of the very first countries to follow up through legal transplants
in codification was Serbia. The Austrian Civil Code was divided into three major segments,
following the Roman law segregation methods. It was modernized during the First World
War and continues to be the basic civil code of Austria to this day.

The Schnbrunn Palace (German: Schloss Schnbrunn, meaning "beautiful spring")
became the imperial summer residence, after Empress Marie Theresa was crowned.
It was a vigorous centre of the Austrian Empire and the imperial family.
The glory of the imperial Austria are nowhere brought together more convincingly
than in this place.
The Austrian Army.
~
The Austrian Army.
The explanations for its defeat at the hands of the French army
incl. poor administration and staff work, incompetent generals
and the polyglot of nationalities present in the army.
The individual regiments however performed well and were considered solid.
The Hapsburg territories were immense, and a key unifying
factor was the army itself, that embraced all nationalities
and drew its personnel from Hapsburg lands and beyond.
Hampered by the inherent conservatism of the hierarchy,
the Austrians had to fight the most modern army in
Europe. The Austrian regulars however performed with
discipline and resolution and played a central part in the
several coalitions against France, from the campaigns in
1790s, to the Austerlitz campaign of 1805, the closely-
balanced battles of 1809, and the final campaigns of 1813-
1814.
In 1771 in Austria was introduced a general conscription but
exemptions were granted to several towns and provinces.
The areas under conscription were divided into regimental
districts ('German' infantry regiments). Hungary,
Netherlands and northern Italy, as well nobles and officials were all excluded from military
service. Some of the areas (Tirol, northern Italy, Netherlands) relied on free recruiting while
others (Hungary) filled the ranks by local officials according to quotas imposed by the
Hungarian Diet and on volunteers.
The difference between the French and Austrian army of the Revolutionary Wars (1790s -
1802) could be summarized by saying that they were essentially facing the opposite
directions: the French towards the future, and the Austrian towards the past. In the 1740s and
1750s the Austrian army's main task was to protect Austrian territory from the most
dangerous opponent, the Prussian army of Frederick the Great (picture -->).
The string of defeats to which the Prussians had subjected them had amply
demonstrated that the army was in no fit state to contend with an adversary
of this calibre. A process of reform was therefore begun which touched every
aspect of military life. As a result of these reforms the Austrian army
improved to such degree that in the War of the Bavarian Succession it
managed to neutralize the Prussians almost completely by taking up
defensive positions so formidable that Frederick the Great dared not attack it.
Then however came stagnation and in the 1790s the Austrian army found itself stuck with a
set of attitudes and methods that had been adopted to suit the style of warfare of the past. It
was to be faced with more reforms in order to counter the threat posed by Napoleon.
One of the problems was the system of promotions by seniority. It means that there were
fewer generals and colonels who were active. It also meant that when entering the service,
one was sure, provided one does not steal, to go through all the ranks, and even arrive at the
rank of general. "This stifles talent, discourages merit, and takes away all emulation." (-
Austrian Colonel Dietrichstein to Baron Thugut, April 1795)
"A further problem was that the officer corps was generally backward-looking.
Many of the officers had grown old in the service, and the generals were mostly
veterans of the Seven years War. ... and many of them proudly preserved
attitudes that had been formed when war was touched with a certain chivalry.
... It took a long time for some Austrian officers to realise that noble behaviour
indeed to be tempered with pragmatism, especially when your opponent was
hell-bent on gaining every possible advantage from a situation. The message
had clearly still not got through to General Kienmayer when, in 1805, he
informed Marshal Murat, napoleon's cavalry commander, that his troops
desperately needed a rest, and therefore requested him not to advance on
Vienna too rapidly.
These old-fashioned attitudes also contributed to the slowness with which the
Austrian army moved. In the middle of the century the aristocratic officer had
always maintained a lifestyle in the field that was consonant with his social
position. This meant transporting large amounts of gear such as tents, and even
porcelain, accompanied by the necessary servants to look after them.
The Duke of Cumberland, for example, travelled around with 145 tons of
baggage.
This was not looked on as showing off, but rather as necessary for a man of high position,
and to do otherwise would have brought contempt rather than admiration. While everybody
else did the same thing, it had little effect on the army's performance, but once the enemy
started to do things differently, it had grave consequences, as an Austrian noted:
Almost every day our army loses half a march to the French. Their soldiers carry the same load as our
men, but what an effort it takes us to get under way ! The French officer accompanies his troops on foot,
and if necessary he carries his pack himself. In our army on the other hand, every company had a whole
tail of carts just to transport the officers' baggage. If possible, these gentlemen would like to bring
along warm stoves and arm-chairs as well.
The slowness with which the army moved was probably also a consequence of slow decision-
making on the part of the commanders ... Bonaparte himself provides an illustration of their
bewilderment with an anecdote concerning the early part of his 1796 campaign. It is taken
from his memoirs, which were written in the third person:
Napoleon, in his nightly rounds, encountered a bivouac of prisoners, where there
was a garrulous old Hungarian officer, whom he asked how matters went on with
them. The old captain could not deny that they went on very badly. 'But' he
added, 'there is no understanding it at all. We have to do with a young general
who is in this moment before us, then again behind us, then again on our flanks -
one does not know where to place oneself. This manner of making war is
insufferable and violates all usage and custom'.
This was rather like the cry of a gentleman who had gone to fight a duel
in the proper ritualised fashion, and found an opponent who insisted on
firing before he was told to, and his behind trees to make a more difficult
target. Unfortunately, in this case there was no umpire.
This no doubt paints a rather negative picture of the Austrian officer class, but the better
officers should not be forgotten. ... If they had still been fighting Frederick the Great they
might well have done much better," (Boycott-Brown - "The Road to Rivoli")
Picture: Surrender of
French fortress of
Huningue to the
Austrians during the
Waterloo Campaign in
1815.
"The Austrian army has
many points of
resemblance to the
British army. In both
there are many
nationalities mixed
together, though each
regiment, generally,
belongs to one nation
only. The Highland
Gael, the Welshman, the
Irishman, and the
Englishman, scarcely
vary more than the
German, the Italian, the
Croat, and the Magyar (Hungarian) ...
In either, the tactical forms have retained a deal of the ancient line-formations, and adopted,
in a limited degree only, the use of columns and skirmishing." (Source: "The Armies of Europe"
in Putnam's Monthly, No. XXXII, published in 1855)
The military operations were controlled through a Supreme War Council made of military
and civilian members. It was nicknamed the "Aulic Council" because it was staffed with
superannuated generals who hampered army commanders with impossibly detailed orders.
The Supreme War Council was slow to decide and its members frequently having their
thumbs in each other's eyes. Furthermore, the Kaiser and his family, or his ministers, often
interfered with its works. (There was an Aulic Council. Up to 1806 it was a high court.
Thereafter the name passed to a council of state. - John Elting)
Although the Austrians were defeated in many battles during the Revolutionary and
Napoleonic Wars there were also times when they fought superbly. Below is a description of
a fight for the bridge at Arcole in 1796. "... the French had been making continued attempts to
take Arcole. Bon's attack had been stopped in its tracks some way short of the bridge, and
Augereau had then sent forward Verdier with the 4th Line (Infantry Regiment), whose
reception was described by Petitbon:
Having arrived close to the village, we found the 5th Light (Infantry
Regiment) thrown back on the right side of the causeway by a terrible
musket fire. We advanced, and experienced the same fate.
Sulkowski was with Verdier, and recounted how the men tried to shelter from the fire by
sliding down the slope of the dike. Augereau ordered the rest of the division to move up in
support, but this took time, and the enemy also sent up reinforcements, Sulkowski
commenting we saw them arrive at the double, towing their cannons behind them.
By now it was probably late morning, or even midday, and these new Austrian troops may
well have been the first of Mittrowsky's men, who are reported to have arrived at 12:30. They
placed two howitzers on the dike itself, which now became even more deadly than before.
Augereau and Lannes, who had turned up that morning having just recovered from a wound,
then essayed an attack with two battalions of the 51st (Line Infantry Regiment) which ewere
present, but they got no closer than 80 paces from the bridge, where Lannes was hit in the leg.
The historian of the 51st did not seek to hide the men's reaction:
Taken aback by the greatness of the danger, and influenced by the disastrous
example of the other demi-brigades, the rest of the battalions suddenly fell back
onto the slope of the causeway, and were soon mixed up with the rest of the
division. Some enemy sharpshooters overlooked this slope and killed many of
our men. We stayed there without taking a step forward or backwards, getting
ourselves killed to no purpose. Nothing was capable of making the troops make
a new attempt and advance on the enemy again ..."
Augereau (picture) tried again with Verne and the 40th Line, but with no better
success. Augereau was untouched during the fighting, but Bon, Verdier and
Verne were all wounded while trying to lead their men forward. While the
attack had thus stalled on the French right, Massena was invlolved in a struggle
to hold off the Austrians on the left. From the earliest, they had made attempts
to find a way round Massena's flank, Brabeck detaching four companies with 2
3pdrs to make their way along the Adige and create diversion. ...
Infantry Regiment Splenyi threw back the French, captured 2 guns and continued their
advance. This movement was shadowed by a battalion of Croats that Brabeck had sent along
the other dike, which ran close to the Adige, and went through a wood where there was a
sharp bend in the river. The Croats became confused by the nature of the terrain, and seeing
the fighting between Infantry Regiment Spleny and the French on the dike leading from
Bionde, opened fire, thinking they were shooting across the river. Infantry Regiment Spleny,
which did not know of the Croats' advance, believed they were being attacked from the rear,
and retreated in confusion, leaving behind 3 guns. Massena took advantage of this, and
advanced easily to Bionde, then to Belfiore di Porcile. ... "
It was also at some time in the mid-afternoon that the 3rd battalion of the 51st, commanded
by Soules, received orders to cross the Alpone by boat ... We are told by Andre Estienne, a
drummer with the 51st's grenadiers, that at the same time as this attack was being made
[probably around 4 pm] Augereau tried to incite his men to move along the right bank and
make a supporting assault on the bridge. He took a color, and advancing 15 paces beyond his
skirmishers, stood in the open on the road leading to the bridge, and shouted
Grenadiers ! Come and seek your colour.
This produced no great
effect, but Bonaparte
decided to try the same
thing. ... Sulkowski
continued:
The soldiers saw him, and
none of them imitated him. I
was witness to this
extraordinary cowardice,
and I cannot conceive it.
Was it for the victors of Lodi
to cover themselves with
infamy ? The moment was
short, but it was
catastrophic for all those
who surrounded Bonaparte: his ADC Muiron, General Vignolle, the lieutenant of the Guides, and
Belliard's two assistants fell at his side. I myself was struck right on the chest by a grape-shot, but my
rolled cloak, which I was wearing bandolier fashion, saved my life.
Sulkowski was then knocked out by explosion of a shell, so the rest of his story is second-
hand. The General-in-Chief, as they told me later, seeing that his efforts were useless, retired, and this
time the greandiers hastened to follow his example. Soules's men, having got quite close to the
village, were also forced back by a vigorous (Austrian) counter, and had to recross the
Alpone. There was great disorder among Augereau's troops, as those at the front tried to fall
back, but because of the narrowness of the dike were prevented by those behind. Some
(French) soldiers fell in the marsh while trying to escape as the Austrians launched an attack
over the bridge.
Bonaparte's horse also lost its footing, slid down the bank, and the two of them tumbled into
the marsh, from where they were rescued, covered in mud, by a number of men. These
included several from the 4th Line, one of them, Sergeant Boudet, was killed in the process.
The division soon rallied at a safe distance, but made no other serious attacks since it was
now almost night. Guieu, however, met with much greater success when he finally reached
Arcole after dark. His first attack, at about 6 or 7 pm, was beaten back, but he later managed
to enter the village ... The fighting eventually came to an end at about 11 pm." (Boycott-Brown -
"The Road to Rivoli" pp 463-466)
The combat at Caldiero in 1796 is
significant as being Napoleons
first undisputable defeat in open
field, and although most of the
Napoleonic authors passed
quickly over this episode to
describe and analyze the
following battle of Arcole in much
more detail, the fact remains that
by the standards of the Italian Campaign Caldiero is a significant engagement. Napoleon was
much depressed by his defeat, and on next day he wrote a letter to the Directory that he
would oppose the Austrians once again but that he had no hope of stopping their drive to
Mantua and would probably retreat to the line of the river Ada.
Austrian commander: Alvinczi
Armies: 12,500 French vs 12,000 Austrians
.
Austrian privates, officers and generals.
The generals "are a weakness in our army."
It robbed the rank and file of success they deserved.
The Austrian soldiers were considered as patient, well-disciplined, and sober but
also "slow and heavy." The whitecoats fought on terrains as diverse as the Po
valley in Italy and the Swiss mountains. "Charles tried to heighten morale [of the
soldiers] by issuing orders of the day that complimented particularly gallant units
and by handing out medals and awarding pensions to the most deserving. His
men responded with displays of tenacity and devotion to both the man and their
country." (- James Arnold)
Although sometimes the Austrian troops lacked weapons and uniforms (in 1796
they lacked 49.014 pairs of shoes and gaiters), they were rather well supplied and
well fed as comparing to the French and Russians. The British supplied the
Austrain army with many items.
Brutality and harsh discipline in the army were condemned by Archduke Charles.
Before 1805 the term of service was reduced to:
- 10 years in the infantry
- 12 in the cavalry
- 14 years in the artillery and engineers.
The hussar regiments had no problems with keeping their strength,
as there were many volunteers in Hungary who joyfully joined their
traditional arm.
Majority of Austrian officers were Germans, Czechs and Hungarians. But there
were also French, Poles, Croats, Swedes, Irish and English. Austrian Empress
Maria Theresa opened military academies in 1752. Sons of serving officers and
state officials, minor nobility and commoners entered these schools in their
teens. The artillerymen were trained in the Artillery Corps School in Bohemia
and in the Bombardier Corps formed by Kinsky (director of artillery). Sir T.
Graham wrote with some exaggeration that "interest and intrigue were the
main avenues of promotion". The officers could enter the army in three
different ways:
- appointment as a cadet
- commission (mainly for aristocracy)
- promotion from the lower ranks
Austrian officers received formal training. Those who came from aristocracy
passed faster through the ranks than those who came from lower social classes.
The cadets were taught by sergeants and they were the most numerous group
among officers. Majors and higher ranks in infantry and cavalry were promoted
by the Emperor himself. General of artillery handled the promotions in artillery.
Promotions in Grenzer (border) regiments depended on Supreme War Council Hofkriegsrath
The senior officers however revealed obsessive concern with trivia like the regimental bands
played in proper intervals. They spent a lot of time banqueting instead of studying and
training the troops.
In 1792 the Austrian army had 356 generals (incl. 13 fieldmarshals). The generals were old
(63-years old on average) and mostly aristocrats selected for their connections, often divided
by personal rivalries and ego, babblers and intriguers. Two army commanders were
archdukes (Charles and John).
Ranks of generals and fieldmarshals in the Austrian army:
- Generalissimus (the highest rank in 1809, resurrected specifically for Archduke Charles)
- Feldmarschall (there were 13 in 1792, and 6 in 1807)
- General der Kavallerie
- General der Infanterie
- General der Artillerie
- Feldzeugmeister
- Feldmarschall Leutnant (121 in 1807)
- Major-General (162 in 1807)
Majority of the nine corps were led by aristocrats, 2 by
archdukes (Ferdinand and Ludwig) and 3 by princes
(Rosenberg, Liechtenstein, Hohenzollern). Only few corps
commanders were commoners (Mack, Hiller).
General Chasteler (1763-1825) represented the last
generation of the talented and lively southern
Netherlanders in the Austrian army. "He was brave as well
as expert, but also bespectacled and short-sighted - an
unfortunate combination of characteristics which brought
him into the path of many a missile in the course of his
career. ... [Suvorov] wrote to [Kaiser] Francis that he
deserved to be promoted to lieutenant-general." (Duffy -
"Eagles over the Alps" p 25).
General Giulay (corps commander) was considered a little
bit brutal but quite skilled as commander. General Nostitz
who commanded the cuirassiers was not brilliant but knew
his troops and service well. General Klenau (corps commander) was a fiery warrior but rash
commander. He motivated his troops pretty well. General Reuss was a honest man but not too
skilled.
General Rohan was courteous and talented but also didn't care much about the service and
his troops. General Frimont was a seasoned commander and a good soldier. General
Davidovich had the knowledge but "he was a Croat!" General Anton Zach was - according to
Fieldmarshal Suvorov: "sound, discreet and professional, but a great deviser of logistics just
when I want to burst into flaming action."
Casualties among the generals were far below those suffered by the French generals and even
below the Russian and Prussian casualties. The Austrian generals conducted a defensive war
and were overly concerned with lines of communications (Cattle depots were maintained by
every Austrian army.)
Although at Aspern-Essling in 1809 Archduke Charles defeated Napoleon, some of his
generals still showed inability to coordinatethe the attacks of various brigades and divisions.
It robbed the Austrian rank and file of greater success they deserved. There were also cases of
poor communication. For example on July 4th 1809 the Emperor of Austria and his brother
Archduke Charles were on Bisamberg and watched the first French columns marching on the
bridges across Danube River. The field telegraph transmitted the important news to Charles'
staff but the Austrian troops never received this alert.
Archduke Charles (see picture) wrote that the generals "are a weakness in our
army." The Austrian generals' failure in 1805 to destroy the Tabor Bridges at
Vienna angered their Allies, Russians. It occurred at a point in the campaign
when Kutuzov had placed the mighty Danube River between his exhausted army
and Napoleon's Grand Armee.
The old Austrian commander, Auersperg, was duped by the French, who
captured the bridge. The loss of the bridge forced the Russian army to rapid
retreat and necessitated the heavy losses incurred by the Russians in Hollabrunn.
The bridge was captured through trickery, with no loss of life. Kutuzov could
hardly believe at the idiocy of Austrian general. At Austerlitz it was Austrian general
Weyrother's plan of battle that brought disaster.
To the old and cunning Kutuzov it seemed that the Austrian generals were more of a liability
than an asset.
If the Austrian generals were not the youngest, the smartest and the boldest, majority were
professionals. This is interesting to know that the famous Russian Fieldmarhal Suvorov rated
them highly. "As long as the two armies [Russian and Austrian] were together in Italy,
Suvorov never consulted the Russian generals, 'making no scruple of saying to them openly
before the Austrians ... that they were too ignorant to be consulted upon anything..." (Duffy -
"Eagles over the Alps" p 27)
.
The strength and deployment
of the Austrian army.
The Austrian Empire maintained a vast army.
In June 1799 the field army consisted of 250,000 men:
in Italy - 92,000 men
in Germany - 92,000 men
in Dalmatia - 8,500 men
in other places - 5,500 men
(Additionally 8,000 arrived from hospitals
after recovering from their wounds, and
14,000 arrived as recruits. There were also
30,000 as exchanged prisoners.)
In 1805 Austria had been undergoing a reorganization since 1801. It was done under the
leadership of Kaiser's brother, Archduke Charles, who served as Minister of War. Charles,
however, thought that the army was not yer ready for the next war with France. "In addition,
he distrusted the Russians and considered the British to be opportunistic, manipulative and
unwilling to risk their own troops on the continent. The coalition, he concluded, would rely
on Austrian troops to bear the brunt of the fighting. ...
With the raise of the war party and its victory over the Archduke Charles, Mack assumed
control over policy. With war planning already underway, Mack unwisely chode to push
through a series of reforms that addressed what he felt were fundamental flaws in the tactical
structure of the Austrian Army." ( Goetz - "1805 : Austerlitz" pp 29-32)
In 1805 there were 425,000 men in the field:
305,450 infantry
42,340 cavalry
12,330 artillery
57,400 Grenzers
5,750 engineers, pioneers
1,730 others
In 1808 the landwehr (militia) was formed. "Only provinces in Germany were allowed to
form landwehr battalions, as the territory of Galicia, heavily populated with Poles and
sympathetic towards Napoleon, were forbidden to raise such formations." ( John Stallaert -
"The Austrian Army")
Of the planned 150 battalions of Landwehr, only 70 were actually raised.
In 1809 Austrian Empire had 300,000-450,000 regulars and 100,000-150,000 irregulars (grand
total of 400,000-600,000 men under arms). Thus the Austrian army was the third largest army
in the World. It was possible due to two factors, good organization and large population. ".. in
May and June of 1809, Archduke Charles began to incorporate the landwehr into the ranks of
the regulars in order to shore up losses which could no longer be filled by depleted depot
ballalions. Finally, whole battalions of landwehr were deployed at Wagram and their
behavior was commendable." ( - John Stallaert)
After the defeat of 1809, loss of recruiting grounds resulted in the disbanding of 8 infantry
regiments.

"The Austrian Empire maintained a vast army."
(Picture courtesy of Wolfgang Meyer, Germany.)
-
"The most beautiful sight I have ever seen in my life then unfurled before our eyes.
Within a radius of about a mile, we could see the entire Austrian army, with its
right flank anchored on the Danube, and its left extending beyond Wagram..."
- Chlapowski of Napoleon's Guard Lighthorse
.
Organization of the Austrian army.
The Austrian Army of the Revolutionary Wars
and the Austerlitz Campaign was a collection
of regiments, temporarily grouped together.
Although the organization of the French and the Austrian armies had some similarities there
were also important differences. During the Austerlitz Campaign in 1805 "The groups of
regiments would typically be termed columns rather than divisions, but would be broken into
brigades and collected together into wings under a senior commander in a manner parallel to
the French corps structure. However, it was expected that these formations would be
regrouped and individual regiments or battalions reassigned between operations.
The root difference between the two models is that for the French the division and
corps existed as an administrative and operational entity to which the commander
was assigned. For the Austrians, the commander and his staff were the
administrative and operational entity to which regiments were assigned.
The primary flaw in the Austrian higher organization was the administrative
overhead involved in making on-the-fly adjustments to the various formations
and the resulting lack of cohesion and familiarity of officers with their commands
- and vice versa." (Goetz - "1805 : Austerlitz" p 33)
In 1813 the Austrian army entered the campaign composed of eight corps and two
reserve corps.
Each army corps commander had a staff. The staff was commanded by a general,
or senior officer. He was the chief-of-staff and his obligation was the composition of
instructions for the corps operations for the following day, issuing orders involving routes of
march, and suitable camping ground. In addition to the chief of staff was a senior officer
called general-quartermasters. He had the authority over the engineers. The third important
person in the staff of army corps was corps-adjutant. He had authority over the field
chaplain, staff auditors, provost guard, sanitation company and all disciplinary and personal
matters.
The chief-of-staff and general-quartermaster had several officers drawn from infantry,
cavalry, artillery and engineers. "The officers had very little education relating to their
functions. This was partially because there was no manual of operation for the staffs and the
lower grade officers were taken "from the ranks" and had to familiarize themselves with their
jobs through a trial-and-error basis.
Many generals had numerous "horror" stories to tell of the
gross errors perpetrated by the General Quartermasters Staff.
Since these officers were also responsible for providing the
corps commander with the proper maps, their lack of formal
training and minimal education resulted in an almost endless
stream of mistakes which would have been considered
inexcusable had they been committed in the French or British
armies One such incident involved Archduke Charles
himself. When, during the battle of Aspcrn-Essling, Charles
asked for an important map, a considerable shuffle among
the staff produced an entirely different one causing Charles
to exclaim: "This is what the officer from the General staff has
given us!''. (- John Stallaert)
Rothenberg writes: "The staff was not capable of handling the
corps system. The officers of the Quartermaster General Staff
were still primarily trained in mapping, mathematical
computations, horsemanship, drawing and penmanship.
Many were personally brave and on paper quite capable of
elaborating plans for moving troops. In the field, however, it
was a different matter. The new system created much
confusion and the Austrian general staff lacked a common doctrine and manuals of
procedure. And this became especially critical when because of the small size of the
permanent staff untrained officers had to be assigned for duty when the army was activated."
(Rothenberg - "Napoleon's Great Adversary")
Diorama of the Battle of Leipzig (October 1813)
Euromodelbouw 2009
Austrian, or rather Hungarian, line infantry,
Russian hussars and artillery train
and Austrian cuirassiers
Austria's wars with France.
In 1791 Leopold II and the King of Prussia jointly declared
that the revolutionary situation in France was a common
concern of all sovereigns.
Meeting in Potsdam in 1791, Leopold II and the king of Prussia jointly declared that the
revolutionary situation in France was a common concern of all sovereigns. Although the
declaration did not become the framework for European military intervention in France as its
authors had hoped, it set Austria and the French Revolution on an ideological collision course. In
April 1792, revolutionary France declared war on Austria. The first war lasted for 5 years until
Austria, abandoned by its allies, was forced to make peace on unfavorable terms. Austria renewed
the war against France in 1799 and again in 1805 but was swiftly defeated both times.
Picture: Kaiser [Emperor] Francis II (German: Franz II, Erwhlter
Rmischer Kaiser)
He "was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling from 1792 until 6 August
1806, when he dissolved the Empire after the disastrous defeat of the
Third Coalition by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz. In 1804, he had
founded the Austrian Empire and became Francis I of Austria (Franz I.),
the first Emperor of Austria (Kaiser von sterreich), ruling from 1804 to
1835, so later he was named the one and only Doppelkaiser (double
emperor) in history." - wikipedia
Napoleon found him a stiff, timid but a decent man, with two hobbies:
gardening and the making of his own sealing wax. "Write to your father"
Napoleon told his second wife Marie-Louise of Austria, "and urge him to
be a little bit on our side and not to listen solely to the Russians and the
English." (- Vincent Cronin)
At Campo Formio the Austrians were given the Italian lands of the Venetian Republic, which
passed into extinction, and the French consented to their annexation of the archbishopric of
Salzburg. These gains were bought at a heavy price, for in return the Austrians had to link
themselves with the brutal way the French were re-ordering ancient borders and institutions. The
Austrians sacrificed their historic constitutional and moral authority in Germany by consigning the
settlement of the borders to a congress at Rastatt.
"The Austrian chancellor (foreign minister) Baron Johann Amadeus Franz Thugut (1734-1818)
remained a bitter opponent of the Revolution, but he was unwilling to put the Austrian armies and
finances at risk for anything but the most certain gains, since he believed that any further setbacks
would leave Austria at a disadvantage not only with respect to the new France, but to old dynastic
rivals like Sardinia-Piedmont and Prussia. For Thugut, Europe remained a field of play for
conventional politics, however much the familiar patterns might have been jumbled up by the
Revolution." (Duffy - "Eagles Over the Alps" p 8)
The treaties of Campio Formio (1797) and Lunville (1801) preluded the dissolution (1806) of the
Holy Roman Empire, and in 1804, Francis II took the title Francis I, Emperor of Austria.
In 1805, Great Britain, Austria, Sweden, and Russia formed the Third Coalition to overthrow the
French. When Bavaria sided with France, the Austrians, 80,000 strong under General Mack,
prematurely invaded while the Russians under Kutuzov were still marching through Poland.
Bavarian force, 21,500 men under General Deroi, barely escaped. Napoleon's decision to hurl upon
the enemy his army was taken at once. It was executed with unparalleled rapidity and exactness
and in no time Napoleon had 180,000 men facing the Austrians.
On October 7, the Austrian commander, General Mack, learned that Napoleon planned to march
round his right flank so as to threathen his supply lines and cut him off from the Russian army
under Kutuzov.
(See map below.)
Napoleonic cavalry under Murat conducted reconnaissance, drew up detailed road surveys, and
screened the advance of the army. The cavalry screen also made demonstrations across the Black
Forest Mountains. Mack thought that the security of his army relied on sealing off the gaps
through the Black Forest that had witnessed much fighting during the campaigns of the French
Revolutionary Wars. He believed that there would be no action in Central Germany and decided to
make Ulm the centerpiece of his strategy, which called for a containment of the French until the
Russians could arrive. Ulm was protected by the fortified heights, giving the Austrians the
impression that the city was impregnable from outside attack.
Meanwhile the main French forces invaded the German heartland and then swung towards the
southeast, a move that was supposed to isolate Mack and interrupt the Austrian lines of supplies.
The Austrian commander changed front, placing his left at Ulm and his right at Rain, but the
French went on and crossed the Danube at Neuburg.
On the 20th October the
unhappy Austrian
general Mack,
surrounded in Ulm by
the French, capitulated
with 30,000 men, all that
remained under his
command of the 80,000-
90,000 with whom he
had invaded Bavaria few
weeks before. the Ulm
Campaign had been a
spectacular victory and
had witnessed the
elimination of an entire
Austrian army at very little cost for the French. A few days later, the Austrian troops in Italy under
Archduke Charles, were compelled to retreat in the hope of covering Vienna, now threatened by
Napoleon's advance.
Negotiations for armistice failed. Napoleon had entered Vienna, and on the anniversary of his
coronation inflicted on the Austrians and Russians the decisive defeat at Austerlitz. Austria agreed
to the terms of the treaty of Pressburg.
Through feverish marching, Napoleon conducted a large wheeling maneuver that captured the
enemy army. The campaign is generally regarded as a strategic masterpiece. The victory at Ulm
however did not end the war, since a Russian army under Kutuzov was still near Vienna. Kutuzov
withdrew to await reinforcements and to link up with surviving Austrian units. The French army
followed and captured Vienna on November 12. On December 2, the decisive French victory at
Austerlitz effectively removed Austria from the war.
The rout at
Austerlitz
(1805) led
to the
severe
Treaty of
Pressburg.
Overall,
Allied
casualties
at
Austerlitz
stood at
about
27,500
which was
almost 40
% of their
effectives.
The
French
suffered
10,000 killed and wounded, or about 15% of effectives. The Allies also lost 180 guns and 50
standards. The great victory was met by sheer amazement in Paris. Napoleon wrote to hiw wife
Josephine, "I have beaten the Austro-Russian army commanded by the two emperors. I am a little
weary....I embrace you."
An upsurge of patriotism resulted in the renewal of war with Napoleon in 1809. In April, judging
Napoleon to be bogged down in Spain, Austria invaded Bavaria and launched a war for the
'liberation of Germany'. Archduke Charles issued a proclamation penned by Schlegel which dwelt
on the pan-German character of the war. "On 21-22 May Napoleon fought the twin battles of
Aspern-Essling against the Austrians under Archduke Charles. Although technically a French
victory, they reverberated through Europe as a defeat." (Zamoyski - "Moscow 1812" p 51)
Revolt in Tyrol erupted with renewed vigour, which had enemies of Napoleon all over Europe
rubbing their hands at what they thought was a new Spain. But Austria's defeat at Wagram led to
the even more humiliating Peace of Schnbrunn.
In the wake of these defeats, the Emperor appointed a new foreign minister, Clemens von
Metternich (see picture below), who sought reconciliation with France. He accomplished this by
arranging a marriage between Emperor's daughter, Marie Louise, and Napoleon, who was eager
for the prestige of marriage into one of the principal dynasties of Europe and the creation of an
heir. Austria was forced to side with Napoleon in the Russian campaign of 1812, but in 1813 it
again joined the coalition against Napoleon; an Austrian general, Prince von Schwarzenberg,
headed the allied forces.
Picture: Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich. He was a very talented and self-
assured Austrian politician. When Napoleon suffered his catastrophic defeat in
Russia , Metternich extracted Austria from this alliance , reverted t o neutrality,
and soon joined the Russians and Prussians. In the subsequent war, he was chiefly
anxious to ensure that the balance of power did not swing too far in any direction
, and that it would strengthen neither Napoleon nor the Tzar.
Austrian troops took part in all major battles of the Campaign in Germany in
1813.
The battle of Dresden was Napoleon's major victory. The Austrians, Russians and Prussians had
lost 15,000-40,000 (depending on sources) killed, wounded and prisoners. The French casualties
were 7,500-10,000 killed and wounded. Murat wrote to Napoleon in his usual manner: "Your
cavalry has made 15,000 prisoners and taken 12 cannons and 12 flags, one general-lieutenant, two
generals, and a great number of senior officers and other grades are in our hands."
Why the battle was lost for Schwarzenberg ? Allies line was an enveloping semicircle, 7-8 km in
development, and communication from flank to flank even by courier was difficult. "... the Allies
had one trump card to play, their cavalry advantage, but they played it in an appalling manner. ...
Heavy rains may have made the ground unsuitable for the use of cavalry, but then it doesn't seem
to have bothered the French. ... as the day was marked by heavy rain and, as musketry was largely
unavailable, the battle became one of cold steel (bayonets and sabers) and artillery. It was a day
when cavalry could close on infantry, a day when the infantry could not fire back to defend itself,
but had to depend only on those tiny bayonets to keep charging eastern hordes at bay. Certainly if
there was a battle in which cavalry would have the moral ascendency over the infantry, it had to
be this battle." (Nafziger - "Napoleon's Dresden Campaign" p 195)
Leipzig, however, was
one of the few battles
in which Napoleon
was clearly defeated. It
resulted in the
destruction of what
was left of French
power in Germany
and Poland. Never
again Napoleon's
army went into
Germany. At Leipzig
Napoleon's losses
were 40.000-45.000
killed, wounded, left
in hospitals, 15.000-
30.000 prisoners and
300 guns. Digby-Smith (after Ihbe and Kerchnawe) gives the total French losses at 84,243 killed,
wounded and taken prisoner.
The total casualties of Allied armies were 50.000-55.000 killed, wounded and captured.
Although Napoleon's defeat at Leipzig ended French hegemony in Europe, the Allies did not
belive the war was over. The Allies reached Frankfurt in the beginning of November. Metternich
wrote Schwarzenberg, "I desire that the Kaiser (Emperor of Austria) arrive (in Frankfurt) before the
Tzar of Russia". Frankfurt was the city where 21 years earlier the Kaiser had been crowned Holy
Roman Emperor. Schwarzenberg however could do nothing, and the Tzar paraded into Frankfurt
at the head of his Guards. Frederick Maycock writes, "Meanwhile the Tzar had made a triumphant
entry into Frankfurt on the 5th November and established his headquarters in the town, while
Blucher's advanced troops pushed forward towards the Rhine." (Maycock - "The invasion of France,
1814" p 23)
The Kaiser of Austria entered the city the following day. The king of Prussia arrived in Frankfurt
on 13 November. Numerous German princes, generals, ministers and courtiers also made their way
to Frankfurt.
The Allies then fought a series of battles, incl. La Rothiere, Brienne, Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube, in
France itself. The Allies entered Paris on 30 March 1814. During this time Napoleon fought his Six
Days Campaign, in which he won multiple battles against the enemy forces advancing towards
Paris. However, during this entire campaign he never managed to field more than 75,000 troops
against more than half a million Coalition troops. Napoleon abdicated and left France for Elba
Island.
In 1815 the Emperor returned but was again defeated by the Allies and abdicated the second time.
In 1814-1815 took place so-called Congress
of Vienna. It was a conference of
ambassadors of European states chaired by
Austrian statesman Klemens Wenzel von
Metternich, and held in Vienna. Its
objective was to settle the many issues
arising from the the Napoleonic Wars, and
the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.
Austria regained control of the Tirol and
Salzburg; of the former Illyrian Provinces;
of Tarnopol district (from Russia); received
Lombardy-Venetia in Italy and Dubrovnik
in Dalmatia. Former Austrian territory in Southwest Germany remained under the control of
Wrttemberg and Baden, and the Austrian Netherlands were also not recovered. As the leading
power of both the German Confederation and the Holly Alliance, Austria under the ministry of
Metternich dominated European politics. The Congress of Vienna preserved the political balance
of power in Europe, but it could not check the spread of revolutionary movements on the
continent.

The battle of Arcole.

Battle of Austerlitz (1805)
Reenactment
Kecskemti huszrok Austerlitzben.

Battle of Austerlitz (1805)
Wargame.

La bataille d'Essling (1809).
Movie.

Napoleon und die Schlacht um Wagram (1809).
Reenactment.
~
Archduke Charles (Erzherzog Karl von sterreich)
The young Charles had managed to divide and defeat
two French armies, which had penetrated into Germany,
driving them back across the Rhine River. He was
widely acclaimed as the "Saviour of Germany."
-
Wellington thought Charles to be the best
among all Allied commanders.
Charles (1771-1847) was brother of Emperor Francis II. Despite his epilepsy, he was the ablest
Austrian commander in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. His youth was spent
in Tuscany, at Vienna and in the Austrian Netherlands, where he began his career of military
service. He commanded a brigade at Jemappes, and in the campaign of 1793 distinguished
himself at the action of Aldenhoven and the battle of Neerwinden. Charles won at Jemappes
(1792) and Neerwinden (1793), and lost at Wattignies (1793) and Fleurus (1794).
Having rapidly risen to command in south Germany, in 1796 the young Charles had
managed to divide and then defeat two French armies, Jourdan's and Moreau's, which had
penetrated deep into Germany, driving them back across the Rhine River. Widely acclaimed
as the "Saviour of Germany", and the following year he was appointed to stabilize the
southern front where the army of young Bonaparte was moving into Styria to menace Vienna.
(Rothenberg - "The Emperor's Last Victory" pp 33-34)
Liddell Hart writes: "When the French, in turn, assumed the role of invaders,
they failed, despite their superior numbers, to achieve any decisive results in
the main campaign across the Rhine River. Indeed, the campaign was, in the
end not merely blank, but blasted - and by an indirect approach.
In July 1796, the Archduke Charles, faced by the renewed advamce of the
two suprior armies of Jourdan and Moreau, decided, in his own words, "to
retire both armies (his own and Wartensleben's) step by step without
commiting himself to a battle., and to seize the first opportunity to unite
them, so as to threw himself with superior, or at least equal, strength on one
of the two hostile armies."
But the enemy's pressure gave him no chance to practise this "interior lines" strategy - direct
in aim, save for the idea of yielding ground to gain an opportunity - until a French change of
direction suggested a more audacious stroke. It was due to the initiative of a cavalry
brigadier, Nauendorff, whose wide reconnaissance showed him that the French were
diverging from the Archduke's front to converge on and destroy Wartensleben. He sent the
inspired message: "If your Royal Highness will or can advance 12,000 men against Jourdan's
rear, he is lost."
Although the Archduke's execution was not as bold as his subordinate's conception, it was
sufficient to bring about the collapse of the French offensive. The disorderly retreat of
Jourdan's shattered army back to and over the Rhine, compelled Moreau to relinquish his
successful progress in Bavaria and fall back similarly." (Hart - "Strategy" 1991, pp 97-98)
Wellington thought Charles to be the best among all Allied commanders. Charles won
numerous battles, defeting such excellent commanders like Massena and Napoleon. His
defeats were rare, and despite the fact that the Austrian soldiers were not famous for their
bravery and tenacity. In 1793 the French invaded Holland, but were routed by the Austrians
at Neerwinden. The victory that the Austrians owed largely to its advance-guard commander,
the Archduke Charles. Below is a list of battles lost and won by Charles:
- 26 June 1794 : Charles (52,000) defeated 70,000 French at Fleurus
- 15-16 June 1796 : Charles defeated French at Wetzlar
- 9 July 1796 : Charles fought at Malsch, result undecided
- 24 August 1796 : Charles defeated French at Amberg
- 3 September 1796 : Charles defeated French at Wrzburg
- 16 September 1796 : Charles defeated French at Wrzburg
- 2 October 1796 : Charles defeated French at Biberach
- 23 March 1797 : Massena defeated Charles at Malborghetto
- 21 March 1799 : Charles defeated French at Osterach
- 25 March 1799 : Charles (60,000) defeated 75,000 French at Stockach
- 4-7 June 1799 : Charles defeated Massena at Zrich
- 14 August 1799 : Charles defeated Massena at Zrich
- 3 December 1800 : Moreau (55,000) defeated Charles (60,000) at Hohenlinden
- 18-19 April 1809 : Davout defeated Charles at Teugen-Hausen
- 20-22 April 1809 : Napoleon & Davout defeated Charles at Eckmhl
- 23 April 1809 : Napoleon defeated Charles at Ratisbon
- 21-22 May 1809 : Charles defeated Napoleon at Aspern-Essling
- 5-6 July 1809 : Napoleon (120,000-190,000) defeated Charles (120,000-150,000) at Wagram.
- 10 July 1809 : Napoleon defeated Charles at Znaim
At the end of the campaign the archduke gave up all his military offices,
and spent the rest of his life in retirement. In 1815 he was - shortly -
the governor of Mainz.
Charles' favorite tactics in battle was extending the battle line
and outflanking the enemy. It did not work against Napoleon
but was enough to defeat other French generals. Wheter in
attack or defense his divisions were to form in 2 lines and
reserves. Charles preffered a line or column against infantry
and battalion and division masses (instead of hollow squares)
against cavalry.
As strategist he overestimated his enemy and hesitated to take
the risk. Caution and the importance of strategic points and not
the destruction of enemy's army were the chief features of his
system. Often his plans were "overly detailed." He strictly
enjoined his infantrymen to refrain from long-range fire.
In 1809 Charles published a manual "The Fundamentals of the
Higher Art of War for the Generals of the Austrian Army". In
essence it continued with the essentially defensive strategic
culture of the Austrian army. (Rothenberg - "The Emperor's Last
Victory" p 42)
Archduke Charles was not only excellent commander but also a good organizer and reformer.
Since the disaster of 1805 the army had undergone many changes under Archduke Charles.
Archduke Charles was a modest man.
~
Fieldmarshal Schwarzenberg (Karl Philipp Frst zu Schwarzenberg)
The Eisenhower of Napoleonic Wars
"As the commander of a great alliance he faced major problems , but
managed to maintain the common cause through bad times as well as good."
- David Chandler
Schwarzenberg was a Viennese nobleman, commissioned into the Austrian Army in 1788. He
fought in 1789 under Lacy and Loudon against the Turks, distinguished himself by his
bravery, and became major in 1792. In the French campaign of 1793 he served in the
advanced guard of the army commanded by Prince Josias of Coburg. In 1794 at Cateau
Cambresis his impetuous charge at the head of his regiment broke a whole corps of the
French, killed and wounded 3.000 men, and brought off 32 of the enemy's guns.
Schwarzenberg was immediately decorated with the cross of the Maria Theresa order.
After taking part in the battles of Amberg and in 1796 at Wrzburg he was raised to the rank
of major-general, and in 1799 he was promoted lieutenant field marshal. At the defeat of
Hohenlinden in 1800 his promptitude and courage saved the right wing of the Austrian army
from destruction, and he was afterwards entrusted by the archduke Charles with the
command of the rearguard. In the war of 1805 he held command of a division under Mack,
and when Ulm was surrounded by Napoleon in October he was one of the brave band of
cavalry, under the archduke Ferdinand, which cut its way through the hostile lines. In the
same year he was made a commander of the order of Maria Theresa and in 1809 he received
the Golden Fleece.
In 1810 Schwarzenberg was made ambassador to France. Napoleon held him in
great esteem, and it was at his request that the prince took command of the
Austrian auxiliary corps in the Russian campaign of 1812. When in 1813 Austria
joined the allies against Napoleon, Schwarzenberg was the senior general of the
coalition. He commanded at Leipzig and in 1814 entered Paris at the head of the
multi-national force.
He wrote of his multinational command: "It really is inhuman what I have to
tolerate and put up with, surrounded as I am by weaklings, fools of all kinds, eccentric
project-makers, intriguers, blockheads, gossips, fault-finders. Mor ethan once I have felt in
danger of being overwhelmed ... The Tsar is good but weak; the King [of Prussia] is a rough,
coarse, unfeeling fellow who to me is as loathsome as the poor, brave Prussians are pleasant
and estimable." Schwarzenberg was again in command of Austrian forces en route for France
when fighting ended in 1815, he retired in 1817.
As tactician Schwarzenberg preffered masses against cavalry and columns for infantry.
Colonel Elting (USA) described him as "tactically timid and clumsy... In 1813-1815, felt
personally inferior to Napoleon; consequently overcautious."
During the Campaign of France in 1814 Napoleon's approach sent the Allied headquarters
into mental convulsions. Schwarzenberg reportedly issued 3 contradictory orders on the 16th
alone. Then he ordered his army to face Macdonald. Confused and frightened the
generalissimo collapsed with an attack of gout before ordering a general retreat.
Schwarzenberg then had failed to crush the French army at Arcis-sur-Aube. Despite having
much stronger army (100,000 vs 33,000) Schwarzenberg he had only dared to attack when
Napoleon began to retreat. Frustrated Russian monarch told him: "you always see double
when you are near the enemy." The Tsar of Russia, Alexander I, and Prussian generals
Blucher and Gneissenau, were annoyed by Schwarzenberg's slowness of movements.
According to Maycock, Schwarzenberg was "over-cautious and vacillating, belonging to the
school ... which considered that complicated maneuvers executed by a number of separate
columns and elaborate turning movements, not decisive battles, were the main objects of
campaign. As a tactician he had proved himself singularly incapable of handling large bodies
of troops on the field of battle, both at Dresden and at Leipzig, where his faulty dispositions
almost involved the Allies in disaster on the first day of the battle." ( Maycock - "The Invasion of
France" pp 18-19)
Schwarzenberg had a great political
tact: he was able to command a
multinational army with 3 monarchs
present in his headquarters !
American historians Esposito and
Elting characterized Schwarzenberg
as "Intelectually active; letters show
sense of humor ... High order of
personal bravery... Considerable
diplomatic ability, which sometimes
declined into cheap trickery, as in his
actions following S.Cyr's surrender at
Dresden."
David Chandler writes, "As the
commander of a great alliance he faced major problems, but managed to maintain the
common cause through bad times as well as good." (Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic
wars" pp 405-406)
For Janson (German General Staf historian), Schwarzenberg was a general who held political
considerations above military objectives.
Frederick Maycock writes, "As a strategist, he was over-cautious and vacillating, belonging to
the school of which Coburg and Mack were such notable examples, and which considered
that complicated maneouvers executed by a number of separate columns and elaborate
turning movements, not decisive battles, were the main objects of a campaign.
As a tactician he had proved himself singularly incapable of handling large bodies of troops
on the field of battle, both at Dresden and at Leipzig, where his faulty dispositions almost
involved the Allies in disaster on the first day of the battle.
It must however be admitted, in common justice, that his role had been an extremely difficult
one, as he was hampered by the presence of the Allied monarchs and their train of
diplomatists at his headquarters, and, moreover, the Austrian strategy was almost entirely
subordinated to political considerations. ...
A fine character, without the least personal ambition or craving for military fame, but with a
considerable amount of tact and charm of manner, as a commander, Schwarzenberg was
lamentably deficient in determination, while when opposed to Napoleon in person, his
habitual caution degenerated into hopeless timidity." (Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814")
Schwarzenberg however possessed the necessary talent and bravery to be a worthy army
commander. Michael Leggiere writes, "Although not on par with Napoleon, Wellington, or
the Blucher/Gneisenau tandem, Schwarzenberg's understanding of strategy and operations
surpassed the active (in 1814) French marshals as well as most of his contemporaries among
Austria's allies."
~
Chief-of-Staff: Joseph, Graf Radetzky de Radetz
He had the attribute, not very common among Austrian generals,
of being idolized by his troops, to whom he was affectionately
known as Vater Radetzky (Father Radetzky).
Radetzky was born at Trzebnitz in Bohemia in 1766. Orphaned at an early age, he was
educated by his grandfather, and after the count's death, at the Maria Theresa academy at
Vienna. Then he joined the army as a cadet in 1785. Next year he became an officer, and in
1787 a first lieutenant in a cuirassier regiment. He served in the Turkish War, and in the Low
Countries during the Revolutionary War. In 1795 Radetzky fought on the Rhine. Next year he
served with Beaulieu against Napoleon in Italy, and inwardly rebelled at the indecisive
"cordon" system of warfare which his first chief, Lacy, had instituted and other Austrian
generals only too faithfully imitated. In 1805, with the rank of major general, he was given a
command in Italy. In 1809 Radetzky fought against the French at Wagram, and in 1809
became chief of the general staff.
From 1809 to 1812, as chief of the general staff, Radetzky was active in the
reorganization of the army and its tactical system, but, unable to carry out the
reforms he desired owing to the opposition of the Treasury, he resigned the post.
Radetzky performed well as field commander. For example at Wagram and
during the retreat he skillfully commanded the rearguard many times letting
Rosenberg's corps escaped destruction against prevailing odds. During the
retreat Radetzky sklillfully fought a delaying action at Staatz.
In 1811 Radetzky was a member of the Hofkriegrat (Military Administrative Department) in
Vienna and proposed that the chief-of-staffs managerial and supervisory role should be
prioritised, taking charge of all staff officers and the various branches, each of which was
directed by its own head of department. According to Radetzky the chief-of-staff was also
supervise all the troops and their activities and became de-facto the commander-in-chiefs
right hand man.
In 1813 Radetzky was Schwarzenberg's chief-of-staff, and as such had considerable influence
on the councils of the Allied sovereigns and generals. He stated, in essence that Napoleon
had repeatedly proven to the Allies that he could maneuver his forces and bring superior
forces against them. Radetzky advocated that Napoleon's manner of conducting war should
not be theirs. "Napoleon should seek battles and Allies should evade them." It was called the
Trachenberg Plan. Consequently the Allies planned to engage and defeat his marshals
separately, and thus weaken Napoleon's army.
Radetzky's plan (The Trachenberg Plan) had
exasperated Napoleon. His young French troops
marched and countermarched across Germany,
exhausting their meager resources. The emperor was so
busy reacting to Allies maneuvers that he had no time
to implement his own strategy. He looked like a tiger
"surrounded by hunters, he was half bewildered, and
unable to make up his mind to do more than make
short dashes, first on one part, then on another, of the circle that was steadily closing in on
him." (- F L Petre)
Radetzky was a very active mentally and physically man. He rode a lot,
talked a lot, and ate even more. During Allies' invasion of France in 1814
Radetzky earned the reputation of an ogre for he required every day 30
pounds of beef, half a calf, 6 turkeys and 10 bottles of wine for his table. (I
don't know if this is historically correct or was just made up by the French.)
Radetzky had the attribute, not very common among Austrian generals, of being idolized by
his troops, to whom he was affectionately known as Vater Radetzky (Father Radetzky). Johann
Strauss (the elder) composed the famous 'Radetzky March' (ext.link) in his honor. Radetzky's
personality was inspiring and his courage was conspicuous; at Fleurus he had led a party of
cavalry through the French lines to discover the fate of Charleroi. At Valeggio on the Mincio,
with a few hussars, he rescued Beaulieu from the midst of the enemy !
Radetzky's grand wheeling movement for the Campaign of France in 1814.
The weakest point of the French frontier alwayz had been along the neutral Swiss border.
The Austrian generals believed it would be easier to descend on the Plateau of Langres
and master the lowlands of France from that point. "Without striking a blow the enemy
would be forced to abandon all those river lines, which would be enveloped, in order to
take positions further rearwards , where he would have to confront the Allies as t h e y
descended from their higher position ... " (- August Janson, German military historian )
~
Austrians versus Napoleon's Guards.
Napoleon's Grenadiers of the Guard
fell back before suprior numbers.
At Marengo have fought Bonaparte's Consular Guard (Gardes des Consuls). The grenadiers
performed prodigies, until it too fell back before superior numbers. Most accounts indicate
that the Guard infantry conducted a rearguard action but suffered very heavy losses (a third
of its number !)
The regiment of grenadiers was under Bernard-George-Francois Frere and consisted of 2
battalions:
- I Battalion - Chef Soules
- II Battalion - Chef Tortel
Soules was not a push-over. When in 1807 after the peace of Tilsit Souls and his
1st Regiment of Foot Chasseurs had returned to France the customs officers
wanted to do their duty and visit the transports of the general and his stalwarts.
The response of Souls was simple: "if only one of your toll-collectors dare lay a
hand on the boxes of my old rabbits, I will have them all f**** drowned in the
Rhine River like kittens !" His body language was "you don't wanna mess with
me" thing.
Approx. 75 % of the guardsmen came from veterans of Garde du Corps Legislatif.
They were elected representatives of the Garde National Sedentaire.
Approx. 25 % came from three other sources:
- veterans selected from the 120 foot soldiers of Garde a Pied du Directoire
- dashing foot guides who served in Egypt with Bonaparte
- men selected from the army for their actions, wounds, experience and bravery.
The grenadiers of Consular Guard were France's best foot troops. This regiment existed only
few months, too short time for developing an exceptional esprit de corps, but the men and
officers were outstanding.
The First Consul and the escort followed him across the battlefield and the fusilliade
extended over a 5 mile front. The battle was roaring in full fury for hours. Retreating French
infantry passed along the road to Tortona; it seemed as if part of the French line was giving
way. The Guard grenadiers led by Soles moved forward to bolster the crumbling line where
Gardanne's and Victor's troops were falling back. Napoleon feared that the Austrians from
the centre and north will head for the gap. The Guard reached the area of fighting,
distributed cartridges to Lannes' infantry and moved to his right.
Bonaparte's chief-of-staff, General Berthier, writes: "The grenadiers of the Guard were placed
diagonally behind on the left of Castel-Ceriolo, the echelon of General Lannes diagonally
behind on the left of grenadiers."
The Guard grenadiers emerged from the cover of farmers' cornfields (partially flattened by
troops moving through this area earlier), and slammed into the Austrian lines. Their
skirmishers rushed forward using trees and bushes along the road and the Cavo ditch for
protection. The Austrian cavalry scouts could see the red plumes and tall bearskins of the
Grenadiers.
Lobkowitz 10th Light Dragoons (495 men) charged the Consular Guard but fire from 4 guns
and skirmishers threw them back. The Austrians were then counter-charged by Murat's
dragoons and fled. According to Stutterheim who was a senior staff officer with Ott's
formation "... Ott ordered Ob.Ltn. Graf Harrach to lead the charge against the Guard; after
time-consuming preparations the dragoons set into step, then into trott, and finally into the
gallop. The infantry of Consular Guard seemed to be close to disaster when musket shots by
the French skirmishers the whole Dragoner-Regiment Nr. 10. turned about and ran away.
Some French cavalry that had been watching these events from a position behind the Guard
pursued our dragoons."
(Note: Stutterheim would have been able to see - from a long distance - this moment he was
with the Schellenberg's column marching south.)
Henri Lachouque gave slightly different version: "... here came the grenadiers and chasseurs
of the Consular Guard, drums beating, singing On va leur percer le flanc to the
accompaniment of Guiardels bandsmen, as well as the 19th Lgre of Monnier with
Bonaparte leading the lot. Nine hundred bearskin bonnets formed a square between Lannes
and Carra St. Cyr and stopped the charging Lobkowitz Dragoons in their tracks."
The Austrians
have brought
fresh troops to
deal with the
French. These for
ces consisted of:
- Frohlich (28th)
Infantry Regiment
- Mittrowski
(40th) Infantry
Regiment
- Splenyi (51st)
Infantry Regiment
'Legion Infernale'
- Colloredo
(57th) Infantry
Regiment
Murat's dragoons
(1er, 6e and 9e
Dragons) chased
the Light
Dragoons until
they were halted by battalion of Splenyi (51st) Line Infantry Regiment. Stutterheim wrote
about the French cavalry that it received "...few shots and ran away". Loud battle-cry and a
massive volley sent Murat's dragoons packing.
Then the Romanians and Hungarians of Splenyi (51st) Regiment resumed their resolute
march with their band playing. The colonel-in-chief of this unit was Feldmarschalleutnant
Gabriel Splenyi von Mihaldy. Until 1800 their colonel was Jacques Augustinetz, then replaced
with Oberst Ignaz von Novak.
Two battalions of Grenadiers deployed into battle-line along a country-road. Four guns were
placed between the two battalions. The elite of Bonaparte's infantry waited for the Legion
Infernale to get closer.
Shortly before 4 pm GM Sticker began deploying artillery and two battalions of 'Legion
Infernale'). The two battalions were weak, they had total of only 700-900 men. Once the
deployment was finished they advanced forward and fired volley after volley by platoons.
Bonaparte's Grenadiers (500-800 men) held their ground and the attackers halted at 50 paces
from them. Both sides were separated only by the small Cavo ditch.
At approx. 50 paces away from the 500-800 Grenadiers, the Austrians halted and engaged in
a hot exchange of musketry. The cartridges were torn rapidly from the boxes and stuffed in
the smoking muzzles, the rammers clashed and clanged, the men's hands grew grim and
black with powder.
According to Dave Hollins (- "Marengo" p 78) the exchange of fire went on for 15 minutes (!)
According to Henri Lachoque it was at 100 paces ("fired on at a hundred paces by Austrian
infantry") The musketry continued for some time with the Guard being supported by 4 guns
and the Austrians by 6 (or more) guns. The fire from several thousands muskets and dozen
cannons created a tremendous noise and smoke. It was a hellish experience for both sides.
Suddenly the Legion Infernale ceased fire as from the flank appeared Austrian cavalry. Oberst
(Colonel) Frimont's cavalry consisted of two units:
- 300 men in 2 squadrons of of Kaiser (1st) Dragoon Regiment
- 186 men in 2 squadrons of Bussy Horse Jger Regiment
(In this unit served many French migrs who hated Bonaparte and new France. The Bussy
jagers wore helmets and grey blueish jackets and breeches. See picture.
Frimont attacked Grenadiers' flank. The Legion Infernale fixed bayonets and joined the fight.
Brabant, a grenadier of uncommon strength, took over an abandoned cannon and served it
alone for 30 minutes ! "It seemed impossible that so small a body of men, forming but a mere
speck on that vast plain, could resist the overwhelming squadrons." (- J. T. Headley)
After some hard fighting the Grenadiers began withdrawing. The battalion formation broken
into desperate knots of frenzied men trying to extricate themselves from the trap. Although
the victors were unable to capture the flag of the Grenadiers 400 prisoners were taken.
(According to Hollins "over four hundred were taken prisoner". See - "Marengo", p 78)
Soules returned to the main French line with 200-250 grenadiers. For bravery at Marengo the
infantry of Consular Guard was awarded with 24 awards for valor, and the Guard artillery
with 8 awards.
The French and Austrian views of what
happened is somehow different.
French author Petit wrote that the
Grenadiers were "... charged three times
by the cavalry, fusilladed by the infantry,
they surrounded their colors, and their
wounded in a hollow square, exhausted
all their cartridges with slow and regular
steps, fell back and joined our astonished
ranks."
Austrian author Stutterheim wrote:
"Then under a continuous artillery and
small arms fire and although many men
fell on both sides these two lines marched
against each other with so much order
and vigour that it was difficult to say
who would win.
Then suddenly behind the Guard the
whole French army was on the retreat and a swarm of our cavalry came from Marengo and
fell into Guard's rear and let only a few escape. Also their 4 guns fell into our hands."
Bonaparte sent in the cavalry of the Consular Guard to stabilize the front line. This force
consisted of the following troops:
- 200 Guard Horse Grenadiers
- 160 Guard Horse Chasseurs
General Berthier: "A body of the reserve of the enemy cavalry prepared to charge the right of
the division Boudet; but General Bessires commanding the grenadiers and chasseurs cheval
of the guard, seizes this occasion of glory; and jealous for the troop of elites that he
commands; he takes the honor of the last charge, it preempts the enemy, rushes, bends back
this body and throws him into disorder in the brook; he discovers there the flanks of the
infantry and causes a general retreat, by carrying confusion and the dismay in the enemy
ranks."
Bessieres then rushed with the cavalry of the Consular Guard. Escadrons ... en avant ... marche !
Claks slung diagonally across their shoulders, carrying their sabers high, they advanced at a
slow trot because their horses were tired. Chargez ! and they swooped down upon the
Austrian cavalry and pursued it to the brink of a ditch where the enemy broke in disorder.
Schmitt, a trumpeter of the Horse Grenadiers, surrounded by enemies and called on to
surrender, killed one. The others wounded him, smashing his trumpet over his haunch. But
thanks to his horse, the hero succeeded in rejoining his squadron.
The whole army swept forward and the battle was won. Desaix was dead. The Guard
returned to its headquarters at San Giuliano. On 17 June, the First Consul departed for Milan,
escorted by the Guard Chasseurs. He traveled long and without pause.
On July 6 the Guard received its rewards and promotions. Aune, the bravest grenadier, a
legendary hero as full of holes as a colander who possessed a sword of honor and was ensign
of the grenadiers, had his hat perforated by bullets as well. Amazingly, he did not suffer the
slightest scratch. (He died three years later of consumption and Bonaparte granted a pension
of 500 francs to his widow.)
Arriving from Italy after 29 days of forced marches, the dusty Guard entered Paris on 13 July.
The capital was en fete. After a week of impatience, a million Parisians honored Bonaparte
and his Guard. The pomp was strictly military and military orchestras played.
Guard Horse grenadiers at Marengo.
Picture by Job.
.
Comments.
Our visitors sent us additional information on the Consular Guard at
Marengo. (We obtained permission to post it on our website although
author of the text wished to remain anonymous.)
1. Composition of the Garde Consulaire a Pied at Marengo.
The Garde Consulaire was formed by decree of 3 janvier 1800 (13 nivse an
VIII). The Garde a pied was to be composed of some 1300 infantrymen, in 2
batallions of 6 compagnies each of grenadiers (under chefs des bataillons
Soules and Tortel, respectively) and a company of chasseurs a pied. The
following were the sources for the gardes:
- The Garde du Corps lgislatif : nominally 1200 men in 12 companies,
elected representatives of the Garde national sedentaire
- Garde du Directoire : 120 men in 2 companies, chosen from the army's
veterans
- Guides : perhaps some 2 dozen or so guides a pied who had managed to
return from Egypt New selectees from the army : La garde des consuls
sera recrute parmi des hommes qui se seront distingus sur le champ de
bataille. It is unknown how many such selectees were incorporated into
the Garde before Marengo. Several officer biographies indicate such a
selection in early 1800, but the number of selected gardes that could have
made the Marengo campaign appears to be very limited (perhaps to less
than 50 men).
The company of chasseurs a pied (nominally about 100 chasseurs) was
formed somewhat later than the grenadiers and, if present at Marengo,
seems to have been fielded without a seperate command. The biographical
sketch of Soules taken from his Legion d'Honneur service record (Fastes de
la Lgion d'Honneur T2. p 173.) says that he commanded 500 grenadiers
or chasseurs at Marengo. Tortel is noted in a revue of 3 mai 1800 at Dijon as
marching with a total of 305 members of the Garde a pied, including 3
captains.
The total given by most sources, including Berthier's order of battle, is 800
for the Garde a pied at Marengo. It is thus tempting to conclude that Soules
commanded a batallion of 6 companies, likely the soldiers most fit for active
service, and that Tortel led a reduced or half batallion of 3 companies. The
remaining gardes would have stayed in Paris, where the commander of the
Garde a pied, chef de brigade Frre, seems to have remained.
Interestingly, a unit of veterans de la Garde was formed shortly after
Marengo, as those unfit for active service were removed from the ranks of
the Garde Consulaire. Thus the composition of the gardes at Marengo
would have been, in the majority and perhaps up to 3/4 of the total, former
members of the Garde du Corps lgislatif elected (!) representatives of
territorial "home defense" units !
Assuming such an organization meshes nicely with several incidents and
reports of the battle itsself. We can see Tortel's command in the gardes who
passed out a re-supply of ammunition to Coignet's regiment if we wsh ot
credit the old gronard's memory, while Soules' batallion is deployed on the
far right of the French positions. Also, we might make the conjecture that
the appointment of adjudant gnral (equivalent rank to a chef de brigade)
Lopold Stabenrath to lead the Garde a pied in the evening counter-attack
indicates that the forces of Soules (by then reduced in numbers) and Tortel
had been united.
- The Garde a pied had a large musique at least 55 members at the time of
Marengo.
How many, if any at all, of these made the campaign is unknown.
- The artillery of the Garde included 4 pieces that were attached to Soules
command on the far right. These would be served by 40-odd gunners and
perhaps another 40-odd members of the very newly created (militarized)
train de artillery.
Together with some 15-20 officers of the batallion, and perhaps some
additional officiers "a la suite" from among the the rather large general staff
of the garde, it is easy to see how Soules' command might be reported a
totalling some 600, as is seen in some accounts of the action on the French
extreme right.
2.Time of Arrival.
A recent chronology of the battle of Marengo (D. Hollins, "The Battle of
Marengo" , Osprey, p. 72) have Bonaparte and the Garde Consulaire
arrving on the battle field at about 3pm. This "late arrival" scenario, based
on the availbale time, tends to to limit the role of Garde a pied (and
Bonaparte) to something less (and less "heroic") then many previous
accounts of the battle. However, an earlier chronology has strong primary
source support. Among others, Coignet, Soult, Marmont, Berthier and
Eugene all clearly indicate an arrival time at or before mid-day.
Eugene : around midday "beginning to take an active part"
Coignet : just before noon , handing out cartridges, their view inspiring him
Berthier's morning map : shown at Poggia
Soult : [morning positions] "Les deux divisions du gnral Victor avec la
brigade de cavalerie du gnral Kellermann resl rent ainsi en position
Pedra-Bona et Marengo. Le gnral Lannes forma en seconde ligne, six
cents toises en arrire, ses deux divisions et la brigade de cavalerie
commande par le gnral Champeaux. La garde des consuls et une
brigade d'infanterie, commande par le gnral Carra Saint-Cyr, taient en
rserve la troisime ligne, et le gnral de cavalerie Rivaud fut dtach
Sale."
Now, in the nature of source criticism, these accounts can be dismissed as
mistaken, or written later using published chronologies for guidance. On
the other hand, there is no repeat no primary source support for the
later time of arrival of which I am aware. In fact, since according to
Marmont for example, the sound of fighting was audible at the
headquarters bivouac and at least two officers had reported the fighting
from early in morning, it requires an assumption that Bonaparte sat
unpresponsively through the morning to support the later chronology. This
seems to me a counter-intuitive assumption, or one crafted to minimize the
role of the First Consul. The simpler assumtpion, that Bonaparte and/or the
Garde moved to the battlefield by about mid-day, seems the simpler
assumption and does not require that the several reports of his arrival at
that time be dismissed.
3. Action before 3pm ?
If one allows the Garde a pied to have taken the field from mid-day, there
then remains some 2-3 hours for them to act. Here is it easy to adduce
numerous eye-witness acounts of their resisting Austrian cavalry the
number of charges variously given a 3 to 5. This "standard version" of
Garde a pied at Marengo : the "block of granite". It appears in Victor,
Berthier, Coignet, the contempory (and anti-Bonapartist) italian historian
Botta, Soules service record, Soult, Eugene, Marmont, Petit and so on, ad
infinitum.
In addition to the criticism that the were not yet on the battlefield, which
was discussed above, there is a sceond critical point made : that there were
no such Austrian cavalry available to (repeatedly) charge the Garde a pied.
I have never seen exactly how this assertion is supported, if at all.
For example, there is Brigade Johann Graf Nobili. 12 escadrons : 1873
hommes Dragoner-Regiment 3. Erzherzog Johann 6 escadrons Oberst
Joseph Graf (de) Gavre (emigr, de Flandres) rekrutierte aus
Innerosterreich (Steiermark und Keurnten)
Dragoner-Regiment 9. Fuerst Lichtenstein 6 escadrons Oberst Carl-
Michael Marchese Belcredi (de Pavie) ex-Stabs-Dragoner Regiment in
Italien
These are said to have had trouble crossing the bridge to enter the
battlefield proper . which seems odd given that tehy had about 4-6 hours
to make the crossing !
4. Sources for the "Destruction" of the Garde a pied.
The following have been variously claimed as "primary" or "based on
primary" sources for the alleged destruction of the Garde a pied.
ITEM No. 1
Undated handwriiten notes which no longer exist but were reproduced in
their regimental history (by which time they were named differently )
Pizzighelli, Cajetan. Geschichte des k.u.k. Husaren-Regimentes Wilhelm II.
Koenig von Wurttemberg Nr.6. 1734-1896 / im Auftrage des
Regimentscommandos zusammengestellt von Cajetan Pizzighelli. Rzeszow,
Selbstverl. des Regimentes, 1897. viii, 853 p. : ill. ; 24 cm. Clearly, the notes,
if they existed at all, could have been written at any time up to 1896 and by
anyone and for any reason. This is NOT a primary source.
ITEM No. 2
The description written by Mras in 1822/23, working at the Austrian
archives (1823 edition of Osterreichische Milierische Zeitschrift). This
version in reprinted in de Cugnac. It is clearly not itself a primary source,
and there is no reason to believe it is based on anything other than the
manuscripts discussed below.
ITEM No. 3
Stutterheim A and B
Two manuscripts, printed finally in about 1900, said to be the work of
Major Joseph Stutterheim. He was on Melas' staff and is said to have gone
forward against Lannes with Schellenberg's column. As noted below, he
claims to have himself seen the "destruction" of the Garde a pied, and this
may be so. His first manuscript is of 1811 deposited at the Austrian achives.
The second, it appears, was a cleaned up version of the first of about 1823.
Unfortunately, it appears that Stuuterheim was rather , er, ah dead (!) at
this point, so the second or B version has a bit of a cloud on its claim to be a
primary source.
Stutterheim A
" A few minutes before this deciding moment the Guard infantry came
marching on the road from Sale to the center. With these chosen men
Bonaparte hoped if not to restore the battle to stop us for a while and to
protect his other troops that were already on the verge of flight. In column
with opened divisions the Guard marched across open field and had
individual skirmishers accompany her march at a distance of some 60 paces.
There could not have been a more desirable sight for our cavalry. Ott whom
the Guard passed ordered Lobkowitz DR10 to blow rapel and to attack as
soon as all were assembled. Alone there were circumstances above all
Oberst Frst Taxis could not be found such that Ott ordered Oberst-
Lieutenant Graf Harrach to lead the charge against the Guard; after time-
consuming preparations DR10 set into step, then into trot, finally into the
gallop.
The Consular Guard infantry seemed to be close to disaster when at a few
musket shots from its skirmishers the whole DR10 turned about and ran
away. Some French cavalry that had been observing this from a position
behind the Guard pursued our dragoons. The situation for Ott's infantry
seemed desperate as in midst of the coverless plains she had been deserted
by her only cavalry. Alone the same as the Consular Guard had pursued its
march without being scared by the Austrian cavalry deployed in line
Spleny IR51 advanced now in midst the plains headlong against the French
cavalry which like ours some moments before turned about after a few
shots and ran away.
The same battalion[s] Spleny IR51 supported by a battalion of Frhlich IR28
then advanced against the Consular Guard. The Guard formed up by
divisions into a line. Then under a continuous artillery and small arms fire
and although many men fell on both sides these two lines marched against
each other with so much order and vigour that it was difficult to say who
would triumph. Then suddenly while behind the Guard the whole French
army was on the retreat a swarm of Imperial cavalry came galloped from
Marengo fell into its rear and let only a few escape. Also their 4 guns fell
into our hands. Although the French hide this incident and try to highlight
the prior deeds of the Guard, Major Stutterheim has seen this whole
incident which by any means does not dishonour the Guard; and a short
time after the battle he received from several Guard officers the confession
that but 100 of them returned who were increased to 500 only by those
returning from Austrian captivity."
Stutterheim B:
" when one discovered in a depression the march of a small column with
big red plumes, the characteristic of the guard, which moved through a
field of high standing corn to prolong the line of General Lannes. When
FML Ott discovered this he hurried to order Lobkowitz DR10 to mount an
attack against this column. Alone the forming up of the DR10 was delayed
and a volley from the guard threw disorder in its ranks. French cavalry
from the center tried to take advantage of the withdrawal of DR10 when a
battalion of Spleny IR51 left the deploying Austrian column stormed
headlong against this French cavalry which surprised and dispersed by the
musket fire also turned back and took to its heels.
After these cavalry combats had ended without any result General
Gottesheim was charged to attack with the other battalions of Spleny IR51
and one of Frhlich IR28 the Guard infantry that strove to cover the right
flank of the French army. Attack and defense changed here in peleton fire
and whole volleys like on parade ground. [..description of the taking
of Marengo farm ]
Near Marengo the rolling musket fire had already decreased and drawn
to the Austrian left wing where Gottesheim was still fighting the Guard and
Vogelsang Carra Saint-Cyr when a few squadrons of Nauendorf HR8 [Note
: more likely this was Dragoon Regiment No. 1] and Bussy Jager Regiment
[emigre French] came on, gallopped from the main road and fell into the
rear of the Guard. This attack decided and ended all fighting. Many of the
Guard were sabered down, the bigger part, and the four guns surrendered.
The French totally conceal this incident in their reports and hardly mention
their guard that defended itself with so much glory in midst of the plains.
The author witnessed this whole incident and summons all who have been
present with the Consular Guard at Marengo if they could dispute this
account."
For the French:
From Soules' Legion d'Honneur records : " . Pass comme chef de
bataillon dans les grenadiers pied de la garde consulaire le 13 nivose an
VIII, Souls suivit le premier Consul en Italie. Lors de la bataille de
Marengo, o il commandait 500 grenadiers ou chasseurs pied de la garde,
il reut l'ordre de se porter sur la droite de l'arme. Il n'y lut pas plutt
arriv, qu'il eut soutenir suecessivement cinq charges de la cavalerie
ennemie , mais il les repoussa vigoureusement et lui fit essuyer de grandes
pertes. Pendant cinq heures conscutives, il se maintint, dans cette position,
malgr les efforts ritrs d'une colonne de 8,000 Autrichiens qui cherchait
l'en dbusquer, et il ne se retira que sur l'ordre formel du gnral en chef
qui l'envoya protger le mouvement rtrograde de l'arme, avec environ
200 hommes qui lui restaient.
A six heures du soir, il reu l'ordre de reprendre l'offensive, ce qu'il excuta
en dirigeant son attaque sur un corps de 3,000 hommes qui cherchait
tourner notre droite, et dont il coupa la retraite par l'habilet et l'audace de
ses manuvres. A la suite de cette mmorable journe, le premier Consul
lui dcerna un sabre dhonneur ; l'arrt du 17 thermidor an IX qui le lui
confre est conu en ces termes : Bonaparte, [etc.], d'aprs le compte qui lui
a t rendu de la conduite du citoyen Souls, chef de bataillon dans la garde
des consuls, qui, dans toutes les campagnes de l'arme d'Italie, o il servait
dans le mme grade, a constamment donn des preuves du plus grand
courage, ainsi qu'a la bataille de Marengo, ou il commiandait le
dtachement de la garde des consuls, lui dcerne, titre de rcompense
nationale, un sabre d'honneur. Chef de brigade dans les chasseurs pied
de la garde le 15 frimaire an x, ."
Grenadier Petit, grenadiers a cheval, standing to the right of the main road :
" charged three times by the cavalry, fusilladed by the infantry, they
surrounded their colors, and their wounded in a hollow square, exhausted
all their cartridges and with slow and regular steps, fell back and joined our
astonished ranks."
5. Casualty Reports.
> Murat's report a few days later : 121 wounded & killed one would
think perhaps this is meant as "severely wounded and not re-joined the
ranks"
> Petit : 25 (unwounded ?) prisoners returned the day after the battle
> Brossier (captain, engineering staff): 260 total casualties
> Lauriston : about 1/3 casualties (thus, similar to Brossier)
6. My Opinion.
Here is speculation, analysis, summary call it what you will. The garde a
pied arrived on the field about mid-day. 500-600 men under Soules took
position on the extreme French right. Here they successfully resisted
repeated cavalry charges, over some hours, likely adopting square from
time to time. To deny this flies in the face of some dozen-odd primary
accounts. All of these cannot be lying, mistaken, copying, propoganda, etc.
Despite the well-deserved praise for this defense, it was no miracle the
ability of steady infantry to resisit unsupported and ill-co-ordinated
cavalry assaults is well documented in the period (as are the deficiencies of
Austrian cavalry doctrine). In the later afternoon, they saw off a charge by
Dr 10 in open column and then were finally caught, while in line in a
firefight with 4 fresh enemy batallions supported by guns, and charged in
the flanks and rear by 4 or more squadrons of light horse (DR 1 and Bussey
Jagers) under Frimont.
Their defense, likely now very exposed as the remainder of the French had
retreated, crumbled immediately or very quickly. Likely orders were sent
about this time for them to retreat, but these were un-necessary / overtaken
by events. Similarly, their likely quite depleted ammunition condition was
neither a surpirse nor decisive. The key elements to the evetual success of
the Austrians against the Garde was:
(i) more-or-less accidentally creating a viable combined arms attack
(ii) gross weight of numbers
(iii) the "morale fatique" of the defenders in an isolated position.
Of the 500-600 under Soules, some 200 retreated in something like good
order, in something like hollow square around the colors, under Soules'
direction. Another 100-odd likely just ran like stink !
There was no mass surrender, and few unwounded prisoners were taken.
Four attached guns were lost.
No colors were lost.
Stutterheim A is too "excited" on this topic the tone of which is much
reduced in Stutterheim B. Stutterheim A is the only source produced which
could possibly be read as to imply a substantial surrender, and such is not
explicitly stated even there. Some 250-odd gardes were killed or wounded
up to and including this "destruction" (a few additional casualties would
have to be added for the evening counter-attack). Of these, about half were
seriously wounded or killed.
The rallied members of Soules' command and the command of Tortel (total
perhaps 500 men) were united for the evening counter-attack, under
Stabenrath. The "heroic" reputation for the Garde a pied was completely
earned and merited for their performance at Marengo, especially so
considering the actual composition of their ranks at the time (largely elected
representatives from home defense national guard units). The lavish level
of awards of armes de honneur to them was in to no way other than fully
appropriate.
The inaction of the grenadiers a cheval is noteworthy.
Bessieres is reported by Eugene as halting a charge by the chasseurs a
cheval that had been requested/ordered by Lannes. One wonders if he was
being similarly "careful" in his use of the grenadiers a cheval at the time of
Frimont's charge.
The use of the word "destroyed" is at least problematic in this context.
Clearly large losses were incurred by Soules' command while on the
extreme right of the French disposition (upwards of 50%). But equally, they
stayed in the battle to participate in the evening counterattack. Perhaps the
motto of the Lauzun hussards applies : "Perit sed in armis".
Sources and Links.
Bowden, Tarbox - "Armies on the Danube 1809" 1981
Duffy - "The Army of Maria Theresa" 1977
Duffy - "Instrument of War" Vol 1
Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon"
Hollins - "Marengo"
Hollins - "Austrian Grenadiers"
Maude - "The Ulm Campaign 1805"
Nafziger - "Napoleon at Leipzig"
Arnold - "Napoleon Conquers Austria"
Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814"
Regele - "Feldmarshall Radetzky. Leben, Leistung, Erbe." 1957
Rothenberg - "Napoleon's Great Adversaries: The Archduke Charles."
Major Semek - "Die Artillerie im Jahre 1809" published in 1904
Photos of Leipzig Diorama courtesy of Wolfgang Meyer.
Austrian Infantry : sterreichische Infanterie : Uniforms : Organization : Tactics
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Austrian_infantry.htm[2012-05-21 12:41:03]
Austrian Infantry of the Napoleonic Wars
Archduke Charles' Dienst-Reglemet aimed to humanize discipline
and raise troop morale by better treatment. It condemned brutality.
It was accompanied by a shortened term or conscription.
(Rothenberg - "The Emperor's Last Victory" p 46)
"Then came battalion of Austrian grenadiers,
flag unfurled, with their officers on horseback
riding at their front. Their attack cleared all the streets."
- Battle of Aspern/Essling 1809
Introduction.
Austrian Line Infantry.
The Grenadiers.
Crme de la crme
of the infantry
The Jgers.
Light infantry
The Grenzers.
Border (light) infantry
Organization.
Tactics.
Uniforms.
.
.
.
Picture: Austrian infantry.
Left: 9th Infantry Regiment ('German') and 2nd Infantry Regiment ('Hungarian'),
Center: 'Hungarian' grenadier , 'German' grenadier , and officer of 19th Infantry
Right: Croat and jager.
Introduction: Austrian infantry.
"The Austrian infantry had long had the reputation of being
solid and reliable, and had fought the French to a standstill
on a number of occasions since 1792." - Robert Goetz
Picture: Austrian grenadiers and
fusiliers, by G Rava, Italy.
"The great confusion of nationalities
is a serious evil. In the British army,
every man can at least speak
English, but with the Austrians,
even the NCOs of the non-German
regiments can scarcely speak
German. This creates, of course, a
deal of confusion, difficulty, and
interpreting, even between the
officer and the soldier. It is partly
remedied by the necessity in which
frequent change of quarters places
the officers of learning at least something of every language spoken in Austria. But yet, the
inconvenience is not obviated...
The infantry, and in this respect it is similar to the English [infantry], is more distinguished by its
action in masses [lines], than by its agility in light infantry service. We must, however, except the
frontier troops (Grenzers) and the jagers. The first are; for the most part, very efficient in
skirmishing, especially the Serbians, whose favorite warfare is one of ambuscades. The jagers are
mainly Tyrolians, and first-rate marksmen.
But the German and Hungarian infantry generally impose by their solidity, and ... have more than
once received cavalry, in line, without deigning to form square, and wherever they have formed
squares, the enemy's cavalry could seldom break them up - witness Aspern." ("The Armies of
Europe" in Putnam's Monthly, No. XXXII, published in 1855)
According to John Stallaert "Training [in the Austrian army] was inconsistent; whereas the regulars
were well-disciplined, numbers of untrained men were often present in units enlarged to wartime
establishment, and the usual parsimony hindered practice. For example, in 1805 Archduke
Ferdinand reported, 'Since many of the newly-arrived troops have still to be trained in musketry, I
approve the issue of 6 live rounds to be fired by every such man!'
Though an isolated case, the evidence of an exercise before the Emperor at Minkendorf, in which
cavalry and grenadiers actually began to fight each other, leaving 3 dead and 60 wounded, does not
reflect well either upon the central command nor upon methods of training !"
In 1798 the monarch had appointed General Alvintzi to preside
over a commission of military reform. The group made few
specific changes to the official tactics and to the weapons. It
included establishing a M1798 pattern musket, which was of
smaller calibre (17.6 mm v. 18.3 mm), and at 4.35 kg about 1 kg
lighter than the Theresian Kommissflinte of 1754 - which
nevertheless equipped most of the regiments during the war.
During the Napoleonic Wars each infantryman of 'German' and
Grenzer regiment carried a musket (+ 60 rounds of ammunition),
triangular bayonet and "Fusilier saber" (43-cm long blade). Each
soldier of 'Hungarian' regiment and Grenadier battalions carried
a musket (+ 60 rounds of ammunition), triangular bayonet and
"Grenadier saber" (63-cm long blade).
Austrian muskets and rifles:
- Infantry musket Infanteriegewehr M 1798 - 150.6 cm long and
4.2 kg heavy
- Infantry musket Infanteriegewehr M 1807 - 150 cm long and 4.6 kg heavy
- Carbine for Jgers M 1807 - 123 cm long and 3.55 kg heavy
- Rifle for Jgers M 1807 - 105 cm long and 3.55 kg heavy
Napoleon was not impressed with the Austrian muskets. He wrote in September 1796: "We have a
great quantity of muskets, but they are Austrian, and weigh too much. Our soldiers cannot use
them." (Boycott-Brown - "The Road to Rivoli" p 441)
B. Girandoni introduced Repetierwindbusche M 1780 a repeating air rifle with 20-shot magazine.
This weapon was used by Jgers until 1797-1800 and then withdrawn due to technical problems.
Until 1808 the sharpshooters in Grenzer regiments were armed with rifles and with the unusually
short double-barrelled over-and-under weapon. It was heavier weapon than musket and was
carried in a large bag. In that year it was replaced by new pattern rifle and carbine.
The bayonet was 32- 38cm long.
Each infantryman carried a fur-covered leather back-pack called Tornister.
There was 1 tent for every 5 men, 1 wagon for each company, 4-6 carts and wagons and 30
packhorses with ammunition (on average 36 rounds for every soldier) for every battalion of 6
companies. Officers were also allowed individual packhorses. The senior officers and generals
however brought excessive baggage, numerous carts and horses. It slowed down movements of the
army.
In 1809 each regiment of infantry had 26 packhorses, while Grenzer regiment only 7. The Jger
battalion had 12 and cavalry regiment none. The supplies for infantry regiment were carried on 13
wagons (4 horses each) and 26 pack animals.
The Habsburg or Austrian
Empire maintained a vast army.
The infantry comprised of:
- 44-46 'German' line infantry
regiments
- 11-15 'Hungarian' line infantry
regiments
- 2-3 garrison infantry regiments
- 1 staff infantry regiment (for
headquarters duties)
- 19-21 grenadier battalions
- 3-12 jager battalions
- 17-18 Grenzer infantry
regiments
- 150 Landwehr (militia) infantry
battalions
Austrian regiments were known
rather by the names of their
colonel-in-chefs than their regimental numbers. For example the 1st Line Infantry Regiment was
known as Infantry Regiment Kaiser Franz I Nr. 1. (or Emperor's Own Infantry Regiment Number
1)
Theoretically each Austrian infantry regiment had three field and one depot battalion. This is what
was on paper. During the Austerlitz Campaign in 1805 there were regiments with 2, 4 or even 5
battalions in the field. During the Leipzig Campaign in 1813 and the Campaign of France in 1814
many regiments had only 2 battalions.
.
According to Robert
Goetz ("1805: Austerlitz"
pp 35-36) the distribution
of battalions in 1805 was
as follow:
"Army of Italy"
(Archduke Charles) - 171
btns
"Army of Germany"
(Archduke Ferdinand) -
88 btns
"Army of Tyrolia"
(Archduke John) - 65 btns
Garrisons/Interior - 45
btns (including the 5th
and 6th Infantry
Regiment, each of 5 btns)
In 1809 Napoleon again confronted his implacable continental foe, the Austrian Empire. The court
in Vienna was a nest of hawks these days. The overthrow of the Spanish Bourbons had hit Austria
almost with the force of the news of Louis XVI's execution in 1793. Austria also wanted to recover
her standings in Europe and lost holdings in Germany and Italy. The shocking French defeat
against the Spanish troops at Bailen gave hope to Napoleon's enemies. Army reforms gave Austria
confidence in being able to tackle the French.
In 1809 the Austrian army became even larger.
The new guns, the smell and feel of the fresh military clothing, the comradeship of fellow men all
contributed to the mens growing sense of excitement about meeting the French army in battle. For
many, war was a glorious spectacle. While the starry-eyed new recruits tossed around vibrant tales
of their planned prowess as soldiers, the actual combat veterans within the regiments grimly went
about the task of teaching this motley collection of recruits how to act like soldiers. Most of whom
knew how unrealistic it was to expect these boys to stop the cream of Napoleon's army.
Picture: Austrian
(Hungarian) infantry
repulsing French cuirassiers
in 1809.
With few exceptions the
Austrian infantry performed
very well in 1809, and much
better than during the Austerlitz Campaign. At Aspern-Essling and at Wagram the whitecoats
fought like lions. "Austrian officers from corps level on down had harangued their men,
stimulating them to a fevered battle pitch. Full of enthusiasm, on marched the infantry with bands
playing and soldiers singing patriotic songs and religious hymns. At the front of their columns
came sappers who wielded hatchets to breach Aspern's garden walls. ... As had occured at
Ebelsberg, 'each street, each house, each barn' became the secene of fearful fighting as the battle
degenerated into a series of small unit encounters and personal combats. The French tried to
blockade the streets with overturned wagons, carts ... The defenders held, only to confront a second
and then a third attack." (James Arnold - "Napoleon Conquers Austria" p 52)
The Commander-in-Chief of the Army however was not pleased with the performance of his
infantry. The ambitious Archduke Charles wrote: "In general, with some exceptions I am not
satisfied with the conduct of the infantry. The officers had not done their best to keep order and
'shouting was so general that commanders could not be heard'. In the future, the colonels should
either keep their regiments quiet or they would be cashiered, the officers dismissed ..."
French POWS in Austrian custody.
Picture by J. A. Klein
~
Austrian Line Infantry.
The 'German' regiments were the best trained
and disciplined part of the infantry. "German
sense of duty caused them to rally after lost
battle to fight again." - Ch Duffy
The 'Hungarian' regiments were renowned for
their fierce fighting spirit.
Great picture of the Battle of
Aspern-Essling 1809, by Keith
Rocco (USA). Austrians and
French in street-fighting.
There were 61-64 regiments of
line infantry. Few numbers
were vacant. In 1808 two
(garrison) regiments, 5th and
5th, were disbanded. After the
defeat of 1809, loss of recruiting
grounds resulted in the
disbanding of 8 infantry
regiments and 6 regiments
recruited of Wallons were
moved to Bohemia.
When in 1814 some territories
were recovered (parts of Northern Italy) new regiments were formed (1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th
Provisional Infantry Regiment and four battalions of light infantry). The provisional regiments
became regular units and were numbered: 13th, 23rd, 38th and 43rd. The four battalions of light
infantry formed the new 45th Infantry Regiment.
Austrian regiments were known rather by the names of their colonel-in-chefs than their regimental
numbers.
For example the 1st Line Infantry Regiment was known as Infantry Regiment Kaiser Franz I Nr. 1.
The famous 4th Line Infantry Regiment as Infantry Regiment Deutschmeister Nr. 4. etc.
"The first systematic numbering system for Austrian Army regiments was introduced by Emperor
Josef II on 8 August 1769. Before that date, regimental identification was usually based on the name
of the current colonel-in-chief (or proprietor) Infanterie-Regiment Kaiser Josef II or
sometimes the units recruitment area (the term Linien-Infanterie-Regiment replaced Infanterie-
Regiment in 1798)." (Stephen Millar - "Austrian Infantry Regiments and Their Commanders 1792-1815"
posted on napoleon-series)
The regiments of line infantry were termed either 'German' and 'Hungarian';
- 44-46 'German' regiments
- - - - - 11 regiments made of Austrians
- - - - - 23 of Czechs (Bohemians and Moravians)
- - - - - 5-6 of Wallons
- - - - - 2 of Croats
- - - - - 2 of Tyroleans (46th and 64th)
- - - - - 1-2 of Italians
- 11-12 'Hungarian' regiments
In 1805 ten regiments (9th, 20th, 24th, 30th, 38th, 41st, 44th, 55th, 58th, 63rd) were recruited of
Galician Poles and Ukrainians. Galicia was Polish territory for several centuries before the
Austrians occupied it. The Poles often deserted to the French or Polish troops fighting for
Napoleon. They hope to liberate Poland, Lithuania and Galicia from foreign yoke. All these Polish
units were dressed like 'German' infantry.
Austria had one infantry regiment (of 10 independent coys) for the guard and escort of staffs. These
troops were called Staff Infantry. The 5th and 6th Regiment were disbanded in 1807 and served as
garrisons.
The 'German' regiments were
the best trained and
disciplned part of the
infantry. "German sense of
duty caused them to rally
after lost battle to fight
again."
The 'Hungarian' regiments
were renowned for their
fierce fighting spirit, and
their grenadiers were best of
them. "The Hungarians
counted as one of the 'hot'
nations of Europe, along
with the emotional English
and Italians ... The difficulty was not to get them to fight, but to enlist in the first place... they were
convinced that they were unsuitable for dismounted service." (Christopher Duffy - "Instrument of
War" Vol I, p 237)
[Hungarian hussars were one of the best
light cavalry in the world ever.]
One of the best Austrian infantry were the 1st and 4th Infantry, the grenadiers, and the jagers. The
1st Infantry Regiment (Kaiser Franz or Emperor's Own Infantry, composed of Czechs), and the 4th
Infantry Regiment or the Duetschmeister Infantry (made of Austrians) were considered as hard
men.
Althought the Austrian generals lost far more battles than won,
on smaller tactical level (regiment or battalion) the Austrian
infantry enjoyed numerous successes. Examples below:
The 51st Infantry Regiment came from the mountainous country of Transylvania
where in the past ruled the cruel Vlad the I m p a l e r . This fine regiment was named
Legion Infernale by the French. At Marengo the 51st Infantry participated in the defeat
of Napoleon's guard infantry. Article.
At Kulm the 54th Regiment [Czechs] captured Color of French 33rd Line.
At Wagram, the 32nd Regiment [Hungarians] took Color of III/4th Line, while the
35th Regiment [Czechs] captured Color of II/106th Line. The French 4th Line was hit
in the flank and routed, with all battalion commanders dead or wounded. They also
lost their Eagle. The 24th Light was in disorder after long pursuit when the Austrian
grenadiers attacked them. The 24th was mauled and lost Eagle.
At Caldiero the 7th Regiment [Czechs] captured Color of I/5th Line.
In 1809 at Neumarkt the 14th Regiment [Austrians] and 39th Regiment [Hungarians]
attacked French cavalry with the bayonet!
At Aspern-Essling the columns of 17th Regiment [Czechs] advanced forward with
great bravery, their band playing, soldiers singing war and religious songs. At the front
marched sappers who wielded hatchets to breach village's garden walls. Disregarding
artillery fire they entered the village.
A French officer described this fight. It was "without letup, inside, outside, ... the furious
combat continued along the streets ..." Their captain Komadina had his feet taken off by
a cannonball but continued to encourage his troops and shouted "Long live Austria !"
The 47th Regiment [Czechs] also distinguished itself in this fighting. Austrian battalions
fought so tenaciously that the French 18th Line (nicknamed "The Brave") lost approx.
500 men in the struggle along Aspern's main street.
At Wagram in 1809 the Erbach Infantry Regiment covered itself with glory by attacking
frontally Lamarque's infantry division while Hohenzollern Chevauxlegeres hit the French
in the flank. The Austrians sent the enemy packing.
At Wagram, the French 24th Light broke the Austrian infantry and then pursued them.
The victors had scattered "in small platoons" and groups before were counter-attacked by
the Argenteau Infantry Regiment. The whitecoats have captured regimental Eagle and
crushed the separated groups of French soldiers.
47th (Vogelsang) Infantry Regiment
Picture by Knoetel
Gefecht (Austrian line infantry, reenactors)
They look awesome in their white uniforms and black shakos.
Grenadiers - the elite assault infantry
The Hungarian grenadiers were considered as being
good fighters and gripped the enemy imagination.
Left: 'Hungarian'
grenadiers.
Picture by
Dmitrii Zgonnik
of Ukraine.
They wore fur
caps, white
uniform, blue
breeches and no
gaiters.
Right: 'German'
grenadiers.
Photo: author
unknown.
They wore fur caps, white uniform and white breeches, and short black gaiters. Source: Patti's Web
> What a magnificent-looking troop.
"The first Austrian grenadiers came into being in 1700, at the height of the European vogue for
grenade-throwing heavyweight infantry. ... they were marked out by their stature, their swarthy
complexions, their bristling moustaches, their arrogant demeanour, their grenadier marches
[characterised by alternate passages on the rim and the skin of the drum], and their grenadier caps
..." (Duffy - "Instrument of War" Vol I p 234)
The grenadiers were distinguished by stature and large mustache.
During the Napoleonic wars the requirements for candidates on
Austrian grenadiers were:
- valor
- marksmanship
- at least one campaign
- at least 5 years' service
The grenadiers were taller than the rest of infantry (by the way, the minimum height for Austrian
infantryman was 165 cm, and Archduke Charles was only 153 cm tall). Soldiers of the 3rd rank had
the greatest chance to become grenadiers - they were used as skirmishers and therefore frequently
mastered their schooting skills and hardened their morale. They were also the most physically fit.
Each infantry regiment had several companies of grenadiers. For war they were detached and
formed grenadier battalions. The grenadier battalions were kept in army reserve and used in
decisive moments as a breakthrough force or to stabilize the wavering line. The grenadiers used
bayonets on every possible occassion. In 1807 was issued order forbiding them to fight as
skirmishers. I don't know how long this order was obeyed.
Photo: German grenadiers
(reenactors).
The Hungarian grenadiers
were considered as being
good fighters and they
gripped the enemy imagination. Often a defeated party of Austrian infantry was likely to be
reported as battalions of those mustachioed Hungarians. For example, in the official report after the
battle of Engen (May 1800) the French claimed to have pushed 8 battalions of the Hungarians out
of a wood, although there was none. General Kellerman claimed to have captured 6.000 Hungarian
grenadiers at Marengo, yet there were at most 3.000 in the last phase and none were Hungarian. :-)
In 1805 the grenadier battalions were 4 companies each.
Two companies were called Alt-Grenadieren (Old Grenadiers) and wore fur-caps,
and two companies were Jung-Grenadieren (Young Grenadiers) and wore infantry headwears.
In 1809 (Wagram Campaign) :
- 19 grenadier battalions [6 companies each]
- 2 battalions [4 companies each]
In 1813 (Leipzig Campaign) :
- 15 grenadier battalions [6 companies each]
- 6 battalions [4 companies each]
Below is a list of grenadier battalions in 1809
with battalion commander's name, and regiments
that contibuted to the make up of each battalion:
- - - - - - - - Maylblumel Grenadier Battalion - 8th, 22nd, 60th
- - - - - - - - Leinine Grenadier Battalion - 25th, 35th, 54th
- - - - - - - - Hohenlohe Grenadier Battalion - 1st, 29th, 38th
- - - - - - - - Hauger Grenadier Battalion - 40th, 44th, 46th
- - - - - - - - Cappy Grenadier Battalion - 12th, 20th, 23rd
- - - - - - - - Peccaduc Grenadier Battalion - 9th, 55th, 56th
- - - - - - - - Wieniawski Grenadier Battalion - 10th, 11th, 47th
- - - - - - - - Nissel Grenadier Battalion - 15th, 28th, 57th
- - - - - - - - Stark Grenadier Battalion - 7th, 18th, 21st
- - - - - - - - Georgy Grenadier Battalion - 17th, 36th, 42nd
- - - - - - - - Bissingen Grenadier Battalion - 3rd, 50th, 58th
- - - - - - - - Hahn Grenadier Battalion - 2nd 33rd, 39th
- - - - - - - - Puteani Grenadier Battalion - 14th, 45th, 59th
- - - - - - - - Brozeczinski Grenadier Battalion - 24th, 30th, 41st
- - - - - - - - Scovaud Grenadier Battalion - 4th, 49th, 63rd
- - - - - - - - Kirchenbetter Grenadier Battalion - 34th, 37th, 48th
- - - - - - - - Scharlach Grenadier Battalion - 31st, 32nd, 51st
- - - - - - - - Salamon Grenadier Battalion - 16th, 26th, 27th
- - - - - - - - Janusch Grenadier Battalion - 19th, 52nd, 61st
- - - - - - - - Chimani Grenadier Battalion - 13th, 43rd
- - - - - - - - Muhlen Grenadier Battalion - 53rd, 62nd
The commanders of six grenadier battalions present at Ratisbon were changed
to new named battalions for the Battle of Wagram. Further changes took place
after Wagram and in the following years.
At Novi in 1799 two grenadier battalions stormed a hill defended by Watrin's French infantry
and captured it without firing a single shot ! The grenadiers however were unable to dislodge the
French from houses and vineyards. What persuaded the French to abandon their positions was
the arrival of seven grenadier battalions and their advance (to sounding music) against the French
rear. The enemy simply fled.
During Suvorovs campaign in Italy an Austrian grenadier battalion (600 men) deployed into
line and marched on the advancing French. They then stopped and fired volleys into the flank of
the French columns (approx. 2,000 men of the 5th Light Infantry). Since the French did not break,
they took the cold steel to them.
The French then broke immediately and retreated, with the grenadiers following them still in line.
Souvarov was so impressed that he decorated the captain in command with the Maria Theresa
Order on the spot.
At Marengo one battalion of French 43rd and one of 96th Line engaged the Austrian grenadiers
at point blank. The hot firefight lasted 15 minutes, and according to Gen. Rivaud half of the French
was either killed or wounded. The grenadiers also suffered heavy casualties.
In 1809 at Aspern-Essling Napoleon ordered the Young Guard to recapture the village of Essling.
Everybody knew what to expect as there were several battalions of Austrian grenadiers. The Fr
Guard Tirailleurs "stopped the advance of Austrian grenadiers" but their own impetus was stalled.
Napoleon supported the Guard Tirailleurs with the superb Guard Fusiliers. Together they pushed
the grenadiers out of village.
Napoleon's Guard however paid a heavy price for the victory, Generals Mouton, Gros and Curial
and many officers were wounded. Approx. 25 % of rank and file were either killed or wounded.
Such casualties had been enough to fill all their ambulances. The Young Guard was so enraged
at the heavy losses that they bayoneted the wounded and crippled grenadiers.
At Wagram in 1809 the Austrian grenadiers mauled the French 24th Light
Infantry Regiment and captured its Eagle. The 24th Light was a superb unit, it
was awarded with as many as six (!) battle honors. The Hessians also suffered
very heavy losses. They were thrown back and lost one of their flags. As the
Austrians overwhelmed the desperate Hessians, the battalion's two standard
bearers, Kempf and Bornemann, struggled to rescue their precious flags. Kempf
was captured but managed to free himself and hid in a dovecote until he could
make his way back to his comrades. Bornemann courageously defended his charge, refusing to
surrender and finally falling with his head crushed by a butt stroke. The Austrians cut off his hand
to seize the flag he still tightly gripped. (Gill - "With Eagles to Glory") The Hessians were raised
from a population with a long tradition of generations of worldwide mercenary service.
Grenadier vom Regiment Jordis N. 59
Picture by Knoetel
Austrian grenadiers of 1809 marching (reenactors)
Austrian grenadiers of 1809 attacking (reenactors)
~
Jgers - Light Infantry
" You should not tell a recruit : I will make you into a jager !
You must instead take them from the forests."- Gen. deLigne
The 1st and 2nd rank were armed with short muskets,
while those in 3rd rank carried rifles.
Picture: Austrian light infantry in early 1800, by Knotel.
In 18th Century the Austrians were innovators where the use of light troops was
concerned. The Austrian light infantry [Pandours during the Seven Year's War] were
the ones, long before the American farmers and French tirailleurs, who showed the
tactics of the future. "The rise of light infantry formed one of the most significant
developments in European warfare in the second half of the 18th century." (Duffy -
"Instrument of War" Vol I p 240)
During the Napoleonic Wars the Austrian light infantry consisted of 200 Tyrolean
Jger Companies of 50-200 men each, Archduke Charles' Legion, Vienna Volunteers,
various free-corps (small units), and several Jger Battalions.
In 1801 was formed Tyroler Feld Jger Regiment. Its Colonel-in-Chief was Marquis
Chasteler de Courcelles. In 1805 this unit consisted of 4 battalions of 6 companies each.
In 1808 the Tyrolean Feld Jger Regiment was disbanded and replaced with 9 jger battalions (9
jger "divisions" in peacetime increased to battalions in wartime).
During the Wagram Campaign in 1809 there were 9 Jger Battalions and 9 depot companies.
In 1813 the number of jger battalions increased to 12.
General Daun believed that the battalion was the ideal size for jagers, for companies were too small
to be kept going for any length of time, while full regiments were nedlessly expensive. The jagers
were marksmen, and well prepared for small warfare. General de Ligne wrote: "You should not tell
a recruit: 'I will make you into a jager !' You must instead take them from the forests. They know
how to perch on a rock, how to conceal themselves in one of those fissures which open in the
ground after a great drought, or hide behind a mighty oak. They make their way slowly and softly,
so as not to make any sound, and in a such a way they can creep up on a post and take it by
surprise, or shoot down the enemy generals."
The jgers in the 1st and 2nd rank were armed with short muskets, while those in 3rd rank with
rifles. The NCOs also carried rifles. The riflemen carried not 60 but 100 rounds of ammunition.
(Until 1797-1800 the Jgers used Repetierwindbusche M 1780, a repeating air rifle with 20-shot
magazine ! It was withdrawn due to technical problems.)
Left: Austrian jagers 1809-
1813. Reenactors. Source:
Patti's Web >> .
Tests conducted by Hamilton
Smith in 1800 suggested that
the least-noticeable color and
thus best suited for
skirmishers was the light
iron-grey (slightly blueish)
used by the Austrian jgers.
Right: Austrian jagers
storming French redoubt at
Dresden in 1813.
The jagers were superbly trained. At Leipzig in 1813 "The 5th Jager Battalion formed square at a run
(!), delivered a volley, and waited its fate with bayonets at the ready." (Nafziger - "Napoleon at
Leipzig" p 229)
They used terrain, trees, and houses as a cover. At Wagram in 1809 a jger battalion took cover in a
drainage ditch 100 paces in front of the village. When the French columns marched toward this
village the jgers rose up and delivered a volley at close range.
On few occassions the jgers were also used to attacking fieldworks. For example in 1813 at
Dresden the I and II Jger Battalion attacked redoubt #3 defended by the French. The jgers moved
through a hail of bullets and canister fire and leapt into the ditch. They pressed up against the
palisade, tearing it down and climbing over and into the redoubt. After a hot bayonet fight the
French were defeated and fled into the Hospital Gardens. The jagers captured 6 cannons and the
redoubt.
The major weakness of the jagers was in their numbers. There were only nine battalions of these
men, instead of forty or fifty. Furthermore, the jager battalion in the field was only 400-500 men
strong, while the line battalion had 1,000-1,200 men. For the Austrian army, a huge force of 300,000
regulars and 150,000 landwehr, the nine small units were too little to make any a meaningful
impact on military operations. (The French not only had one company of light infantry in every line
and light battalion, they also had many regiments of light infantry. They literally flooded the
battlefield with light troops.)
To remedy this situation the Austrians also used the Grenzers (border) infantry and the various
small units of volunteers as skirmishers. These troops however were no match for the French who
enjoyed great reputation as skirmishers. It was especially visible during the Wagram Campaign in
1809.
~
Grenzers - Border (Light) Infantry.
"The most enthusiastic troops" and the only ones
looking warlike in the entire Austrian infantry.
Picture: Grenzers in early 1800s, period of wars with Imperial France.
"Far from being passive conscript hordes, the Grenzer had a lively sense
of their dignity and what was due to them, and in this respect they may
be compared with the yeoman archers (ext.link) of late medieval
England." (Duffy - "Instrument of War" Vol I, p 304)
Picture by Steven Palatka.
The Grenzers came from military frontier (called Military Borders)
between Austria and Turkey settled by Christian refugees. These areas
were subject to attack by the Turks and man living in these areas was
expected to participate in their defence, so effectively that almost the
entire adult male population was militarised. Their uniforms and fierce
demeanor gave them a brigandlike air that seemed to portend great
deeds on the battlefield. The Grenzers provided the Austrian Army with
a kind of light infantry and were particularly suited to scouting and skirmishing in open order as
well as having their uses in mountain warfare, in which the regular troops dod not excel. During
peacetime the Grenzers spent 7 months of every year guarding the Turkish frontier.
The Grenzers were raised as militia but were considered by army officials as something between
light and line infantry. The Grenzers were given training in marksmanship and skirmishing and
basics of linear tactics. When attempts were made to train the Grenzer as line infantry they turned
out to be not as good in this role as the regular regiments.
There were 17-18 Grenzer regiments each of 2 or 3 battalions. During wartime one battalion of
every regiment was left to guard the border with Ottoman Empire. The other battalion or two
joined the regular army and were part of advance guards.
Grenzer Regiments:
- - - - - - - - 1. Liccaner / Gospic
- - - - - - - - 2. Otocaner / Otocac
- - - - - - - - 3. Oguliner / Ogulin
- - - - - - - - 4. Szluiner / Karlstadt
- - - - - - - - 5. Warasdiner-Kreuzer / St. Belovar
- - - - - - - - 6. Warasdiner-St.Georger / St. Belovar
- - - - - - - - 7. Brooder / Vincovce
- - - - - - - - 8. Gradiscaner / Neugradisca
- - - - - - - - 9. Peterwardiner / Mitrovitz
- - - - - - - - 10. First Banal / Glina
- - - - - - - - 11. Second Banal / Petrina
- - - - - - - - 12. Deutschbanater / Pancsova
- - - - - - - - 13. Wallachian-Illyrian / Karansebes
- - - - - - - - 14. First Szekler / Csik-Szereda
- - - - - - - - 15. Second Szekler / Kezdy-Vararhely
- - - - - - - - 16. First Wallachian / Orlath
- - - - - - - - 17. Second Wallachian / Naszod
In 1802 the soldiers of Grenz regiments from the regions around Glina and Petrina were mix of
Orthodox and Catholics. The regiments from Lika and Petrovaradin were Orthodox, while the
regiments from Varazdin, Slavonski Brod and Gradiska were made of Catholics.
In general the Grenzers were no match for the French veterans. (Although
they scared some of the young recruits.) On several ocasions however they
fought really well. For example at Malgaboreth, Austerlitz, Eggmuhl,
Wagram, and at St. Marrein. When many Austrian regulars fled at
Austerlitz the Grenzers fought hard and suffered 66 % casualties. During
retreat after Marengo (1800) when all order broke, two battalions of
Grenzers (Warasdin-Kreuz and Ottocac) fended off all attacks and allowed
the grenadier battalions to march to the Bormida. Together with the
grenadiers they fought one of the last rearguard actions at Marengo.
At St. Marein in September 1813, battalion of the Italian Guards appeared on
Austrian flank and Oberst Milutinovich detached one and half company to
face them. The Grenzers delivered a volley and . . . attacked with cold steel.
Thus one company of Grenzers drove battalion of Guards away.
(Nafziger/Gioannini - "The Defense of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Northern Italy,
1813-1814")
Most of the French had a good opinion about the Grenzers and considered them as the only ones
looking warlike in the entire Austrian army. Napoleon had no hesitation in using these wild men.
After the defeat in 1809 Austria ceded some territories and the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 10th and 11th
Grenzer Regiment went into French service. They served for Napoleon until 1814.
"The Grenzers marched over the hill
with band playing." - Austerlitz 1805
The village of Tellnitz was a very strong position, there were vineyards, a ditch, the garden
walls and two rows of houses. It was defended by 3rd Line Regiment of GdD Legrand's
division. The narrow space between the Goldbach stream and the Satchan Pond offered a
very limited frontage to the Grenzers, the attackers.
At 7 am, the fighting began. General Kienmayer sent forward the II/2nd Szekler Grenz
Regiment (approx. 500 bayonets) under Mjr. Diveky "to sweep the French skirmsihers from
the vineyards. The Grenzers marched over the hill with band playing. The French voltigeurs
(3 companies) fired at them and fell back to the vineyards. The Grenzers continued their
advance until the musket fire from the vineyards halted them.
The vineyards were defended by the voltigeurs and several companies of fusiliers of 3rd
Line. The musket fire was intense, and because the Grenzers were the attackers and in the
open they suffered much heavier casualties than the French. The Grenzers fell back.
Kienmayer ordered the I/2nd Szekler to support the II/2nd Szekler in a fresh effort. Three
remaining Grenzer battalions were kept in reserve.
The attackers penetrated nearly to the foot of the hill, at the open space between the
vineyards and Tellnitz. The French veterans lining the ditch counterattacked and drove
them back.
The Grenzers rallied and attacked the third time. The French withdrew from the vineyards
but made the Austrians pay dearly for their success. The two battalions of Grenzers swept
through the vineyards and finally took the ditch. But the French held Tellnitz and its bridges
over the Goldbach Stream. Kienmayer replaced the two battalions (they have suffered
almost 50 % losses) with three fresh battalions of Grenzers.
At 8 am the three battalions attacked Tellnitz but without success. The French pursued them
until the vineyards. Kienmayer rallied the three battalions and with two battalions of 2nd
Szekler counterattacked. The Austrians took the ditch but both sides were equally exhausted
and stayed where they were. Kienmayer reported the situation to his superior and recived
support of Russian infantry. The Russian 7th Jagers and two battalions of the Grenzers
attacked with a cheer and poured into Tellnitz. They also took a bridge over the Goldbach
Stream. (Goetz - "1805: Austerlitz" pp 122-130)
~
Organization of Austrian Infantry.
"Hasty reforms were pushed through in 1805, so soon before the army embarked on
campaign that they caused only confusion (Archduke Charles realised the danger,
and apparently never applied the new regulations for his own forces).
The main change was for each infantry regiment to be arranged in one grenadier and
four fusilier battalions, each battalion being of four companies of a nominal 160 men
each. In the words of one officer, all this achieved was that 'common soldiers no
longer knew their officers and the officers did not know their men'.
The 1807 regulations, supervised by the Archduke Charles, returned to the previous
organisation (three fusilier or field battalions and 2 grenadier companies in regiment,
field battalions of 6 companies and garrison battalions of four), wartime
establishment now being the same as peacetime save for the augmentation of the
third battalion to six companies and the detachment of the grenadiers to composite
battalions ..." (John Stallaert - "The Austrian Army")
Austrian infantry regiment had three field and one depot battalion. After defeat in
1809 the 3rd battalions were disbanded, all companies were reduced to 60 privates in
'German' and 100 in 'Hungarian' infantry.
In 1813 many regiments had three battalions again and some had formed even the 4th battalion.
The fourth battalion was landwehr battalion.
After 1808 each Austrian battalion carried 1 flag.
.
GERMAN INFANTRY REGIMENT
(during peacetime)
Staff:
1 Inhaber
1 Oberst (colonel)
1 Oberst-leutenant
2 majors
1 regimental adjutant
HUNGARIAN INFANTRY REGIMENT
(during peacetime)
Staff:
1 Inhaber
1 Oberst (colonel)
1 Oberst-leutenant
2 majors
1 regimental adjutant
6 'Kaiserliche Kadetten'
(Officers' sons selected by Hofkriegsrat.
The more competent were appointed as
NCOs in companies.)
9 fouriers
1 drum-major
Non-Combatants:
provost, chaplain, auditor,
accountant, surgeons, musicians
Grenadier Company
(120 men)
Grenadier Company
(120 men)
(In wartime the two grenadier companies
were detached from their parent regiment)
6 'Kaiserliche Kadetten'
(Officers' sons selected by Hofkriegsrat.
The more competent were appointed as
NCOs in companies.)
9 fouriers
1 drum-major
Non-Combatants:
provost, chaplain, auditor,
accountant, surgeons, musicians
Grenadier Company
(120 men)
Grenadier Company
(120 men)
(In wartime the two grenadier companies
were detached from their parent regiment)
I Battalion or
Leib (Life) Battalion
Fusilier Company
(180 men)
Fusilier Company
(180 men)
Fusilier Company
(180 men)
Fusilier Company
(180 men)
Fusilier Company
(180 men)
Fusilier Company
(180 men)
I Battalion or
Leib (Life) Battalion
Fusilier Company
(200 men)
Fusilier Company
(200 men)
Fusilier Company
(200 men)
Fusilier Company
(200 men)
Fusilier Company
(200 men)
Fusilier Company
(200 men)
II Battalion or
Oberst (Colonel's) Battalion
Fusilier Company
(180 men)
Fusilier Company
(180 men)
Fusilier Company
(180 men)
Fusilier Company
(180 men)
Fusilier Company
(180 men)
Fusilier Company
(180 men)
II Battalion or
Oberst (Colonel's) Battalion
Fusilier Company
(200 men)
Fusilier Company
(200 men)
Fusilier Company
(200 men)
Fusilier Company
(200 men)
Fusilier Company
(200 men)
Fusilier Company
(200 men)
Depot Battalion or
Oberst-Lieutenant Battalion
or Garrison Battalion
Fusilier Company
(180 men)
Fusilier Company
(180 men)
(Until 1809 the Depot Battalion had 2 companies.
In wartime it increased to 6 companies and often
served in the field as the III Battalion.)
Depot Battalion or
Oberst-Lieutenant Battalion
or Garrison Battalion
Fusilier Company
(200 men)
Fusilier Company
(200 men)
(Until 1809 the Depot Battalion had 2 companies.
In wartime it increased to 6 companies and often
served in the field as the III Battalion.)
The 'German' fusilier company had 180 men while 'Hungarian' company 200.
The 'German' grenadier company had 120 men while 'Hungarian 150-160 men.
Company consisted of 2 half-companies (or 4 zuge).
Below is organization of company of line infantry regiment during wartime:
= 1 Hauptmann [Captain]
= 1 Oberleutnant [First Lieutenant]
= 1 Unterleutnant [Second Lieutenant]
= 1 Fahnrich [Ensign]
= 2 Prima Plana [Senior NCOs]:
- - - - - Feldwebel [Sergeant-Major]
- - - - - Fourierschutzen [Fourier]
= 6 (4 in peacetime) Korporalen [Sergeants]
= 12 (8 in peacetime) Gerfreiter [Corporals]
- - - - - According to Dienst Reglement (fur die kaiserliche konigliche
- - - - - Infanterie, Wien 1807) there were :
- - - - - 12 (6 in peacetime) gerfreiter in Fusilier Company
- - - - - 13 (6) gerfreiter in Grenadier Company
- - - - - 12 (8) unter-jagers in Jager Company
- - - - - 12 (6) gerfreiter in Grenzer Company
= 7 Vize-Korporals, in wartime they took up the rank of 'Korporalen'
= 1 Zimmermann [Sapper]
= 2 Drummers
= 150-200 privates.
If the 'Inhaber' wished there were also accepted several educated sons of nobles.
These young men served as "private cadets' (Ordinaire Kadet) and served along the
rank and file. If they served their time and showed skill they were appointed as NCOs.
In 1809 the jger company in peacetime comprised of :
= 2 officers
= 7 NCOs
= 10 'patrol leaders' (status of corporals)
= 1 hornist
= 60 privates
In 1807 the Grenzer company consisted of 200 men.
GRENZER INFANTRY REGIMENT
(during peacetime)
Staff (40 men)
Sometimes there were
attached 2 light guns
(3pdrs) - mountain guns ?
Sharpshooters (200 men)
T h e Karlstadt and Banal regiments
had additionally 200 Seressaner scouts
I Field Battalion
Grenzer Company
(200 men)
Grenzer Company
(200 men)
Grenzer Company
(200 men)
Grenzer Company
(200 men)
Grenzer Company
(200 men)
Grenzer Company
(200 men)
II Field Battalion
Grenzer Company
(200 men)
Grenzer Company
(200 men)
Grenzer Company
(200 men)
Grenzer Company
(200 men)
Grenzer Company
(200 men)
Grenzer Company
(200 men)
Depot Battalion or
Reserve Battalion
Grenzer Company
(200 men)
Grenzer Company
(200 men)
(When regiment left for campaign
there remained only a reserve of
400 men unsuited for field service.
Some bttns however were stronger.
I am not sure how many companies
it had 2, 4 or the regular 6.)
~
Tactics.
"For charging, the line was considered 'the proper formation for infantry,
permitting the best use of its weapons, that is the musket musket for
fighting at long range and the bayonnet for close-in". - John Stallaert
The Austrian infantry was able to fight in open terrain, and in the woods and villages. One
eyewitness described how the Austrian infantry made village a strongpoint: "The Austrians had
blocked all the entrances to the village [of Seifertshain]; all the trees in the surrounding fields had
been cut down and used as barricades. The streets were blocked with carts, ploughs and other
implements. A gun had been set up in the gate of the vicarage and 4 other guns had been placed
by the inn at the bridge." (Digby_Smith - "1813: Leipzig" p 126)
The tactical formations used by the Austrian infantry were lines, columns, and skirmishing chains.
The Austrian army however "retained faith in 18th century constricted manoeuvre at the expense of
the less formalised movements employed by the French, the Austrian regulations until 1807 being
based upon the 1769 system. Light infantry tactics remained largely the preserve of the Frei-Corps
and Grenzers, and in some cases were actually discouraged in the regular army.
Despite the later claim that by 1798 the Austrian army was able to fight in open order (as actually
attempted at Novi in November 1799, resulting in defeat), in April 1800 Melas's chief of staff Baron
Zach expressed the general reliance on old-fashioned, close and linear formations, an advance
'courageously in closed formation, with bands playing, and keeping their formation' being, in his
opinion, a guarantee of success. 'Unnecessary skirmishing can only be detrimental ... a determined
charge delivered in close order ... will certainly result in victory with very few casualties'." (- John
Stallaert)
Hungarian Infantry Regiment at Leipzig 1813
Archduke Charles
Charles' manual of 1807, aimed at producing
infantry 'able to fight in every type of terrain'.
.
Archduke Charles considered the line as the best
formation for attack and defence although attack
columns were used when needed.
The 3-rank deep line was considered by the Austrians as the best formation for infantry.
The tallest men stood in the first rank, the shortest in 2nd and the ablest in 3rd, each man's elbows
touching his neighbours. The distance between ranks was one pace. In 1794 GM Mack's
Instructionspunkte recommended that the 3rd rank be used to extend the infantry line and was
dictated by circumstances and terrain.
The regulations introduced in 1805 (Abrichtungs Reglement fr die K. und K.K. Infanterie 1806 )
abolished the practice of kneeling the 1st rank of infantry while firing. It confirmed that during
musketry the 3rd rank stood with shouldered arms and only the 1st and 2nd fired. The 2nd rank
stepped to the right so that the left shoulder of each soldier was behind the right shoulder of the
man to their front. Archduke Charles instructed that musketry was to cease when the enemy was
within 50 paces - it was in contrast to several other European armies who insisted on breaking the
enemy by delivering a devastating volley at very close range.
Archduke Charles considered the 3-rank deep line as the best formation for attack and defence
although attack columns were used when needed (for example in 1809 at Wagram.) Schwarzenberg
preferred columns and masses. During attack they were screened by skirmishers, during defence
the columns or masses stood in checker board formation. The Austrian infantry moved in various
speeds: 90-105-120 steps per minute, depending on the situation, terrain and need.
When caught in the open and under heavy artillery fire some of the Austrian troops would lay
down instead of standing. It greatly lessened their casualties. One of such actions is described by
officer Carl Varnhagen von Ense and his 47th Regiment at Wagram. [Source: "Die Schlacht von
Wagram."] Such trick was however impossible if the French had a lot of aggressive cavalry.
Against cavalry the infantry was formed in battalion-mass as the square on 3-ranks deep was
considered not strong enough. The battalion-mass was a closely packed column, one company wide
and six companies deep. The mass could manoeuvre, if slowly, either in closed or open order. At
Aspern-Essling and at Wagram the battalion-masses withstood repeated charges of Napoleon's
heavy cavalry. But these very deep formations were very vulnerable to artillery fire.
Another anti-cavalry formation was division-mass. Two companies broke into 4 half-companies,
aligned themselves behind the other, and closed their ranks up to about 3 feet between the half-
companies.

According to George Nafziger the Austrians had four basic column formations.
They were quite similar to those of other nations and were defined by
their intervals and as by their widths. (G Nafziger's website)
Columns of Austrian (Hungarian) infantry at Leipzig.
Courtesy of Wolfgang Meyer.
.
"Too much drill" was the cause of
poorer combat effectiveness of
Austrian skirmishers
General Rosemberg wrote: "[Austrian troops] are not fully prepared and too incapable of helping
themselves. they are too used to being in closed lines and to acting automatically on the word of
command, but they must be capable of relyin on their own initiative." General Radetzky wrote that
"too much drill" was the cause of poorer combat effectiveness of Austrian skirmishers. He also
added that Austrian generals "don't understand this kind of fighting." In 1800 Chief-of-Staff
General Zach isued instructions opposed the use of swarms of skirmishers, especially in attack. In
1810 was issued "Instruction for Skirmishers." "The Austrian 1807 Infantry Regulation is one of the
few official sources that goes into skirmishing in any depth. The Regulation lists the situations in
which skirmishers were to be used:
- when in a defensive position, to keep the enemy skirmishers away
- to mask or screen the fronts and flanks of advancing formed infantry
- to cover the withdrawal of formed troops from enemy skirmishers
- to mask the flank march of a column of formed infantry from enemy skirmishers
The Austrian skirmishers were made not only of jagers, Grenzers, and Free-Corps but also men
drawn from 3rd rank of line battalions. Skirmishing by line infantry was done this way: the first
being sent forward were those taken from both flank companies of battalion. Then, if necessary,
went the skirmishers from other companies. The skirmish chain deployed in an arc up to 300 paces
in front of the battalion and consisted of 3 Zge from the 3rd rank. Approx. 100 paces behind the
skirmishers were the supports consisting of 3 further Zge in two ranks. The supports were rotated
through the firing skirmish line when needed. Approx. 100 paces behind the supports was reserve
consisting of the remaining 6 (centre) Zge of the 3rd rank, also in two ranks. Approx. 100 paces to
the rear of the reserve was the battalion in two ranks.
The skirmishers were tightly controlled by officers and NCOs and operated with 6 paces intervals
and as said above 300 paces of their parent battalion. It was estimated that 60-80 skirmishers were
sufficient to support a battalion.
This is said that the larger bodies of Austrian infantry were never deployed entirely in skirmish.
But as far as we know this is a false assumption. For example in 1813 at Leipzig the Austrian
skirmishers covered the fields between Lauer and Leipzig. "Everywhere, on the roads, on the banks
of Pleisse and Elster, was a huge skirmish line." "On the southern portion of the western edge of the
Lamboy Woods the 2 battalions of Szekler Grenzer Regiment deployed in skirmish order. Soon they
were heavily engaged with French skirmishers." (Nafziger - "Napoleon at Leipzig").
French General "Duhesme states clearly that, in his experience, the French light infantry was
heavily outnumbered, and that the Austrians made effective use of their light infantry by passing
them down the flanks of the French battalions, which they then attacked while hiding behind such
terrain features as might be found. Indeed, Brossier commented in 1800 that the Austrian attacks in
1792 were always accompanied by a cloud of skirmishers. This would indicate that it was the
Austrians who taught the French how to skirmish. There are some discrepancies, however, in the
suggestion that the French were always outnumbered. Duhesme ... goes on to say that 'in truth, by
the end of 1793, it can be said that the French armies had nothing but light infantry." (Nafziger -
"Imperial Bayonets")
The light troops used terrain, trees and houses as a cover. In Wagram entire jger battalion took
cover in a drainage ditch 100 paces in front of the village. When the French columns marched
toward this village the jgers rose up and delivered a volley at close range.
At Dresden in 1813 the Austrians used skirmishers in an interesting way; the Erzherzog Rainier
Infantry Regiment sent skirmishers forward and between flankers (horse skirmishers) drawn from a
hussar regiment !
The Austrians formed advance guards made of light troops. The French had good opinion about
these troops, General Duhesme wrote: "These advanced guards, well handled, only disputed their
ground long enough to make us waste time and men. They brought us from one position to another
till they reached that which they really meant to defend. There they let us use up and scatter our
last battalions whose ardour generally shattered itself against their intrenchments. Then fresh
troops issued from them in the most perfect order; they, in their turn, threw out skirmishers upon
our flanks, and thus they charged at advantage troops dispersed and fatigued, corps in disorder
and unable to rally most of their men."
According to John Cook "It is clear that the Austrian line regiments were perfectly capable of
skirmishing, and did so throughout the period. Most first hand accounts either do not mention the
source of the skirmishers but a significant number specifically mention the third rank, or sometimes
entire sub-units. There are certainly far more general references to line regiments deploying
skirmishers than those which specify where they were drawn from, but in the absence of specificity
one simply has to assume that they were drawn from the third rank, in accordance with the
Exercier-Reglement 1807.
In summary, the trends seen in the Austrian service are similar to those seen elsewhere."
~
Uniforms of Austrian Infantry.
"White remained the traditional colour
for the Austrian infantry uniform."
All line infantry wore white coats (in fact they were off-white or very light grey). The coat
was single breasted and closed to the waist. The Austrian coat was that one copied by the
British infantry at the turn of the century. The Austrian (and British) coats were one of the
best targets for enemy marksmen as white and red are the most visible colors from the
distance. "White stood out in the field, when one of the functions was to make a good show.
In the course of time coats of blue faded badly, those of pike gray turned a dirty ashen color,
and those of green assumed a tinge of yellow, while repairs were all too evident on dyed
coats of any kind, and added to a general look of shabbiness. Coats of white, on the other
hand, could always be worked up with chalk to make them look 'new and brilliant." (Duffy -
Each infantry regiment had its own distinct facing colour which appeared on the collar, cuffs
and turnbacks.
During cold day the infantry wore white, light brown, or grey greatcoats.
The 'German' infantrymen wore white breeches and short black gaiters.
The 'Hungarian' wore light blue and tight breeches with yellow-corn braids.
No gaiters.
Although the helmet was officially replaced by a shako in 1806, many regiments
retained their helmets until 1809. The 'German' infantry fought the campaign in 1809
wearing the shako. The Austrian shako was made of cloth or cloth on leather and was
20.5 cm high. After 1810 new shako was used, it was made of felt.
The grenadiers retained the fur caps with metal plate at its front. The fur cap was 30 cm
high at the front and 12.5 cm at the rear. In 1805 grenadier battalion of 4 companies had
half of their men (2 companies) wearing the fur-caps and other half (2 companies)
wearing the helmets of line infantry. Those with fur-caps were the 'old grenadiers' and
those with helmets were 'young grenadiers'. During service the grenadiers protected
their fur-caps with covers.
The uniforms of Austrian jgers were imitated in several European armies.
Tests conducted by Hamilton Smith in 1800 suggested that the least-noticeable color and thus best suited
for skirmishers was the light iron-grey (slightly blueish) used by the Austrian jgers. The jgers wore
grey breeches and black gaiters. During campaign they wore loose white or light grey trousers (as
depicted on p 168 in Nafziger's "Napoleon's Dresden Campaign").
Officers were clean shaven, NCOs and privates wore moustaches.
The Grenzers sported skin-tight, much braided, bright blue breeches.
White coats were worn in 10 regiments: 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 13th, 14th, 16th and 17th. Brown coats
were worn in 7 regiments: 2nd, 4th, 6th, 10th, 11th, 12th and 15th. In 1808 all regiments were ordered to
wear shakos, brown coats and light blue breeches. The Siebenburgen Grenzer Regiments in cold weather
wore a fur klobuk (and not kolpack !) 26 cm high, in summer they wore shakos.
Uniforms of Austrian Line Infantry
~ post 1798 ~
Regiment
(nationality)
Breeches Coat
Facings
& Buttons
1. Emperor Francis
Kaiser Franz
(Moravian)

2. Archduke Ferdinand 1
Erzherzog Ferdinand 1
(Hungarian)

3. Archduke Charles
Erzherzog Karl
(Austrian)

4. Hoch-and-Deutschmeister
Hoch-und-Deutschmeister
(Austrian)

5. served as garrison
(nationality ?)

6. served as garrison
(nationality ?)

7. Schroeder
(Moravian)

8. Huff
(Moravian)

9. Clerfayt
(Walloon, later Galician)

10. Kheul
(Bohemian)

11. Wallis
(Bohemian)

12. Manfredini
(Moravian)

13. Reisky disb. 1809
(Austrian)

14. Oranien 2
(Austrian)

15. d'Alton
(Bohemian)

16. Terzi 3
(Styrian)

17. Hohenlohe
(Bohemian)

18. Stuart 4
(Bohemian)

19. Alvinczy
(Hungarian)

20. Kaunitz
(Silesian, later Galician)

21. Gemmingen 5
(Bohemian)

22. Lacy
(Illyrian)

23. Wurzburg disb. 1809
(Austrian, later Galician)

24. Auersperg 6
(Austrian, later Galician)

25. Spork
(Bohemian)

26. Schroder
(Karinthian)

27. Strasoldo
(Styrian)

28. Wartensleben
(Bohemian)

29. Wallis
(Moravian)

30. de Ligne

31. Benjowsky
(Transylvanian)

32. Gyulai
(Hungarian)

33. Sztaray
(Hungarian)

34. Esterhazy

(Hungarian)
35. Wenkheim 7
(Hungarian)

36. Furstenberg
(Bohemiann)

37. Auffenberg
(Hungarian)

38. von Wurttemburg disb. 1809
(Wallon, later Galician)

39. Nadasdy
(Hungarian)

40. Mitrovski
(Moravian)

41. Sachen-Hildburghausen
(Galician)

42. Erbach
(Bohemian)

43. Simbschen disb. 1806
(Austrian)

44. Bellegarde
(Italian, later Galician)

45. Lattermann 8, disb. 1809
(Austrian, later Italian)

46. Neugebauer 9, disb. 1809
(Tirolean, later Galician)

47. Kinski 10
(Bohemian)

48. Vukassovich
(Hungarian)

49. Pellegrini
(Austrian)

50. Stain disb. 1809
(Austrian)

51. Splenyi
(Transilvanian)

52. Erzherzog Anto Victor
(Hungarian)

53. J.Jellacic
(Hungarian)

54. Kallenberg
(Bohemian)

55. Reuss-Greitz disb. 1809

56. W.Colloredo
(Moravian)

57. J.Colloredo
(Bohemian)

58. Beaulieu

59. Jordis
(Austrian)

60. Giulai
(Hungarian)

61. St.Julien
(Hungarian)

62. F.Jellacic
(Hungarian)

63. Archduke Joseph Francis 11
Erzherzog Josef Franz
(Wallon, later Galician)

disb. - disbanded
1 - later renamed Hiller
2 - Klebek in 1809
3 - Erzherzog Rudolf in 1809
4 - de Aspre in 1809
5 - Rohan in 1809
6 - Strauch in 1808
7 - Erzherzog Max in 1808
8 - de Vaux in 1809
9 - Chasteler in 1809
10 - Vogelsang in 1805
11 - Baillet-Latour
Austrian infantry by Andre Jouineau, France
-

Helmets and shakos
In 1806 shako was introduced but only part of the infantry wore it.
The 'German' infantry fought the campaign in 1809 wearing the shako.
Sources and Links.
Hollins - "Marengo"
Hollins - "Austrian Grenadiers"
John Stallaert - "The Evolution of Napoleonic Uniforms" (Austria)
Nafziger and Gioannini - "The Defense of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Northern Italy, 1813-1814"
Pictures of Austrian infantry (Diorama of Leipzig, 1813) Courtesy of Wolfgang Meyer, Germany.
Napoleon in Holabrunn
Austrian Cavalry : sterreichische Kavallerie : Uniforms : Organization : Tactics
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Austrian_cavalry.htm[2012-05-21 12:41:10]
Austrian Cavalry of the Napoleonic Wars
I "... was of the opinion then, as I am still today, that the
Austrian light horse is the best trained in this kind of
warfare [skirmishing, scouting]. The Austrians are always
the most skilled at placing outposts to guard their army."
- Dezydery Chlapowski, Napoleon's Old Guard Lancers
The Austrian cavalrymen "were as superior to us
as we were to the trained-bands in the city."
- General John Le Marchant, British cavalry
"Austrian cavalry was well mounted and generally good
but seldom operated effectively in mass."
- John Elting
Often single regiments and brigades were
defeated by French brigades and divisions.
(Austerlitz, Alt-Eglofsheim , Wagram, Leipzig)
Introduction.
Tactics.
Organization.
Weapons and Horses.
Cuirassiers.
Dragoons.
Uhlans.
Chevaulegeres.
Hussars !
.
.
.
.
.
Picture: Austrian cavalry of the Napoleonic Wars.
Picture by L.& F. Funcken. (Castermann Publishing 1969)
- L'uniforme et les Armes des Soldats du Premier Empire
1 - hussar, 2 - chevaulegere, 3 - cuirassier, 4 - uhlan
-
"One tall, 1.8 m recruit [hussar] faced a short Korporal. 'Stand upright and
keep your head up!" - shouted the Korporal. 'In that case', came the reply,
'I will have to say goodbye to you, Korporal, because I'll never see you again."
Introduction.
In 1 7 9 6 (?) at Borghetto, Bonaparte was lunching with generals
Massena and Murat when the Austrian light cavalry surprised them.
Napoleon fled by climbing over a wall and lost his boot in the process.
Murat and Massena followed him. This episode resulted in Napoleon
forming his escort, the Guides, who were the ancestors of the legendary
Chasseurs-a-Cheval of the Imperial Guard.
Picture: standard bearer of Austrian 2nd Dragoon Regiment in
1812-14. By Brian Fosten, from Haythornthwaithe's - "Austrian
Army of the Napoleonic Wars (2): Cavalry"
The Austrian cavalry consisted of cuirassiers, dragoons,
chevaulegeres (light dragoons), hussars and uhlans. The twelve
regiments of hussars were mostly Hungarians (eight were
Hungarian, two were from Transilvania, and two from today
Slovakia). The uhlans were Poles and Ukrainians from Galicia.
The men of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th Dragoon Regiment were
Moravians, while those in the 1st and 2nd Dragoon Regiment
were Austrians. The chevaulegers in 2nd, 4th, 5th, 6th Regiment
were Bohemians (Czechs), while in the 3rd were Poles from
Galicia, in 7th were Italians. The 1st Chevaulegere Regiment
was composed of Austrians.
The cuirassiers in the 1st Kaiser, 2nd, 3rd, 6th, 7th and 8th
Regiment were Bohemians and Moravians (Czechs), while in
the 4th and 5th were Austrians. The Bussy Horse Jagers were
made of French royalists (emigres) in Austrian service. Ironically this unit participated
in the defeat of Bonaparte's grenadiers of Consular Guard at Marengo, 1800.
The Austrian cavalrymen were excellent swordsman and horsemen, well-trained and
well-mounted and enjoyed great reputation in Europe. "...most Hungarians learned to
ride in childhood and when out riding soon acquired a natural sense of direction,
making them the ideal recruits for light cavalry duties." (- Hollins "Hungarian Hussar
1756-1815")
Equally good horsemen were the Poles. They formed the few regiments of Austrian
uhlans who forced Napoleon to issue body armor to his horse carabiniers. The superb
O'Reilly Chevaulegere Regiment was composed of Poles. (The French cavalry were
known for bravery and their generals for tactical skills. Horsemanship and horse care
however were not their virtue.)
For French cavalry officer, de Brack, the Hungarian hussars were some of "the best
European cavalry." Sir Wilson wrote about the Austrian cavalry: "... both cuirassiers
and hussars are superb". Anoher British observer described their cuirassiers in 1814 in
Paris as "outstanding".
According to "The Armies of Europe": "The [Austrian] cavalry is excellent. The heavy or
German cavalry, consisting of Germans and Bohemians is well horsed, well armed,
and always efficient. The light cavalry has, perhaps, lost by mixing up the German
chevaulgers with the Polish lancers, but its Hungarian hussars will always remain the
models of all light cavalry." ("The Armies of Europe" in Putnam's Monthly, No. XXXII,
published in 1855)
Dezydery Chlapowski of Napoleon's Old Guard Lancers "... was of the opinion then,
as I am still today, that the Austrian light horse is the best trained in this kind of
warfare [skirmishing, scouting]. The Austrians are always the most skilled at placing
outposts to guard their army." (Chlapowski/Simmons - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" p 15)
Now and then however the Austrians failed in this type of warfare. At Ergoldsbach in
April 1809, a handful of the Wurttemberg foot jagers surprised and captured an
outpost of 42 Hungarian hussars (from Erzherzog Ferdinand Hussar Regiment).
On 22 April 1809 the Wurttemberg cavalry reached Geisling. They learned from local
villagers that Austrian cavalry were stationed in nearby towns and villages. At
midnight the Wurttembergers crept to the lighted houses and saw Austrian dragoons
drinking and smoking their pipes. The dragoons neglected to post vedettes (!) and
were taken by surprise. The Wurttembergers attacked and in few minutes the fight
was over. Heavily outnumbered the dragoons were routed and entire squadron was
taken prisoner.
However when facing the French cavalry in pitched battle, the Austrians were
somehow inferior.
Chlapowski wrote, "The enemy [Hungarian hussars] had charged us 3 or 4 times
during this engagement. Some of them would break into our ranks, many passed right
through and circled back to regain their lines, and after charge they ended in complete
disorganization. The French, on the other hand, although they also lost formation after
a charge, kept together far more and every time were quicker to regain order. ...
although the Hungarians drove home their attacks with determination, they were
harder to reform into some sort of order. The French, on the other hand, knew that
their own horses lacked the Austrians' speed and endurance, and would launch their
attacks from closer range and so retained formation right to the end of the charge, and
regained it more quickly afterwards. ... I, too, was wounded on the leg above the ankle
by a Hungarian that day, but his sword twisted in his hand and the wound was not
deep. But it was quite a blow and I felt it for many years." (Chlapowski, - p 68)
Austrian cuirassiers. Diorama of Battle of Leipzig 1813.
Courtesy of Wolfgang Meyer, Germany. (Awesome shot.)
~
Tactics of Austrian Cavalry
Often single regiments and brigades were
defeated by French brigades and divisions.
With the exception of the Danube Valley and the Hungarian Puszta, a vast
wilderness of grass, (picture, ext. link) the Habsburg or Austrian Empire was a
mountainous country. For this reason it had low ratio of cavalry to infantry.
For example in 1809 the ratio between cavalry and infantry (+ Grenzers) was 1 to
7.5.
Great Britain, Spain and Sweden also had low ratio of cavalry but for other
reasons.
France had ratio 1 to 6, while in the flat and open Russia 1 to 5 (excl.Cossacks).
Poland (Duchy of Warsaw) had the highest ratio of cavalry to infantry, 1 to 4.
Having fewer cavalrymen than France and Russia the Austrians were reluctant to
use it en masse. There was lack of large scale exercises for the cavalry. As a result
the single regiments and brigades of Austrian acvalry were often defeated by
French brigades and divisions. In 1809 at Alt Eglofshein a single Austrian
cuirassier regiment charged to within 100 paces, not failing to notice that the
French carabiniers and cuirassiers overlapped his line on both flanks. The
carabiniers delivered a salvo at 40 paces and attacked from the front while in the
same time the French cuirassiers attacked on both flanks.
I would say that the Austrians felt the most comfortable with using small
formations of cavalry, few squadrons or one regiment. (At Wagram in 1809 a
single cuirassier regiment dashed in a howling charge against the front of 8.000
strong column of French infantry !) The larger the formation however the better
for the French cavalry. The French had no objections against throwing immense
masses of cavalry against the enemy's cavalry, infantry, or both !
Only few times the Austrians used multiregimental formations with good effect.
At Wagram in July
1809 the Austrian
Kronprinz
Cuirassiers and
Rosenberg
Chevaulegeres took
the elite French 1st
and 2nd Horse
Carabiniers in flank
and sent them flying.
At Aspern-Essling
General Liechtenstein
sent nine cavalry
regiments against
French light cavalry
under Lasalle. Four
regiments attacked
from the front and
five attacked Lasalle's
flank. The Austrians
drove off the French.
at Aspern-Essling
approx. 2,500 French
heavy cavalry (4th,
6th, 7th, and 8th
Cuirassiers) led by
Espagne attacked the Austrian center defended by strong artillery and numerous
light cavalry (uhlans, hussars and chevauxlegeres).
The French heavies received canister and then encountered four cavalry regiments
deployed in a very long line. The Austrians instead of countercharging remained
stationary. Their impressive stance communicated great resolve, and the French
wavered. Then, two Austrian cuirassier regiments crashed into French flank and
sent them reeling backward.
Major Berret received two lance wounds from Schwarzenberg Uhlans. General
Durosnel was wounded and taken prisoner. The second attack made by Espagne's
cuirassiers took place 1-2 hours later. This time they took three Austrian cavalry
regiments in the flank. The Albert Cuirassiers, Ferdinand Cuirassiers and
Knesevich Dragoons were routed. The Hungarian insurection cavalry stood in
second line. They were irregulars and fled before the iron-clads reached them.
Fresh Austrian cavalry advanced against the cuirassiers and the artillery and
infantry opened fire. Espagne was struck in the face with canister and fell dead.
General Fouler was wounded and taken prisoner by the Austrians. Three of his
four colonels died in this battle.
On 8th February 1814 at Pozzolo FML Merville urged his cavalry to remain
ready for a charge from behind the earthen embarkment when squadron of
uhlans (of Archduke Charles Uhlan Regiment) returned and announced being
pursued by the French cavalry. As soon as the French came within sight, GM
Wrede's dragoon brigade and 4 squadrons of Archduke Charles Uhlan Regiment
were sent forward. In the head of the French force advanced 2 squadrons of the
1st Hussar Regiment.
The French instead of counter-charging received the Austrians at the standstill
and were routed. The Austrian Savoy Dragoon Regiment then attacked the
remaining French cavalry frontally, while the Hohenlohe Dragoon Regiment
Source: Nafziger -
attacked their flank. The French and supporting them Italian Queen's Dragoon
Regiment were overthrown. The Austrians also captured horse battery. The
disorder of the cavalry spread to the adjacent troops ... The French-Italian cavalry
brigade was hors de combat for the rest of the battle, was in no condition to
deploy in the front again. (Nafziger and Gioannini - "The Defense of the Napoleonic
Kingdom of Northern Italy 1813-1814" pp 165-166)
In 1797 in the combat of Giesen, General Michel Ney (marshal
in 1804) led a cavalry charge against Austrian uhlans trying to
seize French cannons. The uhlans were beaten back, but Neys
cavalry were counter-attacked by heavy cavalry. During the
mle, Ney was thrown from his horse and made a prisoner of
war; on 8 May he was exchanged for an Austrian general.
The
Austrian Dienst-
Reglement fur die
kaiserlich-konigliche
Cavallerie (1808)
provides no indication
of a wartime
organisation, it can only
be assumed that the
distribution of the
reserve squadron into
the field squadrons was
intended to bring them
up to full strength.
The Regulation
provides no guidance to
the interval allowed for
each trooper, nor does it
address manoeuvering
speeds. According to
George Nafziger the
Austrian 1808
Regulation is a
miserable document
which devotes more
time to church services,
payrolls and musters
than it does to military
manoeuvres. The only
truly 'military' material it contains is found in the plates at the back.
The 1808 Regulation provides no illustrations of regimental manoeuvres, but
limits itself to those of divisions (division = 2 squadrons) and squadrons. This is a
not-so-subtle clue that Austrian focus was not on the regiment, but on the
squadron.
(Nafziger - "Imperial Bayonets" >> )
~
Organization of Austrian Cavalry
The division (2-squadron unit) and not the squadron
was considered as "the main tactical element."
Austrian cavalry regiment consisted of 2, 3 or 4 divisions, each of 2 squadrons.
The division and not the squadron was considered as "the main tactical element."
The squadron was divided into 4 Zuge (Troops.) The Austrian squadron was - at
least on paper - slightly smaller than the French one.
There were theoretically 6 squadrons in each cuirassier and dragoon regiment,
and 8 squadrons in each hussar, chevauxlegere and uhlan regiment. Each
regiment had staff and several musicians. (In 1813 at Hanau the cavalry
regimental bands serenaded the Austrian cuirassiers as they waited for action.)
In March 1809:
. . . . . . . 8 cuirassier regiments [6 squadrons] - each regiment of 975 men and 1031
horses
. . . . . . . 6 dragoon regiments [6 squadrons] - each regiment of 975 men and 1031
horses
. . . . . . . 3 uhlan regiments [8 squadrons] - each regiment of 1.479 men and 1.414
horses
. . . . . . . 6 chevaulegers regiments [8 squadrons] - each regiment of 1.479 men and
1.414 horses
. . . . . . . 11 hussar regiments [8 squadrons] - each regiment of 1.481 men and 1.414
horses
. . . . . . . 1 Szekler hussar regiment [8 squadrons] - 1.478 men and 1.408 horses
In 1812-1813:
. . . . . . . 8 cuirassier regiments [4 squadrons x 144 men]
. . . . . . . 6 dragoon regiments [4 squadrons x 144 men]
. . . . . . . 3 uhlan regiments [6 squadrons x 180 men]
. . . . . . . 6 chevaulegers regiments [6 squadrons x 180 men]
. . . . . . . 11 hussar regiments [6 squadrons x 180 men]
. . . . . . . 1 Szekler hussar regiment [6 squadrons x 180 men]
In 1814 were formed 7th Chevaulegers Regiment and 4th Uhlan Regiment.
Austria also had one dragoon regiment (of 10 independent "wings") for the guard
duties and escort of staffs. They were called Staff Dragoons (Stabs Dragoons) and
were formed before campaign by detaching the most reliable men from every
dragoon regiment. For this reason they can be considered as being elite troop. The
Staff Dragoons helped to keep the baggage in order, but it had a more active
police role than did the Staff Infantry and also augmented the generals' escort on
reconnaissances. The unit was formed in 1758.
CAVALRY REGIMENT

Staff
- -
Squadron - - - - - Squadron
I Division
Commanded by Oberst (Colonel)
- -
II Division
Commanded by Oberst-Leutenant
- -
III Division
Commanded by Major
Organization of Austrian squadron in 1806-1815:
(according to Bernhard Woykowitsch)
= 6 Officers: 2 Rittmeisters, 2 Oberlieutenants, 2 Unterlieutenants
= The Rittmeisters were equivalent to the infantry Hauptmann (captain)
= 2 Wachtmeisters
= 1 Trompeter (until 1806 there were 2 trumpeters, afterwards
there was a divisional trumpeter with the regimental staff)
= 12 Korporale
= 144 Gemeine (privates) in heavy cavalry, and 156 in light cavalry.
= 1 Fourierschtz (officer servant for 1st Rittmeister)
= 5 Privatdiener (officer servants, not even a Gemeiner)
= 3 Non-combatants: Unterchirurg, Sattler (saddler) and Schmied (blacksmith)
Each squadron of cuirassiers and uhlans had 8 men armed with rifles and 8 with
carbines.
Each squadron of dragoons and chevaulegers had 16 men armed with rifles.
Regiments of light cavalry (uhlans, hussars and chevaulegeres) were attached to
light brigades and advance guards. The heavy cavalry and part of the light
cavalry
formed separate divisions. See below:
Wagram: 5 - 6 July 1809
III ARMY CORPS
Johann Graf Kolowrath-
Krakowsky
IV ARMY CORPS
Franz Furst Rosenberg-
Orsini
RESERVE CAVALRY CORPS
GdK Friedrich-Josef, Erbprinz von
Hessen-Homburg
(Light) Division
- - - Light Brigade
- - - - - 2.
(Schwarzenberg) Uhlans
- - - - - Lobkowitz Jager
Freikorps
- - - - - Landwehr [1
battalion]
- - - - - Cavalry Battery
- - - - - Landwehr [2
battalions]
- - - - - Grenz Brigade
Battery
- - - - - 56th Infantry
Regiment
Regiment
- - - - - IX Brigade Battery
(Line) Division
- - - - - 1st Infantry
Regiment
- - - - - 23rd Infantry
Regiment
Regiment
- - - - - XI Brigade Battery
Regiment
Regiment
- - - - - XII Brigade
Battery
- - - - - VIII Position
Battery >
- - - Reserve Artillery
(Light) Division
- - - Light Brigade
- - - - - 3. (Ferdinand
d'Este) Hussars
- - - - - Carneville
Freikorps
- - - - - Landwehr [1
battalion]
- - - - - III Brigade Battery
Regiment
Regiment
- - - - - Landwehr [2
battalions]
- - - - - XXV Brigade
Battery
(Line) Division
Regiment
- - - - - 22nd Infantry
Regiment
- - - - - Landwehr [2
battalions]
- - - - - XIV Brigade
Battery
- - - - - XIII Position
Battery
Cavalry Division - GM Prinz zu
Hessen-Homburg
- - - Cavalry Brigade - GM Roussel
dHurbal
- - - - - 2. (Archduke Francis) Cuirassies
- - - - - 3. (Albert) Cuirassiers
- - - - - Artillery
- - - Cavalry Brigade - GM Lederer
- - - - - 4. (Ferdinand) Cuirassiers
- - - - - 8./ (Hohenzollern) Cuirassiers
- - - - - Artillery
- - - Cavalry Brigade - GM Kroyer von
Helmsfels
- - - - - 1. (Emperor's Own) Cuirassiers
- - - - - 6. (Wallmoden) Cuirassiers
- - - - - Artillery
Cavalry Division - FML Karl -Philipp
Schwartzenburg
- - - Cavalry Brigade - GM Teimern
- - - - - Insurection Hussar Regiment
- - - - - 6. (Rosenberg) Chevaulegeres
- - - - - Artillery
- - - Cavalry Brigade - GM Kerekes
- - - - - 4. (Levenehr) Dragoons
- - - - - Artillery
Cavalry Division - FML Graf von
Nostitz
- - - Cavalry Brigade - GM Rothkirch
- - - - - 1. (Archduke John) Dragoons
- - - - - 6. (Riesch) Dragoons
- - - - - Artillery
- - - Cavalry Brigade - GM
Wartensleben
- - - - - 6. (Blankenstein) Hussars
- - - - - 3. (O'Reilly) Chevaulegeres
- - - - - Artillery
~
Weapons and Horses.
Carbines, pistols, sabers and lances.
Firearms of Austrian cavalry:
- Carbine for hussars M 1798 - 84.5 cm long, 2.45 kg heavy
- Carbine for dragoons M 1798 - 123.5 cm long, 3.25 kg heavy
- Rifle for cavalry M 1798 - 71 cm long, 2.65 kg heavy
The robust Austrian cuirassier
carried 2 pistols and straight
broadsword. The British heavy
cavalry sword (see picture) was
entirely modeled on this
weapon. The Austrian cuirassier was protected with amor, front-plate only. Before
the helmets were introduced the cuirassiers wore protective iron crosses inside
their tricorn hats. Each squadron of cuirassiers had 8 men armed with rifles and 8
with carbines.
The dragoon was armed with carbine and straight (and heavy) pallash.
Each squadron of dragoons had 16 men armed with rifles.
The Austrian uhlan carried 2 pistols, curved saber and a lance.
Each squadron of uhlans had 8 men armed with rifles and 8 with carbines.
In uhlan regiment of four divisions (or eight squadrons), the central two
divisions were armed with lances, while the two flank divisions with carbines.
The chevauleger carried a carbine and saber (until 1802 heavy pallash).
From 1804 all caried the longer carbines.
Each squadron of chevaulegers had 16 men armed with rifles.
The hussar carried 1803-pattern saber (84 cm long blade), with iron scabbard.
The hussar carbine was 1798-pattern weapon, 85 cm long and weighing 2.45 kg
with disproportionately large butt. The short ramrod was carried on the
cartridge box crossbelt and was also used for the pistol.
The 1815-pattern hussar carbine had an even shorter barrel (75.7 cm).
Six sharpshooters per squadron were designated to be issued with rifles.
The rifle was heavy (4.4 kg) and was replaced by the shorter 1789-pattern
modelled on a Prussian design.
Horses were acquired from 3 sources:
- from Imperial breeding ranches
established in Hungary and Bukovina
- from Ukraine and Poland (for light
cavalry)
- from Germany (for heavy cavalry)
The Hungarian horse Lipizzaner was used by the Austrian cavalry. It came from
Yugoslav town Lipice. This horse was bigger than Arabian and was well known in
the Austrian army. The horse enjoyed a great reputation and even Napoleon
obtained one Lipizzaner for himself. (The French troops plundered much of the
brood-stock from Lipizza and Piber.)
The purchased mounts were aged between 4 and 7 years old and 14-15 hands
high. In 1807 a 10-years use of the horse was rewarded with three dukats with one
more dukat for each year thereafter.
The horse was branded with Imperial cipher and a number.
The cleaning and feeding of horse was often emphasized; in rain the tail was tied
up
or bound to half of its length. All horse harness was brown in every cavalry
regiment.
The lambskin on saddle was either white or black, and the big shabraques were
red.
The minimum height of horses in Austrian cavalry:
- cuirassiers and dragoons - at least 15 hands 1 inch tall
- hussars, uhlans and chevaulegers - at least 14 hands 1 inch tall.
Dave Hollins writes "The Hussars preferred Hungarian and Transylvanian horses
or Polish ponies between 4 and 7 years old, standing 14-15 hands ... usually
colored wholly dark bay, brown or black, although each squadron tried to
maintain as little variation in color as possible ... Each officer on the buying party
would carry a horse measure ('Hippometer'), more than 18 Faust' high and a
finger-thickness in width."
Pictures of Lipizzaner horses >> (ext.link)
I bet the colorful Hungarian hussars
looked awesome on their white Lippizaners.
~
Cuirassiers.
At Wagram in 1809 the Kronprinz Erzherzog Cuirassiers dashed
in a howling charge against the front of 8.000 strong column
of French infantry led by Macdonald and protected by artillery.
(The napoleonic battles were amazing.)
Austria had 8 regiments of cuirassiers. In
comparison Poland had 1, Prussia 3-4, Russia 10-
12, and France 12-15 cuirassier regiments. The
white-clad Austrian cuirassiers were solid troops.
At Wagram in 1809 Nansouty's 1st Heavy Cavalry
Division advanced against Austrian infantry,
artillery and grenadiers. The infantry formed
squares against cavalry and opened musket fire.
The French heavy cavalry charged and routed one
battalion of Grenzers. The remaining squares held
fast. Having passed between the squares,
Nansouty turned his division to the right to
charge the artillery deployed in front of the
grenadiers. This charge failed when enemy
cavalry counterattacked. The Austrian Kronprinz
Cuirassiers and Rosenberg Chevaulegeres took
the horse carabiniers in flank and sent them
flying.
The three most notable cuirassiers' battles were:
- Alt Eglofsheim (1809)
- Wagram (1809)
- Leipzig (1813)
On 5 July near Wagram two regiments of Austrian cuirassiers under Roussel faced
Saxon cavalry. Gutschmid arrayed two regiments of Saxon light cavalry in echelon
about 900 paces from the Austrian cuirassiers. The Hussars were on the right and
forward, while Prinz Clemens Chevaulegers to their left rear. The Saxons were to wait
for reinforcements before charging together, but for some reason the Prinz Clemens
Chevaulegers (250 men) decided to charge now. The Austrian 2. (Archduke Francis)
Cuirassiers and 3. (Albert) Cuirassiers choose to receive this charge from the halt
rather than counter-charging. They fired their carbines at close range before drawing
their sabers and charging. The chevaulegers had enough and fled. Then the expected
Saxon reinforcements arrived: Garde du Corps, Leib (Life) Cuirassiers, Carabiniers,
Hussars, and Herzog Albrecht Chevaulegers. The Saxon general arranged his troops in
echelon. On the right flank, and forward, stood the Hussars, in the center were the
heavy cavalry, and on the left flank were the Carabiniers and the tiny troop (60 men) of
Herzog Albrecht Chevaulegers.
Austrians
Francis Cuirassiers - - - Albert Cuirassiers
.
Carabiniers - - Garde du Corps - - Life Cuirassiers - - Hussars
Saxons
Although the cuirassiers were heavily outnumbered they again chose to receive the
enemy from the halt. They fired their carbines at 30 paces but it made no impression on
the Saxon heavies. The Saxons slammed into the Austrian center and overlapped their
both flanks. "A frenzied, slashing melee ensued, but within minutes, the outnumbered
white-coats (Austrians) were fleeing for their lives, leaving behind 85 prisoners and
numerous dead. The Austrian troops retreated behind Aderklaa to rally, Lederer's
Cavalry brigade holding off Saxon pursuit." (- John Gill, p 296)
Article: Alt_Eglofsheim 1809: Austrian cuirassiers vs French cuirassiers.
"The scene which was about to be enacted under the pale light of the rising moon,
. . . . . . was perhaps one of the most dramatic and awe-inspiring in modern war."
- Loraine Petre
In 1813 the regiments of Austrian Cuirassiers distingusihed themselves at Leipzig. They
faced Polish and French cavalry deployed between the village of Wachau and Pleisse
River. Sokolnicki's (Polish) IV Cavalry Corps consisted of four regiments: 1st Horse
Chasseurs armed with lances, and 3rd, 6th and 8th Uhlans. "They (Poles) made up for
its lack of numbers with equestrian skill and aggressive nature." (- George Nafziger)
Sokolnicki directed the 1st Chasseurs against Russian 14th Infantry Division and two
Prussian batteries. The chassseurs came down and broke one infantry square in the
instant and took 600 prisoners. They attempted to reform but were hit from the rear by
entire Russian cuirassier brigade. The chasseurs were forced to abandon their
prisoners. Two regiments of Russian cuirassiers pursued them shortly before being
attacked by 3rd Uhlans. The uhlans spurred forward and the whole front rank swung
their lances' points down into the charge. They strucked the iron-clad cuirassiers "in
both flanks" and threw them back. The cuirassiers were saved from destruction by
Russian Loubny Hussar Regiment.
By now the Austrian Cuirassier Corps led by Nostitz crossed Pleisse River by Gautzsch
and advanced toward Auenhain sheep-farm. Napoleon sent the Old Guard Dragoons
under Letort to support Sokolnicki's Poles. The uhlans and the dragoons executed
spirited charges, with the Poles reaching as far as Crobern ! Allies' infantry and
gunners in and around this village fled in horror, splashing through the river and ran
past Crobern. Meanwhile the 3rd Uhlans and French battery were attacked by two
Austrian cuirassier regiments (Albert & Lothringen). The cuirassiers wore voluminous
greatcoats over armor and the Poles mistook them for armorless dragoons.
Unpleasantly surprised they fled until the Polish 1st Horse Chasseurs and the French
Old Guard Dragoons rescued them. The Poles and French could do nothing when
newly arrived regiments (Erzherzog Franz and Kronprinz Ferdinand) attacked them.
The enemy had nine regiments (eight cuirassiers and one hussars) against five Polish
and French. Sokolnicki's cavalry retired behind Poniatowski's infantry, and the Old
Guard Dragoons behind the village of Wachau where stood French infantry of Marshal
Victor's corps.
The Austrian Sommariva Cuirassiers then went into action against Berkheim's French
lancers and horse chasseurs. There were also several squadrons of Italian chasseurs.
The lancers broke and fled closely followed by the Austrians. A Saxon officer recalled
the event as follow: "When we [Saxon cuirassiers] reached Berckheim, his men were
mixed up with the enemy in individual squadrons, so that there were Austrian units to
the north of the French lancers. We Saxons had only just come up wwhen Berckheim
rallied his men to face the ever-increasing enemy pressure. But they could not stand
even though Berckheim - bareheaded, as his hat had been knocked off - threw himself
into the thick of the melee. He was also swept back in the flood of fugitives ... Despite
this chaos, we stood fast and hacked away at the Austrians. Shortly before they
charged us, the Austrians had shouted to us to come over to them; we ignored them.
However, we were overpowered and broken. The chase now went on at speed, friend
and foe all mixed up together, racing over the plain." Although the timely intervention
of Saxon heavies saved the French and Italian light cavalry from destruction the six
regiments of Austrian cuirassiers became the masters of the field.
The Austrian cuirassiers wore white coats and tight elegant breeches. During campaign
they wore grey (or grey-brown) overalls over or instead of the white breeches. The
black boots were below knee. From about 1805 the comb on the black leather helmet of
cuirassiers was heightened, with a brass strip up the front for other ranks; the front-
plates now bore the cypher 'F.I.' Men's hair had been cut short, with sideburns
extending no lower than the bottom of the ear. Moustaches were obligatory for the
privates but officers had to be clean shaven.
Regiment Coat Breeches Facings Buttons
1. Emperor's Own [Kaiser Franz]
(Bohemians,Czechs)
white white red gray
2. Archduke Francis Joseph de
Este
(Bohemians,Czechs)
white white black gray
3. Albert ze Saschsen-Teschen
(Moravians,Czechs)
white white red yellow
4. Archduke Ferdinand
(Austrians)
white white green gray
5. Sommariva
(Austrians)
white white blue gray
6. Wallmoden
(Moravians,Czechs)
white white black yellow
7. Lothringen
(Moravians,Czechs)
white white dark blue gray
8. Hohenzollern
(Bohemians,Czechs)
white white red yellow
~
Dragoons.
The cinderellas of Austrian cavalry.
Picture: dragoons 1805-1815,
from collection of Paul Armont,
Flat Tin Figures >>
From left to right:
officer, trumpeter, and private.
Until 1792 the dragoon reegiments had 2 squadrons of chevaulegers and 6
squadrons of dragoons each.
In 1799-1801 there were no longer dragoons and chevaulegers but all were light
dragoons.
Then there was another change; the Austrians formed 6 regiments of dragoons
and 6 regiments of chevaulegers.
In 1809 the Austrian Levenehr Dragoons met the Bavarian cavalry between
Arnhofen and Offenstetten. The dragoons met the green-clad Bavarian Kronprinz
Chevaulegeres advancing from the Seeholz. Both sides halted and sent flankers
(horse skirmishers) forward to contest any further enemy advance. Several
Bavarian and Austrian guns opened fire on the cavalry. Then the dragoons rode
forward to the attack, but the first two squadrons were turned back by artillery
fire. "Undeterred, the other two spurred up the gentle slope after covering the
withdrawal of their comrades. Despite canister fire from Regnier's sweating men,
the white-coated horsemen drove into the flank and rear of the Bavarian
chevaulegeres.
The Bavarians, considering the ground too steep for a countercharge, chose to
receive the Austrian charge from a stationary posture, defending themselves with
a volley of carbine fire at short range. The dragoons charged through this fire,
caught thier foemen at the halt, disordered them and sent them fleeing to the rear.
This turn of events mad elife dangerous for Regnier's men. Desperately trying to
limber and displace, they would almost certainly have been overrun had the two
squadrons of the 1st Dragoons not galloped up to conduct a timely counter-
attack. Sent into the fray by the Crown Prince, these squadrons chased off the
Austrian horse and provided time for the 1sy Chevaulegeres to reorganize and
return to the battle." ( Gill - "With Eagles to Glory" p 84)
At Abensberg in 1809 the Levenehr Dragoons attacked infantry battalion of
Bavarian Leib Regiment.
The infantry formed square and delivered volley at 15 paces shattering the charge.
On 22 April 1809 the Wurttemberg cavalry reached Geisling. They learned from
local villagers that Austrian cavalry were stationed in nearby towns and villages.
At midnight the Wurttembergers crept to the lighted houses and saw Austrian
dragoons drinking and smoking their pipes. The Wurttembergers attacked and in
few minutes the fight was over. Heavily outnumbered the dragoons were routed
and entire squadron was taken prisoner. (The men of the 6. Riesch Dragoons
neglected to post vedettes and were taken by surprise.)
Theoretically the dragoons wore white and chevaulegers wore green jackets, but
due to frequent changes, lack of money and shortage of uniforms there was some
confusion in uniformology. The lambskin was white until 1803 then was changed
to black. In 1805 the comb on helmet was heightenet but on campaign the crest
was removed.
1. Archduke John
(Austrians)
white white black white
2. Hohenlohe
(Austrians)
white white dark blue white
3. Vincenz Frhr. Knesevich
(Moravians,Czechs)
white white dark red white
4. Levenehr
(Moravians,Czechs)
white white poppy red white
5. Ferdinand
(Moravians,Czechs)
white white dark green white
6. Riesch
(Moravians,Czechs)
white white light blue white
~
Uhlans.
"I saw a great many French horse carabiniers
with lance wounds ..." - Dezydery Chlapowski
Austria had 3 uhlan regiments. In 1814
was formed 4th Uhlan Regiment. In
comparison France had 9 lancer
regiments, and Russia increased their
number of uhlan regiments from 2-3 to
12. The Austrian uhlan was armed with
pistols, curved saber and a lance. Each
squadron of uhlans had 8 men armed
with rifles and 8 with carbines. In uhlan
regiment of 4 divisions, the central 2
divisions were armed with lances, the 2
flank divisions with carbines.
In 1809 "The [French] cuirassier division
arrived, with the brigade of carabiniers
at its head. ... Soon an uhlan regiment in
six squadrons trotted up to within 200
paces of the carabiniers and launched a
charge at full tilt. It reached their line but
could not break it, as the second
regiment of carabiniers was right behind
the first, and behind it the rest of the cuirassier division.
I saw a great many carabiniers with lance wounds, but a dozen or so uhlans had
also fallen. ... The Emperor, learning the Austrian uhlans were Poles, bede me ask
this man if he did not know that the Emperor wished to take Poland from those
who had dismembered it and give it back to us. He answered bravely: 'I do know
this, and if a Polish officer had approached our regiment we would have all
followed him. But when we are ordered to charge we have to get on and do it, so
nobody can say Poles are bad fighters." (Chlapowski - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" p
60)
After this and another fight with the Austrian uhlans, where the uhlans
unsaddled the carabiniers as fast as they made their appearance, Napoleon
decided to give armor to the horse carabiniers.
.
"Ulanen tragen stets die Lanze
nicht nur beim Reiten - auch beim Tanze."
Uniform.
The jacket of Austrian uhlans was green with red lapels for all regiments. The
pennons on lances were black over yellow. All uhlans wore green trousers with
red stipes and strengthened with black leather on the bottom. On campaign they
wore grey overalls. There is however some confusion over the color of lambskin
on saddle. One version tells that it was white for parade and black for campaign
and other version tells that until 1803 the lambskin was white then replaced by
black one.
Regiment Coat Breeches Czapka Pennon Buttons
1. Merveldt dark dark black
(Poles) green green
yellow
yellow
yellow
2. Schwarzenberg
(Poles)
dark
green
dark
green
dark
green
black
yellow
yellow
3. Archduke Charles
(Poles)
dark
green
dark
green
scarlet
black
yellow
yellow
4. Emperor's Own
[Kaiser Franz]
(Poles)
dark
green
dark
green
white
black
yellow
yellow
~
Chevaulegeres
"... the most useful force of cavalry
is presented by the chavaulegers"
- General Daun
In 1788 Austria had 6 regiments of chevaulegeres, in 1791 were
7. In 1798 the seven chevauleger regiments were renamed to
light dragoons but few months later they became dragoons. In
1801-1802, five light dragoon regiments and a newly formed
dragoon regiment became chevaulegeres. In 1814 seventh
regiment of chevaulegeres was formed of Italians.
The regiments of O'Reilly Chevaulegeres, Vincent
Chevaulegeres, and Klenau Chevaulegeres became known for
their effectiveness in pitched battles. The chevaulegeres formed
large regiments and served well also in escort duty, smirmishes,
and in small warfare.
In 1805 at Austerlitz part of French 3rd Dragoon Division (5th, 8th, and 12th
Dragoon Regiment) formed in column was outflanked and routed by a single
chevaulegere regiment. The second brigade of the 3rd Dragoon Division was
defeated in identical way. But when the 21st Dragoon Regiment (formed in
column) charged the chevaulegeres stampeded.
The O'Reilly Chevaulegeres rallied but were pounded by battery of Guard Horse
Artillery and then attacked by the 21st Dragoons. Unsupported and isolated, they
wavered and then fled. Napoleon however was furious at the commander of the
3rd Dragoon Division. A single enemy's regiment caused so much trouble for the
entire cavalry division.
[In 1809] "The Hohenzollern Chevauxlegers crossed a ravine and found
themselves at close quarters with the French infantry [35th Line] in the village [of
Pordenone]. A Captain Martyn led an impetous charge up the street and captured
300 prisoners. His charge broke the French spirit, and soon the entire regiment
surrendered." (Arnold - "Napoleon Conquers Austria")
Uniforms.
"Despite the order that they should wear green, it seems that some Chevauxleger
regiments may, like the Dragoons, have adopted the white uniform in 1801, for on
the 27th of January 1805 an order was issued allowing the first two Chevauxleger
regiments , plus the 4th as a mark of their heritage as the green-clad La Tour
regiment to wear green officially, the remaining Chevauxlegers continuing to
wear white." John Stallaert - "The Austrian Army"
1. Kaiser [Emperor's Own]
(Austrians)
dark
green
white dark red yellow
2. Hohenzollern
(Bohemians,Czechs)
dark
green
white dark green white
3. O'Reilly
(Poles)
white white poppy red yellow
4. Vincent
(Bohemians,Czechs)
dark
green
white dark blue yellow
5. Klenau
(Bohemians,Czechs)
white white light blue yellow
6. Rosenberg
(Bohemians,Czechs)
white white black yellow
7. Nostitz
(Italians)
dark
green
white crimson white
PS.
The chevauxlegeres disappeared from the cavalry list in 1851 when
six of their regiments were converted to uhlans and one to dragoons.
~
The Hussars !
Recruitment of Hungarian hussars was on volunteer basis
but "selection was to be strict ... "
Picture: subaltern of 1st Hussars (Kaiser Franz
or Emperor's Own Hussars) in 1813-14.
Picture by Brian Fosten from Haythornthwaithe's -
"Austrian Army of the Napoleonic Wars (2): Cavalry"
-
Hussar "Samuel Hemmer... had engaged
a large Cossack patrol by himself in 1812."
- Dave Hollins
The Hungarians formed light cavalry known as hussars. "The name
'Hussar' derives originally from Latin cursarius, meaning raider, and
originally referred to marauders in the northern Balkans. However, it
was adopted by the Magyar people of Hungary as the name for
irregular light cavalry... The oldest regular regiment [9th Nadasdy]
was formed in 1688 and by 1756, with the formation of the Kaiser Hussars and
regularisation of a Jagzyier-Kumanier unit in that year as the Seven Years war
(1756-1763) began, there were 12 regiments... The wild irregulars of the early
1700s were steadily regularised into army units... While maintaining their
reputation for swift movement and unexpected appearances, they became more
effective on the battlefield. Six regiments massed for a decisive charge during the
first defeat inflicted ob Frederick the Great at Kolin ... Four months later in
October, Andreas Hadik raided and ransomed Berlin ... He then sat on Frederick
the Great's throne ..." (Hollins - "Hungarian Hussar 1756-1815" pp 4-5, 57)
Picture: senior NCO of 4th Hussars
(Hessen-Homburg Hussars) in 1805
-
"Simonyi . . . led his hussars into Fontainbleu Palace [in Paris]
and, imitating Hadik, emptied his pipe on Napoleon's
throne."
- Dave Hollins
The Hungarian hussars had reputation of being excellent
horsemen known for quality of their mounts. They had been
familiar figures since XVII Century and had been imitated by
other armies. Although the Hungarian hussars were not big
guys (their height between 165 and 173.5 cm) they were
known for dash in combat. They became so known in Europe
that their outfit became popular across Europe, including France, Russia, Britain,
Poland and Spain.
Recruitment of Hungarian hussars was on volunteer basis but "selection was to be
strict so that the recruits taken were useable and under no circumstances were
they to include dishonorable professions [hangmen and horse butchers],
notorious people, gypsies ... The recruits were not to be less than 18 nor more than
30 years old (grey hair was considered an automatic bar) and preferably over 5
Fus 4 Zoll (1.68 m) tall... Western volunteers, especially better-educated southern
Germans, were welcomed, including the famous Constantin von Ettingshausen,
who had taken a boat trip down the Danube River from his home in near Mainz
and presented himself in Vienna to join the 1st Hussars as a Gemeiner." (Hollins -
"Hungarian Hussar 1756-1815" pp 8, 10)
Any Hungarian hussar found asleep or drunk on such duty was subject to
execution. The hussars raided the countryside and even towns were no problem
for these dare-devils ! "... during Bonaparte's advance across Italy in 1796, 30 men
from the 8th Hussars launched a surprised raid on the French-held city of Brescia
on 30 June and quickly chased the guards from the walls. The gates were opened
and the rest of the squadron swept in, reaching the town drill square, where the
garrison troops were scattered and many taken prisoner. The 1st Hussars adopted
a typically resorceful approach when facing the barricaded gates of Bamberg in
August 1796. Ordered by the senior command to break it, they simply ripped the
hinges from the wall and the gates fell in." (Hollins - "Hungarian Hussar 1756-
1815" p 26)
"Husaren reiten wie der Wind
wenn sie erst aufgesessen sind."
The Hungarian hussars were excellent fighters.
On 14-15th September 1813 at Lipa (Lippa) the Austrian infantry began a gradual
withdrawal to a second position. During the withdrawal, the Italian cavalry
(France's allies) took advantage of this situation and launched an attack. However,
half squadron of the Austrian Radetzky Hussars pushed through the intervals in
the withdrawing Austrian infantry and drove back six squadrons of the Italian
cavalry (chasseurs-a-cheval) under General Perreimond. Incredible, 1 vs 6 (!!!)
squadrons. (Nafziger and Gioannini - "The Defense of the Napoleonic Kingdom of
Northern Italy 1813-1814" pp 52 and 265)
In Sacile in 1809 the French 8th Horse Chasseurs was full of swaggering men who
had bragged about their exploits. They wore in battle their full dress uniform so
as to stand out during the battle. Unfortunately they were routed by Austrian
hussars and fled toward the river. It amused the poorly dressed French
infantrymen. Other cavalry regiments charged to drive off the pursuing
Austrians.
At Austerlitz in 1805 "The Hussars, excellent ones of Hessen-Homburg, had many
men and horses killed by the French skirmishers, but the enemy did not succeed
in making them yield." (Amon von Treuenfest - "Geschichte des k.k. 11 Huszaren-
Regimentes" p 233) General Nostitz then took advantage of the fog and smoke that
had allowed the French infantry to take the village of Tellnitze by surprise, now
wheeled into action with two squadrons of these hussars. "The hussars, having
been reduced to the role of spectators and targets for French marksmanship all
morning, finally had their opportunity. The 1st Battalion of the 108th Line stood
in line ...
Nostitz directed Mohr's men (Hessen-Homburg Hussars) into the exposed flank
of the French infantry and they swept through the French ranks, causing them to
flee for the security of the village. One through the 1st Battalion, Mohr wheeled
his hussars around anbd charged the 2nd Battalion, hitting it in the flank as well.
Heudelet credited the grenadiers of the 2nd Battalion with blunting the Austrian
charge sufficiently to allow most of the French troops of 15th Light and 108th Line
in front of Tellnitz to escape into the village, but nonetheless many were cut off
and captured." (Goetz - "1805 : Austerlitz" pp 131-133)
At Wagram in 1809 regiments of French light cavalry under Sahuc discharged
their carbines and pistols at 10 paces at Austrian hussars (Hessen-Homburg
Hussars) and regiment of chevaulegers. Despite the volley the hussars closed and
fought hand to hand. It didn't take long before two French colonels and numerous
troopers went down with wounds.
During the third day of the battle of Leipzig 1813, the Poles and French strongly
defended Dolitz with artillery and infantry. Nafziger writes: "Although the French
strongly held Dolitz ... Simonyi [with 3 squadrons of Hessen-Homburg Hussars
and 2 horse guns] resolved to march as quickly as possible to the other side of the
village, so as not to lose the least time in striking the French ... This movement
was barely begun when the French first line struck at the Austrian hussars.
Simonyi sounded the charge, and drove back not only the French infantry assault,
but completely broke through the second French line and threw that back Twice
more the hussars charged forward in order to give the Austrian infantry time to
arrive."
In 1809 near Hag a detachment of 50 troopers from the Bavarian 1st
Chevaulegerers skirmished with the Lichtenstein Hussars. The Bavarians were
attacked and driven off with the loss of 18 men.
The hussars however had some weaknesses. Chlapowski wrote, "The enemy
[Hungarian hussars] had charged us 3 or 4 times during this engagement. Some
of them would break into our ranks, many passed right through and circled back
to regain their lines, and after charge they ended in complete disorganization. The
French, on the other hand, although they also lost formation after a charge, kept
together far more and every time were quicker to regain order. ... although the
Hungarians drove home their attacks with determination, they were harder to
reform into some sort of order. The French, on the other hand, knew that their
own horses lacked the Austrians' speed and endurance, and would launch their
attacks from closer range and so retained formation right to the end of the charge,
and regained it more quickly afterwards. ... I, too, was wounded on the leg above
the ankle by a Hungarian that day, but his sword twisted in his hand and the
wound was not deep. But it was quite a blow and I felt it for many years."
(Chlapowski, - p 68)
In May 1809 near Kock, two squadrons of (Polish) 5th Horse Chasseurs chased
out 300 Hungarian hussars after a violent engagement in which the brave Chef de
Escadron Berko (Josel Berko Berkowitz) was killed. "The hussars were aggressively
pursued, so that they did not have time to destroy the bridge over the Wieprz
River." (Roman Soltyk - "Accounts of the operations of the Army under the orders of
Prince Poniatowski during the 1809 campaign in Poland against the Austrians")
At Ergoldsbach in April 1809, a handful of the Wurttemberg foot jagers surprised
and captured an outpost of 42 Hungarian hussars (from Erzherzog Ferdinand
Hussar Regiment).
The
French cavalry have suffered horrible losses in 1812 in Russia. As a result, in 1813
and 1814, the French cavalry regiments were composed of young recruits. They
were often no match for the Hungarians.
Rilliet from the French 1st Cuirassiers witnessed the encounter between the elite
French horse carabiniers and Hungarian hussars at Leipzig: "We were in column
of regiments. The 1er Carabiniers were in front and general Sebastiani was to the
right of the regiment: all at once a mass of enemy cavalry, mainly Hungarian
hussars, rode furiously down on the carabiniers. 'Bravo!' cried the general,
laughing and waving the riding crop which was the only weapon that he
designed to use. 'This will be charming; hussars charging the horse carabiniers.'
But when the Hungarians were 100 paces away, the 1st Carabiniers turned about
and fled leaving behind their brave general ! They hastily rode back on to the 2nd
Carabiniers and both regiments hooved away. It was such a disgrace that when
after battle a group of carabiniers entered a farm seeking quarters, the cuirassiers
from the 5th Regiment teased them: "If you want hospitality, try the Hungarian
hussars !"
After 30 years of distinguished service, individual soldiers
were granted nobility as a Freiherr. Furthermore, in 1789
the Kaiser of Austria introduced the Gold and Silver
bravery medals for army-wide recognition. Below is the
number of the medals awarded to hussar regiments
during the following campaigns; 1805, 1809 and 1812-1815
- 1. Kaiser Franz (Emperor's Own Hussars) - 10 Gold
and 63 Silver (total 73)
- 2. Archduke Joseph - 4 Gold and 36 Silver (total 40)
- 3. Ferdinand D'Este - 17 Gold and 36 Silver (total 53)
- 4. Hessen-Homburg - 9 Gold and 61 Silver (total 70) see
picture -->
"The Hussars, excellent ones of Hessen-Homburg ..." (-
Amon von Treuenfest )
- 5. Ott (Radetzky) - 19 Gold and 63 Silver (total 82 !)
- 6. Blankenstein - 14 Gold and 47 Silver (total 61)
- 7. Liechtenstein - 7 Gold and 42 Silver (total 49)
- 8. Kienmayer - 7 Gold and 29 Silver (total 36)
- 9. Frimont - 7 Gold and 34 Silver (total 41)
- 10. Stpsich - 1 Gold and 10 Silver (total 11)
- 11. Szekler - 1 Gold and 16 Silver (total 17)
- 12. Palatinat - 7 Gold and 41 Silver (total 48)
The colonel of 4th Hussars (or Hessen-Homburg Hussars), Josef
Simony Vitzvr, was called as the bravest hussar of all times.
Adam Albert Graf von Neipperg (1775 - 1829)
was Austrian general and so-called Second
Colonel in Chief of the 3rd Hussar Regiment (or
Ferdinand d'Este Hussars). The pirate looking
Neipperg participated in numerous battles.
In 1811 Empress Marie Louise gave birth to a son. Napoleon
was delighted. Three years later, the French Empire to which
he was heir collapsed, and Napoleon would have liked to
abdicate the throne in favour of his son, but Tzar Alexander of Russia
disagreed. Marie-Louise did not know what to do next. Vincent Cronin writes,
"Catherine of Wurttemberg had stood by Napoleon's brother Jerome, despite parental opposition, and
Augusta of and Bavaria did not desert Prince Eugene. But Marie-Louise lacked the spunk of the these
two, and of Marie Walewska.
She had been sent to take the waters to Aix, and with her had gone her new aide-de-camp, General
Count Neipperg. Before they left, Metternich gave Neipperg, orders slyly to disuade Marie Louise from
all idea of going to Elba. This Neipperg was half-French, half-Austrian. He had lost an eye in battle,
and with a black silk patch over the scar he had the air of a pirate. But also he had charming manners
and a good singing voice. He had already enticed one married woman away from her husband, and in
September he set to work a second time." After Napoleon's death, Marie-Louise married von
Neipperg. The couple had three children."
.
Regiment and
area of
recruitment
Colonel-in-Chief
(Regimentsinhaber)
Colonel-Commander
(Regimentskommandant)
1st Hussars
(Hungary)
Kaiser Franz (Emperor Francis)
and Ignz Graf Almsy
as "Second-Colonel-in-Chief"
1805 - von Graffen
1805 - Graf Neipperg
1809 - Szent-Gyrgy
1812 - von Jnger
1815 - von Legeditsch
2nd Hussars
(Transilvania)
Erzherzog (Archduke) Joseph Anton,
Palatin of Hungary
and Michael Splnyi von Mihldy
(in 1809-23 Daniel von Mecsry)
1804 - Ignaz Splnyi von Mihldy
1809 - Leopold Geramb
1814 - Emmanuel Bretfeld zu
Kronenburg
3rd Hussars
(Hungary)
Erzherzog (Archduke) Ferdinand Karl d
Este
and Adam Albert Graf Neipperg
1804 - Peter Vcsey Hajncske
1809 - Ferdinand, Prinz zu Sachsen-
Coburg
1810 - Stephan Wesselnyi
1813 - Josef Gosztonyi
4th Hussars
(Hungary)
Friedrich Erbprinz zu Hessen-Homburg
1804 - Johann von Mohr
1808 - Severyn Kisielewski
1809 - Gustav Prinz zu Hessen-
Homburg
1813 - Raban von Spiegel
1813 - Josef Simony Vitzvr
5th Hussars
(Hungary)
1801 - Karl Ott von Brtokz
1809 - Josef Graf Radetzky von Radetz
1814 - George Prince Regent of England
(from 1820 George IV, King of
England)
and
1809 - Josef Graf Radetzky von Radetz
1800 - Andreas Szrnyi
1808 - Wilhelm von Fulda
1809 - Ludwig Boros Rkos
1812 - Anton Gundaker Graf
Starhemberg
1813 - Adolph von Prohaska
1815 - Matthias Gavenda
6th Hussars
(Hungary)
Ernst Graf Blankenstein
1814 - Kronprinz Wilhelm
(from 1817 Wilhelm I King of
Wrttemberg)
and
1814 - Ernst Graf Blankenstein
1800 - Joseph von Prohaska
1805 - Ferdinand Graf Wartensleben
1809 - Vincenz von Gillert
1812 - Georg von Wieland
7th Hussars
(Hungary)
Johannes Frst Liechtenstein
1801 - Josef Mesko
1807 - Franz von Vlasits
1813 - Ferdinand Graf Zichy
8th Hussars
(Pressburg)
(today Bratislava
in Slovakia)
Michael von Kienmayer
1802 - Timoteus Kerekes
1808 - August Vcsey
1809 - Franz Graf Bnffy
1809 - Franz Bubna von Warlich
1812 - Philipp von Lilien
9th Hussars
(Hungary)
Johann N. Graf Erdedy de
Monyorkerek
1806 - Johann Graf Frimont von Palota
1801 - Konstantin von Ettinghausen
1808 - Georg von Wrede
1809 - Friedrich von Bretschneider
1815 -Anton Callot
10th Hussars
(Kaschau)
(today Koice
1802 - Josef Stipsicz von Ternova
1814 - Friedrich Wilhelm III., King of
Prussia
and
1814 - Josef Stipsicz von Ternova
1800 - Andreas Schneller
1808 - Franz von Frelich
1809 - Anton Gundaker Graf
Starhemberg
1811 - Maxmilian von Paumgarten
in Slovakia)
as "Second-Colonel-in-Chief" 1812 - Franz Genczy
11th Hussars
(Transilvania)
-
it was Grenzer (Szkler) unit
1801 - Gabriel Geringer von
Oedenburg
1808 - Martin von Rakovski
1812 - Ernst von Fickweiler
12th Hussars
(Hungary)
Erzherzog (Archduke) Joseph Anton
Palatin of Hungary
1800 - Gabriel Hertelendy
1808- Josef Csandy
1809 - Alexander Illsy
1815 - Ignaz Graf Hoditz und
Wolframitz
Uniform.
The 1798 regulation allowed the hussars wore grey overalls with buttons for use
on campaign. They were stiffened with leather on the sabre side. The standard
long boots were cut in the national style with strong, durable decoration on top.
The 1811 pattern reintroduced the yellow/black edging, which was twisted to
form a simple rosette at the top front. The overalls were without red stripes. For
service in the field the plume was replaced by a pompon and pelisse was usually
worn over the dolman. The greatcoat was strapped across the pommel. The
lambskin over the saddle was generally black.
Regiment Dolman Pelisse Breeches Shako Buttons
1. Emperor Francis
[Kaiser Franz]
dark blue dark blue dark blue black yellow
2. Archduke Joseph light blue light blue light blue red yellow
3. Ferdinand d'Este dark blue dark blue dark blue grey yellow
4. Hessen-Homburg
light
green
light
green
poppy red light blue white
5. Ott (then
Radetzky)
dark
green
dark
green
crimson red white
6. Blankenstein light blue light blue light blue black yellow
7. Liechtenstein light blue light blue light blue green white
8. Kienmayer
light
green
light
green
poppy red black yellow
9. Frimont
dark
green
dark
green
crimson black yellow
10. Stipsich light blue light blue light blue green yellow
11. Szekler dark blue dark blue dark blue black white
12. Palatinat grey grey light blue black white
Uniforms of the gallant Hungarian hussars.
-
"... during the Napoleonic Wars, four Hussars wanted to attack
40 enemy light cavalrymen. Their Oberleutenant ordered
them to fall back as they were so outnumbered.
'Eh ?' grumbled unhappy Gemeiner, 'I have never heard that
we have to count the enemy before we attack."
Dave Hollins - "Hungarian Hussar 1756-1815"
PS.
In 1848 the hussar regiments, except the 5th and 7th Hussars,
had sided with the Hungarian revolutionary government against Austria.

The "Light Cavalry" Overture by Austrian composer
Franz von Supp (1819-1895).
Sources and Links.
Nafziger - "Imperial Bayonets" (website)
Regele - "Feldmarshall Radetzky. Leben, Leistung, Erbe" 1957
Rothenberg - "Napoleon's Great Adversaries: The Archduke Charles"
Chlapowski - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" translated by Tim Simmons
Illustrations by Brian Fosten and Andre Jouineau
Haythornthwaithe - "Austrian Army of the Napoleonic Wars (1): Infantry"
Haythornthwaithe - "Austrian Army of the Napoleonic Wars (2): Cavalry"
Photos of Leipzig Diorama courtesy of Udo Sixel, Germany
Photos of Austrian troops. Diorama of Battle of Leipzig 1813. Courtesy of Wolfgang Meyer.
Cavalry Tactics and Combat
Cut and Slash vs Thrust, Charge, Melee, Pursuit, Casualties
The Best Cavalry
Austrian Artillery : sterreichische Artillerie : Uniforms : Organization : Equipmnt
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Austrian_artillery.htm[2012-05-21 12:41:14]
Austrian Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars
Before the battle of Austerlitz "Anxiety was impressed on the faces of
the Austrian generals, the officers and even the soldiers.
The artillery officers alone did not give way to the general depression,
and expressed absolute confidence in the effect of their guns."
- Prince Adam Czartoryski
The Austrian gunners, recruited mostly from the German provinces,
has always stood high; not so much by early and judicious adoption
of improvements, as by the practical efficiency of the men. They
were volunteers, and not recruits as it was the case in majority of
European armies.
Austrian Artillery.
Organization.
Equipment.
Col. Smola's monstrous 192-gun (!)
battery at Aspern Essling in 1809.
Austrian Engineers.
.
.
.
.
Picture: artillery officer, gunner, and
train-driver 1809-1813 , by Ottenfeld.
At Arcis-sur-Aube in 1 8 1 4 Napoleon was knocked off his horse by a
bursting Austrian shell and disappeared in the smoke. Then he got up
- unhurt.
Austrian Artillery.
The famous French Gribeauval System was
based on Austrias Lichtenstein System.
Picture: Austrian gunner in 1805.
Gunner's uniform was brown with red facings
(light blue facings for the Handlangers)
The bicorn-hat replaced the helmet in 1803.
The hat was permitted officially from 1806.
Joseph Wenzel Liechtenstein was the
father of modern Austrian artillery. He
became Artillerie General-Director and
by the outbreak of Seven Yaers War he
was able to furnish the army with a
corps of thoroughly professional
gunners, together with a train of
excellent new pieces of artillery. All
the work of elevating and depressing the massive barrels was now
done by a simple screw device. Liechtenstein also did away with the
slow, wasteful and dangerous bussiness of loading the loose powder
down the muzzles from open-topped ladles.
"Liechtenstein paid out 50,000 florins every year in peacetime to
ensure that the annual camps were as useful as possible. At
Moldautein the shot and shell were aimed against targets, and all the
exercises carried out there were an accurate and realistic
representation of what went on in combat and sieges. Everything
was executed with a seriousness which allowed no place for
pedantry or triviality." (Duffy - "Instrument of War" Vol 1 p 277)
The pre-Napoleonic Austrian artillery was held up as an example to
the world. It enjoyed a high reputation for the quality of gun powder
and ammunition. The famous French Gribeauval system was based
on Austrias Lichtenstein system. The artillerymen, recruited mostly
from the German provinces, has always stood high; not so much by
early and judicious adoption of improvements, as by the practical
efficiency of the men. They were volunteers and not recruits as it was
the case in majority of European armies. The rank and file were able
to read and write in German, the NCOs and officers were
professionals. The enlistments were 14 years for artillery and
engineers as comparing to only 6 years for infantry.
The esprit de corps of the Austrian gunners was high. In 1805 Prince
Czartoryski noted that before the battle of Austerlitz "Anxiety was
impressed on the faces of the Austrian General, the officers and even
the soldiers. The artillery officers alone did not give way to the
general depression, and expressed absolute confidence in the effect
of their guns." (Czartoryski - "Memoirs of Prince Czartoryski ..." II, p
107)
In 1811 Austria began the establishment of rocket troops based upon
the British invention.
Several French commanders,
incl. Marshal Massena, admired
the Austrian artillery and its
professionalism. Just two
examples of how excellent was
the Austrian artillery.
- At Leipzig in 1813 General
Bubna detached 2 horse batteries (12 guns) against 21 Saxon and
French guns near Paunsdorf. After 30 minutes of cannonade, despite
being outnumbered almost 2 to 1 the Austrian gunners lost only 6
guns while dismounted 7 enemy guns.
- At Essling in 1809 Austrian artillery rained death and destruction
on
Lannes assault columns. Taking heavy casualties - the French
infantry were forced to retire.
Austrian army was the only major force that lacked well-developed
horse artillery. Kevin Kiley writes, "The Austrians' cavalry batteries
were organized in the 1780s, their new light 6pdr gun and the 7-
pounder howitzer being the usual armament of these mobile units.
The cannoneers were not individually mounted, but first rode
modified caissons, commonly called Wurst-Wagen, sitting astride
them one behind the other, while others rode the gun carriage
astride a specially made seat on the trail. Later, after the
implementation of the 1808 update to the artillery regulations, the
wursts were done away with and packhorses to haul ammunition
were issued each cavalry battery, ostensibly to increase their
mobility.
The
gunners were still not individually mounted as on other armies, and
the ride on the padded, elongated gun carriages had to be a minor
adventure at any speed faster than a walk.
They could not keep up with cavalry, but were much more mobile
than the Austrian foot artillery. ... They were generally slow, and had
to be protected in combat, and although the personnel and
equipment were excellent, their employmentin combat was not as
efficient as that of either the French or British horse artillery arm."
The comparison of the French and Austrian artillery is quite
interesting. The Austrian artillery had powder and ammunition of
higher quality than the French and the Russian artillery. Their tactics
and organization however were far behind the French.
The gunners of Austrian horse artillery sat on caission while the
French were mounted on horses. It made the Austrian batteries
slower in movement across fields and roads, but they were quicker
in deploying and unlimbering the guns. The Austrians also needed
less horses, were cheaper, required less space and therefore were a
smaller target for enemy's guns.
The French gunners however were more dashing and imaginative
and their guns had longer range and bigger calibres than Austrians'.
For example in 1798 the captured 6pdr Austrian guns were equal to
French 5pdrs (the Austrian pound was smaller than the French).
"The new [Austrian] artillery organization, 742 field
guns in 108 batteries, aimed to provide
concentrated fire but in practice this was not
always realized. ... Moreover, there developed a
real gap between the 'scientific' artillery specialists
and field generals which tended to interfere with
efficiency. Finally, the individual battery
commanders, described by Charles as 'often old
and frail, and having been slowly advanced up the
ladder', still tended to regard the individual piece
as a discreet fire element, while generals often
lacked the feeling for the proper use of artillery. As a result the
archduke's instructions that artillery should always act as part of a
combined arms team as often were neglected." (Rothenberg -
"Napoleon's Great Adversary")
Austrians' accuracy of artillery fire however was pretty good.
According to Paddy Griffith the Austrians were superior to their
British, Prussian and Belgian counterparts. See a diagram in the
chapter "Equipment" below.
At Aspern-Essling in 1809 the Austrian
artillery inflicted heavy casualties on
Napoleon's army. French Marshal
Lannes died after being mortally
wounded by an Austrian cannonball. It
was a great loss to the French army as
he ranked as one of the ablest marshals.
Lannes was also a personal friend of the
Emperor.
(Details of his death: As Lannes sat at
the edge of a ditch, a small 3pdr
cannonball ricochetted, and struck him
just where his legs crossed. Lannes said, I am wounded; it's nothing
much; give me your hand to help me up. He tried to rise, but could not.
He was carried to rear where the surgeons proceeded to dress his
wound. One of the marshal's legs was amputated. He bore the
operation with great courage. Napoleon then came up and, kneeling
beside the stretcher, wept as he embraced the marshal. Lannes' other
leg was later also amputated. Several days later he succumbed to his
wounds.)
The fire of
Austrian
artillery at
Wagram in
July 1809 was
such that the
French and
Saxon
battalions
began to
waver. To
steady his
men Napoleon rode "from one extremity of the line to the other, and
returned at a slow pace." (James Arnold - "Napoleon Conquers Austria")
The artillery also suffered heavily from the Austrian artillery. De
Aboville, the commander of the elite Guard Horse Artillery, was
wounded by a cannonball. The round tore off his arm. Canister
struck the foot of Drouot of the Guard Artillery.
Officer Chlapowski of Napoleon's Guard Light Horse was almost
beheaded by Austrian cannonball at Wagram. He wrote; "The
Emperor called me to him ... When he had finished speaking and I
raised my hat in salute, as was our custom on receiving orders from
the Emperor, a cannon ball hit my headwear and hurled it through
the air. The Emperor roared with laughter and said to me: It's a good
job you're not taller !"
~
Organization of Austrian Artillery.
In 1809 the Austrian artillery was organized
into 4 artillery regiments,
each comprised of staff and 2.811 men in 16
companies.
1. Artillerie-Regiment (in Bohemia)
Inhaber: FML Baron Franz Schuhay
Kommandanten:
. . . . . 1805-1808 Karl von Strauss
. . . . . 1808-1815 Baron Karl Fasching
2. Artillerie-Regiment (in Lower
Austria)
Inhaber: 1804-1807 GM Johann Frhr. von Schwarzinger
and in 1807-1835 FZM Erzherzog Maximilian Josef v. Este
Kommandanten:
. . . . . 1805-1808 Anton Wachter von Wachtenburg
. . . . . 1808-1811 Wenzel von Frierenberger
. . . . . 1811-1820 Emerich von Stein
3. Artillerie-Regiment (in Moravia)
Inhaber : 1804-1817 FML Karl Baron von Rouvroy
Kommandanten:
. . . . . 1801-1807 Anton Kramer von Kronenbach
. . . . . 1807-1808 Anton Chevallier von Gillet
. . . . . 1808-1810 Hermann Graf Knigl
. . . . . 1810-1815 Johann Baron Fasching
4. Artillerie-Regiment (in Inner Austria)
Inhaber : 1802-1818 - FZM Leopold Frhr. von Unterberger
Kommandanten
. . . . . 1774-1808 Procop Sonntag von Sonnenstein
. . . . . 1808-1813 Josef, Baron Russo von Aspernbrand
. . . . . 1813-1824 Jakob Majanicz
Das Bombardier-Korps
Kommandanten
. . . . . 1798-1807 Johann Wahrlich von Bubna
. . . . . 1807-1808 Wenzel Frierenberger
. . . . . 1808-1811 Josef von Smola
. . . . . 1811-1822 Anton Manger
Das Artillerie-Handlanger Bataillon
. . . . . Oberstlieutenant Maresch von Marsfeld
(Source: Doleczek "Geschichte der sterreichischen Artillerie",
Wien 1887)
The battalion of so-called Artillerie-Handlangers had 1.179 men in 8
companies (in wartime increased to 8 battalions). These men replaced
the ad-hoc drawn 'German' infantrymen for moving the guns in
combat. The handlagers were untrained personnel. In 1808 there were
8 companies of Handlagers, in 1814 their number increased to 30 and
in 1814 to 33 companies.
George Nafziger explains the role of the Handlagers: "The laborers
attached to each battery came from handlager companies, which
served the same function as the French artillery train companies.
Generally speaking, these companies operated in pairs or 'divisions'.
The peacetime establishment of a handlager battalion consisted of a
staff and 8 companies. However, in wartime the number of
companies expanded to the number necessary for the job at hand.
These companies consisted of 181 officers and men. Each company
was slightly more than was necessary to man three batteries."
(Nafziger - "Napoleon's Invasion of Russia" p 66, 1998)
Each artillery company had:
= 4 officers
= 14 NCOs
= 2 drummers
= 159 privates
Gun Crew according to System 1792
(Nafziger - "Imperial Bayonets" p 244)
Guns NCOs Gunners Handlagers Horses
foot 12pdr
cannon
1 NCO 5 10 6
foot 6pdr cannon
1/2 NCO
*
5 8 4
horse 6pdr
cannon
1/2 NCO
*
6 - 6
foot 7pdr
howitzer
1/2 NCO
*
6 7 3
horse 7pdr
howitzer
1/2 NCO
*
5 - 4
reserve 10pdr
howitzer
1 NCO ? 4 4
* one NCO for every 2 guns
The field pieces were organized into tactical units called batteries:
- Brigade Batteries (lighter guns) - attached to infantry brigades
- Position Batteries (heavier guns) - they formed artillery reserves
- Cavalry Batteries (lighter guns) - attached to cavalry
See below:
Wagram: 5 - 6 July 1809
III ARMY CORPS
Johann Graf Kolowrath-
Krakowsky
IV ARMY CORPS
Franz Furst Rosenberg-
Orsini
GRENADIER CORPS
Johannes Furst zu
Liechtenstein
(Light) Division
- - - Light Brigade
- - - - - 2nd Uhlan
Regiment
- - - - - Lobkowitz Jager
Freikorps
- - - - - Landwehr [1
battalion]
- - - - - Cavalry Battery
- - - - - Landwehr [2
battalions]
- - - - - Grenz Brigade
Battery
Regiment
Regiment
- - - - - IX Brigade Battery
(Line) Division
- - - - - 1st Infantry
(Light) Division
- - - Light Brigade
- - - - - 3rd Hussar
Regiment
- - - - - Carneville
Freikorps
- - - - - Landwehr [1
battalion]
- - - - - III Brigade
Battery
Regiment
Regiment
- - - - - Landwehr [2
battalions]
- - - - - XXV Brigade
Battery
(Line) Division
Grenadier Division
- - - Grenadier Brigade
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - LII Brigade
Battery
Grenadier Division
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
Regiment
Regiment
Regiment
- - - - - XI Brigade Battery
Regiment
Regiment
- - - - - XII Brigade Battery
- - - - - VIII Position
Battery
- - - - - X Position Battery
- - - - - XI Position Battery
- - - - - LIV Position
Battery
- - - - - LV Position battery
Regiment
- - - - - 22nd Infantry
Regiment
- - - - - Landwehr [2
battalions]
- - - - - XIV Brigade
Battery
- - - - - XIII Position
Battery
- - - - - XV Position
Battery
- - - - - XVI Position
Battery
- - - - - XVII Position
Battery
- - - - - XVIII Position
battery
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - LIV Brigade
Battery
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - Grenadier
Battalion
- - - - - III Brigade
Battery
- - - - - XVII Brigade
Battery
~
Equipment of Austrian Artillery.
Picture: Austrian
artillery in combat,
by Keith Rocco. >>
There was a total
of 742 field guns
- 12 % were the
12pdrs cannons
- 60 % were the
6pdrs cannons
- 12 % were the light 3pdr cannons
- 17 % were howitzers
The woodwork of Austrian gun was painted in ochre and metal
parts in black. The carriages and ammunition wagons were painted
in yellow. The oil paint increased the resistance of the wood against
"the damp and bad weather of all kinds." All items were branded
with the same number as the piece "so that everybody knows whom
they belong to, and can be held responsible for looking after them."
Gun Cannonballs Canister Grapes Shells
6pdr
Cannon
94 26
12pdr
Cannon
123 40 12
Howitzer 12 72
Battery of 8 6pdr cannons required 8 two-wheel ammunition
wagons, 32 gunners and 48 Handlangers. Battery of 4 12pdr cannons
and 2 howitzers required 3 four-wheel ammunition wagon, 20
gunners and 46 Handlangers. In 1813 a battery consisted of 6 6pdr
cannons, 2 howitzers and 8 ammunition wagons
The
Austrian horse gunners were conveyed upon caissons or wagons.
These caissons differed from the common ones only in having the
cover stuffed, which 'affords the facility of placing the gunners upon
it in the attitude of a man on horseback.' The disadvantages of this
system: accidents are more frequent and movements more difficult
than if the gunners rode on horseback. The advantages of the system:
the gunners seated on caissons/wagons don't have to be concerned
with extra horses. This was also cheaper as horses were always
expensive.
Austrian artillery ammunition was of poorer quality than
ammunition used by the French, British, and German artillery
(Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Hessen-Darmstadt). The Prussian
ammunition was about the same quality as the Austrian.
suggests that in a firefight the Austrian would have been out shot.
(Dawson- "Wellingtons Big Bang: the British 12-pounders" )
Accuracy of field guns in various tests against
approximate company sized screens.
(Paddy Griffith - "French Artillery" p 14)
Country
Source of
information
Range % hits
Austria Lauerma 1000 m 40-70 %
Prussia Lauerma 800 m 35
Great
Britain
Hughs (pp Muller) 950 26-31
Belgium Fallot 900 m 20
~
Colonel Smola's 192-gun battery at Aspern-Essling in 1809.
He "was an aggressive and imaginative officer ...
understood the principle of massed artillery fire
and infantry/artillery cooperation. Unfortunately
he was the exception and not the rule in the
Austrian service." - Kevin Kiley
Josef Smola was born in 1764. He entered the Austrian
1st Regiment of Artillery in 1780 as a gunner. Having
fought in the Turkish War he went in 1791 to
Netherlands as battery comnmander. He was awarded
with Knight's Cross of the Order of Maria-Theresa for
the battle of Neerwinden in 1793.
Dave Hollins writes, "In 1793, as part of the advance
guard, Smola's battery plus 2 3pdrs blocked Miranda's French
division for several hours. Forced eventually to pull back, Smola
added 10 12pdrs, 2 3pdrs, and 2 howitzers to his command, which
put the French to flight; his cavalry guns then joined a counter-
attack. His decisive actions earned him the MTO. (Maria-Theresa
Order)
He showed himself a skilled advance-guard artillery throughout the
Belgian campaign directing a further decisive battery attack at
Lowen, until badly wounded at Fleurus (26 June 1794). He led the
artillery in the famous Austrian cavalry victory at Cateau-Cambresis
(1794) under Schwarzenberg, and was no less skilled in the defensive
role, as he demonstrated in a 71-defence of Ehrenbreitstein fortress
in 1796.
In 1799 at First Zurich, Smola directed a group of several batteries
which halted a French attempt to cross the Limmat. With his guns,
he destroyed the Rhine bridges at Mannheim. He was badly
wounded at Mosskirch (5 May 1800) and, now a Major, rejoined the
Bombardier School as a professor mathesos.
At Second Caldiero in 1805, Smola directed the artillery on the left
wing, and in 1809 he was the Artillery Director with III Corps,
distinguishing himself around Regensburg, for which he was
promoted Oberst. As interim headquarters Artillery Director until
FML Rouvroy arrived, he directed the guns which broke the French
assaults at Aspern, and then established the 192-gun battery which
pounded enemy positions in the final phase. Smola led the artillery at
Wagram after Rouvroy was wounded. In 1813 he was promoted to
General Major and appointed artillery director in Italy; he later
fought in France in 1815. He was promoted FML and ennobled as
Freihher von Smola."(Hollins - "Austrian Commanders of the Napoleonic
Wars 1792-1815 ")
Kevin Kiley writes, "His exploit with his reinforced cavalry battery at
Neerwinden in 1793 demonstrated that he both knew his business
and that he was an aggressive and imaginative officer who desrved
to be promoted. It also showed that he could think for himself in a
pinch and understood the principle of massed artillery fire and
infantry/artillery cooperation. Unfortunately he was the exception
and not the rule in the Austrian service." (Kiley - "Artillery of the
Napoleonic Wars 1792-1815" p 207)
Smola's monstrous battery at Aspern-Essling in
1809:
"What happened on the battlefield now marked
the largest single concentration of artillery to date
in the period. Charles withdrew his shot-up and
demoralized infantry from the French center, and
Oberst Josef Smola, the Artillery Chief for
Hohenzollern's Austrian II Corps, organized the
artillery batteries assigned to him into one large,
200-odd-gun battery whose mission it would be to
destroy the French center and open the way to the
Bridgehead to Lobau Island. (...)
Coignet described the effect of massed artillery fire
against troops formed in line at Essling:
(...) I felt an urgent call to relieve nature, but it was
strictly against orders to move a step towards the rear.
(...) Imagine the agony we endured in such a position,
for I can never describe it. (...) The cannonballs fell
among our ranks, and cut down our men three at a
time; the shells knocked the bearskin caps 20 feet in the
air. (...) The losses became very heavy. We had to place
the Guard all in one rank so as to keep up the line in
front of the enemy. (...)
Elzear Blaze added his comments on the sheer
terror of being hit by artillery fire:
There are men, however, who, gifted with an
extraordinary strength of spirit, can cold-bloodily face
the greater dangers. Murat, bravest of the brave, always
charged at the head of his cavalry, and never returned
without blood on his saber. That can easily be
understood, but what I have seen General Dorsenne do -
and [have] never have seen it done by anyone else - was
to stand motionless, his back to the enemy, facing his
bullet-riddled regiment, and say, "Close up your ranks,"
without once looking behind him. On other occasions I
have tried to emulate him, I tried to turn my back to the
enemy, but I could never remain in that position -
curioisity always made me look to see where all those
bullets were coming from.
Smola expertly handled artillery silenced the
outnumbered French artillery. Then, the
artillerymen, 'lifted and shifted' their fire onto the
now helpless, and largely defenseless, French
infantry, that had to stand and take it - or the army
would have been driven into the Danube. General
Pouzet, a longtime friend of Marshal Lannes, was
killed, and St. Hilaire was mortally wounded,
having a foot blown off by artillery fire. Lannes
saw his friend being taken to the rear in a blanket,
and he was later hit by a roundshot which
shattered both knees, mortally wounding him.
Both he and St. Hilaire would die in great agony
after the battle was over and they had been
evacuated. Lannes could not save them. (...) What
the Austrians needed to know, under the heavy
artillery bombardement, was to launch an all-out
coordinated attack on the French. (...) But no
Austrian assault took place." (Kiley - "Artillery of the
Napoleonic Wars 1792-1815" pp 207-209)
PS.
Not only Smola concentrated the Austrian guns in
grand batteries. At Novi, in August 1799, General
Kray deployed 40 Austrian guns and pounded the
French infantry on the ridge.
~
Austrian Engineers.
In Wagram in 1809 Austrian engineers had launched
a succession of floating mills and boats laden with rock
into the current of Danube River to destroy the French bridge.
They also set fire to some of the boats and had strengthened
the positions near Enzersdorf with fieldworks.
"The fundamental business of military
engineers in the 18th century was to build and
attack fortresses. Nobody was better at this
work than the French, who under the inspired
direction of Sebastien Le Prestre de Vauban
(1633-1707) ... had fortified the frontiers of
France with multiple lines of strongholds,
developed techniques of scientific precision to
capture the fortresses of the enemy, and
established a corps of engineers on a
professional footing, complete with an
exhaustive training ...
The Austrian engineers, by way of contrast,
were scarcely more than hired architects and
draughtsmen, like tgheir predecessors of two
centuries before. The first signs of awakening
may be traced to 1732, when two 'brigades' of
engineers were set up ... In 1758 (French) King
Louis sent one of his colonels of artillery and engineering, Jean-
Baptiste Gribeauval de Vaquette (1715-89) to lend further help to
Maria Theresa, and on 10 March 1759 the Hofkriegsrath admitted him
to the Austrian service ... Gribeauval put on an impressive
demonstration of the newest siege techniques at the camp of
Neustadt in Moravia, and it was some sop to the Austrians' pride
that a man of such obvious ability could now be counted as one of
their own officers."(Duffy - "Instrument of War" Vol I, p 291, 293)
According to John Stallaert the Engineer-Corps was composed
exclusively of officers; they controlled two battalions of rank-and-
file. The Sappers were responsible for field fortification. The Miners
were trained in siege techniques. In wartime they were
supplemented by Pioneers, less skilled engineers generally
disbanded at the close of hostilities.
In 1805-1809:
- 9 pionier
divisions, each
398 men. There
was need of
specialized
labour to work
ahead of the
marching
troops, clearing
obstacles,
repairing and
widening the
roads, throwing
wooden trestle
bridges across
streams, etc. and
it was the
responsibility of
pioniers.
- 1 sapper
battalion, 760
men. The
practical detail
as to how to
reconnoitre
terrain, stake out
camps, cast up
fieldworks etc.
were the
responsibility of
sappers.
- 1 pontonier
battalion, 770
men. Rivers and
larger streams
could be crossed
only by means
of pontoon
bridges and this
was the
responsibility of
pontoniers.
- 1 miner
battalion, 637
men. These men
were to be of
rubust health
and recruited
from mining
and other
appropriate
trades. Their
officers were to
have a range of
mathematical
sciences at their
command, and
especially those
relevant to
mining and to
fortifications.
Sources and Links.
Dolleczek - "Geschichte der sterreichischen Artillerie" 1887
Austrian Commanders of the Napoleonic Wars 1792-1815"
John Stallaert's website "The Evolution of Napoleonic Uniforms" >>
Geschichte der k.k.Artillerie
Redoubts
Prussian Army : Preuische Armee : History : Organization : Generals
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Prussian_army.htm[2012-05-21 12:41:27]
Prussian Army of the Napoleonic Wars
"Traditionally, Prussia was Soldaten und Beamtenstaat,
a state of soldiers and bureaucracy, a state formed by and for war ..."
- Alfred Turney
"To the meaningless French idealisms: Liberty, Equality and Fraternity,
we oppose the three German realities: Infantry, Cavalry, and Artillery"
- Prince Bernhard von Blow
"By the time of his death, Frederick's army was the envy of Europe,
and his concepts ... much copied. [By 1806 ] however, it remained
rooted in the past: a fossil preserved in Baltic amber."
- Charles Summerville
The defeat in 1806 - 1807 by Napoleon shocked the Prussian establishment.
Napoleon treated Prussia worse than he had treated any conquered country
before. King Frederick the Great's sword was sent to Paris as trophy .
Introduction. "Prussia had originally been
and insignificant speck on the south-eastern
rim of the Baltic ..."
Glory Years of the Prussian Army.
"Our infantry is like Caesar's."
- - - - - Few complained that it was better
- - - - - "to be a circumcised Turk than a
- - - - - Prussian."
- - - - - War of agression. "The man is mad."
- - - - - "The good fellows are leaving; let them go."
- - - - - The Prussians drove the French into a
- - - - - military funk from which they would not
- - - - - emerge for 40 years.
- - - - - The war involved all European powers,
- - - - - causing 1,000,000 deaths.
Decline of the Prussian Army.
Showdown with Napoleon in 1806.
- - - - - The Prussian soldiers had no doubt that
- - - - - they could put the Corsican in his place.
- - - - - "At Jena, the Prussian army performed
- - - - - the finest and most spectacular maneuvers,
- - - - - but I soon put a stop to this tomfoolery ..."
- - - - - - Napoleon
- - - - - Prussia's army was ruined, she had no money,
- - - - - and she had lost half of her former possessions.
1807-1812: secret reforms.
Prussia on her knees again.
The King remained terrified of the
Emperors ability to destroy Prussia.
.
.
.
.
The new Prussian army in 1813.
- - - - - British aid.
- - - - - "The happy union of the warrior and civilian
- - - - - society by means of the Landwehr."
- - - - - The volunteers were evidence of the
- - - - - intense patriotism that existed at that
- - - - - time in Prussia.
- - - - - The strength of the army.
- - - - - The War of Liberation (Befreiungskriege).
1814 : Allies invasion of France.
"The Emperor is now cooked well-done ..."
- Blucher
1815 : Waterloo Campaign.
The actions of Prussian army on Napoleons
flank at Waterloo were the "most decisive."
Prussian Army after Napoleonic Wars.
"...the Germans excel all other nations
in that general fitness for military duty
which makes them good soldiers
under all circumstances."
Prussian generals.
- - - - - Duke of Brunswick
- - - - - Blucher, "General Forward !"
- - - - - Bulow, the man who defeated Marshal Ney.
- - - - - Yorck.
- - - - - Schranhorst, the reformer of the army.
- - - - - Gneisenau, the brain of the army.
- - - - - Blucher/Gneisenau's contribution to
- - - - - the defeat of the Horse Thief of Berlin.
- - - - - King versus generals.
Prussian General Staff (Generalstab).
The Brandenburg Gate in Berlin.
Atop the gate is the Quadriga , with Viktoria , the goddess of victory
driving the Quadriga. After the 1806 Prussian defeat at Jena-Auerstedt,
Napoleon took the Quadriga to Paris. For this they nicknamed him the
Horse Thief of Berlin.
After Napoleon's defeat in 1814 and the Prussian occupation of Paris,
the Quadriga was restored to Berlin.
Introduction: "Prussia had originally been an
insignificant speck on the south-eastern rim of the Baltic ..."
During the 18th century, however, Prussia ascended
to the position of 3rd European great power.
Prussia began as a small territory in what was later called West and East Prussia, which is now Warmia-
Masuria of northern Poland, the Kaliningrad enclave of Russia, and the Klaipeda Region of Lithuania. The
region was largely populated by Old Prussians, a Baltic people related to the Lithuanians and Latvians.
In 1226 Polish Duke, Konrad I, invited the Teutonic Knights (see picture), a
German military order of crusading knights headquartered in Acre, to conquer
the Baltic tribes and the Old Prussians on his northern borders. These wild
people raided Polish territory from time to time. Being poorly organized and
armed however the 'barbarians' were more of a nuisance than a serious threat. It
was not difficult to defeat them, the problem was to catch them and forced to
fight in open field. The Polish dukes thought the Teutonic Knights can do the
job while the Poles themselves can focus on other enemies.
During 60 years of struggles against the Old Prussians, however, the Teutonic
Knights created an independent state which came to control Prussia. The
Knights were eventually defeated by Polish troops at Grunwald (1410) and were forced to acknowledge the
sovereignty of the Polish king Casimir IV Jagiellon in the Peace of Thorn in 1466, losing western Prussia to
Poland in the process.
In 1525 Grand Master Albert I Hohenzollern became a Lutheran Protestant and secularized the Order's
remaining Prussian territories into the Duchy of Prussia. For the first time, these lands, the area east of the
mouth of the Vistula river were in the hands of a branch of the Hohenzollern family. Furthermore, with the
dissolution of the Order, Albert could now marry and produce offspring. The unification of Brandenberg
and Prussia came two generations later.
When Frederick William, later called the Great Elector (see picture), assumed the throne of
Brandenburg in 1640, he was confronted with conditions that might well have made him despair.
The religious wars that had ravaged the German lands had reduced his authority over his land to
the lowest point. It was necessary to reform the state and the armed forces. "In Curt Jany's
opinion, Prussia's standing army was born during the war of 1655-1660. There were reductions in
its size after 1660, but they were never as extensive as previous reductions had been; and the
Elector and his successors were never again forced to build a military establishment virtually from the
ground up when an emergency faced the state. between 1660 and 1672 the Elector was able to keep between
7,000 and 12,000 men with the colors." (Craig - "The Politics of the Prussian Army 1640-1945" page 5)
Picture: Frederick William went to Warsaw in 1641
to render homage to King Wladyslaw IV Vasa of
Poland for the Duchy of Prussia, which was still
held in fief from the Polish crown.
Taking advantage of the difficult position of Poland
vis--vis Sweden in the Northern Wars, and his
friendly relations with Russia during a series of
Russo-Polish wars, Frederick William later
managed to obtain a discharge from his obligations
as a vassal to the Polish king; he was finally given
independent control of Prussia in 1657. It was one
of the turning points in the history of Prussia.
In 1701, Frederick William's son, Elector Frederick
III, upgraded Prussia from a duchy to a kingdom, and crowned himself King Frederick I. To avoid offending
Leopold I, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire where most of his lands lay, Frederick was only allowed to
title himself "King in Prussia", not "King of Prussia". However, Brandenburg was treated in practice as part
of the Prussian kingdom rather than a separate state. The Great Elector's son is considered to have been a
weak ruler, and his love for ceremonial invited the ridicule of his subjects and dismayed the administrators
of his revenues. But it was him who reorganized the army and increaed its strength until it stood at a level
close to 50,000 men. And when his son, Frederick William I, came to the throne in 1713, the strength of the
army was made the first objective of his policy.
Frederick William I believed that the international position of a ruler was determined entirely by the number
of troops he could maintain. Once he said "I can but laugh at the scoundrels (ministers and politicians), they
say will obtain land and people for the King with the pen: but I say it can be done only with the sword.,
otherwise he will get nothing."
However the severity which characterized
the prussian discipline encouraged
desertion on quite large scale. The total
number of desertions between 1715 and
1740 (25 years) was 30,000 men !
The king found that he could not hope to
replace these losses by relying upon
volunteers, like Switzerland and Britain.
During his early years, therefore, he
resorted to the impressment of his own
subjects and to recruiting in neighbor
states. The results of this, however, were
not really satisfactory. The decrees of
1732-33 established the basic features of what came to be called "the Prussian canton system." Every
regiment was assigned a specific recruiting district; all young males in the district were enrolled upon the
regimental recruiting list; and when the quotas could not be filled by voluntary enlistement, the difference
was made up from the eligibles on the rolls.
"At the beginning of his reign he made it illegal for members of the nobility to enter foreign service. At the
same time he ordered lists prepared of all young noblemen between the ages of 12 and 18 years abd, on the
basis of these, personally chose those who were to be admitted to the cadet corps in Berlin, which was the
gateway to the officer corps.
For a time this practice met with spirited opposition, especially in East Prussia, where some of the hapless
candidates attempted to prove that they were not members of the prussian nobility and hence ineligible for
service, while others sought evasions and was not above sending police agents or detachments of troops to
round up his prospective officers and to march them to Berlin in gangs." (Craig - "The Politics of the prussian
Army 1640-1945" page 11)
In 1714 Frederick William I himself wrote the first Infantry Regulations ever to be issued to
the army, a set of instructions which henceforth governed every phase of the soldier's life
in the garrison and the field of battle. However, for all the importance which the king
attributed to the possesion of strong army, Fredrick William was reluctant to use it and
avoided adventures which might jeopardize the safety of his troops.
In 1740s Prussia owned 85.000 troops which gave her the 4th largest army in Europe, even
though her lands stood at 10th in order of size and only 13th in population ! It means that
it was possible for an agricultural state of few millions of inhabitants, on a small territory,
without a fleet or direct maritime commerce, and with comparatively little manufacturing
industry, to maintain, in some respects, the position of a great European power. Truly
amazing.
The incredible growth of the army was followed by the steady growth of Prussia's territory. "The
aggrandizement of Prussia continued under Frederick's grandson, Frederick II, the 'Great' who enlarged his
domain with territories plundered from the ancient Kingdom of Poland. This trend continued unabated
until 1795, when Poland literally disappeared off the map: gobbled up by her three powerful neighbours,
Prussia, Russia, and Austria.
For her part Prussia took Posen (Poznan today), and Danzig (Gdansk today), adding them to Pomerania to
form 'West Prussia'; plus the province of Mazovia, including the capital of Warsaw, which was added to
Silesia (acquired in the 1740s) to form 'South Prussia.' Meanwhile, the original Baltic duchy of Prussia was
renamed 'East Prussia'. ... " (Summerville - "Napoleon's Polish Gamble" p 4)
Despite its overwhelmingly German character,
Prussia's annexations of Polish territory in the
Partitions of Poland brought a large Polish
population that resisted the German
government and in several areas constituted
the majority of the population (i.e. Province of
Posen: 62% Polish, 38% German).
Silesia was a Polish stronghold. It first
belonged to Poland and then to Bohemia. In
the 17th century it fell under Austrian political
influence, only to be conquered by Prussia in
the 1740s. The greater part of these lands have
been germanized by sales and grants of public
domains to Prussian colonists and by
measures against the Polish inhabitants.
Thus during the Seven Years War and the
Napoleonic Wars many Poles served in
Prussian regiments, especially in those with
recruiting areas in Posen and Silesia (see map). Many were forced to do it, while some were volunteers
seeking career in the Prussian army. Some even reached the rank of staff officer or colonel. They were
Prussians but with Polish or Germanized Polish names. For example, during the Campaign in 1815 such
individuals served in the Prussian IV Army Corps of General Bulow (Staff officer: Ltn. von Trzebiatowski,
Adjutants: Mjr. Drygalski and Capt. Smilowski). Bulow's IV Army Corps fought very hard at Waterloo and
suffered heavy casualties especially during the street fighting at Plancenoit. No other Prussian corps was so
heavily involved in fighting at Waterloo as this one. During Leipzig Campaign in 1813, the chief of staff of
Yorck's I Army Corps was Oberst (Colonel) von Zielinski. Furthermore, in 1806-10 the commander of the
most prestigous cavalry regiment in the Prussian army, the Garde du Corps (Horse Guards), was von
Zawadzki or Zawadzky.
They were either Poles serving in the Prussian army or Prussians whose parents had polish roots. General
Yorck's father was David Jonathan Jark von Gostkowski. Von Gostkowski was born in Rowe in Pomerania
(today Rowek, Poland). Yorck changed his name from Jark to Yorck to make it look more English and
dropped the Polish "Gostkowski".
Hohenfriedberger Marsch
~
Glory Years of the Prussian Army. "Our infantry is like Caesar's."
It was through Frederick the Great leadership that Prussia became such a powerhouse.
The Prussians could march in perfect order in a holy silence. In the French army there
was a near riot when even the small troop had to turn out. The Prussians wore simpler
uniforms than the French with their many lackeys, courtesans, chests full of perfumes,
hair nets, sun shades and parrots. The Prussians were not smiling, they meant business.
The Prussian army was
magnificent.
King Frederick had devised
Europe's first-ever battle-scale
maneuvers in 1743, which gave
his generals invaluable peacetime
experience in directing large scale
bodies of troops." (Duffy -
Foreign generals and observers
admired the Prussian military
machine of 18th Century. The
Prussian army enjoyed
reputation as one of the best
trained, the most disciplined and one of the best led. The Prussians wore simpler dress than the French army
with its many lackeys, cooks, courtesans, actors and chaplains, friseurs and valets, chests full of perfumes,
hair nets, sun shades and parrots.
The Prussians could march off to the battlefield in perfect order in a holy silence. The state of affairs which
prevailed in the French army was somehow different, there was a near riot when even the small troop had
to turn out. So this is not surprising that France had suffered a certain loss of prestige through her shocking
defeats in the war against Frederick's army.
Frederick the Great imposed so spartan discipline that 400 officers "are said to have asked to resign". Despite
this setback Frederick's troops fought with great success against the Russians, French, Germans, Swedes and
Austrians.
The army was geared to an aggressive battlefield approach.
It was evident with the cavalry, with the king issuing a standing order promising to cashier any officer who
failed to get his charge in first and meet the enemy at a gallop. "His father had favored tall men on tall
horses 'giants on elephants' (Kolosse auf Elefanten), Frederick called them, mockingly. He downsized the arm,
with smaller men riding smaller mounts. Lighter and more nimble than the cumbersome troopers he had
inherited, increased speed allowed them to pack a pumch. Increasingly, the cavalry would become the arm
that 'rode the king's ideas into reality.'" (Citino - "The German Way of War" p 49)
The Prussian infantry was magnificent.
They marched in calm and silent lines under a withering fire until the enemy began to mass in terrified
flocks around their colors. When the drums were playing "Ich bin ja Herr in deiner Macht !" it made an
impression on everyone. One eyewitness wrote "I have never been able to hear that melody without the
deepest emotion." The infantry had saved the day at Mollwitz. Frederick wrote "Our infantry is like
Caesar's." For the most part, they had fought in a new 3-rank formation, rather than the prewar four, to
maximize their firepower. One of the Austrian commanders said that the Prussian infantry outsoot his own
troops, 5 rounds to 2 !
The father of Prussian infantry was the Old Dessauer or der alte Dessauer (Leopold I, Prince
of Anhalt-Dessau). The Old Dessauer was one of the sternest disciplinarians in an age of
stern discipline ! Before his last battle his words were:
"O Lord God,
let me not be disgraced in my old days.
Or if Thou wilt not help me,
do not help these scoundrels (Saxons),
but leave us to try it ourselves."
The best part of Frederick the Great's army however was the cavalry. One Prussian dragoon regiment routed
20 battalions and captured 66 colors ! In 1745 at Soor 26 Prussian squadrons routed 45 enemy squadrons
deployed on a hilltop. (Only in the first campaigns the cavalry performed poorly. For example at Mollwitz
the cavalry's performance was abysmal, "damned worthless" in king's words.) The engineers and artillery
however were the weak link of Frederick's army.
Dessauer Marsch
.
Few complained that it was better
"to be a circumcised Turk than a
Prussian."
Thus the Prussian army was well trained, well-organized, large, and aggressive. There was however a dark
side to the matter. The creation of the powerful army was made possible only by subordinating the energies
of the people to the maintenance of that military establishment. The taxes were very high and the economic
activities were determined in large part by the enormous needs of the army. To collect the money royal
agents were appoonited, and they soon became the standard-bearers of royal authority. Some people were
very unhappy with this situation, but only few complained. An occassional intelectual might flee the realm,
crying that Prussia was a gigantic garrison in which arts and literature were impossible and it was better "to
be a circumcised Turk than a Prussian."
The officers of the Prussian army were drawn from among the land-owning nobility (yunkers). These
enlisted men had become conditioned to obey implicitly all the commands of the officers, creating a class-
based culture of deference. Since the officer class also furnished most of the officials for the civil
administration, the interests of the army came to be considered the same as the interests of the country as a
whole. The inferior classes accepted apathetically the conditions imposed upon them, while the officials and
the educated classes remained confident that the existing political system was the most efficient in Europe.
Criticism of serfdom and discussion of freeing Prussian subjects from hereditary disabilities have been
restricted to academic circles.
Furthermore, the militarism of Prussia inspired fear and hatred among other European states and peoples.
The Prussian army brooked little interference in its affairs by the civil government.
.
War of aggression. "The man is mad."
The King paid no heed to the legal objections
of his ministers or the doubts of his advisers.
King Frederick the Great, used the army to enter upon a period of
conquest. The King thought Prussia having so terrific army must grasp
the first opportunity that presented itself, and the king found it in the
accession of Maria Theresa to the throne of Austria. As he prepared
what can only be called a war of aggression against this ruler,
Frederick the Great paid no heed to the legal objections of his
ministers or the doubts of his military advisers. When he threw his
army across the border of Silesia in 1740, he risked nothing less than
the utter destruction of his state. But by capturing Silesia, he raised
Prussia to a position of equality with Austria.
The Silesian Wars were a series of wars between Prussia and Austria for control of Silesia. (Battles: Mollwitz,
Hohenfriedeberg, Soor, Kesseldorf) They formed parts of the larger Seven Years' War. They eventually
ended with Silesia being incorporated into Prussia, and Austrian recognition of this.
The Seven Years' war was a very bloody conflict.
The conflict found Frederick the Great facing a great power coalition of France, Austria, Russia, Sweden, and
the imperial troops. "His enemies, therefore, sat on the arc of a rough circle around him, while he occupied
the midpoint. The impossibility of coordinating their efforts to any degree made it possible for Frederick to
deal a hammer blow to whichever army first came within his reach, then to turn and do the same to the next
available enemy. As is always the case, it sounds easier than it was in reality. It certainly kept him busy,
marching and counter-marching across central Europe and, as exhausting as they were, the marches were
not ends to themselves. At the end of each one he had to bring his opponent to battle quickly, attack him,
and beat him. Then he had to march off and do the entire process all over again. It would be amazing to add
up the number of miles covered by Fredrick's main body in the course of these campaigns. It was a true
backpack tour of Central Europe." (Citino - "The German Way of War" p 67)
Prussian victory at Mollwitz made a great sensation in Europe. It had never been
supposed that the untried Prussian troops could resist the veterans of Austria. King
of France, Louis XV, when he heard of Frederick's invasion of Silesia, said: "The man
is mad." Frederick's camp was sought by envoys from almost every court of Europe,
and amongst them, on the part of France, came Marshal Belleisle.
Frederick however was not a mad man. "Napoleon sought European rule and even
universal empire - he was truly a man without limits. Frederick fought a series of
wars for Silesia. A ruler as gifted as Frederick surely recognized that there were
limits beyond which Prussia could not go." - Robert M. Citino
.
"The good fellows are leaving;
let them go."
The Battle of Leuthen in 1757 was a decisive victory for Frederick that ensured his control over Silesia. This is
important battle from military point of view as Frederick used Oblique Order. This is a tactic where an
attacking army refocuses its forces to attack enemy flank. The commander would intentionally weaken one
portion of the line to concentrate their troops elsewhere. They would then create an angled or oblique
formation, refuse the weakened flank and attack the strongest flank of the enemy with a concentration of
force.
First recorded use of the tactic similar to oblique order was at the Battle of Leuctra (ext.link), when the
Thebans defeated the Spartans (ext.link). The oblique tactics was also used by Alexander the Great at
Gaugamela. (ext.link) This tactics required disciplined and well trained troops able to execute complex
maneuvers.
At Leuthen in 1757 "The Austrian commanders interpreted the Prussian vanishing act as a retreat by an
outnumbered Prussian army that had decided not to try conclusions with a much larger force. On the list of
famous last words, there can be few more pungent than Charles' comment as the Prussian columns moved
away to the south; 'The good fellows are leaving; let them go.' Perhaps the king had found the Austrian
position too strong, Charles reasoned. Perhaps Frederick felt that there was not enough daylight left for an
attack. Most likely he was marching south in an attempt to threaten Austrian communications with
Bohemia, and thus lever the Austrians out of their position without a fight. According to the Prussian official
history, it was "a notion entirely in the spirit of the age,.' Perhaps deluded by such comfortable thoughts,
Charles and Daun were no doubt as surprised as anyone when a massive Prussian infantry attack suddenly
erupted from the south, smashing into their unprepared left wing." (Citino - "The German Way of War" pp 86-
87)
.
The Prussians drove the French into a
military funk from which they would not
emerge for 40 years.
The French commander, Marshal Prince de Soubise (54,000 men), was not over-anxious to measure his
strength with Frederick the Great, but his generals were eager for battle and confident of success. Their only
doubt was whether they could win any glory by destroying so small Prussian force (22,000 men); their only
fear lest he should retreat and escape them.
In early afternoon the order was given and in 30 minutes tents were struck and the Prussian army was in
marching order. The movement of Frederick's forces was masked by low hills, so the French could see that
the Prussians were doing something, without being able to tell what it was. Fancying them to be in flight,
and fearing lest the prey should escape, they rushed forward in disorderly haste. Soon the French were
mounting the lower slopes of the Janusberg, when suddenly Prussian cavalry appeared and swept down on
them. The charge was utterly unexpected. In 30 minutes the French were flying in wild disorder.
About 3,500 Prussian horsemen had defeated an entire army of two combined superpowers. Frederick was
heard to say "I won the battle of Rossbach with most of my infantry having their muskets shouldered." This
battle is considered one of his greatest masterpieces due to destroying a combined French and German army
twice its size with negligible casualties: 550 Prussians and 5,000 French and Germans. This fantastic victory
cemented Frederick the Great's reputation and drove the French army into a military funk from which they
would not emerge for 40 years, and demonstrated that numbers, in and of themselves, are not decisive in
war !
.
The War involved all European powers,
causing 1,000,000 deaths.
The importance of the Seven Years' War was an epoch in the history of Europe lies chiefly in its bearing on
the question of German unity. The war resulted in placing the young Prussian kingdom on a footing of
equality with the world powers (France, Russia, Britain, Austria) and so raising up within Germany a rival
and counterpoise to Austria. It thus laid the foundations of the unification of Germany, which could never
have been effected as long as the Austrian supremacy remained unbroken. For though Austria, before the
time of Frederick the Great, was undisputably the greatest of German powers, she was after all more foreign
than German. Her external interests in Hungary, Italy, and elsewhere were too extensive for her to care
much for the union of Germany.
The Seven Years' War involved all of the major European powers, causing 800,000 to 1,200,000 deaths. It
enveloped both European and colonial theatres. Despite being the main theatre of war, the European conflict
resulted in a bloody stalemate which did little to change the territorial status quo, while its consequences in
Asia and the Americas were longer lasting. Concessions made in the 1763 Treaty of Paris ended France's
position as a major colonial power in the Americas. Britain strengthened its territories in India and North
America.
The linear tactics of XVIII century were not configured for a swift maneuver and decisive victory, but for
mutual mauling. Two firing lines at close range were mutual killing machines. The best they could hope for
was to drive the enemy from the field. Frederick the Great's solution was the oblique attack: massing troops
on one wing and using it to strike a blow against the weaker wing or even flank the enemy, while holding
back one's own weaker wing. Frederick wrote, "By attacking in the flank, an army of 30,000 might defeat an
army of 100,000 men."
Europe in 1756. Prussia's allies were: Britain, Brunswick, Hannover, and Hesse-Kassel.
Old Fritz's victories made the Prussian army leading the military institution in Europe
and the rest of the world attempted to emulate its training, command, and its uniforms.
-
Frederick was the man of whom Napoleon said
upon his triumphant entry into Prussia:
"If he were alive, we would not be here."
Prussian army at Leuthen: Old Fritz vs Austrians
(from an old German movie, german language)
Napoleon would say that Leuthen "was a classic work of
movement, of maneuver, and of resolution."
-
"Lads ! Shoot and get at them ! [Austrians]
Haven't you got bayonets ?
Go out and skewer the swine !"
- Duke of Bevern to Prussian grenadiers, 1756
~
Decline of the Prussian Army.
"The Prussian Army, however, remained rooted in
the past: a fossil preserved in Baltic amber."
The failure to reform and the lack of preparedness after the death of Frederick the Great in 1786, and the
real efficiency in the field was sacrificed to precision on the parade-ground led to the decline of the army.
NCOs wished to enforce many things with physical punishment. Men came to fear their officers and NCOs
more than enemy. Unreliable mercenaries, foreigners, prisoners of war, and unwilling peasants were only
held together by brutal discipline. The career in the army was a course in endurance and self-preservation.
Officer pay was minimal and many who supported families were forced to perform menial labor to subsist.
(Jany Preussische Armee III, 447)
"After Frederick the Great's death in 1786, Prussia embarked on a considerable change in foreign policy.
Frederick's nephew and successor, Frederick William II, soon became entangled in altercations with
Holland, Poland, Russia, Austria, and the other German states. Such aggression excited the Prussian military
establishment and catered to the army's lust for glory.
The beginning of the French Revolution in 1789, however, trivialized Prussia's police actions. The upheavals
in France soon embroilled all of Europe. Frederick William denounced the French and sided with the
Austrians in an effort to crush the Revolution. In 1792 a Prussian army rendezvoused with the Austrians on
the Rhine River to launch the War of the First Coalition.
The allience itself proved uncomfortable for many Prussians, especially those who still regarded Austria as
the enemy. France's role in the Seven Years' War had faded from memory, and some Prussians sympathized
with the French. Despite some disagreements over the war, the Prussians believed that their army would be
victorious. Many were happy to display Prussian military prowess not to the French but to the Austrians.
Although the Prussians invaded France, defeat at the battle of Valmy on 20 Sept 1792 brought the first
campaign to a shocking end." (Leggiere - "Napoleon and Berlin" p 3)
For some experts the decline of the Prussian army began after Frederick the Great's death. For others, it took
place much earlier. Gordon Craig writes, "The decline of the army which had won such signal triumphs in
the Seven Years War can be traced back to Frederick the Great himself; and even Treitschke, one of his
greatest admirers, is forced to admit that Frederick left the army 'in a worse condition than that in which he
had found it on ascending the throne.' There can be little doubt, for instance, that he watered down the
canton system to a dangerous degree. Although he was willing to admit on occassion that native soldiers
fought Prussia's battles better than foreign mercenaries, Frederick always felt that his subjects served the
state better as taxpayers and producers of goods than soldiers.
Whereas in the army of Frederick William I natives had outnumbered foreigners by 2 to 1, Frederick set out
deliberately to reverse the ratio. Conscripted cantonists should never, he believed, be in excess of 3 % of the
total male population and, even if this meant that some regiments would consist entirely of foreigners, this
was preferable to jeopardizing the economic strength of the country. During the last stages of the Seven
Years War Frederick resorted to forcible enrolment of prisoners of war and subjects of occupied states rather
than increase the size of native contingents; and, in his testament of 1768, he stated flatly that 'useful
hardworking people should be guarded as the apple of one's eye, and in wartime recruits should be levied
in one's own country only when the bitterest necessity compels. (...)
Much more serious than this, however, was the very low state of educational standards throughouts the
officer corps. This, of course, was not a new development. The educational tone of the Prussian army had
been set by Frederick William I and the Old Dessauer, under who regime, as one observer had written: 'A
general was not regarded as uneducated, even though he could barely write his own name. Whoever could
do more was styled as pedant, inksplasher and scribbler.' In the subsequent period little improvement was to
be noted. The reform of the cadet schools by Major von Ruchel in the 1790s and the establishment of four
military academies between 1763 and 1806 recognized and sought to correct this situation. But the graduates
of the latter institutions were few in number, and constituted an inadequate leaven in an officer corps,
which in the ranks below major at least, was characterized by abysmal and arrogant ignorance."
Three types of officers served in the army prior to the disastrous 1806 Campaign:
- old veterans of Frederick the Greats army
(they were obsessed with outdated tactics and championed harsh discipline)
- middle aged officers who were commissioned after the Seven Years War
(they were interested in profiting from their positions)
- younger officers who served in recent campaigns of the 1790s
(they believed that the Prussian army was invincible and they often behaved
irresponsible)
(There is also a different view on this matter. Not everything about the Prussian officers was so bad.
The commanders who from 1813 onwards won glory for the name of Prussia, had almost all been
officers in the army in 1806. Friedrich von Marwitz concluded that among the officers who served
in 1813 were:
- 60 commanders of corps, divisions, and brigades
- more than 100 regimental commanders,
- and all but 10 of 300 battalion commanders
all of whom had served in 1806.
If the same men could produce one result in 1806 and the opposite in 1813, the cause must be sought
not in the officers themselves, but in the decisions taken higher up - in the regulations and in the
circumstances. See also Demeter's chart on page 8, which lists the age groups of the Prussian commanders
from generals to captains in 1806. (Demeter - "The German Officer-Corps" and Leggiere - "Napoleon and Berlin")
In contrast to the stagnating Prussian army, France was experimenting with new tactical forms and were
laying the basis for the reorganization of the old army (by the way, humiliated during the Seven Years War
by Frederick the Great's army). Artillery operations were beign revolutionized by the reforms of Gribeauval,
the accuracy of guns was improved and their weight was reduced. The destruction of the old regime and the
granting of fundamental rights to all citizens had an immediate effect upon the constitution of the French
army. They made possible the creation of a truly national army, and one which, because its rank and file was
composed of citizens devoted to the national cause, was freed from the rigid limitations of XVIII century
warfare. It was no longer necessary for the French generals to concentrate their troops in close array upon
the battlefield, forbidding independent maneouvre lest it lead to mass desertion. The French skirmishers
advanced in extended order, fighting, firing, and taking cover as individuals, and the whoile field army
gained immeasurably in tactical elasticity in consequence.
The year of 1795 marked the beginning of Prussia's 10-year period of neutrality. Not only political
considerations but also the international respect for the Prussian army allowed the king to remain neutral for
so long. During this time they quietly watched Bonaparte's star rise as France rocked the status quo in
Europe and continued expansion in Germany, Italy and Switzerland. France's expansion undermined
Austria's influnce over south Germany, while Prussia strove to establish her position in the north. Prussia's
neutrality however puzzled Russia and Great Britain.
Frederick William III of Prussia succeeded the throne in 1796. He married Louise of
Mecklenburg, a princess noted for her beauty. Napoleon was not impressed with the king of
Prussia: "When I went to see the king of Prussia Friedrich Wilhelm III, instead of a library I
found he had a large room, like an arsenal, furnished with shelves and pegs, in which were
placed 50 or 60 jackets of various cuts ...
He attached more importance to the cut of a dragoon or a hussar uniform than would have
been necessary for the salvation of a kingdom. At Jena, his [Prussian] army performed the
finest and most spectacular maneuvers, but I soon put a stop to this tomfoolery and taught
them that to fight and to execute dazzling maneuvers and wear splendid uniforms were very
different matters. If the French army had been commanded by a tailor, the king of Prussia would certainly
have gained the day."
Population of Prussia
and other countries
during the Napoleonic Wars:
Denmark - 1 million
Naples - 5 millions
USA - 6,5 millions
Spain - 11 millions
Russia - 40 (with annexed territories)

~
Showdown with Napoleon in 1806.
The 1806 war was a showdown between Frederician
'limited war' and Napoleon's 'unlimited war'.
Between strategy of attrition and the strategy of
... annihilation.
Tempelhoff and Georg von Behrenhorst warned of the
dangers of blind adherence to Frederician principles, and
Dietrich von Bulow, recognized, although somewhat
imperfectly, the importance both of the french levee en
masse and of the flexibility of Napoleon's operations. Karl
non dem Knesebeck drew up a plan for the reform of the
army, stressing the fact that far had now become a matter
of national concern. The Military Society and Scharnhorst,
actively worked for the introduction of divisions of all
arms in the Prussian army. They also held discussions
concerning military innovations in France. The fact
remain, however, that none of the suggested proposals and plans was put into effect in time to do any good.
In 1805 Russian efforts failed to force Prussia into anti-French coalition. The Tzar demanded that a part of his
army (approx. 100,000 men) be permitted to cross Prussian territory. The King refused and the Russians
threatened to force the passage. Mobilization orders were issued and the Prussian army assembled in
eastern provinces as war with Russia appeared imminent. Napoleon offered the King Hanover in exchange
for an alliance. Napoleon's efforts to get Prussia to close its ports to British goods in 1806 had revealed a
problem. When Prussia agreed, the British navy retaliated by seizing 700 Prussian merchant ships in port or
at sea and blocking their access to the North Sea. Facing economic collapse, the Prussian king then turned his
anger on Napoleon, rescinding their agreements and ordering the French out.
In the beginning of 1806 Napoleon was very interested in the Prussian army. Officer Chlapowski of
Napoleon's Guard Lancers writes: "... the Emperor asked me about very many things. He fired questions at
me as if I was sitting an exam. He already knew from our conversations ... that I had served in the Prussian
amry, so he asked about my studies there, about my military instructors, about the organization of the
artillery and of the whole Prussian army, and finally he asked how many Poles were likely to be in the corps
which was still in East Prussia beyond the Vistula under General Lestoq. I could not answer this question
but pointed out that most of his corps must be Lithuanians, as it had been mainly recruited in Lithuania. At
that time, since the last partition [of Poland] the whole district of Augustow belonged to Prussia.
I also explained that in Lithuania only the gentry were Polish, and the people Lithuanians. He did not know
anything about Lithuania ... The Emperor listened patiently and carefully to all these details. ... [he] asked me
about the [Prussian] military academies. How far did they go in the study of mathematics ? He was
surprised at the elementary level at which they stopped. Didn't they teach applied geometry ? I myself had
not learned this, but only later studied it in Paris." (Chlapowski/Simmons - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" p 12-13)
.
The Prussian soldiers had no doubt that
they could put the Corsican in his place.
Berlin continued to hover between Paris and Moscow until the French army violated Ansbach. Prussia was
furious. Finally a meeting between the King and the Tzar resulted in the Treaty of Potsdam. Prince Louis
Ferdinand (nephew of Frederick the Great) and his agitated followers (including the Queen) emerged as the
war party that demanded immediate hostilities with France. The King however wavered.
Finally, in 1806, Prussia declared war on France. Napoleons reorganization of Germany into Confederation
of the Rhine and his secret negotiations with England caused tremendous public outcry in Prussia. The King
decided in favor of war with France and mobilization orders were issued. Prussia opted to confront France
before gaining any concrete assurances from the Tzar. The King, however, was confident that the Russians
would come to his aid.
And above all, the Prussian rank and file had no doubt that they could put the Corsican in his place.
Picture: Prussian Horse Guards
sharpen swords on the steps of
the French embassy in 1806 at
Berlin. Picture by Myrbach.
The Prussians thought that the
Usurper and his army of
amateurs needed a lesson or two
from the professionals, from the
real soldiers. The Lord however
had something else in store for
them.
In 1806 the army consisted of
200,000 men:
135,000 infantry
40,000 cavalry
10,000 artillery
15,000 garrisons, reserves,
engineers, staffs, and others
.
Prussian infantry
- - - - - - 2 Guard infantry regiments (x 2 bttns.)
- - - - - - 58 infantry regiments (2 battalions each)
- - - - - - 1 jager regiment (3 battalions)
- - - - - - 27 grenadier battalions
- - - - - - 24 fusilier battalions
Prussian cavalry
- - - - - - 13 cuirassier regiments (5 squadrons each)
- - - - - - 14 dragoon regiments (10 x 5 squadrons and 2 x 10 squadrons)
- - - - - - 9 hussar regiments (10 squadrons each)
- - - - - -1 'Towarzysze' regiment (10 + 5 squadrons)
Prussian artillery
- - - - - - 4 foot artillery regiments (36 12pdr batteries of 8 guns)
- - - - - - 1 horse artillery regiment (20 6pdr batteries of 8 guns)
- - - - - - reserve (2 10pdr mortar batteries, 1 light mortar battery, 4 7pdr howitzer batteries
- - - - - 8 6pdr batteries)
.
The Jena-Auerstadt Campaign in 1806.
"At Jena, the Prussian army performed the finest
and most spectacular maneuvers, but I soon put
a stop to this tomfoolery ..." - Napoleon
Napoleon's plan of this
campaign was
beautiful. To base
himself on the Rhine
River and Upper
Danube and simply
advance north -
eastwards on Berlin
would, perhaps, be the
easiest for Napoleon,
but it would offer no
strategical advantages;
for if he met and
defeated the Prussians
on this west-east line,
he would simply drive
them backwards on
their supports, and then
on Russians, whose
advance from Poland
was expected.
To turn the Thuringian
Forest Mountains by an
advance from his right,
was a less safe
movement; but, it
offered great
advantages. First of all Napoleon would threaten the Prussian supply lines, line of retreat, and line of
communications with Berlin. Secondly, Napoleon would separate the Prussians and the advancing strong
Russian Army. The danger with this maneuver was this that the Prussians by a rapid advance through the
Thuringian Forest Mountains against his communication line, might sever him from France !
In the last days of September the Prussian army was spread over a front of 190 miles. The Saxons had not
yet completed their mobilisation. Within few days the Prussians shortened their front to 85 miles in a direct
line. At the same time Napoleon had huge army already assembled on a front of 38 miles. At last Napoleon's
real plan had dawned on the Prussian headquarters. Advance guards were sent in the direction of the
Thuringian Forest. The Prussians also detached small corps from Ruchel's force against Napoleon's supply
lines. By doing this they weakened their own main army.
Heavy fighting began when elements of Napoleon's main force encountered Prussian troops near Jena. The
Battle of Jena cost Napoleon approx. 5,000 men, but the Prussians had a staggering 25,000 casualties. At
Auerstadt Marshal Davout's also crushed the enemy. Napoleon initially did not believe that Davout's single
corps had defeated the Prussian main body unaided, and responded to the first report by saying "Tell your
Marshal he is seeing double". As matters became clearer, however, the Emperor was unstinting in his praise.
"The whole campaign was epitomised by the
surrender of Hohenlohe's army at Prenzla, where
Murat was able to bluff a vastly superior force into
laying down its arms. Twenty-nine thousand men
under L'Estocq managed to link up with the
Russian army in East Prussia, but by the end of
November 1806, the majority of the Prussian Army
had surrendered and Frederick the Great's sword
and sash were on their way to Les Invalides as
trophies. The basic material of the old army, the
private soldier, was sound, but internal weaknesses
had meant that the Prussian army was out-thought
as well as outfought." (Robert Mantle - "Prussian Reserve Infantry: 1813-15")
Peter Hofschroer gives three main reasons for why Prussia was crushed in 1806.
- Not joining Austria and Russia in 1805 in the Third Coalition.
This combination would most likely have led to Napoleon's defeat.
- Going to war against France in 1806 without the direct support of another great power.
The Prussian army should have adopted a defensive strategy until the arrival of the Russians.
- Dividing the army into three in the face of the enemy.
Nobody was really in charge and King Frederick William III lacked the authority to impose his will.
.
Prussia's army was ruined, she had no money,
and she had lost half of her former possessions.
"... just after the victories of Jena and
Auerstadt, in which Napoleon destroyed the
Prussian army and shook the Prussian state to
its core, was to be something of a turning
point. The Prussians were shocked and
insulted by the French victories, but they also
saw them as proof of the superiority of France
and her political culture.
When Napoleon rode into Berlin he was
greeted by crowds which, according to one
French officer, were as enthusiastic as those
that had welcomed him in Paris on his
triumphant return from Austerlitz the
previous year. 'An undefinable feeling, a
mixture of pain, admiration and curiosity
agitated the crowds which pressed forward as
he passed,' in the words of one eyewitness ...
Napoleon treated Prussia and her King worse
than he had treated any conquered country before. At Tilsit he publicly humiliated Frederick by refusing to
negotiate with him, and by treatening Queen Louise, who had come in person to plead her country's cause,
with insulting gallantry. He did not bother to negotiate, merely summoning the Prussian Minister Goltz to
let him know his intentions. He told the Minister that he had thought of giving the throne of Prussia to his
own brother Jerome, but out of regard for Tzar Alexander, who had begged him to spare Frederick, he had
graciously decided to leave him in possession of it. But he diminished his realm by taking away most of the
territory seized by Prussia from Poland ... " (Zamoyski - "Moscow 1812" p 43)
Napoleon dealt with Prussia very harshly, despite the pregnant Queen's personal interview with the French
emperor. Prussia lost all its Polish territories, as well as all territory west of the Elbe River, and had to pay
for French troops to occupy key strong points within the Kingdom. Napoleon secured the total annihilation
of the Prussian army and state in precisely one month, from October 6 to November 6. Her army was ruined,
she had no money, and she had lost half of her former possessions.
During the Jena Campaign in 1806 the French troops captured hundreds of cannons,
took tens of thousands of prisoners, most of the fortresses, and some 340 colours !
~
1807-1812: secret reforms.
The Prussians had "invented the Krumper System by which
each regiment called up a certain number of recruits, gave
them basic military training, and then discharged them
again in order to call up and train another batch, so that
the 42,000 ceiling imposed by Napoleon was never
exceeded." (- Digby-Smith)
"Disaster at Jena and Auerstadt in 1806 shook the foundations of Prussian military theory and practice,
furnishing an impetus for analysis and reform. Never before had any first-class army been so swiftly and
decisively reduced to impotence. The lack of a clear political objective couples with a high command that
resembled a junta of septuagenarians, led to a profusion of conflicting plans. Some of the crucial defects in
military leadership might have been surmounted had the Prussian army possessed a unified command
structure and a sound tactical doctrine. But it did not. Furthermore, complacency and senility had led to a
refusal to consider the new conditions of citizen armies, while overconfidence had resulted in a complete
miscalculation of Napoleon as a general who represented the will of the people. So Prussia, clinging to the
great traditions of its Frederician past, marched to war in 1806 engulfed in a conceit of invincibility." ( Charles
White - "The Enlightened Soldier: Scharnhorst and the Militarische Gesellsschaft in Berlin 1801-1805" Praeger; 1989.
)
"After the disaster of 1806, there was a widespread sense of outrage at the way in which the Prussian Army
had been humiliated. Public and political pressures caused the King, Frederick William III, to make some
move towards setting up a board of enquiry to determine the causes of defeat and with the wider object of
reforming the army. The first steps towards these objectives were taken on July 15, 1807, when the King
requested Graf Lottum and Major-General v.Scharnhorst to head the newly established Military
Reorganization Commission. Under their influence, the places within the Commission were soon filled with
a mixture of reactionaries and visionaries including Konen, von Massenbuch, von Borstell, von Bronikowski,
and, more significantly, Boyen, Gneisenau and a young captain of artillery named Clausewitz." ( Nash - "The
Prussian Army 1808-15" p 5)
Picture: Emperor Napoleon and Tzar
Alexander
of Russia at Tilsit in 1807.
The Tilsit Peace Treaty in 1807 ended war
between Russia/Prussia and France and
began an alliance between the two empires
which rendered the rest of Europe almost
powerless. At Tilsit the Tzar persuaded
Napoleon to reduce the Prussian indemnity
by 20 million gold francs. Following the
treaty, the King issued his Guiding Principles
for the Reorganization of the Army. It
recommended reforms and reorganization of
the cavalry, artillery and infantry. The King
also wanted to cashier those who disgraced
themselves during the Jena Campaign.
In July 1807, according to the Convention of Konigsberg, the French agreed to withdraw their forces from
Prussia after the Prussians paid 140 million francs. The Prussians paid it in full by November 1808. The
Convention of Paris in 1808 restricted the Prussian army to 36.000 men (many sources give 42,000 men.)
It was the third humiliation Prussia suffered (first was defeat at Jena and Auerstadt, and the second was
reduction of her territory after the Tilsit Treaty). In this situation the reformers modified their organization
tables to produce six brigades of all arms:
- East Prussia Brigade
- West Prussia Brigade
- Brandenburg Brigade
- Lower Silesia Brigade
- Upper Silesia Brigade
- Pommerania brigade
In early 1808 several Prussian generals were summoned to serve on the Superior Investigating Commission.
The commission was ordered to determine the reasons for the armys poor performance by investigating the
conduct of individual officers in the Jena Campaign of 1806. The findings were released in 1809. Of the 142
generals and 885 staff officers serving in that campaign, 17 generals and 50 officers were cashiered, 86
generals and 584 officers received honorable discharges, and 22 generals and 185 officers remained on active
duty. Initially the committee decided to court-martial all those who were found to have lacked courage,
faked illness, and so on. Seven senior officers were accused of prematurely surrendering the fortresses and
condemned to death. The King, however, intervened and the sentence was reduced to life in prison. Of 6,069
junior officers only 1,584 remained in service, few were dismissed and 3,924 resigned voluntarily. Fixed rates
of pay were established for officers, thus they could no longer view their position as an economic asset
(many previously lived on the profit they could make on the management of their companies and
regiments).
On 3 June 1808 a new proviso for the troops training was issued by the King. The new regulations stated
that the men were now to be taught flexible drill with emphasis on speed, marksmanship was stressed, and
discipline was reduced in order to make army life more appealing. Soldiers were to be treated gently, no
officer may permitt himself to punish his subordinate with the stick Not even cursing is permissible
On 4 June 1808 a committee was established (chaired by General von Yorck) to draft new training
regulations and implement the armys adaptation of open order tactics. The infantry was represented by
Generals Gneisenau and Bulow (both served as fusiliers, light infantry in the Prussian army). The cavalry
was represented by two senior officers, von Zieten and Count de la Roche-Aymon (both were hussars, light
cavalry in the Prussian army.) Yorck was responsible for the Jagers, Gneisenau for the 3rd rank of line
infantry (they often served as skirmishers), and Zieten and Roche-Aymon for the light infantry battalions
and the cavalry. The result of their work was compiled into the infantry Reglement of 1812 that became
the armys training manual.
A new system of officer selection and promotions was introduced.
The Military Schools of Artillery and Engineers were founded.
Traditional punishments such as flogging and running the gauntlet were abolished.
In the end of 1808 the Prussian Ministry of War was founded.
"The most important series of measures taken by the reformers sought to increase Prussian military power in
contravention of the Treaty of Paris. On June 6, 1809, a small commission ... set to work on the question of
conscription. Their work culminated in a report appealing for universal service which was rejected by the
King on February 5 1810, but which was ultimately destined to be the framework of the famous Boyen
conscription laws of Sept 1814.
The original idea of the 'Krumper' seems to have been provided by Scharnhorst who, on July 31 1807,
suggested that each company and squadron should discharge 20 trained men and should take in equal
number of new recruits. This led to a Cabinet Order requiring each of these units to send 5 men on furlough
each month and to replace this wastage with untrained recruits. Although this measure was put into
practice, it was not done consistently throughout the years. ...
It has been suggested that the Krumper' system allowed the army to triple its size in 1813, but this is not
true. The scheme met with opposition at many points - commanding officers were often reluctant to part
with good men and therefore continually discharged the worst, or none at all. By March 1812, the army,
together with its trained reserves, still only numbered 65,675 all ranks, which nonetheless, was a sizeable
increase over the 42,000 permitted." (Nash - "The Prussian Army" p 8)
The King's impotence in 1809 sparked widespread discontent in the army.
Frederick William instructed his generals not to prepare a rising against the French occupants,
but to secure Prussia a more tolerable existence under French hegemony. The king recalled
how the Tilsit Treaty reduced his kingdom by half; another unsuccessful war against
Napoleon could result in total dissolution. The King remained terrified of Napoleon and the
French garrisons were ominous symbols of the emperor power. Many generals (Bulow)
however did not believe that Prussia should follow the Spanish example of a general uprising
against the French.
Some of the reformers, Gneisenau and Grolman, resigned in disgust.
Those of the generals who were eager to get another crack at Napoleon,
were sickened by Frederick William's apparent fear of the emperor.
In July 1810 the pretty Queen Louise died. In contrast to her timid husband,
she openly hated the French and was purpotedly referred to as the "only real man in Prussia."
In 1811 Napoleon was concerned over a British naval operation on the Baltic Sea.
The Emperor ordered the Prussians to occupy and entrench the coast in Pomerania.
In January 1812 Napoleon forced another Treaty of Paris on Frederick William. The Prussians
had to furnish the French emperor with an auxiliary corps of 20,000 men, thousands of wagons
with war supplies, and open the borders to French army en route to the Russian frontier. It was
too much for many generals and many resigned their commands. Scharnhorst resigned his post
as chief-of-staff, Clausewitz and Boyen went to Russia, Blucher and 300 officers left the army in protest.
Bulow and Yorck opted to remain in Prussia.
Napoleon demanded that several Prussian fortresses be opened to his troops. Prussias auxiliary corps was
assembled under the command of von Grawert. (This aging general was selected by the Emperor himself).
Scharnhorst however influenced the King to create the position of Second in Command and give it to von
Yorck. (In August Grawert fell ill and surrendered his command to Yorck.) Several squadrons of Prussian
cavalry were ordered to supervise the Baltic coast. Napoleon also formed the so-called flying columns made
of Prussian, Polish and French cavalry and infantry to insure the security of Napoleons Grand Armys rear.
In 1812 the Prussian army was small:
Infantry
. . . . . - 12 infantry regiments (the 8th was Guard).
. . . . . - 6 grenadier battalions
. . . . . - 1 (Guard) jger battalion
. . . . . - 1 (East-Prussian) jger battalion
. . . . . - 1 (Silesian) schtzen battalion
Cavalry
. . . . . - 4 cuirassier regiments (the 3rd was Guard)
. . . . . - 6 dragoon regiments
. . . . . - 6 hussar regiments
. . . . . - 3 uhlan regiments (and squadron of Garde-Uhlanen)
In 1812 was issued 'Exerzir-Reglement fur die Artillerie der Koniglich Preussischen Armee'. It had one
section on the use of the combined arms within brigades. The brigade consisted of all arms - infantry,
cavalry, artillery, engineers and staff.
~
Prussia on her knees again.
Prussia as an 'ally' of France, has been ordered by Napoleon
to provide the French Grand Army with a strong contingent.
The King remained terrified of the
Emperors ability to destroy Prussia.
Treaty Concluded Between France and Prussia in September 1808:
Art. 1. The raising of the sums from the Prussian states to the French army,
as well as the special revenues due for late payment, is fixed at 140 million
francs and, for payment of said sum, all claims of France on Prussia for war
reparations, shall be cancealed. This sum shall be paid, in the 20 days after
the ratification of this present treaty, to the treasury of the Comptroller General
of the Army, as follows:
Part in silver letters of credit, good and accepted payables, at the rate of 6 million
francs per month, from the date of the exchange of the ratifications and the
payment shall be guaranteed by the Prussian treasury.
Art. 2. The Prussian revenues belong to the French administration from the
date of the signing of the treaty, and after this day, to His Majesty, the King of Prussia.
Art. 3. The claims His Majesty, the King of Prussia, has on particulars of the
Duchy of Warsaw, according to the terms of the Treaty of Tilsit, are ceded without
any reservation. (...)
Art. 6. The places of Glogau (Glogow today), Stettin (Szczecin) and Kustrin
(Kostrzyn today) shall remain in the possession of the French until the complete
discharge of letters of credit and deeds given in payment of the reparations
enumerated in the first article. Glogau shall be returned when half of the payments
are made and the other two shall be returned upon the complete payment of the debt. (...)
Art. 8. The pay of these garrisons shall be paid by the treasury of the French
administration; but the lodging compensation, food, forage, heating and light, shall
be furnished by the Prussian administration, except for the troops of the general staff
of each place, in conformance with the tarriffs established by French regulations. (...)
Art. 12. No Prussian troops shall approach within 1 day march of any of these
three places. (...)
Art. 17. This treaty shall be ratified and the ratifications shall be exchanged
within 30 days or sooner if possible."
Convention Between France and Prussia:
Art. 1. In the case of war breaking out between France and Russia, His Majesty,
the King of Prussia, shall make common cause with His Majesty, the Emperor and King.
Art. 2. His Majesty, the King of Prussia, shall provide a contingent of 20,000 men
comprised of 14,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry, and 2,000 artillerists with 60 guns, having
a double ration and the military equipage necessary to transport flour for 10 to 20 days.
(...)
Art. 4. Independent of the aforementioned corps, a corps of Prussian troops composed
of 4,000 men shall form garrison of Colberg and furnish, if necessary, detachments for the
defense of the coasts.
A corps of 1,200 men shall garrison Potsdam. ...
A corps of 10,000 men shall be furnished to garrison the fortresses in Silesia.
A corps of 3,000 men shall form the garrison of Graudenz (Grudziadz today)."
Thus in 1812 Prussia "... as an 'ally' of France, has been ordered to provide the French Grand Army with a
30.000-man contingent to protect its left wing, in the same way as the Austrians are to protect its right. This
had caused the Berlin court to put out secret feelers to Vienna - feelers which, after three no less ruinous
defeats, have fallen on deaf ears. Even so, just to make sure there are no misunderstandings, Marshal
Oudinot is ordered to occupy Berlin with his 30,000-strong II Corps, while Narbonne at the same time is sent
there to exercise his old-style diplomacy on a traumatized Prussian court." (Britten Austin - "1812: The March
on Moscow" p 27)
Many Prussian generals and officers were very unhappy with this situation. Karl von Clausewitz
wrote; "In February of 1812, the alliance between France and Prussia against Russia was
concluded. The party in Prussia, which still felt courage to resist, and refused to acknowledge the
necessity of a junction with France, might properly be called the Scharnhorst party ... Scharnhorst
quitted the centre of government, and betook himslef to Silesia ... Major von Boyen, his intimate
friend, who had held the function of personal communicaation with the King on military affairs,
now obtained his conge, carrying with him the rank of colonel and a small donation. It was his intention to
go to Russia. Colonel von Gneisenau, lately made state councillor, left the service at the same time, with a
like intention. ... (- p 1) The Author, provided with some letters of recommendation, went to Wilna, to the
HQ of Tzar Alexander, as also of the General Barclay, who commanded the 1st Western Army." (Karl von
Clausewitz - "The Campaign of 1812 in Russia" New Forevard by Gerard Chaliand. Blue Crane Books, Watertown,
Massachusetts 1996, - p 2)
The Prussian units mobilised for Napoleon's Invasion of Russia were all (except the Leib-Regiment)
"composite" or "combined" units, each consisting of infantry battalions and cavalry squadrons drawn from
two parent regiments. "Prussia's contribution to the French invasion of Russia was 20,842 men, grouped into
'combined regiments' drawn from all six brigades. They were commanded by Yorck, who had vociferously
opposed many army reforms, with another conservative, Kleist as his second-in-command. This Corps was
assigned to the left wing of the invasion, under the command of Marshal Macdonald, operating along the
Baltic coast with St Petersburg as the objective. The advance bogged down around Riga, while the central
army group, under Napoleon's command, disintegrated; Macdonald had to pull back before overwhelming
Russian forces." (- Robert Mantle)
Prussian Corps in Russia in 1812:
- - - Advance Guard: General-Lieutenant Massenbach
- - - - - - - - - Right Wing Brigade: Colonel von Czarnowski
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - East Prussian Jagers (half-battalion)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Fusilier Battalion of 1st Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Combined Hussar Regiment (4 squadrons)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Combined Hussar Regiment (2 squadrons)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III Horse Battery
- - - - - - - - - Left Wing Brigade: Colonel-Lieutenant von Jurgass
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - East Prussian Jagers (half-battalion)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Fusilier Battalion of 3rd Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Fusilier Battalion of 5th Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Combined Dragoon Regiment (2 squadrons)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Foot Battery
- - - Corps: General-of-Infantry von Gravert
- - - - - - - - - Right Wing Brigade: Colonel von Below
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Battalion of 1st Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Battalion of 3rd Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Battalion of 4th Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - - - - Left Wing Brigade: Colonel-Lieutenant von Horn
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Fusilier Battalion of Leib Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Battalion of Leib Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Battalion of Leib Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Battalion of 2nd Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Combined Dragoon Regiment (4 squadrons)
- - - - - - - - - Reserve Artillery: Major von Schmidt
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Foot Battery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III Foot Battery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IV Foot Battery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Horse Battery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Horse Battery
- - - - - - - - - Pioneers: Major Markoff (Markov)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Pioneer Company
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Pioneer Company
- - - - - - - - - Train: Major von Herzberg
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - four park columns
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - two bridging trains
During the retreat from Russia, "Yorck's force became detached from the main body and surrounded.
Clausewitz and Baron Stein, a former minister who had been expelled from Prussia on Napoleon's orders,
open negotiations with Yorck, who finally signed the Covention of Tauroggen on December 30 1812, joining
forces with the Russians and advancing with them into East Prussia." (- Robert Mantle)
Article:
Napoleon's escape
plan was to cross the
Berezina and head
for Poland, while the
Russians wanted to
trap him there. While
some 25,000 French
troops and a further
15,000 Russians
became casualties,
their losses paled
next to that of the
French stragglers,
about 10,000.
Approx. 10,000 were
massacred by
Cossacks, while
another 20,000 died in the near freezing water or were crushed to death in the panic to cross the bridges.
Since then Brzina has been used in French language as a synonym of disaster (meet your berezina).
"Of the 680,500 men that Napoleon had organized for his invasion of Russia, barely 93,000 remained. The
main army had suffered the harshest casualties and had dwindled from 450,000 to 25,000 men. The flanking
and rearguard forces under Schwarzenberg, Reynier, MacDonald, and Augereau had returned with a total
of 68,000 men, but many of these men had not ventured very far into Russia, and those of Schwarzenberg,
Reynier, and MacDonald had not been as heavily engages as the main army. Records suggest that 370,000
French and allied soldiers died either from battle or other causes, while 200,000 were taken prisoner by the
Russians. Of those taken prisoner, nearly half died in captivity. Napoleon had taken 176,850 horses with him
into Russia, and barely any of them survived the campaign. The Russians reported burning the corpses of
123,382 horses as they cleaned up their countryside of the debris of war. So heavy were the horse losses that
one of Napoleon's most serious handicaps in the 1813 campaign was his inability to reconstitute his once-
powerful cavalry. Of the 1,800 cannon taken into Russia, the Russians reported capturing 929 of them, and
only 250 were brought out." ( George Nafziger - "Napoleon's Invasion of Russia")
Nothwithstanding reports of Napoleons defeat in Russia, the King remained terrified of the Emperors
ability to destroy Prussia. At that time, the balance of power between Prussia and France was still far too
uneven for the Prussians to contest the French. (All the Prussian fortresses were occupied by the French, and
in Berlin stationed 20,000 men under Augereau.) Bulow understood the Kings decision, unlike Scharnhorst,
Yorck, and Gneisenau who continued to seek an immediate reversal of Prussias misfortunes. Yorcks
defection complicated things for the French. Napoleon stated: The immediate consequences of this act of
treachery are that Murat will have to withdraw behind the Vistula River and that my losses will be
increased by all of the sick in the hospitals of old Prussia.
After signing the Convention of Taurogen, Yorck had dispatched officers to Berlin. They brought the King
an account of Yorcks negotiations with the Russians. Then Yorck met with Wittgenstein, the general who
commanded Russian forces in Eastern Prussia. Yorck refused to begin an offensive without the Kings order.
The King however had publicly denounced Yorck in the newspapers and rejected the convention.
Dissapointed Yorck surrendered his command to Kleist, who refused, claiming that he was just as guilty.
(The King harbored a grudge towards Yorck throughout 1813.)
According to Seydlitz, the Russians attempted to impose a convention on Bulow similar to that signed by
Yorck.
~
The new Prussian Army in 1813.
The Prussians "created a military organization for each
social group: the Landwehr for the landed peasants and
middle class; the Jager for the upper classs; and the
regular army for the masses." - Michael Leggiere
In the beginning of 1813 Prussia faced a choice between dependency on France or on Russia. In February
Prussia and Russia signed the Treaty of Kalisch (today Kalisz in central Poland). The Prussians agreed to
field an army of 80,000 men to assist a Russian force of 150,000 men and both states pledged not to make a
separate peace with the French. The Tzar promised to restore Prussia's pre-Jena status, and the King
acknowledged that he would lose most of his Polish territory.
In January the exhausted but victorious Russian armies
halted of the Polish frontier. The old Field Marshal
Kutuzov opposed carrying the war into Central Europe to
liberate the same countries that had supported Napoleon's
bid to conquer Russia. Other generals expressed concerns
over their very long line of communications. The old
Kutuzov favored a slower advance that would allow him
to reorganize his army after the winter campaign. The
situation however changed quickly, Kutuzov died and the
Tzar was detrmined to continue the offensive. "I shall not
make peace as long as Napoleon is on the throne." - said
the Russian monarch.
By January 1813 the Prussian mobilization was proceeding rapidly and was supported by the population.
For example the farmers sold horses for the army for only 30 Thaler. Blucher was caught training 5,000
recruits by a French official. As a result the French ambassador formally demanded Bluchers dismissal. The
official pretext was the reinforcement of the Prussian army destined to fight for Napoleon. The Emperor
however was suspicious and refused to leave the Prussian troops under the command of a Prussian. He also
forbade any further conscription.
By February the Cossacks and Russian
light troops led by Chernyshev and
Tettenborn had already crossed the
Oder River. Tettenbron even attempted
a coup de main on Berlin !
On 9 February the King of Prussia
abolished all exemptions from military
service.
Under the noses of French spies Prussia
developed a reserve army capable of
taking the field. On 1 March were
established so-called Reserve Battalions.
They were considered as part of their
parent regiments and were made of
reservists and raw recruits. The officers
and NCOs were supplied by the parent
regiments. The 39 Reserve Battalions formed twelve Reserve Regiments. (In March 1814 these units were
assigned numbers in line.)
On 10 March King of Prussia, Frederick William, decreed the creation of the Iron Cross -
the new military decoration that became the symbol of the future German armies.
In mid March the Tzar met the King of Prussia and talked politics.
Yorcks Prussians entered Berlin and the Cossacks penetrated as far west as Hamburg.
On 17 March the King issued a proclamation that summoned the people to fight for
their freedom and make sacrifices for their monarch, honor, and Fatherland.
Picture: in the beginning of 1813 many Prussian troops lacked weapons and uniforms.
"The rapid expansion of the [Prussian] army at this time created problems of major
significance.
Of prime importance was a general shortage of fire arms. The British Government supplied
113,000 muskets..." (Nash - "The Prussian Army 1808-1815" p 12)
.
.
.
British aid.
Great Britain reestablished diplomatic relations with Prussia and dispatched many
ships with arms and supplies to the Baltic to be split between the Russians and
Prussians. For example in June six ships arrived in Kolberg, 4 for the Russian troops
and 2 for the Prussians. Among other things (boots, shirts, vests, etc.) the Briitsh
delivered:
- - - - - - 2,000 greatcoats
- - - - - - 4,000 shakos
- - - - - - 15,000 muskets
- - - - - - 2,375 bayonets
- - - - - - 2,000 cavalry sabers
In July:
- - - - - - 1,900 greatcoats
- - - - - - 12,000 muskets
On 7 August:
- - - - - - 7,000 muskets with bayonets
- - - - - - 700 cavalry sabers
On 14 August:
- - - - - - 4,000 muskets
- - - - - - 400 cavalry sabers
On 22 August:
- - - - - - 30,000 muskets
On 22 September:
- - - - - - 10,000 muskets
Picture: in 1813, 1814 and 1815, many Prussian soldiers wore either British
uniform, or part of it, or an outfit styled on the British pattern. Here is the
Prussian 9th Reserve Infantry Regiment in 1813. Picture by Knotel.
Without the Russian army and the substantial British aid
there would be no Prussia's war against Napoleon neither
in 1813 nor in 1814. Frustrated Blucher with a handful of
die-hards would probably try to stir up something before
being chased around by the French.
This would be a nightmare for the frightened King of Prussia.
.
"The happy union of the warrior and civilian
society by means of the Landwehr.
The landwehr in Prussia was first formed by a royal edict of 17 March
1813, which called up all men capable of bearing arms between the
ages of 18 and 45, and not serving in the regular army, for the defence
of the country.
"A decree of the king established the landwehr, based on the model of
that of Austria of 1809. ... As the impoverished state of Prussian
finances precluded much assistance from the State, the expense of
equipment had to fall on the men themselves, or their villages. ... At
first, the front rank was often armed with pikes or scythes, and it was
only as French muskets were taken from the battlefields that the men
were armed with yet another pattern of firearm.
There was a great dearth of officers, as most of the half-pay officers
still fit for service were required for the reserve battalions. All sorts of
officials, many of them very unsuitable as military officers, joined, and
it was only later on that men of some experience were got from the
'volunteer-jagers, etc. Naturally, the landwehr, as a whole, was at first
of no great military value, though their initial worth was in some corps
(Yorck's and Bulow's especially) enhanced by long marches and still
more by early successes." (Petre - "Napoleon at War" p 114)
Prussian Landwehr in 1813:
District Infantry Cavalry
- East Prussia
- West Prussia
- Pommerania
- Neumark
- Kurmark
- Silesia
5 regiments [20 bttns.]
5 regiments [16 sq.]
3 regiments [9 sq.]
2 regiments [8 sq.]
The king appointed the battalion, squadron, regiment, and brigade commanders; the district commissions
selected the junior officers from the entire population without consideration of age, yet all selections had to
bve confirmed by the king. Each recruit was expected to uniform and equip himself. If he was unable, the
district would supply his gear. The state would provide weapons and ammunition. (In August 1814, at a
banquet following Boyen's investment with an honorary degree at the University of Berlin, Blucher had
toasted "the happy union of the warrior and civilian society by means of the Landwehr. If the army was
designed to awaken the martial spirit in the people as a whole, the Landwehr was designed to provide a
bond of intimacy between military and civilian society, preventing mutual antipathy and assurung the
continuation of the concept of a civilian army.)
.
The volunteers were evidence of the
intense patriotism that existed at that
time in Prussia.
In 1813 Prussia had also numerous units composed of volunteers. They were well equipped since they were
from wealthier families, and one of the conditions of service was that they provided the weapons, shakos
and green uniforms. The weapon was frequently the family's hunting rifle.
The volunteer-jagers (freiwilligen-jagers) were formed into small detachments (100-
150 men each) that were allotted to infantry and cavalry units. The purpose of this
was to give foundation for a military education that would enable these men to fulfil
the duties of NCOs or officers, at a later date. In September 1813 the following
regular units had a detachment of volunteer-jagers as part of their established
strength:
- 1st and 2nd Foot Guard Regiment
- Guard Jager Battalion
- Silesian Schutzen Battalion
- all grenadier battalions
- 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th Infantry Regiment
- 7th, 8th, 9th, 11th, and 12th Infantry Regiment
- 1st and 5th Reserve Infantry Regiment
- Lutzow's Free Corps
- Garde du Corps (Garde zu Pferde)
- Guard Light Cavalry Regiment
- 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Cuirassier Regiment
- 1st and 2nd Uhlan Regiment
- 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th Dragoon Regiment
- 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Hussar Regiment
- 3rd West Prussia Landwehr Cavalry Regiment
There were also so-called free corps.
These troops are evidence of the intense patriotism that existed at that time in Prussia. The most famous of
these units was the Lutzow's Freikorps. The Ltzow Free Corps (Ltzowsches Freikorps) was a voluntary
force formed in February 1813 and named after its commander Ludwig von Lutzow. Ltzow had fought in
1806 at Auerstadt and in 1807 at Kolberg with Schill making raids upon the French beseigers. In 1808, he had
taken part in Schill's raid.
In February 1813, only few days after King Frederick Wilhelm's call for volunteers, Ltzow presented his
king with a petition, begging that he might raise an independent corps. He laid stress that some of these
men would also come from other German states eager to serve the Prussian cause. Though Napoleon chose
to brand them as brigands, there is ample evidence to prove that they were part of the Prussian army, and
subject to military law as it pertained to regular combattants." ( - Gary Shively)
Ltzow Free Corps consisted mostly of students, writers and academics from all over Germany, who had
volunteered to fight against the French. The volunteers had to equip and supply themselves by their own
means. The volunteers adopted black as the color of their units. Lutzow's Free Corps consisted of 2900
infantry, 600 cavalry, and 120 artillery. The volunteers fought in several battles, operating first independently
in the rear of the French troops, later as a regular unit in the allied armies. After the peace of 1814 the corps
was dissolved, the infantry becoming the 25th Regiment, the cavalry the 6th Uhlans.
.
The strength of the Prussian army in 1813
Although the Prussian army of 1813 was much stronger
than in 1812 Russia and Prussia hoped and even
expected that the Austrian war party would sway the
government and the Kaiser to declare war against
France. To defeat Napoleon, even after the French
disaster in Russia, forming a coalition was a must.
Scharnhorst attempted to coordinate military operations
with Kutuzov, however the Russian placed little value
on his Prussian allies. Instead he favored delatying
operations in order to reorganize and strengthen the
Russian army.
In mid March 1813 Prussia'f army consisted of:
- 70,000 men (+ 35,000 men in reserve and 22,500 in
garrisons)
- 20,000 horses (+ 500 in reserve and 1,500 in
garrisons)
- 213 guns (+56 in reserve)
Total: 127,500 men.
By the end of August the numbers increased to 270,000 !
(During the Jena Campaign in 1806 Prussia had 185,000
men.)
The Prussian brigades of all arms were strenghtened
with newly raised troops, and although still designated
'brigades', they were in fact 'divisions'. The regiments and brigades were well trained although it was
apparent that the army needed more experience on multi-brigade level.
For example at Dennewitz the Prussian 3rd and 4th Brigade became completely mixed up before their
officers were able to put order. At Weinberg Defile the Prussian 2nd and 7th Brigade became entangled
while executing a deployment into battle formation.
.
Strength of the Prussian army
June 1813
Infantry Cavalry
Artillery
Engineers
40,890 infantry
29,600 reserve infantry
11,400 'ersatz' infantry
6,460 foreign infantry
4,550 volunteers
20,400 garrisons
12,000 cavalry
1,350 provincial cavalry
2,400 volunteer cavalry
3,460 cavalry depots
-
-
16,180 artillery
1,300 engineers
-
-
-
-
August 1813:
Infantry Cavalry
Artillery
Engineers
72,130 regular infantry [90 btns.]
31,830 res. and garrison inf.[39
btns]
11,150 jager and foreign [8 btns.]
109,120 Landwehr [151 btns.]
-
13,375 regular and volunteers [89
sq.]
3,390 reserve cavalry [22 sq.]
3,060 jager and foreign [23 sq.]
10,950 Landwehr [113 sq.]
-
8,750 men [50 field batteries]
6,565 men [33 fortress
and siege companies]
570 men [7 pioneer comp.]
740 men [7 fortress pioneer
cop.]
.
The War of Liberation
(Befreiungskriege)
The Prussian Monarchy was in a poor financial state. It had not the money to raise and
equip a new army. Here, the people stepped in. Women sold their hair, and married
couples sold their gold wedding bands, having new bands made of iron by blacksmiths.
The best calcualtion is that upon the Altar of German Liberty were laid over 160,000
gold rings in the early days of 1813. Shortly after King's proclamation "An mein Volk"
public collections raised a 6,000,000 thalers. (from Mr Shively's "Der Befreiungskriege
1806-13") :
"As when an army, gathering up it's strength,
Goes forth in courage in a righteous war,
A holy picture glows upon it's flag,
An oriflamme to lead them goes before,
So shall thy picture upon our banners wave,
And light us on to victory once more.
Queen Luise, be thou our guardian in the fight,
To lead us out of darkness into the night !"
- Theodor Koerner
An official Prussian Declaration of War to France was issued on 16 March.
Napoleon, having his army at hand, defeated
the Prussians and Russians at Lutzen (2 May)
and Bautzen (20-21 May). At Lutzen
Napoleon had organized the march of
Bertrand's corps in such a way that he could
strike Allies' left flank, while MacDonald's
corps could strike the Allies' right in order to
encircle the enemy. Ney would be fixing the
Allies in front. Ltzen could well have
become a second Austerlitz. Napoleon
concentrated powerful artillery and
unleashed a devastating barrage towards
allied center. Then he led the Young Guard
into a massive assault breaking the enemy
lines. Unfortunately the young French
infantrymen, who had been marching AND
fighting all day long, were too exhausted and
could not follow through. And the lack of
cavalry meant there would be no pursuit. This allowed Wittgenstein and Blucher to retreat in good order.
During the battle of Ltzen, Prussian General von Scharnhorst was wounded. Then an infection set in and
he died as a result. Scharnhorst was one of the brightest Allied generals and well known organizer and
reformer of the Prussian army.
The operational manoeuvres at Bautzen came even closer to encircling and annihilating the Russo-Prussian
army, when the Emperor ordered Ney to attack Allies' flank and rear with three corps. Faulty exqecution by
Ney left the line of retreat open. Following Bautzen, Napoleon agreed to a seven-week truce with the
Coalition, requested by the Allies on 2 June.
The armistice during this campaign lasted form 4 June till 16 August.
Austria declared War to Napoleon on 12 August. After that the fighting intensified.
The Prussian troops participated in majority of the battles of 1813.
Articles:
Campaign in Germany in 1813
and the Battle of Dresden
Battle of Hagelberg 1813
Battle of Dennewitz 1813
Battle of Leipzig
"Battle of the Nations"
The Prussians were directly responsible for many of the most decisive events in the Fall Campaign of 1813.
Bulow defied Bernadotte on several occasions, which saved Berlin and altered the course of the war.
Blucher's crushing victory on the Katzbach wrecked not only a French army but also Napoleon's plans to
march on Berlin. Success on the Katzbach ultimately led to Ney's destruction at Dennewitz. Blucher's refusal
to march to Bohemia in September and his subsequent march down the Elbe enabled the Allies to
concentrate all of their combat power against a weakened Napoleon. Prussian triumphs at Gross Beeren, on
the banks of the Katzbach, and at Hagelberg, Kulm, and Dennewitz countered Napoleon's victory at
Dresden, reduced Prussia's dependence on Russia, and strengthened Prussia's claim to parity with Austria
in Germany.
'Those same unruly generals,' asserts historian Enno Kraehe, '.... were giving an account of themselves which
filled everyone with pride ... Europe began to hear the names of Bulow and Kleist and Blucher." ( Leggiere -
"Napoleon and Berlin" p 293)
~
Allies invasion of France in 1814.
"The Emperor is now cooked well-done ..."
- Blucher
Although Napoleon's defeat at Leipzig ended French hegemony in Europe, the Allies did not belive the war
was over. They agreed to continue military operations to destroy Napoleon's army before it reached the
Rhine River. "This plan achieved only partial success. Wrede managed to block Napoleon's line of retreat,
but the emperor smashed through the Austro-Bavarian army at Hanau ... Napoleon commented that
although he had made Wrede a count, he had failed to make him a general." (Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon"
pp 12-13)
The exhausted French troops reached Frankfurt on 1 November, crossed the Rhine River, and established
positions on the right bank, facing Mainz and Strasbourg, respectively. Frederick Maycock writes, "At the
beginning of November the inhabitants of Mainz, long unused to the horrible realities of war, were appalled
by the miserable state of the (French) troops, some 70,000 strong, who for 2 days defiled continuously across
the bridges over the Rhine. The town was filled to overflowing with thousands of sick, amongst whom
typhus and dysentery wrought such havoc that for several weeks the death-rate reached the alarming
proportion of over 400 a day." (Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814")
The Allies reached Frankfurt in the beginning of November.
They were not sure what to do next and there was much talking going on. Prussian general, Gneisenau,
writes, "There is much diplomatic activity that is sometimes repugnant and absurd. The Austrian and
Russian diplomats, their numbers is legion, are very active. To them are joined the Rheinbund princes." Sir
Robert Wilson was unhappy with this situation, "Courts, galas, parades, banquets, etc., have succeeded the
iron age." The old Blucher writes, "... in Frankfurt is now an entire army of monarchs and princes, and this
assembly makes a mess of everything, and will no longer conduct the war with energy, and I fear that we
will dream away everything."
The Allies, after some deliberations, decided for continuing the campaign. The reason was however not
indifference to the suffering of the Allies soldiers nor bloodthirsty revenge as some suggested, but the belief
that by exploiting Napoleon's weakness the war would end sooner with less loss than if they allowed the
master of war to recover.
The driving and decisive force in this campaign were the Russian and Prussian armies. Both monarchs were
in a close relationship and the King of Prussia very often supported the Tsar. The townpeople of Troyes
even described the King as Tsar's aide-de-camp.
Picture:
Prussian
army under
Blucher enter
France in
1814. Picture
by Wilhelm
Campehausen.
The Tzar, and the two leading Prussian generals, Blucher and Gneisenau, insisted on immediate pursuing
the French troops and decisive campaign against Paris. For them any peace terms would be dictated in Paris
and they were anxious to stomp their boots on French soil.
Blucher was disposed to make a severe retaliation upon Paris for the calamities that Prussia had suffered
from France. Tsar Alexander looked for revenge for Napoleon taking Moscow in 1812. The local traditions in
France say that the Prussians committed more atrocities in 1814 than the Cossacks, and Cossacks more than
Wurttembergers and Bavarians.
Articles:
Campaign of France in 1814
and the Battle of La Rothiere
Battle of Paris and the
abdication of Napoleon .
Prussian army enter Paris.
~
Waterloo Campaign in 1815.
Wellington wrote to Bathurst on the actions of Prussian army
on Napoleons flank and during pursuit describing them as
the "most decisive."
According to Peter Hofschroer the Prussian army
of 1813-14 was drawn almost entirely from the core
provinces of the Kingdom of Prussia - whereas the
army of 1815, consisted only in part of "old"
Prussians. The Rhinelanders and to an extent the
Westphalians were "new" Prussians of
questionable loyalty.
Also in 1815 a number of foreign, i.e. non-Prussian,
formations had been amalgamated into the line
and were, on paper at least, now considered
regular formations, although it was really only
after the Waterloo.
The Rhinelanders' support for the Napoleonic code
opened them up to accusations by later German
nationalist historians like Treitschke of somehow
being Francophile, and disloyal to the German
nation. Michael Rowe writes: "The positive reception given to the codes does seem convincing evidence of
Rhenish acceptance of French rule: surely it justifies locating the regiom securely within the inner empire. Yet,
there is an alternative explanation. Firstly, we need to consider what Rhinelanders liked about the Napoleonic
legal system. This is not difficult, thanks to a thorough investigation conducted by the Prussian authorities after
1815. ... This revealed that the French system was popular not so much because of the contents of the civil code or
penal code, but rather because of the procedures of the French courts: the oral, public proceedings in front of
juries, the principle of equality before the law, and the independence of the judiciary from political interference."
In 1815, the Prussian army consisted of:
- 279 infantry battalions
- 280 cavalry squadrons
- 78 artillery batteries
- 17 pioneer companies
- 1 Landwehr pioneer battalion
Some sources give the strength of the army at 250,000 men (248,600):
- 247 battalions x 800 men = 197,600 infantry
- 264 squadrons x 150 men = 39,600 cavalry
- 76 batteries x 150 men = 11,400 artillery
- military police, miners, pioneers, staffs = ?
Excluded are 26,000 men of the "Das Deutsche Armee Korps" (German Army Corps)
and 21,000 men of "Besatzungen" (garrisons and troops of the interior).
These forces were formed into several army corps. In contrast with the French and British, the Prussian Guard,
the cuirassiers and the grenadiers were not present at Ligny and Waterloo. After the war the Prussian Guard
Corps stationed in Paris.
Article:
"Prussian Order of Battle - Waterloo Campaign"
(Prussian troops in Belgium and in Prussia)
Due to Prussias weak economic situation, providing for the four army corps stationed in
Belgium proved difficult as funds became scarce. Blucher and Gneisenau pledged English
merchants their personal credit of 50,000 pounds in order to purchase food and supplies
for the army and pay for quartering the troops. (While Britain was the wealthiest
European power, Prussia was the smallest and the poorest of the powers. But probably
the most agressive one.)
According to Peter Hofschroer, the Prussian army in 1815 was in terms of quality,
manpower and coherence of organisation, probably the worst Prussia employed in the
entire Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. "This is in part explained by the general
deterioration of resources during this 25-year period of warfare, which affected most
participants, and in part by the fact that Prussia was largely agrarian and economically
underdeveloped.
Yet this army held together despite early setbacks, participated in a dramatic victory, and went on to advance to
the enemy capital. The main reasons for the success of Prussian arms in this campaign were its determination and
superior leadership. That, in turn, was thanks to the development and training of a uniform general staff, one of
the major military advances in this period." (Hofschroer - "1815: The Waterloo Campaign. Wellington and His German
Allies..." p 59)
Articles:
Hundred Days Campaign 1815 and
the battles of Quatre-Bras, Gilly, and
Charleroi
Battle of Ligny 1815 (map below)
One of many Napoleon's victories, the battle of Ligny 1815 (the beginning : fight for the villages).
At Ligny Napoleon with 75,000 men routed Field Marschal Blucher with 90,000 Prussians.
Casualties: Napoleon's 12,000, Blucher's 16,000 killed, wounded and prisoners.
For information on how Napoleon won at Ligny click here
Article:
Battle of Belle Alliance/Waterloo
At Waterloo the Prussians had 38,000 infantry in 62 battalions, 7,000 cavalrymen in 61 squadrons, and 134 guns.
Total of 50,000 men arriving in different times on the battlefield. The troops were led by seasoned officers and
generals. "That the morale of the majority of the Prussian army withstood the rigours of the field and the shock
of Ligny was due to the high quality of leadership at all levels. " (Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion" p 208)
"At Waterloo, almost all the Prussian officers from the rank of captain up began their military service before 1806,
yet the average age of the corps and divisional commanders - 45 - was the same as in Napoleon's and
Wellington's ..." (Barbero - "The Battle" p 30)
Gunther Rothenberg writes: "In 1806 the typical Prussian soldier had been a mercenary or a reluctant conscript;
now he was animated both by patriotism and by a deep and even savage hatred of the French. The first expressed
itself, as it had in the days of Frederick, by religion. As the Prussian infantry saw the French retreating the
evening of Waterloo, the fusiliers began to sign the old Lutheran hymn, 'A mighty fortress is our God' ... Hatred
of the French expressed itself in bitter fighting and in the ability to rally after initial defeat."
Blucher with Napoleon's hat shortly after Waterloo.
~
Prussian army after the Napoleonic wars.
If the Frenchmen excel them (Germans) in vivacity of onslaught,
if the Englishmen are their superiors in toughness of resistance,
the Germans excel all other European nations in that general
fitness for military duty which makes them good soldiers under
all circumstances.
After Napoleonic Wars, at the Vienna Congress, Prussia was widely perceived as under Russian influence.
Prussia and Russia proposed to partition France, while Austria and Great Britain strove for and pushed
through a lenient treatment of France. The Congress of Vienna in 1814 had elevated the Kingdom of Prussia
to the rank of a great European power, thus considerably expanding its borders and the recruitment pool at
the service of its military. The human resources in the new territories, however, were thought to be less
reliable than those in the old provinces of the kingdom... " (Barbero - "The Battle" p 30)
Thus Prussia's neighbors found themselves living next to a strong and aggressive country whose army was
trained overwhelmingly for large-scale operations and led by seasoned and successful generals. It was
hardly a comfortable situation, or a recipe for long-term stability in Europe. "What if, as happened in 1756,
such an aggressive posture aroused enough fear in those neighbors to forge another grand coalition against
Germany ? The answer, provided again and again in German military literature, was that German
commanders should follow the example of Frederick the Great, who had 'conducted a war of 5 million
against 80 million': they should defy the world and fight on alone. (...)
During the XIX century, the Prussian army carried out a military revolution that culminated in the toppling
of Austria from its dominant perch in Germany, the toppling of France from its dominant perch in Europe,
and the creation of a new German Empire, a 'Second Reich' that was a very different creature indeed from
the olf Holy Roman Empire. During World War I, the German army came within an ace of vidtory in the
opening weeks, held off a vast coalition of Great Britain, France, Russia, and the United States for four long
years of positional warfare (...) In the opening years of World War II, German mechanized armies again went
from victory to victory, a run that climaxed in the campaign against the Soviet Union." (- Robert Citino)
Prussian victory at Sadowa (Koniggratz) 1866.
It was larger battle than Waterloo (400,000 combatants !).
Prussian casualties: 8,500 killed, wounded and missing
Austrian casualties: 21,000 K, W, M, and 22,000 captured
It was the decisive battle of the Austro-Prussian War for
dominance in Germany. The French resented the Prussian victory
and demanded "Revanche pour Sadova", which lead to the Franco-
Prussian War of 1870.
Prussian victory at Gravelotte 1870.
Combatants: 300,000 French, Prussians and Germans.
Prussian casualties: 20,100 French casualties: 12,200
Although the Prussians suffered heavier losses, they won
the battle and soon trapped the French army in Verdun.
Prussian victory at Sedan 1870.
Combatants: 320,000 French, Prussians and Germans.
Prussian casualties: 9,000 - French casualties: 18,000
With no hope of breaking out, Napoleon III called off the attacks.
He also surrendered himself and the French Army of Chlons.
Napoleon III was permitted to leave Prussian custody for exile
in Great Britain.
The French surrender to the Prussians at Sedan.
Preussischer Prsentiermarsch.
Regimentsgru
Victoria Marsch
PS.
The Prussian, as well as the German in general, makes capital stuff for a soldier and the Prussian-German
excellence in military matters was an accepted fact of life. The Germans were, "withal, among the most
pugnacious people in the world, enjoying war for its own sake, and often enough going to look for it abroad,
when they cannot have it at home. From the Landsknechte of the middle age to the present foreign legions
of France and England, the Germans have always furnished the great mass of those mercenaries who fight
for the sake of fighting. "If the French excel them in agility and vivacity of onslaught, if the English are their
superiors in toughness of resistance, the Germans certainly excel all other European nations in that general
fitness for military duty which makes them good soldiers under all circumstances." (Source: "The Armies of
Europe" in Putnam's Monthly, No. XXXII, publ. in 1855)
There were few however who disagreed with the above statement. The famous commander, Prince Eugene
of Savoy, reported that "the Prussian troops are the best of the German forces. The rest are pretty well
useless."
In 1807 at Kunt 1,400 Prussians under Losthin met 1,200 Bavarians and Saxons. Despite the fact that the
Prussian army was demoralised by the crushing defeats of Jena and Auerstadt they routed with easy their
enemies. After short combat the Saxons and Bavarians threw their muskets down and surrendered. Then
arrived General Lefebvre-Desnouttes with a handful of Vistula Uhlans. At Strigau they annihilated the
Prussian force, and freed their German allies. The Prussian commander thanked his fast horse that his was
able to escape To the disgust of Lefebvre-Desnouettes and his Polish lancers, the Saxons and Bavarians
joined im the parade march. The Germans performed somehow better against the Prussians at Dennewitz in
1813. Shortly before the battle, the Saxons boasted that their attack on Berlin would leave no stone standing !
Despite Saxons' and Wurttemergers' bravery, Dennewitz was Prussian victory.
~
Prussian generals of the Napoleonic Wars.
"That the morale of the majority of the Prussian army
withstood the rigours of the field and the shock of
Ligny was due to the high quality of leadership at
all levels." - Mark Adkin
Charles II William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuettel (17351806)
Karl II. Wilhelm Ferdinand, Herzog von Braunschweig-Wolfenbttel
During the disastrous Jena-Auertsadt Campaign in 1806 the Prussian field army was
commanded by Duke of Brunswick. He was old but seasoned campaigner. The Duke had
served in the Seven Years' War and was made a Prussian general in 1773. He became field
marshal in 1787, and commanded the Prussian army that successfully invaded the Dutch
Republic and restored the authority of the House of Orange. He was however less successful
against the highly motivated French army that met him at Valmy. At Valmy the Duke of
Brunswick turned back after a light fight and evacuated France. When he counterattacked the
French who had invaded Germany, in 1793, he recaptured Mainz after a siege, but resigned in 1794 in
protest at interference by Frederick William II of Prussia. He returned to the Prussian army in 1806 and was
smashed by Marshal Davout at Auerstdt. The Duke was mortally wounded.
Generalfeldmarschall Gebhard Leberecht von Blcher (1742-1819)
Graf (Count), later elevated to Frst (Prince) von Wahlstatt.
Nickname: Generall Vorwrts ("General Forward")
Some older German dictionaries list the expression
"he doesn't loaf around , he goes at it like Blcher."
Blcher was born in 1742 in Rostock, a Baltic port in Germany then part of Swedish
Pomerania. He began his military career at 16, when he joined the Swedish Army. Blcher
took part in the Pomeranian campaign of 1760, where he was captured by the Prussian
hussars. The colonel of the Prussian regiment was impressed with Blucher and had him join
his regiment. Blcher took part in several battles of the Seven Years' War. During peacetime,
however, his character led him into excesses of all kinds, such as mock execution of a priest
suspected of supporting Polish uprising. Due to this, he was passed over for promotion to
major. Blcher sent in a rude letter of resignation, which Frederick the Great granted in 1773: "Cavalry
Captain von Blcher can go to the devil."
Blucher then settled down to farming and during the lifetime of Frederick the Great, Blcher was unable to
return to the army. After the king's death however, Blucher was reinstated as a major in his old regiment.
"Blcher took part in the expedition to the Netherlands in 1787, and the following year was promoted to
lieutenant colonel. In 1789 he received Prussia's highest military order, the Pour le Mrite, and in 1794 he
became colonel of the Red Hussars. In 1793 and 1794 he distinguished himself in cavalry actions against the
French, and for his success at Kirrweiler was promoted to major general. In 1801 he was promoted to
lieutenant general.
He was one of the leaders of the war party in Prussia in 18051806, and served as a cavalry general in the
disastrous campaign of the latter year. At Auerstedt Blcher repeatedly charged at the head of the Prussian
cavalry, but too early and without success. In the retreat of the broken armies he commanded the rearguard
of Prince Hohenlohe's corps, and upon the capitulation of the main body at Prenzlau, he led a remnant of
the Prussian army away to the north, after having secured 34 cannon in cooperation with Scharnhorst. In the
neighborhood of Lbeck he fought a series of combats, which, however, ended in his being forced to
surrender at Ratekau (November 7, 1806). Blcher insisted that a clause be written in the capitulation
document that he had to surrender due to lack of provisions and ammunition, and that his soldiers be
honoured by a French formation along the street." (- wikipedia.org)
The Treaty of Tilsit reduced Prussia to second-rate power. The troops under Blucher's command formed 25-
30 % of Prussian army. Blucher was appointed governor of Pomerania. Blucher's health deteriorated and the
King assigned Bulow to be Blucher's adjutant. "An alcohol-induced schizophrenia caused wild and eccentric
behavior. At times Blucher startled the household by shouting and smashing furniture as he engaged an
invisible foe. He frequently begged his servants to smite his head with a hammer, claiming that it was
made of stone.
According to Hermann von Boyen: 'He actually believed that he was pregnant with an elephant ... he
imagined that his servants, bribed by France, had heated the floor of his room to burn his feet. Therefore,
when sitting, he kept his legs raised above the floor or he would walk on the tips of his toes.' Boyen
attributed Blucher's condition to grief over Prussia's deplorable situation following the defeat as well as to
Blucher's own vices.
Napoleon's 24 November 1808 demand for the dismissal of Stein, who at that time served as Prussian
minister of the interior, and his subsequent proscription on 16 December also depressed Blucher. The old
hussar battled insanity as well as venereal disease, alcoholism, and an ulcerated urethra. ... When hostilities
began between France and Austria on 9 April 1809, Blucher's health recovered with the prospect of war.
(King) Frederick Wilhelm shattered his spirits by refusing to enter the conflict against France: Blucher's
health plummeted. He recovered by the end of the summer and assumed full command of the corps for the
next 3 years. In 1812, the king relieved Blucher as a result of French pressure during Napoleon's preparations
for the invasion of Russia. The emperor's Russian debacle and Prussia's defection from the French alliance in
March 1813 paved the way for Blucher to take command of the Silesian corps in the spring campaign of
1813. After serving under Wittgenstein at Lutzen and Bautzen, Blucher assumed command of the newly
formed Army of Silesia during the Armistice of Plaswitz." (Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon" pp 135-136)
Though Blucher was one of the oldest
Allies commanders he had lost none of his
energy. The way in which the Prussian
commander-in-chief endured the
hardships of the campaign was truly
marvelous. His dynamism contrasted
sharply with the conduct of other generals.
When asked by his soldiers or officers
about the next move, he often replied
'Forward !'
It all earned the old Blucher the nickname
"General Forward" or the Old Forward
(Alte Vorwarts). The Cossacks pondered at
his combative character and thought that he must have had Cossack grandparents ! Blucher was was
highly respected by the Allies, both for his courage and common sense.
On 26 August 1813 Blucher with an army of 110,000 Russians and Prussians met the French (100,000) at
Katzbach. In terms of the numbers of combatants the battle was as big as Waterloo. The French decided to
attack and Marshal MacDonald dispatched 60,000 men in an attempt to flank the enemy's right wing. Due to
confusion however the French force found itself too far apart to support one another. The attack lost
momentum. Meanwhile, the remaining 40,000 men who were supposed to fix the enemy in place, were met
by a heavy counter-attack. Without support or reinforcement, the French were soon forced to withdraw,
taking very heavy losses.
Casualties:
- Blucher lost 4,000 - 5,000
- MacDonald 12,000 - 15,000
For this victory victory, Blcher received the title of "Prince of Wahlstatt" on June 3, 1814.
Blucher's heroism at Lutzen was rewarded by Tzar Alexander of Russia with the order of St George.
In 1813 Blucher greatly contributed to Allies massive victory at Leipzig
where he defeated two famous marshals, Ney and Marmont. Article.
In 1814 Blucher/Gneisenau defeated Napoleon twice, at La Rothiere and Laon.
At Chateau-Thierry however Napoleon smashed Blucher. Casualties: 2,500 Allies and 500 French.
At Vauchamps Napoleon did it again to Blucher. Casualties: 6,000 Prussian and 600 French.
Despite the defeats, the heavy losses, and the fact that Napoleon outmaneuvered him time after time,
Blucher never gave up, Article: Campaign of France.
In 1815 Blucher was soundly defeated by Napoleon at Ligny. Article.
Despite the loss Blucher joined Wellington and together they crushed Napoleon at Waterloo.
Article.
Blucher hated the French and Napoleon. Peace with France, the occupant of his homeland, made him sick,
mentally unstable. And nothing would be sweeter for him than the surrender of the Usurper to Blucher
himself. Not long after Waterloo, on the 25th June, Blucher received a letter from the commissioners of the
French parliament that revealed Napoleons abdication. The French asked for an armistice, but the Old
Forward refused unless Napoleon was surrendered to him ! Blucher, eager to capture the Emperor, received
intelligence on the 28th that Napoleon was at Malmaison. The Old Forward ordered Majr Colomb with the
8th Hussars and 2 battalions to secure the bridge to Chatou that leads to Malmaison. Davout however, had
the bridge blown.
Blucher at Ligny in 1815 (Waterloo Campaign)
The old commander led his young troops forward shouting
"Kinder, haltet euch brav ! Lasst die Nation
nicht wieder Herr ber Euch werden !
Vorwrts, vorwrts in Gottes Nahmen !"
.
.
Generall Friedrich Wilhelm Freiherr von Blow (1755-1816)
His victory over Marshals Ney and Oudinot at Dennewitz in 1813
inspired the greatest enthusiasm in Prussia, and rendered his
popularity almost equal to that of Blcher. Bulow also soundly
defeated the French at Gross Beeren and Luckau.
Blow was born in Falkenberg and was the elder brother of Dietrich Heinrich von Blow. He
was well educated and entered the army in 1768. He took part in the Potato War of 1778, and
subsequently devoted himself to the study of the sciences and music. For his musical ability
Bulow was conspicuous in the fashionable circles of Berlin. The pious Lutheran considered
himself a gourment and loved a full table graced with good wine. He did not, however, neglect
his military studies. Bulow took part in the campaigns of 1792-94 on the Rhine, and received for
courage during the siege of Mainz the order Pour le Mrite and promotion.
Bulow had rocky relations with General Yorck and Field Marshal Blucher. He had little compassion for
Blucher and believed that the old commander was an insane hypochondriac whose frivolous lifestyle caused
his problems. Bulow's dislike of Blucher, Prussias unabashed war hero, earned him the aversion of many
Prussian writers. Bulow has been both venerated and slandered by Swedish, British, French and American
historians.
Bulow was a stubborn and defiant man with a ferocious temper. Bulow however enjoyed cordial working
relationship with his brigade commanders. (The only exception was Borstell who resented his subordination
position and even complained to the King.)
Unlike many generals, Bulow chose not to rely on brute force. His upbringing instilled in him
desire to insure that his men suffered no injustice. In case of supply shortages, he employed
his personal means to porevent his troops from suffering. Bulow maintained a good
relationship with his troops and they were motivated by his presence. His popularity would
eventually lead to a dispute between his staff officers and Bluchers for the right to command
the army in March 1814 ! Some Prussian leaders began to question the high casualties suffered
by Bluchers troops and looked at Bulows low casualty rate and compared the two leaders.
Article: "Campaign of France 1814"
Scharnhorst however claimed that Bulow was an antiquated relic from an obsolete age. (Bulow attentively
studied and analized Frederick the Greats campaigns and conservation of manpower.) Scharnhorst and
Yorck disliked him for personal and professional reasons. Prussian officer Muffling (he was with Wellington
at Waterloo) was a bitter enemy of Bulow and did not spare him in his writings.
In February 1807 General Lasalles light cavalry surprised Bulows fusilier battalion near Willenau. The
Prussians were cut to pieces, only few escaped. Bulow was wounded.
Bulow neither resigned in protest in 1809 nor served in the Russian campaign in 1812 but remained in
Prussia.
Bulow met Napoleon in 1812, just shortly before the Invasion of Russia. The Emperor invited Bulow and
Ziethen to join him for dinner in Konigsberg. Bulow marveled at Napoleons relaxed disposition on the eve
of such momentous proportions. He realized that he still admired the Frenchman as a war hero, but hated
him as the enemy and conqueror of Prussia. (Leggiere The Life, Letters, and Campaigns of Friedrich Wilhelm
Graf Bulow von Dennewitz 1755-1816)
In 1813 Bulow commanded the III Army Corps. As chief-of-staff, Bulow received the services of the noted
military reformer and future War Minister, General von Boyen. During the campaign Bulow covered himself
with glory.
In June Bulow defeated Marshal Oudinot at Luckau. Allies losses amounted to 750 killed and wounded.
Oudinots losses were 1,450 killed, wounded and prisoners. Had Oudinot won, the road to Berlin would
have been opened. Bulow received the Prussian Iron Cross, and the Russian Order of St.Anne.
In August Bulow and Bernadotte (75,000 men) defeated Marshal Oudinot (60,000 men) at Gross-Beeren.
Allies casualties were 1,000 killed and wounded, French casualties 4,500. The defeat at Grobeeren had
shaken Oudinot's confidence, and he continued the general retreat to Wittenberg. Napoleon was furious
with the marshal, "It is truly difficult to have fewer brains than the duke of Reggio !" The Emperor then
appointed Marshal Michel Ney to lead a second drive on Berlin. The result would be the Battle of
Dennewitz.
In September Bulow soundly defeated Marshals Ney and Oudinot at Dennewitz. Bulow (III and IV Corps)
probably lost 7,000-10,000 men at Dennewitz. Ney's losses amounted to 21,500 (8,000 dead and wounded,
and 13,500 prisoners) 53 guns, and 412 supply wagons. The victory at Dennewitz inspired the greatest
enthusiasm in Prussia,
and rendered Blow's popularity almost equal to that of old
Blcher. "After the defeat Marshal Ney submitted his resignation
asking to be a single grenadier rather than marshal." (- George
Nafziger)
For victory at Dennewitz Bulow was made the Count of
Dennewitz (the outraged General Tauentzien challenged Bulow to
a duel). Also Crown Prince Bernadotte thought it was him who
earned the praise and not Bulow.
Bulow again displayed his skill as a field commander in
October at Leipzig, during the fighting before the Grimma Gate.
In 1814 Bulow liberated Holland and Belgium, led his corps into
France, and participated in several battles. Article: "Campaign of
France 1814"
In July 1814 Bulow was in London with the King of Prussia.
During the Waterloo Campaign in 1815 Bulow commanded the IV Army Corps and failed to join Blucher's
army at Ligny. After the Campaign of France in 1814 Bulow held the old Bluchers command capabilities in
contempt. It led him to boldly alter any orders that he believed were poor. Bulows failure to reach Ligny
would have been reason to start a formal investigation. This step however was not taken by the King or
anyone else. Article.
Bulow then distinguished himself at Waterloo (after bloody fighting with
Napoleons Guard he captured Plancenoit). Wellington wrote: The operation of
General Bulow upon the enemies flank was a most decisive one
At age 60, Bulow enjoyed great fame. According to Boyen, Bulow liked glory but
outward honors had only little value for him. He was personally unselfish and
respected people regardless of their often incorrectly formed opinions. Bulow
died in 1816. The King declared that the officers and generals would observe 3 days
of mourning for Bulow. A statue of the victor of Dennewitz was erected in 1822 in
Berlin.
.
.
Generall Johann David Ludwig Graf Yorck von Wartenburg (1759-1830)
He was one of the first Prussians who gave prominence to
the training of light infantry. Clausewitz described him as
one of the most distinguished generals but claimed that
Yorck was "gloomy, choleric and a bad subordinate." He
is best known for his role in the Convention of Taurogen.
Yorck's father, David Jonathan Jark (von Gostkowski), was born in Rowe in Pomerania (today
Rowek, Poland). Yorck however changed his name from Jark to Yorck to make it look more
English and dropped the Polish name "Gostkowski".
Yorck entered the army in 1772, but after few years' service was cashiered for disobedience,
having criticized his superior. Then he entered Dutch service and took part in the campaign of
1783-84 in the East Indies as officer. He also took part with the French army in a battle against British troops
in Cape Town. Returning to Prussia he took part in the campaign in Poland during the Kosciuszko Uprising,
distinguishing himself especially at Szczekociny. Five years afterwards Yorck began to make a name for
himself as commander of a light infantry, being one of the first to give prominence to the training of
skirmishers.
In 1805 Yorck commanded infantry brigade.
In 1806, during the disastrous Jena Campaign, Yorck was successful rearguard commander.
During Blucher's last stand at Lubeck Yorck was severely wounded and taken prisoner.
After the Treaty of Tilsit signed in 1807 the Prussian began reforming their army. Yorck became inspector-
general of light infantry, and was appointed second in command to General Grawert, the leader of the
auxiliary corps which Prussia was compelled to send in support of Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812.
"The two generals did not agree, Grawert being an open partisan of the French alliance, and Yorck an ardent
patriot, but before long Grawert retired, and Yorck assumed the command. ...
The Convention of Tauroggen armistice, signed by Diebitsch and Yorck without consent of their king,
declared the Prussian corps "neutral". The news was received with the wildest enthusiasm, but the Prussian
Court dared not yet throw off the mask, and an order was despatched suspending Yorck from his command
pending a court-martial. Diebitsch refused to let the bearer pass through his lines, and the general was
finally absolved when the Treaty of Kalisz placed Prussia on the side of the Allies. Yorck's act was nothing
less than the turning-point of Prussian history. ...
On 17 March 1813, Yorck made his entry into
Berlin in the midst of the wildest exuberance
of patriotic joy. On the same day the king
declared war. During 1813-14 Yorck led his
veterans with conspicuous success. He
covered Blcher's retreat after Bautzen and
took a decisive part in the battles on the
Katzbach. In the advance on Leipzig his corps
won the action of Wartenburg (4 October)
and took part in the crowning victory in the
Battle of the Nations of 18 October. In the
campaign in France, Yorck drew off the
shattered remnants of Osten-Sacken's corps at Montmirail, and decided the day at Laon. The storming of
Paris was Yorck's last fight." (- wikipedia.org)
Yorck's role at Taurogen and the question of royal authority have been debated extensively. Yorck did retain
command of his corps in 1813-1814, but the King mistrusted him and harbored a grudge toward him
throughout the campaigns.
Clausewitz described Yorck as one of the most distinguished generals but claimed that he was gloomy,
choleric and a bad subordinate. Despite Yorck's rapproachment with the reformes, his relations with Bulow
remained icy. Yorck revealed his feelings to Scharnhorst in 1811: "I will repair my old pistols immediately
because I am as sure as I am alive that Bulow and I cannot be together for one week without fighting ... As
for Bulow and I, you must understand that we cannot stand each other ..."
Yorck opposed Scharnhorst's plans to open the officer corps to commoners and mocked the notion that "a
hidden talent can be found under every peasant's jacket." (In 1806 there were 7305 noble and only 695 non-
noble officers). He added that just because Pope Sixtus V had been a swineherd in his youth, it would be
ludicrous to consider all such possible candidates, lest some divine swineherd perish unnoticed. :-)
Scharnhorst however respected Yorck's military competence and had appointed Yorck Inspector of Infantry.
According to Droysen, by 1810 Yorck had developed a good relationship with Scharnhorst. Although the
two disagreed on several issues, Scharnhorst had won his support on the universal conscription. (Droysen
Das leben des Feldmarschalls)
"Notorious for their opposition to Blucher and his staff, Yorck and his staff subjected all orders from
(Blucher's) Silesian Army Headquarters to 'fundamental derogatory criticism.' ... A larger issue that emerges
from this conflict is the ideological division between the officers of the 'Frederician' Prussian army and those
of the post-Jena 'Reformed' Prussian army. Although Yorck had agreed with the 'reformers' concerning the
implementation of light infantry tactics, in no way did he symphatize with their sociopolitical program.
For this reason, he fell into the same category of the 'Frederician' officers such as Bulow, Kleist, and
Tauentzien, who, besides being reared in the army of Frederick II, believed that the only problem with the
army Napoleon defeated in 1806 was weak and indecissive leadership. With new leaders, the army would be
just as formidable as in the days of the great Frederick. Scharnhorst and his followers, who included
Gneisenau, Muffling, Clausewitz, and Boyen, opposed this view and believed that Prussia had to be
recreated not as an absolutist state - but as an enlightened constitutional monarchy that espoused the ideas
of civic duty rather than feudal terror.
Political views influenced the extent of the military reforms demanded by both camps that spawned
personal rivalries. ... These intense rivalries carried over into the campaigns of 1813-15 and often surfaced at
the most inopportune moments. ... The derisive phrases that emerged in army and corps headquarters for
this operation (in France, January 1814) - the Champagne Disposition and 'General Yorck's Calling Card' -
provide sufficient testimony of the acrid mood in both Prussian camps.
Scharnhorst
Yorck's phrase, which indicates an ill-advised, imprudent, alcohol-induced decision on the part of Silesian
Army Headquarters, particularly shows his contempt for Gneisenau. It would have been very easy to
reprimand Yorck formally for his continued misunderstanding and opposition. Moreover, the army's high
command could have accused him of insubordination, for not employing all available means to execute his
orders, and for not taking advantage of the opportunities that arose.
Although in a sarcastic guise, Muffling's comment clearly indicates that this feeling permeated Blucher's
headquarters. Blucher and Gneisenau, however, did not allow thoughts of vengeance and petty emotions to
master them. In fact, they even made excuses for this episode of insubordination, claiming that Yorck had
been ill." (Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon" pp 404-405)
Yorck died in 1830. A statue by Christian Daniel Rauch was erected in Yorck's honor in Berlin in 1855.
Yorckscher Marsch
Ludwig van Beethovens Marsch Nr. 1, hufig als Yorckscher Marsch bekannt,
wurde 1813 nach dem preuischen General Johann Graf Yorck von Wartenburg,
der 1812 fr Preuen die Konvention ...
.
.
Generall Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst (17551813)
Scharnhorst converted the Prussian army into
a national army based on universal service.
Scharnhorst was born in 1755 at Bordenau near Hanovermer. In 1778 he received a
commission in the Hanoverian army. In 1783 Scharnhorst received an appointment to the
new artillery school in Hanover. He had already founded a military journal, and in 1788
designed, and in part published, a "Handbook for Officers in the Applied Sections of Military
Science". Scharnhorst also published his "Military Handbook for Use in the Field".
Scharnhorst's first campaign took place in 1793 in the Netherlands, in which he served under
the Duke of York. In 1794 he took part in the defence of Menin and commemorated the
escape of the garrison in his book. Shortly thereafter Scharnhorst became major and joined the staff of the
Hanoverian corps. "He had by now become so well-known to the armies of the various allied states that he
received invitations from several of them to transfer his services. This in the end led to his engaging himself
to King Frederick William III of Prussia, who gave him a patent of nobility, the rank of lieutenant-colonel
and a pay more than twice as large as what he had received in Hanover (1801).
The War Academy of Berlin employed him, almost as a matter of course, in important instructional
work (he had Clausewitz as one of his pupils) and he founded the Berlin Military Society. In the
mobilizations and precautionary measures that marked the years 1804 and 1805, and in the war of
1806 that ensued, Scharnhorst served as chief of the general staff (lieutenant-quartermaster) of the Duke of
Brunswick, received a slight wound at Auerstadt (14 October 1806) and distinguished himself by his stern
resolution during the retreat of the Prussian army. He attached himself to Blcher in the last stages of the
disastrous campaign, went into captivity with him at the capitulation of Ratekau (7 November 1806), and,
quickly exchanged, had a prominent and almost decisive part in leading L'Estocq's Prussian corps which
served with the Russians. For his services at Eylau (February 1807), he received the highest Prussian military
order Pour le Mrite." (- wikipedia.org)
In 1801-2 Scharnhorst and several associates had founded the Militarische Gesellschaft, hoping that the society
would attract military men who would devote themselves to studying the art of war. They were critical of
the Prussian armys organization and tactics, and called for reforms. For these reasons the reformers had
acquired the reputation of Jacobins.
In 1807 Scharnhorst became general-major and the head of a reform commission which included the best of
the younger officers, such as Gneisenau, Grolman and Boyen. Scharnhorst and other reformers, realised that
only a mas, or national, army could give an adequate response to the strategic situation brought about by
the French. Back then, Prussia was occupied by the French troops and Napoleon became suspicious of
Scharnhorst's activities. The King repeatedly had to suspend or cancel the reforms recommended. Despite
the setbacks, Scharnhorst gradually converted the Prussian army into a national army based on universal
service.
According to Michael Leggiere, General Scharnhorst also envisioned a military marriage between the
commander of the corps and his chief of staff. Gneisenau however favored a more assertive role for the
chiefs of staff and he notified the corps commanders and their chiefs of staff that they would jointly share the
responsibilities. This system of dual command would insure that individual corps commanders operated
within the parameters of the objectives issued from the army headquarters.
In 1812 Scharnhorst left Berlin and in
retirement wrote a work on firearms. After
Napoleon's defeat in Russia, Scharnhorst,
recalled to the king's headquarters, refused a
higher post but became Chief of Staff to
Blcher. Russian General Wittgenstein was so
impressed by Scharnhorst that he asked to
borrow him temporarily as his Chief of Staff.
Blcher agreed.
At Ltzen (see picture) however Scharnhorst
received a wound in the foot, not in itself
grave, but soon made mortal by the fatigues
of the retreat, and he succumbed to it on 28
June. Shortly before his death Scharnhorst
had received promotion to the rank of
general-lieutenant. The King erected a statue
in memory of him, in Berlin.
.
.
.
Generall August Wilhelm Antonius Graf Neidhardt von Gneisenau (17601831)
The chief of staff of the Prussian army. Enough said.
Gneisenau was born in 1760 at Schildau, near Torgau, and grew up in great poverty.
In 1777 Gneisenau entered the University of Erfurt, but 2 years later joined an Austrian
regiment stationed in that city. In 1782 he entered as an officer the service of the Margrave of
Bayreuth-Ansbach. With one of that prince's mercenary regiments in British pay, he saw service
and gained experience in the American Revolutionary War. He returned from America in 1786
and applied for Prussian service. As staff officer in 1790, he served in Poland 1793-94. During
the years of subsequent quiet garrison life he undertook a wide range of military studies.
In 1806 he served as staff-officer, fought at Jena, and a little later commanded a provisional infantry brigade
which fought under Lestocq. In 1807 he was sent as commandant to Kolberg, which, though small succeeded
in holding out against Napoleonic forces until the Peace of Tilsit. Gneisenau was aawarded with the highly-
prized Pour le Mrite and promoted to lieutenant-colonel.
As a member of the reorganizing committee, he played an important role, along with Scharnhorst, in the
work of reforming the Prussian army. The French were suspisious of his and Scharnhorst's activities.
Gneisenau retired and visited Russia, Sweden and Britain. After the long trip he returned to Prussia and
resumed his place as a leader of the patriotic party.
During the War of Liberation, General-Major Gneisenau became Blcher's quartermaster-general. Thus
began the connection between these two men which has "furnished military history with one of the best
examples of the harmonious co-operation between a commander and his chief-of-staff. With Blcher,
Gneisenau served in the capture of Paris; his military character perfectly complemented Blcher's, and under
this happy guidance the young troops of Prussia, often defeated but never discouraged, fought their way
into the heart of France. The plan for the march on Paris, which led directly to the fall of Napoleon, was
specifically the work of the chief-of-staff. In reward for his distinguished service, Gneisenau in 1814along
with Yorck, Kleist and Blow was elevated to count ...
In 1815, once more chief of Blcher's staff,
Gneisenau played a very conspicuous part in
the Waterloo campaign. Senior generals such as
Yorck and Kleist had been set aside in order
that the chief-of-staff should take command in
case of need, and when on the field of Ligny
the old field marshal was disabled, Gneisenau
assumed command of the Prussian army.
He rallied the army , directed it (see picture)
towards Wavre from where part of it marched
to join Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo on
18 June 1815, where the flanking attack by the
Prussians decided the battle.
On the field of Waterloo, Gneisenau carried out
a pursuit that resulted in the capture of
Napoleon's carriage. In the days following the
battle, Gneisenau saw that the Prussian forces reached Paris before Wellington. In reward Gneisenau gained
further promotion and the insignia of the Black Eagle." (- wikipedia.org)
General Gneisenau believed that the reform of military law was vital to the successful creation of a citizen
army. Universal conscription could only be achieved if military life became more tolerable for the masses. As
a result, the committees guidelines banned the barbarous punishments such as flogging and running the
gauntlet. (Leggiere The Life, Letters, and Campaigns of Friedrich Wilhelm Graf Bulow von Dennewitz 1755-
1816 p 128)
Gneisenau fell into ill-repute with the King and resigned one year after Waterloo. For two years Gneisenau
lived in retirement in Silesia, before becaming governor of Berlin in 1818. In 1825 he was promoted to
General Field Marshal. In 1831 he was appointed to the command of the Army of Observation on the Polish
frontier, with Clausewitz as his chief-of-staff. At Posen he was struck down by cholera and died.
.
Blucher/Gneisenau tandem's contribution
to the defeat of the Horse Thief of Berlin.
"He (Blucher) undoubtedly owed much to the genius of Gneisenau, his singularly avle chief of staff, and was
always most generous in acknowledging his indebtedness to his gifted subordinate; in fact, the latter
probably received more than his due share of credit for the success obtained by his commander.
The usual procedure seems to have been for Gneisenau to submit an outline of the proposed operations to
his chief, who, if he considered them suitable, carried them through with his own inimitable energy and
determination. Nuy Blucher was no mere figuer-head, whose every movement was controlled by the subtle
brain of his chief-of-staff; he was fully capable of originating a plan of campaign, while his power of rapidly
coming to a decision and the vigour with which he carried out his projects were the principal factors of his
success. At the critical periods of the campaign, his unshaken courage and the fact that along among the
commanders of that period, he was not in the least disconcerted by the presence of Napoleon on the field of
battle, were of immense value to the cause of the Allies." (Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814")
Napoleon's major defeats:
- 1809 Aspern-Essling
Austrians under Archduke Charles. (See picture -->).
Allied commanders: Archduke Charles
-
- 1812 Beresina Crossings
French victory !)
-
- 1813 Leipzig
Napoleon withstood Allies assaults and then counterattacked.
Meanwhile another army (under Bennigsen) attacked his
flank.
It forced Napoleon to abandon his strongpoints and withdraw
his army closer to Leipzig. Then he was surrounded &
crushed.
probably Napoleon's greatest defeat. Allied commanders were:
Allies' commanders: Schwarzenberg (Austrians), Tolly (Russians)
Bernadotte (Swedes) and Blucher/Gneisenau (Prussians).
Armies: 200,000 French, Poles, and Germans vs 300,000 Allies
Article: "Leipzig 1813 - Battle of The Nations"
-
- 1814 La Rothiere
The allied commanders (with the exception of Gneisenau) were
entirely carried away by their enthusiasm and, instead of
organising a vigorous pursuit, wasted the day following
the battle in feasting and mutual congratulations.
Allies commanders: Blucher/Gneisenau
Armies: 45,000 French vs 52,000 Russians, Austrians, Germans
Article: "La Rothiere 1814"
-
- 1814 Laon
Allies' stand had prevented Napoleon from driving them north.
The Allies were still in a position to advance on Paris, which
they did at the end of March.
Armies: 35,000 French vs 60,000 Russians and Prussians
-
- 1815 Waterloo
his flank. Napoleon was crushed.
One of prominent French historians , Adolphe Thiers , wrote
"Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire". It was impossible for him
to write about Waterloo(La Belle Alliance, Mont St.Jean)without
announcing the defeat of Napoleon. But Mr Thiers takes you by
surprise when he comes to the rout of the French , for they have
been everywhere victorious. The French troops are defeated but
the Prussians too had been defeated. The French retire that they
may not be cut off.
Armies: 75,000 French vs 122,250 Allies
Allies commanders: Wellington (British, German, Netherland)
and Blucher/Gneisenau (Prussians)
Article: "Waterloo 1815"
German farmer, mounted Cossack, and an Englishman,
enjoying a duel between the robust Blucher and the
little Buonaparte. Picture by G Shadow, Great Britain.
.
King vs generals.
"It is possible that some time we shall have to come
to the aid of the King of Prussia against his generals."
- Tzar Alexander of Russia
The Prussian generals and the senior officers had served their country well. When Napoleon abdicated the
second time, and hostilities had finally came to an end, this was recognized by the King. In addition to the
popular adulation which greeted them wherever they went, Blucher, Gneisenau, Grolman, Bulow, and
others, received formal honors, promotions, and responsibility in the state.
There was however one big problem. Even when they were winning battles for the king and
country, the reformers had done little to ingratiate themselves with their sovereign and their
conduct often irritated and frightened him. Blucher/Gneisenau's insistence upon their own
war plan during the Campaign of France in 1814, had turned out well in the end; but the
violent manner in which they had argued their case, had been alarming. It smacked vaguely
on insubordination, and it recalled to the monarch's mind the revolt of Schill in 1809, a thing
of which he did not wish to be reminded.
"Their attitude during the peace negotiations at Vienna had been even worse. They had been
bitterely critical of the procedure of negotiations and of the tactics of the Prussian
representatives - Boyen, indeed, over a very triffling matter, had fought a rather foolish duel in Vienna with
Wilhelm von Humboldt - and they had been patently disgusted with the territorial arrangements
concluded.
Filled with a nationalistic fervour, they had championed schemes of German unity in which the king had no
interest or pushed plans for a Prussian hegemony in northern Germany which he felt were impractical. They
had not only insisted that Prussia must be allowed to annex all of Saxony, but they had been willing to fight
a new war against Austria in order to secure this accretion of territory. In late 1814, indeed, Gneisenau,
Boyen, and Grolman, had prepared plans for such a war and had argued that Britain would stand idly by,
and Russia and Wurttemberg give active aid, while the Prussian army destroyed Austria and remodelled
Germany." (Craig - "The Politics of the Prussian Army 1640-1945" page 66)
Austria was very alarmed and concluded a secret allaince with France and Britain in January 1815. The Tzar
Alexander of Russia was reported to be disturbed and was supposed to have said to his field commanders:
"It is possible that some time we shall have to come to the aid of the King of Prussia against his generals."
Castlereagh of Great Britain wrote: "With all that partiality and a greatful admiration of the conduct of
Prussia and its armies in the war, I fairly won that I look with considerable anxiety to the tendency of their
politics." The King of Prussia and his diplomats could not avoid sensing this growing coolness in Vienna,
Moscow, Paris and London. His ministers were warning him that the aggressive attitude of the generals was
not helping Prussia's international position.
~
Prussian General Staff (Generalstab).
US Army military staff service has its origins in the Prussian army.
In the the US Staff College Publication 1 is clearly stated that
"The modern general staff was developed in Prussia during
the XIXth century."
Picture: General Gneisenau with staff officer. Picture by Christa Hook.
Despite small population Prussia had one of the largest armies in the
world. Such army required an efficient staff. Originally the term
Generalstab referred to all officers of general grade and all
administrative personnel not attached to the regiments or the artillery.
The functions of a modern General Staff - the execution of technical
duties and the preparation of operational plans - were performed
during the Great Elector's reign by the General-quartiermeister and his
assistants, under Sparr's supervision. In time of war the Elector, like
the King Frederick the Great in a later period, was both commander-
in-chief and chief-of-staff, although Sparr held the latter post in
wartime. In 1800 General Lecoq attempted a more systematic
description of what a staff's duty should be and, in the following year, Colonel von Massenbach applied his
mind to the same task.
During the Napoleonic Wars the chief-of-staff was on army, corps and brigade level. Each of the had a
group of staff officers. In 1809 a corps of permanent staff officers was established and specific uniforms were
introduced for them. Under Generals Scharnhorst and Gneisenau the staff officers received great educations,
and Scharnhorst instilled in them "a high sense of moral responsibility". He selected the best of his pupils
and trained them to plan and execute military operations. But their function was not to command but to
assist their corps and brigade commanders in determining the tactical feasibility of an operation.
Chief-of-staff of Army
The supreme command was naturally the responsibility of the army's commanding general,
with the role of his chief-of-staff [of the army] being to turn the commanding general's
intentions into practical plans. "The Prussian General Staff operated under a chief-of-staff
system. In this instance Lieutenant-General von Gneisenau filled the post officially known as
Quartermaster-General. He was the second-in-command to Blcher, as well as being
responsible for co-ordinating all staff functions. He was also the officer representing the
Minister of War with the army, and had juridiction (under the commander who took overall
credit or blame for the army's activities) over both operational and administrative matters. In
the field Gneisenau wielded his authority in the name of the commander-in-chief in virtually
all military spheres - movement, tactics, deployment, intelligence and logistics (food, clothing,
ammunition and accommodation). Blcher made the major decisions after consultation with
Gneisenau and others, such as Major-General von Grolmann who headed the staff at the
headquarters."
Chief-of-staff of Corps
"The chief-of-staff of a corps was responsible for its organisation and leadership, acting as an
advisor to the corps commander...
Chief-of-staff of Brigade
These [brigade staff officers] dealt with matters such as the reconnaissance of terrain and any
resulting changes in the direction of the marching columns ... with reconnoitring the enemy
and the countryside, particularly with regard to the supply and quartering of the troops; with
the receipt and implementation of orders regarding combat, deployment and marching.
Finally, the brigade staff officer was required to deal with every matter drawn to his attention
by the brigade commander."
(Hofschroer - "Prussian Staff..." p 11)
Since treaty obligations (signed in 1813) dispersed the four Prussian corps among the Allies armies,
Gneisenau planned to utilize the Prussian staff "to prevent the subordination of Prussian military goals in a
multinational coalition. His position as both chief of the General Staff of the Prussian Army and chief staff
officer of Blucher's Army of Silesia enabled him to obtain a considerable degree of autonomy from Allied
Headquarters, where the sovereigns consistently interfered with Schwarzenberg's plans. Gneisenau intended
to direct all Prussian operations through the chief of staff of each corps. He hoped that this unity of
command would enable him to fulfill Scharnhorst's conception of seeking and destroying Napoleon's forces
regardless of political considerations." (Leggiere - "Napoleon and Berlin" p 133)
General Scharnhorst died in June 1813 from wounds received at the battle of Lutzen. Gneisenau succeeded
him as chief of staff of the army. For the upcoming campaign the general appointed Scharnhorst's best
pupils as chiefs of staff of the four army corps.
Commanders and chiefs-of-staff
in 1813 (Leipzig Campaign)
Army Corps Commander Chief-of-staff
I
II
III
IV
GL Yorck
GL Kleist
GL Bulow
GL Tauentzien
Ob. von Zielinski
Ob-Ltn. von Grolmann
Ob. von Boyen
?
On March 17th 1815 (several weeks before Waterloo), the chief-of-staff of the Prussian army, General
Gneisenau, was dispatched to assemble the troops. Seven army corps were formed, four (I, II, III, IV) were
concentrated on the Rhine, one corps (V) on the Oder, and two (VI, VII) assembled near Berlin. The Old
Forward was ordered out of retirement by the King to assume the command of the army. Should Bluchers
ability to command be incapacitated, the senior commander would succeed him. The King desired
Gneisenaus leadership and to solve this dilemma, Generals Ziethen, Pirch and Thielemann, all junior to
Gneisenau, were made commanders of the I, II, and III Army Corps.
The Big Four (Bulow, Tauentzien, Kleist, and Yorck) were senior to Gneisenau and to quiet them they were
given honorable appointments. Kleist was appointed to command the North German Corps in Luxembourg.
Although Bulow was held in high regard, his IV Corps initially was not designated to directly participate in
the planned offensive. Yorck commanded the V Corps, and Tauentzien the VI, both were far away from the
theater of war.
Commanders and chiefs-of-staff
in 1815 (Waterloo Campaign)
Army Corps Commander Chief-of-staff
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
Guards and Grenadiers
GL Ziethen-II
GM Pirch-I
GL Thielemann
GdI Bulow
GL Yorck
GL Tauentzien
GL Prinz von Mecklenberg
Ob.Ltn. von Reiche
Ob. von Aster
Ob. von Clausewitz
GM Valentini
Ob. von Rudolphi
Ob. von Rothenburg
Ob.-Ltn. von Schz
After Napoleon's second abdication in 1815, Europe entered a long period of peace. Armies were cut back
and interest in military science waned in most nations. Only in Prussia did military men study the crises of
command that emerged during the last stages of the Napoleonic Wars, when mass armies took to the
battlefields. If Napoleon Bonaparte was the last Great Captain of history, then von Moltke (ext.link) was the
first Great Manager of the modern military era. He built up a new system based on the principle of using
highly trained and interchangeable staff officers. Noting von Moltke's success over the French army, all
major European nations copied his methods.
Abbreviations of ranks:
FM - Feldmarschall (Field Marshal)
GdK - Generall der Kavallerie (General of Cavalry)
GdI - Generall der Infanterie (General of Infantry)
GL - Generalleutnant (General Lieutenant)
GM - Generallmajor (General Major)
Ob. - Oberst (Colonel)
Ob.-Ltn. - Oberstleutenant (Colonel-Lieutenant)
Mjr. - Major (Major)
.
.
.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.
.
.
"When the Emperor Napoleon abdicated and was sent to Elba
I petitioned the King (of Prussia) to grant my release from
military service ... I sent for a tailor to make my outer man
myself again. I can hardly describe my sense of freedom when
I put off my uniform; the long-worn dress was hateful to me
however I may have been honoured in the right to wear it"
- Heinrich Steffens
~
.
.
.

OFF TOPIC. "Lily Marlene" is a German love song from World War II.
It became popular throughout Europe among both Axis and ... Allied troops.
The Nazi propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels, ordered broadcasting of
the song to stop. The radio received many letters from soldiers asking
them to play "Lili Marleen" again. Goebbels reluctantly changed his mind.
Its popularity quickly grew. Soldiers stationed around the Mediterranean,
including both German Afrika Korps and British 8th Army troops, regularly
tuned in to hear it. Many Allied soldiers made a point of listening to it
at the end of the day. American soldiers in Italy later adapted the tune
to their own lyrics, creating the D-Day Dodgers song.
.
.
.
Sources and Links.
Oiver Schmidt - "Prussian Regular Infantryman 1808-1815" 2003
Citino - "The German Way of War"
Hofschroer - "1815: The Waterloo Campaign. The German Victory."
Leggiere - "Bulow and the campaign of 1815"
Hofschroer - "Prussian Light Infantry 1792-1815" 1984
Hofschroer - "Prussian Staff and Specialist Troops 1791-1815"
Leggiere - "Napoleon and Berlin: the Franco-Prussian war in northern Germany, 1813"
White - "The Enlightened Soldier: Scharnhorst and the Militarische Gesellsschaft in Berlin 1801-1805" Praeger; 1989.
Craig - "The Politics of the Prussian Army 1640-1945" publ. in 1955
Jany Preussische Armee
Craig - "The Germans" 1991
Duffy - "Frederick the Great" 1985
Digby-Smith - "1813: Leipzig" Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814"
Duffy - "The Army of Frederick the Great" 1974
Holborn - "A History of Modern Germany 1648-1840" 1982
Petre - "Napoleons Conquest of Prussia 1806" 1993
Simms - "The Struggle for Mastery in Germany" 1998
Summerville "Napoleon's Polish Gamble"
Nafziger - "Napoleon's Invasion of Russia"
Pictures by Knoetel, and L. & F. Funcken
www.napoleon-series.org
flags from warflag.com
Ltzow's Free Corps and Volunteer Riflemen 1813-2003 {Ltzowschen Freikorps}
History of Prussia and Military History {Preuische Geschichte und Militrgeschichte}
Reenactors of Kurmark Landwehr 1813 {Kurmrkische Landwehr}
East-Prussian Landwehr 1813 {Ostpreuische Landwehr}
Silesian Landwehr 1813{Schlesische Landwehr 1813}
5th Prussian Brigade {5. preussische Brigade}
John Keegan and the Grand Tradition of Trashing Clausewitz.
.
Prussian Infantry : Preuische Infanterie : Uniforms : Organization : Weapons
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Prussian_infantry.htm[2012-05-21 12:41:38]
Prussian Infantry of the Napoleonic Wars
"The infantry of Prussia in 1806 was 'a museum piece'
reflecting the great days of (King) Frederick the Great
imposing in appearance but decidedly disappointing
in performance" - David Chandler
The new Prussian infantry of 1813-15 however used modern tactics
and was well organized. The men were enthusiastic and patriotic.
"Splendid old General Horn was at the head of the famous Leib Regiment;
he raised his sword on high, gave a loud Hurrah ! ... Forward !
Long live to the king of Prussia ! ...
These were scenes that inspired each good, Prussian heart ... there was a
splendid spirit in our Prussian troops, be they line or Landwehr. May this
always be the case for then the state of the Hohenzollerns will stand firm
and respected." - Mjr Ernst Moritz Arndt, Leipzig 1813
Introduction.
Organization.
Tactics.
Uniforms.
Weapons.
Foot Guard.
Grenadiers.
Line Infantry.
Light Infantry.
Landwehr .
Oliver Schmidt on
Prussian infantry:
- rifles
- light infantry
- grenadiers' uniforms
- morale of volunteer-jgers
Prussian infantry in 1813 and their beloved General Blucher
Generall Vorwrts ("General Forward")
.
Introduction.
"Disaster at Jena and Auerstadt in 1806 shook the foundations of
Prussian military theory and practice, furnishing an impetus for
analysis and reform." - Charles White - "The Enlightened Soldier:
Scharnhorst and the Militarische Gesellsschaft in Berlin 1801-1805"
Picture:
Prussian
infantry in
1806, by L.&
F. Funcken.
(Castermann
Publishing
1969) -
L'uniforme et
les Armes des
Soldats du
Premier
Empire
"The
infantry of
Prussia in
1806 was 'a
museum
piece'
reflecting
the great
days of
Frederick the Great imposing in appearance but decidedly
disappointing in performance. and outdated in training. This was
evident as early as Valmy in 1792, but few improvements had been
wrought 14 years later. The cult of the past was unshakeable, the
tactics rigid, the supply train enormous, and a day's march of over 10
miles was considered excessive. Its leadership was also antiquated,
except for Prince Louis Ferdinand. The disasters of Jena and
Auerstadt and the succeeding weeks, and the humiliations of Tilsit at
length brought reform under the inspiration of Scharnhorst."
(Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic wars" p 210)
The Prussian commanders preferred to move their battalions
methodically and over open terrain. Unlike the French, they had to
hold precision above speed and flexibility. Heavy dependence on
magazines and enormous baggage trains following the troops further
added to the army's inflexibility.
The Prussians broadly interpreted Frederick the Great's remark that
the soldiers should fear their officers more than the enemy. The goal
of the discipline was to transform the infantry into an instrument of
single mind and will. Frederick writes, "If during a combat a soldier
appears ready to flee, or so much as steps off the line, the NCO
standing behind him will run him through with his bayonet and kill
him on the spot." Many deserteres were executed, while those found
guilty of less serious offenses ran the gauntlet.
"The Prussian Infantry who mobilised in 1806 were products of a
system that had not altered since the Seven Years' War. They were
immaculately dressed, drilled into unquestioning obedience, savagely
punished if they fell foul of their commanders and were unfit for the
new type of warfare in every possible way." (Robert Mantle - "Prussian
Reserve Infantry: 1813-15")
The years of 1807-1812
were time of
reorganization and
reform of the army, and
infantry in particular. In
1808 the Prussians
reorganized their infantry
and this was followed by
the Exerzir Reglement fur
die Infanterie der Koniglich Preussischen Armee of 1812.
The Prussian infantry that joined the Allies against France in 1813
was well-organized and trained according to modern princples
patterned on the French model. The regular infantry wase well
trained, well clothed and well armed. They were brave soldiers. The
reserve infantry was formed from various troops, and might have
each battalion in different uniform, and several types of muskets.
Most of them however performed in combat quite well.
There were also volunteer units, they armed and uniformed
themselves. The volunteers were enthusiastic but lacked training and
physical toughness.
The Landwehr infantry was a national levy of all men betweem 17
and 40 capable of bearing weapons. They lacked weapons and
uniforms. Many wore either captured French greatcoats or civilian
clothes. The older men capable of bearing arms went into Landsturm.
They were poorly armed and saw little duty.
Preussens Gloria Marsch
~
Organization of Prussian Infantry.
The basic organizational building blocks of Prussian infantry were
companies and regiments. The basic tactical units were companies
and battalions. In 1806 the Prussian infantry consisted of 60 infantry
regiments (2 musketier battalions each). There were also one regiment
of Foot Guards, 27 grenadier, 24 fusilier and 3 jagers battalions.
INFANTRY REGIMENT
(1806)
=
Staff
=
(+ 2 light guns)
Grenadier Company
Grenadier Company
The two grenadier companies were detached
from the regiment and formed grenadier batalions.
I
Musketier Battalion
Musketier Company
Musketier Company
Musketier Company
Musketier Company
II
Musketier Battalion
Musketier Company
Musketier Company
Musketier Company
Musketier Company
Each of the 120 musketier battalions had 830 men:
= 22 officers (and 5 surgeons)
= 60 NCOs
= 15 drummers (and 6 oboye players for the I Battalion)
= 10 sappers
= 600 musketiers and 50 reserves [1]
= 50 Schtzen with 1 bugler.
= 18 gunners (incl. 1 NCO)
Grenadier battalion had 805 men:
= 56 NCOs
= 12 drummers and 8 fifers
= 8 sappers
= 600 grenadiers and 40 reserves [1]
= 40 Schutzen with 1 bugler
= 18 gunners (incl. 1 NCO)
Fusilier battalion had 690 men:
= 48 NCOs
= 5 drummers and 7 buglers
= 8 sappers
= 520 fusiliers and 40 reserves [1]
= 40 Schtzen with 1 bugler.
[1] - the 'reserves' were ordinary musketeers, fusilers or grenadiers.
They joined their parent battalions for periods of excercise. They
were paid only during that exercise period. In wartime they were
paid and were used to replace the killed, wounded and ill soldiers
and those detached for other duties, and deserters.
During the Jena Campaign in 1806 the French troops captured some
340 Prussian colours !
Colours and standards were carried by a senior NCO (fahnen
standarten trager). He was
armed with a saber and was ranked with a Feldwebel.
The escort of color consisted of colour-bearer-NCOs (fahnen-
unteroffitziere) armed with spontoons.
In November 1807 was issued order that each musketier battalion
should have 2 colours, and that the grenadier and fusilier (light
infantry) battalions should have none. By 1812 however all grenadier
battalions carried colours. These were the retirierfahne of the regiment
from which the grenadier companies were drawn.
"The two battalion flags were known respectively as the Avancierfahne
and the Retirierfahne, in effect the 1st and 2nd colours of the
battalions. The 1st colour of the I Battalion of a regiment was also
known as the regiment's Leib-fahne. Generally speaking, the
Retirierfahne of a I Battalion was of the same design and colouring as
both colours of the II Battalion, whilst the Leib-fahne was in reversed
colours from the other three, this being especially true with regard to
flags issued after 1808. During the campaigns of 1813-15, only the
Avancierfahne of each battalion was carried in the field."
(Nash - "The Prussian Army 1808-15" p 92)
Flag staffs were white except for 12 battalions,
which had black:
- Life Grenadier Battalion
- 2nd East Prussia Grenadier Battalion
- both musketier battalions of (3.) 2nd East
Prussia Infantry Regiment
- both musketier battalions of (4.) 3rd East
Prussia Infantry Regiment
- both musketier battalions of (9.) Life Infantry
Regiment
- both musketier battalions of (10.) Kolberg
Infantry Regiment
- both musketier battalions of (11.) 1st Silesia
Infantry Regiment
(The battalions of Foot Guard changed the colour
of their staffs from
white to yellow in January 1813. They also had silver pike heads.)
In December 1808 a regiment's strength was regulated at 2 musketier
and 1 fusilier battalion. The grenadiers were part of the regiment but
on campaign they were detached. They were grouped into Grenadier
Battalions, one of which was attached to each of the army's six
brigades.
December 1808:
- [1.] 1st East Prussia Infantry Regiment
- [2.] 1st Pommerania Infantry Regiment
- [3.] 2nd East Prussia Infantry Regiment
- [4.] 3rd East Prussia Infantry Regiment
- [5.] 4th East Prussia Infantry Regiment
- [6.] 1st West Prussia Infantry Regiment
- [7.] 2nd West Prussia Infantry Regiment
- [8.] Guard Infantry Regiment
- [9.] Life Infantry Regiment
- [10.] Kolberg Infantry Regiment
- [11.] 1st Silesia Infantry Regiment
- [12.] 2nd Silesia Infantry Regiment
- Normal Battalion
- [1.] Guard Jager Battalion
- [2.] East Prussia Jager Battalion
- [3.] Silesian Schutzen Battalion
- [1.] East Prussia Grenadier Battalion
- [2.] East Prussia Grenadier Battalion
- Pommerania Grenadier Battalion
- Life Grenadier Battalion
- West Prussia Grenadier Battalion
- Silesia Grenadier Battalion
In December 1812 eight 'Militia' battalions were raised by Bulow in
East Prussia.
In January von Yorck raised 12 reserve battalions and 3 Lithuanian
fusilier battalions.
In February it was decreed that each grenadier battalion should form
one reserve battalion
and each infantry battalion should form two.
In March 1813, the Prussian infantry consisted of 12 regiments. Each
regiment had two numbers;
one was its precedence in the Line, and the other, precedence in the
province it recruited from.
During the 1813-1814 campaign the Prussian infantry consisted of:
- 12 'old' infantry regiments
- 12 reserve infantry regiments
- numerous small troops of light infantry and volunteers
- regiments of Landwehr
INFANTRY REGIMENT
(1813)
=
Staff
=
Volunteer-Jagers
Grenadier Company
Grenadier Company
The two grenadier companies were detached
from the regiment and formed grenadier batalions.
Fusilier Battalion
Fusilier Company
Fusilier Company
Fusilier Company
Fusilier Company
I
Musketier Battalion
Musketier Company
Musketier Company
Musketier Company
Musketier Company
II
Musketier Battalion
Musketier Company
Musketier Company
Musketier Company
Musketier Company
During the Waterloo Campaign in 1815 Prussia had
34 line infantry regiments (of 3 battalions each) :
- 1st Foot Guard
- 2nd Foot Guard
- 1st Infantry Regiment
- 2nd Infantry Regiment
- 3rd Infantry Regiment
- 4th Infantry Regiment
- 8th (Leib) Infantry Regiment
- - These were the 'old' regiments,
- - solid, well-trained and well-dressed.
- - Only these regiments carried flags.
- 21st Infantry Regiment
- 22nd Infantry Regiment
- 23rd Infantry Regiment
- - These regiments were formed from the 12 reserve infantry
regiments.
- - They got to know their new names in March and April 1815 when
the king
- - send orders from Vienna, Austria. The monarch participated there
in the
- - politically important Congress. Some of these units fought very
well in
- - the Waterloo Campaign, for example the 18th Regiment bled the
most of
- - all Prussian infantry regiments. They suffered 810 killed and
wounded
- - in the fighting with the French in Placenoit. It was awarded with
33 crosses.
- - Major Keller of 15th Infantry Regiment took possesion of
Napoleon's sword,
- - medals, hat, and purse of diamonds.
- 25th Infantry Regiment was formed from Lutzow's infantry
- 26th Infantry Regiment was formed from Elbe Regiment
- 27th Infantry Regiment was formed from Hellwig's infantry,
Reiche's
- - - jagers, reserve battalion of Elbe Regiment and 7th Replacement
Battalion
- 28th Infantry Regiment was formed from Berg infantry
- 29th Infantry Regiment was formed from Berg infantry
- 30th Infantry Regiment was formed from the Russo-German
Legion
- 31st Infantry Regiment was formed from the Russo-German
Legion
- 32nd Infantry Regiment was formed (in December ?) from the
Westphalian
- - and Saxon militia
~
Tactics of Prussian Infantry.
Methods of delivering musket fire.
Troops forming lines and columns.
Troops defending villages, towns.
Skirmishers.
Tactical deployment of brigades .
Picture: Prussian
Landwehr infantry
in 1813.
Picture by Dmitrii
Zgonnik, Ukraine.
"The Prussian army
of 1792 used
several different
firing techniques.
- When a
battalion was
formed by Halb-
compagnien (half-companies) in line, fire was executed by the
alternate firing of half-companies. The three ranks fired
simultaneously. The first rank knelt, while the second and third stood
upright. The fire began from the right.
- A second form of fire used by the Prussians was by half-
companies with the third rank taking a half turn to the right. This fire
was executed when the battalion made half-turn to the right, but
with the line not moving from its original position. The rest of the
action was the same as firing by half-companes.
- The third form of Prussian fire was the advancing fire. Here the
half-companies marched towards the enemy. The right half-company
stopped and fired first. Upon the signal of their officer, and without
reloading, the right hand half-company shouldered arms and
advanced. The next half-company would stop and fire when the first
half-company caught up with the slowly retreating line, and so on
down the line of the battalion."
- The fourth method of fire was retreating fire. When advancing
directly away from the enemy the first half-company (formerly on
the left, now the right) would stop, turn about, and fire. When the
fire was executed, the soldiers would shoulder their arms, about face
and resume the retreat, catching up with the battalion. Each
successive half-company would act in the same manner as the
preceding half-company caught up with the retiring battalion. Again,
there is no indication of stopping to reload.
- There were also three types of an unusual firing method known as
'hedge' (sniper) fire. The first of these was a withdrawing fire where
pairs of files would turn about and fire on pursuing hussars or
skirmishers. This was intended as just enough fire to keep the
harassing forces away.
The second type of hedge fire was used when facing small groups of
enemy infantry which were not sufficient to justify a battalion volley,
but were sufficiently annoying to merit some response. In this latter
instance pairs of files would advance 8 paces in front of the battalion,
form in two ranks, fire, reform in three ranks, and return to the
battalion.
The third form of hedge fire was exactly the same as the second type,
but the pair of files did an about face, advanced out of the rear of the
battalion and fired to the rear. All the actions were the same."
(Nafziger - "Imperial Bayonets" Greenhill Books 1996)
According to George Nafziger the Ordinairschritt and Geschwindschritt
were still 75 and 108 paces per minute.
As in 1788, the post-1812 Prussian infantry manoeuvred in the Zug
column and executed many of its manoeuvres from this formation.
When the Prussian infantry marched to the battlefield it still marched
in the Zuge column.
The Prussian (and the French) infantry of 1813-15 had sometimes
problems with advancing in lines against the enemy. As we
(Prussians) neared the French batteries, Bulow attempted to protect
our first wave, which was advancing in battalion masses, against the
impacxt of the cannonballs by forming an ordinary line.
This failed and the fast reorganization into battalion masses was the
only means of preventing disorder. In addition, it proved that in the
present employment of artillery and by the utilization of any terrain,
an advance in combat with long, thin lines is impossible and should
be stricken from the regulations.
(- General Boyen, after the battle of Gross-Beeren 1813)
Prussian
infantry
battalions
used closed
columns
instead of
squares
against
cavalry.
When
enemy's
cavalry
approached
the outer files filled the gaps between the troops. Such compact
formaion was formed quickly, the troopers in 1st rank outstretched
their bayonets while those in 2nd rank fired. The men in 3rd rank
loaded the muskets and passed to the 2nd rank. (Diagram from George
Nafziger's book "Imperial Bayonets" website)
I am not sure if they formed also multi-battalion squares. If so, then
how did they do this ? In 1813 at the battle of Gross Beeren "The I
Kolberg Battalion formed a large square with two other battalions
from the 5th Reserve Regiment." (Leggiere - "Napoleon and Berlin" p
170)
.
General von
Clausewitz was not
happy with the
method the
Prussian infantry
defended villages.
He wrote: "We use
up our troops too
fast in stationary
combat. Our
officers call for
support too soon,
and it's given them
too readily. The consequence is that we suffer more dead and
wounded without gaining any ground, and we transform our fresh
soldiers into burnt-out husks."
Picture (right): Prussian infantry defending Mockern in 1813. Picture
by Keith Rocco, USA.
.
Skirmishers.
"The physical ability and high intelligence of the common man
enables the French to profit form all advantages offered by
the terrain and the general situation, while the phlegmatic
Germans ... form on open ground and do nothing but what their
officer orders them to do." - General Scharnhorst
Many Prussians generals were not in favor of skirmishing and
skirmishers. Freytag-Loringhoven wrote, "The Prussian infantry at
one time took the Frederician maxim of marching boldly upon the
enemy too literally, and insisted that skirmishing is the mark of a
coward." They were wrong, skirmishing required energy, stamina,
imagination and innitiative. Some Prussian generals understood it,
General Scharnhorst writes, "It is also worth some consideration that
light troops offer the greatest opportunity for the training of good
and useful officers, because daily actions accustom them to danger,
and by being left to rely more on their own judgment they are taught
how to tear themselves from the machine-like process of their
profession. All previous teaching is as useless as it is inapplicable,
and therefore the officers boldness, judgment, and independence
grow almost daily."
In 1813-1815 the skirmishers of the reformed Prussian infantry
performed well.
In 1815 at Ligny, Bnau's battalion (II/19th Infantry) had spent much
of the day fighting either in skirmish order or in small battle groups.
The skirmishers often had to crawl through gaps in the fences and
hedges or very quickly move from one place to another. If all
Prussian infantry was like Bnau's battalion, Ligny would probably
never fall into French hands.
Picture (left): skirmisher from the 11th
Infantry Regiment. Picture by S Palatka.
Troopers from the 3rd rank of fusiliers (or even
musketiers and grenadiers) could operate as
skirmishers or as reserve behind light infantry. The
3rd rankers were sometimes formed into
independent platoons (commanded by 1 officer
and 3 NCOs) or even into battalions. Such
platoons/battalions of 3rd rankers musketeers
were always formed on 2 ranks. But not only the
3rd ranks were employed as skirmishers, there
were entire battalions deployed in this formation.
In 1813 at Dennewitz the full III Battalion of 4th Reserve Infantry
Regiment was deployed as skirmishers. They were supported by one
horse (Nr 6) and one foot (Nr 17) battery and advanced against
Wirtembergian square. The canister and musketry caused heavy
casualties and the Wirtembergians broke and fled.
In 1813 at Hagelberg the IV Battalion of 3rd Kurmark Landwehr
deployed into skirmish formation and advanced forward together
with two other battalion formed in columns screened by their own
skirmishers. In the end of battle approx. 300 Prussian skirmishers
pursued 2 battalions of French infantry (total 1.000 men). These
skirmishers were joined by Cossacks and Russian guns and the
French halted and surrendered.
.
Tactical deployment of
Prussian infantry brigade.
Infantry brigade in 1812-1813
(Leipzig Campaign)
The infantry brigade (two infantry regiments of three
battalions each) was formed in three lines [1] .
- in the first line were 2 fusilier battalions (light infantry),
which would be used to form skirmish line with small
reserves (for the skirmishers). The fusiliers were drawn
from the third ranks of the 2 fusilier battalions. If brigade
had no fusilier battalions, then the third rank of the
musketeer battalions would perform this service.
- 150 m behind the first line stood the second and main
line. This line consisted of 3-4 musketeer battalions (line
infantry). If the fusiliers were not able to force the enemy
to withdraw or abandon a village or wood, the musketeers
of next line would prepare for the bayonet attack.
- 150 m behind the second line stood the third line of
infantry. It was reserve and consisted of 1 musketeer and 1
combined grenadier battalion. The cavalry stood behind
the third line of infantry and on its flanks. The foot
artillery was deployed in the very front of infantry, the
horse artillery in reserve.
[1] - It seems to me that the number of lines was not alwayz three.
For example in 1813 at Dennewitz Gen. Krafft deployed his brigade in 2
lines.
The battalions of the first line were deployed in line, while those of the
second
line stood in columns, 300-400 paces (not the mentioned 150 m) behind the
first.
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
skirmishers (drawn from 3rd ranks of fusilier battalions)
or/and volunteer-jagers
100-150 m
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II Fusilier Battalion . . . . . . .
. . . . . . I Fusilier Battalion
150 m
. . . . . . . . II Musketeer Battalion . . . . . . . . . I Musketeer
Battalion . . . . . . . . . . . II Musketeer Battalion
150 m
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I Musketeer Battalion . . . . . .
. . . . . Grenadier Battalion
Infantry brigade in 1815
(Waterloo Campaign)
In 1815 "the 9 battalions of the brigade also fought in three
waves. The first consisted of 2 fusilier battalions (from the
line regiments), the second of 4 musketeer battalions, the
third line of 1 light and 2 musketeer battalions."
(Hofschroer - "The Prussian Staff ..." p 17) The brigade no
longer had grenadier battalion - all grenadiers formed two
regiments and these two formed their own grenadier
brigade.
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
skirmishers (drawn from 3rd ranks of fusilier battalions)
or/and volunteer-jagers
100-150 m
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fusilier Battalion . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . Fusilier Battalion
150 m
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II Musketeer . . . . . . . . . I Musketeer . .
. . . . . . . . . II Musketeer . . . . . . . . I Musketeer
150 m
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II Musketeer . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. I Musketeer . . . . . . . . . . . Fusilier
~
Uniforms of Prussian Infantry.
From mid 1700s until Napoleonic Wars the French style more or less
again dominated the European and Prussian fashion of military.
In 1813-1815, due to serious financial difficulties there was
little uniformity in the Prussian army. After 1815 however
the Prussian uniform was modeled on Russian design.
In 1718 Prussian king Frederick Wilhelm drew back from the manners and
fashions of Frenchified Europe and invented a solemn and simple military
dress. This however didn't last long and from mid 1700s until Napoleonic
Wars the French style more or less again dominated the European and
Prussian fashion of military.
Picture: uniforms of Prussian infantry during the Jena Campaign in 1806.
Picture by Andre Jouineau.
From left to right:
- musketier of 3rd Inf. Reg.
- musketier of 39th Inf. Reg.
- two grenadiers.
The coat of Prussian infantryman was dark blue with lapels, collar, cuffs,
and shoulder straps in regimental colors. Turnbacks were red for all
regiments. Headgear for musketiers was a black hat with white edging and
plume in regimental color. The grenadiers wore cap with white plume.
In 1808, a new uniform was adopted by the infantry. The runic was the
dark blue 'Kollet' which had first been issued in the end of 1807. The Kollet
terminated in the front at the waist and had short coat-tails at the rear. The
front bore two rows of buttons. Until 1813 (1814 ?) the collar was cut back
to expose a black stock worn around the throat. In 1813 the collar changed
and it was cut square and was hooked up to the top corners. Since 1815
the collar was closed, but was left unfastened on campaign.
Picture: Silesian
Infantry Regiment in
1812-14, by Knotel.
From left to right:
- NCO of fusiliers
- musketeer
- private in depot (with
no shako)
- musketeer in
campaign dress
- NCO of musketeers in
winter parade dress
- NCO of musketeers in
typical combat outfit
In 1813, due to financial
difficulties there was
little uniformity in the
Prussian army. The
Prussians wore their own uniforms, uniforms supplied by Britain, and
captured French uniforms.
In 1815 majority of the new regiments that were formed from reserve,
foreign, and volunteer troops had not received their new uniforms of line
infantry before the campaign began. Regiments' appearances were not
unified, some individuals wore altered French uniforms, while others wore
red coats and shakos from England. Their knapsacks were mix of Prussian,
Swedish, British and French ones. Some wore even blue trousers or civilian
ones.
During the Waterloo Campaign in 1815 some units wore white uniforms.
Peter Hofschroer explains the loss of many officers of 28th Regiment at
Gilly "because their Prussian blue uniforms contrasted with the white of
their men, making them stand out as targets for French fire. The next day,
the survivors were ordered to don their darker greatcoats so this would
not happen again." (Hofschroer - "1815: The Watreloo Campaign ..." p 185)
The 28th Regiment was a former Berg unit.
After 1815 the Prussian uniform was modeled on Russian design as
Russian army
enjoyed great reputation after the Napoleonic Wars. See picture >>
(external link)
Uniforms of Prussian line infantry
during the Waterloo Campaign in 1815
Regiment Coat Collar Cuffs
1st Foot Guard Dark Blue
2nd Foot Guard Dark Blue
1st Grenadiers
Kaiser (Emperor,
Tzar)
Alexander of Russia
Dark Blue Poppy Red
Poppy
Red
2nd Grenadiers
Kaiser (Emperor)
Franz of Austria
Dark Blue Poppy Red
Poppy
Red
1st Dark Blue Orange Orange
2nd Dark Blue White White
3rd Dark Blue Orange Orange
4th Dark Blue Orange Orange
5th Dark Blue Orange Orange
6th Dark Blue Carmine Carmine
8th Dark Blue Poppy Red
Poppy
Red
9th Dark Blue White White
10th Dark Blue Yellow Yellow
Poppy
Red
14th Dark Blue White White
18th Dark Blue Pink Pink
Poppy
Red
21st Dark Blue White White
22nd Dark Blue Madder Red
Madder
Red
23rd Dark Blue Madder Red
Madder
Red
Poppy
Red
25th Dark Blue Madder Red
Madder
Red
26th Dark Blue Light Blue
Light
Blue
27th Dark Blue Light Blue
Light
Blue
30th Dark Blue Madder Red
Madder
Red
31st Dark Blue Light Blue
Light
Blue
32nd Dark Blue Light Blue
Light
Blue
Picture: musketiers of 1st and 2nd
West Prussia Regiment
in War of Liberation in 1813. Picture
by Knotel.
In 1813 the infantryman carried a
light brown knapsack and grey linen
bread bag. The grey greatcoat was
worn rolled en bandolier over the
shoulder also in summer. Items of
clothing or other small personal
belongings inside the rolled
greatcoat acted as quite effective
protection from saber cuts. The
canteen was strapped to the outside
of the knapsack. A piece of leather
cloth was wrapped around the greatcoat roll to help keep it from working
loosee and slipping off the shoulder.
On parade the greatcoat was worn rolled and strapped on top of the pack.
Its collar was in provincial color until October 18th 1813, after that was
grey with provincial-colored patches. The greatcoat was almost ankle-
length but in 1814 was shortened.
.
Collars, cuffs and shoulder straps in 1812-15.
Infantry regiments were distinguished by the color of the collars, cuffs and
shoulder straps.
The color of collar and cuffs was the provincial colors, while the color of
shoulder straps
indicated seniority of the regiment within the province.
In 1815 the troopers in Grenadier-Regiment Kaiser Alexander wore white
shoulder straps
with their chef's monogram in red.
Those in Grenadier-Regiment Kaiser Franz wore red shoulder straps with
yellow monogram.
.
Shako and the schirmmutz in 1812-15.
During campaign the shako of Prussian privates and NCOs was covered
by an oilcloth/oilskin.
The tall plume was removed. According to one theory the white circle on
the shako cover was
introdced in the 1812 campaign for those units which were in the field.
(Prussia was France's
ally during Napoleon's invasion of Russia.) This practice was not
continued in 1813 campaign
although is possible that few troops kept their old headwears for a while.
This is my guess.
As there were no grenadiers in the field in 1812, you won't have
grenadiers with the circle.
According to another theory, the white circle was painted only on fusiliers'
shako-covers.
The musketiers left theirs plain.
In 1813-15 many soldiers used the captured French shakos (they removed
their eagle plates
and cockades). The headwear for many reserve units was a grey peaked
cap called schirmmutz,
based on the civilian cap and had rather poor appearance. Some battalions
had a capband in
provincial colour. A black chin strap was worn. Within followng months
most units replaced
the cap with a regulation covered shako. In 1815 majority of the new
regiments (formed from
the twelve reserve, foreign, and volunteer units) were able to replace the
grey cap with a shako.
.
Trousers and gaiters in 1812-15.
The line infantryman wore grey trousers with 3 buttons at the bottom.
Black gaiters or black
knee-length boots were worn until January 1814. Gaiters were worn under
or over the trousers.
Due to shortages of uniforms and financial dificulties some troops wore
white, or light grey,
comfortable linen trousers during summer campaign. The tighter, more
elegant white trousers
were introduced in 1815. Oliver Schmidt: "The white linen gaiter trousers
were a parade dress
introduced in 1815, but made and worn only after that (Waterloo)
campaign. Before 1815, the
Prussians wore two types of trousers:
-- linen trousers worn over the gaiters in summer
-- gray trousers worn under the gaiters
(because they went down only a hand's width above the ankle)
In the Elberfeld Manuscript (which will be available in print soon
www.vs-books.de/elber.htm)
there are several images of Prussian line infantrymen with white trousers
worn over the gaiters,
most of them of 1815. By the way, in the same year, there are also long
grey trousers found,
which are worn over the gaiters - this seems to be an intermediary pattern
between the earlier
short grey trousers and the long grey gaiter trousers."
Thus there were four types of trousers in 1812-1815:
1. shorter ones, grey, and worn under the gaiters. You can see them on 90-99 % of pictures.
2. long and white (like the Prussian Landwehr), and worn over the gaiters. I have seen them
few times.
3. long and grey (like the French during campaign), and worn over the gaiters. No pictures yet.
Strange.
4. long and white one-piece trousers-gaiters (like the Russian infantry). Worn after Waterloo.
.
NCOs and officers.
During campaign the NCOs were distinguished by gold lace on the top
edge of the cuffs and
around top edge of the collar. (No distinctions were seen on the shako
because it was covered
by oilcloth.) NCOs wore marching boots instead of gaiters and carried
canes.
In 1813-15 the officers wore waist sash (cloth of silver with two black
embroidered lines),
grey trousers with a red stripe and gilt buttons down the seams worn over
or under the boots
(not gaiters). Prussian (and Russian) officers carried packs. In 1814 officers'
shoulder straps
were abolished and epaulettes were issued.
.
Uniforms of reserve infantry.
.
Left: Prussian
reserve
infantrymen.
Picture by
Steven Palatka.
Right: 9th
Reserve Infantry
Regiment in
1813.
(became 21st
Infantry
Regiment in
1815).
Picture by Knotel.
In response to Prussian requests, large number of British uniforms began
to arrive in 1813. Most of them were issued to the reserve infantry. There
were also numerous individual cases of reserve infantrymen replacing
worn out or lost items of uniform with the French equivalent.
.
The headwear for many reserve units was a grey peaked
cap called schirmmutz. It was based on the contemporary
civilian cap and had rather poor appearance. Some
battalions had a capband in provincial colour. A black chin
strap was worn. Within followng months most units
replaced the cap with a regulation shako (covered with
oilcloth, as seen above on the left). In 1815 majority of the
new regiments (formed from the twelve reserve, foreign,
and volunteer units) were able to replace the grey cap with
a regulation covered shako.
"The uniforms of the Reserve Infantry Regiments may be
divided into four types:
A. The 'Regulation Uniform' of the regular army.
B. The Reservist uniform issued in spring 1813.
C. Uniforms supplied by Britain.
D. Captured French Equipment"
The Regulation Uniform:
As this uniform is so well documented, these notes will be confined to
campaign dress.
The shako was always worn with an oilskin cover. The Prussian cockade at
the front of
the shako produced a distinctive shape. Fusilier Battalions painted a
white ring on the
front of the cover, but Musketeers left theirs plain. The shako had a black
chin strap.
The double-breasted jacket, or Kollet, was Prussian blue, with two rows of
eight brass
buttons. The cuffs were of the Brandenburg pattern: the sash was blue
with three buttons
(the lowest was usually left undone). The turnbacks of the short tails and
the lining of
the coat were poppy red, while the collar and cuffs were in a distinctive
colour for each
province, i.e.:
- Eastern Prussia - brick red
- Western Prussia - crimson
- Pomerania - white
- Brandenburg - poppy red (scarlet)
- Silesia - golden yellow
In 1814, the following colours were added:
- Westphalia - deep rose
- Elbe/Magdeburg - light blue
- Rhineland - crab red
... Breeches wer mid-grey, tucked into black gaiters reaching to just below
the knee.
Boots were black, crossbelts were white for Musketeers and black for
Fusiliers. The
lower one, worn over the right shoulder, carried the short sword, which
had a brass
hilt and black grip; the scabbard was black leather with brass fittings.
Around the hilt was a sword knot which was used to distinguish the
individual
companies. ... The knee length greatcoat was grey, single breasted with 6
brass
buttons. Collar and shoulder straps matched those on the kollet."
(Robert Mantle - "Prussian Reserve Infantry: 1813-15")
~
Weapons of Prussian Infantry.
It was the practice always to carry the bayonet affixed to the musket
by line infantry. (Some sources mention only combat situations.)
The light infantry were more flexible in this aspect.
Right: Prussian line infantry
in 1813.
Picture by de Beaufort,
France.
The muzzle-loading
smoothbore flintlock musket,
not the bayonet, was the first-
and most-employed weapon.
When in early 1700s the
Prussian infantry adopted the
metal ramrod they found they
could fight in three ranks
while the Austrians who used
wooden ones needed four to
maintain the same rate of fire.
The Prussian weapons in that
times were one of the best in
Europe. During Napoleonic
wars (1800-1815) however the Prussian muskets were just average
European quality.
"The standard firearms of the infantry, excepring the vast quantities
of foreign material used, were the old .60 Nothardt musket, re-bored
to the standard European calibre of .72 and the so-called New
Prussian Musket. This latter weapon was issued from 1809, and , in
an age when the mass fire of infantry was more important than
individual accuracy, it proved to be a very effective tool in the hands
of the regular soldiers." (Nash - "The Prussian Army 1808-15" p. 16)
The musket (1809) was 143.5 cm long. The stock was black for fusiliers
and brown for fusketeers. The fittings were brass and the sling was
red. Additionally some were armed with British (more than 15.000
infantrymen), Russian, French and Swedish muskets.
by grenadiers and musketeers. (Some sources mention only combat
situations) The fusiliers were light infantry and were more flexible in
this aspect.
Because the infantry had several types of muskets (mostly Prussian,
but there were also captured French and supplied by Great Britain)
there were problems with ammunition. For this reason in 1815 some
battalions exchanged their weapons in order to have only one type of
musket within the same unit.
~
Infantry of the Royal Guard.
The Guards were the units, which
were most close to the King.
Picture: Regiment of the
Foot Guard in 1808 in
Konigsberg.
The Foot Guard was a
special unit. Their dress-
parades, inspections,
reports, salutes, bearing
in the presence of
officers and on guard,
were wonderfully
regular, accurate, and according to the regulations.
In July 1813 the 8th (Guard) Infantry Regiment was taken out of the
numbering of the line, and 9th, 10th, and 11th advanced one step.
The new 12th Infantry Regiment was formed from reserve battalions.
The Foot Guard Regiment (Garderegiment zu Fu or Regiment Garde zu
Fu ) had similar organization to the line regiments and consisted of
staff, one fusilier and two musketier battalions.
In summer 1813 the Foot Guard Regiment was removed from the
line, causing the other regiments to be re-numbered. The 2nd Foot
Guard Regiment was formed from battalion of Colberg Regiment,
fusilier battalion of Leib Regiment and a drill demonstration
battalion.
In 1813 (Leipzig Campaign) and in 1814 (Campaign of France)
the Prussian Guard Brigade was attached to the Russian Guards.
Guard Infantry Brigade at Leipzig:
- 1st Foot Guard Regiment (3 battalions of 750-800 men each)
- 2nd Foot Guard Regiment (3 battalions of 700-750 men each)
- Guard Jger Battalion (400-450 men)
- Guard Schtzen Battalion (400-450 men)
Picture: the 1st Foot
Guards at Lutzen
1813.
Picture by Knotel.
The Guard Infantry
Brigade have
participated in some
heavy fighting
during the campaign
of 1813 in Saxony.
The Foot Guard
Regiment and the Guard Jger Battalion have suffered heavy losses at
Grogrschen (Lutzen). The guardsmen also fought at Dresden,
Leipzig and elsewhere, and in 1814 at Paris. The Guard Jgers took
part in many skirmishes troughout the 1813 and 1814 campaigns. The
Prussian and Russian Guards, and other allied elite troops,
participated in the grand entry into conquered Paris.
During the Waterloo Campaign in 1815, the Guard Infantry Brigade
and Grenadier Brigade were part of a separate Prussian army corps.
Guard Infantry Brigade in 1815:
Commander - Colonel von Alvensleben
- 1st Foot Guard Regiment - Ltn.-Colonel von Block
- 2nd Foot Guard Regiment - Ltn.-Colonel von Muffling
- Guard Jagers Battalion. - Major von Bock
- Guard Schtzen Battalion was attached to
Grenadier Brigade
Picture: Guard Jagers in parade dress (1810), by
Knotel.
IMHO they were the creme de la creme of the light
infantry.
They were armed with rifles and were superbly
trained.
The Guard Jger Battalion (Garde-Jger-Bataillon )
has its origins back to the wars of King Frederick
the Great. In 1813 and 1814 they fought in
numerous engagements but didn't see any action during the
Waterloo Campaign in 1815. They wore dark green coats, red collars
and cuffs, grey trousers, shako covered with oilcloth, cartridge box
with brass star.
After the 1814 campaign a single battalion of Schutzen
was formed from the volunteers from Neufchatel.
They joined the Royal Guard.
.
The Guard infantry was attacked by French cavalry
at Etoges in 1814. Picture by Wojciech Kossak.
Marsch I. Bataillon Garde
~
Grenadiers
The grenadiers were men selected for
their height and strength.
Picture: Grenadier of Life/Leib Infantry
Regiment.
(For campaign the tall, black plume was
removed.)
Picture by Juegel Wolf.
For the campaign of 1806 Prussia had 27
grenadier battalions. After the defeats at Jena
and Auerstadt the number of grenadier
battalions and infantry regiments was
reduced. The infantry regiments had only 2
grenadier companies each. See below:
1st Infantry Regiment - 2 grenadiers
companies.
2nd Infantry Regiment - 2 grenadiers
companies.
3rd Infantry Regiment - 2 grenadiers
companies.
4th Infantry Regiment - 2 grenadiers
companies.
5th Infantry Regiment - 2 grenadiers companies.
8th (Garde/Guard) Infantry Regiment - no grenadiers.
9th (Life/Leib) Infantry Regiment had 4 grenadiers companies.
In July 1813 the 8th (Guard) Infantry Regiment was taken out of the
numbering of the line, and 9th, 10th, and 11th advanced one step.
The new 12th Infantry Regiment was formed from reserve battalions.
For war the grenadier companies formed battalions (4 companies
each).
- 1st East Prussian Grenadier Battalion
- 2nd East Prussian Grenadier Battalion
- West Prussian Grenadier Battalion
- Silesian Grenadier Battalion
- Pommeranian Grenadier Battalion
- Leib Grenadier Battalion
In 1813 the grenadier battalions were distributed among infantry
brigades in various army corps.
For example at Leipzig two battalions were in Advance Guard, two
in 1st Brigade, one in 3rd Brigade etc.
In 1814 three (of the six) grenadier battalions were put together and
formed one brigade.
They were strengthened with one battalion of guard grenadiers and
one of light infantry.
In terms of quality it was the best, or one of the best, Prussian
brigades in that time.
Infanterie-Brigade - Oberst-ltn. Hiller
- East Prussian Grenadier Battalion
- West Prussian Grenadier Battalion
- Silesian Grenadier Battalion
- Guard Grenadier Battalion
- Jager Battalion (West Prussian Fusiliers ?)
In the end of 1814 the grenadier battalions were for the first time
formed in two full regiments.
The honorary chefs of these units became Allies' monarchs, Tsar of
Russia and Kaiser of Austria.
In 1815 the two grenadier regiments formed a grenadier brigade
under Colonel von Ratzmer.
- 1. Grenadier-Regiment-Kaiser-Alexander under Major von
Schachtmeier (3 battalions)
- 2. Grenadier-Regiment-Kaiser-Franz under Ltn.-Colonel von Klr
(3 battalions)
- Garde-Schtzen-Batallion under Major Graf von Meuron
The Prussian grenadiers were not a precious elite kept in reserves
and out of harm's way.
They participated in numerous combats, especially those units
attached to the advance guard.
Two grenadier battalions participated in as many as 20-30 combats,
the remaining four in
12-15 combats on average. In 1815 the two best battalions (see below)
became part of the
1st Grenadier Regiment (1. Grenadier-Regiment-Kaiser-Alexander).
Unfortunately this superb
unit took no part in the Waterloo Campaign.
-
The best of the grenadiers.
1st East Prussian Grenadier Battalion
(1. Ostpeuischen Grenadier-Bataillon)
30 battles/combats:
1806-1807 - Thorn, Eylau, Friedland, Allenau, Bartenstein, Heilsberg,
Gollau, Knigsberg
1813 - Lutzen, Lausigk, Kolditz, Bautzen, Reichenbach, Katzbach,
Hochkirch, Wartenburg,
Mckern (Leipzig), Freiburg, Hrselberg and blockade von Mainz,
1814 - Vitry, Montmirail, Chteau Thierry, Mery, Lizy, Gu Trmes,
Laon, Trilport, Paris.
Life Grenadier Battalion
(Leib-Grenadier-Bataillon)
21 battles/combats:
1807 - Verteidg, Colberg, Sellnow, Ausfallgefechte and Wolfsberg.
1813 - Gro-Grschen, Bautzen, Katzbach, Naumburg, Hochkirch,
Reichenbach,
Bischofswerda, Hnichen, Mckern, Freiburg and Hrselberg,
1814 - Montmirail, Chteau Thierry, Laon, Trilport and Paris.
~
Line Infantry.
Line infantry was the backbone of the army.
Picture: General von Yorck and the Prussian line infantry during the
Leipzig Campaign in 1813.
The line infantry included musketiers and grenadiers. The line
infantry formed the bulk of the army.
For example in 1806 there were
- 147 battalions of line infantry
(120 musketier and 27 grenadier)
- 27 battalions of light infantry
(24 fusilier and 3 jgers).
Thus the line infantry was not an elite, but the base, the core, of the
infantry.
.
The average height of Prussian infantryman (in 1811) was 1.63 cm.
The minimum height for the recruits was 157 cm but for the guard
was 175 cm.
"The grenadiers (and guardsmen) were the tallest, although probably
the tallest musketeers will have been a bit taller than the shortest
grenadiers. Prussian Fusiliers should have been the smallest and
most agile men of the regiment, but in fact, they were just the
smallest..." (- Oliver Schmidt)
In March 1813 :
- (1.) 1st East Prussian Infantry Regiment
- (2.) 1st Pomeranian Infantry Regiment
- (3.) 2nd East Prussian Infantry Regiment
- (4.) 3rd East Prussian Infantry Regiment
- (5.) 4th East Prussian Infantry Regiment
- (6.) 1st West Prussian Infantry Regiment
- (7.) 2nd West Prussian Infantry Regiment
- (8.) Foot Guard Regiment
- (9.) Leib Infantry Regiment [Brandenburg]
- (10.) Colberg Infantry Regiment [2nd Pomeranian]
- (11.) 1st Silesian Infantry Regiment
- (12.) 2nd Silesian Infantry Regiment
One of the
best line units
was the 9th
Life Infantry
Regiment
(Leib-
Infanterie-
Regiment). In
July 1813 the
8th (Guard)
Infantry
Regiment was taken out of the line and became the 1st Foot Guard
Regiment (1. Garde-Regiment zu Fu) so the 9th 'Life' Infantry
Regiment became the 8th 'Life'. The Life Infantry Regiment was the
first unit assigend to the Brandenburg Province but never bore
number 1.
Picture: the Leib Infantry Regiment
vs the French in 1813. Picture by Knotel.
.
In July 1813 thirty-nine Battalions of Reserve Infantry were grouped
into 12 Reserve Infantry Regiments. These troops had little training
and they lacked everything; uniforms, weapons etc. They were
however enthusiastic and patriotic. The reserve infantry regiments
became infantry regiments on March 25 1814 and were numbered
13th-24th. (See below.)
In March 1814:
- (12.) 2nd Brandenburg Infantry Regiment
- (13.) 3rd Silesian Infantry Regiment [ex 1st Reserve Infantry
Regiment]
- (14.) 3rd Pomeranian Infantry Regiment [ex 2nd Reserve Infantry
Regiment]
- (15.) 4th Silesian Infantry Regiment [ex 3rd Reserve Infantry
Regiment]
- (16.) 3rd West Prussian Infantry Regiment [ex 4th Reserve Infantry
Regiment]
- (17.) 4th West Prussian Infantry Regiment [ex 5th Reserve Infantry
Regiment]
- (18.) 1st Westphalian Infantry Regiment [ex 6th Reserve Infantry
Regiment]
- (19,) 2nd Westphalian Infantry Regiment [ex 7th Reserve Infantry
Regiment]
- (20.) 3rd Brandenburg Infantry Regiment [ex 8th Reserve Infantry
Regiment]
- (21.) 4th Pomeranian Infantry Regiment [ex 9th Reserve Infantry
Regiment]
- (22.) 1st Rhineland Infantry Regiment [ex 10th Reserve Infantry
Regiment]
- (23.) 2nd Rhineland Infantry Regiment [ex 11th Reserve Infantry
Regiment]
- (24.) 4th Brandenburg Infantry Regiment [ex 12th Reserve Infantry
Regiment]
More line regiments were formed from various troops:
- (25.) Infantry Regiment was formed from Lutzow's infantry
- (26.) Infantry Regiment was formed from Elbe Regiment
- (27.) Infantry Regiment was formed from Hellwig's infantry,
Reiche's jagers,
reserve battalion of Elbe Regiment and 7th Replacement Battalion
- (28.) Infantry Regiment was formed from Berg infantry
- (29.) Infantry Regiment was formed from Berg infantry
- (30.) Infantry Regiment was formed from Russo-German Legion
- (31.) Infantry Regiment was formed from Russo-German Legion
- (32.) Infantry Regiment was formed from Westphalian and Saxon
militia
NOTE: the 32nd was not formed before December 1815.
~
Light Infantry.
Jagers, Volunteer-Jagers,
Schutzen and Fusiliers.
Picture: Prusian
light infantry, by de
Beaufort.
From left to right:
- bugler of Silesian
jagers (in campaign
uniform)
- bugler of Silesian
jagers
- officer of Silesian
jagers (in campaign
uniform)
- private of Silesian
jagers
- three volunteer-
jagers (freiwillige-
jagers)
As early as 1787, the King decreed 10 sharpshooters for each
company of line infantry. This only amounted to 40 in a battalion of
approx. 700 men. There were also the fusiliers (light infantry).
In 1813-15 the Fusiliers, Jgers, Volunteer-Jgers and Schtzen
represented the Prussian light infantry. In his report to the King,
General Bulow stated that the newly formed Volunteer-Jagers were
animated by zeal and patriotism and had hurried to the flag and
volunteered
The light infantry had greater allowance of practice rounds per year
than the line troops. In 1812 the target practice was:
- for Fusiliers 30 practice rounds
- for Schtzen 60 rounds
- for Jgers 60 rounds
However, the few battalions and companies of jagers and schutzen
were very often not enough against the large number of French
skirmishers. For this reason also the 3rd ranks of musketeers (line
infantry) served as skirmishers. They were to make use of woods,
bushes, buildings, gardens, walls and hills. The Prussians
skirsmishers were no match for the French in 1806 and 1807. In 1813,
1814 and 1815 however they performed much better. Two example of
Prussian skirmishers in combat below:
"We [Prussian skirmishers] moved up via Meusdorf and the brickworks against
Probstheida.
The first thing that hit our skirmishers - of which I was one - was an a r t i l l e r y
crossfire.
It didn't take long for us to be scattered. We reformed and threw ourselves into a
sunken
road up against the loopholed garden wall of the village. We waited until the French
had
fired a full volley at our main body , jumped out of the road and rushed forward to
take
half the village. The surprised French fell back before us, abandoning a battery of 10
guns
in the centre of the village." (Digby-Smith - "1813: Leipzig" p 195)
During the pursuit after Waterloo, the Prussian 12th Brigade attacked the French at
Limal.
A sunken road obscured by the darkness forced the Prussian skirmishers to move
sideways.
"We advanced with our skirmishers out in front and a long and determined battle broke
out
with the enemy voltigeurs in darkness and amid the man high corn that covered the
fields.
This soon became chaotically confused, with man fighting man. In this, my men and I
had
to face enemy voltigeurs and cavalry sometimes to our front, sometimes to our rear.
About
midnight, where possible, our skirmishers pulled back to the columns and a bayonet
attack
was made at the charge. However, because of the darkness and high corn, it was
impossible
to see and keep order. Thus, this action achieved as little as the skirmish fight."
[Ltn. Mannkopff commanded the skirmish platoon of the 4th Company/31st Infantry Regiment.]
Fusiliers
The Fusiliers were armed with ordinary muskets.
They were the shortest men in infantry, 157 cm and
above.
The guard fusilier however was between 166 and
173 cm.
They were agile men, led by inteligent and fit
officers.
There were 12-32 battalions of fusiliers (one battalion
in every regiment of line infantry).
The Prussian fusiliers wore black (not white) leather belts. See picture -
->
The fusiliers were in some aspects similar to the French
voltigeurs. Short men, armed with muskets. The voltigeurs
however were required to be veterans of two campaigns.
Schtzen
The Schtzen were
armed with
muskets and rifles.
Their rifles had
front and back
sight. They were
marksmen and
were intended to
fight in similar
way as the Jgers.
Unfortunately
there was one
battalion of
Silesian Schtzen
(Schlesisches
Schtzen Bataillon).
After 1814 war an
additional
battalion of
Schutzen was
formed from
volunteers from
Neufchatel. They joined the Guard Infantry.
In 1814 at Vauchamps, two companies of the Prussian Silesian
Schutzen (240 riflemen) found themselves with a single squadron of
Polish Guard Lancers sitting on their line of escape from the disaster
that was befalling on their brigade. The Schutzen formed a column
and charged forward cutting their way through the enemy cavalry.
This is one of the few instance where infantry actually charged with
bayonets against cavalry ! The casualty report lists only shakos and
bayonets as the result of actual physical contact with the horsemen.
Volunteer-Jgers
They armed themselves with hunting rifles, carbines, or other
purchased firearms. The Volunteer-Jgers emerged in 1813 and were
"members of the educated middle classes" - There were several
thousands of such volunteers organized into small detachments. The
volunteer-jagers had the possibility of becoming NCOs and
officers in the regular troops. Loraine Petre writes: "... young men of
independent means, of from 17 to 24 years, equipped and armed at
their own expense, or at that of the neighberhood. They were those
who did not already belong to the army, and had no sufficient cause
for exemption. ... Their numbers are uncertain, but they probably
never exceeded 5,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry and 500 artillery and
engineers. Their moral was probably greater than their military value,
though later, they formed good schools for the training of officers
and under-officers, in supplying whom there was considerable
difficulty." (Petre - "Napoleon at War" p 113, publ. 1984)
Jgers
The Jgers were armed with rifles (regular or as gifts from huntsmen
and foresters) and "were always considered a crack formation." They
were the most professional elite of the infantry. Some were huntsmen
and foresters and experienced marksmen and experts at
concealement in wooded area. Unfortunately there were only very
few units of jgers. The crack Jagers were probably to the Prussians
what the 95th Rifles were to the British. The main difference between
the two units was probably the uniformity of weapons. The Prussians
were unable (financially) to supply all their jagers and schutzen with
regular rifles.
In 1815 additional battalion of jgers was raised from the Saxon Jger
Battalion, Saxon 'Volunteer Banners' and jger company of Russo-
German Legion. The Saxons however had little enthusiasm for the
war in 1815 and serving in the Prussian army. There was not much
love between the Prussians and Saxons.
Marsch der Freiwilligen Jger (March of Volunteer-Jagers)
~
Landwehr Infantry.
"A decree of the king established the landwehr,
based on the model of that of Austria of 1809. ...
As the impoverished state of Prussian finances
precluded much assistance from the State, the
expense of equipment had to fall on the men
themselves, or their villages. ... At first, the front
rank was often armed with pikes or scythes, and
it was only as French muskets were taken from
the battlefields that the men were armed with
yet another pattern of firearm.
There was a great dearth of officers, as most of
the half-pay officers still fit for service were required for the reserve
battalions. All sorts of officials, many of them very unsuitable as military
officers, joined, and it was only later on that men of some experience were
got from the 'volunteer-jagers, etc. Naturally, the landwehr, as a whole,
was at first of no great military value, though their initial worth was in
some corps (Yorck's and Bulow's especially) enhanced by long marches
and still more by early successes." (Petre - "Napoleon at War" p 114)
The Landwehr accepted men aged 25 to 40, too old and weak for the
regular troops. They were issued either black or dark blue Litevka coat with
white, dark blue or grey trousers. Each recruit was expected to uniform
and equip himself. If he was unable, the district/province would supply
his gear. The state would provide weapons and ammunition.
The king appointed the battalion, regiment, and brigade commanders; the
district commissions selected the junior officers from the entire population
without consideration of age, yet all selections had to bve confirmed by
the king.
"Initially only 20,000 were raised, armed with French muskets gathered up
by the Russians
as they pursued the disintegrating Grande Armee out of Russia." (Digby-
Smith, - p 36)
However in the next months the number of Landwehr battalions
dramatically increased.
Despite some commanders requests,
British muskets and ammunition
went to the army, which refused to
share the arms with the Landwehr
until their own needs had been met.
Brett-James writes that The Silesian
Landwehr experienced many
problems during the mobilization.
The men were armed with 20,000
Austrian infantry muskets in which
the makers had failed to bore any
touch holes ! (Brett-James - "Europe
against Napoleon" 43, 44)
The Landwehr was also armed with
captured weapons, French, Polish,
Saxon, Italian, and Bavarian. For
example "large quantities of material
and small arms were left on the
battlefield at Dennewitz and used to fill the shortages in the Prussian
Landwehr." (- Leggiere p 209)
The typical Landwehr uniform was designed for function and
serviceability, not show. The outfit was much plainer than the finery worn
by most regular troops but were easily manufactured in the numbers
necessary to outfit tens of thousands.
"Their uniforms had to be provided by the municipalities, which led to
many unfortunates marching off to war in terribly poor quality clothing
which quickly fell apart. They had only one pair of shoes, which often fit
badly and were frequently torn off in deep mud, leaving many soldiers
barefoot for much of the campaign." (Digby-Smith, - p 36)
The Landwehr also wore captured French and purchased British items.
Uniforms of Prussian Landhwer Infantry
Province
Coat
Litevka
Collar and Cuffs Buttons
East Prussia Dark Blue Poppy Red White
Kurmark and
Neumark
Dark Blue Poppy Red Yellow
West Prussia Dark Blue Black White
Pomerania Dark Blue White Yellow
Silesia Dark Blue Yellow White
Westphalia Dark Blue Green White
Elbe Dark Blue Light Blue Yellow
Rhineland Dark Blue Madder Red Yellow
Picture: Flags of Prussian Landwehr.
Source: www.warflag.com click here
"The Prussian Landwehr regiments adopted and carried in the field many
unofficial designs of flags prior to the issuing of the order of 30th
September 1813 which prohibited their further use.
From October that year until 1816 when a new official Landwehrfahne was
introduced it seems that these units were without flags. The designs shown
here are based on written descriptions as there are no surviving relics. The
exception being the flag of the ... read more " (ext.link)
Before concluding his inspection in July 1813, General Krafft instructed the
officers of the Neumark Landwehr to stress "the main and essential points:
advancing, retiring, forming columns, movement in columns, forming
squares, deploying, rallying, and charging." He also suggested allocating
the limited ammunition to the skirmishers for target practice.
However, the generals who were considered as the reformers of the
Prussian army, did not want the Landwehr trained in the same rigorous
tradition as the regular troops. For example Scharnhorst feared that the
army's training would destroy the Landwehr's patriotism and
willingness to serve. Putlitz wrote that the commanders have to be easy
with the Landwehr, so that the man "do not grow to hate his service. ...
Officers must never be allowed to forget that they have to deal with
people of whom several have volunteered for the defense of the
Fatherland. In this regard, one must also use self-respect."
Number of Landwehr infantry regiments in June 1815:
(Only some of them took part in the Waterloo Campaign)
East-Prussia - 5 regiments
West-Prussia - 2 (the 3rd after June 1815)
Pomerania - 3
Neumark - 3
Kurmark - 7
Silesia - 15
Elbe - 4
Berg - 1
Upper Saxony - 2 (raised in the first half of 1815)
Thuringia - 1 (raised in the first half of 1815, the 2nd was ordered to be
formed on June 25, 1815)
Westphalia - 8 (in Aug 1815 the 6th, 7th and 8th were not yet fully formed)
Posen - 5 regiments were to be raised after Nov 1815
Rhineland - 8 still in the state of formation in June 1815, but in Sept they
marched into France.
.
Landwehr infantry in combat.
"Theoretically the Landwehr were to be used only for home defence
purposes within the frontiers of Prussia, but in practice they were
used exactly as if they were regulars." ( - Digby Smith)
The performance of the Landwehr in combat varied. They stampeded on
several occassions and also had some splendid actions. Digby-Smith
writes: "The Prussian Landwehr received their baptism of fire at
Lowenberg. The Schweidnitz battalion braved canister fire and threw the
enemy back at the point of the bayonet. They were only taken out of the
line when they ran out of ammunition, and when they marched past
Yorck he had his line regiments oresent arms to them. Blucher wrote: 'At
first it was only so-so with the Landwehr battalions, but now that they've
had a good taste of powder, they're as good as the line battalions.'
Napoleon, however, had a very different opinnion of them. When he saw
some captured Landwehr, he wrote: 'The enemy infantry is absolutely
wretched; this encourages me." (Digby-Smith, - pp 18-19)
General von
Bulow was
satisfied
with the
Landwehr in
1813. In his
report after
the battle of
Gross
Beeren,
Bulow noted
"I must
congratulate
the entire
corps,
inlcluding
the
Landwehr."
A report from the staff of the 3rd Infantry Brigade also praised the
Landwehr.
During the Campaign of France in 1814 Field Marshal Blucher was
satisfied with the Landwehr. He wrote, "The bravery of our troops is
extraordinary and our Landwehr is in no way inferior to our veteran
troops." (Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon" p 366)
In 1815 in the battle of Ligny, the II Battalion of 1st Westphalian Landwehr
formed square on top of a hill near Brye. The Landwehr was charged three
times by French cuirassiers and heavy cavalry of Old Guard. Each time the
Landwehr fired volley and the French retired with casualties.
Although some Landwehr battalions fought with distinction (see examples
above) they have been criticized for being a poor imitation of the regular
troops. They received uniforms made of poor cloth that shrank in the first
rain, many were without shoes and coats, and their muskets were of low
quality. They were not only poorly clothed and armed, they were also
poorly fed. The morale in many battalions often collapsed even after
victorious battle. (The next day after the battle of Katzbach, one battalion
had only 200 of 500 men fit for action. Another battalion was 270 out of 570
men.)
At Leipzig in October 1813, one Landwehr battalion was cut off on a side
street near the Grimma Gate and the French infantry slaughtered them.
Almost 50 % of this unit were killed and wounded !
During the Waterloo Campaign The 15th and 16th Brigades contained
Silesian Landwehr regiments
that were noted for having the armys highest desertion rate. (Leggiere
Bulow and the Campaign
of 1815 p 57)
There is however a myth that the Landwehr was never used in skirmish
order.
They were used as skirmishers if only the tactical situation required it. On
few occassions even entire battalions were employed in such formation. In
1813 at Hagelberg the IV Battalion of 3rd Kurmark Landwehr deployed
into skirmish formation and advanced forward together with two other
battalion formed in columns screened by their own skirmishers. In the end
of battle approx. 300 Prussian skirmishers pursued 2 battalions of French
infantry (total 1.000 men). These skirmishers were joined by Cossacks and
Russian guns. They forced the French to halted and surrender.
Landwehr at Lutzen, picture by Oleg Parkhaiev of Russia.
Prussian General Boyen was satisfied with the morale of the
Landwehr in 1813, he described it as being "unusually good."
Prussian Landwehr infantry in combat (computer wargame.)
Prussian infantry versus French infantry at Ligny in June 1 8 1 5 .
(Fight for the villages of St. Amand, St.Amand la Haye, Wagnele)
Prussian brigade = 3 regiments x 3 battalions = 9 battalions total.
French division = 4 regiments x 2 or 3 battalions = 8-12 battalions total.
Oliver Schmidt on the Prussian infantry.
1. Prussian Rifles.
There was a Prussian production of rifles, and over the years slowly
the Jgers and Schtzen were equipped with them. Freiwillige Jgers
brought their own rifles, of different calibers, so everybody had to
make his own balls and cartridges.
Basically, I would say there was not big difference between the offcial
pattern and the privately made ones. The advantage of having many
(or, best, only) rifles of the same pattern within a unit are that it s
easier to have spare parts for repair at hand, and the same caliber
eases ammunitiopn supply a lot. I haven't got data at hand about fire
rate and range, there will have been no significant difference between
Prussian and other rifles.
2. Differences in Training Between Jgers and Fusiliers.
Jgers were sharpshooters, aiming was very important. Fusiliers
would nomally be used as regular line infantry, even though all of
them were able to skirmish (unlike the musketeers and grenadiers, in
which only the 3rd rank was trained for skirmishing). Jgers of course
were trained in the regular movements of column and line, too, but
were used in difficult terrain.
3. On Grenadiers' Uniforms.
In October 1814, the Grenadiers carried their particular sword tassels,
and that the first two companies of each battalion had white and the
other two red shoulder straps (yellow and mid blue respectively in
the II. Ostpreuisches Grenadier-Bataillon). The buttons on the
shoulder straps of Grenadiers carried the number of the company
within their parent regiment in Roman letters. When the two
grenadier regiments were formed, the initials of their respective chefs
were sewn in woolen cord on their shoulder straps, and the sword
tassels and buttons on the shoulder straps became like those of the
other regiments.
4. Morale of the Freiwillige Jgers (Volunteer Jgers)
For the detachments of Freiwillige Jgers, the same applies as what I
wrote about the morale of the other components of the army.
Undoubtedly, many volunteers had a very high morale, but there
were also men (espcially in 1815) who volunteered to avoid being
drafted anyway and who just wanted to take part in the prerogativs
given to the Freiwillige Jgers - or avoid being together with ordinary
men whom some of them considered riff-raff ... Discipline often was
not as strict as in the line, training was not very thorough, so I
wouldn't rank these volunteers above average. Many of these
volunteers came from towns, had never fired a shot before they
bought their rifle, and they were not as fit and healthy as the men
from the countryside who filled the ranks of the line. The mixture of
basically high motivation and generally bad bodily and training
condition was different for every detachment, much depended on the
commander of the detachment. And, of course, also the "moral" of the
Freiwillige Jgers detachments would raise with the experience
gained on campaign.
5. Organization of Regiment, Battalion and Company.
The existence of a third rank in infantry was vital, as its men were
taken for skirmishing. So you would always form up in three ranks,
in order to form the skirmishers platoons (Schtzen-Zge). When the
skirmishers had been taken out, the rest of the battalion of course
consisted only of the two remaining ranks. So - for example - in a
battalion of 400 men, you would form up in three ranks, take out the
4 skirmisher platoons formed from the third rank, 260 men would
rest in the line in two ranks (1st and 2nd rank), making a front of 130
men. I haven't come accross any definite source by now that after
battles with unequal losses in the companies, men were transfered
from one company to another in order to equalize the strength, but
somehow this must have been done. If battalions became too weak,
they would be combined with other weak battalions. This happened
for example after 15th June in the 2rd brigade, when the maimed
Fusilier-Bataillon of the 28. Infanterie-Regiment (over 600 men lost)
and the 3. Bataillon of the 2. Westphlisches Landwehr-Infanterie-
Regiment were combined in one battalion.
In the company of Muketiers or Fusiliers formed up in the regulation
strength prescribed on 12th January 1813 the distance between the
ranks is 2 Fu (63 cm) measured from back to breast. The
Unteroffiziere's rank is 2 Schritt (146 cm) from the third rank of the
company. The Seconde-Lieutenant's rank is 2 Schritt (146 cm) behind
the Unteroffiziere's rank. The men are equally distributed into two
Zge (platoons), who were numbered according to their position in
the battalion, counting from the right of the battalion deployed in
line. The 1st company consists of the 1st and 2nd Zug, the 2nd
company of the 3rd and 4th Zug, etc. The senior company or Zug
(with the lower number) was always formed up on the right. The files
were also counted starting from the right. Each Zug was divided into
Sektionen, which should have 6 or 5 files. If there were not enough
men to fill the last file on the left of the Zug, the place in its second
and third rank was to remain free.
The senior and the junior Seconde-Lieutenant are behind the
comapny's first Zug, the second Seconde-Lieutenant is behind the
company's second Zug. The Feldwebel's position is behind the 2nd
file of the company's first Zug. When Kapitain or Premier-Lieutenant
leave their position, they are replaced by the Unteroffizier from the
third rank behind them. When the Kapitain commands the whole
company, his place is taken by the senior Seconde-Lieutenant. When
the battalion was formed up in line, at least one Unteroffizier of each
company was detached to the colour section. All the drummers and
buglers were formed up in one rank behind the right wing of the 5th
Zug, at a distance of 2 Schritt (146 cm) behind the rank of officers. If
there were musicians, they would be formed up behind the left wing
of the 4th Zug.
Prussian infantry company according to the regulation of 12 January
1813
ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppP .
pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppK sss
pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp . .
ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp
.pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppU .
pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppU
. . U . . . . U . . . . U . . . . U . . . . U . . . U . . . . . . U . . . . U . . . . U . . . .
U . . . . U . . . F
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S . . . . . . . . .
. S
K Kapitan (1)
P Premier-Leutenant (1)
S Seconde-Leutenant (3)
F Feldwebel (1)
U Unteroffizier (14)
p private (182)
s Spielmann (drummer) (3)
Above is a Prussian infantry company according to the regulation of
12 January 1813 and its formation according to the 1812 regulation for
infantry. Unfortunately, it was not printed in my Osprey title. From
the same date, the officers of the battalion were to consist of 1 staff
officer as battalion commander (A "staff officer" - Stabsoffizier- can be
any rank above Kapitan/Hauptmann and below general. For
example: Major, Oberst-Lieutenant or Oberst), 1 adjudant (usually a
Seconde Lieutenant), 1 "Rechnungsfhrer" (account manager, usually
also a Seconde Lieutenant) and 17 other officers distributed to the
companies. These officers were lower officers: probably 1 captain, 1
Premier-Lieutenant and 1 Secode-Lieutenant per company - there
will have been variations.
From 2 December 1808, in peacetime, a regiment had 1 staff officer as
commander (who will have been assigned a lieutenant from the
regiment as adjudant).
Per battalion, there was 1 Bchsenmacher (gun maker) and per
regiment 1 Bchsenschfter (gun stock maker). For each battalion,
there was a Bataillons-Tambour (named Bataillons-Hornist - battalion
bugler - from 1811), and in addition 1 Regiemtns-Tambour. The
regiments were allowed 10 regular (paid) "Hautboist"s (musicians),
but most officer corps put together some money to increase this
number in order to afford a bigger regimental band.
In each company, a few men carried an axe, a pickaxe or a spade. The
soldiers disliked the extra weight. These items could hinder the
aiming of the second rank. In May 1815, on its own initiative, the
I/23. Infanterie-Regiment had formed an extra section of 12 pioneers,
who had been picked from the companies. On their left shoulder they
carried axes instead of muskets and wore a shovel and a pickaxe on a
sling over the back. They formed up in one rank with the NCOs,
behind the Color party. At Ligny they smashed doors and windows
of houses which had been occupied by the French, making it much
easier to dislodge the enemy. (No beard was required for the sapper.)
The battalion of jgers (or Schtzen) had the same organisation, but
according to the regulation of 12 January 1812 they had lesser
numbers of rank and file (but the same number of officers as the
regular infantry battalions): 40 NCOs, 9 buglers, 452 Jger or Schtzen
According to regulations issued on 24th February 1813 the
detachments of Freiwillige Jgers were formed in 2 ranks if below
and in thre ranks if above a strength of 100 men. On parade, the
detachment stood on the right flank of the battalion. Marching past a
superior, they were at the head of the battalion, in front of the
musicians, the battalion commander and his adjudant at their (the
volunteers') head. For exercise, the detachemnt is 50 paces behind the
middle of the battalion in line. In attack column (compare my Osprey
Warrior), the first platoon of the detachment between the 2nd and
3rd platoon of the battalion, the second platoon of the detachment
between the 6th and 7th platoon of the battalion (Means, the attack
column is two platoons wide and 5 platoons deep). They should be
used for skirmishing, also for detachents and field duties, but
shouldn't be fatigued too much. Their main purpose was to train the
volunteers to become officers later - at least those who were apt for it.
When the two regiments of grenadiers were formed, they were
organised along the pattern of the other infantry regiments: therefore
their 3rd battalion was a battalion of Fusiliere (in which everybody,
not only the men of the third rank, was to be trained as skirmisher).
So each of the two Grenadier-Regimenter consisted of: 1. Bataillon, 2.
Bataillon and Fusilier-Bataillon. However, the men of all the
battalions were called Grenadiere. So you will find the denomination
"Grenadier of the Fusilier-Bataillon of the Kaiser-Alexander-
Genadier-Regiment".
In the Landwehr in the course of the campaigns in some regiments
one battalion did specialise as Fsiliere, there is an order by Blcher
of June 1815 that all the Landwehr regiments which did not yet have
a Fusilier-Bataillon should appoint one.
Thank You Oliver
Sources and Links.
Schmidt - "Prussian Regular Infantryman 1808-1815", Osprey 2003
Hofschroer - "Prussian Light Infantry 1792-1815" 1984
Nafziger - "Imperial Bayonets" 1996 (website)
Craig - "The Germans" , published in 1991.
Duffy - "Frederick the Great" , Rutledge 1985
Duffy - "The Army of Frederick the Great" New York 1974
Holborn - "A History of Modern Germany 1648-1840" publ. in 1982
Petre - "Napoleons Conquest of Prussia 1806", Greenhill 1993
Simms - "The Struggle for Mastery in Germany" St. Martins Press 1998
Information supplied by Oliver Schmidt of Germany.
Mantle - "Prussian Reserve Infantry: 1813-1815"
flags from warflag.com
"Deutsche Uniformen - Das Zeitalter Friedrich des Groen"
von Herbert Kntel d. J., Text und Erluterungen von Dr. Martin Letzius,
Herausgegeben von der Sturm-Zigaretten GmbH Dresden-A. 21 (Erscheinungsjahr: 1932)
Prussian Cavalry : Preuische Kavallerie : Uniforms : Cuirassiers : Dragoons : Hussars
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Prussian_cavalry_Napoleon.htm[2012-05-21 12:41:46]
Prussian Cavalry of the Napoleonic Wars
Since the times of King Frederick the Great , Prussia's cavalry had a
reputation that struck awe . Under a leader as renowned as Seydlitz ,
the Prussian cavalry achieved the nearest to a state of perfection that
it was ever going to. So great was its reputation in the Seven Years' War
that Napoleon made a special point of warning his regiments in 1806
to beware of the Prussian cavalry.
"Das Paradies der Erde liegt auf den Rucken der Pferde"
Paradise on earth is on the backs of horses.
(Motto of German/Prussian cavalry)
Introduction
Flags and weapons.
Horses.
Strength and organization.
Tactics.
Guard Cavalry.
Cuirassiers
Dragoons
Uhlans
Hussars
Landwehr Cavalry.
Picture: Prussian Guard sharpen swords on the steps of
the French embassy in 1806 at Berlin. Picture by Myrbach.
The Prussian Cavalry.
The cavalry was probably the most vaunted arm
of the Prussian army until 1806.
Cavalry were forces that fought on horseback, armed with lances, carbines, rifles, pistols, and
especially sabers. Dragoons were hybrid forces that were armed as cavalrymen but were expected to
fight on foot as well. The cavalry had several major missions: reconnaissance and counter-
reconnaissance screening, delaying actions, pursuit and harassment of defeated enemy forces,
offensive actions, and long-distance raiding against enemy lines of communications, supply depots,
etc.
Prussian
cavalry grew
from 1,000
sabers in the
early XVII
century to
6,000 by 1750.
During the
Seven Years
War it was
decisive in a number of victorious battles, both by
bold charges and enveloping operations. In several occasions it even prevented disaster by covering
army retreats. In 1757 at Rossbach the Prussian army (22,000 men) defeated the French and German
armies (54,000 men).
About 3,500 Prussian horsemen had routed an entire army of two combined European superpowers.
Most of the French and German cavalry in front were smashed to pieces by the initial charge and
many of them trampled over their own men trying to flee. King Frederick the Great was heard to say
"I won the battle of Rossbach with most of my infantry having their muskets shouldered." Casualties:
550 Prussians and 5,000 French and Germans.
The cavalry was probably the most vaunted arm of the Prussian army until 1800. Under a leader as
renowned as Friedrich Wilhelm, Freiherr von Seydlitz (1721-1773), the Prussian cavalry achieved the
nearest to a state of perfection that it was ever going to. So great was its reputation in the Seven Years'
War that Napoleon made a special point of warning his men at the beginning of the 1806 campaign to
beware of the Prussian cavalry.
Prussian cavalry (right) versus French horse chasseurs (left) at Jena, 1806.
During the Napoleonic Wars the Prussian cavalry enjoyed several notable victories against the French
and their allies. One of the greatest cavalry charges of the Napoleonic Wars was conducted by the
Prussians at Leipzig in 1813. Prussian General von Yorck gathered his troops near Mockern (north of
Leipzig), and attacked with 2 squadrons of Brandenburg Hussars (308 men) and 1 squadron of horse
volunteer-jagers who stood in a hollow ground and were unseen to the French. Behind them advanced
the Brandenburg Uhlans. Once they came closer to the infantry, the hussars "wheeled out" and
charged.
The French formed two squares and fired. The salvo however made little impression on the hussars,
they broke and pursued the infantry. The poor foot soldiers ran towards own artillery and thus
masking their fire. In effect the entire battery was captured by the hussars. Regiment of Wurttemberg
cavalry struck the Prussians on the left flank but was immediately charged by 2 squadrons of Prussian
uhlans (342 men). The uhlans and hussars broke two regiments of Wurttemberg and captured 9 guns.
During the pursuit the Prussian cavalry met battalion of the French 1st Marine Infantry Regiment and
slashed it to pieces. The uhlans continued their brilliant charge and broke several other squares.
Jurgass sent forward 1st West Prussian Dragoons, Lithuanian Dragoons and several regiments of
Landwehr cavalry.
Total of 2.000-3.000 of cavalry flooded
French positions. The dragoons attacked
French cavalry, broke them with easy
and pursued towards Gohlis. They also
captured 4 guns and took prisoners.
Another group of cavalry, dragoons
and Landwehr, attacked battalion
deployed in line and broke it by
attacking one flank. Battalions of 1st
and 3rd Marine Infantry Regiment
formed squares and attempted to halt
the Prussians. But the Mecklenburg
hussars took them from the rear while
from the front attacked Prussian infantry. The marines broke in the instant, lost a flag and 700
prisoners. The 2nd Leib Hussar Regiment took 2 French flags and 2 guns, and the Landwehr and
national cavalry also captured several guns. (For more details read Nafziger's - "Napoleon at Leipzig"
and Digby's - "1813: Leipzig".)
In 1813 at Gross Beeren, Prussian cavalry crushed their opponents. Two Prussian cavalry regiments
were directed to Neu Beeren, where they encountered the French cavalry. "The Prussian cavalry
charged Fournier's 2,000 troopers. Surprised by the night assault, the French were pressed against the
forest and scattered in several directions. A portion fled into the forest, while others surrendered to the
Prussians. The majority galloped onto the plain between Gross Beeren and Heinersdorf, where they
were either captured or ridden down by the pursuing Prussian cavalry. In the confusion a group rode
right through Bulow's staff and past the general, who mistook them for celebrating Prussians !"
(Leggiere - "Napoleon and Berlin" p 171)
In May 1813 at Michelsdorf approx. 15 squadrons of Prussian cavalry (Silesian Cuirassiers, East
Prussian Cuirassiers, Silesian Uhlans and Guard Light Cavalry Regiment) attacked the French 16th
Infantry Division. The Silesian Cuirassiers crushed the partially formed French square, the East
Prussian cuirassiers moved between Michelsdorf and Hainau, routing all formed bodies of infantry
they found. The other cavalry units captured 6 guns and cut down the gunners. The 16th Infantry
Division broke and fled in a bloody rout to Michelsdorf.
The next moment the plain (near Hassenhausen) fairly rocked and trembled under the headlong
charge of the Prussian cavalry as they came pouring on the French infantry. The shock was terrific; but
that splendid body of horse recoiled from the blow as if it had fallen against the face of a rock instead
of living men.
The French threw themselves into squares, and the front rank, kneeling, fringed with their glittering
bayonets the entire formations, while the ranks behind poured an incessant volley on the charging
squadrons. These would recoil, turn, and charge again, with unparalleled but vain bravery. Prince
William [of Prussia], who led them on, disdaining to abandon the contest, again and again hurried
them forward with an impetuosity and strength that threatened to bear down everything before
them. (J T Headley - "Napoleon and his Marshals", Volume I, c. 1850)
The Prussian cavalry suffered only few defeats.
On December 21, 1806, General von Diericke's force attacked Bessieres'
and Grouchy's troops stationed in Biezun and Karnichen. Karnichen was
defended by 100 skirmishers of 6th Light Infantry and group of dismounted
dragoons. In Biezun stood mounted dragoons under Grouchy. A half-
battery of Prussian horse artillery opened fire on Grouchy's dragoons as
they left the village and deployed. The Prussians also attacked Karnichen.
Marshal Bessieres sent the 6th Dragoons charging in column directly into
Karnichen, while the 3rd Dragoons attempted to outflank the enemy.
The Prussian Pritwitz Hussars (3 squadrons) moved against the 3rd
Dragoons. The hussars thought their flank was secure when the 6th
Dragoons hit them. "Such was the frenzy of the French charge that when
dragoon officer Mercier had his horse shot out from under him, he carried
on by running after his platoon to shout encouragement. The dragoons'
impetuous charge drove off the Pritwitz Hussars, overrun the horse
artillery, forced a Prussian infantry battalion into a nearby marsh, and captured 500 prisoners, 4
cannon and a howitzer, 2 caissons, and one color and one standard." (Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows" pp
115-116)
Prussian horse suffered another crashing defeat at Strigau (Struga) in 1807.
At Strigau 240 (Polish) Vistula Uhlans led by the famous French General
Lefebvre-Desnouettes routed 1400 Prussian cavalry and infantry, and
captured 4 guns and 830 prisoners.
In 1814 after victory at Montmirail Napoleon himself left for Chateau Thierry, where Horn's 24
squadrons were ordered to keep the French in check until Sacken's corps should have passed the
Marne River. Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii writes, "All at once, the whole first line (12 squadrons)
advanced to the attack. The French waited till it came to the proper distance, and routed it. These
squadrons threw the second line (12 squadrons) into disorder, and galloped off pell-mell along with
them in every direction over the plain."
Meanwhile the Prussian advance guard was forced to retreat in disorder to the position which Blucher
had taken up. The French cavalry charged the left wing, broke Prussian cuirassiers, and attacked the
infantry already formed in squares. The cavalry was received with volleys from the squares and fell
back. Seeing the resolution displayed in the attack, Blucher had no doubt of Napoleon's arrival.
Sohrs cavalry brigade (two or three hussar regiments) had orders to cross the bridge at St.Germain
on the morning of 30 June (Waterloo Campaign in 1815). At daybreak they passed through
Montmorency where they united with Colombs 8th Hussars and two infantry battalions. Sohr
continued the advance on the next day reaching Versailles on 1 July. His movement was observed by
the General Exelmans, who commanded the French cavalry on the south side of Paris. Exelmans
resolved to attack the Prussians and proceeded along the Montrouge road with the 5th, 15th, and
20th Dragoons, and the 6th Hussars At the same time, a light cavalry division and 3 infantry
battalions were detached against the flank and rear of Sohrs brigade. Exelmans planned to ambush
the Prussians around Rocquencourt.
By 7 PM, Sohr was surrounded and lost 10 officers and 450 men. Siborne described the slaughter:
Their situation had become truly desperate, but their bravery, instead of succumbing, appeared
incited to the highest pitch by the heroic example of Sohr, who rejected the offer of quarter, and fell,
severely wounded by a pistol shot. ( Leggiere Bulow and the campaign of 1815 p 164)
During the Waterloo Campaign in 1815 the Prussian cavalry was in the throes of reorganisation. New
regiments had been formed by putting together various squadrons from the legions, Freikorps and
other sources. Many of these new formations lacked experience and cohesion, leaving the Prussian
cavalry of 1815 in a very sorry state.
~
Flags and weapons.
After the disastrous Jena Campaign, Prussia had to rely
heavily on captured French weapons and British material.
Picture: Standard-bearer of Brandenburg Dragoons.
Only the cuirassier and dragoon regiments were entitled to carry
standards (one standard per regiment) and the dragoons' "swallow-
tailed" flag officially was not recognised as a standard until 1891.
The uhlans, hussars and Landwehr were light cavalry and didn't
carry flags in 1813-1815.
"Most of the English-language sources, bar Mr Hofschrer and Mr
Riehn, emphasise that the standards date from the time of Frederick
the Great. This is, as the German-language sources and Mr Riehn
show, incorrect. In fact most of the cavalry flags date from the time of
Friedrich Wilhelm I, were presented during his reign and carried his
FWR monogram. This means that they were nearly 100 years old by
the time of the Napoleonic Wars." (- Dallas Gavan)
Armor and weapons:
- the cuirassiers wore no body armor until 1814.
They were armed with straight, heavy pallash.
The NCOs were armed with carbines and sometimes with muskets.
- the dragoons were armed with curved sabers and carbines.
- the uhlans were armed with curved sabers and lances.
The Volunteer-Jagers attached to uhlans were armed with
carbines instead of lances.
- the hussars were armed with curved sabers and carbines.
Their carabiniers were armed with rifles.
Thousands of muskets, carbines and sabres were shipped from Great Britain
to finance the Prussia's war effort against Napoleonic France.
Photo: Prussian light cavalry sabre from
MilitaryHeritage >
Sabre adopted by the Prussians around 1812. It
was nicknamed the "Blucher" sabre for General
Blucher. It also found favour with the army of
United States. The US dragoon pattern for the
War of 1812 was identical to this sword except the scabbard was blackened.
~
Horses of Prussian cavalry.
The Trakehners became Prussian army chargers
and of quality unsurpassed in Europe.
Prussia, one of the horse loving countries possessed horses in plenty, furnished numerous men
for the cavalry, who, from their childhood, have been at home in the saddle. Before 1806, horses
for hussars and dragoons were bought mainly in Moldavia, (map, ext.link), while those for the
cuirassiers in Holstein and Mecklenburg. If horses came from inside Prussia, they were bought in
West- and East Prussia or Polish lands (in 1807-1814 part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw)
The average serving time of a horse was to be 9 or 10 years, their age when bought should have
been between 5 and 8 years, but sometimes alsohorses of 4 years were accepted. About two third
of the horses were geldings, and the rest mares, stallions were extreme exceptions. In the
Prussian army, manes and tails of the horse were not cut.
In Blcher's regiment (8th Hussars) before 1807, the
squadron received mainly chestnut horses and the
trumpeters white horses.
According to contracts between 1803 and 1817, horses
bought for the cavalry should have had a minimum height at
the withers:
- 157 cm for the cuirasiers
- 154 cm for the dragoons (for uhlans slightly smaller mounts)
- 149 cm for the hussars (some horses were even smaller than that.)
Below is average height of horses bought between 1810 and 1815.
Year Regiment
Average height of horses
which were bought
Number of horses
which were bought
1810
1813
1812
1811
1810
1811
1810
1810
1811
1810
1811
1815
1811
Garde du Corps
Garde du Corps
Silesian Cuirassiers
Brandenburg Cuirassiers
Cuirassiers
Cuirassiers
Brandenburg Dragoons
Uhlans
Uhlans
Dragoons and Hussars
Dragoons and Hussars
10th Hussars
artillery
163 cm
158 cm
165 cm
161 cm
159 cm
160 cm
157 cm
155 cm
156 cm
154 cm
154 cm
152 cm
160 cm
56
40
500
419
136
136
377
96
166
457
457
179
126
The Prussian horse Trakehner came from Eastern Prussia (today Poland).
The Trakheners became Prussian army chargers and of quality unsurpassed in Europe.
They were also purchased or taken by Napoleon. Most common colors: bays, chestnuts, blacks.
Pictures of the Trakehner horse. (ext.links)
The Prussian horse Mecklenburg was a typical cavalry mount known for speed, toughness and
spirit. These horses were used by the Prussian, German and French cavalry.
Pictures of the Mecklenburg horse. (ext. links)
There were also thousands of Polish horses
and even some Hungarian and Russian mounts.
During the Waterloo Campaign in 1815 however manpower shortage were acute, but the scarcity
of horses was worse. Remount depots had been emptied due to the enormous demands of the
last two campaigns. The King of Prussia authorized the purchase of the excellent Polish light
cavalry horses but was denied by the Poles. Poland (Duchy of Warsaw), then under occupation of
Russian and prussian troops, was warned to sell their horses at fair prices or the Prussian army
would appropriate the mounts.
Due to lack of horses several regiments never acquired Boyens recommended field strength.
~
Strength and organization of Prussian Cavalry.
In 1813-1815 no central reserve of cavalry, the battle winning ram,
was created (like in France) and the individual cavalry brigades
were disperesed among the several army corps.
It means the cavalry was subordinated to infantry
and din't play any major independent role.
In 1805 Prussian cavalry consisted of:
- 13 cuirassier regiments (x 5 squadrons)
- 14 dragoon regiments (10 x 5 squadrons and 2 x 10 squadrons)
- 9 hussar regiments (x 10 squadrons)
- 1 'Towarzysze' regiment (10 + 5 squadrons)
After the disastrous Jena Campaign in 1806
and the Treaty of Paris the Prussian cavalry
was reduced to:
- 6 dragoon regiments (x 4 squadrons)
- 2 uhlan regiments (x 4 squadrons)
"In 1809, Major von Schill, the commander of the 2nd Brandenberg Hussar Regiment, raised the flag of
revolt against Napoleon. His actions were illconsidered and as a result, his regiment was struck from
the army list and was replaced by the newly-formed Brandenburg Uhlan Regiment ...
In early 1813, Yorck raised the East Prussian National Cavalry Regiment. This was a volunteer
formation and it was later re-titled Prussian. This example was followed in March, when the Silesian
National Cavalry Regiment, later the National Hussar Regiment and the Pommeranian National
Cavalry, later the National Light Cavalry, were raised.
In November 1813, the Elb-National-Hussaren-Regiment, was formed in the newly liberated western
provinces. The Reserve cavalrymen that were mobilized in 1813 were absorbed into the existing
cavalry regimental organizations." (John Stallaert - "The Prussian Army")
During the Waterloo Campaign in 1815
Prussian cavalry consisted of:
- 9 dragoon regiments (x 4 squadrons)
- 9 uhlan regiments (x 4 squadrons)
The Decree issued in February 1813 stated that the regimental staff consisted of:
= 1 commander [1]
= 1 adjudant
= 1 Rechnungsfher (an officer as accountant)
= 1 staff trumpeter
= non-combatants
[1] - the commander could well be a colonel, major or lieutenant-colonel,
promotion was slow in 1808-1814, in order to save salaries. Accoring
to army list of 1 January, 1813:
- colonels commanded 7 regiments (3 cuirassier, 2 dragoon, and 2 hussars)
- lieutenant-colonels commanded 2 regiments (2 dragoon)
- majors commanded 10 regiments (1 cuirassier, 2 dragoon, 3 uhlan, and 4 hussar)
Theorethically cavalry regiment comprised of 4 squadrons of 4 platoons (Zuge) each.
During campaign however some regiments were only 2-3 squadrons strong.
If the squadron had less than 36 files, then only 3 platoons were formed.
The platoon was not allowed to fall below nine files in strength.
The 4th Platoon consisted of so-called flankers, men selected for their dexterity and mounted on the
strongest horses. The remaining three platoons had 48 such flankers and 12 riflemen each. The
riflemmen were best marksmen and were mounted on the calmest horses. Six of the 12 riflemen rode
in the second rank of 4th Platoon. The rest of riflemen and flankers were divided equally among the
1st, 2nd and 3rd Platoon.
According to orders from 1st February 1813
each squadron comprised of:
= 5 officers
= 15 NCOs
= 3 trumpeters
= 12 Gefreite (privates 1st class)
= 120 privates
Each squadron had also 2 pack horses.
Squadron of Prussian cavalry according to instructions issued in 1812.
Under the famous General Seydlitz, Prussian cavalry rode boot to boot;
at a later date, it rode knee to knee; and since 1812, it rode stirrup to stirrup.
The front of a trooper was taken as 0.80 m.
Two or three regiments (sometimes four) formed brigade.
From 1808 on each of the six peacetime brigades had an overall commander for its cavalry and
infantry. In 1813-1815 there were 2-4 cavalry brigades in each army corps. Such brigade was formed of
2-4 cavalry regiments. The army list of June 1815 gives generals as "Inspekteur"s for the cavalry in
different provinces, but no overall inspector for the whole cavalry. There was no Seydlitz.
No central reserve of cavalry, the battle winning ram, was created and the individual cavalry brigades
were disperesed among the several army corps. It means the cavalry was subordinated to infantry and
din't play any major independent role.
Cavalry underwent a difficult reorganization prior to the Waterloo Campaign. General Boyen
attempted to form several new regiments from existing units and field them by the end of May. This
weakened the existing regiments and brought into rank reluctant men from the new territories. Many
Saxons and Poles (Frances allies in 1813) were taken into the dragoon regiments. The cavalry of the IV
Army Corps (Bulows) suffered the most from these measures and performed poorly in 1815.
~
Tactics of Prussian Cavalry.
"The King (of Prussia) hereby forbids all officers of cavalry,
under pain of being cashiered in disgrace, ever to allow
themselves in any action to be charged by the enemy, for
the Prussians themselves are always to charge the enemy."
The 1812 Regulation however prevented the Prussian cavalry
from taking the initiative and was seen as a mere appendage
of the infantry.
"Before 1806 the Prussians used a linear attack known as the Attacke mit drei Gliedern, or 'attack
with three ranks'. This was established by the Regulation of 1796. Tactically it was a two-rank line
with a third rank formed behind them which acted as a flanking corps.
This rear rank was formed by drawing the four files from the left wing of each Zug. The third
rank was then divided into two groups which were posted behind each wing of the regimental
line. It would then swing out and attack the enemy flank and rears as opportunity permitted.
The Prussian 1812 Regulation laid down strict instructions that a small reserve was to be formed
behind either flank to protect the squadron from a flank attack as well as to swing out in an
attack on the enemy's exposed flanks. The 1st Zug of the 1st Squadron formed the reserve on the
right and the 3rd and 4th Zuge of the 4th Squadron formed that of the left. ...
The Prussians before 1806 made extensive use of echelon tactics. The process was delineated in
the Regulation of 1796. The echelons were placed 30 paces apart. They found the echelon attack
naturally easier to handle and manoeuvre than the long undivided linear attack. Surprisingly, the
Prussian 1812 Regulation doesn not speak of the echelon attack." (Nafziger - "Imperial Bayonets")
During campaign the column of march was by 3s but all movement on the battlefield was done
by 2s.
Cavalry regiment could be formed in several different ways: in echelon, in column with intervals,
and in column without intervals (companies placed "nose to tail"). At Mockern, October i6th,
1813, the Lithuanian Dragoons, after charging hostile cavalry, had wheeled about by platoons
and then wheeled to the right by squadrons in order to charge, in echelon, retreating French
infantry. By charging with inverted platoons and inverted squadrons, such confusion had been
created, that a single French squadron would have sufficed to rout the entire regiment.
When in line the men were drawn up stirrup to stirrup in 2 ranks. The quietest horses were in the
front rank.
The flankers and riflemen were usually sent out to engage the enemy at 150 - 200 paces away
from their parent regiment.
The 1812 Regulations prevented the Prussian cavalry from taking the initiative and was seen as a
mere appendage of the infantry. In battle the cavalry was usually deplyed behind infantry or on
the flanks, only to be used to exploit success achieved by the infantry and not "to go out on its
own."
When more than one cavalry regiment came together then the cuirassiers stood on the right flank,
then dragoons, next to them were hussars and on the left flank stood uhlans. (Thus on both flanks
stood the most offensive cavalry: cuirassiers and lancers).
When attacking French infantry formed in squares, the attack was to be made on the corners. In
the last years of the Napoleonic Wars, maneuvers and tactics of Prussian cavalry were very
similar to other armies.
There were two basic columns:
- column of half-squadrons
- column of squadrons
Two types of intervals were used by the columns:
- open (geoffneten)
- closed (geschlossenen or masse)
The open column had intervals equal to the size of a platoon (Zug) or squadron.
It also had an additional 4 ft. between each squadron, be the column in Zuge or squadrons.
The Prussians used two basic systems to ploy from line to column.
In the first, when forming a column of squadrons or Zuge the manoeuvre elements filed by 2s to
the flank where the column was to be formed and, thence, directly to the rear. Continuing in
Indian file until the squadron or Zug had withdrawn to the depth of its position in the intended
column, it would turn 90 degrees towards the final column's location and march to its final
position.
~
Cavalry of the Royal Guard [Knigliche Garde Kavallerie]
The Regiment of Garde du Corps
was the flower of Prussian cavalry.
Left: Garde du Corps in 1806.
Picture by Bryan Fosten.
Right: Garde du Corps in 1813.
Picture by Knotel.
The regiment of Garde du Corps
(German: Garde zu Pferde, English:
Horse Guards) was formed in 1741 and
was the senior cavalry unit. It was a
cuirassier unit, heavy cavalry.
Their regimental standard had the
embroidery, crowns and monograms of
mixed silver, gold and green thread. The privates of Garde du Corps wore white Kollet with 2
bands of white lace edging the collar and cuffs. The officers wore silver lace trim.
In 1814 the Garde du Corps (Garde zu Pferde, Horse Guard) wore captured cuirasses of the
French horse carabiniers. After the campaign in France in 1814 Tsar Alexander, presented the
cuirassiers with black Russian armor. For more info on their armor click here.
Chefs:
- - - King Friedrich Wilhelm III
Commanders:
- - - 1801 - von Wintzingerode
- - - 1806 - von Zawadzky
- - - 1810 - von Bockum-Dolffs
- - - 1813 - von Knobelsdorff
- - - 1816 - Graf von Brandenburg
Battle record (sometimes only in detachment strength): 1806 - Auerstdt, 1807 - Heilsberg,
Schippenbeil, Bialochowo, Gollau, Knigsberg, 1813 - Neu-Flemmingen, Lutzen, Bautzen ,
Haynau, Leipzig, 1814 - Aube
Picture: Normal-Dragoner-Eskadron in 1810.
Picture by Knotel.
In 1810 the Normal-Dragoner-Eskadron was formed from men
drawn from dragoon and curassier regiments. The Normal-
Hussaren-Eskadron took men from the hussar rgiments.
In 1813 the two units became Guard Dragoon Squadron and
Guard Hussar Squadron and together with two other squadrons
(Guard Cossacks and Guard Uhlans) formed the Guard Light
Cavalry Regiment (Leichtes Garde-Kavallerie-Regiment)
In 1813 :
- Garde du Corps (Garde zu Pferde) Regiment
- Guard Light Cavalry Regiment (Leichtes Garde-Kavallerie-Regiment)
Both regiments had a normal establishment of 4 squadrons.
However, because of "popular subscription" to the war
squadrons known as volunteer-jagers (freiwilligee jagers)
were also raised. These were wealthy young men who wished
to liberate the fatherland. (Nafziger - "Lutzen and Bautzen" p 178)
Few months before Waterloo, in March 1815, three new regiments were formed:
- Guard Uhlan Regiment (Garde-Ulanen-Regiment)
- Guard Dragoon Regiment (Garde-Dragoner-Regiment)
- Guard Hussar Regiment (Garde-Husaren-Regiment)
The Guard Uhlan Regiment was formed from several smaller units:
- squadron of Guard Uhlans (see picture ->)
- squadron of Guard Cossacks
- two squadrons of Silesian National Cavalry
The Kollet of Guard Uhlans was dark blue with yellow buttons, red
collar, cuffs and piping. Two bars of yellow lace were on each side of
the collar and one on the cuff. On the cartridge-box was a brass
'guard star'. Their greatcoat had white shoulder straps.
The Guard Hussar Regiment was formed from:
- squadron of Guard Hussars
- three squadrons of East Prussian National Cavalry
The Guard Hussars wore dark blue pelisse and dolman, poppy red
cuffs and collars and yellow buttons. The saddle cloth was dark blue
with poppy red stripes.
The Guard Dragoon Regiment was formed from:
- squadron of Guard Dragoons
- squadron of Queen's Own Dragoons
- two squadrons of Pomeranian National Cavalry
In contrast with the French and British, the Prussian Guard Cavalry took no part in Waterloo
Campaign in 1815. After the war was stationed in Paris.
June 1815:
Guard Cavalry Brigade - Oberst von Knobelsdorf
- Horse Guards (Regiment Garde zu Pferde) - * Oberst-ltn. Graf von Brandenburg
- Guard Hussars (Garde-Husaren-Regiment) - Major von Knobloch
- Guard Dragoons (Garde-Dragoner-Regiment) - * Oberst-ltn. von Zastrow
- Guard Uhlans (Garde-Uhlanen-Regiment) - Major von Kraft
* Oberst = colonel
~
Cuirassiers [Krassieren]
Within the Prussian cavalry the heavy cuirassiers
enjoyed higher prestige than dragoons and uhlans.
Left: Brandenburg Cuirassiers
in 1809.
Picture by Knotel.
From left to right:
- cuirassier in July 1809
- cuirassier in August 1809
Right: Brandenburg Cuirassiers
in 1813.
Picture by Knotel.
From left to right:
- officer in blue leibrock
- officer in kolett
- cuirassier in Litevka.
Within the Prussian cavalry the cuirassiers enjoyed higher
prestige than dragoons and uhlans. The men and horses in cuirassier regiments were bigger and
stronger, a factor important not only on parades. They were the battle-cavalry who on battlefield
charged en masse crushing the enemy with sheer force.
Cuirassier regiments in 1806:
- (1.) Henckel von Donnersmarck Cuirassiers
- (2.) Beeren Cuirassiers
- (3.) Lieb Cuirassiers
- (4.) Wagenfeld Cuirassiers
- (5.) Bailliodz Cuirassiers
- (6.) Quitzow Cuirassiers
- (7.) Reitzenstein Cuirassiers
- (8.) Heising Cuirassiers
- (9.) Holtzendorff Cuirassiers
- (10.) Gens dArmes Cuirassiers
- (11.) Lieb-Karabiniers
- (12.) Heising Cuirassiers
- (13.) Garde du Corps
The cuirassiers were armed with the pallash, a straight-bladed sword.
The scabbard was iron. Additionally they carried 2 pistols each.
The Prussian cuirassiers were lighter than the French heavies.
They had not worn the heavy breastplates since 1790. For more
info on the armor in 1814-1815 read below.
In 1806 Prussia had 13 cuirassier regiments, incl. the Garde du Corps Regiment.
Then Napoleon defeated and downsized the Prussian army. In 1812 the number of
cuirassier regiments was 4, including the Garde du Corps.
In 1815 :
- Garde du Corps
- (1.) Silesian Cuirassiers
- (2.) East Prussian Cuirassiers
- (3.) Brandenburg Cuirassiers
- (4.) Westphalian Cuirassiers (it included many saxons)
Right: Squadron of volunteer-jagers was attached
to the Brandenburg Cuirassier Regiment 1813.
Picture by Knotel.
On campaign the cuirassiers wore either dark blue Litevka or grey
greatcoats. But often during battle the rank and file wore the white,
double-breasted Kollet. The shoulder straps were white with piping in the
facing color. When off duty the officers could wear the single-breasted
blue tunic known as Leibrock. The leather belts were white for all the
troopers.
Their headwear was a Russian style high black leather helmet decorated
with a black comb (not covered by oilcloth), a brass plate and chinscales.
The helmet fittings were brass.
The cuirassiers wore dark grey overalls and covered in black leather "up the whole length of the
inner legs and around the ankles." The seams could be piped in red "according to colonel's
wishes." The buttons down the outer legs were removed during the 1815 campaign.
Under overalls were worn short boots.
The saddle cloth was in the facing color with 2 edge-stripes in the botton color.
Officers' saddle cloth had silver or gold stripes, depending on button color.
Uniforms of Prussian cuirassiers in 1815
Regiment Coat Facings Buttons
(1.) Silesian White Black Yellow
(2.) East Prussian White Light Blue White
(3.) Brandenburg White Poppy Red Yellow
(4.) Westphalian White Yellow White
Prussian cuirassiers' armor in 1814-1815.
Andreas Hetzert of Germany wrote us: "A few weeks ago I bought a reprint-text
from "Die Elberfelder Bilderhandschrift" (author: Peter Schuchardt) from a painter,
Johann Carl Hackenberg, who painted in color all troops from 1813 - 1816, which
came through his town Elberfeld.
On 2 February 1815 he saw the Brandenburger Krassiere with yellow (former
French carabiniers, see photo) cuirasses and on 6 February 1815 the Ostpreussisches
* Krassierregiment with white (former French) cuirasses.
Then I found in the reprint of the book "Geschichte der Bekleidung und Ausrstung
der Kniglich Preussischen Armee in den Jahren 1808 bis 1878" (Berlin, 1878, Mila) -
History of clothing and equipment of the Kings Prussian Army in the years of 1808
until 1878, on page 166 978
" ... at the end of March 1814 they got the French cuirasses, yellow for
the Garde du Corpse and the Brandenbuger Krassiere and white for
the rest ...." And I found in a reprint from 1840 "Die Uniformen der
Preuischen Garden" / The uniforms of the prussian Guards, a picture
of the Garde du Corps 1806 without a cuirasse and 1814 with a yellow
cuirasse, then 1815 a Cuirassier with a black cuirasse and an officer 1815
with a yellow cuirasse."
* Ostpreussisches = East Prussian
Photo: French horse carabinier
in parade uniform in 1812-1815.
Picture: officer of Garde du Corps
wearing the captured armor of the
French horse carabiniers.
~
Dragoons [Dragoner]
Prussian dragoons were always excellent troops.
Left: 6th Dragoon Regiment in parade
outfit in 1806. Picture by Vuksic,
Croatia.
Right: Dragoons during the campaign
in 1813.
From left to right:
- officer (mounted) of the Queen's Own
Regiment,
- officer of Brandenbourg Dragoons,
- private of Queen's Own Dragoons,
- senior NCO of Brandenburg
Dragoons,
- private (mounted) of Neumark
Dragoons
- trumpeter of Neumark Dragoons
Picture by de Beaufort.
The Prussian dragoons were excellent. The most
known of them is the Bayreuth Dragoon Regiment. It
was formed by a royal order in 1717 and was raised
from recruits in the Duchies of Ansbach and Bayreuth. The regiment won its reputation at
Hohenfriedberg. The Austrian infantry were holding against Prussian infantry attacks. The
commander of the Bayreuth Dragoons, General Gessler, saw an opportunity to attack. In the
fighting that followed, the dragoons destroyed 20 Austrian and Saxon battalions, took 2,500
prisoners, and captured 67 regimental standards, losing only 34 men killed. The battle was won.
After Hohenfriedberg, the regiment was permitted to wear a golden 67 on their cartridge cases.
Frederick the Great granted them their own regimental march, the Hohenfriedberger Marsch,
composed by the king himself.
(Military march written after the Battle of Hohenfriedberg
for Frederich the Great and the Bayreuth Dragoons.)
Although the dragoons were of lower status than cuirassiers and rode on smaller horses, they
were in combat more often. The dragoons were universal troops, they could skirmish, scout, fight
dismounted and make all-out charge in pitched battle. At Auerstadt in 1806 one regiment of
Prussian dragoons scattered some of GdD Gudin's seasoned infantry out of formation and left
600 men killed and wounded.
Dragoon regiments in 1806:
- (1.) Konig von Bayern Dragoons
- (2.) Prittwitz Dragoons
- (3.) Irwing Dragoons
- (4.) Katte Dragoons
- (5.) Konigin Dragoons (Queen's Own)
- (6.) Auer Dragoons
- (7.) Rhein Dragoons
- (8.) Esebeck Dragoons
- (9.) Herzberg Dragoons
- (10.) Heyking Dragoons
- (11.) Krafft Dragoons
- (12.) Osten Dragoons
- (13.) Rouquette Dragoons
- (14.) Wobeser Dragoons
In 1806 Napoleon defeated the Prussians and then downsized their army.
The Prussian dragoons were armed with a curved saber in an iron scabbard.
(The heavy and straigh-bladed Pallash was favored by stronger men,
however it was replaced by the lighter saber in 1811).
Approx. 20 men per squadron were armed with cavalry carbines.
In 1813-14 to several dragoons regiments were attached detachments of horse volunteer-jagers.
Their officer wears dark green coat, grey trousers and his shako is protected with oilcloth.
Dragoon regiments in 1815:
- (1.) Queen's Own Dragoons
- (2.) 1st West Prussian Dragoons
- (3.) Lithuanian Dragoons
- (4.) 2nd West Prussian Dragoons
- (5.) Brandenburg Dragoons
- (6.) Neumark Dragoons
- (7.) Rhenish Dragoons
- (8.) Magdeburg Dragoons
The Prussian dragoons wore light blue (or blue) Kollet.
However, during campaign they wore the longer and warmer
Litevka.
The black shako was covered with a black oilcloth.
The saddle cloth for all regiments was light blue (blue) with 2
edge-stripes in facing color.
Picture: Lithuania Dragoons in 1813.
Picture by Knotel.
From left to right:
- dragoon wearing the longer Litevka
- volunteer jager (dismounted)
- officer in kollet
"Here, I must give the greatest credit to the Lithuanian Dragoons, incl. the Volunteer Jager
Squadron, who had performed to the highest standards during the entire campaign ... for the
way in which they carried out the next manouevre could not have been done better on the parade
ground. I had them turn right about by troops, right wheel in squadrons and charged the
[French] battalion in echelon ... We had to jump both the ditches which lined the road ... The
French were in column and hurrying towards Wiederitzsch ... we got among them and there
followed a great bloodbath ..." - Wilhelm Ludwig Victor Graf von Donnersmark
Uniforms of Prussian dragoons in 1815
Regiment Coat Facings Buttons
(1.) Queen's Own Light Blue Crimson white
(2.) 1st West Prussian Light Blue white White
(3.) Lithuanian Light Blue Red Yellow
(4.) 2nd West
Prussian
Light Blue Red White
(5.) Brandenburg Light Blue Black Yellow
(6.) Neumark Light Blue Light Red White
(7.) Rhenish Light Blue white Yellow
(8.) Magdeburg Light Blue Yellow White
~
Uhlans [Ulanen]
The uhlans rescued the commander-in-chief of the Prussian army ,
Field Marschal Blucher, from the hands of the French cuirassiers
at Ligny in 1815 (Waterloo Campaign).
Picture: Prussian uhlans in 1813. During campaign many Prussian cavalrymen wore
the longer coat called Litevka. The names Litevka and Uhlanka come from Polish
language and means "lithuanian", "lithuanian coat", "lithuanian wear", "uhlan wear"
etc. In that times Lithuania was part of Poland (Grand Duchy of Warsaw) and one
of Prussia's eastern neighbors. From German wikipedia: "Litewka (polnisch: die
Litauerin) ist die Bezeichnung eines blusenfrmigen Uniformrocks. Die Litewka
wurde in Preuen erstmals 1807 von den Angehrigen des Freikorps des Majors
von der Marwitz getragen. 1813 wurde sie fr die preuische Landwehr-Infanterie
und -Kavallerie eingefhrt."
"As early as 1704, the Prussians were using cavalry troops armed with lances. In
1745, a unit known as Bosniaken ... wore a costume which derived from Bosnian
and Polish national costume. By 1806, the Prussian army still retained units with
strong Polish/Bosnian links. These were the Towarczys" Regiment and a self-
standing "Towarczy" Battalion, both of which were armed primarily with the lance ... The
Prussian uhlan regiment, raised in 1806/7 from the former Towarczys, had a strength of 8
squadrons. But was later split in two to form two separate regiments of four squadrons each." For
more info click here (ext.link)
The Towarczy uhlans distinguished themselves at Eylau in 1807. James Arnold writes: The
Towarczy Regiment charged with lowered lance, speared isolated fugitives, captured one of the
eagles of the [French] 51st Ligne, and almost routed the regiment. The Prussians captured 5
officers and 240 men during their assault through Kutschitten. By the narrowest the 51st Ligne
retained some semblance of formation and stumbled backward to the safety of supports in the
Birch Wood. (Arnold - "Crisis in the snows" p. 342)
In 1807 the Towarczys Regiment was disbanded. (Towarzysze in Polish means Comrades,
Nobles). With the reorganisation of the Prussian forces the remains of this famous unit were split
into two units:
- (1.) West Prussian Uhlan Regiment
- (2.) Silesian Uhlan Regiment
"In 1809, Major von Schill, the commander of the 2nd Brandenberg Hussar Regiment, raised the
flag of revolt against Napoleon. His actions were illconsidered and as a result, his regiment was
struck from the army list and was replaced by the newly-formed Brandenburg Uhlan Regiment."
(John Stallaert - "The prussian Army")
- (3.) Brandenburg Uhlan Regiment
Uniforms of Prussian uhlans
Regiment Coat Shoulder Straps Buttons
Lance-
Pennants
(1.) West Prussian Dark Blue White Yellow
White /
Blue
(2.) Silesian Dark Blue Red Yellow Red / Blue
(3.) Brandenburg Dark Blue Yellow Yellow
Yellow /
Blue
In 1815 the number of uhlan regiments increased.
- (5.) '1st Rhenish' Uhlan Regiment was formed from:
- III Squadron of Silesian Hussars
- III Squadron of Brandenburg Hussars
- II Squadron of Berg Hussars
- (7.) '2nd Rhenish' Uhlan Regiment was formed from:
- Hellwig's cavalrymen
- Saxon uhlans
- (8.) '3rd Rhenish' Uhlan Regiment was formed from:
- two hussar regiments of Russo-German Legion.
(In 1815 they still didn't have lances and uhlan uniforms.
They were armed and dressed like hussars.)
The uhlan was armed with lance and curved saber in steel scabbard.
The lance had brown shaft, iron point, and (since 1815) white-over-black pennants.
The rank and file were also armed with pistols but no carbines.
The uhlans wore dark blue Kollet with red collars and 'Polish' cuffs.
The lapels were pipped in red. Their legwears were the usual cavalry overalls.
The shako was covered with black waxed cloth.
In 1815 the tall black Polish czapka with black chinstraps was introduced.
Privates and NCOs wore the dark blue sash, while officers had the silver-and-black sash.
The black sheepskin saddle cloth with red "wolf's teeth" trim
was replaced in 1815 with a rounded, dark blue, saddle cloth.
Uniforms of Prussian uhlans in 1815
Regiment Coat Shoulder Straps Buttons
Lance-
Pennants
(1.) 1st West Prussian Dark Blue White Yellow
White /
Black
(2.) Silesian Dark Blue Red Yellow
White /
Black
(3.) Brandenburg Dark Blue Yellow Yellow
White /
Black
(4.) Pomeranian Dark Blue Light Blue Yellow
White /
Black
(5.) 1st Rhenish Dark Blue White White
White /
Black
(6.) 2nd West Prussian
Lutzow
Dark Blue Red White
White /
Black
(7.) 2nd Rhenish Dark Blue Yellow White
White /
Black
(8.) 3rd Rhenish Dark Blue Light Blue White
White /
Black
Pictures: private of 3. Brandenburg Uhalns (left)
and trumpeter of 1st West Prussian Uhlans (right).
Pictures by Knoetel.
In 1813 at Weinberg Defile, the Prussian uhlans
advanced against French horse chasseurs who stood
behind a ditch. The French fired a volley. The
Prussians halted before the ditch and the French
commander of elite company rode forward and called
a challenge in German: "Now come here !"
The Prussian officer drew his saber and responded
"Wait a moment, I'm coming !" Unfortunately in this
moment the elite company abandoned the brave officer and fled at once.
The uhlans pursued them. (Nafziger - "Napoleon at Leipzig")
"... in 1812 ... a Prussian uhlan major fought a man-to-man duel with a Cossack officer (armed
with saber) between their two regiments and captured him ..." (- John Elting)
At Ostrovno in 1812 "Murat makes the Prussian Black Lancers (?) charge down the main road at
two battalions of Russian artillery and infantry in squares on either side of it ; and from his hight
ground Thirion sees how 'this charge, made calmly at a trot, not proving successful, this cavalry
retired as it had adcanced. It was the first time I'd seen cavalry charge at that pace and came back
from it without any shouting and disorder." (Britten-Austin "1812 The March on Moscow" p 135)
The uhlans were the ones who rescued the commander-in-chief of the Prussian army, Field
Marschal Blucher, from the hands of French cuirassiers at Ligny in 1815. (Waterloo Campaign) In
the same battle, French General Gerard, was almost caught by the Prussian 6th Uhlan Regiment
while inspecting the front." ... his chief of staff was pierced 7 times by lances." ( - Henri Lachouque,
France)
~
Hussars [Husaren]
The black-clad 1st Life Hussar Regiment
struck fear into the enemy for many years.
Their badge (skull and crossbones)
was also used by the Das Reich SS Panzer Division
and some other elite SS troops during World War 2.
Left: Prussian hussar in 1806-07.
Picture by Knotel.
Right: the 1st Silesian Hussars in
1813.
Picture by Knotel.
The Prussian hussars were of
awerage height and rode on
smaller but agile horses. They
had a reputation of not being
easily intimidated, and invaded
taverns and promenades of
cities, talking loudly and rattling
their sabers. If the hussars were
not as disciplined and trained as
dragoons and not as strong and
robust as the cuirassiers, the hussars were the most dashing. They
participated in many bold actions and went through the most
difficult situations. They also skirmished, scouted and pursued the enemy. From 25 to 29 June
1815 (several days after Waterloo) two regiments of Prussian hussars had ridden a total of 170 km
and since 15 June they had been marching and fighting almost continuously, which was taking its
toll both on men and horses.
In 1806 there were 10 hussar regiments, in 1812 only six.
Hussar regiments in 1806:
- (1.) Gettkandt Hussars
- (2.) Rudorff Hussars
- (3.) Pletz Hussars
- (4.) Wurttemberg Hussars
- (5.) Leib Hussars (Black Hussars)
- (6.) Schimmelfinnig von der Oye Hussars
- (7.) Kohler Hussars
- (8.) Blucher Hussars
- (9.) Bosniaken/Towarczys Hussars [lancers]
- (10.) Usedom Hussars
- (11.) Bila Hussars [battalion, not regiment]
In 1815 the regiments of National Cavalry became regular,
and six of them went into hussars.
In 1815 Prussia had 12 hussar regiments.
The IV Squadrons of the 1st and 2nd Leib Hussars helped form the new 7th and 8th Hussars.
The (11.) '2nd Rhenish' Hussars was formed from 1st, 2nd and 3rd Berg Hussar Regiment.
The (12.) Hussar Regiment was formed from two Saxon hussar regiments and militia.
Hussar regiments in 1815:
- (1.) Leib Hussars (1st Life Hussars, Black Hussars, Death's Head Hussars)
- (2.) Hussars (2nd Life Hussars)
- (3.) Brandenburg Hussars
- (4.) 1st Silesian Hussars
- (5.) Pomeranian Hussars
- (6.) 2nd Silesian Hussars
- (7.) Hussars
- (8.) Hussars
- (9.) Hussars
- (10.) Hussars
- (11.) Hussars
- (12.) Hussars
The Prussian hussars were armed with curved
sabers and carbines. Pistols were carried by
NCOs and trumpeters.
Hussars' uniforms were the most expensive
and gave them an advantage when it came to
conquering women's hearts. During campaign
however they wore grey overalls over their
tight breeches, and the black shako was
protected by a black oilcloth.
The sabretache was of brown leather and
having a flap with a poppy red cover. The
waist sashes were of the same color as the
dolman collar. Officers wore silver-and-black
sashes.
The hussars used black sheepskin saddle cloth
with a poppy red "wolf's teeth" trim. These
items were replaced in 1815 by rounded
saddle cloth with pointed corners.
The dolman and pelisse were in the same
color. The pelisse of the hussars had white
fur, but black for the Normal-Husaren-
Eskadron. In 1815, pelisses of the 2. Leib-
Husaren-Regiment [No. 2 in the army list], as
well as the 7., 8., 9., 10. and 12. Regiment also got black fur. NCOs had black fur, but this was
changed in 1815 and from that year onwards their fur was of the same colour as that of the men.
Officers wore grey "Baranken" (fur of Russian lambs). In 1815 in those of regiments with black
fur, the fur of officers became black, too, the officers in the white fur regiments retaining the
"Baranken".
The official regulations issued in December 1808 stated that the sabretache of the Pommeranian
and the 1st and 2nd Life Hussars would be of black leather. The regimental history of the Life
Hussars by Mackensen confirms the black sabretache. Some illustrators incl. Herbert Knotel,
however depict the sabretache of Life Hussars as covered with red cloth. (Herbert Kntel is
considered as generally less reliable than his father Richard.)
The uniforms of 1st and the 2nd Life Hussars were quite similar until 1815. The only difference
was that the 1st had white and the 2nd had poppy-red shoulder-straps. In March 1815 the 1st
Life Hussars retained the poppy-red facings (collar, cuffs, stripes etc.), while the 2nd Life were
given black.
Uniforms of Prussian hussars in 1815
Regiment
Dolman &
Pelisse
Collar &
Cuffs
Buttons &
Cords
Saddle
Cloth
Stripes
(on saddle
cloth)
1. Life
"Death's Head"
Black
Poppy
Red
White Black
Poppy
Red
2. Life Black Black White Black Black
3. Brandenburg
Dark Poppy
White
Dark Poppy
Blue Red Blue Red
4. 1st Silesian Brown Brown Yellow Brown Yellow
5. Pomeranian
Dark
Blue
Dark
Blue
Yellow
Dark
Blue
Dark
Blue
6. 2nd Silesian Green
Poppy
Red
Yellow Green
Poppy
Red
7. Black
Poppy
Red
Yellow Black
Poppy
Red
8.
Dark
Blue
Light
Blue
Yellow
Dark
Blue
Light
Blue
9.
Corn
Blue
Corn
Blue
Yellow
Corn
Blue
Corn
Blue
10. Green
Light
Blue
Yellow Green
Light
Blue
11. Green
Poppy
Red
White Green
Poppy
Red
12.
Corn
Blue
Corn
Blue
White
Corn
Blue
Corn
Blue
One regiment stood out above the others. It dressed in black
and took as its badge a skull. The regiment became known as
the Death's Head Hussars and struck fear into the enemy for
many years. It was the 1st Life Hussar Regiment (1. Leib-
Husaren-Regiment)
"Hitler's feared SS formations of World War II wore the all-
black uniform and silver Death's Head skull and crossbones
badge ... to give its more sinister designation." - Mark Adkin
The 1st Life Hussar Regiment participated in record number of combats: 66 !
1806 - Drobin, Sierps, Biezun, Mlawa u. Soldau, Lahna, 1807 - Schippenbeil, Lennenburg,
Waltersdorf, Wackern, Eylau, Braunsberg, Wusen (Vorpost.), Albrechtsdorf, Danzig (Gdansk),
Spanden, Dietrichsdorf, Heilsberg, Gollau and Knigsberg, 1812 (as Hus. R. Nr. 1 under Major von
Cosel) - Poniewiesz, Borusk (Bobrujsk ?), Wyszki (part of regiment), Czeszawen, Garossenkrug
(part of regiment), Neugut (part of regiment), Schppingsmhle and Baldohnen, Neumhle (part
of regiment) and Friedrichstadt, 1813 - Dannigkow, Magdeburg, Bernburg, Halle (Jg. Sq.),
Friedeburg (1. Sq.), Luckau (Jg. Sq.), Kalau, Hoyerswerda, Luckau, Grobeeren, Jterbog,
Klausdorf, Dennewitz, Burgxdorf, Streumen, Colmitz, Treugebla, Leipzig, Ztphen, Gorkum,
Heusden, Herzogenbusch, Breda, Bavel, Doest and Ypelaer (part of regiment), 1814 - Hoogstraten
and Turnhout, Antwerp, Lier, Cond, Soisson, Fontenay, La Fre Champenoise, Jonville and
Compigne.
In December 1814, French Generals Roguet and Lefebvre-Desnouettes decided to
raise the siege of Breda and fall back on Antwerp. Krafft's Prussians pursued the
enemy on the 24 December, catching the French rear guard between Dorst and
Ulvenhout. "The Prussian 1st Leib Hussar Regiment routed the French Guard
Chasseurs (see picture) and took several prisoners. Heavy fog forced the
Prussians to end the pursuit but enabled the French to reach Antwerp." (Leggiere
- "The Fall of Napoleon" p 184)
(NOTE: this is not clear if the whole regiment of chasseurs was routed or only
part of it.
The Guard Horse Chasseurs were Napoleon's favorite cavalry troop. They
formed his
personal escort and the Emperor wore their colonel's uniform.)
Chefs of Death's Head Hussars:
- - - 1804-1808 von Prittwitz
- - - 1808-1840 His Majesty Friedrich Wilhelm III
Commanders :
- - - 1803 - Lossow
- - - 1806 - Pfuhl
- - - 1809 - von Czerdaheli
- - - 1812 - Sandrart
The 2nd Life Hussar Regiment was formed in 1808 by taking 4 out of 8 squadrons of 1st Life
Hussars. It participated in 36 battles. In the reorganisation of the cavalry in 1815 the IV Squadrons
of the 1st and 2nd Leib Hussars helped form the new 7th and 8th Hussars. The 1st and 2nd Life
Hussars (Leib-Husaren) did wear the "Totenkopf" on their shakos. There is however
disagreement to the badge painted on the shako cover. The well-known illustrator Knotel has the
shako-covers painted with the full skull and crossbones.
That badge was also used by the Das Reich SS Panzer Division and some other SS troops during
World War 2. The Waffen-SS was the Nazi party's fighting force. In contrast to Germany's regular
army, the Waffen-SS was an elite combat unit composed of volunteer troops with particularly
strong personal commitments to Nazi ideology. Images: 1 (ext.link)
Prussian hussars at Ligny in 1815 (Waterloo Campaign).
Picture by Patrice Courcelle, France.
De Erlon's army corps spent the day marching between Quatre Bras and Ligny.
Meanwhile Marshal Ney was fighting with Wellington at Quatre Bras and Napoleon
with Blucher's Prussians at Ligny. Erlon's corps was seen by patrol of Prussian hussars.
~
Landwehr Cavalry [Landwehr Kavallerie]
and the National Cavalry Regiments.
"During a charge, they (Landwehr) were brave to the point of forgetting all obedience and order;
... after a charge that had been repulsed, only natural obstacles were, as a rule, able to stop them."
Picture: officer and private of the Elbe Landwehr
Cavalry in 1813-1814. Picture by Knotel
In March 1813 the Landwehr (militia) was formed on the
introduction of universal conscription, including formations
of 30 Landwehr Cavalry Regiments with total of 113
squadrons (each squadron with 72-102 men). The king
appointed the squadron, regiment, and brigade
commanders; the district commissions selected the junior
officers from the entire population without consideration of
age, yet all selections had to bve confirmed by the king. Each
recruit was expected to uniform and equip himself. If he was
unable, the district would supply his gear. The state would
provide weapons and ammunition.
Additionally several provinces of Prussia (East Prussia,
Pomerania, Silesia and Western Prussia) formed their own
National Cavalry Regiment. During the autumn campain in
1813 the 113 squadrons of Landwehr Cavalry had 10,952
men, while the National Cavalry 13,375 men.
In 1815 there were 30-34 regiments of Landwehr Cavalry.
while the National Cavalry Regiments no longer existed.
(They became regular regiments.)
Landwehr cavalry regiments:
East Prussia - 5 regiments
West Prussia - 3
Pomerania - 3
Neumark - 2
Kurmark - 7
Silesia - 8
Westphalia - 1
Elbe - 1
Thuringia - 1 (after June 1815)
Rhineland - none (3 regiments after November 1815)
At Waterloo 40 % of Prussian cavalry was made of Landwehr,
38 % were hussars, 13 % uhlans, only 9 % dragoons
and 0 % cuirassiers and guards.
Picture: East Prussian Landwehr Cavalry
Regiment in 1813. Picture by Knotel.
The Landwehr Cavalry was armed with curved sabers and lances.
Mark Adkin gives them also pistols. (Mark Adkin - p 255)
"The Landwehr cavalry were given lances in imitation of the
Cossacks.
Lack of training in their use must have made them fairly ineffective
in
a battlefield role." (- Peter Hofschroer)
One brigade commander complained in May 1813 that the "lances
are
made of caterpillar-damaged wood and break as soon as they are
thrown in the air." After four weeks' of training in the use of lance,
the Landwehr cavalry formed in Brandenburg, gained confidence in
and regard for this weapon. They were tormented with the lance the
entire day, first dismounted, then mounted.
The Landwehr cavalry was considered light cavalry. In combat they often used the wide, single-
rank formation, attacking the flank and rear of the enemy. Like Cossacks the Landwehr cavalry
generally avoided the shock delivered by bodies in close order.
Article: Cossacks
In 1813 at Hagelberg, eleven squadrons of Landwehr cavalry rode a brilliant charge through
French cavalry, which they surprised in camp, and through infantry of Girard's Division, which
was in the act of forming. As the Landwehr cavalry had no reserve, it finally suffered a reverse,
and as it was able to rally but slowly, it took no further part in the engagement.
In regard to the charge made by Landwehr cavalry, Colonel von Bismarck stated: "I can turn
them loose soon enough, but whether I shall afterwards again see a single man, that is a different
question, and I can not be responsible for it."
In 1813 at Dennewitz, Tauentzien ordered 9 squadrons of Landwehr cavalry to attack the flank of
Fontanelli's Italian division. The Landwehr broke the Italians and 10 squadroins of chasseurs
from Lorge's division could not stop the Prussians. The French and the Italians fled, some directly
through the infantry. The flight of cavalry triggered the flight of Bertrand's baggage. Morand's
infantry however repulsed the Landwehr without any problem. Few hours later the French horse
chasseurs charged and routed 1st and 7th Kurmark Landwehr Cavalry.
On 27th June 1815 the 1st Pomeranian Landwehr Cavalry Regiment moved to Senlis. They found
the town empty of French troops. Hardly had the regiment dismounted on the market place to
bivouac when an outpost returned in full flight. Hot on its heels was a detachment of French
curiassiers from Donop's brigade (Kellermann's Corps). The landwehr had no time to remount
and the commander of the cuirassiers demanded their surrender. Major Blankenburg decided
otherwise. Leading those men who were mounted, he charged the French, taking advantage of
the fact that they were bottled up in one of the streets and thus unable to manoeuvre. The
landwehr cut down the front rank of the cuirassiers and drove them out of the town. A
detachment of 2nd Silesian Hussars supported the landwehr with carbine fire. Meanwhile, the
elite French horse carabinier brigade arrived and the landwehr quickly fell back. (Hofschroer -
"1815: The Waterloo Campaign" p 230)
In a memorial addressed to Blucher in 1817, General Borstell made the following observation in
regard to the Landwehr cavalry; "The Landwehr troopers, however, could not ride, although that
is indispensable for service in ranks. They rode poor, weak mounts, whom they were unable to
control. Besides, they did not know how to use their weapons and were in addition,
undisciplined. During a charge, they were brave to the point of forgetting all obedience and
order; during a retreat, on the contrary, after a charge that had been repulsed, only natural
obstacles were, as a rule, able to stop them. In a word, the Landwehr cavalry, even more than the
[Prussian] cavalry of the line, lacked physical and moral stamina and unqualified obedience to
the trumpet." (William Balck - "Tactics")
The Landwehr Cavalry wore dark blue Litevka with collars and cuffs in provincial colors. The
leather belts were black. They wore their typical headwear with a white cross, although shakos
were also popular. In 1815 the Neumark regiments wore English stovepipe shakos, and the 3rd
Silesian wore the Polish style czapka.
Uniforms of Prussian Landwehr Cavalry in 1815
Province Coat Litevka Collar and Cuffs Buttons
East Prussia Dark Blue Poppy Red White
Kurmark and Neumark Dark Blue Poppy Red Yellow
West Prussia Dark Blue Black White
Pomerania Dark Blue White Yellow
Silesia Dark Blue Yellow White
Westphalia Dark Blue Green White
Elbe Dark Blue Light Blue Yellow
Rhineland Dark Blue Madder Red Yellow
Shoulder straps within regiments:
white for I Squadrons
red for II Squadrons
yellow for III Squadrons
light blue for IV Squadrons
Sources and Links.
Information supplied by Oliver Schmidt from Germany
Hofschroer - "Prussian Cavalry of the Napoleonic Wars 1792-1815"
Craig - "The Germans"
Nafziger - "Napoleon at Leipzig" (website)
Duffy - "Frederick the Great"
Holborn - "A History of Modern Germany 1648-1840"
Petre - "Napoleons Conquest of Prussia 1806" 1993
Simms - "The Struggle for Mastery in Germany" 1998
Article by Dallas Gavan "Prussian Cavalry Standards 1808-1815" on napoleonseries.org
"Deutsche Uniformen - Das Zeitalter Friedrich des Groen" von Herbert Kntel d. J.,
Text und Erluterungen von Dr. Martin Letzius, Herausgegeben von der Sturm-Zigaretten
GmbH Dresden-A. 21 (Erscheinungsjahr: 1932)
Russian Cavalry
Cavalry Tactics and Combat
Cut and Slash vs Thrust, Charge, Melee, Pursuit, Casualties
Curved saber vs straight saber, Lances, the Best Cavalry
Prussian Artillery : Preuische Artillerie : Uniforms : Organization : Equipment
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Prussian_artillery_Napoleon.htm[2012-05-21 12:41:50]
Prussian Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars
The artillery had been a neglected branch of
the army since the time of Frederick the Great.
Promotions and advancement in the artillery were
not as good as in cavalry and infantry.
"Against that fellow [Napoleon]
you need cannons and lots of them."
- Prussian General Blcher
At the battle of Jena, the (French) 20th Chasseurs a Cheval
had seen their colonel beheaded by a Prussian cannon ball.
Arnold Crisis in the snows p. 283
Introduction.
Equipment.
Organization.
Uniforms.
Tactics.
Engineers.
. Prussian artillery, by L.& F. Funcken.
- L'uniforme et les Armes des Soldats du Premier Empire
(Castermann Publishing 1969)
Introduction.
The Prussian artillery had been a neglected branch of the army.
"By 1806 the Prussian 'moving batteries'' still used the 1782 model,
which Carl von Clausewitz described as the worst in Europe."
Picture: Prussian horse artillery in 1805,
just one year before the disastrous Jena Campaign.
From left to right: officer, gunner and driver.
The deliberate steadiness of the Germans adapts them
especially for the artillery service. So this is quite
surprising that the Prussian artillery had been a
neglected branch of the army since the time of Frederick
the Great. Promotions and advancement in the Prussian
artillery were not as good as in cavalry and infantry.
"The Prussian artillery of the period was probably, along
with the enigineers, the most neglected arm in the
Prussian army, and arguably the worst artillery of the
major warring powers." (- Kevin Kiley) "By 1806 the
Prussian 'moving batteries'' still used the 1782 model,
which Carl von Clausewitz described as the worst in
Europe." (Leggiere - "Napoleon and Berlin" p 14)
Before the Napoleonic wars the Prussian army was
organized according to the 1792 regulations, with the artillery scattered amongst the infantry,
each battalion having one 6 pdr cannon. In 1805 attempts were made to reorganize the artillery
but it was too late. Until 1806 batteries were judged by the speed of unlimbering and the
smartness of appearance rather than the speed or/and accuracy of fire. Many cannons and
howitzers were lost in the disastrous Jena Campaign.
The Jena Campaign in 1806 was a disaster for the Prussian artillery. "The Prussians and their
reluctant Saxon allies, had plenty of artillery; in fact, they outnumbered the French in artillery in
the field. The problem was that there were too many guns with the infantry battalions, and there
was no central direction at the division and army level. Consequently, the Prussian artillery was
outmaneuvered and outfought by the outnumbered French artillery. In the aftermath of the twin
disasters at Jena and Auerstadt, most of the Prussian artillery was taken: 200 were lost at Jena,
and Davout, outnumbered more than two to one and executing a double envelopment of the
Prussian army, overran and captured 115 guns. In the subsequent ruthless pursuit many more
were lost. Artillery units ceased to exist, and cannon-studded fortresses surrendered without
firing a shot to small units of determined Frenchmen." (Kiley - "Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars
1792-1815" p 148)
In 1808 the Convention of Paris set the number of Prussian gunners and engineers at 6,000 men.
"Under the reorganization of 1808, the artillery was formed into 3 brigades:
- (1.) Prussian
- (2.) Silesian
- (3.) Brandenburg
At this early stage, all of the brigades were on reduced establishment but the intention of the
reorganizers was that each should achieve a strength of 12 foot ands 3 horse companies, this
intention being realized in 1809. Each brigade also had one Handwerker company on its strength,
their task being to repair and maintain the various pieces of artillery equipment. All Guard
Artillery units were subordinate to the Brandenburg Brigade.
All companies consisted of 8 pieces of artillery, 6 cannon and 2 howitzers and they were
subdivided into four sections. The different types of company were numbered within their own
sequences, irrespective of the parent brigades." (Nash - "The Prussian Army 1808-15" p 68)
The regulations issued in 1812 simplified the drill and abolished the light cannons attached to
infantry battalions.
After Napoleon's defeat in Russia in 1812, Prussia made a massive effort to increase its field
firepower.
In mid March 1813 there were 213 field pieces, and by the end of August 400 field pieces.
Artillery in August 1813
Prussian Brigade
(white shoulder straps)
Silesian Brigade
(yellow shoulder straps)
Brandenburg Brigade
(scarlet shoulder straps)
I Foot Battery (12pdrs)
IV Foot Battery (12pdrs)
I Foot Battery (6pdrs)
II Foot Battery (6pdrs)
III Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XIX Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XX Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XXII Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XXIII Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XXIV Foot Battery (6pdrs)
I Horse Battery (6pdrs)
II Horse Battery (6pdrs)
III Horse Battery (6pdrs)
I Foot Brigade (3pdrs)
.
.
.
III Foot Battery (12pdrs)
VII Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XI Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XII Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XIII Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XV Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XXI Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XXVIII Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XXIX Foot Battery (6pdrs)
VII Horse Battery (6pdrs)
VIII Horse Battery (6pdrs)
IX Horse Battery (6pdrs)
X Horse Battery (6pdrs)
XII Horse Battery (6pdrs)
I Howitzer Battery
.
.
II Foot Battery (12pdrs)
V Foot Battery (12pdrs)
VI Foot Battery (12pdrs)
IV Foot Battery (6pdrs)
V Foot Battery (6pdrs)
VI Foot Battery (6pdrs)
VIII Foot Battery (6pdrs)
IX Foot Battery (6pdrs)
X Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XIV Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XVI Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XVII Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XVIII Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XXV Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XXVI Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XXVII Foot Battery (6pdrs)
XXX Foot Battery (6pdrs)
IV Horse Battery (6pdrs)
V Horse Battery (6pdrs)
VI Horse Battery (6pdrs)
XI Horse Battery (6pdrs)
Before the Waterloo Campaign in 1815 the problem was not so much procuring the ordnance for
the campaign, but in finding trained men to use them and horses to pull them. "The war cabinet
had decreed that the army required 76 batteries, 20 more than had been available the previous
year. ... The Prussian Commander of Artillery, Prince August of Prussia, even wanted to go as far
as drafting in semi-invalids to make up numbers. The King overruled him, although a number of
the least infirm were allowed to join the Laboratory Columns tasked with the manufacture of
ammunition. Artillery recruitment was, however, opened up to volunteers from the infantry or
cavalry, which provided uniformed manpower but not trained gunners." (Adkin - "The Waterloo
Companion" p 301)
The situation of artillery in 1815 was a difficult one.
A total of 76 batteries, 37 artillery supply trains, and 12 wagon columns were needed to outfit
the seven army corps. Guns and supporting vehicles were obtained by converting former Saxon,
Berg, and two Russ-German Legion units to Prussian horse batteries. The King permitted infantry
and cavalry transfers to the artillery as well as allowing semi-invalids to join laboratory columns.
This measure did not produce the qualified men needed and virtually no trained personnel were
found to man the new 12-pounder foot batteries. To provide crews, Boyen converted three 6-
pounder batteries into 12-pounder batteries and formed nine new 12-pounder batteries from
infantry reservists, former Berg and Saxon units, and east Prussian conscripts. Time and
manpower shortages only yielded 38 of the 76 batteries and 14 artillery supply columns.
(Leggiere Bulow and the campaign of 1815 p 60)
The nine new batteries (heavy 12pdrs) performed poorly during the Waterloo Campaign.
In addition three foot batteries (6pdrs) were converted to 2 horse batteries (6pdrs)
and one howitzer battery.
Guard artillery in 1810.
Picture by Knoetel.
~
Equipment (cannons, howitzers, caissons, limbers, and horses.)
The heavy guns became famous as the "Growlers" after a comment
made by Frederick the Great during the battle of Leuthen.
Picture: Prussian 6pdr cannon
All Prussian guns, limbers and wagons were
painted in medium-blue, and their metal parts
were painted black. Much of Prussia's cannons
and howitzers were lost in the campaign of
1806.
Guns available for field service:
- 24 'bombardement pieces"
- 84 normal 12pdr cannons
- 120 heavy 6pdr cannons
- 320 light 6pdr cannons
- 76 10pdr howitzers
- 34 7pdr howitzers
- 16 10pdr mortars
The heavy guns became famous as the "Growlers" after a comment
made by Frederick the Great during the battle of Leuthen.
The 6pdr cannon was served by 1 sergeant and 8 gunners.
The 12pdr cannon was served by 1 sergeant and 12 gunners.
"The 6pdr cannon was made of bronze; the 12pdrs had either bronze or iron barrels. Most of the
equipment and designs dated from the end of the 18th Century." (Hofschroer - "Prussian Staff and
Specialist Troops 1791-1815" p 19)
The gunners fired over open sights, setting the range by elevating the barrel of the cannon.
The 6pdr cannon could fire a maximum of 1.5 rounds per minute.
To ensure the ammunition supply the first line of ammunition wagons was near at hand,
preferably under cover so as not to catch fire aimed at the battery. A plain covered with woods,
settlements, marshes, etc. hindered the artillery and tied it to the roads. Marshes to the front
however reduced the effects of enemy fire. The artillery must be carefully protected by the other
arms.
The 7pdr howitzer was served by 1 sergeant ('feuewerker') and 11 gunners.
The 10pdr howitzer had 1 addiional man in reserve and a further 2 served
the additional ammunition wagon. Total of 14 men.
The howitzers could fire a maximum of 2 rounds in 3 minutes.
The howitzers threw grenades at high trajectories whereas the cannons
typically fired ricochet rounds at 0 or few more degrees elevation.
The 6pdr cannon required 6 horses, while the heavier 12pdr 8 horses.
All caissons were drawn by 4 horses. The horses of a gun team were of
the same colour for one simple reason: it could easily be identified
from the distance. Due to losses during campaign it was not always possible.
On 29th May 1813, the first gun of the horse battery of the Guard (No. 5)
was drawn by grey and white horses. In February 1814 the King allowed to
use Danish horses to form the horse battery of Ltzow's corps.
The horse harness was Prussian, but there were also items of Russian and British origin.
For example in 1815 the 18th and 19th Horse Batteries replaced the used Russian harness with
new British.
Guns Horses Crew
6pdr cannon 6 horses 8 + 1 NCO
12pdr cannon 8 horses 12 + 1 NCO
howitzer 15 (?) horses 12 + 1 NCO
The Prussian gunners used gunpowder that consisted of 6 parts saltpeter, 1 part sulphur, 1 part
coal, provided that all parts are as pure as possible. English gunpowder was considered superior.
The quality of French powder was poorer than English.
The ammunition was carried in limbers and caissons. The Prussian limbers and caissons was
bigger than French limbers and caissons. The Prussian battery had only 4 but larger caissons, and
2 rack wagons, while the French battery had 12-18 smaller caissons. In battle the limbers were not
far away from the cannons/howitzers so the ammunition was readily available to the battery.
The Prussian caissons were deployed up to 50 m behind the limbers. (Organizationally some
caissons were within the batteries and others were in the munitions 'park columns'.) Additionally
the boxes with ammunition could be off-loaded from the limber and carried to the guns.
The spare wheels and carriages were carried in so-called rack wagons.
The 6pdr foot battery (6 6pdr cannons and 2 howitzers) had 2 cannon caissons, 2 howitzer
caissons and 2 rack wagons.
The 12pdr foot battery had 6 cannon caissons, 4 howitzer caissons and 2 rack wagons.
The horse battery had 4 cannon caissons, 2 howitzer caissons and 2 rack wagons.
The guns supplied by Great Britain arrived with sufficient ammunition, but I
don't know if there was sufficient ammunition for the captured French pieces.
In 1815 the ammunition wagons - at least for the 18th and 19th Horse Battery - were French.
Ammunition for Foot Artillery
Gun Ammo in trail chest Ammo in limber Ammo in caisson
6pdr cannon
9 cannonballs
3 canister
45 cannonballs
25 canister
143 cannonballs
45 canister
12pdr cannon no trail chest
12 cannonballs
9 canister
70 cannonballs
25 canister
6 shells 14 shells
60 shells
20 canister
7pdr howitzer
4 canister 6 canister 2 illuminating projectiles
3 incendiary shells
10pdr howitzer no trail chest
4 shells
1 canister
36 shells
8 canister
2 illuminating projectiles
2 incendiary shells
Ammunition for Horse Artillery
Gun Ammo in trail chest Ammo in limber Ammo in caisson
6pdr cannon
9 cannonballs
3 canister
45 cannonballs
15 canister
90 cannonballs
25 canister
7pdr howitzer
6 shells
4 canister
14 shells
6 canister
60 shells
20 canister
2 illuminating projectiles
3 incendiary shells
Changing the wheel of damaged Prussian 6pdr cannon.
Osprey Men-at-Arms Series By: Osprey Publishing Ltd.
.
suggests that in a firefight the Prussian and British would have
been out shot.
(Dawson- "Wellingtons Big Bang: the British 12-pounders" )
Country
Source of
information
Range % hits
Belgium Fallot 900 m 20
Austria Lauerma 1000 m 40-70
Prussia Lauerma 800 m 35
Great
Britain
Hughs (pp Muller) 950 26-31
~
Organization of Prussian Artillery.
Foot batteries (6- and 12 pdrs)
Horse batteries (6 pdrs).
Howitzer batteries.
Artillery regiments in 1805 :
- 4 regiments of foot artillery (each of 10 companies)
- 1 regiment of horse artillery (10 companies)
- light guns attached to infantry battalions
The foot company (battery) consisted of 6 12 pdr cannons and 2 10 pdr howitzers.
The horse company (battery) consisted of 6 12 pdr cannons and 2 7 pdr howitzers.
The company (battery) was divided into two half-batteries and 4 sections.
In 1808 the Convention of Paris set the number of Prussian gunners and engineers at 6,000 men.
Three artillery brigades were formed:
- 1. Prussian Artillery Brigade (Preuisches Artillerie-Brigade)
- 2. Brandenburg Artillery Brigade (Brandenburgische Artillerie-Brigade)
- 3. Silesian Artillery Brigade (Schleisches Artillerie-Brigade)
The Guard Artillery was part of the 2. Brandenburg Artillery Brigade.
In 1809 each artillery brigade consisted of :
- 3 companies (batteries) of horse artillery
- 12 companies (batteries) of foot artillery
- 1 company of artillery train
- 1 company of artisans
In 1812 :
- 6 companies (batteries) of heavy artillery (1 battery used captured French pieces)
- 30 companies (batteries) of foot artillery (4 batteries used guns from Britain)
- 11 companies (batteries) of horse artillery (1 battery used guns from Britain)
"During the expansion of 1813, the practice of mixing guns and howitzers was not rigidly
adhered to. Many companies, of all calibres, consisted of only cannon, whilst at the same time, the
first and only howitzer company was formed. ... Finally, the term 'Battery' was introduced to
replace the slightly misleading one of 'company'." (- John Stallaert)
In the beginning of 1813 the Guard Artillery was composed of two batteries:
- Guard Horse Battery No. 4 ("Reitende (Garde-) Batterie Nr. 4")
- Guard Foot Battery No. 4 ("6pfndige (Garde-) Fu-Batterie Nr. 4")
soon renamed to Guard Foot Battery No. 6 ("6pfndige Fu-Batterie Nr. 6").
In the end of August 1813 Prussia had 400 field pieces in 50 batteries:
- 38 foot batteries
. . . . . 30 batteries with 8 6pdr guns (13th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd, 25th, 26th, and 27th Battery were
landwehr units)
. . . . . 6 batteries with 8 12pdr guns
. . . . . 1 battery with 8 7pdr howitzers (12 caissons and 2 wagons)
. . . . . 1 battery with 8 10pdr howitzers
- 12 horse batteries (the 12th Horse Battery was a landwehr unit)
The Berlin Landstrum had a half-battery of 8pdr guns.
Lutzow's Freecorps had one horse battery.
Battery of horse artillery = 116 men.
Battery of foot artillery (6pdrs) = 132 men.
Battery of foot artillery (12pdrs) = 184 men.
In May 1815 the Berg horse battery became Horse Battery No. 20 (in Brandenburg Artillery
Brigade) and the No. 1 and No. 2 Horse Batteries of the Russo-German Legion became horse
batteries No. 18 & 19 respectively (in Silesian Artillery Brigade).
In 1815, for the Waterloo Campaign, 5 howitzer batteries were raised.
Crew of foot battery (6 cannons and 2 howitzers) in 1815:
= 4-5 officers (and 1 surgeon)
= 14 NCOs
= 20 bombardiers (senior gunners)
= 2 drummers
= 96 gunners
The horse battery had an additional 16-20 soldiers.
The foot batteries were attached to infantry brigades.
The horse batteries were attached to cavalry brigades.
The position and howitzer batteries formed reserve artillery.
See below:
ARMY CORPS 1813-1815
Main Body Reserve Cavalry Reserve Artillery
Infantry Brigade
. . . . . Infantry Regiment
. . . . . Landwehr Infantry Regiment
. . . . . Foot Battery
Infantry Brigade
Infantry Brigade
Infantry Brigade
Cavalry Brigade
. . . . . Cavalry Regiment
. . . . . Landwehr Cavalry Regiment
. . . . . Horse Battery
Cavalry Brigade
. . . . . Heavy Battery
. . . . . Heavy Battery
. . . . . Howitzer Battery
The Prussian artillery had improved
immeasurable between 1806-07 and
1813-14. There were however still
several tactical and organizational
weaknesses.
"The artillery chief at army level was
usually a general, but there was no
army level artillery reserve, which
was a handicap. That left nothing for
the army commander to use, in
terms of artillery, on order to exploit
an advantage, or commit at the
decisive time or place.
Additionally, having the brigade
and corps artillery chiefs merely
senior field grade officers left no one
to advise the respective commanders on the best ways to employ their artillery assets. Thjis was
especially critical at the corps level, as the corps artillery chief was not equal in rank to the
brigade commanders comprising the corps, and many times they were not listened to or were
overruled by the senior officers of the corps.
This was one of the main differences between Prussian and French artillery employment and
higher-level organization.
When fighting the French, the Prussian artillery, though well-trained and generally well led at
the battery level, was not as sophisticated as the French in either command and control or tactics
above the brigade/division level. This was readily apparent at Ligny in 1815, when Napoleon
fought one of the best battles of his career against a slightly stronger Prussian army commanded
by Blucher, with Gneissenau as his Chief of Staff.
The Prussian guns were badly handled, and, worse, the army artillery chief, Karl Friedrich von
Holtzendorf, was seriously wounded, losing a hand, and was sent to the rear. His place was taken
at army level by the senior corps artillery chief, a mere lieutenant-colonel, which effectively
negated any coordinated artillery direction with the senior staff and commanders as the man was
too junior in rank to accomplish his mission.
The French artillery clearly dominated the field at Ligny. The Guard artillery was massed against
the Prussian center at 20:00, and blew a hole in the Prussian lines, paving the way for an attack
by the Imperial Guard and Gerard's IV Corps which split the Prussian army in two and won the
battle for the French." (Kiley - "Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars")
~
Uniforms of Prussian Artillery.
Picture: uniforms of
Prussian foot artillery
during the Jena
Campaign in 1806.
The foot gunners wore
hats (not shakos), and
white plume. Picture
by Andre Jouineau,
France.
After the disastrous
Jena Campaign the
uniforms of artillery
underwent several
changes. The gunners
replaced their hats
with shakos. During campaign the shako was protected with a black waxed cover. The foot
gunner wore a "Prussian blue" coat with red turnbacks, yellow buttons and black facings.
The breeches were white (for parade) or gray (for campaign).
The leather cross-belts and cartridge box were black.
On the cartridge box was a grenade badge (the Guard had a brass Guard Star).
The collars were black piped poppy-red along the front and lower edge until 1815.
The shoulder straps were coloured differently for each artillery brigade.
White shoulder straps were for the 1st Artillery Brigade, scarlet for the 2nd, and yellow for the
3rd.
"In 1814, these distinctions were discontinued and thereafter all companies had scarlet shoulder
straps."
(- John Stallaert)
The foot gunners carried infantry-type backpacks and bread bags.
Gunner and officer
of foot artillery in 1813.
The horse gunners wore largely the same uniform, but with typical cavalry distinctions
with regard to the legwear and boots. Cavalry overalls were worn with hussar boots.
From 1809 the horse artillery was also permitted to wear the longer 'Litevka' coat.
Horse leather equipment was black.
In April 1815 half of the gunners of 13th Horse Battery received uniforms of British horse artillery.
But when few months after Waterloo this battery appeared on parade wearing these outfits,
the Prussian king exploded. He ordered to take the British outfits off immediately.
In 1808-1815 the foot gunner was supplied with the same artillery sword as carried by the horse
gunners. It was only a temporary measure and was intended to replace these with the normal
infantry sidearm once supplies became available. The foot gunners were also armed with infantry
muskets but didn't take them on campaign. NCOs carried carbines (but not on campaign).
Different coloured sword knots were used to designate the batteries.
Driver of artillery train.
The drivers wore dark blue coatees
with light blue cuffs and collars,
red shoulder straps and white buttons.
~
Tactics of Prussian Artillery.
"We keep too much artillery in reserve, and we replace a battery
whenever it has used up all its powder and shot; as a consequence,
many batteries try to get rid of their ammunition quickly."
In general terms the artillery had the following tasks:
- to support the other troops by engaging the enemy artillery and
drawing their fire on itself, and by firing on advancing enemy columns
Counter-battery fire however was not very effective.
- to prepare the battle for other troops by covering their deployment
- artillery in connection with cavalry could be set up to undertake
movements around an area, or operations against the enemy`s flank ,
or to halt an enemy advance in the event of a defeat, or pursuit after a
victory.
The most dominant points on the battlefield were to be occupied with the heaviest field pieces. Their
fire was concentrated on enemy columns and their deployment, beginning at long ranges. From such a
position the enemy can be kept under fire for the time of his approach, and be held up while crossing
obstacles. Such positions must be defended hard, down to the use of canister. The lighter pieces were
to support the infantry and/or cavalry.
In battle the intervals between guns was approx. 12-20 paces apart.
The Reglament of 1812 hardly mentioned moving and deploying several batteries at once,
and this was considered one of its weaknesses. When several batteries were deployed
in line they were required to maintain an interval of 50 paces between each battery.
The ammunition wagons were drawn up in two lines, first stood 20 paces to the rear of the guns.
The second line stood 10 paces to the rear of the first line of the wagons.
To move distances of less than 100 paces, the gunners preferred to tow the cannons with the prolonge
rather than limber up.
General von Clausewitz was not too happy with the tactical use of Prussian artillery. He wrote: "We
keep too much artillery in reserve, and we replace a battery whenever it has used up all its powder
and shot; as a consequence, many batteries try to get rid of their ammunition quickly."
Prussian cavalry and French horse chasseurs fight for Prussian battery.
Battle of Jena, 1806.
~
Engineers.
"Frederick the Great's Engineer Corps had been weak
in both training and performance. He attempted to
rectify this by increasing its pay and prestige, and a
formal structure was established. In 1788 an Engineers'
Academy was opened."
Hofschroer - "Prussian Staff ..." p 18
The engineers formed an independent corps (Ingenieur-Korps) and were
commanded by General-Major von Scharnhorst (between 1813 and 1815 by
General-Major von Rauch). The were three companies of pioneers for fortresses
(Festungs-Pionier-Kompanien). In 1812 a fourth company was formed. In wartime
from these companies were to be formed field companies. Each field company
consisted of:
. . . . . . . . . . 2 officers, 1 surgeon
. . . . . . . . . . 1 sergeant-major
. . . . . . . . . . 1 armourer
. . . . . . . . . . 6 NCOs
. . . . . . . . . . 12 privates first class
. . . . . . . . . . 1 bugler
. . . . . . . . . . 40 sappers and 20 miners.
These men should be replaced in the fortress companies by recruits or
reservists.
By August 1813 there were 7 field and 6 fortress companies of pioneers.
In early 1815 there were 9 field and 8 fortress companies of pioneers.
The pioneers carried swords with a saw blade, only the sergent-major and ensign had ordinary
sabers. Smoothbore carabines with bayonets, and small cartridge pouches for 15 cartridges. In
addition they carried hatchets, pickaxes, axes, comapass saws and spades. (The regimental
pioneers belonged to their respective infantry regiments and had nothing to do with the pioneers
mentioned here.)
In October 1813 in the Elbe province from 800 miners was formed the Mansfelder Pionier
Batallion (4 field companies). The companies acted independently and were assigned to different
army corps. There were no senior engineer or pioneer officers at army headquarters, only one
engineer, Kapitan Vigny, serving as a staff officer plus a small topographical section.
All the engineer-officers (Ingenieur-Offiziere) were on the same rank list, but organised in 3
"brigades".
The engineer-officers were attached either to the field or fortress pioneer companies.
In April 1815, the Chief of Engineers, General von Rauch, requested
the increase of pioneer companies from 81 to 100 men.
Each company would consist of sappers (2/3) and pontoniers (1/3).
The Guard Pioneer Detachment (Garde-Pionier-Abtheilung) was formed in 1816, not before.
.
Fortress War after Waterloo 1815.
The fortress war ended with Blucher
having taken 10 French fortresses.
Although the outcome of the campaign had
been decided at Ligny and Waterloo, and
after the signing of the Convention of Paris
peace talks were in hand, the fortress war
continued for some time in France.
According to Peter Hofschroer, Wellington
and Blucher had agreed on 23 June (few
days after Waterloo) that the fortresses west
of Sambre would be dealt with by
Wellington's troops, and the fortresses east
of that river by the Prussians.
The King of Prussia appointed Prinz
August of Prussia to carry out the task of
commanding the siege operations
conducted by the forces under Prussian
command. He was allowed to determine
which fortress he was to besiege, in what
order, and in what manner.The troops he
had available for this were the II Army Corps, the North German Federal Army Corps, and the
garrison of Luxembourg.
The Prussians had no siege equipment at their disposal and little ammunition for the field
artillery. Oberst (Colonel) von Ploosen, formerly an engineer officer in the French army, was
appointed chief engineer officer for the sieges. Additional engineer officers were made available
in dribs and drabs, and two companies of the Mansfeld Pioneer Battalion, whose men were
miners, were brought up in waggons. There was also number of infantry allocated to the Field
Pioneer Companies.
Maubeuge was the strongest and most significant fortress on Sambre and was commanded by
seasoned General Latour-Maubourg. The garrison consisted of 3,000 men (mostly National
Guard) and 80 heavy cannons. The besieging Prussians had 7,700 infantry, 960 cavalry, 500
artillerymen, and 546 engineers. Prinz August decided to begin the bombardement as soon as
possible. Eight 12pdrs cannons were deployed on the left bank of Sambre, 14 7pdr howitzers were
placed behind the lines of the old fortified camp, and 4 10pdr howitzers were deployed further to
the west, just behind the old camp. The artillery opened fire in the morning on the 29 June.
Meanwhile numerous requests were sent to Wellington to send his siege train of 38 heavy guns
under Colonel Dixon. This finally arrived on 8 July. On 9 July the French fired 150pdr mortar
bombs from the fortress, but these had no effect.
For several days there was exchange of musket and artillery fire. Finally on 11 July the French
commandant hoisted the white flag, requesting terms of capitulation. Under these terms he was
permitted to leave the fortress with the honors of war, taking along 150 line troops and 2
cannons. The National Guard was dismissed.
The fortress war ended with Blucher having taken 10 fortresses with several hundred guns and
large quantities of ammunition and powder. The breaking of the French will to resist in the
northern belt was largely a Prussian achievement with Wellington's troops only having played a
minor role.
Wellington appointed Prins Frederik of the Netherlands to carry out the task of commanding the
siege operations conducted by the forces under Wellington's command. For this task Frederik
used Stedman's Netherland Infantry Division, the Indian Brigade, Belgian 5th Light Dragoons,
and Ghigny's Cavalry Brigade. (Hofschroer - "1815: The Waterloo Campaign. The German Victory."
publ. by Greenhill Books, UK)
Sources and Links.
Hofschroer - "Prussian Staff and Specialist Troops 1791-1815"
Hofschroer - "1815: The Waterloo Campaign. The German Victory."
Craig - "The Germans"
Duffy - "Frederick the Great"
Petre - "Napoleons Conquest of Prussia 1806"
Simms - "The Struggle for Mastery in Germany"
Oliver Schmidt
Pictures by Knoetel, and L.& F. Funcken
John Stallaert - "The Prussian Army" >>
Redoubts
Prussian Troops : Generals : Napoleonic wars : Waterloo : Blucher : Peter Hofschroer.
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Waterloo_myths_1.html[2012-05-21 12:41:52]
Prussian Troops and Generals of the Napoleonic Wars
- by Peter Hofschrer
[General] "von Yorck has always been my favourite as I share a certain
affinity with him. He was most able, forthright and outspoken.
The dishonest and the incapable had a problem getting on with him.
I cannot think of any [Prussian] generals or officers that disappoint me."
- Peter Hofschroer
1. On the differences between Prussian armies of 1813 (Leipzig) and 1815 (Waterloo)
2. Prussian staff vs French staff.
3. Blcher's strongest and weakest points.
4. Prussian defeats at Jena and Auerstedt.
5. The Prussians skip the divisional level.
6. Prussian victories over the French in 1813-1814.
7. Favorite Prussian general.
8. The biggest myth or false/wrong opinion about the Prussian army.
According to wikipedia.org "Peter Hofschrer is a historian who specialises in the
Napoleonic Wars. He is a graduate of King's College London and currently lives in Austria.
As well as his books, he has also contributed articles to magazines and journals such as the
BBC History Magazine, Military History, War in History, the Journal of the Society of Army
Historical Research, First Empire, Military Illustrated, Age of Napoleon and the Osprey Military
Journal, and to the BBC History Website. He has been a historical advisor to various TV companies."
Peter is also the sole author of several books on the Prussian army:
- "Prussian Light Infantry 1792-1815"
- "Prussian Line Infantry 1792-1815"
- "Prussian Cavalry 1792-1807"
- "Prussian reserve, militia & irregular troops 1806-15"
- "Prussian Specialist Troops 1792-1815"
~
Note: the questions to Peter Hoefschroer were supplied by our
visitors.
.
.
.
1.
What were the main differences between the Prussian army of
1813-14 (Katzbach, Leipzig) and that of 1815 (Ligny, Waterloo) ?
Answer: First, the army of 1813-14 was
drawn almost entirely from the core
provinces of the Kingdom of Prussia - East
and West Prussia, Brandenburg, Silesia,
Pomerania - whereas the army of 1815, and
by that I mean the Army of the Lower
Rhine, consisted only in part of "old"
Prussians. The Rhinelanders and to an
extent the Westphalians were "new"
Prussians of questionable loyalty.
Secondly, in 1815 a number of foreign, i.e. non-Prussian, formations
had been amalgamated into the line and were, on paper at least, now
considered regular formations, although it was really only after the
Waterloo Campaign that they could be considered as such in reality.
In 1813-14, these formations were not part of the line.
Finally, in 1815, the cavalry was undergoing a complete
reorganisation, absorbing new and in part irregular formations and
was in a state of chaos. In 1813-14, the cavalry consisted of high
quality, hard core of regulars.
.
.
.
2.
How would you compare the Prussian staff in 1812-1815
to the French staff (Berthier)? What were the differences ?
The two staffs reflected the different nature
of the Prussian army and state when
compared to those of the French. Napoleon
was both head of state and commander-in-
chief of the army in the field. In Prussia, the
king was the head of state, and he appointed
the commander-in-chief, who was a
different person and at times in a different
location. Napoleon combined the positions
of politician and soldier, while the commander of the Prussian field
army was merely a soldier.
Napoleon made all the decisions and his staff executed them without
question. The commander of the Prussian army acted on instructions
from his monarch and interpreted them according to advice given by
his staff. The French staff was largely only an administrative
organisation, the Prussian staff both an advisory and administrative
organisation.
.
.
.
3.
What were Blcher's strongest points as commander-in-chief
and what were the weakest ?
In the campaigns of 1813-15, Blcher held
the post of commander-in-chief. However,
he did so in name only and in reality it was
his chief-of-staff, Scharnhorst and later
Gneisenau, that were the de facto
commanders.
Blcher was not capable of holding supreme
command in his own right from 1813
onwards, because he was suffering the ravages of age and had a
history of mental illness brought on by stress.
The most able commanders - the reformers Scharnhorst and
Gneisenau - were unacceptable to the "old" Prussians as they were
outsiders. An "old" Prussian commander, like Kleist or Blow, was
unacceptable to the nation because, rightly or wrongly, the officer
corps was considered responsible for the catastrophe of 1806.
The compromise was to appoint Blcher, who was highly popular in
both the army and nation, as the figurehead nominally in command,
but to provide him with an "assistant", who was actually in
command. I think I have answered your question, albeit somewhat
indirectly.
Blcher was a popular man, but incapable of supreme command at
this time.
.
.
.
4.
What were the major reasons for such terrible defeats of
the Prussian army at Jena and Auerstedt ?
1) Not joining Austria and Russia in 1805 in
the Third Coalition.
This combination would most likely have
led to Napoleon's defeat.
2) Going to war against France in 1806
without the direct support of another great
power. The Prussian army should have
adopted a defensive strategy until the
arrival of the Russians.
3) Dividing the army into three in the face of the enemy.
Nobody was really in charge and King Frederick William III lacked
the authority to impose his will.
.
.
.
5.
Why did the Prussians skip the divisional level and instead form
very strong brigades?
What was the reasoning behind this ?
In 1808, the Prussians had intended to form
divisions based on the provinces remaining
in the kingdom. However, the Convention of
Paris restricted the size of the army to
42,000. The planned divisions instead
became brigades.
.
.
.
6.
Please comment on the Prussian lightning victories over the French
marshals
in 1813-1814 (Katzbach, Dennewitz and others).
In the autumn of 1813, the Allies adopted a
strategy of not letting any one of their three
armies face Napoleon alone. Should the
master place himself at the head of his
troops, then the Allied army facing him was
to withdraw, while the other advanced.
While Napoleon was chasing air, the
opportunity was taken to bring certain of his
marshals to battle and defeat them individually. This strategy was
finally rewarded with victory.
.
.
.
7.
Who is your favorite Prussian general or officer and why,
and who disappointed you the most and why ?
Yorck has always been my favourite as I
share a certain affinity with him. He was
most able, forthright and outspoken. The
dishonest and the incapable had a problem
getting on with him. I cannot think of any
generals or officers that disappoint me.
.
.
.
8.
What is the biggest myth or false/wrong opinion about the
Prussian army ?
The alleged "inflexibility" of the army at a
tactical level in 1806.
Those espousing that view have not
consulted any relevant primary source
material and have failed to consider the
analyses published by the French and
German General Staffs.
I refer particularly to the works written by
Bressonnet and Lettow-Vorbeck.
Furthermore, they have neglected to read about for instance the
combat at Altenzaun.
.
.
.
Thank You Peter!
The Prussians & Wellington : Waterloo Campaign : 1815 : Peter Hofschroer.
The Prussians and Wellington at Waterloo in 1815
"Waterloo - the German Victory"
- by Peter Hofschrer
Approx. 45 % of Wellington's troops were Germans
20 % were Dutch and Belgians,
and only 35 % were British.
1. Major myths British historians created about Waterloo.
2. Would you have preferred another commander
- - of the Prussian army instead of Blcher ?
3. What would the Prussians and King do if
- - the British had retreated to Dunkirk and embarked on the ships ?
4. What was your reasoning in naming Waterloo as the German victory ?
5. What were Wellington's biggest errors in 1815 ?
6. Why was the Prussians arrival at Waterloo decisive
- - in the victory over Napoleon ?
7. How would you describe Wellington as a person and as a politician ?
8. Who is/are the most reliable and unbiased English writer on 1815 ?
According to wikipedia.org "Peter Hofschrer is a historian who specialises in the Napoleonic Wars. He is a graduate of
King's College London and currently lives in Austria. As well as his books, he has also contributed articles to magazines
and journals such as the BBC History Magazine, Military History, War in History, the Journal of the Society of Army
Historical Research, First Empire, Military Illustrated, Age of Napoleon and the Osprey Military Journal, and to the BBC
History Website. He has been a historical advisor to various TV companies."
Peter is also the sole author of several books on the Prussian army, Wellington and Waterloo Campaign:
- "1815 The Waterloo Campaign: Wellington, His German Allies and the Battles of Ligny and Quatre Bras"
- "1815, The Waterloo Campaign: The German Victory : From Waterloo to the Fall of Napoleon"
- "Prussian Light Infantry 1792-1815"
- "Prussian Line Infantry 1792-1815"
- "Prussian reserve, militia & irregular troops 1806-15"
- "Prussian Specialist Troops 1792-1815"
Peter Hofschroer's two books ("Wellington and His German Allies" and "Waterloo - The German Victory") on the campaign in 1815 are
thoroughly researched examination of the war based on evidence never before presented in English speaking world. Author undermines the view of
the campaign as one fought out only by the French and the British and how Wellington deceived his Prussian allies and all subsequent historians
of the campaign. Peter Hofschroer also reveals the very crucial role of Blucher and his Prussian army in this campaign and at Waterloo.
Hofschrer's books were very well received. Robert Burnham of napoleon-series.org wrote about Hofschroer's second book 'Waterloo - The German
Victory":
"As in his [Hofschrer's] first book, he continues to cover the campaign from the German perspective, not only the Prussian effort, but also the
contribution of the contingents form the minor German states ... One can read a description of the defense of Hougoumont by a Nassau officer who
fought in the garden; Hannoverian accounts of what it was like to stand in a square while surrounded by French cavalry; and, even the official
report of Major Baring, the Hannoverian officer who commanded the King's German Legion troops defending La Haye Sainte !
For most readers, these first hand accounts will make buying the book worthwhile, however Mr. Hofschrer provides much more. He vividly
describes the Herculean efforts of the Prussian Army to extricate itself from the defeat at Ligny and to link up with the Anglo-Allied Army at
Waterloo. He uses first-hand accounts to describe the vicious fighting between the French Imperial Guard and the Prussians at the key village of
Plancenoit, which protected Napoleon's rear. Unlike many other histories of the campaign, Mr. Hofschrer also chronicles the fight at Wavre and
the successful retreat of Marshal Grouchy to France. ...
Fortunately for the reader, Mr. Hofschrer does not end the book with the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo. Over half the book is devoted to the
military events that occurred afterwards: the pursuit of the French back to France; the numerous skirmishes and clashes between the victorious
Prussians and the demoralized French; and the race between the Prussians and the British to be the first in Paris. Mr. Hofschrer also covers a
little known episode of the Waterloo Campaign that is rarely mentioned: the capture of the French fortresses by the Prussians. Despite the
occupation of Paris in July, some French fortresses did not surrender until November - almost five months after Waterloo !" (The entire review
you can find on napoleon-series.org >> )
Amazon.com described Hofschroer's book as follow:
"Peter Hofschrer, in this second volume of his masterly study of 1815, challenges the accepted version of events at the battle of Waterloo. He
demonstrtaes convincingly that Allied victory was due not to steadfast British infantry repelling the French, but to the timely arrival of Prussian
troops who stole victory from Napoleon and sealed the fate of the last Grande Arme.
Drawing on previously unpublished accounts, Hofschrer gives not only the Prussian perspective of their march to Waterloo and decisive attack on
Napoleons flank, but also details of the actions fought by some of the 25,000 Germans in Wellingtons British armymore than a third of the Dukes
force. A gripping narrative of astonishing detail captures such key episodes of Waterloo as La Haye Sainte, Papelotte, Hougoumont and the
Prussian struggle with the Imperial Guard for Plancenoit. In addition, Hofschrer examines the battle at Wavre, the Allied offensive into France,
the taking of Paris and the sieges across northern France. This is a definitive work on an epic confrontation by one of todays leading military
writers."
~
Note: the questions to Peter Hoefschroer were supplied by our visitors.
.
1.
What are the major myths British historians created about Waterloo ?
That Waterloo was a feat of British arms.
That Wellington's failure to react in time on 15 June to
the news of the outbreak of hostilities was due to
(Hannoverian general) Drnberg and (Prussian
general) Zieten not sending him information quickly
enough.
That Blcher chose bad positions at (the Battle of)
Ligny and handled his troops poorly.
.
.
.
2.
Would you have preferred another commander-in-chief of the Prussian army instead of Blcher ?
If so, then what would you have had him to do differently than Blcher ?
I think the only other choices were Kleist and Blow.
Of those, Kleist was probably the more able. Handling
the Saxon issue with more tact would have given him
another 14,000 men at Ligny - and probably saved the
day.
.
.
.
3.
What would the Prussian army and King do if the British-Dutch-German army
had retreated to Dunkirk and embarked on the ships ?
Just a small correction here: Wellington's line of retreat
was via Antwerp and not the Channel ports.
Had Wellington chosen the route home, then the
Prussians would have fallen back to the Rhine to
await the arrival of the Russians and Austrians.
.
.
.
4.
What was your reasoning in naming Waterloo as the German victory ?
"Wellington's force consisted of contingents from three
countries: Britain, Germany and the Netherlands.
Each formed roughly one-third of his army, with the
Germans making the largest third, the British the
smallest. Almost all of Blcher's Prussians were ethnic
Germans. In the theatre in the Low Countries, 75% of
the troops were German.
Of these, Blcher's Prussians did most of the
marching, fighting and bleeding. Reference to the relevant charts in volume 2 of my work on 1815
demonstrates this clearly.
Germany could have won this campaign without Britain.
Britain could not have won it without Germany.
Nevertheless, British historians present Wellington's army as "British",
except when it comes to imparting blame, when parts of it become "foreign"
and claim the campaign was a British victory."
.
PS. 1
According to the British newspaper "The Independent" (November
2004) Waterloo was largely won by Prussians, Hanoverians, Saxons,
Dutch and Belgians. Although the British prefer not to dwell on it,
these nations supplied around three-quarters of the 120,000 soldiers
who defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Of the 26 infantry brigades in
Wellington's army of 70,000, only nine were British; of the 12 cavalry
brigades, only 7 were British. Half the 29 batteries of guns were
Hanoverian, Dutch or Belgian. None of these included the 53,000
Prussians who turned up eventually for the battle and swung it
Wellington's way when the French were pushing for a late victory.
PS.2
All three Wellington's strongpoints at Waterloo (Hougoumont, La Haye Sainte and Papelotte) were defended by
German troops. Papelotte was defended by Prince Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar's brigade made up of Germans in the
Orange-Nassau and the 2nd Nassau Regiments. La Haye Sainte was defended by one battalion of King's German
Legion. Hougoumont was defended not only by the British Guard but also by various German troops including
battalion of 2nd Nassau under Mjr. Busgen, several companies of Hannoverian jagers and in the end by light
companies of Du Plat's brigade, light companies of Brunswick corps and part of Halkett's Hannoverian landwehr
brigade.
.
.
.
5.
What were Wellington's biggest errors in 1815 ?
His grave mistake was to fail to react to the arrival of
news of the outbreak of hostilities on the morning of
15 June. Several confirmations of this had to arrive
before he issued any orders - from 6 pm. That meant
it was too late for him to move his army that day and
provide Blcher with the support he needed on 16
June.
He also failed to order his entire army to Quatre Bras
on 16 June, although he was later to claim that he did do so. However, the orders issued and received
do not correspond with that claim.
.
.
.
6.
Why were the Prussians arrival on the battlefield and their attack on Napoleon's flank
decisive in the victory over Napoleon ?
Yes, but then Wellington would never have given
battle had he not been assured of Prussian support.
However, being a glory grabber, Wellington went to
considerable effort after Waterloo to play down the
role of the Prussians.
Napoleon was aware of their moves from relatively
early in the day and was unable to use (general)
Lobau to attack Wellington's centre after (general)
d'Erlon because the Prussian movements tied down his reserves.
The final attack with the Guard was undertaken too late and with too few men because much of his
final reserve was committed in the battle for Plancenoit in his right rear.
.
.
.
7.
How would you describe Wellington as a person and as a politician?
Please explain the "cover up" after Waterloo.
As with all great men, Wellington had a great ego. He
was supremely confident of his own abilities and
brooked no competition in headquarters. We would
not work with Sir Hudson Lowe, who had a
reputation for second-guessing his commanders. He
was ruthless in protecting his own image.
He was not, as his apologists would claim, an honest
politician.
His delay in ordering the movement of his troops on 15 June meant that he could not keep his promises
of providing the Prussians with rapid support. Rather than admit his error them, he led them to believe
all was running to plan. The false information was in part responsible for Blcher's defeat at Ligny.
Wellington went on to make a number of false claims in his "Waterloo Despatch" of 19 June 1815, like,
for instance, the time he heard the news of the outbreak of hostilities, how he reacted to that, and so on.
In the years following Waterloo, he went to considerable efforts to ensure that English-language
histories followed his line. Only one contemporary British Waterloo historian did not do what he was
told. That was Siborne and he suffered severe consequences.
.
.
.
8.
Who is/are the most reliable and unbiased English writer(s) on 1815 and do you recommend his
works ?
1) Siborne.
He has been maligned by a man using the name
"Hamilton-Williams". The charges of fraud made
against him are false and malicious. Had Siborne been
alive today, H-W would have found himself in court
facing a libel suit. Although telling the history of the
campaign from the British perspective, his work was
one of the most thoroughly researched ever produced.
2) Chesney.
Described somewhat unfairly by the Prussian General Staff as the 'first unbiased work' on the
campaign in English, Chesney was one of the few British historians of the Campaign to use both French
and German sources as well as English.
Good historians run down and establish the facts.
Most British Waterloo historians run away from the facts and embellish myths.
.
.
.
Waterloo 1815: Napoleon against two armies.
"Ah ! Wellington ought to light a fine candle to old Blucher.
Without him, I don't know where His Grace, as they call him,
would be; but as for me, I certainly wouldn't be here."
- Napoleon on St. Helena
Wellington and Siborne's Diorama of Waterloo, with 75,000 small tin figures.
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/WELLINGTON_GREATEST_VICTORY.htm[2012-05-21 12:41:56]
Don't mention the Prussians !
{Nicht erwhnen Sie die preuischen Truppen !}
.
Siborne and his "Large Model" of Waterloo.
"If you want to know my opinion it's all farce, fudge !"
Wellington's smallest victory.
.
Siborne and his "Large Model" of Waterloo.
The British army proposed the creation of an museum
and wanted a scale model of the Battle of Waterloo.
In 1829 the British army proposed the creation of an
museum and wanted a scale model of the Battle of Waterloo
as its central exhibit. The 32-years old topographer and the
son of a British officer, William Siborne , received the
commission. Despite having missed the battle he developed
a passionate interest in the event.
William
Siborne
even
stayed for 8 months in the
Waterloo area studying the
topography. He actually
stayed in La Haye Sainte
farm (picture ->)
When Siborne was in Paris
he saw the military models
at Les Invalides and was
impressed with them. Peter
Hofschroer, historian who
specialises in the
Napoleonic Wars, has traced the thoughness with which Siborne examined
accounts of the battle and examined Siborne's archive.
Hofschroer found out how passionate and devoted to his project Siborne was.
- William Siborne sent a questionnaire to all surviving British officers and to
the German forces in Wellington's army, he conducted voluminous
correspondence with surviving English, French, and Prussian veterans
- he has spent 8 years investigating the deployment of troops, forces'
dispositions, comparing accounts from official dispatches (including
Wellington's own), from printed memoirs
- sent a questionnaire to the Prussian General Staff and to the Ministry of
War in Paris
- obtained a copy of the papers of the Prince of Orange
- spent 8 months surveying the battlefield, and using techniques and
equipment he had developed.
- cross-referenced all this material and sought corroboration
- marked up Wellington's, Blucher's and Napoleon's positions on the map
- 2 years were spent in constructing, painting and modeling the terrain
- sent his plan to Wellington for approval
Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
(picture) however was jealous of his reputation, and brought
his weight to bear on accounts that conflicted with his own. He
went on campaign to discredit both William Siborne's model
and his reliability as an historian.
Picture: Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington in old age.
In 1828 he replaced Lord Goderich as prime minister.
~
"If you want to know my opinion it's all farce, fudge !"
- Wellington on Siborne's diorama
Siborne's "Large Model" was covering 400 square feet (the scale is 9 feet to the mile) and
represented every troop, every battery and even every tree of the battlefield. Villages with
complete landscape were reconstructed on top the wooden platform. It went on show in the
Piccadilly, where it was visited by 100.000 people in its first year. The Duke refused any
suggestion that he should join the visiting crowds. Today this model is in the National Army
Museum, beside the Chelsea Hospital.
National Army Museum, Royal Hospital Road, Chelsea, London SW3 4HT. The Royal
Armouries at Leeds has Siborne's "Lesser Model" on display.

Left: view from behind the Allies positions, on the left is La Haye Sainte.
Right: view from behind the Allies positions, on the right is Hougoumont.
Note: some of the figures are wrongly placed.
Approx. 75,000 small tin figures (1 figure for every 2 soldiers) each one 10 mm high and hand-
painted with absolute regimental accuracy, would represent the deployment of the three
armies. Siborne had decided to show the positions of the troops at the very crisis of the battle -
at 7.15 p.m., when Napoleons Imperial Guard made its final assault on Wellingtons centre. By
this point, Wellington's armys with which he had started the battle were very much reduced,
and the 35.000 Prussians were staging their third attack on the French positions.
The Prussians were shown sweeping to the rescue while Wellington's troops fended off the
French attack. It humiliated Wellington because it contradicted his Waterloo Despatch and the
duke's displeasure with Siborne was made clear. (The Waterloo Despatch is an official account,
written by Wellington the day after the battle and it was published in The Times 4 days later on
June 22, 1815.)
Wellington was jealous of his reputation, and brought his weight to bear on accounts that
conflicted with his own. He went on campaign to discredit both Siborne's model and his
reliability as an historian. Wellington said: "If you want to know my opinion it's all farce, fudge
!" Siborne wrote the most powerful man in the country at the time, the Duke of Wellington, to
ask what alterations he required but the Duke refused to reply.
~
Wellington's smallest victory.
Siborne made a conciliatory gesture by removing
the offending 40.000 Prussians placed on his model.
Siborne made a conciliatory gesture by announcing publicly that he was removing the offending
40.000 Prussians placed on his model, leaving only a handful (8.000) Wellington had insisted that the
Prussians had arrived when the battle was already won. He acknowledged the "cordial and timely
assistance" of the Prussians, but only mentions their arrival at 7 p.m., when the battle was coming to
the end. It was a prime example of the winner writing the history books.
Wellington also had little
patience with later
attempts to establish
exactly what had
happened, and when and
how many Prussians
came. But Ltn. Siborne
could prove that the
Prussians had actually
become involved in the
battle several hours
earlier than Wellington
claimed, and had played
a far greater part in the
victory than was credited
to them in the Despatch.
Siborne published
History of the War in
France and Belgium in
1815, where he presented evidence for the earliness and extensiveness of the Prussian participation.
Peter Hofschroer argues, that Siborne was "in effect calling Wellington a liar" - and subverted a
central element of national mythology: the conviction that Britain alone - and the genius of the Iron
Duke (needless to say, Wellington's nickname had nothing to do with his behavior in battle) - saved
Europe from Napoleon. Such attitide served a useful purpose through two world wars, to believe
that it was Britain alone freed Europe. The Prussians arrived much earlier in the day than Wellington
admitted and were present in huge numbers by the time of the battle's climax.
A glance at Prussian casualty figures, which ran into thousands, reveals the intensity of their
involvement.
There were reasons why Wellington might have wanted to mute the Prussian contribution at the
time. A glowing tribute in 1815 would have led to increased Prussian territorial demands at the
peace settlement something that the British, Austrians and majority of the German states were
anxious to avoid. By the 1830-1840 however Wellington seemed much more about the protection of
his reputation. According to Hubert Richardson, Wellington "could not tolerate that anyone should
receive a meed of praise in connexion with any of his campaigns, excepting himself." Wellinton
dismissed Siborne's model as "all farce, fudge!", spreading rumours that its creator had been
"humbugged" by the Prussians and was of "German descent" (!)
Siborne (1797-1849) died in poverty, as a bitterly disappointed man.
Sources and Links.
"Wellington's Smallest Victory: The Duke, the Model Maker and the Secret of Waterloo" - by Peter Hofschrer
"The Times", London, March 2004
"The Sunday Times" April 2004
"Sunday Telegraph" London, March 2004
British Navy : Army : Colonial Troops : Napoleonic Wars
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Britain_and_British_forces.htm[2012-05-21 12:42:03]
British Navy, Army , and Colonial Troops
of the Napoleonic Wars
"Alone among the European powers, England had no need of big standing army.
Whereas any European power has to support a vast army first of all,
we in this fortunate ... relieved by our insular position of a double burden
may turn our individual undivided efforts and attention to the fleet."
- Winston Churchill
"Rule, Britannia! rule the waves:
"Britons never will be slaves."
The Royal Navy enabled Britain to avoid prolonged land wars on the Continent.
The English Channel has often enough proved to be British army's salvation.
Against Great Britain there was no broder just to be marched across. Isolation
gave the opportunity to enter wars selectively. When Tsar of Russia asked Britain
to send its army to Germany, where was the heaviest and bloodiest fighting,
the British government refused. Instead they sent their troops to Spain and
southern Italy.
Introduction. Brief political and
military history of Britain.
They (Romans) came, they saw, and
they definitely conquered (Britain)
From the fury of the Danes,
Good Lord deliver Us."
The Normans (from northern France)
invaded and conquered England in 1066.
The Dark Ages and the Black Death.
English conquest of Ireland.
annexation of Wales, and war
with Scotland and France.
Bloody Civil Wars and.
the New Model Army.
English conquest of Scotland.
England's rivalry with Spain and France.
United Kingdom of Great Britain.
"The vast British Empire
on which the sun never sets."
Trade was Britains lifeblood.
They are a nation of shopkeepers,
their glory is in their wealth.
.
.
.
Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars.
Napoleon's planned invasion of Britain.
Britain's military expenditure.
Britain and the coalitions against France.
In Europe was born saying: "England will fight
against Napoleon to the last drop of Prussian,
Austrian and Russian blood".
.
Royal Navy
The navy made Britain's trade prosper,
it sustained its colonies and reshaped
its politics. The sailor enjoyed greater
popular respect than the soldier.
Ships-of-the-line.
They were the basic
ingredient of naval power.
Frigates.
The most glamorous type
of ship in the navy.
Schooners and gunboats.
Victories and defeats of the Royal Navy.
From the beginning of the 19th century until well
into the 20th century it was the most powerful navy
in the world.
Admiral Nelson.
He rose to become one the
world's greatest naval leaders.
Miscellaneous
(Royal Navy's opponents and allies).
- Spanish Navy
- French Navy
- Russian Navy
- American Navy
.
.
The Army and Colonial Troops
During the Napoleonic Wars.
Strength and deployment.
This solidity and tenacity
in attack and defense.
"... the clumsiness of their movements.".
"... an unflogged soldier was a
monstrously misplaced being ..."
The noble officers and "the
scum of the earth" (privates).
The nominal commander of the army,
.
.
.
.
the "mad king" George III.
The Duke of York.
Wellington raised the reputation of
the British army to a level unknown
since Marlborough.
The mighty Royal Navy
Introduction.
Brief political and military history of Britain.
Following the end of the last Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago, the sea levels began to rise as waters
formerly locked up in great ice sheets melted. Sometime after about 8,200 BC the last dry 'land bridge'
from East Anglia to Holland was taken over by salt marsh. By 6,000 BC even the marshes had largely
gone, drowned by the sea.
People lived in what we now call the British Isles long before it broke away from the continent of
Europe. As the climate improved, there seems to have been an increase in the number of people moving
into Britain from the Continent. Many Celts came from Gaul, driven from their homelands by the
Roman legions. It is not known precisely when the Celts first enter Britain in their expansion outwards
from central Europe. But Julius Caesar states, in his own account of his campaigns, that they have been
migrating across the Channel since at least the 2nd century BC. These were also the Belgae, who arrived
in great numbers and settled in around 75 BC.
.
.
"They (Romans) came, they saw, and
they definitely conquered (Britain)."
- David Mattingly
Julius Caesar's Roman legions invaded Britain in 54 and 55 BC. After Julius Caesar abandoned Britain,
it fell back into the hands of the Britons. The Romans began their second conquest of Britain in 43 AD
and annexed the whole of England and Wales.
The Roman Governor of Britain, Suetonius Paulinus, met the Britons under Boudicca in a bloody battle
of Watling Street in AD 60 or 61. (Boudica was a woman). As their armies deployed, the commanders
would have sought to motivate their soldiers. Tacitus claims to relate Boudica's speech to her followers:
"Nothing is safe from Roman pride and arrogance.
They will deface the sacred and will deflower our virgins.
Win the battle or perish ...."
Tacitus also wrote of Suetonius addressing his legionaries:
"Ignore the racket made by these savages. ...
We've beaten them before and when they see our weapons
and feel our spirit, they'll crack. ..."
Boudica led the Britons forward across the plain and into the narrowing field in a massive frontal
attack. As they advanced, they were channelled into a tightly packed mass. Then their advance was
staggered by a volley of Roman javelin. A second volley followed. This tactic destroyed any organised
advance by the tribesmen. With the Britons in disarray, Suetonius ordered his legionaries to push
forward in the wedge formation, creating a front line that took the appearance of the teeth of a
handsaw. With their superior discipline, the Romans were able to continue fighting as fiercely as ever.
Some 80,000 of the tribesmen were slaughtered, against only 400 Roman dead. (The casualties quoted in
the ancient sources are regarded by historians as extravagant.) The battle marked the end of resistance
to Roman rule in Britain in the southern half of the island,
The Roman occupation of Britain was very long and lasted until 410.
Some historians suggest that there was a peasant revolt against the landowning classes, with the latter
group asking the Romans for help. With the higher levels of the Roman military and civil government
gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and small warlords gradually emerged all
over Britain, still aspiring to Roman ideals and conventions. The long contact with Roman civilization
brought wealth and sophistication to Britain.

The mighty army of Rome.
.
.
"From the fury of the Danes,
Good Lord deliver Us."
In the wake of the breakdown of Roman rule, England was settled by Germanic people known as the
Anglo-Saxons. They gradually gained control of England. The Benedictine monk, Bede, identified the
Anglo-Saxons as the descendants of three Germanic tribes:
- the Angles, who may have come from Angeln (in modern Germany)
- the Saxons, from Lower Saxony (in modern Germany)
- the Jutes, from the Jutland peninsula (in modern Denmark)
Raids by the Vikings were frequent after AD 800.
The story of the Vikings in Britain is one of conquest, expulsion, extortion and reconquest. The Vikings
were the bloodthirsty warriors who lived on the fringes of civilization (in modern Norway, Sweden,
and Denmark). There were days when the Danes made the British tremble, and the English litany
included the prayer, "From the fury of the Danes, Good Lord deliver Us."

The Vikings.
.
.
The Normans (from northern France)
invaded and conquered England in 1066.
The history of the Normans living in northern France is one of blood-feuds. The constant expansion of
territory was the hallmark of the Norman experience in history. With a growing scarcity of land in the
eleventh century, some Norman lords migrated to Italy where they carved out their own independent
Norman duchies.
In 1066, the Normans under William the Bastard (because of the illegitimacy of his birth) invaded
England. William was already known as "the Conqueror" before 1066 due to his military success in
Brittany. At Hastings 7,500 Normans led by William the Conqueror crushed 7,500 Anglo-Saxons under
Harold Godwinson. Although there was further English resistance, this battle is seen as the point at
which William gained control of England.
William the Conqueror (French: Guillaume le Conqurant) ruled through a network of barons that he
enticed into England from France. William ordered many castles, keeps, and mottes, to be built
throughout England. These ensured effectively that the many rebellions by the English people did not
succeed. William the Conqueror was followed by Norman kings, none of them speaking English and all
of them also ruling in France.

Battle of Hastings.
.
.
The Dark Ages.
The Black Death.
Wars of the Roses.
Hundred Years' War.
After the end of the Viking Age and the Norman Conquest, the Kingdom of England covered most of
the area previously ruled by the Romans. The remaining areas were held by the Kingdoms of Wales
and the Kingdom of Scotland respectively. The medieval period was a turbulent time for Britain. It incl.
several civil wars, the black death, and the Hundred Years' War.
The Black Death, an epidemic of bubonic plague that spread over the whole of Europe, arrived in
England in 1348 and killed as much as a third to half the population (!) Usually thought to have started
in Central Asia, it had reached the Crimea by 1346. From there, probably carried by fleas residing on
the black rats that were regular passengers on merchant ships, it spread throughout the Mediterranean
and Europe.
The Hundred Years' War was a series of wars lasting from 1337 to 1453 between the House of Valois
and the House of Plantagenet from England for the French throne, which was vacant. (Plantagenet
Kings had their roots in the French regions of Anjou and Normandy.) French soldiers fought on both
sides. The conflict lasted 116 years before it finally ended in the expulsion of the Plantagenets from
France.
The Wars of the Roses between 1455 and 1485 were a series of dynastic civil wars between supporters of
the rival houses of Lancaster and York, for the throne of England. The war ended with the victory of the
Earl of Richmond, Henry Tudor, who founded the House of Tudor, which subsequently ruled England
and Wales for 117 years.
(The name "Wars of the Roses" is not thought to have been used during the time of the wars but has its
origins in the badges associated with the two royal houses, the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of
Lancaster.)
In 1487, Henry VII's Yorkist enemies landed a small army on the coast of Cumbria. They had crowned
the pretender Lambert Simnel as Edward VI in Dublin. Henry intercepted and defeated them at Stoke,
near Newark on Trent. Chief among Henry VII's achievements were treaties regulating England's trade.
The 'Great Intercourse' signed with the Netherlands, was the most important of these treaties. The
Netherlands was the key market for Tudor England's main export, woollen textiles.
While Henry VIII's forces were campaigning against the French king Louis XII, James IV of Scotland
invaded England. He was met by an army under Thomas. In 1513 James IV led his army in an attack
down the muddy, precipitous slope of Branxton Hill, near Flodden, Northumberland. Although his
forces substantially outnumbered those of the English, they were ultimately encircled and massacred.
James and many Scottish nobles were killed in the fighting. The infant James V became king.
The first meeting of Henry VIII and Francis I of France took place in 1521 near Calais, France. In a
fortnight of ceremonies and entertainments, the English and French kings attempted to outshine each
other with extravagant clothes and jewels, lavish tents and spectacular feasts, jousts and games.
Although its diplomatic consequences were limited, it was dramatic evidence of the curious love-hate
relationship between England and France.

The Black Death

Henry VIII's six wives (Divorced, Beheaded and Died - remix)
The six wives of King Henry VIII were:
Catherine of Aragon (annulled),
Anne Boleyn (annulled then beheaded),
Jane Seymour (died, childbed fever)
Anne of Cleves (annulled),
Catherine Howard (annulled then beheaded),
and Catherine Parr. Because annulment voids
a marriage, technically speaking Henry VIII
would have said he had only 2 "wives." The
king also had several mistresses during his marriages.
.
.
English conquest of Ireland,
annexation of Wales, and war
with Scotland and France.
The Act of Supremacy issued in 1534 confirmed Henry VIII as supreme head of the Church of England
and separated the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church. Henry himself was never a
Protestant, but the break with Rome was a huge encouragement to Protestants in England. As supreme
head of the Church, the king began to confiscate church property, eventually suppressing all the
religious houses in England and Wales. Approx. 10,000 monks, friars, nuns and their servants were
made homeless. Much of the property was sold on, mostly to local gentry.
The Laws in Wales Acts of 1535 and 1542 attempted to regularise the relationship between England and
Wales. English became the official language of administration. While effectively an annexation, the acts
gave the Welsh parity under the law and were not unpopular.
In order to enforce the marriage of Edward and Mary Stuart, Edward's uncle and lord protector,
Edward Seymour, the Duke of Somerset, invaded Scotland in 1547. Despite being opposed by a much
larger Scottish army, superior English firepower and the incompetence of the Scottish commander, gave
the invaders a dramatic victory at Pinkie Cleugh.
In response to the English victory over the Scots, Henry II of France sent military assistance to Scotland.
The price was the marriage of Mary to his heir, the Dauphin Francis. A month later, French warships
transported Mary to France. In the event of his death, in 1547, king Henry VIII had appointed a Council
of Regency to govern the country for his young son. This was led first by Edward's uncle, Edward
Seymour.
During the period 15361691 Ireland saw the first full conquest of the island by England and its
colonization with Protestant settlers from Britain. The English however had little success in converting
either the native elite or the Irish people to the Protestant religion. Ireland had been in personal union
with England since 1541, when the Irish Parliament had passed the Crown of Ireland Act 1542,
proclaiming King Henry VIII of England to be King of Ireland.
The Nine Years War broke out in 1594 when the territorial ambitions of Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone,
clashed with those of England. At the Battle of Yellow Ford in 1598, English forces suffered a heavy
defeat, with 2,000 killed, including their commander. In late 1601, the English routed the rebels at the
Battle of Kinsale, but it would still take more than a year to finally subdue the rebellion.
Both Ireland and England had been in personal union with Scotland since the Union of the Crowns in
1603. But there was no peace in Ireland. The years from 1641 to 1691 saw two civil wars, which killed
hundreds of thousands of people and left others in permanent exile.
Between the years of 1691 and 1801 Ireland was an autonomous Kingdom with its own Parliament, but
the majority of its population, Roman Catholics, were excluded from power and land ownership. In the
1740s, the economic inequalities between the English and Irish, when combined with an exceptionally
cold winter and poor harvest, led to the Great Irish Famine which killed about 400,000 people. In 1800
and 1801 the twin Acts of Union united the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland to
create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

A Short History of Ireland
.
.
Bloody Civil Wars and
the New Model Army.
The First English Civil War broke out in 1642, largely as a result of an ongoing series of conflicts
between the king and Parliament. The defeat of the Royalist army by the New Model Army of
Parliament at the Battle of Naseby in June 1645 effectively destroyed the king's forces.
The capture and subsequent trial of the king led to his beheading in 1649 in London, making England a
republic. The trial and execution of the king by his own subjects shocked the rest of Europe (the king
argued to the end that only God could judge him) and was a precursor of sorts to the beheading of King
Louis XVI 145 years later in France.
The New Model Army led by Oliver Cromwell, then scored decisive victories against Royalist armies in
Ireland and Scotland. Cromwell was given the title Lord Protector. The New Model Army differed from
other armies in the same conflict in that it was intended as a force liable for service anywhere in the
country, rather than being tied to a single area or garrison. As such, its soldiers became full-time
professionals, rather than part-time militia.
In early period the army consisted of 21,000 soldiers comprising:
- 11 regiments of cavalry each of 600 men
- 1 regiment of dragoons of of 1,000 men
- 12 regiments of infantry each of 1,200 men
The civil wars were very bloody. In England, a conservative estimate is that roughly 100,000 people died
from war-related disease during the three civil wars. Historical records count 84,830 dead from the
wars themselves. Counting in accidents and the two Bishops' wars, an estimate of 190,000 dead is
achieved. The casualties for Scotland are 60,000. In Ireland 112,000 Protestants were killed through
plague, war and famine, and that 504,000 (!) Catholics were killed. Approx. 40,000 Irishmen were driven
into exile.

Battle of Nasseby 1645
.
.
English conquest of Scotland.
Oliver Cromwell invaded Scotland in 1650, and defeated the Scottish army at Dunbar and Worcester.
Scotland was then occupied by an English force and incorporated into the Puritan-governed
Commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell even sold Scots into slavery. They were transported to America, sold
and were used to build up the wealth of English colonists.
In 1706 the Treaty of Union was agreed between representatives of the Scots Parliament and the
Parliament of England and the following year twin Acts of Union were passed by both parliaments to
create the united Kingdom of Great Britain. The Kingdom of Ireland was left out.
In 1745 the Jacobite rising began.
Charles Stuart landed on the island of Eriskay and several clans joined him. At the outset he was
successful, taking Edinburgh and then defeating the government army at Prestonpans. They marched
into England and got as far as Derby. It became increasingly evident however that England would not
support a Roman Catholic Stuart monarch. The Jacobite leadership had a crisis of confidence and
retreated to Scotland. The Duke of Cumberland crushed the uprising and the hopes of the Jacobites at
the Battle of Culloden. Charles hid in Scotland with the aid of Highlanders until 1746, when he escaped
back to France. English authorities then acted to destroy the Scottish clan system. All aspects of
Highland culture incl. the language were forbidden on pain of death. Highlanders were forced into the
British army.
However, after Britain successfully fought the Seven Years' War (17561763) Scotland being Britain's
partner began to flourish in ways that she never had as an independent nation. As the memory of the
Jacobite rebellion faded away, the 1770s and 80s saw the repeal of much of the draconian laws passed
earlier. Economically, the city of Glasgow began to grow at a tremendous rate at the end of the 18th
century.

Battle of Culloden 1746: 7,000 Scots versus 8,000 English
Approx. 70 % of the Jacobite force was composed of the brave but poorly trained highland clansmen.
The remaining 30 % were lowlanders , and Irish and Scottish regular units in French service.
Of the English army's 16 battalions present, 11 were English, 4 Scottish and 1 was Irish.
The Royal Artillery vastly out-performed their Jacobite counterparts. The English army
suffered only 300 casualties, while the defeated Scots lost 2,000 killed, wounded and
prisoners. It was the last battle fought on British soil.
.
.
England's rivalry with Spain and France.
During the 15th and 16th centuries, Spain and Portugal pioneered exploration of the world and in the
process established overseas empires. Envious of the wealth these empires bestowed, England, France
and the Netherland began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and
Asia.
English achievements in exploration were noteworthy in the Elizabethan era. Sir Francis Drake
circumnavigated the globe between 1577 and 1581, and Martin Frobisher explored the Arctic. Francis
Drake was commissioned by Elizabeth I to undertake a secret voyage against Spanish interests in the
Americas. He left England in 1577 in his flagship Pelican - soon renamed Golden Hind - in a 5-ship fleet.
He returned three years later, as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. Elizabeth's share of
the booty reputedly equalled the crown's annual expenditure for a year. Drake was knighted the
following spring.
In 1585 the treaty of assistance to the United Provinces (a collection of territories in the Low Countries)
was signed in Surrey. It provided English military aid for the relief of Antwerp, which was besieged by
Spanish troops. Antwerp fell on 17 August. Nonetheless, the treaty was perceived as an act of war by
the king of Spain and would lead, by a series of events, to sending of the Armada to invade England.
A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England the
dominant colonial power in North America and India. However, the loss of the colonies in North
America was a blow to Britain, depriving it of its most populous colonies. In 1739 Britain declared war
on Spain after repeated depredations on British ships by Spanish guarda costas. This was a colonial war
in Caribbean waters. It was named after a Captain Robert Jenkins, whose ear had been severed by the
Spanish. The War of Jenkins' Ear lasted until 1748.

Battlefield Britain "The Spanish Armada"
Huge Spanish fleet (151 ships, 8,000 sailors and 18,000 soldiers) sailed against England in 1588,
with the intention of overthrowing Queen Elizabeth I. The expedition however ended in disaster.
Spanish casualties were very heavy. At the battle of Gravelines the armada lost 1,800 killed,
wounded, prisoners and few ships. In the storms however they lost 15,000 dead and 50 ships (!)
The defeat of the Spanish Armada is one of the greatest naval victories in English history.
In England, the boost to national pride lasted for decades.
The expedition of the Spanish Armada led to a similar campaign by England the following year,
the failed DrakeNorris Expedition, also known as the English Armada, sent to occupy Portugal
and northwestern Spain, which was also unsuccessful.
.
.
United Kingdom of Great Britain.
The Treaty of Union led to the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain, the political union of England
(incl. Wales) and Scotland, that took effect in 1707. The idea of uniting the two states had been around
since the Union of the Crowns in 1603. Three previous attempts to unite the two countries by Acts of
Parliament, in 1606, 1667, and 1689 were unsuccessful. This had the effect of creating a united kingdom,
with a single parliament, from May 1st, 1707.
Though the Treaty of Union referred to the new all-island state, as the "United Kingdom of Great
Britain", many regard the term 'United Kingdom' as being descriptive of the union rather than part of its
formal name (which the Treaty stated was to be 'Great Britain'.) Many reference books, therefore,
describe the all-island kingdom that existed between 1707 and 1800 as the "Kingdom of Great Britain".
The Act of Union of 1800 assimilated Ireland within the British political process and from 1801 created a
new state called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The English capital of London was
adopted as the capital of the Union.
Article 1.
"That the Two Kingdoms of Scotland and England, shall upon the 1st May
next ensuing the date hereof, and forever after, be United into One
Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain: And that the Ensigns Armorial of
the said United Kingdom be such as Her Majesty shall think fit, and
used in all Flags, Banners, Standards and Ensigns both at Sea and Land."
Article 3.
"That the United Kingdom of Great Britain be Represented by one and the
same Parliament, to be stiled the Parliament of Great Britain."
.
.
"The vast British Empire
on which the sun never sets." *
Britain sought to catch up with its chief rival, Spain, who had well established colonies in
the Americas exporting gold and silver back to Europe. Britain also looked toward the
American territories and the Caribbean. Failing to find its own supply of gold on land,
Britain turned instead to the sea for its fortune. Increasing in the latter half of the 17th
century, pirates endorsed by the government for a share of the profits, attacked Spanish
ships and sacked Spanish towns, capturing huge amounts of gold.
The British also established their own colonies around the world. However, none of these
colonies ever yielded gold. They did, however, yield spices, tea, lumber, sugar, tobacco,
and cotton. All these goodies began to flow in and an economic boom followed.
Companies such as the East India Trading company, established in 1600 to handle trade with the British
territory in India, and the Hudson Bay Company, dealing with the fur trade in America established in
1670, were private groups given monopolies for trade in certain areas by the British government. The
Royal Africa Company, formed in 1672, traded in the controversial resource of slaves.
For Britain one of the most important colonies was India. It was the "Jewel in the
Crown." In 1661 King Charles II of Britain married the Portuguese princess
Catherine and received Bombay, an island along India's west coast, as part of the
dowry. Later, the King rented Bombay to the East India Company. Soon after, the
East India Company already had several trading establishments in India, at Surat,
Masulipattam and Fort St.George (Madras). King Charles also gave the Company
the right to issue currency, erect forts, exercise jurisdiction over English subjects
and declare war/peace with natives.
The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the de facto ruler of the Bengal province,
opposed the British. This led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the 'army' of
East India Company, led by Robert Clive, defeated the Nawab's forces. This was
the first political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in
India. This was combined with British victories over the French at Madras, Wandiwash and
Pondicherry that, along with wider British successes during the Seven Years War, reduced French
influence in India.
The policy of the East India Company was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking
advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups. The
British civil servants who ran India were enthralled with their domain and detached from it. One
viceroy, Lord Mayo, declared, "We are all British gentlemen engaged in the magnificent work of
governing an inferior race." India stagnated economically and financially for two centuries, at a time
when British living standards more than quadrupled.
The first attempt at English settlement of the eastern seaboard of North America occurred in this era
the abortive colony at Roanoke Island in 1587. In 1607 England built an establishment at Jamestown This
was the beginning of colonialism by England in North America. Many English settled then in North
America for religious or economic reasons.
In 1718, the Transportation Act introduced penal transportation. People convicted of capital crimes had
their sentences 'commuted' to 14 years or life in the Americas. Between 1718 and 1776, over 50,000
convicts were transported to Virginia and Maryland in the modern United States. (The American
Revolution made further transportation impossible.)
Map:
British colonies (red)
French colonies (blue)
Spanish colonies (yellow)
In the late 17th and much of the 18th century, the
colonial powers (Spain, Britain, and France) fought a
series of wars for control of America:
- King William's War (1689-97)
- Queen Anne's War (1702-13)
- King George's War (1744-48)
and the French and Indian War.
These wars are usually referred to en masse by the
name of the last war; bestowed from the Anglo-
American perspective.
France's weakness was in numbers, there were only
80,000 colonists. In contrast there were 1,5 mln
British colonists. Essentially a land power, France
fought in America at great disadvantage. Once the
conflict began, the resources she could commit were
limited; the logistical problems were insuperable.
Second, the French themselves saw the war as one
to be won or lost in Europe. Almost the totality of
the French army was committed in Germany. There the maximum effort was made and there the
government sought victories and conquests.
Over the course of the Seven Years' War, Britain overtook many French possessions, including Canada.
In 1776 however the American colonies declared their Independence from Britain. The American War of
Independence was the culmination of the political American Revolution, whereby many of the colonists
rejected the legitimacy of the Parliament of Great Britain to govern them without representation. In 1781
the British commander surrendered to the American and French troops, giving the colonies their
freedom.
Picture: British Surrender at
Yorktown 1781 to the French
and Americans. Picture by
Keith Rocco, United States.
Battle of Yorktown was a
decisive victory by combined
American forces led by
George Washington and
French forces led by General
Rochambeau over a British
Army commanded by
General Lord Cornwallis.
According to legend, the
British forces marched to the
fife tune of "The World Turned Upside Down," though no real evidence of this exists. News of
Yorktown was greeted with joyous celebration throughout USA and France. In Boston were
demonstrations and fireworks.
* - The phrase "The empire on which the sun never sets" was
first used to describe the Spanish Empire in the 16th century.
By the way, the "British Empire" was not a de jure entity (like
the German Empire or Russian Empire), since Britain itself
was United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. One British
possession, however, was an empire, namely India. Queen
Victoria became "Empress of India" in 1876.
.
.
Trade was Britains lifeblood. They (the Brirish) are
a nation of shopkeepers, their glory is in their wealth.
- Napoleon
The defeat in America was a huge blow to Britain. In 1700 most foreign commerce, by volume and
value, was still conducted with Europe, but during the 18th century British overseas trade became
'Americanised'. By 1797-8, North America and the West Indies received 55 % of British exports, and
supplied 35 % of imports.
Forced to find an alternative location, the British government turned to the newly
discovered lands of Australia and New Zealand. British position in India was
strengthened. The 18th century was the period in which Great Britain rose to a
dominant position among European trading empires. Britain's success was due not
only to the trade but also to military conquest.
1751-1763 Conquest of India
1756-1763 War in West Indies
1762 Philippines
1767-1771 First Mysore War
1775-1783 American War of Independence
1778-1783 War with France and Spain
1776-1782 First Mahratta War
By 1800, Great Britain possessed a global empire that was hugely impressive in scale,
and stronger in both the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and around their shores, than
that of any other European state.
To what extent were the colonies a case of trade stimulating empire, or of empire stimulating trade? The
answer is that trade and empire went hand in hand, with a symbiotic relationship to each other.
Growing overseas commerce with colonies stimulated merchants to provide ships, as well as goods for
expanding settler societies. Great Britain became the dominant financial and maritime power of the 19th
century. The industrial revolution and the trade with colonies made the British very wealthy people.
Trade was Britains lifeblood and for this reason Napoleon used to say They are a nation of
shopkeepers, their glory is in their wealth.
Rule, Britannia !
When Britain first, at Heaven's command
Arose from out the azure main;
This was the charter of the land,
And guardian angels sang this strain:
The nations, not so blest as thee,
Must, in their turns, to tyrants fall;
While thou shalt flourish great and free,
The dread and envy of them all.
Still more majestic shalt thou rise,
More dreadful, from each foreign stroke;
As the loud blast that tears the skies,
Serves but to root thy native oak.
Great Britain became the dominant financial and maritime power of the 19th century.
British, French, and Spanish colonies before the 1830s.
Note that these posessions were never all held at the same time.
History proves that although Britain declaimed so loudly against
Napoleon's grasping spirit, she has since acquired more territory
than she ever charged him with conquering.
Between 1790s and the end of the Napoleonic Wars, British forces
invaded Cape Cod in 1795 and 1806, Ceylon in 1795-1796 and
1814-1818, Argentine in 1806-1807, Arabia in 1809 and 1819-21,
and Nepal in 1814. Plans were drafted to capture the Spanish
province of Chile and link up with Argentine, and Sir Arthur
Wellesey "was to be asked to invade Spanish held Mexico". There
was a plethora of schemes for attacks on various countries, with
the possibility of a seizure of the Philippines thrown in for good measure.
Picture: James Gillray's cartoon:
Pitt and Napoleon dividing the world
between them.
~
Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars.
While the armies of Europe were exhausting themselves in direct bloody actions,
small detachments from Britain were turning this situation to advantage by
acquiring the British Empire all around the world.
George IV (1762 1830) was the King of Hanover and the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland from the death of his father, George III, in 1820 until his
own death ten years later. From 1811 he served as Prince Regent during his
father's relapse into insanity. George IV indulged an extravagant lifestyle that
contributed to the fashions of the British Regency. He was a patron of new forms
of style and taste. George's charm and culture earned him the title "the first
gentleman of England". He was also instrumental in the foundation of the
National Gallery. Taxpayers however were angry at his wasteful spending in
time of war and for not provide national leadership in time of great crisis.
For most of George's regency, Lord Liverpool controlled the government as
Prime Minister. Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool was born in 1770.
With the help of his father's influence and his political talent, he rose relatively
fast in the Tory government. Most of his time as Foreign secretary was spent dealing with the
nations of France and the United States. He continued to serve in the cabinet as Home Secretary in
Pitt the Younger's second government. When Perceval was assassinated in May 1812, Lord
Liverpool succeeded him as prime minister. Important events during Lord Liverpool's tenure as
Prime Minister included the War of 1812 with United States, and the Sixth and Seventh Coalitions
against the French Empire.
The conflict between France and
Great Britain, tends often
towards stalemate. The two
nations were evenly matched but
have very different strengths.
Britain had a smaller population
but this disadvantage was offset
by her wealth and her superiority
at sea. For these reasons the
British contribution to any war
against France in continental
Europe was limited to providing
funds for allied armies. From
time to time Britain sent small
force on the continent to support
her allies, most often on
secondary theaters of war.
The naval campaigns between
Britain and Napoleonic France
were not so much a sea war as a
coast war. It is the permanent concern of the British navy, commanding the seas, to harm France
and her allies by preventing any merchant ships other than those of Britain from reaching
continental ports. And it is the permanent concern of the French armies, commanding the land, to
prevent British vessels entering those same ports.
Adam Zamoyski wrote, "With her control of the seas, Britain could cripple French trade and
support resistance anywhere on the European mainland ... It was one of the fundamental French
beliefs that Britain's wealth came not from herself but from her colonies, which supplied
commodities she could sell on to Europe at vast profit. Every conflict between Britain and France
over the past century included a tariff war ..." (Zamoyski - "Moscow 1812" pp 14-15)
Because Great Britain was an important force in encouraging and financing resistance to France,
and Napoleon lacked the resources to defeat the Royal Navy at sea, he resorted instead to
economic warfare. The Emperor imposed a large-scale embargo (called the Continental System)
against British trade, inaugurated by issuing the Berlin Decree in 1806.
As there was widespread commercial jealousy of Britain, Napoleon's banning all British trade from
the Continent was a popular policy. At least in the beginning. Napoleon dreamed about crushing
the economical power of Britain. Before the invasion of Russia in 1812 he wrote: "Imagine Moscow
taken - Russia crushed - the Tsar reconciled or dead in some palace conspiracy ... And tell me
whether we a great army of Frenchmen and auxiliaries from Tiflis would have to do more than
touch the Ganges River with a French sword for the whole scafolding of Britain's mercantile
greatness to collapse." (Austin - "1812: The March on Moscow" p 31)
The Milan Decree issued in 1807 enforced the Berlin Decree of 1806 which had initiated the Continental
System.
The Milan Decree, December 1807:
"Napoleon, Emperor of the French, King of Italy, Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine:
In view of the Orders in Council of the British government, dated 11 November 1807, which
subjugates the vessels of the neutral powers, friends and British allies alike, not only to visits by
British privateers, but also to an obligatory port call and the imposition of an arbitrary tax on their
cargo, which is regulated by English legislation;
Considering that, by these acts, the English government has denationalized the vessels of all European
nations; that it is not within the power of any government to compromise the rights and independence
of another, that all the sovereigns of Europe are jointly responsible for the sovereignty and
independence of their colors ... We have decreed and do decree the following:
Art. 1. All vessels, of which ever nation, which suffer the visit of an English vessel or which submit
to a port call in England, or shall pay any tax to the English government, is, by that act alone, declared
denationalized, and lose the guarantee of their flag and are considered English property.
Art. 2. Should such vessels, denationalized by the arbitrary measures of the British government,
enter into our ports or those of our allies, should they fall into the power or our warships or our
corsairs, they are declared as lawful prizes.
Art. 3. The British Isles are declared in a state of blockade on sea and on land. All vessels, of
whatever nation, whose cargo, coming from British ports or the ports of their allies or countries
occupied by the English, or going to England, or going to English colonies or countries occupied by
British troops, are declared lawful prize by this decree; it shall be captured by our warships or
corsairs, and adjudged upon capture.
Art. 4. These measures, which are but a just reciprocation for the barbaric system adopted by the
british government, which likens its legislation to that of Algeria; ceases to have their effect for all
nations which shall oblige the british government to respect their flags. These measures shall continue
to be in effect until such time as this government returns to the principles of law which regulate the
relations of civilized nations in the state of war. The dispositions of this shall be abrogated and
nullified by the act of the british government returning to the principles of the rights of men, which
also are those of justice and honor.
Art. 5. All of the ministers are charged with the execution of this decree, which shall be published
in the Legal Bulletin.
Decree of 1810:
Art. 1. All merchandise of English manufacture and which is prohibited, presently existing in France,
by they in warehouses or in the magazines of the customs, shall be publicly burned.
Art. 2. In the future, all merchandise of English manufacture, confiscated by the customs or by
seizures, shall be burned.
Art. 3. All English merchandise found in Holland, the Grand Duchy of Berg, the Hanseatic cities, and
generally near the Mein (River) to the sea shall be seized and burned.
Art. 4. All the Ehe English merchandise found in our Kingdom of Italy, no matter to whom it belongs,
shall be seized and burned.
Art. 5. All English merchandise found in the Illyrian Provinces shall be seized and burned.
Art. 6. All English merchandise found in the Kingdom of Naples shall be seized and burned.
Art. 7. All English merchandise found in the Spanish Provinces occupied by our troops shall be seized
and burned.
Art. 8. All English merchandise found in the cities and upon their occupation by our troops shall be
seized and burned.
Napoleon's planned invasion of Britain.
"If only more English mothers could
feel the horrors of war !" (- Napoleon)
Picture: Cartoon of Prime Minister of Great Britain,
William Pitt, and the warships of the Royal Navy
expecting the French invasion.
Although Britain had the largest navy in the world
and was separated from the French by water the threat
of French invasion was greeted in England with
horror.
Several times during the Revolution France had tried
to invade Great Britain, once in Ireland and once in
Wales. When the Irish foray coincided with local rebellion, it created great anxiety.
Napoleon's capture of Belgium and the sea port of Antwerp represented even more serious danger
than the Irish invasion. The British goverment built an alternative capital at Weedon , complete
with army barracks and a pavilon for the royal family. There were more than 400,000 recruits.
The English newspapers were full of articles and caricatures about "Buonaparte", to cheer up their
readers. It has been the greatest alarm ever known in the city of London and an intense invasion
panic in the entire country. Major-General William Napier writes: "The uninterrupted success that,
for so many years, attended the arms of Napoleon, gave him a moral influence doubling his actual
force. Exciting at once terror, admiration, and hatred, he absorbed the whole attention of an
astonished world, and, openly or secretly, all men acknowledged the power of his genius; the
continent bowed before him, and in England an increasing number of absurd and virulent libels
on his person and character indicated the growth of secret fear." (Napier - History of the War in
Peninsula 1807-1814 p 101)
Napoleon was demonised and British mothers would tell their children at night, 'If you don't say
your prayers, Boney will come and get you.' There was considerable relief, then, when Admiral
Nelson defeated the Spanish and French navy at Trafalgar. The threat of invasion however still
existed and the British government ordered the Royal Navy to attack fleets of third countries
(Dutch fleet in the Texel in 1805, and the Danish fleet in Copenhagen in 1807) against the
possibility that the Emperor with his swiftness, might gain control of them.
Napoleon at Boulogne camp.
Napoleon's planned invasion of England created the greatest alarm
ever known in the city of London. Mothers would tell their children:
"If you don't say your prayers,
Boney will come and get you."
.
.
Britain's military expenditure.
Despite smaller populace Britain outspent France
by a ratio of 3 : 1 in military expenditure (!)
Britain was the biggest military spender in the world.
If Prussia was the poorest 'Great Power' of the era, Great Britain was, without doubt, the richest
and economically the most advanced. The Industrial Revolution, the British Empire and the Royal
Navy's command of the sea meant that Britain could spend vast sums on the war against
Napoleon. (- Robert Mantle)
The struggle between Great Britain and France was not David versus Goliath
as some English authors suggest. Great Britain was a strong, very wealthy country. In a period
between the 1780s and 1820s, Britain experienced an accelerated process of economic change that
transformed a largely agrarian economy into the world's first industrial economy. This
phenomenon is known as the "industrial revolution", since the changes were all embracing and
permanent. Furthermore, Great Britain was a populous country. In 1811 the total population of
Great Britain was 18.5 million. In comparison Prussia had 9,7 millions, and USA only 6 mln.
Despite smaller populace Great Britain outspent France by a ratio of 3 : 1 in military expenditure.
(See charts below.) Great Britain was the biggest military spender in the world.
POPULATION.
Denmark - 1 million
Naples - 5 millions
USA - 6,5 millions
Spain - 11 millions
Great Britain - 18,5 millions
Austria - 21 millions
Russia - 40 (with annexed
territories)
MILITARY EXPENDITURE
[Sources: European State Finance Data Base,
"Report of the House of Commons - Inflation: 1750-1998"]
Britain (subsidies to allies + the Royal Navy + army,
artillery, militia in pounds sterlings (millions)
{* - an average for each 5-year increment}
1805 3.3+15.0+22.6=40.9
1806 2.7+18.9+24.9*=46.5
1807 3.9+17.4+24.9*=46.2
1808 9.3+18.1+24.9*=52.3
1809 8.4+19.6+24.9*=52.9
1810 9.8+19.0+24.9*=53.7
1811 14.2+19.8+41.1*=75.1
1812 18.9+19.3+41.1*=79.3
1813 27.4+20.1+41.1*=88.6
TOTAL 535.5 millions
France total for army and navy in pounds (millions)
1805 16.0
1806 19.9
1807 17.1
1808 17.7
1809 17.9
1810 18.2
1811 24.4
1812 26.9
1813 29.8
TOTAL 187.9 millions
.
.
Britain and the coalitions against France.
In Europe was born saying:
"England will fight against Napoleon
to the last drop of Prussian, Austrian
and Russian blood".
British prime minister Pitt announced on 31 January 1793 that Britain was involved in a 'war of
extermination' with France. Already in the beginning of the conflict Britain supported the
uprisings in Vendee (in western France), led the rebellion in Toulon, etc.
Furthermore, Britain had been sending aid to France's enemies in the form of money, subsidies,
arms and uniforms. With the exception of the last year of the Napoleonic Wars (1815), Allies
generals saw no British army in the main theater of war facing Napoleon himself.
Whenever Britain's allies (Austrians, Prussians, and Russians) were defeated by France, Britain
would shelter all French emigrants who were opposed to Napoleon, helped plots to assassinate
him (Artois and Cadoudal,) supplied the terrorists with arms, offered financial support.
Many coalition members were suspicious of British motives in fanning the flames of conflict on the
continent to distract France while refusing to commit own forces in large numbers. The flow of
money was such that in July 1800 Mr. Nicholls said in speech in British Parliament "...even our
allies had said that the English covered Germany with blood and gold."
In 1809 the Commander-in-Cheif of the Austrian Army, Archduke Charles (see
picture), "... distrusted the Russians and considered the British to be opportunistic,
manipulative and unwilling to risk their own troops on the continent. The
coalition, he concluded, would rely on Austrian troops to bear the brunt of the
fighting. ... " ( Goetz - "1805 : Austerlitz" pp 29-32)
The coalitions however were not deeply rooted. Britain's Foreign Secretary had
envoys at the Russian, Austrian, and Prussian headquarters. Their reports showed
that Britain's allies had its own aims. Castlereagh was taken aback to find that
Russia, Austria and Prussia had little interest in Britain and her part in the
conflict, save for her huge financial backing. (In 1813 Austria had offered Napoleon a negotiation
peace about which Castlereagh had not been consulted.)
.
Coalition Allied states
First Coalition
Austria,
Sardinia,
Naples,
Prussia,
Spain,
and Britain
The French won.
Second Coalition
(formed in 1798)
Austria,
Naples,
Ottoman Empire,
Papal States,
Portugal,
Russia,
and Britain
The French won.
Third Coalition
(formed in 1805)
Austria,
Russia,
Portugal,
Naples,
Sicily,
and Britain.
The French won.
(The French navy however
was defeated at Trafalgar.)
Fourth Coalition
(formed in 1806)
Prussia,
Russia,
Saxony,
Sicily,
Sweden,
and Britain
The French won.
Fifth Coalition
(formed in 1809)
Austria,
Sicily,
Sardinia,
and Britain
The French won.
Sixth Coalition
(formed in 1812)
Russia,
Prussia,
Sweden,
Austria,
German states,
and Britain
The French were defeated.
Of the 500,000 men that Napoleon had
organized for his invasion of Russia,
barely 100,000 remained.
"I have no army anymore !" - Napoleon
His new army was crushed in 1813-14
(defeats at Dennewitz, Katzbach,
Kulm, Leipzig, Laon and Paris.)
Paris captured by allied troops.
Napoleon's first abdication.
Seventh Coalition
(formed in 1815)
Britain,
Prussia,
Netherlands,
Russia,
Sweden,
Austria,
German states
The French were defeated.
Napoleon's second abdication.
PS.
The conversations between the British and Allies politicians and generals were held in French language,
the international language of the time, even though it was the enemy's language too.
~
The Royal Navy.
The Royal Navy made Britain's trade boom and prosper,
it sustained its colonies and reshaped its politics.
The sailor enjoyed greater popular respect than the soldier.
Great Britain is an island nation. The Royal Navy made Britain's trade boom and prosper, it
sustained its colonies and reshaped its politics. The sailor enjoyed greater popular respect than the
infantryman, artillerist or the cavalryman. King George III in Speech From the Throne addressed
the assembled Houses of Parliament and said: "... my Navy is the principle article of our natural
strength, it gives me much satisfaction ..."
The navy enabled England to avoid prolonged land wars on the European Continent. The English
Channel has often enough proved to be British army's salvation. After failed expedition the troops
would retreat on the island and lick their wounds. In comparison the European territories,
populaces and armies were exposed to repeated and unabated invasions by the enemy.
Against England there was no broder just to be marched across. Isolation gave the opportunity to
enter wars and intrigues selectively. The geography matters, it makes people who they are.
The British fleet greatly increased in size, from about 500 in 1793 to approx. 950 vessels in 1805.
The principal royal dockyards were in Woolwich, Plymouth and Portsmouth and they worked on
all cylinders. Potrsmouth had been the embarkation point for some of the Royal Navy's greatest
victories but also its worst defeats.
The British navy also empolyed leading shipwrights from other countries, particularly after the
French Revolution caused many royalists to flee from France. For example Marc Brunel carried out
many improvements in the British dockyards, Barrallier designed several warships for the Royal
Navy. The Royal Navy had paid particular attention to French prizes and many improvements in
hull design had come from them. The French warship Courageaux was directly copied many times.
Danish ships were occasionally influential, like the captured Christian VII
The British warships were divided into several classes:
- First Rate ship-of-the-line (100 and more guns mounted on three decks, crew of 850+)
- Second Rate ship-of-the-line (90-98 guns on three decks, crew of 750)
- Third Rate ship-of-the-line (64-80 guns on two decks)
- Fourth Rate ship-of-the-line (50-60 guns on two decks)
- Fifth Rate was a frigate (32-40 guns on a single deck, crew of 250-300)
- Sixth Rate was a small warship or small frigate (18-28 guns on a single deck, crew of 150)
There were also sloop of war (14-18 guns), gun brig (10-18 guns), fire ship (14 guns), bomb ketch (8
guns, 2 mortars), cutter (4 - 14 guns), schooner (2-10 guns), and others.
First Rate was the designation used by the Royal Navy for its largest ships of the line. Although
nominally very powerful, first-rates tended to be slow and invariably expensive to operate. (There
was no standardisation between navies of the time and hence "Raters" were classed differently
between navies.)
"The second-rate three-decker was an essentially British type of ship, it was not built by other
European navies to any great degree. It was unhandy even for a three-decker , and it terms of
sheer firepower it was matched or more than matched by the 80 and 74-gun two-deckers third-
rate the French and Spanish navies used in its stead.
The additional deck gave the second-rate an advantage in close combat however, and it also had
the further tactical advantage of sometimes being mistaken by the enemy for a first-rate which
could make enemy commanders reluctant to attack where they otherwise should have." - Royal
Navy History, www.royal-navy.org

HMS Victory, First Rate ship-of-the-line.
It started in 1759 and launched in 1765, most famous as
Lord Nelson's flagship at the Battle of Trafalgar.
.
.
The big ships-of-the-line were the
basic ingredient of naval power.
The evolution of broadside cannon in 17th century led to the
conclusion that the fleet had to fight in a single line to make the
maximum use of its firepower without one ship getting in the way
of another. The line of battle is traditionally attributed to the British
navy and Robert Blake who wrote the Sailing and Fighting
Instructions of 1653.
The first documented deliberate use seems to be somewhat earlier in
the Action of 18 September 1639 by Dutch Lieutenant-Admiral
Maarten Tromp against the Spanish. The tactic was used by both
sides in the Anglo-Dutch Wars, and was codified in written 'fighting
instructions'. These formed the basis of the whole tactical system of
the 17th and 18th centuries in naval warfare.
As the line of battle was adopted, navies began to distinguish
between vessels that were fit to form parts of the line in action, and the smaller ships that were
not. Ships-of-the-line became the basic ingridient of naval power. The fleets had made the
maximum use of their strength by arranging their ships in line. The 74-gun ship was the smallest
that was expected to stand in such a line. (There are only few exceptions were smaller ships were
used.)
The big ships however had several disadvantages:
- they were clumsy
- they needed large well-tarained crew
- they were very expensive
To build a large ship took several years and the wood from a small forest.
Approx. 2,250 (!) mature oak-trees were used to built Victory.
Traditionally British ships had been built of oak. Many frigates were built of pine, but these were
poorly received by naval officers and din't last long. After 1801 it became increasingly common to
build ships in India, using native supplies of teak. Large quantities of oak were procured in
northern Europe (Scandinavian countries, Prussia, Poland) and this was one of the reasons why
the navy went to great lengths to keep the Baltic Sea open.
The largest British ships-of-the-line:
- Caledonia - 120 guns
- Ville de Paris - 110-114 guns
- Hibernia - 110 guns
- Victory - 100-104 guns
On Victory : - Forecastle 2 very heavy 68pdr (Carronades) and 2 12 pdrs
- - - - - - - - - - - Quarter Deck 12 12pdr
- - - - - - - - - - - Upper Deck 30 12pdr
- - - - - - - - - - - Middle Deck 28 24pdr
- - - - - - - - - - - Lower Deck 30 32pdr
.
.
The fast frigates were the most
glamorous type of ship in the navy.
The frigates were the most glamorous type of ship in the navy.
It was big enough to carry a significant gun power, but fast enough
to evade ships-of-the-line. The frigate was designed with an
unarmed lower deck, so that its guns were well above the waterline;
this meant that it could be allowed to heel quite considerably, and
carry sail in a strong wind and heavy sea.
It also meant that it could use its guns in heavy weather, when the
ships-of-the-line (two and three deckers) would be unable to open
its lower ports.
The frigate however was not expected to take on a ship-of-the-line,
because the difference in gun power was far too great. (Lavery -
"Nelson's Navy" p 49)
British admirals frequently complained that they did not have them enough. While searching for
the French fleet before the Battle of the Nile in 1798, Nelson wrote to Sir W. Hamilton: "All my ill-
fortune, hitherto, has proceeded from want of frigates."
.
.
Schooners and gunboats.
The schooners were first used by the Dutch in the 16th or 17th century, and further
developed in North America. Schooners were more widely used in the United States
than in any other country. They were popular in trades that required speed and
windward ability.
The Royal Navy had only 10 schooners in 1801. But soon 17 were built in Bermuda
and 12 in England. There was approx. one dozen of captured French schooners in
the Royal Navy. The schooner was intended as despatch boat and one of them
became famous for bringing home the news of Trafalgar.
The gunboat carried a single heavy cannon - 32pdr or 48pdr - and could be maneuvered in shallow
or restricted waters, where the sailing was quite difficult for larger ships. Ten flat bottom boats
were built around 1801 with a single carronade or howitzer and a displacement of 12 tons.
In 1805 was designed a gunboat which carried 2 18pdrs on sliders near the bows and an 18pdr on a
pivot aft. A further 85 were built from 1808 onwards, for coast defence and for operations in areas
like the Danish Islands, where shallow draught was an advantage.
.
.
.
Victories and defeats of the Royal Navy 1680-1815.
From the beginning of the 19th century until well into the
20th century it was the most powerful navy in the world.
France had to divide its power between land and
sea, while Britain could direct its main strength
onto the world's oceans. A series of victories over
the French marked the naval wars: Russell's at
Barfleur and La Hogue in 1692, Anson's off Cape
Finisterre in 1747, Hawke's at Quiberon Bay in
1759, and Howe's on the Glorious First of June in
1794.
The two nations also regularly sent expeditions to
raid and capture each other's fur trading posts in
America. In March 1686, the French sent a raiding
party under des Troyes over 1300 km to capture
the British Hudson Bay Company's posts along
James Bay. The French appointed Pierre Le Moyne
d'Iberville, who had shown extreme heroism during the raids, as commander of the company's
captured posts.
In 1697, d'Iberville commanded a French naval raid on the company's headquarters at York
Factory. On the way to the fort, he defeated the ships of the Royal Navy in the Battle of the Bay,
the largest naval battle in the history of the North American Arctic.
By the way, one of the greatest warships of the 1600s was the British Sovereign of the Seas. It was
known by the Dutch as the 'Golden Devil' for her all black and gold appearance. The Golden Devil
was the first ship to have three full gun decks, carrying 102 guns on the orders of King Charles I
instead of the 90 originally planned. No expense was spared in her construction. All her guns were
made from bronze instead of cast iron which meant they were much lighter but 4 times more
expensive. Most impressive was her gilded and carved decoration costing over 6,600, equivalent
to the cost of the hull for a two decked ship. Sovereign of the Seas was so large that two smaller
ships were built from her waste timbers. The construction of Sovereign of the Seas was part of
king's plan to overawe possible enemies, including the Dutch and Spanish, with England's naval
power. (History : Royal Navy www.royalnavy.mod.uk/history)
For a very long time the Spanish Empire remained a major target of British navy.
In 1704 Admiral Rooke captured Gibraltar which became the major British base in the western
Mediterranean. When war broke out in 1739, Admiral Anson took a squadron to prey on Spanish
trade. But in 1741 the Spaniards scored a massive victory over the British at Cartagena. The Battle
of Cartagena was a huge amphibious engagement between British forces under Vice-Admiral
Vernon and those of Spain under Admiral de Lezo. The battle, although it is now largely
forgotten in Great Britain, was one of the largest naval campaigns in British history.
British forces: 27,400 military personnel and 29 ships-of-the-line
Spanish forces: 4,000 military personnel and 6 ships-of-the-line
The battle ended with a major defeat and heavy losses for the British. When the embarrassing
news of the outcome reached London, the British government prohibited the news from being
disclosed and published. Following the news of the disaster the government soon collapsed. News
of Britain's defeat reached Europe at the end of June, 1741 and had immense repercussions.
PS. During the early stage of the battle, when the Spanish forces had retreated from different
defense points to regroup in San Lazaro, feeling victory in his hands Vernon dispatched a
messenger, to inform King George of their victory. Up to 11 different commemorative medals were
minted in London to celebrate this "victory". In one of these medals Admiral Vernon was shown
looking down upon the "defeated" Spanish admiral who appeared kneeling down. After the news
of defeat of the British Armada reached London all the medals were ordered to be removed from
circulation, and king George II forbade to talk or write about the defeat.
The Battle of Cuddalore (1783) was a battle between a British fleet under Admiral Sir Edward
Hughes (18 ships-of-the-line) and a smaller French fleet (15 ships-of-the-line) under de Suffren off
the coast of India. When a consistent west wind appeared, Hughes lined up for battle and awaited
Suffren's action.
Lining up in a similar formation, Suffren gave to the order to attack, and battle was engaged
shortly after 4 pm. No ships were seriously damaged, though casualties were high with both sides.
The British lost 533 killed and wounded, while the French suffered 488 casualties. The British fleet
retreated to Madras after the action.
In 1793 at French Royalists invitation, British and Spanish forces occupied Toulon, the main French
naval base on the Mediterranean. Bonaparte first made his name here as a young officer of
artillery, by spotting an ideal place for his guns to be set up in such a way that they dominated the
city's harbour. Once this was done (by means of a sharp assault on an enemy position), the British
Navy ships under Admiral Hood and the Spaniards under Juan de Langara were compelled to
withdraw, and the resistance crumbled.
Nelson made his name with his contribution to Jerviss victory over the Spanish
at St Vincent in 1797 and the fleet he defeated at Trafalgar had a substantial
Spanish force.
In 1797 however the Spanish fleet heavily defeated Nelson at the Battle of
Tenerife. Nelson's expedition counted 400 guns and 4,000 men. The Spaniards
were led by Antonio Gutierrez, a two-time victor over the British. They had
hastened to prepare a defence following the British raid in April. In the battle
the Spanish suffered only 70 dead and wounded. Nelson withdrew with the
loss of several hundred casualties and his arm. The British never again tried to
capture Santa Cruz de Tenerife.
The wars of the 18th century produced a series of tactically indecisive naval battles between evenly
matched fleets (British and French) in line ahead, such as Malaga (1704), Rgen Island (1715),
Toulon (1744), Minorca (1756), Negapatam (1758), Cuddalore (1758), Pondicherry (1759), Ushant
(1778), Dogger Bank (1781), the Chesapeake (1781), Hogland (1788) and land (1789). Although a
few of these battles had important strategic consequences, like the Chesapeake which the British
needed to win, all were tactically indecisive.
Many admirals began to believe that a contest between the two fleets could not produce a decisive
result. The tactically decisive actions of the 18th century were all chase actions, where one fleet was
clearly superior to the other, such as the two battles of Finisterre (1747), Lagos (1759), Quiberon
Bay (1759) and Cape St. Vincent (1780).
British naval innovation was retarded by an unseemly dispute between two admirals in the
aftermath of the Battle of Toulon. The British fleet under Admiral Mathews had been unable to
draw level with the French fleet, and Mathews ordered an attack anyway, intending all the British
ships to attack the French rear. He had no signals by which he could communicate his intentions,
and the rear squadron under Vice Admiral Lestock, his rival and second-in-command, obtusely
remained at the prescribed intervals in line ahead, far to the rear of the action.
A subsequent series of courts martial, in which political influence was brought to bear by Lestock's
friends in Parliament, punished Mathews and those captains who had supported him in the battle,
and vindicated Lestock. In several future actions, Admirals who were tempted to deviate from the
Admiralty's fighting instructions were reminded of Mathews's fate.
The French Revolution of 1793 halted the French naval revival and the professional skills of French
naval personnel declined. This created an opportunity for the remarkable successes of the Royal
Navy in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.
In 1798 Rear Admiral Horatio Nelson (14 ships-of-the-line) defeated the French (13 ships-of-the-
line and 4 frigates) at Aboukir Bay. French casualties have been estimated to have been as high as
2,300 dead and wounded, and 3,000 captured. British losses were 895 dead and wounded. News of
the victory was delayed reaching Britain as Leander, returning home with Nelson's dispatches, was
captured after a fierce battle by the surviving 74-gun Le Gnreux.
The battle established British naval superiority during the remainder of the French Revolutionary
Wars.
In 1801 the French troops in Egypt comfortably returned in British ships to France,
free to serve again, in accordance with the terms of an earlier convention.
In August 1805 the best French admiral, La Touche-Treville suddenly died and Napoleon replaced
him with Pierre Villeneuve. The tensions between the French and Spanish admirals were high - the
French commander Villeneuve accusing the Spanish commander Gravina of cowardice the night
before the fleet sailed from Trafalgar. Villeneuve did indeed predict Admiral Nelson's attack quite
accurately, yet he was at a loss to respond.
The British gunners were better trained than their Spanish and French counterparts, and
the use of new signaling methods by the British played a significant role in the combat.
The Battle of Trafalgar, which began at midday,
was terminated about five. The Royal Navy lost
1.690 men killed and wounded incl. Admiral
Nelson who was killed by a French
sharpshooter. Hastily carried below so as not to
be seen by Victory's crew as they fought on,
Nelson was taken down to the cockpit where he
died 3 hours later. Before he died he said: "They
have done for me at last" said Nelson "my
backbone is shot through !" The Bellerophon's
captain also received a fatal shot from a French
sniper.
The casualties of the French and Spanish fleets
however were much heavier, they lost 4.500-7.000 men and many ships-of-the-line. The decisive
British victory at Trafalgar ended Napoleon's power on the sea and made any French invasion of
Britain virtually impossible.
Although the British navy dominated the high seas after Trafalgar, the "coast
war" was far from being over. It was the permanent concern of the British, to
harm France by preventing any merchant ships other than those of Britain from
reaching continental ports. And it is the permanent concern of the French,
commanding the land, to prevent British vessels entering those same ports.
Furthermore, although Napoleon's invasion of England never materialized, he
could freely campaign "deep into Spain, Austria, and Russia, leaving his coasts
lightly garrisoned by second-line troops, without much worry over a British invasion." - Esposito &
John Elting, USA
In March 16th 1807 the Royal Navy and 5,000 troops invaded and occupied Alexandria in Egypt to
cause "a very great degree distress to the Constantinopole". Whatever was the motivation, "the
attack on Alexandria could be viewed diplomatically only in the worst possible light."
It backfired as this action ended in failure as the native forces crushed British infantry inflicting
"almost 1,400 casualties". It forced the British troops to abandon the idea of expanding the
conquered territory, and they were confined only to the city.
In September 1807, British ambassador from Constantinopole, Arbuthnot, had already pressed for
warships to be sent to bully the Turks. Admiral Collingwood sent number of ships to the
Dardanelles and shortly after this the British Cabinet decided to send Vice-Admiral Duckworth
with more ships to the Turkish capital "to demand the immediate surrender of the Turkish Fleet ,
together with that of supply of naval stores from the arsenal ..."
The Turks however showed no signs of being intimidated. They cannonaded the British forcing
them to a hastily retreat on March 3rd. The British barely escaped being battered by 300 cannons.
This action ended up in humiliation.
In September 1807, after a Danish refusal to surrender their biggest city, Copenhagen, to the
British, the warships bombarded the place killing 2,000 civilians and destroying 30 % of the
buildings. Then during armistice they carried off the Danish fleet and "all the naval stores in the
arsenal."
In 1808 according to the Convention of Cintra the French troops with all its equipment and
plunder (!) were again transfered safely on British ships. This time from Portugal to France. (In
1801 the French troops in Egypt returned in British ships to France.)
In 1808, the British fleet and expeditionary force sent to help Sweden
against Russian aggression proved powerless to prevent the Russian
conquest of Finland. The British navy gained control of the Baltic Sea, but
- as in 1715-1721 - could only parade impotently without seriously
hindering Russian operations. Sweden capitulated in September 1809.
In 1809 a Portuguese-British naval squadron took French Guiana for the
Portuguese Empire. With the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1814 the
region was handed back to the French.
In 1812 war broke out with USA after disputes made worse by the blockade. Despite having their
coastline blocked by the British warships, the American raiders who eluded the Royal Navy net
caused considerable damage to Britain's trade. By mid-1814, more than 800 British vessels had
been taken, forcing the Royal Navy to escort trade convoys. Furthermore, in several small naval
battles the American warships defeated the schooners, sloops and other smaller vessels of the
fearsome Royal Navy.
For example in October 1812 the 44-gun United States, took on the British 38-gunner Macedonian off
Madeira. Bombarding from long range, the United States pulverised the enemy ship and forced it
to surrender. To add insult to British injury, the Macedonian was repaired, reflagged and fought
again - this time for America.
In December a duel between two frigates (American Constitution and British Java) took place off
Brazil and, once again, ended in an American victory. It took two hours, but the Java was left a
wreck and its captain forced to surrender.
However, the Americans had no ships-of-the-line, thus by the end of the Napoleonic Wars the
Royal Navy was still unchallenged mistress of the oceans.
.
.
Admiral Horatio Nelson (1758-1805).
Nelson rose to become one the
world's greatest naval leaders.
Horatio Nelson (1758-1805) won fame as a leading naval commander.
He is famous for his participation in the Napoleonic Wars, most
notably in the Battle of Trafalgar, where he lost his life.
By 1777 Horatio Nelson had risen to the rank of lieutenant, and was
assigned to the West Indies, during which time he saw action on the
British side of the American Revolutionary War. By the time he was
20, in June 1779, he made captain. Nelson developed a reputation in
the service through his personal valour and firm grasp of tactics but
suffered periods of illness and unemployment
In 1794 Nelson was shot in the face during a joint operation at Calvi,
Corsica, which cost him both half of his right eyebrow and the sight
in his right eye. Despite popular legend, there is no evidence that
Nelson ever wore an eye patch, though he was known to wear an eyeshade to protect his
remaining eye.
During the failed British expedition to conquer Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Nelson
was shot in the right arm with a musket ball. To prevent gangrene, and
subsequent death Nelson's right arm was amputated. Nelson was cited as
saying, as he pointed to his right arm Doctor, I want to get rid of this useless
piece of flesh here. Nelson's operation was quick and aseptic. The limb was
thrown over board, despite the admiral's wish to keep it.
At Aboukir Bay the British fleet defeated the French fleet. Of 13 French ships of the line, 10 had
been captured or sunk. Nelson had not lost a single ship. The king was enthusiastic and made
Nelson a baron. After Trafalgar Nelson became a hero. Without him the British navy's glory would
have been incomplete. Nelson was commander-in-chief only for 2 last years of his life, he fought at
Nile and Copenhagen as a subordinate admiral. (Herman - "To Rule the Waves" pp 245 and 360)
In October 1805, near Trafalgar, 27 British ships of the line led by Admiral Lord Nelson defeated 33
French and Spanish ships of the line under French Admiral Villeneuve. The Franco-Spanish fleet
lost 22 ships, without a single British vessel being lost (!) The victory confirmed the naval
supremacy that Britain had established during the past century and was achieved in part through
Nelson's departure from the prevailing naval tactical orthodoxy, which involved engaging an
enemy fleet in a single line of battle parallel to the enemy to facilitate signalling in battle and
disengagement, and to maximize fields of fire and target areas. Nelson instead divided his smaller
force into two columns directed perpendicularly against the larger enemy fleet, with decisive
results.
Nelson was mortally wounded during the battle, becoming one of Britain's greatest war heroes.
Nelson's body was placed in a lead coffin, and that in another wooden one, made
from the mast of L'Orient which had been salvaged after the Battle of the Nile.
The funeral procession consisted of 32 admirals and an escort of 10,000 troops.
Nelson despised Napoleon, describing him as an orge, satan and tyrant. He hated the French
people with volcanic passion, whom he variously described as "pests" and "vermin". The fact
Napoleon had became the most powerful and feared warrior, stung Nelson's vanity. Nelson was
not the only Englishman in that time to hate the French. One finds similiar attitudes and
statements in the newspapers and diaries. Nelson's hate toward the French people however is
uncommonly intense and consuming, so much that it almost overshadows the positive aspects of
his personality. (Hayward - "For God and Glory" pp 5-10)
Believing that British commercial interests must not be compromised by
American traffic, Nelson commenced a rigid enforcement of the acts and
even seized a number of American vessels. He directed his greatest hostility
at the American traders and displaying anti-American passion far exceeding
anything revealed during the War of Independence itself.
He wrote: "I hate them all" and "the rebellious people were trash." In a letter
to Mrs Nisbet, his future wife he wrote: "I shall wish the American vessels at the devil and the
whole Continent of America to boot."
Wellington found Nelson's vanity repellent.
Wanting to reflect his glory at every opportunity, Nelson loved to be seen and shown in his parade
uniform, with collection of medals and decorations and a spray of diamonds received from the
Sultan of Ottoman Empire. When Wellington and Nelson met each other, the excitable and
emotional admiral didn't recognized the aloof general.
Wellington wrote: "He could not know who I was, but he entered at once into a
conversation with me, if I can call it conversation, for it was almost all on his side
and all about himself, and in, really, a style so vain and silly as to surprise and
almost disgust me."
General John Moore wrote that Nelson looked more like an opera
star than a military man. Nelson's craving for fame appear
incompatible with the Christian concept of humility. After burning
the city of Copenhagen, Nelson sent the commander of the Danish Naval Academy,
copies of an account of his life. He was also easily flattered by praise and prone to
very violent mood swings.
Horatio Nelson however was one of the military leaders who was able to sympathise with the
needs of his men. He based his command on love rather than authority. Nelson inspired both his
superiors and his subordinates with his courage, and charisma, dubbed 'the Nelson touch.' He
remained a highly professional leader, confident in his abilities, and able to identify and exploit his
enemies' weaknesses. Nelson combined these talents with an adept grasp of strategy and tactics
making him one of the most successful naval commanders of all times.
A number of monuments and memorials were constructed across the country to honour his
memory and achievements.

Nelson. The man, the lover, the legend.
~
Miscellaneous.
(Royal Navy's opponents and allies.)
.
.
Comparison of naval strength in 1808-1809:
- Great Britain: 113 ships-of-the-line
- Spain: 45
- France: 45
- Russia: 34
- Denmark: 21
.
.
Spanish Navy (Armada Espaola).
In 19th century the Spanish navy was in decline.
At Trafalgar many of the Spanish crews were land soldiers,
recently press-ganged beggars and peasants, with some not
even having fired a cannon on board of a rolling warship.
The Spanish navy is responsible for notable achievements in history such as the discovery of
America, the first world circumnavigation, and the discovery of a maritime path from the Far East
to America across the Pacific Ocean (Urdaneta's route). The Spanish navy reached its zenith in the
16th Century. Since then until the Seven Years War it was one of the most powerful navies in the
World. Although the Seven Years War was not a positive experience for the Spaniards, their navy
did a good job in the 18th century given the fact that they were outgunned and outmanned by the
British. The results speak for themselves.
Spain was able to successfully maintain her vast American empire vitually intact despite frequent
British Navy attacks. It was only when revolutionary movements in her American empire that
Spain lost most of her territories and not because of British actions.
In 19th century the Spanish navy suffered several defeats. In 1805 forced to the battle by Napoleon,
the Franco-Spanish fleet was defeated at Trafalgar. The battle exposed the futility of using
inexperienced crews against the veteran British sailors. Many of the Spanish crews were land
soldiers, recently press-ganged beggars and peasants, with some not even having fired a cannon
on board of a rolling ship, in contrast to the heavily drilled British crews who had seen many
actions by this time.
"This had come about by the loss of many experienced sailors to an epidemic of the yellow fever in
180204, as well as being a traditional cost saving measure. The French admiral ignored the pleas
of the Spanish captains - who had long experience in breaking blockades (and held no illusions
about the state of their fleet) to wait for better conditions in which to leave the port. The British
admiral's daring tactics took full advantage of the skill disparities of the opposing squadrons." (-
wikipedia.org)
During the Napoleonic Wars the Spaniards took ideas and
practicies from both France and Britain, with Matthew
Mullan of Ireland directing the naval yard at Havana. The
Spaniards however went much further than Britain and
France in the development of their overseas facilities. The
dockyard at Havana was the best developed naval port
outside of Europe.
The largest ship of the Spanish fleet was Santissima Trinidad
with 130 guns (!) Actually it was the largest ship-of-the-line
in the world. (See picture) The second largest was British
Caledonia with 120 guns. Santissima Trinidad in fact
repressented a very old fashioned idea of ship design and it
sailed very badly. Even the Spanish admiral recommeded that she be used only for the defence of
Cadiz harbor.
.
.
The French Navy (Marine nationale, La Royale).
France was not a maritime nation in the same as Britain, Portugal
or Spain, and her navy always took second place to the army.
Pre-revolutionary officers had been aristocratic, professional and
well trained. The Revolution however caused them to flee the country.
The major French naval bases were:
- Brest
- Rochefort
- Toulon
Anglo-French rivalry was fuelled by the two nations' desire to control colonial trade. The French
government condemned the "oceanocrats" and claimed to be the defender of maritime freedom
and the protector of neutral nations. In 1690 Britain for the first time established a naval superiority
over France. French ships typically fired their cannons on the upward roll of the ship, disabling
their opponents but doing little damage to the enemy ships or their crews. British and Dutch ships,
by contrast, tended to use the opposite tactic of firing on the downward roll into the enemy hulls,
causing a storm of flying splinters that killed and maimed the enemy gun crews.
It was however the French navy that made possible
the American victory in the American Revolution.
The French frigates were excellent, while their ships-of-the-line not so. Pre-
revolutionary officers had been aristocratic, professional and well trained. The
Revolution however caused them to flee the country. Many ended up in Britain.
During the Napoleonic Wars the French warships were blocked in port by the
Royal Navy. Frequent gun practice while under sail gave the British navy's gunners an advantage
over the blocked French. Another advantage was the new flintlock firing mechanisms that allowed
for more accurate sighting on the cannon. The French gunners were less trained than their British
counterparts and in battle they aimed at the rigging rather than the hulls of their opponents. It
resulted that British casualties were often remarkably light compared with those of the French.
In 1804, Napoleon ordered Vice Admiral Villeneuve, now a stationed at Toulon, to
escape from the British blockade, overcome the British fleet in the English Channel,
and allow the planned invasion of Britain to take place. To draw off the British
defences, Villeneuve was to sail to the West Indies, where it was planned that he would
combine with the Spanish fleet and the French fleet from Brest, attack British
possessions in the Caribbean, before returning across the Atlantic to destroy the British Channel
squadrons and escort the Arme d'Angleterre from their camp at Boulogne to victory in England.
Inexperienced French crews and the difficulties of getting out of Cdiz meant that it took 2 days to
get all ships out of port and in some kind of order. Villeneuve learned of the size of the British
fleet, and turned back to Cdiz, but the combined fleets were intercepted by Nelson off Cape
Trafalgar.
Nelson, though outnumbered, won the Battle of Trafalgar.
According to Encyclopdia Britannica: "His (Villeneuve's) decision to leave Cdiz and give battle
in October 1805, which led directly to the Battle of Trafalgar, cannot be justified even on his own
principles. He foresaw defeat to be inevitable, and yet he went out solely because he learnt from
the Minister of Marine that another officer had been sent to supersede him... It was provoked in a
spasm of wounded vanity."
"Trafalgar permanently crippled the Spanish navy, but the French soon recovered.
Even as the English maneuvered to intercept Villeneuve, the Rochefort squadron put to sea in a
long, destructive raid. Napoleon strengthened his Brest and Rochefort fleets, rebuilt the Toulon
fleet, and began constructing a new one at Antwerp. Antwerp - a "pistol pointed at the heart of
England" - was an ideal base for a cross-channel attack. The Boulogne flotilla was kept until 1811;
Napoleon also made considerable efforts to develop an effective Italian navy, but without success.
... (Esposito & Elting - "A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars.")
This is interesting that already in 1813 the French navy was back at its pre-war strength.
"Although Napoleon 'lost' the war at sea effectively from 1805, his naval strategy against Great
Britain remained surprisingly effective. ... By keeping his surviving squadrons ready for sea (or
capable of being rapidly made so) at Brest, Rochfort, or Toulon, he kept the Royal Navy at full
stretch on blockade duties, and the task of hunting down a small French break-out force was
incommensurately expensive in terms of vessels and effort." (Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic
Wars" p 177)
Picture: French aspirant de 1er Classe,
Equipage de Haut-Bord,
Compagnie d'Aborgade
in 1804-1814.
The French corsairs of the Napoleonic Wars
enjoyed numerous successes against the British
ships. Many captains made names for
themselves - L'Hermitte, Leduc and Troude, for
example. St.Malo, Nantes and Marseille were
one of the premier corsair ports. Their activities
caused a considerable panic in British
commercial circles.
.
.
The Russian Navy.
Although Britain was Russia's ally against Napoleon,
the British were concerned about the Russian fleet's
growing strength in the Mediterranean.
Britain was especially troubled by Russia's newly-
attained strategic position in the Ionian Islands.
The Russian navy was one of the youngest of European
modern navies. In 1696 Tsar Peter the Great issued order
about forming the Navy on Azov Sea. The next year was
opened Naval School in Moscow, afterwards it has been
moved to Azov.
In 1798, the Russian fleet was officially divided into two
formations:
on Baltic Sea were: 45 ships-of-the-line and 19 frigates
on Black Sea were: 15 ships-of-the-line and 10 frigates
That same year new navigation schools were established
to replace the "navigator's companies." In St. Petersburg
and Nikolayev maritime academies were opened for
shipbuilding.
In 1798, Russia and Turkey became unlikely allies after the
French seized Malta and Napoleon began his Egyptian
campaign. Vice-Admiral Ushakov's squadron passed
through the Dardanelles and, after joining Turkish
Admiral Kadyr Bey, headed for the French-occupied
Ionian Islands. The allied fleet numbered 11 Russian and 4 Turkish ships-of-the-line, 6 Russian
and 4 Turkish frigates, and 3 Russian and 8 Turkish gunboats. From September to November,
detachments of Ushakov's fleet seized French fortifications on the islands of Cerigo, Zante,
Cephalonia, and Saint Mauro. In addition, Ushakov made a landing on Corfu (ext.link) and
delivered the first blow to Vido Island. The Russian fleet now possessed a strategically located base
in the Mediterranean.
Russian warships were dispatched from Corfu to attack French supply routes and assist Allied
forces in Italy. In 9 days Sorokin's detachment took the towns of Brindisi, Mola and Bari, and Vice-
Admiral Pavel Pustoshkin's squadron blockaded Ancona. On 3 June 1799, the Russians joined the
Naples troops in the liberation of Naples. Now the Russian goal was Malta which was under siege
by the British without any noticeable success. Although Great Britain was Russia's ally against
Napoleon, the English were concerned about the Russian fleet's growing strength in the
Mediterranean. England was especially troubled by Russia's newly-attained strategic position in
the Ionian Islands. The British began to delay operations on Malta, not accepting Russia's offer of
assistance.
During this time a detachment of 4 frigates and 10 gunboats, joined the British fleet off the coast of
Egypt. Although Russia had no plans for involvement in the Egyptian campaign, Nelson
attempted to dispatch Ushakov and his Russian forces to Egypt. A compromise was reached, and
it was decided to send only the squadron of Kartsov. Ushakov was senior to Nelson in rank, and in
the anticipated operations on Malta the British would have to follow the Russian officer's orders,
an arrangement that further rankled the British.
In any event, the Malta campaign did not materialize. In late December 1799, Ushakov received an
order to cease action in the Mediterranean and return with his fleet to the Black Sea. Only a few
Russian vessels remained on Corfu, while the Ionian Islands became a republic under Russian
control. (Source: "The History of Russian Navy")
In 1803 Russia had the following ships:
on Baltic Sea were: 27 ships-of-the-line and 26 frigates
on Black Sea were: 21 ships-of-the-line and 8 frigates
In early 1806 Vice-Admiral Senyavin entered the Ionian Sea with a large squadron. Within a year
Senyavin had under his command 16 ships-of-the-line and 7 frigates as well as numerous small
transports. The port of Corfu served as an operational base while the admiral commanded an
infantry division for land operations against the French. In May at the request of the French, the
Austrians, detained several Russian merchant vessels at Trieste. Senyavin rushed without delay to
rescue his compatriots, taking 3 ships-of-the-line and 1 frigate. He demanded the release of the
vessels within one hour, and, indeed, they were set free.
In February of 1807, after being informed of the outbreak of war with Turkey, Senyavin departed
from Corfu for the Aegean Sea with the main body of his fleet and a number of ground troops.
According to the Tilsit Treaty, Russia made its departure from the Mediterranean Sea to the relief
of the French and the English.
In 1815 the first Russian steamship "Elizaveta" was built in St.Petersburg.
.
.
The American Navy.
The Americans were very frustrated with Great Britain.
In August 1807 USA president Jefferson wrote to T Leiper:
"I never expected to be under the necessity of wishing
success to Bonaparte. But the English being equally
tyrannical at sea as he is on land, ... I say, down with England."
The American Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was
established during the American Revolutionary War (17751783) and was
essentially disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. In the beginning
of the American Revolutionary War, the establishment of a navy was an
issue of debate in Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect
shipping and defend the coast. Detractors countered that challenging the
British Navy was a foolish idea. George Washington commissioned seven cruisers to interdict
British supply ships, and reported the captures to the Congress. This effectively ended the debate
as to whether or not to "provoke" the British navy by establishing a Navy as Washington's ships
had already captured British ships, somewhat a provocation. The american navy achieved mixed
results; it was successful in a number of engagements and raided many British merchant vessels,
but it lost 24 of its vessels.
Depredations against American shipping by Barbary Coast pirates in the Mediterranean Sea
(today Tunis, Morocco, and Algiers) spurred US Congress to pass the Naval Act of 1794 ordering
the construction and manning of six frigates. It included three frigates with 44 guns and based on
the most advanced designs: the Constitution, the President and the United States. They were 20 feet
longer than their British opponents and 3 feet wider in the beam. They also had one continuous
upper deck, instead of the usual forecastle and quarterdeck joined by two gangways, which
allowed the Americans to mount 20 or so carronades in addition to the 30 24pdrs in the deck
below. They were fast and outclassed the British frigates.
In 1812 war broke out with USA after disputes made worse by the blockade. Despite having their
coastline blocked by the British warships, the American raiders who eluded the Royal Navy net
caused considerable damage to Britain's trade. By mid-1814, more than 800 British vessels had
been taken, forcing the Royal Navy to escort trade convoys. Furthermore, the Americans were
victorious in numerous single-ship duels with the fearsome Royal Navy.
For example in October 1812 the 44-gun United States, took on the British 38-gunner Macedonian
off Madeira. Bombarding from long range, the United States pulverised the enemy ship and forced
it to surrender. To add insult to British injury, the Macedonian was repaired, reflagged and fought
again - this time for America. In December a duel between two frigates (American Constitution
and British Java) took place off Brazil and, once again, ended in an American victory. It took two
hours, but the Java was left a wreck and its captain forced to surrender.
US Navy drove all British forces off the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain. Despite this, the U.S.
Navy was unable to prevent the British from blockading American ports and landing troops on
American soil. After the war, the U.S. Navy again focused its attention on protecting American
shipping assets, sending squadrons to the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, South America, Africa,
and the Pacific.
"We ought to begin a naval power ..."
Thomas Jefferson
HUMOR:
In January 1799 the U.S.S. Constitution (Old Ironsides) with crew of 475 defeated five British men-of-war and captured and
scuttled 12 merchantmen near the coast of England. The Americans salvaged only the rum aboard each. Soon their powder
and shot were exhausted. Nevertheless, although unarmed she made a night raid up the Firth of Clyde in Scotland. Her
landing party captured a whisky distillery and transferred 40,000 gallons of single malt Scotch aboard by dawn. Then she
headed home. The U.S.S. Constitution arrived in Boston on in February 1799, with no ammuntion, no food, no powder, no
rum, no wine, no whisky, and 38,600 gallons of stagnant water. Reinlistment was 100%. :=)
Naval Battle Tactics 1805 (from "Empire, Total War" wargame)
~
The British Army and Colonial Troops.
"... the English army was absurdly under-rated in foreign countries and
absolutely despised in its own ... the ill-success of the expeditions in
1794 and 1799 appeared to justify the general prejudice. "
England, both at home and abroad, was in 1808 scorned as a military power ..."
(Napier - History of the War in Peninsula 1807-1814 p 21)
Picture: British Soldiers
Embarking for the Napoleonic
Wars. Picture by Charles Green.
The British army came into being
with the merger of the Scottish
Army and the English Army,
following the unification of the
two countries' parliaments and
the creation of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707.
Under Oliver Cromwell, the
army had been active in the re-
conquest, settlement and
suppressing revolts in Ireland.
The army and navy, in building
the Empire, fought Netherlands,
Spain, and France for supremacy in the world.
The regular and colonial troops also battled many native tribes in Africa and especially in North
America (Delawares, Ottawas, Senecas, and Shawnees.)
The structure of the British Army was complex, due to the different origins of its various
constituent parts. The king was the nominal commander of the British army. There was no chief of
staff system in the British army at the time. At Waterloo there were approx. 150 British and KGL
officers listed as being part of Wellington's staff, and 33 of them were actually present at the battle.
Wellington had been highly critical of the competence and lack of experience of many of his staff.
Various departments were commanded by officers. Wellington could not have worked with a chief
of staff who was also his second in command. The Duke made his own decisions and rarely shared
his plans.
Sir Oman put it: "He [Wellington] did not wish to have a Gneisenau or Moltke at his side: he only
wanted zealous and competent chief clerks.' He himself was de facto head of each staff
department. Prussian General Gneiseanu and French Marshal Soult could, and would, assume an
independent command of their armies if necessary. (Mark Adkin - "Waterloo Companion")
The British army was based on the well tried and tested regimental system. The esprit de corps of
the regimental system was maintained in the names and titles of regiments handed down through
history, with a tradition of courage and tenacity in battle.
French General Foy described the British troops in great detail.
He wrote, "The English were looked upon by the French as sea-
wolves, unskilful, perplexed, and powerless, the moment they
set their foot on land. ...
(However) "The French soldiers, who had returned from Egypt,
talked to their comrades of the indomitable valour of the
English; moreover, it was easy to suppose that enterprise, capacity, and courage
render the possessors fit for other purposes than the duties of the sea service.
Their skill and intrepidity in braving the dangers of the ocean have always been unrivalled. Their
restless disposition, and fondness for travelling fit them for the wandering life of the soldier; and
they possess that most valuable of all qualities in the field of battle coolness in their strife."
"The glory of the British army is based principally upon its excellent discipline, and upon the cool
and sturdy courage of the people. Indeed we know of no other troops as well disciplined. The
principal cause of their pre-eminence in this respect, would, if applied to the French army, most
likely produce an effect diametrically opposite. Varieties of character and condition, require the
employment of different means to obtain the same end."
"The English NCOs are excellent; but their courage and their talent are not encouraged by
promotion to higher grades. They are nominated by the commander of the regiment, and cannot
be broke but by the sentence of a court-martial. Their authority is extensive, comprehending the
minute details of inspection, of discipline, and of daily instruction - duties which, in other armies,
would not be committed to them."
"In the British army will not be found either the strong sympathy between the leaders and the
soldiers, the paternal care of the captains, the simple manners of the subalterns, nor the
Battle in Northern America: British vs Americans.
affectionate fellow-feeling in danger and suffering which constituted the strength of the
revolutionary armies of France; but unshaken patriotism, and tried and steady bravery, are to be
met with everywhere amongst them."
.
.
Strength and deployment of
the army and colonial troops.
While the navy was very powerful, the field army was a relatively small force. One of the barriers
to recruitment was the army's fearsome reputation for loss of life. For example, the failing
campaigns in Caribbean in 1790s caused thousands of redcoats to perish through disease. The
British people distrusted and disliked the armed forces, considering them to be the weapons in the
hand of the King.
In 1790s the British army consisted of the following troops:
- 30 regiments of cavalry (3+7 guard, 6 dragoons and 14 light dragoons)
- 88 infantry battalions (7 guard and 81 infantry)
- 4 foot artillery battalions and 1 Invalid Battalion (all 10 companies each)
(There were also 2 companies in India, and 1 Company of Cadets.
Two troops of the Royal Horse Artillery were in the process of organizing.
There were also 6 field and 1 invalid companies of the Royal Irish Artillery.)
In January 1805 the British army consisted of 161,800 regulars:
- 124,500 Infantry
- 17,000 Artillery and Engineers
- 20,300 Cavalry
The dilemma for military planners was how to use the forces for three different purposes:
home defence against possible invasion from France, garrisoning and defence of the empire,
and rapid deployment of an expeditionary force for any continental European war.
In January 1805 the British troops
were deployed in many places
around the world:
- 66,000 stationed in England
- 34,000 in Ireland
- 22,500 in East Indies and Ceylon
- 15,300 in West Indies and Jamaica
- 6,500 on Malta
- 4,500 in Gibraltar
- 4,200 in Canada
The threat of invasion of Great
Britain was high, after the rise of
Napoleon. In order to improve the
country's defences, volunteer
regiments were raised in many
counties from yeomen.
The word "yeoman" refers to small
farmers who owned the land they cultivated as opposed to peasants, but the officers were drawn
from the nobility and many of the men were their tenants. These regiments became known
collectively as the Yeomanry. Members of the yeomanry were not obliged to serve overseas
without their individual consent.
According to Adjutant-General's returns, in the military force of Great Britain in 1808 was as
follow:
- 170,000 infantry and 6,000 Foot Guards
- 30,000 cavalry
- 14,000 artillery
According to William Napier, of these, approx. 55,000 were employed in India,
the reminder were disposable, "because from 80 to 100,000 militia, differing from
the regular troops in nothing but the name, were sufficient for the home duties."
In Northern America the British used
the Indian tribes with great effect
against the American regulars and
militia. The Indians knew the land
and were excellent scouts. The
warriors even took part in pitched
battles between the British and
Americans. (See picture).
In June 1812 began war between USA
(population 6 millions) and Great
Britain (18 millions). Napoleon said:
"If this rupture had occurred earlier it
might perhaps have contributed to
keep Tsar Alexander inside the
Continental System !" And in fact an
American army will shortly - if not
very successfully - be invading British Canada.
British commanders: Lord Liverpool, George Prevost, Isaacs Brock, and Tecumseh of the warlike
Shawnee tribe. Major battles of the 1812-1815 war: battle of Raisin River, Thames, Lake Erie, siege
of Fort Meigs, Lundy's Lane, Chippewa, and New Orleans.
During this war British troops set fire to many public buildings in Washington (incl. the White
House.) This attack was in retaliation for the American burning and looting of York (now Toronto)
in 1813, and the burning down of the buildings of the Legislative Assembly there.
Picture: British colonial marine infantry 1812.
At the beginning of the colonial period the colonial troops were
predominantly British from the home army, but locally raised "native"
troops were soon recruited. The latter normally served in separate
units, at first under their own leaders, later under European officers.
The first Colonial Marines were raised in 1808 by Admiral Cochrane
while commander-in-chief of British naval forces on the Leeward
Islands. The slaves assisted the British on being promised that they
would not be returned to their proprietors and by this means the island
was preserved until the arrival of three companies of the 1st West India
Regiment. Cochrane embodied the ex-slaves as Colonial Marines,
which were subsequently enlarged with fugitive slaves who came over
from Guadeloupe Island. They saw no further action as a distinct body
but were subsequently listed in ships musters among the
supernumeraries for wages and victuals, continuing individually under
the description of Colonial Marine at least until mid-1815. The British
recruited more slaves from among the 4,000 black refugees of the War of 1812 to serve as part of
the British forces on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States during that war.
The West India (Infantry) Regiments were initially raised in 1795. The original intention was to
recruit both free blacks from the West Indian population together with purchased slaves from the
West Indian plantations. In 1808 the Abolition Act caused the slave trade to be "utterly abolished,
prohibited and decleared to be unlawful". In 1812 a West African recruiting depot was established
in Sierre Leone to train West African volunteers for the West India Regiments.
In the aftermath of the American Revolutionary came an exodus of 50,000 Loyalists into Canada.
Since many of the new Canadians were also veterans of Loyalist regiments, they brought both the
British sympathies and the military training to establish professional forces to oppose the
perceived American threat.
Called "fencibles", the new units were organized within the British army, but charged wholly with
the defence of their home colonies. Their professional presence also enhanced training for the
citizen militia and established many traditions that continue to modern times.
From 1788 marines guarded English settlements in Australia (at Sydney Cove and Norfolk Island);
they were relieved in 1790 by a unit specifically recruited for colonial service, and in 1810 the 73rd
Regiment of Foot became the first line regiment to serve in Australia.
.
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"This solidity and tenacity in attack and defense."
Training and quality of the army.
France was not separated by water from her
enemies and was forced to field massive land
armies. In contrast, the British could simply
disengage from the conflict on the continent,
embark their troops and leave. And this is
what they did so many times. For this hit-
and-run strategy one doesn't need a huge
army, a small force of volunteers will do even
better. The volunteers enjoyed several
advantages over the recruits, with higher
morale being one of them.
Furthermore, because the French couldn't
disengage from a conflict as easily as the
British, they often had no time to train their recruits. "Unlike the British trooper who received a
minimum of 6 months' training most French troopers received after 1805 a bare 2 to 3 weeks, being
lucky if they were taught basic horsemanship and drill." (- P.J.C. Elliot-Wright)
Britain was the wealthiest country in the world with relatively small field army.
The British could afford high ratio of practice rounds per soldier in life fire training:
1. British 'Rifles' - 60 rounds and 60 blanks per man
2. Prussian jgers and Schtzen - 60 rounds per man (in 1811-1812)
3. British light infantry - 50 rounds and 60 blanks
4. Prussian fusiliers (light infantry in line regiments) - 30 rounds
5. British line infantry - 30 rounds
6. Austrian line infantry - 10 rounds (in 1809)
7. Austrian line infantry - 6 rounds (in 1805)
8. Russian infantry - 6 and less rounds
The British Baker rifle was probably the most
accurate of all firearms during the Napoleonic
Wars. On the training ground and under perfect
conditions 100 % hits were recorded at 100
paces.
Due to very high ratio of volunteers, good training, talented commander, the right tactics, and
good weapons, the British army of the Napoleonic Wars was one of the best armies of all times.
Before Wellington however the British army was not regarded as equal to some continental armies.
William Napier wrote, "... the English army was absurdly under-rated in foreign countries and
absolutely despised in its own ... the ill-success of the expeditions in 1794 and 1799 appeared to
justify the general prejudice." In England the idea of British army fighting alongside the Russians
in 1807 was ridiculed. "England, both at home and abroad, was in 1808 scorned as a military power
..." (Napier - History of the War in Peninsula 1807-1814 p 21)
"Before the Peninsular War, British military operations on mainland Europe had been marked by
bungling half-measures and a series of failures. The British Army was not large enough to operate
on its own against the French, and without strong allies, Britain had been forced to withdraw from
Europe.
On June 18, the Portuguese uprising broke out. The popular uprisings in Portugal and Spain
encouraged the British to commit substantial forces once again and British propaganda was quick
to capture the novelty of the situation; for the first time, peoples, not princes, were in rebellion
against the Great Disturber". (wikipedia.org)
During the Peninsular War Wellington raised the reputation of the British to a level unknown
since Marlborough. The British army, however, was not the most successful in overall terms.
Although it was excellent, due to its small size it usually played only secondary and/or supportive
role and campaigned on the fringes of Europe (Portugal, Spain, southern Italy). Although the
British played a major role during the Hundred Days Campaign in 1815, Of the 26 infantry
brigades in Wellington's army at Waterloo only 9 (nine) were British. The British corps played an
important role in Peninsula. But please keep on mind that, for example, in 1810, of the 325,000
French forces in the Peninsula, only about 1/4 of them were involved in the actioons against
Wellington - the rest [3/4] were required to contain the Spanish insurgents and regulars.
The British overall military successes of the period were in Peninsula and the Waterloo Campaign.
The Peninsular War was a long campaign with many twists and turns before the French were
finally pushed out of Spain. According to some military experts this campaign was "the most
protracted campaign of the period". Claims were also made that "the Peninsular War had been
pursued with insufficient vigour."
Many other British operations were a failure: Flanders in 1793-94; Holland in 1799; Buenos Aires
twice; Holland in 1809; the Dardenelles in 1807; Egypt in 1806; Spain in 1808-1809 (Sir John
Moore); Sweden in 1808; Naples and Hanover in 1805; and Spain and Italy in 1800. During the
Peninsular War, General "Suchet defeated two British amphibious expeditions launched from
Sicily against Spain's east cost ... " (J Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" p 152)
In 1793-1794 the British troops in Holland received "scathing criticism from foreign military
observers and Allied commanders. There were damning comments on the appalling behaviour of
officers, their lack of care for their men and their generally drunken demeanour. The Army as a
whole showed up badly in the field. The drill manuals were out of date, the battalions were of
poor quality ..." (Haythornthwaite - "Wellington's Infantry (1)" p 6)
Then came the defeat at Buenos Aires.
After a relentless 2-day fight with the Buenos Aires and
Montevideo militias in August 1806, the British infantry
were defeated and forced to capitulate. Beresford had to
surrender, remaining prisoner for 6 months; in the end,
he managed to escape and arrived in England in 1807.
Picture: William Carr Beresford surrenders to Santiago de
Liniers and the Argentinians during the British invasions
of the Ro de la Plata.
In March 16th 1807 the Royal Navy and 5.000 redcoats
under General A. Mackenzie Fraser invaded and
occupied Alexandria in Egypt. The aim was to secure the
port as a base for Mediterranean operations and to prevent the French from taking advantage of it.
The action however not only alienated Russian allies but was also a military catastrophe, with
Fraser losing two battles at Rosetta (modern Rashid) on 29 March and 21 April. The crushed
battalions suffered "almost 1.400 casualties". It forced the British to abandon the idea of expanding
the conquered territory, and they were confined only to the city. Agreement to leave Egypt was
signed in September, 1807.
In 1809 the British corps under General Sir John Moore fled before the French to the coast. The
track was littered for mile after mile with discarded equipment and knapsacks, and the forlorn
dead and dying." (Haythorntwaite - "Wellington's Infantry (1)" p 36) Moore's force was defeated by
Soult's corps at Corunna, General Moore was killed, and the Britsh were forced to embark and
leave Europe. "
In 1815 the British at New Orleans had six excellent Peninsular regiments (4th, 7th, 43d, 44th, 85th,
and 95th Rifles) and failed spectacularly against the Americans. The outcome of New Orleans is
good evidence of a good army being led badly.
The war of 1812-15 between USA and Britain was a stalemate. The British troops burned
Washington after the American troops burned the capital of British Canada, York (now Toronto).
At New Orleans 8,000-12,000 British veterans were soundly defeated by 4,000 Americans. The
Americans lost only 333 while the redcoats suffered 2459 casualties (!)
Infantry was the best part of the British army.
In 1815 at Quatre Bras, Marshal Ney ordered Bachelu's division (8 battalions) and
part of Foy's division (5-6 battalions) to advance. Five batteries were deployed in
support. Against Ney's force Wellington deployed 7 British and 4 H a n o v e r i a n
battalions. They were joined by the 95th Rifles.
The steady tramp of marching feet filled the air. The French infantry cheered Ney,
nicknamed "The Bravest of the Brave", as they marched past him. The drummers,
tediously beating the rhythm of the march, broke into flurries when they realized
he was so close. The French crossed the brook and were greeted with volleys fired
by the British and German infantry.The musket and artillery fire was tremendous
and the French halted.Then the redcoats and the Hanoverians rushed forward with
outstretched bayonets. Ney's blue-clad infantry had enough and fell back.
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Discipline in the British Army.
"... an unflogged soldier was a
monstrously misplaced being ..."
For the British soldier himself discipline was invariably harsh and enlistement was for long time.
Some French deserters who joined the British Army in the Peninsula promptly deserted from it
because they found discipline too severe. Some punishments included riding the wooded horse a
sharp-backed frame on which the offender sat astride, sometimes with weights attached to his feet
to increase discomfort.
According to French veterans the English soldiers obeyed blindly, if they commited a fault, they
were punished with the whip. England was still the country where a person could be sentenced to
death for any one of more than 60 different crimes, and where women were hanged every day for
the theft of a piece of fruit. (Barbero - "The Battle" p 23)
In the weeks before Waterloo, several sentences of this type were carried out in public, to the
disgust of the Belgian citizenry.
Generally offenders were flogged on the bare back for a
variety of offences, and shot or hanged for more serious ones.
According to Wellington flogging was absolutely essential to
control "the scum of the earth." He defended the harsh
discipline, arguing that the army contained a proportion of
blackguards who could not be kept in line in any other way,
while reformers maintained that it dishonoured both the
victim and the army in which he served.
Britain was not alone in this aspect. Discipline in the Prussian
army (until 1806), and in the Russian army was also severe.
During march the discipline in the British troopswas strict, the
soldiers were only allowed to quit the ranks if they were ill or if they needed to relieve themselves.
Before doing so they had to obtain a ticket or certificate from the sergeant on approval of their
company commander. Officers and senior NCOs of light infantry carried whistles suspended on
chains on the fronts of their shoulder belts.
Costello described the punishment of the popular Tom Plunket. "Although Tom was a general
favorite, and his conduct had resulted from the madness of intoxication, his insubordination was
too glaring to stand a chance of being passed over. He was brought to a regimental court-martial,
found guilty, and sentenced to be reduced to the ranks, and to receive 300 lashes. Poor Plunket,
when he had recovered his reason, after the commission of his crime, had experienced and
expressed the most unfeigned contrition, so that when sentence became known, there was a
general sorrow felt for him throughout the regiment, particularly on account of the corporal
punishment...
The square was formed for punishment: there was a tree in the centre to which the culprit was to
be tied, and close to which he stood with folded arms and downcast eyes, in front of his guard. ...
The sentence was read by the adjutant in a loud voice. Poor Tom, who had the commiseration of
the whole regiment, looked deadly pale... Happily this wretched scene was destined to a brief
termination: at the 35th lash, the Colonel ordered punishment to cease, and the prisoner taken
down." (- Costello, pp 12-14)
Costello also mentions "a man of the name Maguire of the 27th Regiment of Foot, who had been
with me in hospital, was hung for stopping and robbing a Portuguese of a few vintems."
After the Napoleonic Wars was published an article
about the punishment in the British army. "Corporal
punishment does not exist in the French, the Prussian,
and several of the minor armies. Even in Austria, where
the greater part of the recruits consist of semi-
barbarians, there is an evident desire to do away with it;
thus the punishment of running the gauntlet has
recently been struck out from the Austrian military
code.
In England, on the contrary, the cat-o'-nine-tails is
maintained in its full efficiency - an instrument of
torture fully equal to the Russian knout in its most
palmy time.
Strange to say, whenever a reform of the military code has been mooted in Parliament, the old
martinets have stuck up for the cat, and nobody more zealously than old Wellington himself. To
them, an unflogged soldier was a monstrously misplaced being ..." ("The Armies of Europe" in
Putnam's Monthly, No. XXXII, published in 1855)
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Sir John Moore
He discarded the then existing disciplinary system,
largely maintained through fear and brutality which,
in his view, also stifled individual initiative, and
replaced it with a system based more upon self-
discipline, mutual respect and trust.
However, during the headlong
retreat to Corunna in 1809, many
British units' discipline cracked.
Everywhere, French advance guard
encountered evidence of the
enemy's mounting demoralization;
the roads were littered with
wagons, supplies, equipment,
weapons and scores of stragglers
who were captured at every turn.
Sullen, the British treated Galicia
like a hostile country. Moore writes:
The people run away, the villages are deserted, and I have been obliged to destroy great part of
the ammunition and military stores. For the same reason I am obliged to leave the sick. In short,
my sole object is to save the Army.
Almost every village which the British infantry passed, a cavalry officer of the rearguard reported,
exhibited melancholy proofs of the shameful devastation committed by the infantry which had
preceded us; we observed in flames whilst we were at a considerable distance, and it was still
burning when we passed through it. The inhabitants shouted Viva los Francesces! and we
overtook some stragglers who had been stripped and maltreated by the Spaniards.
According to General Stewart the Spaniards " abandoned their houses as the British army
approached, locking their doors and concealing the little stock of provisions of which they were
possessed These things increased the irritation under which the troops already laboured. They
[soldiers] began to look upon the Spaniards as enemies and treat them as people unworthy of
consideration. This was severely retaliated by an enraged peasantry ..."
The officers were quite unable to control their men. Except of the rearguard and a few of the more
ordely regiments such as the Guards, the discipline no longer existed. One officer wrote: In the
end Vilafranca was literally plundered, and the drunkenness that prevailed among the troops led
to the most shameful incidents. Down by the river the artillery destroyed all their stores, and
lighting big fires burnt all their ammunition wagons, which they broke up for the purpose. They
also threw all their ammunition into the river.
The commander in chief ordered his troops out of town and back onto the Corunna road, but
'Great numbers would not leave the town, but concealed themselves in the wine cellars, which
they had broken open, and were left there." (Summerville - "March of Death" p 120)
Bembibre exhibited all the appearance of a place lately stormed and pillaged. Every door and
window was broken. Wagon after wagon was abandoned and even the headquarters' supply of
ready cash had to be thrown into a ravine. At Bembibre, the French dragoons rounded up
hundreds of drunken British soldiers, and at Villafranca, British deserters were found to have
looted their own army's depots !
Captain Gordon wrote: "They [British stragglers] were soon overtaken by the
French chasseurs (picture) who treated them most unmercifully, cutting to their
right and left, and sparing none who came within reach of their swords."
A few maimed and lacerated survivors made the safety of the British column, their
injuries arousing howls of horror, pity, and outrage. Moore made public exhibits of
them, in the hope that their shocking wounds might deter others from quitting the
colours. The retreat remains a dark chapter in the history of the British army.
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"... the clumsiness of their movements."
Supplies and marches.
With the exception of the Light Division (in 1812 they covered 62 miles in 26 hours), the British
army was considered as one of the slowest armies in Europe. John Mills of British Regiment of
Coldstream Guards wrote: "Their (French) movements compared with ours are as mail coaches to
dung carts. In all weathers and at all times the French are accustomed to march, when our men
would fall sick by hundreds ..."
In the very end of the battle of Waterloo, Wellington and Blucher decided together that the
Prussians alone would continue the pursuit. This decision is usually explained by citing the
exhausted condition of Wellington's infantry, but Blucher's were surely no less tired. More likely
the choice reflected the plodding management and slowness of movement that characterized
British troops. [Professor A. Barbero]
In the beginning of the 1815-Campaign the Prussians got 3/4 of their men to the right place at the
right time, Wellington only miserable 1/3 of his total forces. Prussian officer Mffling asked
Wellington why the British advance so slowly and Wellington explained: "Do not press me on this,
for I tell you, it cannot be done. If you knew the composition of the British Army and its habits
better, then you would not talk to me about that. I cannot leave my tents and supplies behind. I
have to keep my men together in their camp and supply them well to keep order and discipline."
[Peter Hofscshroer]
The British carried not only tents. During the years of 1808-1809 inexperienced officers, unaware of
the hardships to come, had permitted a very large number of women to accompany the army.
Their plight was one of the most tragic aspects of the whole retreat to Corunna. (Approx. 50 years
before Napoleon the French army was also considered as being slow on the march. The French
carried lackeys, courtesans, chaplains, and valets, chests full of perfumes and umbrellas.)
The Spaniards reproached the British for the tardiness of their marches. French
General Thiebault wrote that the scattered state of the French army in Spain
rendered its situation desperate, and that the slowness of Sir Arthur Wellesley
saved it several times.
The French troops were known for their skills of extracting provisions
locally - much to the annoyance of local population. David Gates
writes: "In contrast, the Allies, particularly the British, seem to have been peculiarly
inept at surviving without plenty of supplies. Even in times of minor food shortages,
indiscipline erupted on a vast scale. The British divisions went to pieces in the lean
days after Talavera for example - and as late as the Waterloo campaign of 1815, we find
Wellington commenting to his Prussian friends that 'I cannot separate from my tents
and supplies. My troops must be well kept and well supplied in camp ..." (Gates - "The
Spanish Ulcer")
Wellington on the supply issue: "It is certainly astonishing that the enemy [French]
have been able to remain in this country so long; and it is extraordinary instance of
what a French army can do. ... With all our money and having in our favour the good inclinations
of the country, I assure you that I could not maintain one division in the district in which they
have maintained not less than 60,000 men and 20,000 animals for more than two months."
"Clumsy, unintelligent, and helpless as the British soldier is when thrown upon his own resources,
or when called upon to do the duty of light troops, nobody surpasses him in a pitched battle
where he acts in masses. ... This solidity and tenacity in attack and defense, form the great
redeeming quality of the British army, and have alone saved it from many a defeat, well-merited
and all but intentionally prepared by the incapacity of its officers, the absurdity of its
administration, and the clumsiness of its movements." ("The Armies of Europe" in Putnam's Monthly,
No. XXXII, published in 1855)
"Historians will say that the British army ... carried on war
in Spain and Portugal until they had eaten all the beef and
mutton in the country, and then compelled to withdraw."
(- Larpent April 1813, in Longford's "Wellington")
PS.
Not only the British were considered being slow marchers. The old-fashioned attitudes of Austrian and Russian officers also
contributed to the slowness with which their armies moved. "In the middle of the century the aristocratic officer had always
maintained a lifestyle in the field that was consonant with his social position. This meant transporting large amounts of gear
such as tents, and even porcelain, accompanied by the necessary servants to look after them.
The Duke of Cumberland, for example, travelled around with 145 tons of baggage.
This was not looked on as showing off, but rather as necessary for a man of high position, and to do otherwise would have
brought contempt rather than admiration. While everybody else did the same thing, it had little effect on the army's
performance, but once the enemy started to do things differently, it had grave consequences, as an Austrian noted: Almost
every day our army loses half a march to the French. Their soldiers carry the same load as our men, but what an effort it takes us to get
under way ! The French officer accompanies his troops on foot, and if necessary he carries his pack himself. In our army on the other hand,
every company had a whole tail of carts just to transport the officers' baggage. If possible, these gentlemen would like to bring along
warm stoves and arm-chairs as well.
The slowness with which the army moved was probably also a consequence of slow decision-making on the part of the
commanders ... Bonaparte himself provides an illustration of their bewilderment with an anecdote concerning the early part
of his 1796 campaign. It is taken from his memoirs, which were written in the third person:
Napoleon, in his nightly rounds, encountered a bivouac of prisoners, where there was a garrulous old Hungarian officer, whom he asked
how matters went on with them. The old captain could not deny that they went on very badly. 'But' he added, 'there is no understanding
it at all. We have to do with a young general who is in this moment before us, then again behind us, then again on our flanks - one does
not know where to place oneself. This manner of making war is insufferable and violates all usage and custom'.
This was rather like the cry of a gentleman who had gone to fight a duel in the proper ritualised fashion, and found an
opponent who insisted on firing before he was told to, and his behind trees to make a more difficult target. Unfortunately, in
this case there was no umpire. This no doubt paints a rather negative picture of the Austrian officer class, but the better
officers should not be forgotten. ... If they had still been fighting Frederick the Great they might well have done much better,"
(Boycott-Brown - "The Road to Rivoli")
In 1805, one Austrian general informed Marshal Murat, Napoleon's cavalry commander, that his troops desperately needed a
rest, and therefore requested him not to advance on Vienna too rapidly. :-)
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The nominal commander of the army,
the "mad king" George III .
Picture: John Bull, England enters the war with France.
The center figure bears a resemblance to King George III .
The king was the nominal commander of the British army.
The coming of George III to the throne brought the first
British born king for 50 years. His predecessor, King George
I, was a German who did not speak a word of English. So he
started the rule of the House of Hanover, under whom Great
Britain achieved wealth.
George III, by the Grace of God the King of Britain, suffered
from deteriorating mental health. He is also known for the
Brits as "The King Who Lost America" and for the Americans as "The Man Who Fought Against
Freedom and Democracy." The dumb George was having trouble with his eldest son, also George.
In 1788, George III attacked George and tried to "smash his head against the wall" and "foam was
coming from the king's mouth". King's eyes "were so bloodshot they looked like currant jelly."
By the way, the next king was also George, but with the number IV.
He kept going "on laudanum and prodigious quantities of cherry brandy."
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The Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany
When he was sixteen the King sent him to Berlin
to study the art of war under the famous king and
military leader Frederick the Great.
The Duke of York was born in London in 1763. When he was six months old, his father secured his
election as Prince-Bishop of Osnabruck in Lower Saxony. He received this title because the prince-
electors of Hanover (which included his father) were entitled to select every other holder of this
title, and the King apparently decided to ensure the title remained in the family for as long as
possible. At only 196 days of age he is therefore listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the
youngest bishop in history. He was invested as Knight of the Most Honourable Order of Bath in
1767 and as a Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1771.
King George III decided that his second son (and favorite child) would pursue an
army career. When he was sixteen the King sent him to Berlin to study the art of war
under the famous Frederick the Great. In 1795 the Duke of York took command of
the British Army, including the Ordnance Corps, the Militia, and the Volunteers, and
immediately declared "that no officer should ever be subject to the same
disadvantages under which he had laboured"
As a commander, the Duke of York presided over the unsuccessful campaign against
the French troops in the Low Countries, during the conflict which followed the
French Revolution. Because of the failed campaign Flanders, the Duke was destined
to be pilloried for all time in the rhyme "The Grand Old Duke of York", which goes:
"The grand old Duke of York,
He had ten thousand men.
He marched them up to the top of the hill
And he marched them down again.
And when they were up, they were up.
And when they were down, they were down.
And when they were only halfway up,
They were neither up nor down."
Later, as commander-in-chief of the British army, the Duke made amends for his military setbacks
during the late 1790s by reorganising the British army. Actually he was more administrator and
reformer than commander in the field. For example he restored the discipline and morale in the
British officer corps, manual exercises were revised, medical services were improved, he reduced
the number of infantry regiments but made the battalions of uniform strength, formed depot
companies etc. etc.
In 1809 due to indiscretions by his mistress who had been corruptly selling commissions, the Duke
of York was forced to resign. He was replaced with Sir David Dundas, who was old and much less
effective in office than the Duke. The Duke of York was reinstated in 1811. (Haythorntwaite -
"Wellington's Infantry (1)" p 9)
The Duke of York also founded the renowned military college, Sandhurst, which promoted the
professional, merit-based training of future commissioned officers.
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Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington
Wellington raised the reputation of the British
to a level unknown since Marlborough.
Duke of Wellington was a member of The Ascendancy, the
Anglo-Irish - and largely Protestant - aristocracy of Ireland
which was generally hated by the Irish Catholic majority.
Wellington came from a titled English Protestant family long
settled in Ireland. His father was the Earl of Mornington. Until
his early 20s, Arthur showed no signs of distinction. His mother
placed him in the army, saying
"What can I do with my Arthur?"
He became a nobleman playboy, carousing and gambling.
In 1787 his mother and his brother Richard purchased for Arthur
a commission in the 73rd Regiment if Foot. After receiving
military training in Britain, he attended the Military Academy of
Angers in France. Arthur also learned fluent French there.
Wellesley then campaigned in India, Netherlands, Spain,
Portugal and France. He rose to prominence eventually reaching
the rank of field marshal. He raised the reputation of the British
to a level unknown since Marlborough. Wellington won over French marshals at Talavera,
Salamanca and Vittoria. Several times however he was forced to full retreat, and some of his sieges
failed.
He was the almost perfect response to the aggressive French strategy and tactics. The Duke,
nicknamed Fabius Cunctator (the Delayer), took a very long term view and never lost sight of that.
He evaded the enemy by manoeuvre, wearing them down, avoided battles until certain of a
desisive victory. Wellington has often been portrayed as a defensive general, even though many of
his battles were offensive (Oporto, Salamanca, Toulouse, Vitoria). The Iberian peninsula however
"provides some of the best defensive ground in the world, and he was not slow to take advantage
of it." (- wikipdia.org Jan 2008)
At Salamanca in 1812
Wellington defeated Marshal
Marmont. French General Foy
wrote in his diary, "This battle
is the most cleverly fought,
the largest in scale, the most
important in results, of any
that the English have won in
recent times. It brings up Lord
Wellington's reputation
almost to the level of that of
Marlborough. Up to this day
we knew his prudence, his eye
for choosing good positions,
and the skill with which he used them. But at Salamanca he has shown himself a great and able
master of manoeuvring.
He kept his dispositions hidden nearly the whole day: he allowed us to develop our movement
before he pronounced his own: he played a close game; he utilised the oblique order in the style of
Frederick the Great.".
Jac Weller, an admirer of Wellington, describes in great detail his campaigns and battles. Weller
however claims that "none of Wellington's battles in Spain can be called "great."
At Salamanca he failed to exploit his success and the enemy quickly recovered. The battle of
Fuentes de Onoro and especially at Talavera were near disasters. According to Jac Weller the Battle
of Busaco was "a technical defeat although claimed as victory" and the allignement of troops at
Talavera was not very well thought.
Weller wrote that "if Talavera was a victory because the French withdrew then Busaco was a defeat
because the British were forced to withdraw." The siege of Burgos was a very costly defeat.
.
Under Wellington the British army became one of the most successful armies of
the Napoleonic Wars. It was especially efficient when fed and supplied sufficiently
(to keep the discipline of the troops) and deployed on a strong defensive position.
French General Foy wrote, "Well posted, as Wellington knows how to post it, and
attacked from the front, I consider the English infantry to be impregnable ..."
On the importance of supplies for the British army click here.
Wellington was the most successful British general of the Napoleonic Wars. With one or two
exceptions British commanders failed in independent command. Even General Sir John Moore lost
his campaign. He was driven into the sea by the French, then killed at Corunna, and his troops fled
to Britain.
As a general Wellington is often compared to the Marlborough, with whom he shared many
characteristics, chiefly a transition to politics after a highly successful military career. He served as
the Tory Prime Minister on two separate occasions, and was one of the leading figures in the
House of Lords until his retirement in 1846.
Picture: Wellington in old age,
by a pupil of King's College School.
In September 1852, Wellington was seized with an epileptic fit, became
speechless, and died.
The titles of Duke of Wellington and Marquess Douro were bestowed upon
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Marquess of Wellington, in 1814. The subsidiary titles
of the Duke of Wellington are:
- Marquess of Wellington (1812)
- Marquess Douro (1814)
- Earl of Mornington
- Earl of Wellington (1812)
- Viscount Wellesley (inherited in 1863)
- Viscount Wellington (1809)
- Baron Mornington (inherited in 1863)
- Baron Douro (1809)
The Viscountcy of Wellesley and the Barony and
Earldom of Mornington are in the Peerage of Ireland;
the rest are in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.
The Dukes of Wellington also hold several foreign titles of:
- Prince of Waterloo
- Duque de Ciudad Rodrigo
- Duque de Vitria
- Marqus de Torres Vedras
- Conde de Vimeiro
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.
The noble men (officers) and "the scum of the earth" (privates).
The French were surprised by the rigid class lines
that divided the British soldiers from their officers.
There is a record of Wellington coming upon aristocratic
officers making their men carry them over a river.
Wellington ordered the soldiers to drop them on the spot.
The soldierly profession, badly paid and subject to the harshest
discipline, was not greatly appreciated in England - was, in
fact, a decidedly proletarian vocation. It was no accident that a
high percentage of those who enlidsted were Irish since
Ireland, overpopulated as it was with a deeply impoverished
peasantry, had always been one of the major providers of
cannon fodder to His Majesty's army. Irishmen generally made
up between 20 % and 40 % of the infantry that Wellington
marshaled at Waterloo.
The French were surprised by the rigid class lines that divided
the soldiers from their officers and generals. Majority of the
officers were all upper-class, some were sons of clerks or
shopkeepers, and the soldiers, who were from the working
class, obeyed them without question. (Barbero - "The Battle" p
22)
According to Philip Haythorntwaite there is a record of
Wellington coming upon aristocratic officers making their men carry them over a river. Wellington
ordered the soldiers to drop them on the spot.
The soldiers of Moore's army were described as "They were all, however, volunteers The
average age of the soldiers was 23, and their average height 5'6". Most had been farm labourers,
many from impoverished villages of Ireland and Scotland. They were paid 1 shilling per day, and
led by an officer corps of aristocrats and gentlemen, many of whom had simply bought their
commissions" (Summerville - "March of Death" p 26)
The vast majority of soldiers came from the ranks of the otherwise unemployed, men who had not
found another way to earn a living. Half of the troops had been farm laborers and the rest textile
workers or apprentice tradesmen.
In England, the proletarian origins of the soldiers opened a chasm
between them and their officers and generals. It is no surprising that
Wellington said that the army was recruited from among "the scum of
the earth". He laso made remark on the significant difference between the
composition of a French army (based on conscription) and that of a
British one: "The conscription calls out a share of every class - no matter
whether your son or my son - all must march."
Costello described his comrades: "Our men, during the war, might be
said to have been composed of 3 classes.
One was zealous and brave to absolute devotion, but who, apart from
their 'fighting duties', considered some little indulgance as a right;
the other class barely did their duty when under the eye of their
superior;
while the third, and I am happy to say, by far the smallest in number,
were skulkers and poltroons - their excuse was weakness from want of
rations; they would crawl to the rear, and were seldom seen until after a
battle had been fought ..." (Costello - "The Peninsular and Waterloo
Campaigns" p 121)
During campaign the emotions of British soldiers were divided between the hatred and contempt
officially directed at the French and Buonaparte" by British newspapers and public opinion and
the admiration they felt for the French emperor in their hearts, almost in spite of themselves.
Captain Mercer of the Royal Artillery admitted that deep down he "had often longed to see
Napoleon, that mighty man of war - that astonishing genius who had filled the world with his
renown."
Sources and Links.
Colledge - "Ships of the Royal Navy"
Lavery - "Nelson's Fleet at Trafalgar"
Arturo Perez Reverte - "Cabo Trafalgar"
Sugden - "Nelson : A Dream of Glory 1758 - 1797"
Herman - "To Rule the Waves." (rather anglocentric book)
The Royal Navy - Official Website.
David Mattingly - "An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire, 54 BC - AD 409"
Lawrence James - "The Rise and Fall of the British Empire"
Niall Ferguson - "Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order"
Nicholas Canny - "The Oxford History of the British Empire"
Peter N. Williams - "Narrative History of England"
Philip Haythorntwaite - "Wellington's Infantry (1)"
Mark Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion"
Rory Muir - "Salamanca, 1812"
Fortescue - "A History of the British Army"
Peter Hofschroer - "Waterloo - the German Victory"
Peter Hofschroer - "Wellington and His German Allies"
Chartrand - "British Army in North America 1793-1815"
Judd - "Someone Has Blundered: Calamities of the British Army"
Summerville - "March of Death"
Brent Nosworthy - "With Musket, Cannon, and Sword."
Letters on British Politics Captured by the French in January 1804.
Spanish Recruits in the British Army 1812 - 1813.
The British Army Museums.
British infantry : Redcoats : organization : weapons : tactics : uniforms
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/British_infantry_the_redcoats.htm[2012-05-21 12:42:13]
British Infantry of the Napoleonic Wars
"Well posted, as Wellington knows how to post it, and attacked from the front,
I consider the English infantry to be impregnable ..." - General Reille
"The infantry is the best portion of the British army..." - General Foy
The British infantry of the Napoleonic Wars
is one of the best troops in military history.
Introduction.
.
Sir John Moore.
.
Weapons.
.
Uniforms.
.
Organization
and Tactics.
.
Miscellaneous.
"Come on, ye rascals ! - Come on, ye fighting villains! "
- - - Line infantry - - - Foot Guards - - - King's German Legion
- - - The Scots - - - - - - The Irish - - - - -. Light infantry (+ rifled units) - - - -
.
Introduction: British Infantry.
Although Britain's glory was principally achieved through
the strength of the Royal Navy, the field army and colonial
troops played an important role. The best part of the land
forces was the infantry.
Picture: British infantry in 1756-1763.
The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) pitted Prussia and
Britain against
Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony. Russia
temporarily
changed sides in the later stages of the war. Portugal
(on the side
of Britain) and Spain (on the side of France) entered
the conflict later.
The history of the British army spans over
350 years and numerous European and
colonial wars. Although Britain's glory
was principally achieved through the strength of the Royal Navy, the field army and colonial
troops played an important role.
The best part of the British Army was the infantry.
William Napier writes, "The result of a hundred battles and the united testimony of impartial
writers of different nations have given the first place amongst the European infantry to the
British; but in a comparison between the troops of France and England, it would be unjust
not to admit that the cavalry of the former stands higher in the estimation of the world."
(Napier - Vol II, p 367)
Picture: British infantry in
1815,
by Keith Rocco.
French General Foy wrote,
"The English [infantry] do not
scale mountains, or scour the
plain, with the suppleness and
rapidity of the French; but
they are more silent, more
orderly, and more obedient,
and for these reasons their fire
is better directed, and more
destructive.
Though not so stubborn under a heavy fire as the Russians, they draw together with less
confusion, and preserve their original formation better.
Their composition exhibits something of the German character, combined with more activity
and energy. The system of manoeuvres which they have adopted since the year 1798, is
borrowed from the Prussians. ... In retreat it stands firm, and commences its fire by volleys
from the battalions, followed by a well-supported file-firing. It turns round cooly to check
the enemy hanging on its rear; and while marching, it fires without separating."
"The English infantry does not hesitate to charge with the bayonet; the leader, however, who
would wish to employ British infantry to advantage, should move it seldom and cautiously,
and reckon more upon its fire than its manoeuvres."
In the ranks of British infantry served many Scots and Irishmen. Virtually every single
regiment was a mixture of Englishmen, Irishmen and Scots. Some regiments considered as
Scottish had also Irishmen and English in their ranks. The same problem with the so-called
Irish and English regiments. See diagram below:
Regiment English Scots Irish
Germans
French, Spaniards
Port. and others
SCOTTISH
42nd Foot
Black Watch (Highlanders)
4 %
84
87 %
1.980
9 %
201
0 %
0
IRISH
I,II/88th Foot
Connaught Rangers
5.5%
178
1.5%
50
92.5%
2.950
0.5%
14
ENGLISH
I,II/52nd Foot
Light Infantry
65 %
2.174
2.5 %
90
31 %
1.031
0.5%
20
Age of British infantryman:
- 50 % were between 18 and 29
- 17 % were younger
- 33 % were 30 or older.
His height:
- 3 % were 5'10" and taller
- 16 % were between 5'7" and 5'9"
- 60 % were between 5'4" and 5'7"
- 21 % were shorter
The British recruits were instructed to march 75 steps per min. Each step was of 30 inches.
But 108 steps /min. were used during filing of companies into column, or from column into
line. This pace was also used by battalions manoeuvering as columns. It was not used by
large bodies of men in movement on account of fatigue. (- Philip Haythorntwaite)
The British military was broken into 2 schools of thought, the 'American' and the 'German'.
- The American school was characterised by open formations and light infantry tactics
well suited to the broken terrain and vast woods of North America where enemy had little
or no cavalry and artillery. The American school of thought favored infantry formed on
2-ranks and the use of light infantry armed with rifles.
- The German school of thought was characterised by disciplined, close order drill, well
suited to the open plains of Central Europe where the enemy had thousands of cavalrymen
and hundreds of cannons. This school of thought favored infantry formed on 3- or 4-ranks.
Although officially during the Napoleonic Wars the British were formed on 3 ranks,
Wellinton's troops in mountainous Peninsula used the 2-rank formation. (General Order
issued in August 1808 directs the British troops in Spain to use two ranks.) Two ranks were
probably used also at Maida and elsewhere. General Foy wrote, "The infantry, although on
system formed 3 deep, like the other nations of Europe, is more frequently drawn up in 2
ranks; but when making or receiving a charge, it is frequently formed 4 deep."
The 4-rank deep line was also used when there was a limited space on the battlefield.
In all probability Alten's and Picton's divisions at Waterloo were formed on 4-ranks.
(So no "thin red line" there.)
British, German and Netherland infantry formed in squares.
Battle of Waterloo (Belle Aliance) 1815
~
.
Sir John Moore.
He is best known for his training reforms for the infantry.
John Moore stood out from most other generals and senior
officers for his humanity.
Sir John Moore was born in Glasgow in November 1761. He is best known for his training
reforms for the infantry and for his death at the Battle of Corunna, in which he was defeated
by French corps under Marshal Soult.
John Moore attended Glasgow High School, but at the age of 11 joined his father on a tour of
France, Italy and Germany.
He joined the infantry in 1776 as an ensign in the 51st Foot. John Moore first saw action in
1778 during the American War of Independence as an officer of the 82nd Foot. In 1783 he
returned to Great Britain and four years later he was made Major and joined the 60th Foot
briefly before returning to the 51st. In 1791 John Moore participated in the campaign in
Corsica and was wounded at Calvi. He was given a Colonelcy and became Adjutant-General
to Sir Charles Stuart. Friction between Moore and the new British viceroy of Corsica led to
his recall and posting to the West Indies under Sir Abercromby.
In 1798 John Moore was made Major-General and served in the suppression of the rebellion
in Ireland. Although the Irish rebels were crushed with incredible brutality, John Moore
stood out from most other generals and senior officers for his humanity and refusal to
perpetrate atrocities.
In 1799 John Moore commanded an infantry brigade in the expedition to Egmont-op-Zee.
His troops were badly defeated by the French and he himself was seriously wounded.
This combat is described as "one of the few instances on record of crossing of bayonets
by large bodies." One of the Highland battalions suffered 328 casualties.
He led the 52nd Foot during the campaign in Egypt, and become colonel of that regiment in
1801.
John Moore returned to Britain in 1803 to command a brigade at Shorncliffe camp.
John Moore established the innovative training that produced first light infantry regiments.
There have been 'light troops' in the British infantry since mid 1700s, it was the colonial war
between France and Britain in North America, which established the concept of light infantry
in the British Army. Prompted by these experiences General Wolfe and Lord Amherst (1717-
97) realised there was a need for a new approach in the infantry. A small corps of 'Light'
troops, recruited from the settlers, was formed in 1755. By the 1790s it was not unusual for
generals to group the light companies together for specific tasks.
The next war with France was to cause a further evolution of the light infantry
under the leadership and training of John Moore. He discarded the then
existing disciplinary system, largely maintained through fear and brutality
which, in his view, also stifled individual initiative, and replaced it with a
system based more upon self-discipline, mutual respect and trust.
In 1804 Moore was knighted and promoted to Lieutenant-General.
In 1806 he served in the Mediterranean, and in 1808 in the Baltic.
Disagreements with King of Sweden, Gustavus IV, led to him being sent home.
Moore was ordered to Portugal where he took command of the British corps following the
recall of Generals Burrard, Lymington, Dalrymple, and Arthur Wellesley, who all faced an
inquiry over the Convention of Sintra on the French troops' evacuation from Portugal.
Moore's force was defeated at Corunna and the general himself was mortally wounded. Sir
John Moore was struck by a French cannonball and thrown from his saddle. He fell on his
back at the feet of Colonel Graham's horse. A roundshot had torn a hole so deep in his left
shoulder that the lung was exposed, the ribs over the heart and part of the collar-bone had
been smashed, the muscles of the breast had been torn into strips and the arm was hanging
only by the sleeve of his coat and a shred of flesh. "No less a victim of this galling [French]
fire was Sir David Baird himslef, his left arm smashed by a roundshot Lord Bentinck now
came up on his quiet mule " (Summerville - "March of Death" p 188)
Death of British General John Moore.
He was struck by a French cannonball and thrown from his saddle.
The projectile had torn a hole so deep in his left shoulder that the
lung was exposed, the ribs over the heart and part of the collar-
bone had been smashed ...
The news of Moore's defeat at Corunna and the horrifying return of the British soldiers
spread fast through an indignant country. 'The fact must not be disguised,' wrote a
correspondent to The Times, expressing a general opinion, 'that we have suffered a shameful
disaster." The campaign led to turmoil in England. Many politicians were alarmed at the
manner in which the experiences of Moore's army had produced on the public opinion.
Politician after politician "demanded the publication of the official correspondence, pressed
for the establishemnt of a parliamentary committee of enquiry ..." (- Esdaile).
After the victory at Corunna, Marshal Soult took the great naval base of El Ferrol. He
captured 8 battle-ships, 3 frigates, several hundred prisoners and enormous equipment
stockpiles, incl. 20,000 British muskets.
Sir John Moore was buried wrapped in a military cloak in the ramparts of the town.
Charles Wolfe wrote a poem:
Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note,
As his corse to the rampart we hurried;
Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot
O'er the grave where our hero we buried.
and ends, six verses later, with:
Slowly and sadly we laid him down,
From the field of his fame fresh and gory;
We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone,
But we left him alone with his glory.
Sir John Moore is one of my favorite British and allied generals.
~
.
Weapons.
The British musket Brown Bess was larger and more durable
than the French musket. The British rifle was the most accurate
infantry firearm of the Napoleonic Wars.
The first Brown Bess musket was designed in 1722 and was produced
until the 1860s. Accuracy of the Brown Bess was fair, as with most
other muskets. The rate of fire ranged from 2 to 5 shots per minute.
Many variations and modifications of the standard pattern musket
were created over its long history.
The musket issued only to the Foot Guards and 4th Regiment of Foot
had barrel length of 99 cm (overall length 141 cm), and weighed 4.56
kg (10.06 pounds). The one issued to only to the 43rd, 52nd, 68th, 71st
and 85th Light Infantry and the Battalions of the 60th Foot not armed
with rifles had similar length and weight. The differences between the two models of
muskets were a scrolled trigger guard similar to that of the Baker Rifle except more rounded,
a browned barrel and a notch back-sight, the bayonet lug being used as the fore-sight.
There were lead allowance for yearly exercises in life fire training.
- British riflemen - 60 rounds and 60 blanks per man
- British light infantry - 50 rounds and 60 blanks
- British line infantry - 30 rounds
.
Picture: British infantry
muskets.
Source: Brent Nosworthy -
"With Musket,
Cannon, and Sword."
The French Charleville
musket was considered by
many Europeans as the best
smoothbore weapon of the
Napoleonic Wars, It was
probably also one the
lightest and the best made.
The British musket Brown
Bess was larger and more
durable, while the Prussian, Swedish and old Russian muskets were considered as unwieldy.
Major Hans Boersma (Netharland infantry) writes, "The reason the (Dutch) Jagers
nonetheless received (in 1815) the Brown Bess is probably because the French muskets ... that
were still around in some numbers were in a very poor condition. In fact, the ballistic
performance and maximum range of the Brown Bess was inferior to that of the French
Modle 1777 Corrig something that was recognised in the high command of the
Netherlands army where the issuing of the Brown Bess was seen as a temporary measure. As
early as August 1814, while the Brown Bess was still being widely distributed, it was decided
that the French musket would become the standard infantry firearm for the Army. It would
be produced in the Netherlands as the Model 1815, having a slightly shorter barrel than the
1777 Corrig." (Source: footnotes to Boersma - " A Concise History of the Netherlands Battaillon
Jagers No. 27 in the Waterloo Campaign, 1815. Part I")
Large number of British muskets were also
supplied to the Prussian and Russian
infantry. Russia alone received at least
60,000 British muskets. The Moscow
Grenadier Regiment, for example, was
armed with hundreds of these weapons.
"The rapid expansion of the [Prussian]
army at this time created problems of
major significance. Of prime importance
was a general shortage of fire arms. The British Government supplied 113,000 muskets..."
(Nash - "The Prussian Army 1808-1815" p 12)
.
In the end of 1797 the parliament authorised the formation of a 5th battalion of the 60th Foot
to be recruited from German exiles familiar with the use of rifles. These Germans were
armed with rifles designed primarily for hunting, were slow loading and required cleaning
every few shots. Ezekiel Baker, a London gunsmith, designed a new rifle that aimed at
military rather than hunting requirements.
The British rifle had similar accuracy as
the German rifle, but greatly reduced the
rate of fouling allowing more shots
between cleaning. A well-trained rifleman
could fire it at a rate of approx. 1 shot per
minute. For this reason the rifles were more suited for skirmishers than line troops, as
accuracy not speed of fire was the nature of skirmish duty, and the riflemen were deadly
proficient at their task. For example, during the dramatic retreat to Corunna rifleman Plunket
shot the French Gnral Colbert at a range of between 200 and 500 metres. Plunket had run
forward to make this shot, and before returning to his own lines he reloaded, and shot a
trumpet-major who had rushed to the aid of the fallen general.
The rifles were more accurate weapons
than the muskets. According to E. G.
Prhs (Pruhs - "Die Schlacht bei
Waterloo" publ. 1983) in 1815 at Waterloo
the Hannovarian jgers of Graf von
Kielmannsegge's brigade fought against
French skirmishers. The French suffered
40 killed and wounded, while the
Germans had lost only 20 men !
The British Baker rifle was probably the
most accurate of all firearms during the
Napoleonic Wars. On the training
ground and under perfect conditions
100 % hits were recorded at 100 paces.
However some of the claims about
superiority and universality of rifles
make little sense. If they were so
superior then why the musket, not the
rifle, remained the weapon of British infantry for decades after Napoleonic wars ?
There were several weaknesses of the rifle. First of all, they needed longer time to load (very
unpopular with troops fighting in open field). Secondly, they needed good clean before it
could be fired again. Thirdly, the rifles easily became fouled.
The riflemen also used a long bayonet ("sword bayonet") designed to make the rifle and
sword-bayonet the same length as the musket and bayonet. But the sword-bayonet was not
an effective weapon in hand-to-hand combat.
Article:
Infantry Tactics and Combat.
Accuracy of musket fire, rate of fire,
bayonet fights, and more.
~
.
Uniforms.
The extensive use of red colour by British, made
red uniform a virtual icon of the British Empire.
Picture: uniforms of British
infantry.
From left to right:
- drummer of 27th Foot
- fusilier of 23rd Foot
- grenadier of 32nd Foot
- senior officer of 51st Foot
- officer of light company of
30th Foot
- officer of 31st Foot
- sergeant of grenadier
company of 33rd Foot
Red coat is a term often used
to refer to British
infantryman, because of the
colour of the uniforms
formerly worn by the
majority of regiments. In 1645, the Parliament passed the New Model Army ordinance. The
infantry regiments wore coats of Venetian red with white facings.
("There is no basis for the historical myth that red coats were favoured because they did not
show blood stains. Blood does in fact show on red clothing as a black stain." - wikipedia.org)
Red and white made an easy target. "... the English are the only nation who have maintained
in their army the red coat, the "proud red coat" as Napier calls it. This coat, which makes
their soldiers look like dressed-up monkeys, is supposed by its brilliancy to strike terror into
the enemy ... The Danes and Hanoverians used to wear the red coat, but they dropped it very
soon. The first campaign in Schleswig proved to the Danes what a capital mark to the enemy
is offered by a red coat and white cross-belts ..." ("The Armies of Europe" in Putnam's Monthly,
No. XXXII, published in 1855)
The red coat however looks great, so this is not surprising that despite the best efforts of Sir
John Moore, when it came to choosing a new uniform in which to fight, conservativeness
won the day. "While the 95th Rifles were permitted to adopt the green clothing and black
leather equipment of the German regiments in British service, the Light Infantry regiments
were ordered to conform to the regulations for light companies - retaining red jackets." (-
http://www.army.mod.uk/infantry/)
In the USA, 'Redcoat' is particularly associated with those British
soldiers who fought against the colonists during the American
Revolution. It does not appear to have been a contemporary expression
- accounts of the time usually refer to "regulars" or "the King's men".
Abusive nicknames included 'bloody backs' (in a reference to both the
colour of their coats and the use of flogging as a means of punishment
for military offences) and "lobsters" or "lobsterbacks" (most notably in Boston around the
time of the Boston Massacre. (wikipedia.org)
During the Napoleonic Wars with the exception of only three units (60th and 95th and the
King's German Legion) the British infantry wore red jacket. The cloth was dull red for rank
and file and bright scarlet for senior NCOs and officers.
The British frame knapsack was designed by John Trotter. He must have had before him
other knapsacks, British and foreign, for in his design he incorporated features taken from
many. The knapsack had leather binding, a main compartment and a pocket in the flap like
continental knapsacks. Its dimensions were those of the earlier, simpler and cheaper, British
canvas knapsack. It was painted to make it waterproof, at first brown, but from 1808 black. In
1812 was ordered that the knapsacks have to be marked with the number of the regiment
only, without any other ornament.
The knapsack equipment was completed by a canteen (water bottle) and a haversack -
campaign items issued whenever infantry went into the field. The haversack was a canvas or
coarse linen bag intended to carry rations (bread, meat, biscuits, flour, rice, etc.)
The companies of grenadiers and light infantry wore wings of red cloth at the shoulders.
Officers jackets were double-breasted, well tailored and often padded to exaggerate the
outline.
Regimental facings:
Blue - 1st, 2nd, 3rd Foot Guards
Blue - 1st (Royal Scots)
Blue - 2nd (Queens Royal)
Blue - 4th (King's Own)
Blue - 7th (Royal Fusiliers)
Blue - 8th (The King's)
Blue - 21st (Royal North British Fuzileers)
Blue - 18th (Royal Irish)
Blue - 23rd (Royal Welch Fusiliers)
Blue - 42nd (Royal Highlanders)
Blue - 60th (Royal Americans)
White - 17th, 32nd, 43rd, 47th, 59th, 65th, 74th,
Pale Yellow - 9th, 10th, 12th, 20th, 26th, 30th, 46th
Pale Yellow - 57th, 67th, 82nd, 83rd, 84th, 91st
Yellow - 13th, 15th, 16th, 28th, 29th, 34th, 37th, 38th, 44th
Yellow - 75th, 77th, 80th, 85th, 86th, 88th, 93rd
Deep Yellow - 6th, 25th, 72nd,
Yellow Green - 5th, 36th, 54th, 66th,
Light Green - 39th,
Blue Green - 11th, 19th, 24th, 45th, 49th, 51st, 55th
Blue Green - 63rd, 68th, 69th, 73rd, 79th, 87th, 94th
Pale Buff - 27th,
Buff - 3rd, 14th, 22nd, 31st, 48th, 52nd
Buff - 61st, 62nd, 71st, 78th, 81st, 96th
Deep Buff - 40th, 90th,
Orange - 35th,
Red - 33rd, 41st, 53rd, 76th,
Purple - 56th,
Black - 50th, 58th, 64th, 70th, 89th
--------------------------------------------------------------
Plumes of line infantry:
white - for grenadier company
green - for light company
red over white - for center companies
(only in 42nd Black Watch the center companies wore red plumes,
light company had red over green plume, while the
grenadier company wore red over white plume)
Plumes of light infantry
(& rifles):
green - for grenadier company
green - for light company
green - for center companies
Shako cords (in 1815)
gold-crimson - for officers
white - for NCOs
white - for grenadier and fusilier companies
green - for light companies
For parade the infantry wore white breeches and black gaiters.
During campaign however they wore white (in summer) or grey-blue (in winter) trousers.
(At Waterloo, in summer of 1812, all wore grey trousers.)
With the exception of the 71st-75th regiments, all Highland units wore kilts.
At Waterloo, however, only three regiments wore them; the 42nd, 79th and 92nd.
(Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion" in note on the cover painting)
In 1802 the chevrons replaced epaulettes and shoulder knots
as rank distinctions for sergeants and corporals:
- sergeant-majors and staff sergeants wore 4 silver bars
- sergeants wore 3 of white silk
- corporals wore 2 of regimental lace
- aspiring NCOs and 'chosen men' wore 1 chevron
During Peninsular war was introduced a new rank, Color Sergeant, for gallantry in the field.
Its badge was a single chevron of regimental lace below a Union Flag below the Royal
Crown, with silver swords crossed over the flag staff. It was worn on the right upper arm
only.)
The grenadiers did not wear the bearskin caps on campaign.
(Haythorntwaite - "Wellington's Infantry (1)" p 28)
The grenadiers were normally distinguished in the following way:
red 'wings' with white fringes and white shako-plumes. Their officers
wore chain or laced 'wings.'
The privates of the legendary 42nd Black Watch wore the hummel bonnet.
The chinstraps were of black leather.
Left: Officer of the 9th Foot on
Martinique in 1793. Source:
Philip Haythorntwaite
Right: private in 1815.
The queues had been abolished
in 1808 and the infantrymen's
hair were cut close to the head.
In 1806 the heavy
and
uncommfortable
leather shako was
replaced by the felt
shako. In 1811
however a report stated that the
existing shako was unsatisfactory because of its
easily damaged form, unsteadiness on the head and lack of protection
against bad weather.
So new shako was designed and approved in December 1811 or the
beginning of 1812. The new shako was "Basically identical in shape to the
Portuguese infantry's berretina, it is generally termed the 'Belgic' of
'Waterloo' shako. It was of felt for the rank and file, coarse beaver for
sergeants and officers." During campaign in bad weather the shako was
covered with black oilskin (picture above, far right)
~
.
Organization and Tactics.
In March 1806 the strength of the infantry was approx. 160,000 men , including the
"prestigious King's German Legion." (Haythorntwaite - "Wellington's Infantry (1)" p 11) In this
number were included field units, depots, and garrisons.
Infantry regiment was not a tactical unit, it was an administrative formation that never took
the field.
By 1815 there were 104 infantry regiments, numbered in accordance with seniority - the date
of formation.
The strength of infantry regiment varied.
At the breakdown of the Peace of Amiens (1803) almost all regiments had only one battalion.
But very soon it changed. For example in 1809 there were:
- 5,000 men in 7 battalions of the 60th Foot (Royal Americans, actually they were mostly
Germans)
- 4,900 men in 4 battalions of the 1st Foot (Royal Scots)
- 4,600 men in 3 battalions of the 1st Foot Guards
- 2,000 men in 2 battalions of the 42nd Foot (Royal Highlanders)
- 2,000 men in 2 battalions of the 88th Foot (Devil's Own)
- 900 men in 1 battalion of the 101st Foot
- 500 men in 1 battalion of the 103rd Foot
From three or four (or even five) battalions formed one brigade.
Two or three brigades formed one infantry division.
Strength Wellington's infantry divisions in Autumn 1813 in Spain:
1st Division (Gen. Howard) - 3,700 men in 4 Guard btns. and 3,200 men in 5 KGL btns.
2nd Division (Gen. Stewart) - 5,800 men in 9 btns. and 2,700 men in 5 Portuguese btns. *
3rd Division (Gen. Colville) - 5,000 men in 8 btns. and 2,500 men in 5 Portuguese btns. *
4th Division (Gen. Cole) - 4,000 men in 7 btns. and 2,500 men in 5 Portuguese btns. *
5th Division (Gen. Hay) - 3,000 men in 6 btns. and 1,500 men in 5 Portuguese btns. *
6th Division (Gen. Clinton) - 4,700 men in 7 btns. and 2,000 men in 5 Portuguese btns. *
7th Division (Gen. Le Cor) - 3,500 men in 7 btns. and 2,500 men in 5 Portuguese btns. *
Light Division (Gen. von Alten) - 3,300 men in 5 btns. and 1,600 men in 4 Portuguese btns. *
Division (Gen. Hamilton) - 5,000 men in 9 Portuguese btns. *
* - The Portuguese infantry were brave, steady and respected by English and French alike.
Polish officer Chlapowski of Napoleon's Guard Lancers described the Portuguese soldiers as
"small, gaunt, but very tough breed." They were the most efficient in m o u n t a i n warfare.
One French officer remarked that the Portuguese bragged less than English and Frenchmen
and so got less credit for their service.
The basic tactical unit however was the battalion.
Some historians emphasize how Wellington's battalions were understrength at Waterloo.
This is correct but this is not the whole picture. Although understrength, the average British
battalion was much stronger formation than the average Prussian or French battalion.
- British battalion 665 men
- Prussian battalion 610 men
- KGL battalion 520 men
- French battalion 520 men
1 lieutenant-colonel
2 Majors
1 Adjutant
1 Quartermaster (sergeant-major)
1 Paymaster (staff sergeant)
1 Armourer (sergeant)
1 Drum-major
Pioneers (1 corporal and 10 privates)
The pioneers often wore squat
bearskins with brass plate.
Noncombat.: surgeons, musicians
L e f t - W i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R i g h t - W i n g

. Light . . . . . . 8 . . . . . . . 7 . . . . . . . 6 . . . . . . . 5 . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . 1 . . . .
. Grenadiers
The battalion Colors were placed
between the 4th and 5th Company.
Below: battalion formed in quarter distance column
G
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
L
To form a square from this column above was very easy. The Grenadier and Light Company
closed up on the 1st and 8th. The 2nd-7th Companies, divided at the join of their two sub-
divisions and wheeled up by sections, left and right, to form the flanks 4-men deep. The
front and rear of the square was 20 m wide, the sides 65 m long.)
Diagram: British skirmish screen
formation
from Nafziger's "Imperial Bayonets"
(website)
One of the main roles of the Light
Company was skirmishing. The Light
and Grenadier Companies were
supposedly elite units. "The Light
Copany was frequently detached to form
a skirmish line some 200 m in front of
the battalion... If not sent out
skirmishing, the Light Company would
be at the rear (of the battalion column)
with the Grenadiers in the lead." (Adkin -
"The Watreloo Companion" pp 169-171)
A composite (Guard) light infantry
battalion existed from July 1794 to April
1795. It was combined from flank
companies of all three Foot Guards
regiments. This battalion was re-formed
for the raid on Ostend in 1798 and broken up in 1802. Several flank battalions were formed
in 1811 for the Barrosa Campaign. One of these battalions consisted of the grenadier and
light companies taken from the II/9th, I/28th and II/82nd Foot.
It was rare for the British to detach the grenadiers and form independent or combined
battalions of grenadiers. We know about one such case, in 1793 the grenadier companies
were detached from their parent battalions and were formed in 3 grenadier battalions. In
August 1812, the grenadiers of the 1st Foot Guards stormed and captured a bridge in Seville.
Theoretically the company consisted of:
= 3 officers (incl. 1 captain)
= 5 NCOs (2 sergeants and 3 corporals)
= 1 drummer (and sometimes 1 fifer)
= 85-100 privates (in Foot Guard more).
Each of the companies was divided into 2 half-companies.
The
British
batalion
column
was
always
formed
with a
frontage
of one
British infantry battalion formed in column, line. Spain and Waterloo.
company. With a column at open distance the gaps between the rear rank of the leading
company and the rear rank of the next one was the same as the company frontage; say 20-25
m.
A column at half distance had gaps of 10-12.5 m, at quarter distance 5 m and in the close
column the men were virtually treading on each other's heels.
Majority of British eyewitness accounts from Waterloo confirm that the infantry massed on
the high ground beyond Hougoumont came under French artillery fire from the very first
moment and suffered a steady attrition that gradually began to wear on the men's nerves.
The column of companies, the formation in which most of Wellington's battalions were
deployed, waiting to enter into contact with the enemy, was a deep formation, with all 10
companies lined up one behind the other, like rungs on a ladder.
It was the best formation for waiting troops, but it certainly wasn't suitable for withstanding
artillery fire. (Barbero - "The Battle" p 92)
Wellington was well-known proponent of the tactic of reverse slope. By placing a ridge
between his own infantry and the French, and having his battalions lie down, he was able to
both protect his troops from French artillery fire and to surprise the attacking infantry by
having his troops stand up at the last moment and deliver volleys of musketry at close range.
French General Foy wrote, "Well posted, as Wellington knows how to post it, and attacked
from the front, I consider the English infantry to be impregnable ..."
~
.
Line Infantry.
"The fire of British infantry is delivered with such a coolness ,
even in the most critical position, that it surpasses , in effect ,
that of any other troops. ...
This solidity and tenacity in attack and defense, form the great
redeeming quality of the British army, and have alone saved it
from many a defeat, well-merited and all but intentionally prepared
by the incapacity of its officers, the absurdity of its administration,
and the clumsiness of its movements."
("The Armies of Europe" in Putnam's Monthly, No. XXXII, published in 1855)
The British army was based on the well tried and tested regimental system. The esprit de
corps of the regimental system was maintained in the names and titles of regiments handed
down through history, with a tradition of courage and tenacity in battle.
The line regiments (battalions) formed the
bulk of the infantry. Many line units were of
average quality, some were poor and some
were excellent. "An onlooker watched the 3rd
as it "swept like a meteor' across the 7th's
path ... gallantly defended for a time from the
French batteries by Kempt's riflemen hiding
at Tres Puentes; then on through grape and round-shot towards the hill of Arinez the
Connaught Rangers in the centre, the 45th and 74th to right and left and Picton cursing and
yelling, dressed like a mad bonfire guy in a broad-brimmed top hat (he was suffering from
eye trouble) and blue coat." - Battle of Vittoria
The 57th Regiment of Foot earned their nickname of "the Die Hards" after their participation
in the hellish firefight between at Albuera. The commanding officer of the 57th Foot, Inglis,
was struck down but refused to be carried to the rear for treatment. "He lay in front of his
men calling on them to hold their position and when the fight reached its fiercest cried, "Die
hard the 57th, die hard!". The casualties of the 57th were 422 out of the 570 men in the ranks
and 20 out of the 30 officers. The Allied commander of the Anglo-Portuguese force Field
Marshal Beresford wrote in his dispatch, "our dead, particularly the 57th Regiment, were
lying as they fought in the ranks, every wound in front". (- wikipedia.org 2010)
Some of the best known line regiments:
- 2nd Regiment of Foot (Queens Royal)
- - - - - - - - - - 1794 - Colonel James Coates
- - - - - - - - - - 1813 - Hon. George Lowry Cole
- 4th Regiment of Foot (King's Own)
- - - - - - - - - - 1799 - John, Earl of Chatham
- 7th Regiment of Foot (Royal Fusiliers)
- - - - - - - - - - 1801 - Sir Alured Clarke
- 8th Regiment of Foot (The King's)
- - - - - - - - - - 1794 - Ralph Dundas
- - - - - - - - - - 1814 - Edmund Stevens
- 21st Regiment of Foot (Royal North British Fuzileers)
- - - - - - - - - - 1803 - Hon. William Gordon
- 23rd Regiment of Foot (Royal Welch Fusiliers)
- - - - - - - - - - 1786 - Richard Grenville
- 44th Regiment of Foot (East Essex)
For Scottish, Irish and German units read chapters below.
Article:
Albuera 1811 - the bloodiest
battle of the Peninsular war
"Here come the Grenadiers, my boys,
who know no doubts or fears !
Then sing tow, row, row, row,
the British Grenadiers."
- British army song from the Revolution
~
.
Foot Guards.
Most monarchies have at least one regiment of guards,
part of whose duties is to guard the royal family.
Picture: British Foot Guards,
by Dmitrii Zgonnik of Ukraine.
Many nations have regiments of guards in
their armies, as the term 'guards' is an
honorific to mark out the best soldiers.
Most monarchies have at least one regiment
of guards, part of whose duties is to guard
the royal family.
During the Napoleonic Wars the British
Foot Guard consisted of three regiments,
1st, 2nd and 3rd, each of 1-3 battalions. The
Foot Guards was an elite unit that accepted
only the best volunteers. They enjoyed great prestige and reputation for discipline, quality of
uniforms, and excellent officers.
Despite their privileged nature as an elite force in comparison to the normal infantry, the
Foot Guards still helped in the digging of trenches (for example during the siege of Ciudad
Rodrigo), an arduous duty made especially more by the terrible weather.
- The 1st Regiment of Foot Guards
"Grenadier Guards", is the most
senior regiment of the Guards, and,
as such, is the most senior regiment
of infantry. It is not, however, the
most senior regiment of the Army,
this position being attributed to the
Life Guards (cavalry). As a result of
their heroic actions in fighting off the
regiment of the French Old Guard
Grenadiers * at Waterloo in June
1815, the 1st Guards were renamed
as the "Grenadier Regiment of Foot Guards", thus becoming the only
regiment in the British Army to be named for its actions in battle.
The Coldstream Guards (see below) were organized before the Grenadier
Guards, but their regiment is reckoned after the Grenadier Guards in
seniority. The Grenadier Guards' various colonels-in-chief have generally
been the British monarchs.
Colonels: 1805 - Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany
* - this is not correct, the French unit was not
a regiment of Old Guard Grenadiers but a
single battalion of Middle Guard Chasseurs.
- The 2nd Regiment of Foot Guards "Coldstream Guards", is the oldest
regiment in the British Army in continuous active service, originating on
the Scottish border in 1650. It is one of two regiments of the Guards that
can trace its lineage to the Cromwell's New Model Army. The Coldstream
Regiment saw service in the Napoleonic Wars (Egypt, Cpenhagen in 1807,
Portugal, the unfortunate Walcheren Expedition, and Waterloo). Battle
Honors: Talavera, Barrosa, Fuentes d'Onoro, Salamanca, Nive,
and Waterloo *
* - The defence of Hougoumont is
considered one
of the greatest achievements of the r e g i
m e n t
and an annual ceremony of "Hanging the
Brick"
is performed each year in the Sergeants'
Mess.
Picture: Model of Hougoumont from
- Adkin's "Waterloo Companion"
- The 3rd Regiment of Foot Guards "Scots Guards", can trace their
origins back to an army that was raised by Archibald 1st Marquess of
Argyll, in 1642. After the union of the two kingdoms, it became the third-
ranking regiment of foot guards. Battle Honors: Talavera, Barrosa, Fuentes
d'Onoro, Salamanca, Nive, and Waterloo.
In August 1812, the grenadiers of the 1st Foot Guards stormed and captured a bridge in
Seville.
The Foot Guards also fought
well at Talavera. They
counterattacked the French
infantry and pushed the
enemy back. But the French
(see picture) second line
intervened, routed the Guards
and inflicted 33 % casualties.
The Foot Guards "rapidly" fell
back.
One of our visitors from UK
wrote us, "at Talavera the Foot
Guards distinguished themselves when they fired a volley into the French, though the
Guards advanced after the enemy and in doing so became the target of French infantry and
guns who ripped into the Guards, causing hundreds of casualties. However, despite
suffering terribly, the Guards managed to reform and, along with several other infantry
battalions, commenced yet another fire to repulse a French attack ..."
In 1815 there were 7 battalions of Foot Guard, 4 of them were at Quatre Bras and Waterloo.
The four very strong battalions formed the elite 1st (Guard) Infantry Division under Major-
General George Cooke. This division consisted of 4,266 men and 12 guns.
1st (Guard) Infantry Division - Major-General George Cooke
- - - 1st Guard Brigade - Maj-Gen. Peregrine Maitland
- - - - - - - - - II Battalion/1st Foot Guards - Mjr. Askew (781 men)
- - - - - - - - - III Battalion/1st Foot Guards - Mjr. Steward (847 men)
- - - 2nd Guard Brigade - Maj.-Gen. Sir John Byng
- - - - - - - - - II Battalion/2nd Foot Guards - Mjr. Woodford (1.098 men)
- - - - - - - - - II Battalion/3rd Foot Guards - Mjr. Hepburn (1.100 men)
- - - Divisional Artillery - Lt-Col. Stephen Adye
- - - - - - - - - British foot battery (5 cannons, 1 howitzer) - Cpt. Sandham
- - - - - - - - - KGL horse battery (5 cannons, 1 howitzer) - Mjr. Khlmann
During the Waterloo Campaign in June 1815, Maitland's 1st Guard Brigade,
the crme de la crme of the infantry, suffered very heavy losses (over 60 % !)
At Quatre Bras the green-clad French horse chasseurs (see picture) caught
the brigade formed in line and in the open. The French charged from a
"concealed positions in a depresion near Pierrepont" and routed the British
Guard within a moment. [- Source: GdD Pire's letter to GdD Reille, June 25th
1815, in Arch. Serv. Hist.]
Approx. 500 guardsmen were killed and wounded, and the
remaining men high-tailed it back to the Bossu Wood.
Article:
The Waterloo Campaign and
the Battle of Quatre Bras, 1815
At Waterloo the 1st and 2nd Guard Brigade were involved in heavy fighting. Although they
bravely withstood every cavalry charge, many guardsmen lost their lives to artillery fire and
while defending Hougoumont.
Against cavalry the Foot Guards formed
themselves in squares. Generally square
was a formation wherein the center was occupied only by few men (commander, color-
bearer, wounded etc.) The squares were repeatedly attacked by heavy cavalry and
mercilessly pounded by artillery.
Ensign Gronow of the 1st Foot Guard writes, "Our squares presented a shocking sight. Inside
we were nearly suffocated by the smoke and smell from burnt cartridges. It was impossible
to move a yard without treading upon a wounded comrade, or upon the bodies of the dead;
and the load groans of the wounded and dying was most appaling. At 4 o'clock our square
was a perfect hospital, being full of dead, dying, and mutilated bodies." Wellington himself
took refuge in this square. He appeared very "thoughtful and pale."
In the very end of the battle, the exhausted British-German-Netherland cavalry took up
positions behind the infantry squares, to prevent the soldiers from being seized by panic and
running away. Their horses' muzzles almost touched the backs of the infantrymen in the
rearmost ranks. In the square formed by the British III/1st Foot Guards the sergeants were
standing behind the privates, levelling their pikes to compel them to remain in formation.
The Foot Guards held their ground to the very end. Not a single square was broken.
Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte were keys to Wellington's positions. Hougoumont was a
robust compound surrounded by walls, with stables, barns, and houses. There was a massive
gate on the south side, leading to an inner courtyard. The compound itself faced the Allies.
There was a garden, whose walls extended eastward for approx. 200 yards, and beyond it
was an orchard. It all, however, was known only to the Allied troops who were occupying
the farm, all the French could see from their positions were trees and few buildings.
"At Hougoumont, the struggle continued unabated. The British
Guards light companies, the Brunswickers and one of du Plat's KGL
battalions fought with two of Foy's regiments. ... A battery of French
howitzers lobbed shells into the buildings, setting them alight. The
chateau, the farmhouse, the stables and storehaouses all went up in
flames. The British fell back into the chapel and the gardener's house
from where they continued to fire on the French..." (Hofschroer - "1815
Waterloo Campaign - The German Victory" p 81)
For more info on the fight for Hougoumont read our article: Battle of
Waterloo 1815
Picture: British Foot Guards defending Hougoumont,
from Adkin's excellent "Waterloo Companion."
According to British researcher Mark Adkin, the myth that Hougoumont was defended
solely by the British Guards has arisen, not so much with serious students of the battle, but
through the more casual reader or visitor to the battlefield. Great emphasis is placed in many
accounts of the fight on the role played by the Guards. This misunderstanding is certainly
compounded, if not caused, by the numerous plaques commemorating the actions of the
Guards in Hougoumont. Five plaques are dedicated to the Guards and 2 to the French. There
is nothing to show others played an important role.
British Guards and German troops defending Hougoumont.
(On map: the first French attack on the chateau.)
For details and more maps see our article: Battle of Waterloo 1815
Conclusions.
The British Foot Guards were excellent troops. They were not the good-looking parade
outfits full of rose-cheeked young men who never smelled the gun powder. They
participated in several campaigns and fought hard at Talavera, Quatre Bras and Waterloo.
Their only weakness was their small numbers. The British and Prussian kings had relatively
small (royal) guards when comparing to the Russian and French Emperors' (imperial)
guards. Austria had no guard units.
Were the Foot Guards the best foot soldiers Britain ever had ? We don't know, you tell us.

The 1st Foot Guards drill (re-enactment group).
The black shakos, red jackets and white legwear look realy cool.

Changing of the Guards at Buckingham Palace in London 2007.
The men you will see in front of Buckingham Palace are not just ceremonial guards
but also serving soldiers. They also take an active role in protecting the Q u e e n .
At night they patrol the grounds of both Buckingham Palace and St. James's Palace.
The changing of the Guards is one of England's main tourist attractions.
.
King's German Legion.
"The Legion was known for its excellent discipline
and fighting ability." (- wikipedia.org 2010)
The King's German Legion was formed within months of the dissolution of the Electorate of
Hanover in 1803. Many Hanoverian officers and soldiers fled the French occupation of
Hanover to Great Britain; George III, now the former Elector of Hanover, was also George III,
King of the United Kingdom. It was then called the King'ss German Regiment and was under
the command of Colonel Van Der Decken and Lieutenant-Colonel Haklett.
One of the first expeditions undertaken by the KGL was in 1805 when it took part in what
was supposed to be the freeing of Hanover from French rule. British troops were then
ordered to return home, albeit with a large huge boost in the number of recruits for the KGL.
The next campaign for the legion was in 1806. Its light troops were sent to Ireland and came
against local militiamen. It was a bloody skirmish as the KGL withstood musketry from the
militia before charging in with bayonets. Then they jpined the British expedition against
Denmark. It was perhaps in the Peninsular War that the KGL achieved their greatest fame.
The Legion consisted of artillery, cavalry and infantry. KGL remained a part of the British
Army during the Napoleonic Wars and participated in the Walcheren Campaign, the
Peninsular War, and the Waterloo Campaign.
Light infantry Les Coquins Verts
("The Green Rascals")
- - - - - - I Light Battalion (Battle Honors: Venta del Pozo)
- - - - - - II Light Battalion (Battle Honors: Venta del Pozo)
Line infantry
- - - - - - I Line Battalion
- - - - - - II Line Battalion
- - - - - - III Line Battalion
- - - - - - IV Line Battalion
- - - - - - V Line Battalion
- - - - - - VI Line Battalion
- - - - - - VII Line Battalion
- - - - - - VIII Line Battalion
Uniform and equipment of KGL's line battalions was of standard British pattern of the time.
They wore red jackets, grey legwear, white leather belts and stovepipe shako (later Belgic
shako). Their weapons were the Brown Bess musket and bayonet. The distinction from
British line infantry units was that the standard pack was painted dark blue rather than
black.
The light infantry were armed with Baker rifles and dressed in green uniiforms.
The KGL infantrymen covered themselves with glory at Waterloo.
While the Foot Guards and German troops
defended Hougoumont, the farm of La
Haye Sainte (see picture) was defended by
the II KGL Light Battalion. This unit was
commanded by Major George Baring, a
seasoned officer, with at least 10 years
active duty.
The location of La Haye Sainte gave the
farm huge tactical importance to both,
Napoleon and the Allies. For Napoleon to
capture it meant he had secured a
springboard from which to launch a final
attack on Allies' center. The French
brought the garrison of La Haye Sainte to
the verge of isolation. There is some
evidence to suggest that Napoleon insited the farm must be taken at any cost.
Adkin writes, "Unlike Hougoumont, whose possesion was not critical to either side, La Haye
Sainte was vital to both. ... A garrison of 400 indicates that it is likely Wellington
underestimated its importance, at least initially. And whoever ordered Baring's pioneers and
tools to Hougoumont on the night of 17/18 June had not got his tactical thinking straight...
The bungled ammunition supply was another indication that the Anglo-Allied high
command only belatedly appreciated the significance of this outpost... Because Baring lacked
both tools and timber, the loopholes were few and there were no platforms built behind the
walls... This meant that shooting over the walls was often not possible, and seriously
restricted through them." (Mark Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion" pp 374, 376)
Major
Baring
writes,
"Some
[French] skirmishers commenced the attack. I made the men lie down, and forbade all firing
until the enemy were quite near. The first shot broke the bridle of my horse close to my hand,
and the second killed Major Bosewiel, who was standing near me. The enemy did not
skirmish for very long, but immediately advanced over the height, with two close columns,
one of which attacked the buildings, and the other threw itself en masse into the orchard,
showing the greatest contempt for our fire."
Around 1.30 PM the French tirailleurs (of Charlet's brigade) attacked and captured the
orchard. The German riflemen retired into the buildings. The musket and rifle fire was such
that soon the farm was surrounded and covered by white smoke. Bosewiel was killed. The
divisional commander, von Alten, ordered up the Luneberg Light Battalion under von
Klencke and 2 companies of I Light KGL (under von Gilsa and Marszalek) to counter-attack
so they might relieve the pressure on La Haye Sainte.
Baring and group of his soldiers went outside the farm and merged with the newcomers.
Suddenly from nowhere the French cuirassiers charged; instead of forming a square or
retiring into the barn, the infantrymen ran back towards the ridge whence they had come.
Von Klencke was killed, some of his men were slaughtered, others fled in panick towards
allies line. Only few managed to reach La Haye Sainte. The French tirailleurs followed the
riflemen, captured the small garden behind the farm and fired on those situated on the roof.
However after the repulse of d'Erlon's corps by British cavalry, the French abandoned La
Haye Sainte. Officer Graeme of KGL wrote, "A party of our men sallied out and pursued the
crowd [of retreating French infantrymen] a considerable way up towards La Belle Alliance."
Picture: KGL light infantry
defending La Haye Sainte.
Picture by Chris Collingwood. The
copyright belongs to Steve Stanton and
the Waterloo Collection. Proportion of
profits from the sale of these prints goes
to www.projecthougoumont.com
After the first attack on La Haye
Sainte approx. 300 (out of 400)
riflemen were still in the ranks.
General Ompteda sent to La
Haye Sainte reinforcements: 2
companies of I KGL Light
Battalion and 1 company of V
KGL Line Battalion. Major
Baring deployed his troops as follow:
- II Light Battalion defended the barn, piggery, and the house.
They wore green uniforms and were armed with rifles.
- 2 companies of I KGL Light Battalion defended the garden.
- 1 company of V KGL Line Battalion defended the stables.
They wore red uniforms, and were armed with muskets.
The orchard was unoccupied.
The second attack began at about 3 PM. Officer Graeme had his riflemen stationed on the
roof of the 'piggery' when they saw a single French cuirassier approaching at a trot along the
main road. When he got close, the cuirassier began waving his saber. The Germans thought
he was a deserter and Graeme ordered his men to hold their fire. The Frenchman rode up all
the way to the abatis that was blocking the road, raised himself in the stirrups as though
trying to see over it, then suddenly wheeled his big horse and galloped back. The riflemen
opened fire after him but the gallant cuirassier escaped their shots.
The French attack "followed in the
same force as before; namely, from
two sides by two close columns,
which, with the greatest rapidity,
nearly surrounded us, and ,
despising danger, fought with a
degree of courage which I had
never before witnessed in
Frenchmen ... [They threw]
themselves against the walls, and
endeavouring to wrest the arms
from the hands of my men
through the loopholes; many lives
were sacrificed to the defence of
the doors and gates; the most
obstinate contest was carried on where the gate was wanting [the barn] ... On this spot 17
Frenchmen already lay dead, and their bodies served as a protection to those who pressed
after them..."
- Major Baring
Using the pile of corpses as protection, the French tirailleurs kept firing into the farmyard
from behind it. Baring's horse was killed and his servant fled in panick.
A fight ensued around the loopholes of the farmyard.
The French grabbed the barrels of the German's rifles and tried to wrest them out of their
hands. When they gained control over one of the loopholes the French standing on the
outside the wall started firing into the yard, using the loaded muskets that his comrades
passed him, one after the other.
Private Lindau fired at French officer on horseback as he urged his men to attack. The
Frenchamn's horse was wounded and dragged down its master in the fall. The Germans ran
through the gate and attacked the French tirailleurs. Lindau was searching the pockets of
"his" officer when his comrades shouted to him: "Come on, leave that ! The cavalry's coming
!" All ran for the farm and quickly closed the gate. Groups of cuirassiers remained behind the
tirailleurs but their presence kept the riflemen locked inside the farm.
When several squadrons of British Guard cavalry charged, some of the French tirailleurs
crowded around the walls of the farm, while others fell back. The cuirassiers fell back too.
The German riflemen greeted the withdrawal of the enemy with howls of derision from the
walls and roofs of the farm. The British victory however was short lived, several squadrons
of cuirassiers counterattacked and the Guardsmen fled behind the ridge.
The tiny but stubborn garrison enraged the attackers.
After the gate was finally broken down "The wounded
Germans cried out in French Pardon ! begging for life
but they were bayoneted on the spot."
To read about the third French attack on La Haye Saite,
and how the enemy got inside the farm read our article:
Battle of Waterloo 1815
~
.
The Scots: Lowlanders and Highlanders.
"Tomkinson of the 16th Light Dragoons ... believed that Scottish troops were
the best in the army in situations calling for coolness, steadiness and
obedience to orders; he thought them less valuable in skirmishes ... ."
Scotland (Gaelic Alba) shares a border with England to the south.
The relations between the English and the Scots were often unfriendly. Oliver Cromwell
invaded Scotland in 1650, and defeated the Scottish army at Dunbar and Worcester. Scotland
was then occupied by an English force and incorporated into the Puritan-governed
Commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell even sold Scots into slavery. They were transported to
America, sold and were used to build up the wealth of English colonists.
In 1706 the Treaty of Union was agreed between representatives of the Scots Parliament and
the Parliament of England and the following year twin Acts of Union were passed by both
parliaments to create the united Kingdom of Great Britain.
In 1745 the Jacobite rising began.
Charles Stuart landed on the island of Eriskay and several clans joined him. At the outset he
was successful, taking Edinburgh and then defeating the government army at Prestonpans.
They marched into England and got as far as Derby. It became increasingly evident however
that England would not support a Roman Catholic Stuart monarch. The Jacobite leadership
had a crisis of confidence and retreated to Scotland. The Duke of Cumberland crushed the
uprising and the hopes of the Jacobites at the Battle of Culloden. Charles hid in Scotland with
the aid of Highlanders until 1746, when he escaped back to France. English authorities then
acted to destroy the Scottish clan system. All aspects of Highland culture incl. the language
were forbidden on pain of death. Highlanders were forced into the British army.
However, after Britain successfully fought the Seven Years' War (17561763) Scotland being
Britain's partner began to flourish in ways that she never had as an independent nation. As
the memory of the Jacobite rebellion faded away, the 1770s and 80s saw the repeal of much
of the draconian laws passed earlier. Economically, the city of Glasgow began to grow at a
tremendous rate at the end of the 18th century.

Battle of Culloden 1746: 7,000 Scots versus 8,000 English
Approx. 70 % of the Jacobite force was composed of the brave but poorly trained highland clansmen.
The remaining 30 % were lowlanders , and Irish and Scottish regular units in French service.
Of the English army's 16 battalions present, 11 were English, 4 Scottish and 1 was Irish.
The Royal Artillery vastly out-performed their Jacobite counterparts. The English army
suffered only 300 casualties, while the defeated Scots lost 2,000 killed, wounded and
prisoners. It was the last battle fought on British soil.
In Scotland there were two distinct societies. In the lowlands, the people were a mixture of
all the races that had invaded England and the Isles. Lowlanders spoke a version of English
and lived in a society based on the emerging mercantile economy.
The Highlanders on the other hand, were largely Celtic in ancestry with a sprinkling of
Viking and a few other races. The Highlanders spoke Gaelic, and lived in a largely feudal
society based on loyalty and power, not money. They were hardy men: "The limbs of the
Highlander are strong and sinewy, the frame hardy, and of great physical power, in
proportion to size. He endures cold, hunger, and fatigue with patience..." (Source:
www.electricscotland.com/history)
.
Regiments.
Picture: 6th Foot, 42nd Highland, 92nd Highland
and NCO of 87th Foot (Irish). Picture by Knotel.
Regiments in 1808:
- 1st Foot 'Royal Scots' (Lowlanders)
- 21st Foot (Lowlanders)
- 25th Foot (Lowlanders)
- 42nd Royal Highlanders 'Black Watch'
- 71st Highlanders (in 1809 became light infantry)
- 72nd Highlanders (after April 1809 incl. English
militia)
- 73rd Highlanders (after April 1809 incl. English
militia)
- 74th Highlanders (after April 1809 incl. English
militia)
- 75th Highlanders (after April 1809 incl. English
militia)
- 76th Highlanders
- 77th Highlanders
- 78th Highlanders
- 79th Cameron Highlanders
- 84th Highlanders
- 89th Gordon Highlanders
- 90th Highlanders
- 91st Highlanders
- 92nd Gordon Highlanders
- 93rd Highlanders
- 94th Highlanders (after April 1809 incl. English militia)
The 42nd Foot is the oldest and the most famous of regiments of Scotland. The regimental
motto is "No one attacks me with impunity." The first companies of the Black Watch were
raised in 1725 . The regiment's name, Black Watch, comes from the very dark tartan (a cloth
having a crisscross design, tartan that they wear). 'Black Watch' was originally just a
nickname for the 42nd (Royal Highland) but was used more and more so that in 1881 when
the 42nd amalgamated with the 73rd the new regiment was named 'The Black Watch (Royal
Highlanders). In World War One the kilted Highlanders were known as
The Ladies from Hell.
The regiment's first combat was at Fontenoy in 1745, where they surprised the French with
"their own way of fighting", each time they received the musket volley Colonel Munro
ordered his men to "clap to the ground" while he himself, because of his corpulence, stood
alone with the colours behind him. (This is very interesting tactics. I don't know why it did
not become popular with other regiments. Was it because mud/dust would spoil the
expensive uniforms ? Or was it because other regiments felt it very undignified to do it, like
a coward while under fire ? Did the rate of musket fire was affected in a negative way ? If
you have more information on this subject please share it with us.)
In 1758 at the first battle of Ticonderoga in Northern America, the regiment lost over half of
its men (!) in assault against the French positions. They were then sent to the West Indies
where they saw action at Havana. In 1763 the Black Watch fought at Bloody Run during
Pontiac's Rebellion. The regiment later defeated the Indians (Ottawas, Shawnees, Delawares)
at Bushy Run.
During the American Revolutionary War, the 42nd Foot was involved in the
defeat of George Washington at Long Island. At Alexandria in 1801 the 42nd
captured a standard from the French. The regiment participated in the
Peninsular War and Waterloo Campaign in 1815.
Picture: George Washington
.
Uniforms.
During the Napoleonic Wars the Scottish soldiers
recruited from the Lowlands wore uniform of English
line infantry, while the Highlanders (with the exception
of the 71st-75th regiments) wore kilts. At Waterloo,
however, only three regiments wore them; the 42nd, 79th
and 92nd. (Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion" in note on
the cover painting)
Picture: unique and striking uniform of the
Highlanders, by Dmitrii Zgonnik of Ukraine.
Picture (below): uniform of the 79th Cameron
Highlanders by a contemporary Portuguese artist.
In April 1809, an order was issued, stating
that as the population of the Highlands of Scotland was found to be insufficient
to supply soldiers for the whole of the Highland Corps, and as some of these
corps, by laying aside their distinguishing dress, which was objectionable to the
natives of south Britain, would induce the men of the English Militia to enter,
the 72nd, 73rd, 74th, 75th and 94th Foot (Highlanders) were ordered to
discontinue wearing the traditional dress for the future.
In addition to the above, the 91st Foot also discontinued it after 1809.
The 71st, on being made Light Infantry in 1809, substituted the tartan
trews for the kilt. (Source: www.btinternet.com/~james.mckay)
General Foy wrote, "The Highlanders wear their national kilt instead of small
clothes; this neither harmonizes with the rest of their dress nor is it convenient
for war ; but this is of little moment compared with the moral advantages
gained by adopting the national costume; a distinction which has its source in
popular feeling and custom, generally imposes the performance of additional
duty ..."
The privates of the 42nd Black Watch wore the hummel bonnet. It was of blue
cloth with black ostrich feathers on the left side, which were drooped over on
to the right side, giving the appearance of an all-feather bonnet. The headband consisted of 3
bands of red, white and green diced cloth. On the left side was a black cockade with a
regimental-pattern button into which was attached the white-over-red plume. The chinstraps
were of black leather.
.
In combat.
Mere mention of the name Highlanders is enough to
conjure up visions of bravery, valour, determination
and true Scottish grit.
The highlanders made extraordinary
defensive soldiers. "Tomkinson of
the 16th Light Dragoons, for
example, believed that Scottish
troops were the best in the army in
situations calling for coolness,
steadiness and obedience to orders;
he thought them less valuable in
skirmishes, or more generally, in any
kind of combat where quickness of
reaction was called for." Costello of
95th Rifles writes: "The 79th
Highlanders had suffered very
severely here, as the place was
strewn about with their bodies. Poor
fellows ! they had not been used to skirmishing, and instead of occupying the houses in the
neighborhood, and firing from the windows, they had, as I heard, exposed themselves, by
firing in sections." [fight near the banks of the River Dos Casas]
The Highlanders at Alexandria (Egypt) in 1801.
"The British repulsed the first shock but a French column penetrated in the dark between two
British regiments. A confused fight ensued in the ruins, in which the 42nd Black Watch
captured a colour. ... In a second attack the enemy's cavalry inflicted severe losses on the
42nd." (- wikipedia.org)
The Highlanders at Corunna in January 1809.
At noon on January 16 the French were in position and at 2 PM their principal battery
opened fire on Elvina. Major Napier rode across his front to the ridge of his regiment. He
noticed that each time a cannon shot whistled over their heads they all ducked. French
General Mermet took light infantry and opened the ball. The French surged forward and fell
on Bentinck's brigade. The British light infantry was quickly evicted from Elvina. The French
31st Light Regiment crashed straight into Elvina, drove out the British pickets, and continued
up the slopes of Monte Mero. Eight French battalions advanced up the slopes beyond the
village, while others wheeled to assail Bentinck's right.
After passing Elvina, the French 31st Light Regiment had split into two. The right hand
column, which had been marching up the slope against the 42nd Regiment, halted to deploy.
The British 50th Foot and 42nd Highland fired a volley and then rushed on with the bayonet.
There was a burst of ferocious shouting, a brief and savage struggle, and then the French
gave ground. They quickly recovered, however, and the Highlanders were held half-way
down the slope. The French rallied and turned on the pursuers, the 50th Foot, routing them
and inflicting "grevious casualties."
The redcoasts fled to their lines where Moore rallied them. The 42nd Highland was so hard
pressed that Moore brought up 2 Guard battalions to support the Scots. After more bitter
fighting the French finally fell back from the ridge to Elvina.
The balls flying without warning over William Napier's head so frightened him that for the
first time that day he felt tempted to turn his back and run for his life. He was stopped by a
weak but excited Irish voice. And then the man began to scream in pain and hysteria and
terror, and Napier infected by the man's fear became frightened again too. Behind him the
French were once more pouring down into Elvina and re-taking the village.
Napier had driven the French out of Elvina, and, although his regiment was broken now and
the 42nd Highland had also been badly mauled, the enemy having taken the village again
were moving up from it for the second time. "The struggle for Elvina was long and bitter,
and by 3:30 PM both the 42nd and the 50th Foot were spent forces, and Napier wounded
and a prisoner." (Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" p 109)
"The fighting in Elvina continued for some time,as dusk began to fall. Mermet fed in his
reserves, and although the reinforced British pushed forward some way, part of the village
appears to have remained in French hands until the fighting died down. (Haythornthwaite -
"Corunna 1809" p 82)
As soon as the two battalions of the Foot Guards arrived, Moore told his staff, he would send
one battalion down to attack a large house and garden on the outskirts of Elvina from which
a company of voltigeurs was maintaining a fierce fire on the 42nd Highland, who were
unable to reply to it because their ammunition was almost finished. The Highlanders, indeed,
kept looking over their shoulders for signs of relief; and when they saw the Guards marching
in their direction they decided to fall back. Moore checked the movement himself.
Immediately the Highlanders turned about again and went back to face the enemy.
The Highlanders at Quatre Bras (Belgium) in June 1815.
"Shortly after Merlen's Netherland light cavalry, General Picton's 5th British Infantry Division
came. It was one of the best division of the army. The British battalions were composed of
battle-hardened veterans of Peninsular War led by seasoned officers. The Cameron
Highlanders were under Lieutenant-Colonel Neil Douglas, the Royal Highlanders under
Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Robert Macara, and the Gordon Highlanders were under Lieutenant-
Colonel John Cameron of Fassifern. The divisional artillery was very good. It was
commanded by a German officer, Major Heinrich Heise, and consisted of one British and one
Hanoverian battery. Picton deployed his troops as follow, Kempt's and part of Pack's
brigades in the first line, and Best's Hannoverian brigade in the second. Hanoverian battery
was placed on the right, and British battery on the left. (...)
Meanwhile the 5th Belgian Light Dragoons fought with French 6th Chasseurs-a-Cheval
under Colonel Faudoas-Barbazan. After a brief hand-to-hand fight the Belgians fell back, but
the French did not pursue them. The Scots mistook the Belgians for French and fired.
Williams writes, "There then occured one of those tragic incidents of war in which men die in
error at the hands of friends. Seeing the Netherlands in blue (hussars) and green (light
dragoons) galloping wildly toward the crossroads and hearing them shouting in French, the
Scots of the 92nd and 42nd Highland along the Namur road mistook them for French and
were ordered to open fire on them. Many horses in particular were brought down, as they
presented the largest targets ... Pire's troopers, picking their way around Merlen's stricken
horse, came under fire on the left of the crossroads from Rogers' battery firing canister, and
withdrew, being unsupported by infantry or horse artillery. ... Merlen was left to reflect with
sadness on the losses his unit had suffered and with bitterness that more had been caused by
their 'Scotch' allies than by the French."
(....) Marshal Ney ordered Bachelu's division (8 battalions) and part of Foy's division (5-6
battalions) to advance. Five batteries were deployed between Gemioncourt and Pireaumont
in support. Against Ney's force Wellington deployed 7 British battalions 500 m south of
Quatre Bras, and 4 Hanoverian battalions on the Namur road. They were joined by the 95th
Rifles and Roger's battery. The British 28th of Foot was sent to support the Netherlands
troops in Gemioncourt.
The steady tramp of marching feet filled the air. The French
infantry cheered Marshal Ney, nicknamed "The Bravest of the
Brave", as they marched past him. The drummers, tediously
beating the rhythm of the march, broke into flurries when they
realized he was so close. The French crossed the brook and got
closer to the lines of British and German infantry. Then they
halted and the drummers stopped beating. The walls of muskets
on both sides snapped down and rattled. Smoke covered the field
and the troops. The redcoats and the Hanoverians then charged
with bayonets and Ney's infantry had enough and fell back.
Allies infantry was halted by French artillery fire and then was
thrown into confusion by cavalry charge. Fortunately they
managed to form squares. Peter Hofschroer writes, "... squares of
British infantry held off the French cavalry at first, but the square
of the 42nd was broken and the 44th was thrown into disorder, the colour of the 44th being
fought over."
Sergeant Anton of the 42nd Highland
wrote, "We were ready and in line ... and
forward we hastened though we saw no
enemy in front. The stalks of rye, like
reeds that grow on the margins of some
swamp, opposed our advance; the tops
were up to our bonnets, and we strode
and groped our way through as fast as
we could. By the time we reached a field
of clover on the other side we were very
much straggled; however, we united in
line as fast as time and our speedy advance would permit. The Belgic skirmishers retired
through our ranks, and in an instant we were on their victorious pursuers. ...
Marshal Ney ... observed our wild unguarded zeal, and ordered a regiment of lancers to bear
down upon us. We saw their approach at a distance, as they issued from a wood, and took
them for Brunswickers coming to cut up the flying [French] infantry ... they were
approaching our right flank, from which our skirmishers were extended, and we were far
from being in a formation fit to repel an attack ... no preparative movement to receive them
as enemies; further than the reloading of our muskets.
... a German [KGL] orderly dragoon galloped up, exclaiming 'Franchee ! Franchee !' and,
wheeling about, galloped off. We instantly formed a rallying square; no time for
particularity: every man's musket was loaded, and our enemies approached at full charge;
the feet of their horses seemed to tear up the ground. ... our brave Colonel [Sir Robert
Macara] fell at this time, pierced through the chin until the point reached his brain. Captain
Menzies fell covered with wounds. ... The grenadiers [of 42nd Highland], whom he
commanded, pressed round to save or avenge him, but fell beneath the enemies lances."
42nd Foot's Battle Honors in 1800-1815: Alexandria, Corunna, Waterloo.
(There was however no battle honor for Quatre Bras).
Death of Col. Macara, by Cpt. Jones
"... our brave Colonel [Sir Robert Macara] fell at this time ,
pierced through the chin until the point [of lance] reached
his brain . Captain Menzies fell covered with wounds . "
- Sergeant Anton of 42nd Highland
For more information read our articles:
French lancers.
Battle of Waterloo , June 1815
Waterloo Campaign and the battles of Quatre-Bras, Gilly, Charleroi
The 42nd Black Watch is a very popular regiment.
Website of the 42nd , Inc., of Lafayette, Indiana (USA)
Website of the 42nd, re-enactment association (Germany)
-
"... there are no troops in the British service
more steady in battle than the Scotch regiments."
- French General Foy

Waterloo bagpipes
.
The Irish.
"... that most astonishing infantry".
From before the arrival of Saint Patrick to the present day Ireland has had a history that
could never be called quiet. The Crown of England did not gain full control over Ireland until
the 16th and 17th centuries, when the whole island had been subjected to numerous military
campaigns in the period 15341691, and was colonised by English and Scottish Protestant
settlers. In 1798 the English repression of the Irish rebellion resulted in "30,000 victims in 3
1/2 month - a similar number to the Terror in France, but over a shorter period and from a
population barely 1/6 the size." [Source: William Doyle - "Oxford History of the French
Revolution." p.343]
The British army had always used Irishmen. In fact it is has been said "the British Empire was
won by the Irish, administered by the Scots and the profits went to the English". In recent
years the last line was amended to read "lost by the English." It was estimated that by 1860
some two thirds of the British Army incl. the English country regiments was constituted by
Irishmen or their descendants.
General Foy wrote, "The English, the Scotch, and the Irish are usually mixed together in the
regiments. Ireland supplies more soldiers, in proportion to its population, than the other two
kingdoms. It might be supposed that the general character which we have attributed to the
English troops would be altered by this mixture; but the English discipline is like the bed of
Procrustes to all who come within its sphere, -- the minds as well as the bodies of their
fellow-subjects obey their law as the ruling people."
During the Napoleonic Wars there were many Irish regiments:
- 18th Foot 'Royal Irish'
- 27th Foot 'Inniskilling'
- 83rd Foot
- 86th Foot
- 87th Foot
- 88th Foot 'Connaught Rangers'
- 89th Foot
- 99th Foot
- 100th Foot
- 101st Foot
- 103rd Foot
Picture:: Storming of Badajoz by
the
88th Foot, by Ch Collingwood.
The most Irish of all was the
88th Regiment of Foot. The 88th
was established in 1793.
Wellington himself later
described them as "that most
astonishing infantry".
According to Sir Oman the 88th
was "the most Irish of all Irish
regiments".
The 88th enjoyed a reputation
for plundering and hard
fighting. General Picton gave them the nickname of The Devil's Own.
At Bussaco 1810 the 88th Foot "saved the situation" by acting with great promptitude.
Wellington himself witnessed the action and shouted: "I never witnessed a more gallant
charge than that just now made by this regiment."
At the siege of Cuidad Rodrigo, 19th January 1812 General Picton gave this particular
address to the 88th: "It is not my intention to expend any powder this evening. We'll do this
business with the cold iron."
Costello watched the 88th Foot in combat, he writes, "The 88th Foot next deployed into line,
advancing all the time towards their opponents, who seemed to wait very coolly for them.
When they had approached to within 300 or 400 yards, the French poured in a volley or I
should say a running fire from right to left. As soon as the British regiment had recovered
the first shock, and closed their fles on the gap it had made, they commenced advancing at
double time until within 50 yards nearer to the enemy, when they halted and in turn gave a
running fire from their whole line, and without a moment's pause cheered and charged up
the hill against them. The French meanwhile were attempting to reload. But being hard
pressed by the Briish, who allowed them no time to give a second volley, came immediately
to the right about, making the best of their way to the village." (Costello - "The Peninsular and
Waterloo Campaigns" p 125)
In 1814 the 88th proceeded to Canada and in 1815 arrived too late to take part at Waterloo.
~
.
Light Infantry.
The British regulars were humiliated by American farmers and militia
fighting in lose order. The american experience made a profound impact
and resulted in tactical and organizational changes.
There have been 'light troops' in the British infantry since mid 1700s. However the turmning point
in the development of light infantry was the humiliation of the British line infantry by American
farmers, militia and Indians fighting in lose order. The american experience made a profound
impact and resulted in tactical and organizational changes in the British army. General Wolfe and
Lord Amherst (1717-97) realised there was a need for a new approach in the infantry. A small
corps of light troops, recruited from the settlers, was formed in 1755.
By the 1790s it was not unusual for generals to group the light companies together for specific
tasks. For example a composite (Guard) light infantry battalion existed from July 1794 to April
1795. It was combined from flank companies of all three Foot Guards regiments. This battalion
was re-formed for the raid on Ostend in 1798 and broken up in 1802. The next war with France
was to cause a further evolution of the light infantry under the leadership and training of John
Moore.
John Moore discarded the then existing disciplinary system, largely maintained through fear and
brutality which, in his view, also stifled individual initiative, and replaced it with a system based
more upon self-discipline, mutual respect and trust. Several regiments of light infantry were
formed. Furthermore, this force was strengthened with excellent German light troops (KGL and
Brunswick Oels)
What are the differences between line and light infantry ?
Line infantry formed the bulk of infantry in every army. Light infantry on
the other hand was represented by very few regiments. They formed the
advance guards and scouting parties and for this reason they saw more
fighting than others (with the exception of the hussars). Edward Costello
of 95th Rifles writes: "... we were greatly harassed, our picquets and the
French were constantly in the habit of firing at each other, and scarce a
day passed without some of the men being brought in, either killed or
wounded. (Costello - "The Peninsular and Waterloo Campaigns" p 28)
The light infantryman was more agile and light-footed than any other foot
soldier. The light infantry - if necessary - was transported on wagons or
horses (the Russians did it in 1812 and 1813 with their jagers). Costello
writes "... my company had been hurried forward by the cavalry, each dragoon mounting a
rifleman behind him on horse - a method of riding peculiarly galling to the infantry, but which we
frequently had to experience during the war. (- Costello p 50)
The light infantryman was probably more intelligent as well. No longer he was
a mindless robot in a lock-step formation, moving and firing only upon order.
Regiments of light infantry:
- I, II Light (King's German Legion) *
- 43rd Light
- 51st Light
- 52nd Light
- 60th Light (Royal Americans) **
- 68th Light
- 71st Light (Highlanders, Scots) ***
- 85th Light
- 95th Rifles
* - The Germans were armed with Baker rifles and dressed in green uniforms.
** - In 1756 a special Act of Parliament created 4 battalions to include foreigners for
service in the Americas. Swiss and German forest fighting experts, American
colonists and British volunteers from other British regiments were recruited. The
60th was a unit that was uniquely suited to warfare in the forests and lakes that
were the North American theatre of war. During the Napoleonic Wars the 5th
battalion was raised and equipped entirely with the Baker rifles, and wore green
jackets with red facings. The rifle battalion was soon supplemented with a 2nd, and
found themselves in the Peninsula with Wellington's army, serving along with the
95th Rifles, and the KGL rifle units.
*** - The Scots were armed with smoothbore muskets and dressed in red uniforms.
Picture: Scotish light infantry, 71st Foot
Despite the best efforts of General Moore, when it came to choosing a new uniform in which to
fight, conservativeness won the day. While the 95th Rifles were permitted to adopt the dark green
clothing and black leather equipment of the German light infantry in British service, the other
light regiments were ordered to wear the red jackets.
In 1803 the 43rd, 52nd and 95th Regiment of Foot formed Light Brigade at
Shorncliffe, Kent. The brigade became division (the Portuguese light infantry
Caadores were later added.)
Picture: Portuguese light infantry Caadores in 1811.
"The 1st and 3rd Cacadores Battalions were so well trained they
were combined with British battalions to form the brigades of
the famed Light Division." - Robert Burnham, napoleon-series.org
There were times when the Light Division consisted of 4-5 British
and 4 Portuguese battalions. See below.
In 1807, the Light Division was involved in the Second Battle of Copenhagen. In 1808 it sailed for
Spain, with General Moore. In early 1809 the Light Division was under the command of von Alten
and Robert Crauford. The men of the Light Division were good marchers, the 43rd, 52nd and 95th
started in full marching order, and arrived at the front on the day after the Battle of Talavera (July
1809) having covered 62 miles, in 26 hours.
Craufurd's operations on the Coa in 1810 were rash; the drawing of the French into what became
the Battle of Ca (1810), in particular was a rare lapse in judgement that almost saw his removal
from command. The Light Division was enlarged to a full division by the addition of one horse
battery, several squadrons of light dragoons and two regiments of Portuguese light infantry
Caadores. The Light Division fought at Busaco, Sabugal, Fuentes de Onoro, and siege of Ciudad
Rodrigo (where they stormed and took the Grand Teson redoubt but lost General Crauford).
At Salamanca the Light Division was under von Alten and was held in reserve. At Vitoria the
division was part of the right center column under Wellington's personal direction. During the
French withdrawal from Spain the Light Division was involved in the Battle of the Pyrenees (July
1813) and the Battle of the Bidassoa (October 1813),during which the toughest fighting of the day
occurred in center sector.
Colborne's brigade of Alten's Light Division attacked with cold steel. Not waiting for the attack,
the French infantry under General Clausel charged downhill and drove back the 95th Rifles. Then
the 52nd Light appeared and turned the tables.
The final battles took place at Nivelle and Toulouse (April 1814).
Light Division (Commanders: von Alten, Crauford, Erskine)
- - - 1st Brigade
- - - - - - - - - I Battalion / 43rd Light
- - - - - - - - - I Battalion / 95th Rifles
- - - - - - - - - III Battalion / 95th Rifles (half)
- - - - - - - - - Portuguese III Light Cacadores
- - - 2nd Brigade
- - - - - - - - - I Battalion / 52nd Light
- - - - - - - - - II Battalion / 95th Rifles
- - - - - - - - - Portuguese I Light Cacadores
- - - - - - - - - Portuguese 17th Line (two battalions)
- - - other troops
- - - - - - - - - part of 14th and 16th Light Dragoons
- - - - - - - - - horse battery
Thus the Light Division was composed of 4-6 light and 2-3 line battalions, few squadrons of light
cavalry, and few light guns. The Austrian light divisions (1st and 2nd) had similar strength and
organization in 1813-1814. Few light giuns, few squadrons of light cavalry, and mix of light and
line infantry. There were however two differences between the British and Austrian LDs. Firstly,
the Austrian LD (also called Advance Guard Division) consisted of only 1-3 battalions of light
infantry, while their British counterparts had 4-6 light battalions. Secondly, there were only few
rifles in the Austrian LD and still these were of poorer quality than Baker rifles.
Panic in the Light Division
"Here a very strange panic occurred, that might have been attended with most disastrous effects.
... when a general alarm and outcry was raised in the division that 'The French were upon us'.
In a moment I started up, and seized my rifle. The different regiments were assembling in the
greatest disorder, while the general cries of alarm on all sides induced many to feel a terror
that was, perhaps, never felt in battle. ... After a short while the panic ceased: we all looked
foolish enough at the great ado about nothing, though some attributed the cause to French
spies having got among us, others to some bullocks grazing by ..."
(Costello - "The Peninsular and Waterloo Campaigns" p 70)
.
The rifled regiments
The sharpshooters from the 60th Foot, the Royal Americans
(they were mostly Germans) were killing the French officers
in a fast rate.
Picture: British riflemen in 1813, by Knotel.
From left to right:
- officer of 95th Rifles
- private of 95th Rifles
- private of 60th Royal Americans
Small part of the British infantry was armed with rifles.
Already in the end of 1797 the British parliament authorised
the formation of a 5th battalion of the 60th Foot to be
recruited from German exiles familiar with the use of rifles.
The 95th Foot was formed due to the demonstrated
marksmanship of American militia during the American
War of Independence. The other rifled units were the I and
II Battalion of King's German Legion (The Green
Scoundrels).
At Waterloo in 1815 approx. 4.000 men of Wellington's
army were armed with rifles:
- - - - - Troops armed with British Baker rifles:
- - - - - - - - - - 2 light battalions and 3 light companies of King's German Legion.
- - - - - - - - - - 2 battalions and 2 companies of British 95th 'Rifles' Regiment.
- - - - - Troops armed with a type of hunting rifle
- - - - - and a variety of non-standard rifles:
- - - - - - - - - - 1 battalion of Brunswick Advance Guard .
- - - - - - - - - - 2 jager companies of Orange-Nassau infantry
- - - - - - - - - - 2 jager companies of 1st Hannoverian Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - 1 light company of Hannoverian Luneburg battalion
- - - - - - - - - - 1 light company of Hannoverian Grubenhagen battalion
Many of these men were expert marksmen. During the dramatic retreat to Corunna rifleman
Plunket shot the French Gnral Colbert at a range of between 200 and 500 metres. Plunket had
run forward to make this shot, and before returning to his own lines he reloaded, and shot a
trumpet-major who had rushed to the aid of the fallen general.
In September 1813 Marshal Soult, wrote to the Minister of War that sharpshooters
from the British 60th Foot (Royal Americans, they were mostly Germans) were killing
the French officers in a fast rate: "the losses of officers are so out of proportion with
the losses in soldiers".
He asked the Minister of War to form a similar force in the French army: "The
English army has a special battalion of the 60th Regiment ... It is armed with rifles
and the men are chosen among the best marksmen in the army ... and their assigned
task in battle is to shoot down our officers, particularly the commanders and generals. ... This style
of making war puts us at a severe disadvantage."
.
Picture: baby-faced captain of 95th Rifles.
His uniform resembles the expensive (and
beautiful) uniforms of the flamboyant hussars.
The uniform worn by privates was less showy.
The 95th 'Rifles' earned the nickname "The Grasshoppers" for their dark
green uniforms and agility. "As part of the famous Light Division they
had been Wellington's eyes and ears, scouting and screening ahead of
every advance and covering every retreat. ... they usually fought
dispersed, they carried no Colors, and reacted to whistle blasts or bugle
calls rather than the beating of drums." (Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion"
pp 178-179)
The 95th Foot was formed due to the demonstrated marksmanship of
American militia during the American War of Independence. After a
period of intensive training of soldiers drawn from many different
infantry regiments the new riflemen were ready for action.
Their first combat was in August 1800.
It was a failed amphibious assault on Ferrol in Spain.
The regiment participated in the battle of Copenhagen,
and have suffered many casualties.
In 1806 the Rifles participated in the attack on the city of Buenos Aires (today Argentine),
and suffered "a very severe loss in both officers and men."
The Rifles "suffered severely" also during Moore's dramatic retreat to Corunna. Edward
Costello writes: "The Rifle regiment, it is well known, had distinguished itself, and had suffered
severely, especially in the retreat to Corunna under the gallant Moore. From thence, they had
embarked for England, where, on their landing they presented a most deplorable sight. The
appearance of the men was squalid and miserable in the extreme." (Costello - "The Peninsular and
Waterloo Campaigns" p 5)
During the Peninsular war the 95th Rifles distinguished themselves in several battles, incl. San
Marcial and Salamanca.
In the end of August 1813 a violent thunderstorm struck the area of Bidassoa, Irun, Vera, and
San Marcial bringing torrents of rain. By the time French General Clausel's rearguard reached the
fords over the Bidassoa, there were six feet of water over them. The rearguard commander,
General Vandermaesen, led 9,000 men upstream to Vera. The 50-yard (46 m) long bridge at Vera
would only admit a column 3 or 4 men wide. A 70-man company of 95th Rifles under Captain
Cadoux (French royalist ?) held the village with two sentries posted at the bridge. On September
1, the French successfully rushed the bridge, but could go no farther.
In the heavy rain, the muskets of the French would not fire so they had
to resort to the bayonet. Meanwhile, the British riflemen were secure
with dry gunpowder in loopholed buildings. Over and over, the French
tried to rush the buildings at the end of the bridge, but they were mowed
down by rifle fire. Cadoux sent for assistance from a brigade of the Light
Division that was camped a mile away. Incredibly, General Skerret
refused to send help. Instead, he ordered Cadoux to withdraw. The
captain refused to obey and held his post against repeated attacks. At
length, Skerret repeated his order to withdraw. Cadoux, who had only
lost his two sentries, reluctantly prepared to obey.
However, it was now dawn.
The rain had stopped and the gunpowder of the French was now dry. As
the green-jackets abandoned the buildings, the French opened a terrific
fire. Cadoux and 16 of his men were killed, while all the surviving
officers and 43 rank and file fell wounded.
At Quatre Bras in 1815, the 95th Rifles were unable to retake the
village defended by Bachelu's infantrymen. Prince of Orange sent several companies of Dutch 27th
Jagers to assist the British, but language proved a barrier to useful co-operation. Sir Andrew tried
to encourage the Dutch to march forward in line with his men, but the Dutch tried to explain that
the French are in too great numbers to attack frontally. The French were in tall crop and unseen to
Sir Andrew's men. Sir Andrew insisted and his riflemen went forward unaccompanied, only to be
repulsed at once by a massive volley.
The Rifles also fought at Waterloo. For more info read our article "Battle of Waterloo 1815".
On line and light infantry.
- the light infantrymen were expected being able to march longer and
faster than their line counterparts.
The British troops (with the exception of Light Division) had reputation of being slow.
French General Thiebault writes that the scattered state of the French army in Spain
rendered its situation desperate, and that the slowness of Sir Arthur Wellesley saved it
several times.
In the beginning of the 1815-Campaign the Prussians got 3/4 of their men to the right
place at the right time, Wellington only miserable 1/3 of his total forces. Prussian officer
Mffling asked Wellington why the British advance so slowly and Wellington explained:
"Do not press me on this, for I tell you, it cannot be done. If you knew the composition of
the British Army and its habits better, then you would not talk to me about that. I cannot
leave my tents and supplies behind. I have to keep my men together in their camp and
supply them well to keep order and discipline."
In the end of the battle of Waterloo, Wellington and Blucher decided together that the
exhausted condition of Wellington's infantry, but Blucher's were surely no less tired. More
likely the choice reflected the plodding management and slowness of movement that
characterized British troops. ( A Barbero - "The Battle")
John Mills of British Coldstream Guards wrote: "Their (French) movements compared with
ours are as mail coaches to dung carts. In all weathers and at all times the French are
accustomed to march, when our men would fall sick by hundreds ..."
The Spaniards (generals and guerillas) reproached the British for the tardiness of their
marches.
However I'm sure that the Light Division could easily outmarch any British division and
even many French and Spanish troops as well. It was indeed a light unit, not bothered
with many guns and long trains. In summer 1812 the LD started in full marching order,
and arrived at the front on the day after the Battle of Talavera having covered 62 miles in
26 hours. The LD reminds me the fast moving Austrian light division in winter of 1814.
- the light infantrymen were expected being able to manoeuver (on
the battlefield) more rapidly than line infantry
- greater accuracy of musket fire.
In this aspect the British light infantry probably could outperform not only the British line
units but also most of European troops. There were lead allowance for yearly exercises in
life fire training.
- - - - - - British riflemen: 60 rounds and 60 blanks per man
- - - - - - British light infantry: 50 rounds and 60 blanks
- - - - - - Prussian jgers and riflemen: 60 "practice rounds" per man (in 1811-1812)
- - - - - - French infantry: 40 rounds "for target practice" but only "in several regiments"
(1815)
- - - - - - Prussian light infantry (fusiliers): 30 "practice rounds" per man (in 1811-1812)
- - - - - - British line infantry: 30 rounds
- - - - - - Austrian line infantry: 10 rounds (in 1809, Wagram Campaign)
- - - - - - Austrian line infantry: 6 rounds (in 1805 Austerlitz Campaign)
- - - - - - Russian infantry: 6 rounds or less
- - - - - - French recruits: 2 rounds (in 1813 and 1814 ?)
Britain was the wealthiest country in the world with relatively small field army. Excellent
state of coffers enabled the British goverment to finance training of the troops to a level the
larger and poorer European armies were unable to reach. Such were the shortages of
ammunition in Russia that some line battalions were trained to fire with clay bullets.
(source: - Alexander Zhmodikov, Russia) However don't jump into conclusion that most of
the troops were very poor shooters. Training is one thing and war is another. During just
one battle the raw recruits could fire 10, 60 or even more rounds. Give them more time
and they will become veterans and much better shooters.
- expert skirmishing.
--- A Royal Scots officer wrote after Waterloo that generally the French skirmishers were
better trained, and on the whole much more effective in this type of fighting than the
British skirmishers. (Barbero - "The Battle" p 255)
--- "Tomkinson of the (British) 16th Light Dragoons, for example, believed that Scottish
troops were the best in the army in situations calling for coolness, steadiness and obedience
to orders; he thought them less valuable in skirmishes, or more generally, in any kind of
combat where quickness of reaction was called for."
--- Costello of 95th Rifles writes: "The 79th Highlanders had suffered very severely here, as
the place was strewn about with their bodies. Poor fellows ! they had not been used to
skirmishing, and instead of occupying the houses in the neighborhood, and firing from the
windows, they had, as I heard, exposed themselves, by firing in sections." [combat near the
banks of the River Dos Casas]
--- Moyle Sherer of the British 34th Foot wrote on the British skirmishers: "Not a
soul.was in the village, but a wood a few hundred yards to its left, and the ravines above
it, were filled with French light infantry. I, with my company, was soon engaged in smart
skirmishing among the ravines, and lost about 11 men, killed and wounded, out of 38.
The English do not skirmish so well as the Germans or the French; and it is really hard
work to make them preserve their proper extended order, cover themselves, and not throw
away their fire; and in the performance of this duty, an officer is, I think, far more exposed
that in line fighting." (Rory Muir- "Tactics and the Experience of Battle in the Age of
Napoleon")
NOTE:
The quotes above mention the British infantry in general rather than the Light Division.
I assume that the men of the Light Division were superior skirmishers. If you have more
info on this subject please share it with us.
Some French commanders, for example Gen Foy and Marshal Soult, had a high opinion
about the British rifled regiments (60th and 95th). However, the skirmishers from other
British regiments were held in low regard.
Foy wrote, "Several regiments of the line, such as the 43rd, the 51st, the 52nd, etc., are
called light infantry regiments. These corps, as well as the light companies of the battalions,
have nothing light about them but the name; for they are armed and with some slight
change in the decorations, clothed like the rest of the infantry. It was considered that the
English soldier did not possess sufficient intelligence and address to combine with the
regular duty of the line the service of inspiration of the sharp-shooter. When the necessity
of a specialist light infantry began to be felt, the best marksmen of different corps were at
first selected; but it was afterwards found expedient to devote exclusively to the office of
sharp-shooters the eight battalions of the 60th and the three 95th, and some of the foreign
corps." (Not all battalions of the 60th were armed with rifles.)
-------------------------------------------------------
Light infantry in action. Flank attack.
At Waterloo, Sir John Colborne brought the
52nd Foot round to outflank the advancing
French Middle Guard as they passed his
brigade. The 52nd fired a volley into the left
flank of the Chasseurs and attacked.
The I Battalion of the 52nd with 1,130 muskets
was the strongest battalion on the battlefield. In
contrast the average battalion of Middle Guard
had only 450-550 muskets. Outmaneuvered, outshot, and heavily
outnumbered the chasseurs were driven back down the slope. Soon
however the 52nd was put into a disorder by 23rd Light Dragoons. The
52nd Foot mistook the dragoons for enemy and fired. There was chaos
among the allied troops for a while. The 52nd Foot then resumed the
pursuit but without the previous vigor.
At Borodino, in 1812, the Russian 1st Jagers (light infantry) also attacked the enemy from
the flank. Petrov of the 1st Jagers wrote: "... Colonel Karpenko then deployed my I
Battalion from column into line and brought up Mjr Sibirtsev's III Battalion [formed] in
column of attack at a distance of 15 paces from the rear rank of my battalion. The mound,
or more accurately, the narrow oblong ridge, ... lays with its top at the distance of a pistol
shot from the right end of the upper bridge and at [a distance of a] musket [shot] from the
lower pontoon one, in front of which the enemy troops stood, having just crossed [the
river].
Col. Karpenko with my battalion ... having run up at the mound, fired an aimed volley at
the enemy with the whole line while smoke from the volley was still curling in the face of
the enemy and their men, stricken and bewildered by the volley of my battalion, were in
confusion, our jagers ... charged with the bayonet. ... At the same time, our III Battalion ...
being half-wheeled to the right, rushed from behind of mine [battalion] to the lower
pontoon bridge, which was 40 paces from the upper one and, also after a volley by the
front company, charged with the bayonet ..."
The flank attack was one of the most powerful forms of attack. Even a small troop was
able to rout a large force. During Suvorovs campaign in Italy an Austrian grenadier
battalion (600 men) deployed into line and marched on the advancing French. They then
stopped and fired volleys into the flank of the French columns (approx. 2,000 men of the
5th Light Infantry). Since the French did not break, they took the cold steel to them. The
French then broke immediately and retreated, with the grenadiers following them still in
line. Souvarov was so impressed that he decorated the captain in command with the Maria
Theresa Order on the spot.
~
.
Miscellaneous.
The troops under Wellington were one of the best Britain ever had. Wellington's victories in
Peninsula brought a measure of prestige to the British army, and increased reputation in the
eyes of Europeans. The British troops however were not super-humans, they - for example -
were not immune to deserterion, incl. even the most prestigious units. In 1813 for example,
there were 1,336 men serving in the Royal Scots and almost 10 % of them deserted.
This is estimated that 1/9 of those called into the Army of the Reserve and 1/5 of those
enlisted deserted. One return stated that during 1807-1809 the army suffered a high figure of
17,237 deserters. Mind you, the British soldiers (and the Swiss too) were mostly volunteers,
not conscripts, like the French.
English deserters :
(source: Charles Dupin)
1805 - 6.497
1806 - 4.466
1807 - 5.021
1808 - 5.059
1809 - 4.186
1810 - 3.994
1811 - 4.060
1812 - 4.353
1813 - 5.822
1814 - 8.857
To the English deserters (given above) can be added those from the
foreign troops serving in the British army, increasing the total number.
Sometimes the Spanish guerillas caught the deserters from British units and brought them
back.
Costello wrote, "At the time I speak of we had a man in our regiment [95th Rfles] of the
name of Stratton, who, after robbing several of his comrades of trifling articles, took it into
his head to desert to the enemy, and was detected in the act, in a wood that leads from
Rodrigo to Salamanca, by the vigilant Guerillas, and brought back prisoner to our
cantonments. He was tried by a regimental court-martial, and sentenced to receive 400
lashes." (- Costello p 118)
Edward Costello descibed what happened to deserters from the superb Light Division.
"I now have to relate one of those melancholy incidents peculiar to a soldier's life, that
occurred while we remained at El Bodon. On taking Rodrigo we had captured, among others,
10 men who had deserted from our (Light) Division. These were condemned to be shot.
The place of execution was on a plain near Ituera, where our division was drawn up, forming
three sides of a square; the culprits, as usual, being placed in front of a trench, dug for a
grave, on the vacant side. Two of the deserters, the one man of the same company as myslef
[of 95th Rifles], named Hudson ... had been persuaded into the rash step, were pardoned on
the ground. The other, a corporal, named Cummins, of the 52nd (Light) Regiment, and who
had been mainly instrumental, I believe, in getting the others to desert with him, was placed
on the fatal ground in a wounded state. ... This man was pardoned also. Why he was
pardoned I cannot say. ...
A large trench had been dug as a grave for the wretched men who were to suffer. Along the
summit of the little heap of mould that had been thrown up from the pit, the deserters were
placed in a row, with their eyes bandaged ...
Some of the poor fellows, from debility, were unable to kneel, and lay at their length, or
crouched up into an attitude of despair, upon the loose earth.
The signal to the firing party was given by a motion of the provost's cane, when the culprits
were all hurried together into eternity, with the exception of one man of the 52nd Foot, who
strange to say, remained standing and untouched. His countenance, that before had been
deadly pale, now exhibited a bright flush. Perhaps he might have imagined himself
pardoned; if so however, he was doomed to be miserably deceived, as the following minute
two men of the reserve came up and fired their pieces into his bosom, when giving a loud
scream, that had a very horrible effect upon those near, he sprang forward into his grave."
(Costello - "The Peninsular and Waterloo Campaigns" p 86)
The French captured several colors of Wellington's infantry.
In Spain the King's Color of II/48th Regiment of Foot was
captured by French NCO Dion d'Aumont from the 10th
Hussar Regiment. The regimental color of the 48th
Northamptonshire was also claimed by the French. The
II/66th Foot Regiment lost 2 Colors captured by the French.
At Talavera NCO Legout-Duplesis of 5th Dragoon Regiment
took 4 British colors.
One British color was captured by the French at Almeida.
At Albuera Polish ulans and French hussars captured 6 British
colors.
At Salamanca French Ltn. Gullinat of the 118th Line Regiment
captured British color.
In 1814 the French took 4 British Colors at Bergen op Zoom. These were from the I/4th Foot
Kings Own and the II/69th South Lincolnshire.
American historian John Elting writes: "Amazingly, at Waterloo the French had lost only 2
eagles, and those early in the battle to English cavalry." By contrast, they had taken either 4
or 6 colors - the number naturally is much disputed - from Wellington's army."
There are known at least names of three troopers who captured these Colors:
- one seized by Marechal de Logis Gauthier (Gautier) of the 10th Cuirassier Regiment
- one by Fourier Palau of the 9th Cuirassier Regiment
- one by unknown cuirassier of the 8th Cuirassier Regiment
[He captured the Color of the British 69th Regiment of Foot,
GdD Kellermann to MdE Davout, 24th June 1815, Arch.Serv.Hist.]
"The 69th (Foot) at once ordered its regimental tailors to make up a new flag,
and denied any loss. Unfortunately, Napoleon had already announced the capture."
(Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" p 352)
General Delort mentions an English Color captured by an NCO of the 9th Cuirassier
Regiment and by Capitaine Klein de Kleinenberg from the Chasseurs of the Guard [he
captured one Color of the KGL, GdD Leefebvre-Desnouettes to Drouot, 23rd June 1815, Arch.
Serv.Hist.]
During battle the captured colors were brought to and deposited in the farm of Le Caillou,
farmhouse Napoleon had been using for his headquarters. Unfortunately during the retreat
after battle the trophies were left there.
For info about French deserters click here,
for captured French infantry colors here.
For the Russian infantry click here.
Sources and Links.
Rory Muir - "Salamanca, 1812"
Haythorntwaite - "Wellington's Infantry (1)"
Hofschroer - "Wellington and His German Allies"
Chartrand - "British Army in North America 1793-1815"
Brent Nosworthy - "With Musket, Cannon, and Sword."
Steve Brown - "British Regiments and the Men Who Led Them 1793-1815"
British Cavalry : Guards : Dragoons : Hussars : Uniforms : Organization
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/British_cavalry.htm[2012-05-21 12:42:22]
British Cavalry of the Napoleonic Wars
At Sahagun in 1808 the 10th and 15th Light Dragoons (Hussars)
defeated French 1st Provisional Chasseurs and 8th Dragoons.
The 15th Hussars were awarded "Sahagun" as a Battle Honour.
"Our cavalry officers have acquired the trick of galloping at everything
and then galloping back as fast as they gallop at the enemy."
- Wellington
" I considered our cavalry so inferior to the French
from the want of order , that although I considered
one squadron a match for two French,
I didn't like to see 4 British opposed to 4 French :
and as the numbers increased and order, of course,
became more necessary I was the more unwilling to
risk our men without having a superiority in numbers."
- Wellington
Introduction.
Le Marchant.
Weapons.
Broadswords, sabers,
carbines, rifles and pistols.
Horses.
"England had always good cavalry horses
and the financial means to obtain more
of them wherever they might be found."
Uniforms.
Organization.
Troops, squadrons
regiments and brigades.
Tactics and Combat
"Maneuvering or charging in good order
with several brigades was beyond their
capabilities."
- - - Household Cavalry - - - King's German Legion
- - - - Dragoons - - - - Light Dragoons - - - - Hussars
.
.
Introduction: British Cavalry.
"... testimony of impartial writers of different nations have given
the first place amongst the European infantry to the British;
but in a comparison between the troops of France and England,
it would be unjust not to admit that the cavalry of the former
stands higher in the estimation of the world."
(William Napier - Vol II, p 367)
Cavalry had the advantage of mobility, an instrument which multiplied the
fighting value of even the smallest forces, allowing them to outflank and avoid,
to surprise and overpower, to retreat and escape according to the requirements of
the moment. Cavalry remained the primary choice for confronting enemy
cavalry. Attacking an unbroken infantry force head-on usually resulted in failure,
but the extended linear formations were vulnerable to flank or rear attacks.
Cavalry was an indispensable tool for scouting, screening the army's movements,
and harassing the enemy's supply lines
Picture: British light dragoon in 1800.
Picture by G.D. Rowlandson.
British cavalry consisted of light and heavy dragoons.
Between 1806 and 1862 several light dragoon regiments
converted to "hussars", a Hungarian style popularized
by the French. Between 1816 and 1822 several regiments
of light dragoons were converted to "lancers", a Polish
innovation that had been previously copied by the French, Russians, Prussians,
and Austrians.
The uniforms of British cavalry made great impression on many onlookers and
their horses were one of the best in Europe. Their sabers and firearms were well
made, and the men were brave and good sworsdmen. The weakest point of
British cavalry however were their tactics and discipline in real combat. "The
heaviest English cavalry is far from possessing the uniformity and the firm seat
of the French and Austrian cuirassiers; and their light-horse is still more inferior
in intelligence and activity to the Hungarian hussar and the Cossack. They have
no idea of the artifices of partisan warfare, and they know little how to charge en
masse. When the fray commences, you see them equally vulnerable and
offensive, cutting instead of thrusting, and chopping with more fury than effect at
the faces of their enemies..." ( - General Foy)
William Napier wrote: "... testimony of impartial
writers of different nations have given the first place
amongst the European infantry to the British; but in a
comparison between the troops of France and England,
it would be unjust not to admit that the cavalry of the
former stands higher in the estimation of the world."
(Napier - Vol II, p 367)
Despite the criticism the British cavalry enjoyed several
victories against French cavalry, especially on the
smaller tactical level (Sahagun, Benavente). If not the
best in small warfare they were quite efficient against enemy's infantry (Garcia
Hernandez, Salamanca, Waterloo).
~
.
John Gaspard Le Marchant (1766 1812).
"He was impressed by the Austrian cavalry who were operating alongside the
British,
and was particularly struck by the disparaging remark of an Austrian officer who
thought that the British swordsmanship was "entertaining" but reminded him of a
"farmer chopping wood."
"On his return to Britain Le Marchant exerted himself to improve
the equipment and combat training of the British cavalry."
Le Marchant served as a senior officer during the disastrous Low Countries
campaign of 1793-95. He was impressed by the Austrian cavalry who were
operating alongside the British. He wrote that the Austrian cavalrymen "were as
superior to us as we were to the trained-bands in the city." Le Marchant was
particularly struck by the disparaging remark of an Austrian officer who thought
that the British swordsmanship was "entertaining" but reminded him of a "farmer
chopping wood."
On his return to Britain Le Marchant exerted himself to improve the equipment
and combat training of the British cavalry. "In 1795-6 he designed, in
collaboration with the Birmingham sword cutler Henry Osborn, a new cavalry
sabre, which was adopted for the light cavalry. In 1796 his treatise of instruction
in mounted swordsmanship was adopted by the army as part of its official
regulations (The Rules and Regulations of the Sword Exercise of the Cavalry). ...
With the exception of the specialist instruction school for artillery officers at
Woolwich no institution for the education of military officers existed in Britain. In
1801, after overcoming considerable opposition on the grounds of cost, Le
Marchant's scheme for establishing at High Wycombe and Great Marlow schools
for the military instruction of officers was sanctioned by Parliament ....
Having been promoted to major-general Le Marchant was given the command of
a brigade of heavy cavalry in 1811, and distinguished himself in several actions.
In the cavalry clash at Villagarcia, 11 April 1812, Le Marchant led the 5th
Dragoon Guards in a perfectly timed flank charge, in echelon of squadrons,
which defeated two strong columns of French cavalry under General Charles
Lallemand. The French had been attacking British light cavalry under Sir
Stapleton Cotton, who were being forced to give ground.
He gained his greatest success as a cavalry commander at the Battle of Salamanca
on 22 July 1812, where he was killed. ... Le Marchant was liked and admired by
many in his profession, soldier and officer alike. ... He wrote several treatises
on cavalry tactics and other military subjects, but few of them were published." (-
wikipedia.org 2010

Skill at arms with the British 15th Hussars
(Re-enactment Unit)
John Gaspard Le Marchant (1766 1812)
At Salamanca in 1 8 1 2 Le Marchant led a successful cavalry charge against French infantry.
Unfortunately he was shot and his spine broken. Wellington's despatch after the battle stated:
"In this charge Major-General Le Marchant was killed at the head of his brigade, and I have to
lament the loss of a most able officer."
~
.
Weapons.
Sabers, carbines, and pistols.
British cavalry used several weapons: broadsword, curved saber, carbine, rifle,
and pistol.
The weapons were of good quality and well made. Large quantities of sabers
were also sent to Britain's ally, Prussia.
According to M. Read the British saber 1796-Model for light cavalry was
designed by Le Marchant. He was a strong advocate of the cut in cavalry combat.
This saber had a broad blade with a pronounced curve, with a single broad but
shallow fuller. Despite the sword's obvious unsuitability for use in the thrust
some attempts were made to increase its efficiency in this regard. The back of the
blade, for the distance between the termination of the fuller and the tip, was
sometimes ground down to increase the acuteness of the point. (Martin Read -
"The British 1796 Pattern Light Cavalry Sword")
Photo: British heavy cavalry
sabre and scabbard.
Military Heritage >
The broadsword used by the
British (and Austrian) heavy cavalry and was a straight, single edged weapon. It
was somehow old-fashioned weapon and was withdrawn from the Russian
cavalry in 1809-1810, and from the Austrian chevaulegeres in 1802. The British
and Austrian heavies however kept this weapon.
The sabers of British heavy cavalry were described as "lumbering, clumsy, ill-
contrived machine. It is too heavy, too short, and too broad." Waymouth of 2nd
Life Guards also complained at the way of wielding the saber, with the elbow
bent and the point upraised. It was a "very bad position whilst charging, the
French carrying theirs in a manner much less fatiguing, and also much better for
attack of defence."
According to Martin Read the British 1796 pattern heavy cavalry saber was a
direct copy of the sword of the Austrian heavy cavalry dating to 1775. Due to the
saber's width this type of point was a very poor at piercing heavy clothing or
rolled cloaks, making a thrust a largely unprofitable exercise. Before Waterloo the
men were ordered to 'grind the backs of their swords' to make the tip into the
more effective point.
However, the broadsword was able to cut deeper than the more narrow straight
saber used by the French heavy cavalry and was more effective when it came to
parry the blows.
Most saber blows were directed against opponent's
head, right forearm and right hand. And not the torso.
For this reason these areas required extra protection.
- sabre's metal garde protected the hand
- longer gloves worn by the heavy cavalry were made
of hardened leather and protected part of the forearm.
(French cuirassiers' gloves consisted of 2 parts: soft and
hard.
The hand part was soft for flexibility, while the forearm
part
was made of hard leather)
- helmet protected the head
(Before the helmets were introduced for the Austrian
cuirassiers
they wore protective iron crosses inside their tricorn
hats.)
The light cavalry used their curved sabers mostly for slashing, while the heavy
cavalry used their broadswords mostly for cuting. Thrust was prefered when the
adversary was awkward or slow in delivering his attack, otherwise the cut was
more instinctive blow and the men tended to cut even if their sabers were more
suited to the thrust. The cut however often failed from the blade turning enough
to make the blow one with the flat.
Slash was very common in small war where would be a lot of one-on-one fights
and circling as the horses had much space. The slash was most effective and
easiest against opponent to your right side and therefore the men took their time
continually circling until they saw an opportunity. Slash required less physical
force than cut.
The cuts were delivered either diagonally or horizontaly and were aimed at the
ear, face, head and forehand of the adversary. The cuts and slashes made often
horrible wounds but they were not as deadly as the thrusts. Although historical
accounts tell about cavalrymen taking numerous minor punctures and surviving,
generally the thrust was more deadly than cut and slash. The thrust made a
narrow wound but it was deep and damaging not only the surface and bones but
also to the most vital organs (causing internal bleeding, infections etc.) A captain
of British heavy dragoons wrote about the French using the thrust "It is worthy of
remark that scarcely one Frenchman died of his wounds, although dreadfully
chopped, whereas 12 English Dragoons were killed on the spot and others
dangerously wounded by thrusts." (In 1807 at Heilsberg Colonel Chipault of the
4th Cuirassiers had received 56 sabre cuts and recovered perfectly.)
Only rarely enemy's head was taken off with a clean cut or slash but it made a life
lasting impression. Authors would devote entire page to describe such single
slash or cut. "I saw him (Wilson) engaged hand to hand with a French dragoon: I
saw him - for I was by this time disabled by a severe wound, and stretched at
length beside others of my suffering comrades - give and receive more than one
pass, with equal skill and courage. Just then, a French officer stooping over the
body of one of his wounded countrymen, who dropped at the instant on his
horse's neck, delivered a thrust at poor Harry Wilson's body, and delivered it
effectually. I firmly believe that Wilson died on the instant: yet, though he felt the
sword in its progress, he, with characteristic self-command, kept his eye still on
the enemy in his front; and, raising himself in his stirrups, let fall upon the
Frenchman's helmet such a blow, that brass and skull parted before it, and the
man's bead was cloven asunder to the chin. It was the most tremendous blow I
ever saw struck, and both he who gave, and his opponent who received it,
dropped dead together. The brass helmet was afterwards examined by order of
the French officer, who, as well as myself, was astonished at the exploit ... "
(George Robert Gleig - "The Light Dragoon")
Picture: Carbines of British cavalry.
Source: Nosworthy's - With Musket,
Cannon, and Sword."
The cavalry also used carbines and pistols.
The carbines were short barrelled and thus
short range weapons, carried by privates
and corporals. In Peninsula, Stapleton
Cotton, ordered the Household Cavalry not
to carry carbines. In 1815 however the Household Brigade and the Union Brigade
were issued carbines with bayonets (the bayonets were not carried).
The heavy cavalry carbine weighed 8 pounds and had a barrel length of 28
inches. The light cavalry carbine had a barrel length of 16 inches. The ramrod was
permanently mounted beneath the muzzle to prevent it from being lost.
In 1815 the 10th Hussars were issued Baker rifles.
The cavalryman carried one pistol. It was used even less than the carbine.
The heavy cavalry pistol had a barrel length of 9 inches.
For more information on cavalry's tactics, weapons
and organization, read our article here >>
~
Horses.
"Affection for, and care of, his horse, is the trait, par excellence,
which distinguishes the German dragoon from the English."
The German would sell everything to feed his horse;
the English would sell his horse itself for spirit . . . . .
In the Peninsula the only means of enforcing some attention to
their horses amongst our English regiments was to make every
man walk and carry his saddlebags whose horse died or was ill."
(- Captain Mercer, British artillery)
If Poland and Hungary had the best horses for the light
cavalry, England and Germany had the best animals for
the medium and heavy cavalry. (The horses from northern
France, Boulonnais and Percherons, were excellent for
cuirassiers.)
Great Britain had always good cavalry horses and the
financial means to obtain more of them wherever they
might be found. During the Waterloo Campaign in 1815
the French heavy cavalry was impoverished and had
considerably scaled back the strength of cavalry regiments.
It was not the case with the British and German cavalry.
Horses' tails were docked.
The men of the Life Guards rode horses with manes brushed to the left
to distinguish them from the Royal Horse Guards (The Blues')
who brushed them to the right.
In the beginning of Peninsular campaign the lack of experience cost the British
cavalry many horses. The tragic end of Lord Pagets heroic cavalry chargers is
made even more shameful when one considers the verdict of William Napier:
'The very fact of their being so foundered was one of the results of inexperience;
the cavalry had come out to Corunna without proper equipments, the horses
were ruined, not for want of shoes, but want of hammers and nails to put them
on ! (Summerville - March of Death p 177)
Although General Foy admired British troops, especially the infantry and
artillery, he was not impressed with the cavalry. Foy wrote : "The pains bestowed
by the English on their horses, and the superior qualities of their native breeds, at
first gave a more favourable idea of their cavalry than the experience of war has
justified. The horses are badly trained for fighting. They have narrow shoulders
and a hard mouth and neither know how to turn or to halt.
Cropping their tails is a serious inconvenience in hot climates. The luxurious
attentions which are lavished upon them, render them quite unfit to support
fatigue, scarcity of food, or the exposure of the bivouac.
The men, however, are excellent grooms."
The cavalrymen of the King's German Legion exceled in horse care. Costello
wrote, "Indeed, while alluding to the cavalry of the German Legion, I cannot help
remarking on the care and fondness with which they regarded their horses. A
German soldier seldom thought of food or rest for the night until his horse had
been provided for." (Costello - "The Peninsular and Waterloo Campaigns" pp 24-25)
Most common colors of horses were bays and chestnuts. The men of the elite Life
Guards were mounted on large, black horses. The 2nd Dragoons rode on greys.
Prior to 1693, there is no record that the regiment used grey horses exclusive to
others. However, when inspected in 1693 by the king, people took note that the
regiment was mounted on all grey horses. Some have offered the theory that the
greys originated with the Dutch Horse Guards.
In general the British cvalary rode on large horses. Even their hussars were
mounted on bigger horses than any other hussar in Europe. One thing is good
about it, they were well suited for battle and looked great during parades and
reviews. The bad thing is, larger horse is more sensitive to weather, and to the
quantity and quality of food. Hussar's horse should be rather small but agile and
with great stamina. Such animal can easily withstand small warfare, scouting,
long marches, lack of food or poor food, poor weather, etc. The Hungarian
(Austrian) hussars were considered one of the best scouts and skirmishers and
they rode on rather small beasts. See diagram below. The French and British
hussars on other hand, were mounted on larger (and heavier) animals and never
mastered the art of small warfare. General Foy wrote, "They (the British) have no
idea of the artifices of partisan warfare ..."
Height of horses.
army cuirassiers dragoons
uhlans
lancers
jagers
chasseurs
hussars
Russia
151-160 cm
14.35-14.85
hh
142-151 cm
14.1-14.35
hh
142-151 cm
14.1-14.35
hh
?
142-151 cm
13.85-14.35
hh
Austria ? ? ? 14.3-14.4 hh 14.2-14.3 hh
Britain - 15.25 hh * - - 15 hh *
France 1812
155-160 cm
15.3-15.7 hh
153-155 cm
15-15.3 hh
143-146 cm
14.3-14.7
hh
149-153 cm
14.6-15 hh
149-153 cm
14.6-15 hh
* - the 2nd Dragoon Regiment (Scots Greys) had 48% of cavalrymen mounted
on 15 hands tall mounts, 36% on 15.5 hh horses, 2 % on 16 hh and the rest on 14.5
hh horses. It gives an average of 15.22 hands tall horse. Similar count based on
299 horses in the British 10th Hussar Regiment in 1813 gives an average of
approx. 15 hands tall horse.
NOTE: The height given in cm is not always consistent with the height
given in hands as they are usually given by two or three different sources.
Drill riding with the 15th Hussars (reenactors)
pS.
Hundreds of excellent horses were slaughtered
before the embarkation in Corunna in 1809. By
January 14th over 100 transports and 12 warships
sailed into the bay from Vigo, and at last the
embarkation could begin. Hastily, before the wind
should change, the remainder of the sick, all the
guns except 9, and all the cavalry regiments, which
would be of little use on the rocky broken slopes
outside the town, were sent aboard.
Less than 1,000 horses went with them. The rest
had to be killed !
The slaughter of the horses was performed with appalling clumsiness. The
animals were brought to the edge of the cliffs overhanging the beach and were
shot and then pushed over on the sands below where soldiers with hammers
despatched those who had landed there alive because of a badly aimed shot. So
uncertainly, in fact, were the pistols aimed that the men were advised to cut the
horses throats with swords instead of trying to shoot them. Many terrified horses
neighed and screamed as the sight of their fellows struggling on the blood-
splashed beach.
General Moore could not hope that the infantry would be able to follow the
cavalry with as little interference from the French. Reports had reached him that
Marshal Soults engineers had come up to repair the bridge at Burgo a few hours
after Paget had been withdrawn, and the infantry divisions of Merle and
Merment were now streaming across it towards the Heights of Palavea. Moore
ordered preparations for departure and the destruction of 4,000 barrels of
gunpowder. The tremendous blast had broken virtually every window in
Corunna.
~
Uniforms of the British cavalry.
- General Foy
During campaign in winter the British heavy and light
cavalry wore cloaks as seen on the picture "British
Heavy and Light Cavalry Cloaked", from Costumes of
the Army of the British Empire, according to the last
regulations 1812, engraved by J.C. Stadler, published by
Colnaghi and Co. 1812-1815.
.
The early uniform of British
light dragoons made great
impression on many
onlookers. French General Foy wrote: "During the war
in the Peninsula, the French soldiers were so struck with
the elegant dresses of the light dragoons, their shining
helmets, and the graceful shape of men and horses, that
they gave them the name of Lindors (figures from
Greek mythology, half-man, half-horse). In 1813, this
dress, which was peculiar to the British troops, was exchanged for the head-dress
and jacket of the German light cavalry. " (- General Foy)
.
The Tarleton helmet came with white-over-red plume and
turban of facing colour, changed to black for all regiments.
By the way, the "musicians of the 4th Baden Infantry [in
French service] replaced their leather helmets after Talavera
with the more stylish ones [Tarleton] of the British 23rd
Light Dragoons, which had lost half their men in a foolish
charge." ( John Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" p 443)
.
In 1812 the Tarleton was replaced with shako with white-
over-red short plume. The light dragoons wore short tailed dark blue jacket with
plastron front and epaulettes, white breeches (or grey trousers with one or two
stripes in facing colour) and short boots. Other sources give grey trousers with
either 2 red stripes or 2 facing colour stripes.
.
1st KGL Light Drag. (1813-16)
2nd KGL Light Drag. (1813-16)
8th Light Dragoons
9th Light Dragoons
11th Light Dragoons
12th Light Dragoons
13th Light Dragoons
14th Light Dragoons
16th Light Dragoons
17th Light Dragoons
19th Light Dragoons
20th Light Dragoons
21st Light Dragoons
22nd Light Dragoons
23rd Light Dragoons
24th Light Dragoons
25th Light Dragoons
blue jacket, crimson facings, yellow lace
blue jacket, crimson facings, white lace
blue jacket, red facings, yellow lace
blue jacket, crimson facings, yellow lace
blue jacket, pale buff facings, white lace
blue jacket, yellow facings, white lace
blue jacket, buff facings, yellow lace
blue jacket, orange facings, white lace
blue jacket, scarlet facings, white lace
blue jacket, white facings, white lace
blue jacket, yellow facings, yellow lace
blue jacket, orange facings, yellow lace
blue jacket, pale yellow facings, yellow
blue jacket, pink facings, white lace
blue jacket, crimson facings, white lace
blue jacket, light grey facings, yellow
blue jacket, light grey facings, white lace
The facing colors were displayed
on the lapels, collar and cuffs.
.
Left: trooper of British 7th Hussars in 1808.
Right: officer of British 10th Hussars in 1815.
The hussars wore very tall fur caps with white-
over-red plume, red bag of cap, yellow cap-lines,
blue tailess dolmans with white braid, white
breeches (or grey overalls with one or two stripes in
facing colour) and short boots. They were as pretty
and handsome looking as any hussars from
Europe.
The British hussars were required to sport
moustaches.
In March 1813 the 10th and 15th Hussars were issued scarlet shako with white
top band. In September 1813 the 7th Hussars received blue shako with red top
band. (The famous Hungarian hussars also wore colorful shakos. However, all
the French, Prussian and Russian hussars wore black shakos.)
.
1st KGL Hussars
2nd KGL Hussars
3rd KGL Hussars
7th Queen's Own
Hussars
10th Prince of
Wales' Hus
15th King's
Hussars
18th Hussars
blue jacket, scarlet facings,
yellow lace
blue jacket, white facings,
yellow lace
blue jacket, yellow facings,
white lace
white lace
white lace
white lace
white lace
-
-
-
white sash with barrels, busby
with bag
crimson sash with barrels,
busby with bag
crimson sash with barrels,
busby with bag
white sash with barrels, busby
with bag
.
Picture: British dragoons in 1812-
15.
(Private, officer and trumpeter)
The British heavy dragoons wore
crested helmets with black
horsehair, scarlet coats, and either
white breeches with high boots or
grey overalls.
Only the 2nd Royal North British
Dragoons ("Scots Greys") wore
bearskins instead of helmets. Prior
to receiving the bearskins, they
were also unique among cavalry
regiments for wearing the mitre cap instead of the cocked hat or tricorn worn by
the rest of the cavalry. The mitre cap dates back to the reign of Queen Anne, who
awarded them this distinction after the Battle of Ramillies in 1706. The bearskin
was added in 1768.
.
1st Guards - King's
2nd Guards - Queen's
3rd Guards - Prince of Wales'
4th Guards - Royal Irish
5th Guards
6th Guards
7th Guards
1st KGL (1808-13)
2nd KGL (1808-13)
red jacket, blue facings, yellow lace
red jacket, black facings, white lace
red jacket, white facings, yellow lace
red jacket, blue facings, white lace
red jacket, blue-green facings,
yellow
red jacket, white facings, white lace
red jacket, black facings, yellow lace
-
1st - Royals
2nd - Royal North British "Scots
Greys"
3rd - King's Own
4th - Queen's Own
5th
6th - Inniskillings
-
red jacket, blue facings, white lace
red jacket, blue-green facings, white
disbanded in 1799
red jacket, yellow facings, white lace
Uniforms of the Household Brigade
1st Life Guards
2nd Life Guards
Royal Horse Guards
scarlet jacket, blue facings, gold lace
scarlet jacket, scarlet facings, gold lace
blue jacket, scarlet facings, gold lace
~
.
Organization.
Brigade, Regiment, Squadron, Troop
The basic tactical unit in cavalry was squadron.
The squadron was composed of two troops.
The troop consisted of:
= 1 Captain
= 1-2 Lieutenants
= 1 Cornet
= 1 Sergeant-Major
= 1 Furrier
= 4 Sergeants
= 4 Corporals
= 1 Trumpeter
= 85 Troopers
Average squadron at Waterloo in June 1815:
145 men / British, German, Netherland cavalry
135 men / French cavalry
115 men / Prussian cavalry (regular and Landwehr)
The official establishment for cavalry regiment was 5 squadrons.
Four squadrons were in the field, while oOne squadron served as depot and was
left at home.
The British cavalry regiment at Waterloo mustered 2-4 squadrons in the field and
was commanded by lieutenant-colonel. The average strength of regiment was 460
men. The smallest was the 2nd Life Guards (235 men in 2 squadrons) and the
largest was the 3rd Hussars KGL (712 men in 4 squadrons).
At Waterloo some British regiments were larger than French cuirassier brigades.
For example the 2nd Cuirassier Brigade (GdB Guiton) had 541 men, and the 2nd
Cavalry Brigade (GdB Merlin) had only 485 men, while the 2nd Light Dragoon
KGL Regiment alone had 540 men, and the 13th Light Dragoon Regiment 455
men.
The regiment of British cavalry carried 1 standard per squadron.
Sometimes "Kings standard" for the 1st squadron and "regimental guidons" for
the 2nd and 3rd.
The standard was carried by a NCO.
Two or three regiments formed brigade.
There were no higher units (divisions, corps) in the British cavalry.
Strength of Wellington's cavalry at Waterloo.
(Mark Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion.")
Regiments Squadrons Men
Guards 4 9 1,319
Dragoons 3 9 1,332
Light Dragoons 9 30 4,089
Hussars 10 35 5,137
Wellington's cavalry at Waterloo by nationality.
(Mark Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion.")
Regiments Squadrons
British 16 45
King's German Legion 4 16
Hanoverian 1 4
Other 8 28
British cavalry brigades before the battle of Corunna in 1809
Cavalry Brigade: Stewart
- - - - - - 3rd Light Dragoons KGL
- - - - - - 7th Light Dragoons
Cavalry Brigade: Slade
British cavalry brigades at Talavera in 1809
1st Cavalry Brigade: Fane
- - - - - - 3rd Dragoon Guards
- - - - - - 4th Dragoons
2nd Cavalry Brigade: Cotton
3rd Cavalry Brigade: Anson
- - - - - - 23rd Light Dragoons
- - - - - - 1st Hussars KGL
British cavalry brigades at Salamanca in 1812
1st Cavalry Brigade: Le Marchant
- - - - - - 5th Dragoon Guards
- - - - - - 3rd Dragoons
- - - - - - 4th Dragoons
2nd Cavalry Brigade: Anson
3rd Cavalry Brigade: von Alten
- - - - - - 1st Hussars KGL
4th Cavalry Brigade: von Bock
- - - - - - 1st Dragoons KGL
- - - - - - 2nd Dragoons KGL
~
Household Cavalry, the flower of British cavalry.
"It was true that they had not yet covered themselves in glory at
this point, but they had garnered valuable horsemanship and
organisational skills that were to be put to good effect in the
very near future." - Charles Griffin on their campaign in Peninsula
Picture: Household Cavalry in June 1815.
Life Guards (left), Royal Horse Guards
(right).
Picture by Knotel.
The Household Cavalry was the elite of
British cavalry and consisted of 1st and
2nd Lif Guards (the senior regiments of
the the British army) and the Royal Horse
Guards. In theory the three guard troops
formed personal bodyguard of the head of
state.
The men of the Life Guards were mounted
on large, black horses with manes brushed
to the left to distinguish them from the
Royal Horse Guards (The Blues') who
brushed them to the right.
The Royal Horse Guard was founded in 1650 by Oliver Cromwell as the
Regiment of Cuirassiers. The first troop was originally raised in in 1658 as His
Majesty's Own Troop of Horse Guards. Membership of these was originally
restricted to gentlemen, and accordingly they had no NCOs; their corporals were
commissioned, and ranked as lieutenants in the rest of the army. This state of
affairs persisted until 1756.
"The disaster in North America had demonstrated that the army was falling
badly behind the times. The Private Gentleman's club of the Horse Guards were
converted into the two regular cavalry troops of Life Guards. Both Regiments
received an establishment of 230 men between the strict height regimens of 5' 11"
and 6'1". ...
It was not until 1812 that a Household Brigade was raised and despatched to
Lisbon. This was something of a historic event in itself what with being the first
time that the two Life Guard regiments had ridden together with the far more
battle-experienced Blues. However 6 months of virtually ceremonial duties in
Lisbon helped acclimatise and prepare the Life Guards for their first campaign in
1813 ...." (- Charles Griffin)
Costello described his first meeting with the Household cavalry in Peninsula: "On
the third day's march our battalion encamped near Salamanca, in a wood, where
we were joined by the Life Guards and Oxford Blues [Royal Horse Guards], that
had just come out from England, and whom we beheld drawn up at the side of
the road. Their fresh and well-fed appearancce gave rise to many jests at the
expense of the 'householders'. They, in fact, as I learnt, took us [95th Rifles] at
first, from our dark clothing and embrowned visages, for a foreign regiment."
(Costello - "The Peninsular and Watreloo Campaigns" pp 119-120)
The Household cavalry however saw little fighting. "The Life Guards were part of
the central column under Wellington's direct control that entered Salamanca and
went on to do battle at Vittoria. Unfortunately for the Household Brigade it was
twice denied its prey. Once by a deep ravine and the other time by the headlong
flight of its foe before it could come into contact with them. Still, the Household
Brigade was acquiring valuable experience and not an inconsiderable amount of
booty, both at Vittoria and later with the fall of San Sebastian. ... On June 21st
1814, the Life Guards began being shipped back to Britain. It was true that they
had not yet covered themselves in glory at this point, but they had garnered
valuable horsemanship and organisational skills that were to be put to good
effect in the very near future." (- Charles Griffin)
Household Cavalry in 1815:
Commander: Lord Somerset
- 1st Life Guards ("The Cheeses") Chef: King George, Colonel: General Stanhope
- 2nd Life Guards ("Cheese Mongers") Chef: King George, Colonel: General
Shaw Cathcart
- Royal Horse Guards ("The Blues") Colonel: General Percy (1806-13)
Picture: Household Brigade at
Waterloo, by Mark Churms.
The regiments of Household
Brigade covered themselves
with glory at Waterloo. Lord
Uxbridge having come from
inspecting the cavalry
deployed behind
Hougoumont, he arrived on the high ground above La Haye Sainte. He saw the
French cuirassiers sabering Ross' gunners and ordered Somerset's Household
Brigade to prepare to charge. He then rode to where Ponsonby's Union Brigade
stood and ordered Ponsonby to prepare his heavy dragoons to charge. The
cavalry had to descend the slope, ascend the opposite slope, and then get past
the sunken road. They had to move through the Allied infantry and pass through
the thorny bushes on the side of the road. Lord Uxbridge in his hussar uniform,
rode ahead of Somerset's Household Brigade.
Two regiments of French cuirassiers were still scattered, not having had time to
reorder their ranks after destroying the Luneberg Battalion and chasing Ross'
gunners. In this situation the cuirassiers had no hope of resisting the sudden
attack of the Household Brigade. The French - after short fight - were thrown
back. As the British were pursuing the cuirassiers, they came upon the flank of
Aulard's infantry brigade (Donzelot's division). The infantry was so surprised by
the sudden appearance of cavalry that they broke and fled without much
resistance. Some infantrymen however started firing at the backs of the cavalry,
and here and there a guardsman was dragged from his horse and hauled away
as a prisoner (incl. officer Waymouth, officer Irby, and others.)
Many guardsmen continued charging down the slope with Lord Uxbridge at
their head. French skirmishers stationed near La Haye Sainte opened fire on
them. Commanding officer of the 1st Life Guards fell dead, and the colonel of the
King's Dragoon Guards - crying out to his men "On to Paris !" - was also killed.
Battalions of Schmit's infantry brigade (Donzelot's division) formed squares near
La Haye Sainte and repulsed the guardsmen with musket volleys. The charge of
the Union Brigade was also very successful.
Napoleon watched the brilliant charge of British heavy cavalry and the rout of
d'Erlon's infantry. He ordered a cuirassier division to counterattack. Gnral
Jaquinot also sent two lancer regiments against the triumphant Allies. The 3rd
and 4th Lancers struck the enemy with fury. The Household and Union Brigades
suffered heavy casualties. Captain Hamilton's body was found the next day,
missing both arms and with a bullet in the heart. Lord Somerset escaped the
pursuit. After the battle only 1 or 2 men reported out of an entire squadron of the
1st Dragoon Guards. The two splendid brigades (Hosehold and Union), by this
time combined, could muster only few composite squadrons. For more
information read our article: Battle of Waterloo 1815
Lord Robert Edward Henry Somerset.
Joining the 15th Light Dragoons in 1793, Somerset became captain in
the following year. At the end of 1800 he became a lieutenant-
colonel, and in 1801 received the command of the 4th Light
Dragoons. Sommerset commanded his regiment at Talavera and
Busaco, and in 1810 received a colonelcy. In 1811, along with the 3rd
Dragoon Guards, the 4th Light Dragoons fought a cavalry action at
Usagre, and in 1812 was engaged in the great charge of Le Marchant's heavy
cavalry at Salamanca. His conduct on this occasion won him further promotion,
and he made the remaining campaigns as a major-general at the head of the
Hussar Brigade (7th, 10th and 15th Hussars). At Orthes he won further distinction
by his pursuit of the enemy.
.
Life Guards at Waterloo.
In launching the charge at Waterloo the colonel of
the King's Dragoon Guards had cried out to his men,
"On to Paris !"
His body was later found a short distance from where
the charge began with a French musket ball in his head.

The Household Cavalry on their way to Trooping the Colour in 2007.
The Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment is a ceremonial cavalry regiment of the British Army.
It consists of one squadron from each regiment of the Household Cavalry (the Life Guards and
the Blues and Royals) plus a Headquarters Squadron, and the Household Cavalry Training Wing.
The Household Cavalry wear cuirasses on ceremonial duty.

Cavalry of King's German Legion.
"As cavalry, they were the finest and most efficient I ever saw in action;
and I had many opportunities of judging ..." (Costello - "The Peninsular
and Waterloo Campaigns" pp 24-25)
"The origins of the Kings German Legion stem back to the invasion and
occupation of the Electorate of Hanover by France in July 1803. The ruler of
Hanover was none other than King George III of England. Although forbidden by
Napoleon to take up arms against France, men from the Hanovarian army soon
began to come to England, to serve their Ruler, and free their land from French
rule. ...
Due to the large number of recruits joining, it was soon decided to raise units of
all arms. In December the regiment was renamed the Kings German Legion. By
1805 the Legion had both light and heavy cavalry regiments, foot and horse
artillery batteries, their own corps of engineers, plus two light and eight line
infantry regiments. At its height, there were around 14,000 men serving in the
Legion and some 28,000 were eventually to have been part of the KGL. The
British supplied uniforms, weapons and equipment ..." ( -
kingsgermanlegion.org.uk)
There were five
cavalry
regiments:
- 1st Hussars
- 2nd Hussars
- 3rd Hussars
- 1st Dragoons
( became 1st
Light Drag.)
- 2nd
Dragoons
( became 2nd
Light Drag.)
The cavalry of KGL followed the pattern of treating their mounts first, grooming,
trimming, saddle and hoof cleaning, and so forth, so it kept their horses in great
condition when many of the British cavalrymen were walking because their
neglected horses had broken down or were sold for alcohol. During the
campaigns in Spain and Portugal the losses in the KGL cavalry were approx.
only half of the English.
The 1st KGL Hussars were "deserved favourites of the Light Division..." "If we
saw a British Dragoon at any time approaching in full speed, it excited no great
curiosity among us, but whenever we saw one of the 1st Hussars KGL ... it was
high time to gird on our swords and bundle up."
"One May day in 1813 the German Hussars were so affected by British cheering
when the Light Division turned out to line the road and greet their old friends
that many of the singing Germans burst into tears." (- Captain Kincaid, British
infantry)
The KGL light cavalry was composed of brave men and excellent swordsmen.
"On the 18th of June we passed along the banks of a fine river. Our company,
along with but half a troop of German Hussars, formed the advance. On turning
a winding of the road, we suddenly came within sight of a party of the enemy's
cavalry who formed the tail of their rearguard. Our Germans, who were
commanded by a very smart young fellow, immediately charged them. The
French, perceiving the number of our cavalry only equal to their own, instantly
wheeled about and calmly awaited the attack. A very smart combat soon took
place, and was supported by great resolution for some time on both sides, but
terminated in the flight or capture of the enemy. Several prisoners were brought
in, all of whom were badly wounded; and scarcely one of our gallant Germans
had escaped without some sabre-wound." (Costello - "The Peninsular and Waterloo
Campaigns" p 122)
Cotton of the British 7th Hussar Regiment described a fight between a man of 3rd
Hussar Regiment of King's German Legion and French cuirassier at Waterloo; "A
hussar and a cuirassier had got entangled in the melee, and met in the plain in
full view of our line; the hussar was without cap and bleeding from a wound in
the head, but that did not hinder him from attacking his steel-clad adversary. He
soon proved that the strength of cavalry contains in good swordsmanship ... and
not in being clad in defensive armor .. after a few blows a tremendous fencer
made the Frenchman reel in the saddle ... a second blow stretched him on the
ground, amidst the cheers of the horseman's comrades, who were ardent
spectators of the combat."
In 1808 at Benavente the British 10th Hussars and 18th Light Dragoons, and the
3rd KGL Hussars attacked a single French cavalry regiment (Guard Horse
Chasseurs or Chasseurs-a-Cheval de la garde Imperiale). "There was an indecisive
clash between Lefebvre-Desnouettes' men and Paget's force of 10th Hussars and
King's German Legion cavalry. Drawing the French off to Benavente, Paget then
ambushed them and pursued the surprised enemy back across the Cea." (-
napoleonguide.com)
The Guard Horse Chasseurs lost 127 men, and their commander, Lefebvre-
Desnouettes, was captured by a German named Bergmann, who gave up his
precious prize to British hussar Grisdale.
.
The charge of KGL heavy dragoons at Garcia Hernandez was named by French
General Foy as "The boldest charge of cavalry in the whole war [in Peninsula]."
Beamish left description of this famous charge. "The French infantry and artillery
being at first, concealed by the inequalities of the ground, the brigades were
ordered by Lord Wellington to attack the cavalry, and their pace was accordingly
increased to a gallop. The German regiments, confined by the narrowness of the
valley, had been unable during their progress through it, to move upon a larger
front than sections of 3s, and now, being an echelon of squadrons, they attempted
to form line upon the first squadron. Who without waiting hurried forward,
however, by the excitement of the moment, the leading squadron of the first
regiment ... dashed on without waiting for the remaining squadrons, and made
straight for the enemy's cavalry. ...
Captain Gustavus von der Decken, who commanded the third or left squadron of
the regiment, seeing that if he advanced according to the order given, his flank
would be exposed to the fire of a dense infantry square, formed the daring
resolution of attacking it with his single squadron. This square stood on the
lower slope of the heights and obedient to the signal of their chief, the German
troopers advanced against it with order and determination, while a deafening
peel of musketry from the enemy greeted their approach.
Arriving within a 100 yards of the point of attack, the gallant squadron officer,
struck by a ball in the knee, fell mortally wounded, and Lieutenant von Voss,
with several men and horses, were killed ... the intrepid soldiers forced onward
and bringing up their right flank, appeared before the enemy's bayonets on two
sides of the square. The two front ranks, kneeling, presented a double row of
deadly steel, while in the rear of these, the steady muskets of four standing ranks
were levelled at the devoted horsemen.
At this critical moment, when the sword was about to be matched against the
firelock, and the chivalrous horsemen against the firm foot soldier - when victory
hung yet in equal scales - an accidental shot from the kneeling ranks, which
killing a horse, caused it and the rider to fall upon the bayonets - gave the
triumph to the dragoons!
For a path was now opened, and the impatient troopers rushing in amid the
blazing fire, while men and horses fell fast before the muskets of the French
infantry, their firm formation was destroyed, and the whole battalion were either
cut down or taken prisoner. Captain von Reitzenstein, who commanded the
second squadron, seeing the success which had attended the daring onset of his
comrades on the left, and being also impeded in his forward movement by the
difficulties of the ground, decided upon following up the discomfiture of the
infantry, and attempting the second square (it was not a square but 2 companies
covering the rest of battalion), which stood on the edge of the heights.
He was received with a steady and destructive fire ... but the moral force of the
French infantry had been shaken by the fearful overthrow which they had just
witnessed, and some timid individuals leaving their ranks, Reitzenstein rushed in
with his ready followers; the square broke, and the greater part of the battalion
was cut down or captured. A third square (it was actually the second square) was
instantly formed by those few who had escaped from destruction, and some
cavalry came to their support. Against these Captain Baron Marschalek led the
third squadron of the 2nd Regiment, and, being joined by the left troop of the
second squadron under Lieutenant Fumetty, charged and dispersed the enemy's
cavalry; then riding boldly at the infantry, broke and completely overthrew them.
"The wreck of the routed battalions now rallied and attempted to make a stand
on a rising ground near the high road to Peneranda, where they again formed a
connected body. Marschalek and Fumetty led their troopers a second time to the
charge, but their little force had become too much reduced, and the horses were
too fatigued to admit of any impression being made upon the enemy. The French
received the attack with a heavy fire and with a shower of stones, to which they
now had recourse... No further attempt was made by the dragoons, and the
enemy resumed their retreat." (Beamish - "History of the Kings German Legion")
~
Dragoons.
"Mounted on their powerful grey steeds, made to appear
even more impressive by their bearskin caps, the
Scottish dragoons bore down upon the men of Grenier's
brigade, who were crossing the sunken lane. ...
Immediately after overwhelming Grenier's brigade,
the Grays attacked the first regiment of Nogues' brigade ...
In the meantime, the Royals and the Inniskillings had
followed the fleeing infantry all the way to the bottom
of the slope." (- A. Barbero)
Picture: British dragoons in 1812-1815.
The dragoons and dragoon guards
served with distinction in the
Peninsular War and during the
Waterloo Campaign. The British Army
first used the designation 'dragoon
guards' in 1746, when the King's Own
Regiment of Horse and the Princess of
Wales's Own Regiment of Horse were
redesignated the 1st and 2nd Dragoon
Guards. Other regiments followed.
The dragoon guards regiments had
abandoned their cuirasses and were
almost indistinguishable from dragoon regiments. "The exercise of converting from
Horse to Dragoon was to save money - Dragoons were paid less than Horse - and the
change was very unpopular." (- wikipedia.org)
Regiments:
- 1st KGL Dragoons (1808-13)
- 2nd KGL Dragoons (1808-13)
- 1st King's Dragoon Guards
- 2nd Queen's Dragoon Guards
- 3rd Prince of Wales' Dragoon Guards
- 4th Dragoon Guards - Royal Irish
- 5th Dragoon Guards
- 1st Dragoons - "Royals"
- 2nd Dragoons - "Scots Grays"
- 3rd King's Own Dragoons
- 4th Queen's Own Dragoons
- 5th Dragoons
- 6th Dragoons - "Inniskillings"
The best dragoon units were the KGL Dragoon Brigade (1st and 2nd KGL Dragoons)
and the Union Brigade composed of 1st Royals (English), 2nd Scots Grays (Scottish),
and 6th Inniskillings (Irish). The KGL Dragoons distingusihed themselves at Garcia
Hernandez, while the Union Brigade covered themselves with glory (and suffered
very heavy casualties) at Waterloo. At Waterloo two colors were taken by the
dragoons: 45th and 105th Line.
For more info on Garcia Hernandez click here.
In the cavalry clash at Villagarcia in 1812, Le Marchant led the 5th Dragoon Guards in
a flank charge, in echelon of squadrons, which defeated two columns of French
cavalry under General Lallemand. The French had been attacking British light cavalry
under Sir Stapleton Cotton, who were being forced to give ground.
There were also less glorious moments, like for exaample at Albuera where two
dragoon regiments were routed by one regiment of French lancers (Polish Vistula
Uhlans). At the very beginning of the battle, General Long ordered Ltn. Col. Sir
Granby Calcroft of the 3rd Dragoon Guards (370-374 men) to meet the lancers:
"Forward and charge, Sir Granby, if you please." (Ian Fletcher wrote that General Long
brought 3rd Dragoon Guards and 13th Light Dragoons. The Poles however mention
only one British regiment.) The 3rd Dragoon Guards was a fine unit. The dragoon
guards regiments took precedence over all other cavalry regiments of the line. The
right to use the 'Ich Dien' badge was granted to the 3rd Dragoon Guards in 1765, and
subsequently became their cap badge.
The dragoon leading squadron consisted of 120 men; and they were the first ones to
clash with the Poles (50 men). The combat was short and the dragoons broke and fled.
Immediately the remaining squadrons of 3rd Dragoon Guards attacked the uhlans.
The Polish horse skirmishers fled downhill.
Once the pursuers became disordered the uhlans
slowed down their "flight", halted, turned around
and attacked the disordered dragoons. The
dragoons were driven uphill and pursued until
British infantry opened fire. The musketry forced
the uhlans to fall back. The Poles had suffered 16
killed and wounded (12 from infantry fire and only
2 from dragoons), while the dragoons suffered at
least 20 casualties (10 killed, 9 wounded, 1 missing).
For this battle, Rogoyski and Wojciechowski were
awarded with Legion d'Honneur. (Kirkor - "Legia
Nadwislanska 1808-1814" p 298)
After the destruction of Colborne's infantry brigade by the Vistula Uhlans and the
French 2nd Hussars, Lumley sent 4 squadrons to the rescue of infantry. Two
squadrons were Spanish and two were from the British 4th Dragoons. The Poles and
Frenchmen spurred forward, like whirlwinds, against the enemy. Napier described
what happened next. "That Penne Villemu's cavalry fled in a shameful manner, the
following statement by Colonel Light proves: 'Afetr our brigades of infantry first
engaged were repulsed, I was desired by General d'Urban to tell the Count de Penne
Villemur to charge the lancers, and we all started, as I thought, to do the thing well;
but when within a few paces of the enemy, the whole pulled up, there was no getting
them farther, and in a few moments after I was left alone to run the gauntlet as well as
I could.' (Napier - "History of the War in the Peninsula 1807-1814" Vol V, p 319)
The British 4th Dragoons charged home but paid heavy price for their decision. "Two
British dragoon sqadrons who tried to pursue them (Polish and French horsemen)
were overthrown, losing their commanding officers and several men." (Gates - "The
Spanish Ulcer" p 259)
Madden gives more details, "The charge of our right wing was made against a brigade
of Polish cavalry, very large men, well-mounted; the front rank armed with long
spears, with flags on them, which they flourish about, so as to frighten our horses, and
thence either pulled our men off their horses or ran them through. They were perfect
barbarians ... two captains and one lieutenant taken and one captain and one
lieutenant severely wounded, with a great proportion of men and horses killed and
wounded." (Note: by exaggerating some things Madden is making an excuse for the
defeat of his regiment. It was not a brigade of cavalry but a regiment. They were not
"large men, well-mounted", they were light cavalry, average men mounted on not very
impresisve looking but agile horses. The dragoons simply folded.)
The dragoons fled "faster than they arrived," as it is stated in British report.
Articles:
Vistula Uhlans
"The Picadors of the Hell"
Albuera 1811 -
The Bloodiest Battle of
the Peninsular War
One of the best dragoon regiments in the British army were the Scots Greys.
Picture: 2nd Dragoons Scots Grey, by Knoetel.
The Scots Greys obtained a reputation for their
eye-catching uniforms and powerful grey horses.
Nicknames :
- "The Bird Catchers" (after they captured the regimental Eagle at
Waterloo.)
- "Bubbly Jocks", a Scots term meaning "turkey cock".
Unlike many of the other cavalry regiments, the Scots
Greys did not see any combat during the American
Revolutionary War or during the French Revolutionary
Wars. They saw some action during the Napoleonic
Wars but still not as much as other regiments. In fact,
for most of the 20 years following the Seven Years' War,
they remained in Scotland and England. In 1794,
however, they participated in the Campaign in Low
Countries and distinguished themselves at Tournai.
Despite the victory at Tournai, the British and Allied
troops would be defeated at Tourcoing on 18 May 1794. From then on, the British
troops would be retreating the face of the French. During the retreat, the Scots Greys
were active in covering the retreat through the low countries and into Hanover. In
1795 the British troops reached Bremen, in Hanover, and were embarked on ships to
return to England. According to wikipedia.org the Scots Greys would not see much
action until the Waterloo Campaign in 1815.
The Scots Greys won only one battle honor (Waterloo 1815) during the Napoleonic
Wars.
But they won many honors before that period: Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde,
Malplaquet
Dettingen, Willems, Warburg. The Wars of Spanish and Austrian Succession were their
glory time.
At Waterloo they bore
down on Grenier's
infantry brigade of de
Erlon's Corps. The
leading French
battalion opened fire
and seemed able to
repulse the attack.
Captain Martin of
French 45th Line writes, "Our soldiers didn't wait for the order to cross it (the hollow
road lined with hedges); they hurled themselves at it, jumping over the hedge and
breaking ranks in order to rush upon the enemy (the Highland infantry). Fatal
recklessnes ! We struggled to bring them back into order. We brought them to a halt in
order to rally them. ... Just as I finished pushing a soldier back into his rank, I saw him
fall at my feet, struck down by a saber blow, and I quickly turned around. The British
cavalry were charging us on all sides and cutting us to pieces. ... They even cut the
boys who served as our pipers and drummers."
The death toll however was not extremely high - but Grenier's brigade was
nonetheless crushed. Sergeant Ewart captured the color of 45th Line. It was the
second Eagle captured at Waterloo and it would be the last. The Scots Greys then
attacked the 21st Line that had time to form square. The infantry emptied great many
saddles with their well aimed volley. Then however the French broke their ranks and
surrendered to the Scots. Many infantrymen who had thrown themselves on the
ground or raised their hands started gathering up their muskets and firing again.
Captain Clark was attacked by a French soldier who pointed his musket at the
captain's head, and pulled the trigger; a sudden turn of the head saved Clark's life, but
the musketball carried away the tip of his nose.
Some officers tried to rally the dragoons and lead them back up the slope. Many of the
Scots Greys however decided that they had not yet had enough and continued their
charge. Meanwhile Napoleon unleashed cuirassier division and two lancer regiments
against the Household and Union Brigades.
Picture: the Scots were cut to pieces by the French lancers at Waterloo.
The French lancers fanned out and started a mopping-up operation over the entire
length of the ground where catastrophe had struck Erlon's infantry. Many British
dragoons dashed up the slope, and everyone tried to save his own skin. Sir Ponsonby
together with his adjutant, Mjr Reignolds made a dash to own line, and a French lancer
began pursuing them. While they were crossing a plowed field, Ponsonby's horse got
stuck in the mud and in an instant, the lancer was upon him.
Charles Ewart was lucky with the lancers ("... one of their Lancers threw
his lance at me but missed...") but Ponsonby threw his saber away and
surrendered. Reignolds came to his aid, but the lancer compelled both of
them to dismount under the threat of his lance. At that moment, a group
of Scots Grays happened to pass a short distance away, saw the three and
galloped shouting in their direction with the idea of liberating Sir
Ponsonby. "In a flash, the Frenchman killed the general and his major with
2 blows of his lance then charged the oncoming dragoons striking down 3 in less than
a minute. The others abandoned the combat completely incapable of holding their own
..."
Barbero writes, "In the memories of Waterloo, the French lancers, galloping at will over
the battlefield, sending saber-armed cavalry fleeing before them, and calmly stopping
to finish off the wounded without even having to dismount, appear as an image of
vivid horror." NCO Dickson remembered how his comrades had been surrounded
and struck down, slipping in the mud and trying to ward off the lance blows with
their hands.
At Waterloo, the brave Scots Greys suffered 201 (!) killed and wounded and lost 228
of their beautiful grey horses. When they were finally reformed, the Scots could only
field two weakened squadrons.
Article: French lancers
Tzar Nikolai (Nicholas) II of Russia
The Honorary Chef of the Scots Greys in 1890s
and ealry 1900s, hence his Scots Greys uniform.
Nikolai was the last monarch of Russia.
The Communists murdered him in 1917.
~
Light Dragoons and Hussars
The ears and eyes of Wellington's army
"... [British] light-cavalry is still more inferior in intelligence
and activity to the Hungarian hussar and the Cossack.
They have no idea of the artifices of partisan warfare ..."
- General Foy
Picture:
Vedette of the
13th Light
Dragoons by
Chris
Collingwood.
The British
light cavalry
consisted of
hussars and
light
dragoons. The hussars were formed in 1806 from light dragoons. (The 18th
Hussars in 1807). According to www.lightdragoons.org.uk the light dragoons
"were first raised in the middle of the Eighteenth Century for reconnaissance and
patrolling - in other words scouting - but soon acquired a reputation for courage
and dash in the charge.
Originally, each regiment of cavalry formed a light troop, but so successful was
the idea that whole regiments were formed. The 15th Light Dragoons were the
first ever (1759), and others quickly followed including the 18th and 19th. The
13th, raised as dragoons (mounted infantrymen) as early as 1715, were also
converted to the light role."
During the Napoleonic Wars there were many regiments of light cavalry:
- 1st KGL Hussars
- 2nd KGL Hussars
- 3rd KGL Hussars
- 1st KGL Light Dragoons (1813-16)
- 2nd KGL Light Dragoons (1813-16)
- 7th Queens' Own Hussars
- 8th Light Dragoons
- 10th Prince of Wales' Hussars
- 15th King's Hussars
- 18th Hussars
- 21st Light Dragoons
- 22nd Light Dragoons
- 23rd Light Dragoons
Between July 179629 and January 1820 George IV was the
Colonel of the 10th Regiment of (Light) Dragoons (Hussars).
The 10th is an interesting unit. In response to the Jacobite
Rebellion, the regiment was raised in 1715 as Humphrey Gore's
Regiment of Dragoons. It was retitled as the 10th Regiment of
Dragoons in 1751. During the Seven Years' War, the light troop
of the regiment fought in a number of raids on the French coast,
and the regiment itself fought in several battles. In 1783 the
Dragoons Regiment was retitled as the 10th (Prince of Wales's
Own) Regiment of (Light) Dragoons in honour of the future
King George IV of the United Kingdom.
George IV (1762 1830). He was the King of Hanover and the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland from the death of his father, George III, in 1820 until his own death ten years
later. From 1811 he served as Prince Regent during his father's relapse into insanity. George IV
indulged an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of the British Regency. He was a
patron of new forms of style and taste. George's charm and culture earned him the title "the first
gentleman of England". He was also instrumental in the foundation of the National Gallery. Taxpayers
however were angry at his wasteful spending in time of war and for not provide national leadership in
time of great crisis. For most of George's regency, Lord Liverpool controlled the government as Prime
Minister.
In 1806, the regiment became a hussar regiment as the 10th (Prince of Wales's
Own), and sailed for Spain in 1808. During the Peninsular War, they fought at
Sahagun, Benavente, and Corunna. The troopers of the 10th wore blue jackets
with scarlet facings and white laces. The sash was crimson with yellow barrels.
The busby was brown.

15th, 7th, and 10th Hussars in 1815. Picture by Knotel.
In the small combat at Sahagun the brave 15th Hussars
took many prisoners for very little loss to themselves.
The regiment was awarded "Sahagun" as a Battle Honour.
The hussars attracted many young men from the best families. The night before
Waterloo "The prince regent was the honorary colonel of this regiment [10th
Hussars], which was at the time quite fashionable and known to London gossips
as "the Prince's Dolls"; its select company included the Duke of Rutland's son, the
Earl of Carlisle's son, and the grandsons of four other lords." ( Barbero - "The
Battle" p 51)
In 1808 at Benavente the British 10th Hussars and 18th Light Dragoons, and the
3rd KGL Hussars attacked a single French cavalry regiment (Guard Horse
Chasseurs or Chasseurs-a-Cheval de la garde Imperiale). "There was an indecisive
clash between Lefebvre-Desnouettes' men and Paget's force of 10th Hussars and
King's German Legion cavalry. Drawing the French off to Benavente, Paget then
ambushed them and pursued the surprised enemy back across the Cea." (-
napoleonguide.com)
The Guard Chasseurs lost 127 men, and their commander, Lefebvre-Desnouettes,
was captured by a German named Bergmann, who gave up his precious prize to
British hussar Grisdale.
The British-German force at Benavente was led by Paget (later Lord
Uxbridge, and subsequently Marquis of Anglesey). Henry Paget was
not only an excellent officer but also a womanizer. When he decided to
elope with Wellington's sister-in-law (and got her pregnant, before
returning her to a tearful husband only to elope for a second time,
forcing a parliamentary divorce and then marrying the lady), the
military establishment in London wrongly supposed that his talents were no
longer required by Wellington because of the scandal.
.
But there were also not so bright moments for the
light cavalry.
In 1815 at Genappe, Lord Uxbridge unsuccessfully
attempted to persuade the 11th Light Dragoons to
charge in support of the 7th who were being driven
back by French lancers.
("My address to these Light Dragoons not having
been received with all the enthusiasm that I
expected, I ordered them to clear the chausee and
said, 'The Life Guard shall have this honour', and
instantly sending for them.")
The 7th Hussars "Queen's Own" was the
"embodiment of dash and panache". Uxbridge
wanted to give them a "taste of glory" - the hussars
charged but each charge "was not in the favor of the 7th Hussars. Finally the 7th
Hussars refused to charge the French lancers."
At Waterloo these hussars also refused to charge into the flank of cuirassiers.
Article: French lancers
Edward Costello of 95th Rifles described a duel between a light dragoon and a
French cavalryman: "One of their videttes, after being posted facing English
dragoon, of the 14th or 16th [Light Dragoon Regiment] displayed an instance of
individual gallantry, in which the French, to do them justice, were seldom
wanting. Waving his long straight sword, the Frenchman rode within 60 yards of
our dragoon, and challenged him to single combat.
We immediately expected to see our cavalry man engage his opponent, sword in
hand. Instead of this, however, he unslung his carbine and fired at the
Frenchman, who not a whit dismayed, shouted out so that every one could hear
him, Venez avec la sabre: je suis pret pour Napoleon et la belle France. Having vainly
endeavoured to induce the Englishman to a personal conflict, and after having
endured two or three shots from his carbine, the Frenchman rode proudly back to
his ground, cheered even by our own men. We were much amused by his
gallantry, while we hissed our own dragoon ... " (- Costello pp 66-67)
In the last stages of the battle of Talavera Wellington unleashed part of his
cavalry. When the British 23rd Light Dragoons (450 men) broke through the
French 10th and 26th Horse Chasseurs, General Merlin ordered the Vistula
Uhlans (390 men) in the first line and the Westphalian lighthorsemen (144 men)
in the secomnd line, to charge. The uhlans hit the enemy frontally and crushed
them. Meanwhile the French chasseurs came against the flank of the dragoons.
The British regiment lost 207 killed, wounded and missing, and 105 were
captured (according to Oman, Vol II, p 545-549).
It gives horrendous 70 % casualties.
Article: Vistula Uhlans
"The Picadors of the Hell"
~
British cavalry's tactics.
Maneuvering or charging in good order
with several cavalry brigades was
beyond their capabilities.
The British cavalry regiment had 2-4 squadrons in the field. According to George
Nafziger the interval between squadrons was 1/3 of their actual front, but there
was no additional or different interval between regiments and brigades. It is
worth noting that the British regulation states that in a flank march the cavalry
occupied 3 times the interval it occupied when facing to the front. The British
used a movable pivot like the French, and also used a variation of the French
manoeuvre of marching diagonally directly to their final position.
Fig. 116: changes of
position of a regiment.
[Source: Nafziger -
"Imperial Bayonets"]
Two ways of column
deploying into line. The
first method was
forming on the head of
the column and the
second was forming on
the middle.
When the British ployed
a line into a closed
column they used a
direct marching system.
The troops did a
counter-march by 3s from the opposite flank, passed behind the line, and
marched directly to their final position.
And, as with the French, the British could always take a column of squadrons or
troops and wheel them 90 degrees into a line perpendicular to the line of march.
For a column of troops this manoeuvre required 0.4 minutes. For a column of
squadrons it required 0.7 minutes.
On the level of individual horseman, and up to few squadrons, the British and
German cavalry were generally superior to the French. Private Cotton described a
fight between a man of the 3rd Hussars of the King's German Legion and a
French cuirassier that took at Waterloo; "A hussar and a cuirassier had got
entangled in the melee, and met in the plain in full view of our line; the hussar
was without cap and bleeding from a wound in the head, but that did not hinder
him from attacking his steel-clad adversary. He soon proved that the strength of
cavalry contains in good swordsmanship ... and not in being clad in defensive
armor .. after a few blows a tremendous fencer made the Frenchman reel in the
saddle ... a second blow stretched him on the ground, amidst the cheers of the
horseman's comrades, who were ardent spectators of the combat."
Although the British (and Prussian
and Austrian) cavalryman was better
horseman and swordsman than his
average French counterpart, not
every one-on-one fight was one as
sided as the one described above.
Charles Parquin of French cavalry
wrote: "On the 15th July 1812 near
Salamanca an English officer, riding
behind the scouts of his army,
caracoled his horse almost in front of
French outposts. "What does that
officer want ?" - inquired Marshal
Marmont. Parquin: "My lord, that
officer is evidently desirous of exchanging a few saber- cuts with one of us.."
Parquin spurred his horse to a gallop and attacked him. He parried the cut and
returned it by a point-thrust which felled the Englishman to the earth. Passing
the blade of saber through his bridle he led back the horse into French line being
welcomed by the hearty plaudits of Marmont and his staff."
There were several small scale combats between the French advance guard and
British rear guard during Moore's retreat to Corunna. " at about 1 PM, with
Colbert closing in on Cacabellos, Paget hustled his troops down the snow-clad
hill and across the Cua to the safety of the western bank. Here, screened by the
vineyard walls, his infantry fanned out into extended order, while the 6 guns of
Carthew's artillery battery were wheeled into position astride the road
commanding the bridge. Moments later, Colbert's troopers poured over the brow
of the recently-vacated hill, pursuing the riflemen and hussars of Paget's pickets
into Cacabellos itself. It was in this point that, according to Cpt. Gordon, the 15th
Hussars made a stand
'For some minutes were were so
jammed together in a narrow
street that it was impossible for
either party to advance or retire.
Nevertheless, the flood of the
French horsemen proved too
much for Gordon and his
comrades and they eventually
broke, stampeding through the
ranks of retreating riflemen (as
well as panic-stricken staff officers out on reconnaissance) and
making a mad dash for the bridge
Blakeney described the scene 'The situation of the Light Company [of the 28th
Foot] was now very embarrassing, in danger of being trampled down by our own
cavalry [hussars], who rode over everything which came in their way for in
their confusion the were firing in every direction and we were so mixed up
with them and our own cavalry that we could offer no formation to receive the
enemy' As for Colbert's men, though they had hacked down several British
hussars and taken 48 riflemen prisoner had been recalled by their commander
in order to rally, prior to launching of another sortie." (Summerville - p 125)
On higher tactical level, let's say one or two
regiments opising similar force, the chances were
more equal. Costello of 95th Rifles described a fight
between British and French regiment: "... a loud
cheering to the right attracted our attention, and we
perceived our 1st Dragoons charge a French cavalry
regiment. As this was the first charge of cavalry
most of us had ever seen, we were all naturally
much interested on the occassion. The French
skirmishers who were also extended against us seemed to partiicipate in the same
feeling as both parties suspended firing while the affair of dragoons was going
on.
The English and the French cavalry met in the most gallant manner, and with the
greatest show of resolution. The first shock, when they came in collision, seemed
terrific, and many men and horses fell on both sides. They had ridden through
and past each other, and now they wheeled round again.
This was followed by a second charge, accompanied by some very pretty- sabre-
practice, by which many saddles were emptied, and English and French chargers
were soon galloping about the field without riders. These immediately occupied
the attention of the French skirmishers and ourselves, and we were soon engaged
in pursuing them, the men of each nation endeavouring to secure the chargers of
the opposite one as legal spoil. While engaged in this chase we frequently became
intermixed, when much laughter was indulged in by both parties at the different
accidents that occured in our pursuit." (Costello - "The Peninsular and Waterloo
Campaigns" p 67)
Picture: British 15th and 16th
Light Dragoons engage the
French 1st Provisional
Chasseurs in Spain.
Picture by Chris Collingwood
At Sahagun in 1808 the 10th and
15th Light Dragoons (Hussars)
defeated French 1st Provisional
Chasseurs and 8th Dragoons.
The 15th Hussars were awarded
"Sahagun" as a Battle Honour.
According to British sources the 10th Light Dragoons (Hussars) did not come into
direct combat. On the French side the 8th Dragoons was a solid troop. The
chasseurs however were below average. The provisional regiments were
composed of squadrons made of recruits drawn from regular regiments. They
lacked experienced NCOs, and their officers were often either too young or too
old. General Grouchy remarked that you had to begin by training the officers and
making them do their duty ! Some of the provisional regiments had a fairly long
existence, but they lacked the morale and solidarity of regular regiments. The
men were unhappy over their transfer from an established unit, and their
regimental staffs improvised from whatever officers might be available.
In the cavalry clash at Villagarcia in 1812, Le Marchant led the 5th Dragoon
Guards in a flank charge, in echelon of squadrons, which defeated two columns
of French cavalry under General Lallemand. The French had been attacking
British light cavalry under Sir Stapleton Cotton, who were being forced to give
ground.
In 1812 at Villadrigo, the French and British cavalry attacked each other and a
prolonged fight (10 minutes!) took place. Then came one more French regiment
"got around one flank and rolled the British up."
In the last stages of the battle of Talavera Wellington unleashed part of his
cavalry. When the British 23rd Light Dragoons (450 men) broke through the
French 10th and 26th Horse Chasseurs, General Merlin ordered the Vistula
Uhlans (390 men) in the first line and the Westphalian lighthorsemen (144 men)
in the secomnd line, to charge. The uhlans hit the enemy frontally and crushed
them. Meanwhile the French chasseurs came against the flank of the dragoons.
The British regiment lost 207 killed, wounded and missing, and 105 were
captured (according to Oman, Vol II, p 545-549). It gives approx. 70 % casualties !
In 1808 at Benavente several British and
German regiments (British 10th Hussars
and 18th Light Dragoons, and 3rd KGL
Hussars) attacked a single French cavalry
regiment (the Guard Horse Chasseurs
Chasseurs-a-Cheval de la Garde Imperiale).
"There was an indecisive clash between
Lefebvre-Desnouettes' men and Paget's
force of 10th Hussars and King's German Legion cavalry. Drawing the French off
to Benavente, Paget then ambushed them and pursued the surprised enemy back
across the Cea." (- napoleonguide.com 2009)
The Guard Horse Chasseurs lost 127 men, and their commander,
Lefebvre-Desnouettes, was captured by a German named Bergmann,
who gave up his precious prize to British hussar Grisdale.
At Waterloo Gen. Dornberg decided to attack a single French cuirassier regiment
with two of his own, the British 23rd Light Dragoons and the 1st Light Dragoons
KGL. Dornberg outnumbered the French by 2 to 1. The two frontal squadrons of
the French regiment were attacked on both flanks and routed. Dornberg's entire
cavalry dashed after the fleeing enemy. But the French colonel, unlike his
adversary, was holding two other squadrons in reserve, and these
counterattacked and smashed the enemy. The British and Germans were
remounting the slope in great disorder when another cuirassier regiment
appeared and blocked their way. The French drew their sabers and awaited the
enemy unmoving.
"At the moment of impact, the light dragoons realized that their curved sabers
were no match for the cuirassiers long swords, nor could they penetrate the
French cuirasses. Seeing that his men were losing heart, Dornberg tried to lead
some of them against the enemy flank. (Barbero - "The Battle" p 192)
Dornberg writes: "At this point I was pierced through the left side into the lung.
Blood started coming out of my mouth, making it difficult for me to speak. I was
forced to go to the rear, and I can say nothing more about the action."
Maneuvering or
charging in good
order with several
regiments or
brigades, was
beyond their
capabilities. I
think for this
reason American
military historian, George Nafziger, (and not only him) ranked the British cavalry
below the Saxon, Polish, Baden, Hessian and French cavalry.
In Wellington's opinion though one British squadron could defeat two French, it
was the best for the British to avoid encounters when the opposing forces
consisted of more than four squadrons each. The larger the formation the more
chaotic was the British cavalry.
Mark Adkin writes: "The Duke had a generally low opinion of the battlefield
tactical ability of his cavalry officers... Wellington had not forgotten the 20th Light
Dragoons after Vimeiro, the 23rd Light Dragoons at Talavera, the 13th Light
Dragoons at Campo Mayor or General Slade's cavalry brigade at Maguilla. After
the latter fiasco Wellington wrote, "I have never been more annoyed than by
Slade's affair. ... At Waterloo Wellington's Household Brigade was to suffer
severely and the Union Brigade was almost destroyed ..."
It was Wellington who said: "It is occasioned entirely by the trick our officers of
cavalry have acquired of galloping at every thing, and their galloping back as fast
as they gallop on the enemy. One would think they cannot manoeuvre
except on Wimbledon Common. ... They never consider the situation, never think
of manoeuvering before an enemy, and never keep back or provide for a reserve."
It is not surprising that after the little controlled cavalry charges at Waterloo,
Wellington issued detailed instructions to his cavalry on how the cavalry must
deploy in battle, not just one or two lines, but three in any attack. (In 1815 at
Waterloo there were two lines that quickly merged into one.)
General Foy wrote: "In cavalry service it is not sufficient for the soldiers to be
brave, and the horses good; there must be science and unity. More than once, in
the Peninsular war, weak detachments of British cavalry have charged French
battalions through and through, but in disorder; the squadrons could not again
be re-formed; there were not others at hand to finish the work; thus the bold
stroke passed away, without producing any advantage."
As for skill in maneuver and discipline, the British cavalry was so inferior to the
French that whatever physical advantage (excellent horses and much longer
training) they enjoyed was canceled out. When at Wateloo two British brigades
charged the commander of Wellington's cavalry rode in their front. Only after the
French counterattacked and decimated his men, only then it occured to him that
perhaps, as commander in chief of all cavalry, he would have done better to
remain behind and oversee the handling of his reserves.
At Waterloo the French lancers practically wiped out the Scots Grays. The two
other regiments of Union Brigade suffered approx. 600 dead and wounded out of
1,000 men, a percentage that makes the famous charge at Balaklava pale in
comparison. In the elite Household Brigade of the squadrons that had charged in
the first line, fewer than 50 % turned back.
Picture: Life Guards at Waterloo, by
Mark Churms.
In some point of the battle of Waterloo
not only the foreign cavalry felt like
figthing anymore. Lord Uxbridge's
exhortations met the same obstinate
reluctance everywhere, and in the end
his chagrin was so great that he
declared himself ashamed to be an Englishman.
The brave British and German infantry packed into their squares probably had
never felt any great love for the cavalry. In the square in which Wellington
himself had taken refuge, the infantrymen were so exasperated at the sight of
cuirassiers, calmly riding past them a short distance away, that someone began to
shout:
"Where are the cavalry ?! Why don't they come and pitch into those French
fellows ?" Out of the entire Household Brigade there were only few squadrons
left. After the battle, only 1 or 2 men reported out of the entire squadron of the
King's Dragoon Guards.
In 1812 in Spain, at Maguilla (Maquilla) took place cavalry battle. General Hill
detached Penne Villemur's cavalry on the right flank, and General Slade with the
3rd Dragoon Guards and the Royals on the left flank. French General Lallemand
came forward with only two dragoon regiments, whereupon Hill, hoping to cut
this small force off, placed Slade's British cavalry in a wood with directions to
await further orders.
Slade forgot his orders and drove the French dragoons beyond the defile of
Maquilla. General Slade rode in the foremost ranks and the supports joined
tumultuously in the pursuit. But in the plain beyond stood calm Charles
Lallemand with small reserve.
He immediately broke the noisy mass of British cavalry, killed and wounded 48
and "pursued the rest for 6 miles, recovered all his own prisoners, and took more
than a hundred, inluding two officers, from his adversary" (Napier - "History of the
War in the Peninsula 1807-1814" Vol III, p 444)
In 1812 the second in command of the British army,
and great cavalry leader too, Lord Paget, was
captured by French dragoons.
In 1809 the first in command, Wellington, was
almost captured at Combat of Casa de Salinas.
Other articles:
Cavalry combat and tactics during the Napoleonic Wars
Cavalry maneuvers, charges, melees, and pursuit.
Morale of cavalry, swordmanship and horsemanship.
Thrust versus slash, slash vs cut, and cut vs thrust.
Lancers against hussars, dragoons and cuirassiers.
Flank attacks. Dismounted cavalry in combat.
The best cavalry regiments, and more.
Prussian Landwehr Cavalry
"During a charge, they (Landwehr) were brave to the point of
forgetting all obedience and order; ... after a charge that had
been repulsed, only natural obstacles were, as a rule, able to
stop them."
Sources and Links.
Recommended Reading
Muir - "Salamanca, 1812"
Barbero - "The Battle"
Hofschroer - "Waterloo - the German Victory"
Costello - "The Peninsular and Waterloo Campaigns" 1968
Nosworthy - "With Musket, Cannon, and Sword."
Picture of British light dragoons by G. Rava, Italy
Uniforms of British Hussars: "Chase me Ladies, I'm in the Cavalry !"
"It would naturally take some time for the "Hussar craze" to contaminate the United Kingdom
after sweeping over the Continent. The dash of attire and behaviour displayed on the Napoleonic
battlefields in the service of France certainly made the best impression, and in due time the
British Army started changing her Light Dragoon Regiments into Hussars, in dress and in title.
... A proud tradition was established, and British Hussars displayed their elegant uniforms both
in Society and over the Battlefields of the world. Some dramatic events made the stuff of legend.
The Crimean War was a milestone, for the undying glory of the Light Brigade or the subsequent
drastic changes in uniform. Queen Victoria's Army counted up to 13 Hussar Regiments."
Russian Cavalry: Organization, Uniforms, Tactics and Weapons.
British Artillery : Napoleonic Wars : Horse : Foot : Rockets : Uniforms
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/British_artillery.htm[2012-05-21 12:42:28]
British Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars
The British artillery was well trained, efficient and motivated.
Ther officers were very much educated professionals.
However, the effects of all this excellent training and schooling
was often negated by the small size of the artillery corps and
the fact that promotion was by seniority rather than by merit.
"Frames, caissons, barrels, and bullets, powder,
and every part of the equipage, are remarkable
for the goodness of the materials, as well as
excellent workmanship."
- French General Maximilien Foy
Introduction.
Organization and strenght.
Commanders.
Uniforms.
Equipment:
cannons and howitzers,
cannonballs , canister
and shrapnells.
Artillery train:
drivers, draft horses,
mules and elephants.
" To tell the truth , I was not
very pleased with the Artillery."
British artillery at Waterloo, by Keith Rocco.
Rockets.
- - - Rockets in naval and land battles.
- - - Wellington on rockets.
Introduction: British Artillery.
"In battle they [British gunners] display judicious activity,
a perfect coup d'oeil, and stoical bravery. ... English troops
take few guns into the field with them ..." - General Foy
The Royal Regiment of Artillery originated in early 1700s to ensure
that a regular force of gunners was readily available. The Regiment
expanded rapidly and has seen service in campaigns worldwide. In
1757 the regiment was increased to two battalions of 12 companies
each. They served in a mixed corps under Prince Ferdinand of
Brunswick. At Minden, the guns were taken into action at the gallop
for the first time. By 1771 there were 32 companies of artillery formed
in four battalions, as well as 2 Invalid Companies employed in
garrison duties.
At the siege of Gibraltar by the French and Spanish force the artillery
were kept busy from 1779 to 1783. Enemy vessels blockading the
port were fired on using red-hot shot, iron cannonballs heated in an
oven, to set fire to them. They were well stocked because, by the end
of the siege it was reckoned that 200,000 cannonballs had been used.
The first two troops of horse
artillery (A "the Chestnut
Troop"and B) were raised in
January 1793, by the Master-
General of Ordnance, the third
Duke of Richmond, to provide
fire support for the cavalry. They
were joined by two more troops
in November.
In 1795 was formed the headquarter staff providing a channel
between the artillery regiment and the Board of Ordnance. Captain
John Macleod was the first Brigade Major and became the first
Deputy-Adjutant-General in 1795.
The Royal Irish Artillery was absorbed in 1801.
During 1805, the Royal Arsenal was moved to Woolwich Common.
The British artillery of the Napoleonic Wars was well trained,
efficient and motivated. Ther officers were very much educated
professionals. They did not, could not, buy their commissions or
promotions. However, the effects of all this excellent training and
schooling was often negated by the small size of the artillery corps
and the fact that promotion was by seniority rather than by merit.
General Foy wrote: "The artillery holds the first rank in the army; it is
better paid, its recruits are more carefully selected, and its period of
enlistment is limited to 12 years."
The gunner was paid 1 shilling a day.
The sergeant of horse artillery got 2 shillings and 2 pence.
Discipline was harsh in the artillery as in any other branch of the
British army.
British artillery at Vitoria 1814.
Combat at Coa: "The [British] artillery attached to the Reserve
instantly opened fire upon it [French infantry columns] and such
was the excellence of the practice, that the enemy's column, after
a heavy loss, withdrew before it had been able to fire a musket."
(Summerville - "March of Death" 129)
Although French General Foy admired the British artillery, the Brits
themselves considered the French gunners as more daring. For
example, the French gunners on several occassions mounted up and
with sabers in hands attacked the enemy (Heilsberg 1807, Wagram
1809, Borodino 1812, and Leipzig 1813.)
The British horse gunners did it only once, in Spain, where they
escaped by cuting through the French cavalry. Napier is a great
story-teller and his imaginative account of Ramsay's horse battery
exploit is largely invention. According to Napier the entire battery
was involved when it was actually only a section, 2 (two) guns. He
wrote that the battery bursted through the French chasseurs-a-
cheval and "an English shout pealed high and clear, the mass was
rent assunder, and Ramsay burst forth at the head of his battery, his
horses breathing fire, stretched like greyhounds along the plain, the
guns bounded behind them like things of no weight, and the horse
gunners followed in close career."
Picture: Ramsay's Horse
Battery pursued by French
chasseurs. Battle of
Fuentes de Onoro 1811.
Picture by Keith Rocco
(USA).
To tell the truth Ramsay
and his gunners did not
charge through and
outrun French cavalry.
Ramsay was with 2 guns
and had stopped to fire at
pursuing French. They were however over-run and surrounded by
the French chasseurs-a-cheval just after they had limbered up.
But then they were luckily "brought off by friends", who had seen
their plight. The rescuers were couple of hundreds of cavalrymen,
(squadron of 14th Light Dragoons, and a squadron of 1st Royal
Dragoons). These men extricated the guns and escorted them back.
Without cavalry the gunners would be cut to pieces by the French.
(By the way, at Etoges in 1814, the French cavalry surrounded a
Russian horse battery. The Russian gunners drew sabers and fought
their way through ! I have never heard of Prussian, Saxon, Polish,
Spanish or Austrian gunners doing such things.)
There were other differences between the French and British
artillery.
The British caissons, barrels, and gunpowder were probably the best
in Europe.
The French however were superior in tactics, leadership and
organization of artillery.
For more info read our articles:
French artillery of the Napoleonic Wars >>
Artillery organization, tactics and combat >>
Austrian artillery enjoyed greater accuracy than their British
counterparts.
See Paddy Griffith's chart in our chapter "Equipment" below.
However, if you
take into account not only the cannonballs or/and canister but also
the British
wunderwaffe , Wellington's artillery was deadlier than t Austrian.
Wellington had various types of artillery under his command; British
foot and horse, Portuguese foot and horse, KGL artillery, Spanish
foot and horse, and (in 1815) Netherland artillery. ("Dutch horse
artillery had an excellent reputation and served well in Spain,
notably at Talavera in 1809." - Kevin Kiley, p 140)

~
Organization and strength.
"Brigades" and "Troops".
NOTE:
RFA - Royal Foot Artillery
RHA - Royal Horse Artillery
KGL - King's German Legion
Foot artillery was organized into "brigades." (The word "battery" was
a later creation.)
The brigade had 6 pieces and was divided into 3 "divisions" with 2
guns each.
Each division was under the command of a subaltern officer.
Brigade consisted of an artillery company, train drivers, draft horses,
6 guns,
6 ammunition wagons, wheel carriage, mobile forge, two store
wagons, and
2 spare ammunition wagons.
Horse artillery was organized into "troops" with an establishment of
6 pieces.
RFA Brigade in 1799:
= 5 officers
= 8 NCOs
= 3 drummers
= 105 other ranks
RFA Brigade in 1808:
= 5 officers
= 8 NCOs
= 3 drummers
= 125 other ranks
RHA Troop :
= 5 officers
= 8 NCOs
= 1 trumpeter
= 146 other ranks
The artillery of King's German Legion was recruited from the
disbanded Hanoverian army. Although the vast majority of the KGL
gunners were Germans, the Legion also allowed to enlist Poles,
Hungarians and Danes, though no French or Spaniards were
accepted.
The artillery of KGL consisted of 2 horse and 3 foot companies. The
German gunners were well-motivated and superbly trained. The
horses were excellent. In 1808 the Germans adopted British drill
regulations and the word of command was changed to English. At
Waterloo in 1815, the artillery of the elite 1st (Guard) Infantry
Division consisted of one British and one KGL battery.
There was also the numerous and well-trained Portuguese artillery.
In the beginning the Portuguese artillery was short of everything.
But it all changed with the intervention of the British, who supplied
guns, ammunition and an expert cadre to train the Portuguese
gunners.
In November 1808 the British artillery was organised as follow:
- - - - - - - - 1st Brigade RFA (4 light 6pdrs, 2 light 5 inch howitzers)
- - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade RFA (5 light 6pdrs, 1 light 5 inch
howitzers)
- - - - - - - - 3rd Brigade RFA (5 medium 12pdrs, 1 heavy 5 inch
howitzer)
- - - - - - - - 4th Brigade RFA (5 long 6pdrs, 1 heavy 5 inch
howitzer)
- - - - - - - - Brigade KGL (8 pieces) - due to the lack of horses only 6
in the field
- - - - - - - - Brigade KGL (8 pieces) - due to the lack of horses only 6
in the field
- - - - - - - - Brigade KGL (4 12pdrs)
- - - - - - - - 1st Troop RHA (5 light 6pdrs, 1 5 inch howitzer)
- - - - - - - - 2nd Troop RHA (5 light 6pdrs, 1 5 inch howitzer)
"The British artillery, excellenty in both personnel and equipment,
was not employed in mass in the Peninsula. In1809 there were only
five batteries with the field army, and these included the batteries of
the excellent King's German Legion. Fortunately for them, the
Portuguese artillery arm fielded enough batteries to make up for the
shortage to some degree, and to allow Wellington to attach at least
one battery to each of his divisions and actually create a small
artillery reserve.
While both branches if the Royal Artillery served well and ably, the
Royal Horse Artillery (RHA) stood out as a true corps de elite under
such battery officers as Hew Ross and Norman Ramsay." (Kiley -
"Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars 1792-1815" pp 212-213)
British artillery at Waterloo, in June 1815:
Commander of Artillery: Ltn-Col. Sir George Wood
Commander of (British) Royal Horse Artillery: Ltn-Col. Sir Augustus
Frazer
Commander of (German) King's German Artillery: Ltn.-Col. Sir
Julius Hartmann
Artillery of I Corps: Mjr-Gen. van Gunckel
- - - - Artillery of 1st (British) Infantry Division: Lt-Col. Stephen
Adye
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British foot battery - Cpt. Sandham
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - KGL horse battery - Mjr. Jacob Khlmann
- - - - Artillery of 3rd (British) Infantry Division: Lt-Col. Williamson
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British foot battery - Mjr. Lloyd
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - KGL foot battery - Cpt. Cleeves
Artillery of II Corps:
- - - - Artillery of 2nd (British) Infantry Division: Lt-Col. Gold
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British foot battery - Cpt. Bolton
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - KGL horse battery - Mjr. Sympher
- - - - Artillery of 4th (British) Infantry Division: Lt-Col. Gold
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British foot battery - Mjr. Brome
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hanoverian foot battery - Cpt. von Rettberg
Artillery of Reserve Corps:
- - - - Artillery of 5th (British) Infantry Division: Mjr. Heisse
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British foot battery - Mjr. Rogers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hanoverian foot battery - Cpt. Braun
- - - - Artillery of 6th (British) Infantry Division: Ltn.-Col.Bruckmann
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British foot battery - Cpt. Sinclair
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British foot battery - Mjr. Unett (battery not
present at Waterloo)
- - British Reserve Artillery - Mjr. Drummond
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British horse battery - Lt-Col. Sir Hew Ross
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British horse battery - Mjr. Beane
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British foot battery - Cpt. Morrison (battery not
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British foot battery - Cpt. Hutchesson (battery
not present at Waterloo)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British foot battery - Cpt. Ilbert (battery not
- - British Reserve Horse Artillery - Lt-Col. MacDonald
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British horse battery - Mjr. Bull
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British horse battery - Cpt. Mercer
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British horse battery - Mjr. Ramsey
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British horse battery - Lt-Col. Webber-Smith
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British Rocket Troops - Cpt. Edward C
Whinyates
Average strength of British batteries at Waterloo 1815 :
- 5 foot batteries (average strength of 5 6pdr cannons, 1 howitzer, 220
men each)
- 8 horse batteries (average strength of 2.5 6pdr cannons, 2 9pdr
cannons, 1.5 howitzer, 170 men each).
British horse gunners sabered by French cuirassiers.
Battle of Waterloo , June 1815.
~
Commanders.
Dickson, Wood and three captains
of the Royal Horse Artillery.
In 1812 at Salamanca, Wellington's artillery was under Ltn.-Col.
Hoylet Framingham
British foot batteries: Lawson's, Gardiner's, Greene's, Douglas', May's
British horse batteries: Ross's, Bull's, Macdonald's
Portuguese battery: Arriaga's
In 1813 at Vittoria the artillery was under Ltn.-Col. Alexander
Dickson.
He entered the Royal Military Academy in 1793. As a captain
Dickson took part in the unfortunate Montevideo Expedition of 1806-
07, and in 1809 he accompanied Howorth to the Peninsular War.
Dickson soon obtained a command in the Portuguese artillery, and
as a lieutenant-colonel of the Portuguese service took part in the
various battles of 1810-11. Wellington had the highest opinion of
him. Dickson was not only excellent artillery officer who "worked his
way up the command ladder by sheer competence, but a talented
organizer, logistician, and combat leader. He ended up as
Wellington's artillery commander in Spain, though to get him into
that eventual position it was necessary to have him commissioned
into the allied Portuguese artillery to overcome somwhat archaic
seniority rules of the service." (- Kevin Kiley)
At Waterloo Wellington's artillery was under Lt-Col. Sir
George Wood. Sir George Wood served at Malta and
Buenos Aires, and skill skill impressed Wellington. He also
served under Sir John Moore at Corunna 1809, and
commanded the artillery in Lord Lynedoch's expedition to
Holland in 1814. "He was one of the few officers who can be seen
wearing glasses in a portrait; even Davout did not do that."
"The Royal Horse Artillery was consistently well-trained and well
led during the course of the wars, and three captains personify the
dash, spirit, and skill of this elite branch of a distinguished fighting
arm.
Norman Ramsay (1782-1815) of Fuentes de Onoro fame ... He went
to the Peninsula, where he was second in command of Bull's Troop,
RHA, and served throughout the Peninsular war. He was a highly
skilled and aggressive officer who liked to use his own initiative.
This trait could cause trouble with Wellington, and for Ramsay it did.
He disobeyed one of Wellington's orders at Vittoria in 1813, moving
his battery to a troublespot during the action - but contributing to the
British victory by so doing. Nevertheless, Wellington placed him
under arrest, and the brevet he was expecting was 'witheld', as was
the Mention in Despatches that he fully desrved. Wellington,
however, for whatever reason, restored him to full duty after three
weeks in the ducal doghouse, and he gained his brevet in November
1813. Wellington might have felt that he had been unjust. After
Ramsay's restoration to full duty, Wellington saw him in the field as
he one day galloped past his subordinate's artillery position, and
raised his hand to wave with a shout. Ramsay did not return it. In
1815, Ramsay commanded H Troop, RHA, and was killed in action at
Waterloo. ...
Hew Ross (1799-1868) was commissioned as an artillery officer in
1798 and was the commander of A Troop. RHA, from 1806 until after
Waterloo. An immensely skilled and experienced officer, he was
assigned to the famous Light Division throughout the war in Spain
and Portugal, being breveted twice in the Peninsula - to major in
December 1811 and to lieutenant colonel after the Battle of Vittoria in
1813. Ross was wounded at the Siege of Badajoz but served with
distinction at waterloo, which he survived ...
Cavalier Mercer (1783-1868) had only one combat tour during his
service - at Waterloo. ... He did serve in South America but he missed
the war in Spain and Portugal. he commanded G Troop, RHA, at
Waterloo, where he performed with distinction." (- Kevin Kiley, pp
217-218)
~
Uniforms.
Their coats were not red but dark blue.
The foot gunners wore shakos, while the
horse gunners sported Tarleton helmets.
The officers looked very elegant.
Prior to 1808 the hair of foot gunner was worn in a queue and
powdered.
Buttons for the men were flat brass of the post 1803 pattern. Each
man was supposed to have two pairs of shoes. They lasted for only a
short time. Black woolen gaiters were worn fastened up to the knee
cap. They were strapped under the shoe and buttoned on the outer
side. Shorter, grey, versions were worn under the trousers. When
breeches were worn the gaiter was held up by a button at the back of
the knee of the breeches. Breeches came well up over the hips and
below to the calves of the leg.
Picture: British foot gunners,
by Timothy Reese.
The coat was blue, single
breasted and buttoned to the
waist.
The foot gunners wore
shakos.
For campaign the gunners
wore loose white or grey
trousers.
Originally they were worn
over the breeches and gaiters.
Later they were worn in their own right as trousers and the
buttoned side fly was abandoned.
The officer's sash was of crimson silk net and worn around the waist,
over the sword belt. Junior NCOs and lance sergeants wore yellow
worsted chevrons to denote their rank. The collar was of red serge,
three inches deep and lined about by flat yellow worsted lace. The
red shoulder straps had a yellow crest or roll where they were sewn
to the shoulder of the tunic and were pointed at the other where
they were secured close to the collar by a button.
The 'Tarleton' helmet and the tailless dolman of the
horse gunners were in imitation of the light
dragoons (1799). Perhaps the most eye-catching
element of the uniform was its crested helmet.
Variations on this headwear remained popular with
cavalry regiments until the middle of the
Napoleonic wars. The leather cap gave some
protection against a saber blow without adding
excess weight. The rolled bearskin provided
additional cushioning from a blow.
Picture: British horse gunner at Waterloo 1815,
from Mark Adkin's "Waterloo Companion".
.
~
Equipment: cannons, howitzers, cannonballs, canister and
shrapnells.
Wellington wrote admiringly of shrapnell's effectiveness.
French infantrymen were so horrified by the casualties that
they were often taken prisoner lying down !
Nearly all field cannons and howitzers were made of bronze,
commonly called brass. Bronze was lighter than iron. Bronze resisted
the shock of firing and was able "to stand the force of the projectile
travelling down the bore and retained its shape after the whole event
was complete." (- Chris Henry)
The supply and manufacture of artillery weapons was controlled by
the Board of Ordnance. The Master General of the Ordnance was
very powerful military (and political) figure.
Master Generals:
- John Earl of Chatham (1801-1806, 1807-1810)
- Francis Earl of Moira (1806-1807)
- Henry Earl of Murlgrave (1810-1816)
(After the Napoleonic Wars Wellington became the Master General)
The cannon barrels were brass, with the carriages and limbers
painted grey, while metal parts were black.
The field artillery in 1802 consisted of 3pdrs,
6pdrs, and 12pdrs and the park 12pdrs and
light 24pdrs. The medium 12pdrs cannon was
adopted for use by the horse artillery in 1792
(modelled on the Prussian practice). The
artillery introduced the 9pdr cannons into
service c.1809 and these fought alongside the
12pdrs. The 9pdr cannon was heavier and less
manoeuvrable than the 6pdr and required
more horses to draw it but offered stronger firepower.
"It has long been considered by artillery historians or commentators
on the subject, that the Royal Artillery in the Peninsula lacked any
field guns that could match the French 8- and 12-pounders; it is
obvious from these returns that the British did have 12-pounders in
the field brigades and therefore would have had guns that were able
to reply to them. The British had and used a 12-pounder field gun.
Furthermore, it has long been suggested that the 9-pounder
Blomefield was introduced to the Royal Artillery c.1809 in order to
provide a weapon to match the French artillery, which we now
know they were already able to do ...
In fact, the 9-pounder was adopted in Spain, say Lieutenant Colonels
Robe and Harding, due to the simple fact that they had a similar
effective range to the 12-pounder, but more importantly, only
required 8 horses to move them, as opposed to the 10 needed for the
12-pounder.
The argument that the 9-pounder was adopted to match the
firepower of the French artillery, therefore, is incorrect.
The accusation that the 12-pounder was too heavy to be of use in the
field Brigades only appears to hold true for Spain, and it is likely
that had sufficient good quality horses been available the weapon
would have continued in service... During the Peninsula, the artillery
was also short of many support vehicles; due to a lack of
ammunition wagons etc the artillerymen had to carry gun powder
barrels on their shoulders from the magazines. Furthermore the
Forge-carts are almost all of the oldest pattern, and are of a dead
weight to use." (- Anthony Leslie Dawson, napoleon-series)
Strength of British artillery in Peninsula on 1st November 1808 (by
Ltn.-Col. William Robe):
9 medium 12pdrs (new pattern)
5 long 6pdrs (new pattern)
21 light 6pdrs (new pattern)
4 light 3pdrs
4 heavy 5 inch howitzers (new pattern)
7 light 5 inch howitzers (new pattern)
2 light 5 inch howitzers
The "... guns of the largest calibre must be posted in those points
from whence the enemy can be discovered at the greatest distance,
and from whence may be seen the whole extent of his front ... to
place a strong battery in the center; this should be composed of the
guns of the heaviest calibre, and it should be posted in the interval
between the right and left wing, by which means it does not offer a
double object for the enemy to fire at." (- Adye )
The pieces fired
- cannonballs
- canister
- Shrapnell's spherical case-shots
General Foy wrote: "In battles,
the (British) artillery made
most copious and effective use
of a kind of hollow bullet,
called Shrapnell's spherical
case-shot ..."
Picture: shrapnell.
Henry Shrapnel was born in
1761. All his life he was to
spend his money on the
inventions. In 1784 Ltn.
Shrapnel developed an anti-personnel weapon called by him
'spherical case' shot.
His shell was a hollow cast-iron sphere filled with a mixture of balls
and powder, with a crude time fuse. If the fuse was set correctly then
the shell would break open, either in front or above the intended
target, releasing the musket balls. The explosive charge in the shell
was to be just enough to break the casing rather than scatter the shot
in all directions. As such his invention increased the effective range
of canister shot from 300 to about 1100 m.
It took until 1803 for the British artillery to adopt it. Wellington used
it beginning in 1808 and wrote admiringly of its effectiveness.
Admiral Sir Sydney Smith was so enthusiastic that he ordered 200
shells at his own expense. Wellingtons gunnery commander Colonel
Robe said, "no fire could be more murderous." French infantrymen
were so frightened by the casualties that they were often taken
prisoner lying down !
NOTE: Napoleon was very interested in shrapnells. One howitzer
and 2 waggons filled with shrapnells were captured at Albuera
(1811). Napoleon ordered General Ebl, to have experiments carried
out to determine the mode of loading these shells. Thenceforth
Napoleon attached great importance to their property of bursting on
graze and projecting their contents as far as possible.
Henry Shrapnell.
"In his lifetime Henry Shrapnel
was a forgotten and bitter man.
The very success of his weapon
kept its origins shrouded in
secrecy on Wellingtons orders."
(- J Southworth , 1994 )
The most common projectiles however were not shrapnells but the
canister and the solid cannonballs.
suggests that in a firefight the British would have been out shot.
(- Anthoy Dawson )
The British canister used fewer balls than its French counterpart,
for heavy canister shot used 41 balls and light 112.
The French cartridges however were lighter.
12pdr cannons.
(Anthoy Dawson - "Wellingtons Big Bang:
the British 12-pounders")
Gun / Country
Charge Elevation First Graze
French 12pdr cannon
Model AN XI
4.5 pound 2 degrees 1350 yards
British 12pdr cannon 4 pounds 3 degrees 1189 yards
Country
Source of
information
Range % hits
Austria Lauerma 1000 m 40-70 %
Prussia Lauerma 800 m 35 %
Great
Britain
Hughes
(pp Muller)
950 26-31 %
Belgium Fallot 900 m 20 %
Brirish versus French:
Captain Mercer of Royal Horse Artillery writes, "About this time
being impatient of standing idle, and annoyed by the [French]
batteries on the Nivelles Road, I ventured to commit a folly, for
which I should have paid dearly had our Duke chanced to be in our
part of the field.
I
ventured
to
disobey
orders,
and open
a slow
deliberate
fire at the
[French
horse]
battery
[of Pire's
cavalry
division],
thinking
with my
9-
pounders soon to silence his 4-pounders. My astonishment was
great, however, when our very first gun was responded to by at least
half-a-dozen gentlemen of very superior calibre whose presence I
had not even suspected, and whose superiority we immediately
recognised bu their rushing noise and long, for they flew beyond us.
I instantly saw my folly, and ceased firing, and they did the same -
the 4-pounders alone continuing the cannonade ... The first man of
my troop touched was by one of these confounded long shot. I shall
never forget the scream the poor fellow gave when it struck."
Picture: French foot artillery in combat.
~
Artillery train, drivers, draught horses, mules and elephants.
"Very high prices are paid for the horses employed to draw the guns,
and they are, consequently, extremely good. The harness is as good
as that used in French carriages. No nation can rival the English in
the equipment and speed of their conveyances." - French General Foy
There was however a lot of drunkenness
and absence among the train drivers.
According to Mark Adkin until 1793 the British guns and wagon
teams for the movement of artillery were in the hands of hired
civilians. This was a wretched arrangement that frequently saw
drivers abandoning their horses as soon as they heard the first shots
on the battlefield.
In 1793 the Corps of Royal Artillery Drivers was formed.
It had own officers and was, supposedly, a disciplined body.
However, it quickly develped a reputation as a 'nest of infamy', as
one officer described it in Spain. There was a lot of drunkenness and
absence. Sir Alexander Dickson mentions in his manuscripts the
courts-martial that took place from time to time. Usually for the
artillery it was a driver. The artillery train were called "the nest of
infamy" and "Augean stable". Some drivers stole ammunition and
sold it to the Portuguese army. Others sold their horses for alcohol.
At Waterloo about half of the 5,300 artillerymen in Wellington's
army were drivers.
French General Foy wrote: "The English got the start of the French in
the formation of the artillery-train: the first trials of it were made in
1793, under the auspices of the Duke of Richmond, then Master-
general of the Ordnance. The corps of Royal Artillery Drivers is
organized as soldiers. Very high prices are paid for the horse
employed to draw the guns, and they are, consequently, extremely
good. The harness is as good as that used in French carriages. No
nation can rival the English in the equipment and speed of their
conveyances."
In horse artillery, teams of 8 horses drew all six guns with their
limbers.
The left horse being ridden by a driver. If the battery had, let say, 120
horses:
- 48 horses were pulling the six guns with their limbers
- 44 horses were hauling the nine ammunition wagons
- 18 horses were pulling the remaining wagons
(6 for the carriage wagon, and 12 for the 3 other wagons)
There were also spare horses
and Captain Mercer's battery at
Waterloo had 30 (!) of them.
Many of the artillery horses
were from Ireland.
The horses for artillery were
strong and expensive.
In 1801 Major General Lawson
indicated that the draught
animals (used by the Royal
Artillery) were rejected horses
from the dragoon regiments.
According to Anthony Leslie
Dawson "one can say that the lack of British artillery in the Peninsula
was not due to small numbers of gun in use by the army, but due to
the lack of horses to transport them.
Various improvised schemes appear to have been adopted, such as
moving the guns and limbers on bullock carts or dismantling them
and man-handling them. It would also appear than any horse or
mule that could be drafted into artillery service, was, such was the
chronic shortage of animals. This shortage ultimately led to the
reduction in the size of the Brigades, in some cases by half."
.
The 10th Battery at Assaye. Picture by David Rowlands.
This unit was originally formed in 1755 as the 3rd Company Bombay Artillery
At the time of formation it was equipped with cannons pulled by elephants.
.
Horses and mules in the Peninsula in May 1809
Briagde / Troop
Horses Mules
Lawson's Light 3pdr Brigade
(6 guns, 6 cars, 1 forge and 4 ammunition carts)
18 49 (!)
Lane's First Light 6pdr Brigade
(6 guns, 6 cars, 1 forge cart, 1 cart for small stores)
88 16
Baynes' Second Light 6pdr Brigade
81 21
Rettburg's KGL Light 6pdr Brigade
80 21
Remarks:
the guns were supplied with English horses except
the Light 3pdr Brigade, which was furnished with
large Lisbon mules. All the other wheel draught was
in general from English horses, and the leading
draught from the country horses and mules; the
latter were too small and weak for this service.
~
Wellington on artillery.
"To tell the truth, I was not very pleased with the Artillery."
After Waterloo, when there was talk of giving the artillery
officers a cash award, Wellington expressed his unequivocal
opposition to this idea.
Wellington was not too happy with his gunners.
Mark Adkin writes, "With the exception of 2 or 3
artillery officers who had served him well in the
Peninsula, such as Frazer and Dickson, the Duke
was particularly cool towards gunner officers. In
fact the corps as a whole found it unusually hard to
win praise, or even recognition, no matter how
much it contributed to victory."
Wellington was not satisfied with his artilery even after Waterloo.
He wrote: "To tell the truth, I was not very pleased with the Artillery.
They received the order not to shoot against the enemy's guns, only
against his troops. It was difficult to get them to follow this order. ...
We could not expect them to stand and die there, instead the officers
and men were ordered to retreat to the squares (like I and my staff),
until their cavalry was driven away. ... But they did no such thing.
They ran from the battlefield, took with them the slow match,
ammunition, and everything else. After we beat back the enemy's
attacks and could have made good use of the artillery, we had no
gunners. Actually, I would have had no artillery for the second part
of the battle if I had not formed a reserve at the beginning."
The gunners that ran into squares before the cavalry and "then
returned to serve the
guns again once the charges had passed, were rather the exception
than the rule."
"When the line of French skirmishers, closely followed by the
leading columns, approached the British batteries behind the sunken
lane, a wave of panic began to spread among the artillerymen. Sir
William Gomm, a member of Wellington's staff, saw 2 cannons being
moved back in great haste at the enemy's approach, and he couldn't
help noting that this withdrawal was carried out with 'considerable
bustle'. But the majority of the guns were simply abandoned ..."
(Barbero - "The Battle")
Few months later, when there was talk of giving the artillery officers
who had been present at Waterloo a cash award, Wellington
expressed his unequivocal opposition to this idea. IMHO Wellington
was too harsh with his artillery because there were many acts of
heroism by both gunners and officers.
Wellington never worked with big numbers of guns on the
battlefield. He usually dotted the guns along battleline. The artillery
was there only to support the infantry and it worked for him.
Wellington's artillery staff system at Waterloo appears cumbersome.
French cavalry passing through the line of British guns.
Battle of Waterloo, June 1815.
At Waterloo Wellington wisely forbade his gunners to get involved
in a counter-battery fire with the French artillery ("They received the
order not to shoot against the enemy's guns, only against his troops.
It was difficult to get them to follow this order.") Not all artillery
officers however obeyed Duke's orders.
Captain Mercer of Royal Horse Artillery writes, "About this time
being impatient of standing idle, and annoyed by the [French]
batteries on the Nivelles Road, I ventured to commit a folly, for
which I should have paid dearly had our Duke chanced to be in our
part of the field. I ventured to disobey orders, and open a slow
deliberate fire at the [French horse] battery [of Pire's cavalry
division], thinking with my 9-pounders soon to silence his 4-
pounders. My astonishment was great, however, when our very first
gun was responded to by at least half-a-dozen gentlemen of very
superior calibre whose presence I had not even suspected, and
whose superiority we immediately recognised bu their rushing noise
and long, for they flew beyond us. I instantly saw my folly, and
ceased firing, and they did the same - the 4-pounders alone
continuing the cannonade ... The first man of my troop touched was
by one of these confounded long shot. I shall never forget the scream
the poor fellow gave when it struck."
Captain Ramsay of horse artillery "was a highly skilled and
aggressive officer who liked to use his own initiative. This trait could
cause trouble with Wellington, and for Ramsay it did. He disobeyed
one of Wellington's orders at Vittoria in 1813, moving his battery to a
troublespot during the action - but contributing to the British victory
by so doing. Nevertheless, Wellington placed him under arrest, and
the brevet he was expecting was 'witheld', as was the Mention in
Despatches that he fully desrved. Wellington, however, for whatever
reason, restored him to full duty after three weeks in the ducal
doghouse, and he gained his brevet in November 1813. Wellington
might have felt that he had been unjust.
After Ramsay's restoration to full duty, Wellington saw him in the
field as he one day galloped past his subordinate's artillery position,
and raised his hand to wave with a shout. Ramsay did not return it."
(- Kevin Kiley)
~
The Rockets.
Positive opinion:
"Their effect (was) truly astonishing, and produced an
impression upon the enemy of something supernatural ..."
- eyewitness, Battle of Leipzig, 1813
Negative opinion:
"The effectiveness of the rocket is limited to employment
against uncivilized natives and Americans" - Wellington
The story about rockets starts with gunpowder which was used to
fumigate houses by the Chinese in about 700 BC. In Europe in 1730s
a German artillery colonel, von Geissler, was manufacturing rockets.
The British troops fighting in India found themselves engaged
against the Mogol forces of Tippoo Sultan of Mysore who used
rockets in 1792 at the Battle of Seringapatam. Seeing an interesting
thing, the English adopted the rocket as a weapon and used it
against the French, Danes and the Americans.
By 1808, the projectile had been modified by Sir W
Congreve (see picture) for a land combat. He was son of
General Sir William Congreve, the Comptroller of the
Royal Laboratories at the Royal Arsenal.
The rockets came in six different calibres: 3 pdr, 6 pdr, 9 pdr, 12 pdr,
18 pdr, and 24 pdr.
The rocket consisted of a steel case, which had a conical or spherical
head and was filled with black gunpowder. The warheads were
attached to guide-poles and were launched in pairs. It was set by the
degree of elevation of the launching frame and flew relatively slowly
up tp 2,000 metres. The rockets could outrange the guns of the time.
The aim of the rockets however was notoriously inaccurate and very
often prematurely exploded.
Loud explosion, red glare and a very occasional hit created an
impressive demoralising effect.
PS.
There was interest in rockets in several European armies, including
the Russians, Danes, and Austrians. In 1815 artillery engineer
Alexander Zasyadko developed battlefield missiles for the Russian
artillery. He also developed techniques for mass production of
rockets and led the formation of the first missile unit in the Russian
army around 1827. "The Danish rocket company, commanded by
Captain Schumacher, had a strength of 85 all-ranks ... They were on
active service, engaging the Royal Navy from Langeland island, and
the company was eventually increased to 114 all-ranks ... There is no
evidence that Schumacher's Rocket Company was part of the
'Auxiliary Corps' that supported Davout in northern Germany in
1813-14." (- Kevin Kiley, p 141)
.
Rockets in naval and land battles.
Rockets were against sea ports,
fortresses and on the battlefield.
The rockets were used against sea ports, fortresses and on the
battlefield.
The first use of rockets by the British against the French was in
1806, at the bombardment of the sea port Boulogne.
In 1807 large number of rockets (25,000) were used against the sea
port Copenhagen (neutral Denmark).
They burnt hundreds of buildings. At Flushing in 1809, the rockets
wrought such havoc that General Monnet made a formal protest to
Lord Chatham against their use.
The rockets were also used in 1814 in an unsuccessful British
attack on Fort McHenry (USA).
Rockets used at Baltimore (USA) were chiefly the heavy naval
rockets fired from specially designed or modified ships and
launches.
Rockets in naval battle.
In 1813 British rocket troops fought in Germany at Gordhe where
their first salvo was a failure as the rockets fell alarmingly close to
the Swedish soldiers. The rockets moved forward and a second salvo
was fired, and although also inaccurate, "Enemy troops not in the
line of fire were considerably annoyed ".
The rockets were also used at Leipzig in 1813 under the command
of Bernadotte, the Crown Prince of Sweden. The rockets effectively
bombarded the village of Paunsdorf and the French troops in and
near that village. Russian monarch, Tsar Alexandr, was so impressed
by their performance that he decorated the British officer with his
own badge of Order of St. Anne.
In 1815 in Belgium, Mjr. Whinyates commanding the Rocket troop
received orders from Wellington to supply his troop with 6pdr
cannon in exchange for his rockets, to ensure his troops
effectiveness. Eventually Wellington relented and allowed
Whinyates to take 800 rounds of 12 pdr rockets as well as the guns.
The Rocket Troops participated at the battles at Quatre Bras,
Genappe (read below), and Waterloo.
Rockets in land battle.
On the use of rockets at Genappe in 1815 by Captain Mercer : "The order to fire
[rockets] was given
- port/fire applied - the fidgety missile begins to sputter out sparks and wiggle its tail
for a second
and then darts forth straight up the road. A gun stands right in its way, between the
wheels of which
the shell in the head of the rocket bursts, the (French) gunners fall right and left, and,
those of the
other guns taking to their heels ...
our rocketeers kept shooting off rockets, none of which ever followed the course of the
first: most of them,
on arriving about the middle of the ascent, took a vertical direction, whilst some
actually turned back upon
ourselves - and one of these, following me like a squib until its shells exploded
putting me in more danger
than all the fire of the enemy ..." :-)
.
Wellington on rockets.
"The only reason why I wished to have it was to get the horses;
... I do not want to set fire to any town, and I do not know
any other use of the rockets." - Wellington
In November 1813 Wellington
wrote to Earl Bathurst: My dear
Lord, I have received your letter
of the 11th, regarding the Rocket
Brigade. The only reason why I
wished to have it was to get the
horses; but as we are to have
them at all events, I am perfectly
satisfied. I do not want to set fire
to any town, and I do not know
any other use of the rockets." -
signed Wellington
Picture: Ammunition horse of rocket troop.
Wellington was not convinced of the capabilities of rockets as their
main successes had been to bombard towns, causing fires and
destroying the morale of the defenders. In Spain and southern
France he could not use rockets on towns held by the French troops
for the political fall out from extensive civilian casualties.
I can understand Wellington's negative opinion about rockets and
their effectiveness. But what about their "impressive demoralising
effect" ? Well, actually not only the rockets but also the bursting
common shell made a huge impression on the soldiers of 19th
century. The explosion created more terror than a solid but unvisible
cannonball. A British soldier wrote " during shelling my comrade
looks like a boy who is beginning an illness with shivering attacks,
and in the frankest way he will tell you he is just petrified by the
business." He added that the bursting shells had frightened more
men away from the line than anything else. Other stated that every
shell that fell near the troop seemed to be but the beginning of a new
cataclysm.
Not only the British infantrymen were freightened by bursting shells.
At Borodino in 1812, a Polish uhlan noticed that whenever a shell
exploded hundreds of German (Westphalian) infantrymen threw
themselves on the ground and covered their heads with hands. "Not
a whisper was heard" - he wrote.
Sources and Links.
Recommended Reading
Henry - "British Napoleonic Artillery 1793-1815 (1): Field Artillery"
Miller - "The History of Rockets"
Stine - "Handbook of Model Rocketry"
Mitton - "Roaring Rockets"
Nosworthy - "With Musket, Cannon, and Sword."
History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery
History of the Royal Arsenal
Cannons and Howitzers, Gun Crew, Battery, Ammunition
Redoubts
Bonaparte's Italian Campaign 1796: Dego : Lodi : Arcole : Mantua
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/italian_campaign.htm[2012-05-21 12:42:35]
Bonaparte's blitzkrieg in Italy in 1796-97.
"Bonaparte goes up in the mountains. He spreads his forces out .
The enemy doesnt know where he is so they begin to spread their
forces out. Then at the last minute he quickly concentrates his forces,
he achieves mass superiority at one point and then blasts them.
Its lightning."
-Howard
"In a fortnight he [Bonaparte] was ready for the field and made his first move.
Five days later he had already four times defeated the Austrians.
Then he turned upon the Sardinians, who in another 5 days
were in helpless retreat on Turin."
- Wilkinson, Spenser "The French army before Napoleon;
lectures delivered before the University of Oxford ..." pp 9-10
"Soldiers, You have descended like a torrent from the summit of the Apennines,
you have overthrown, scattered everything that opposed your progress. . . . . .
your fellow-citizens will point to you and say: "He was of the Army of Italy !"
- Bonaparte, 1796
"France had been an aggressive
neighbor..." in 1790s
Bonaparte in Italy.
Battle of Dego.
Operations against
Colli and Beaulieu.
Battle of Lodi.
Battle of Borghetto and
the Siege of Mantua.
Battles of Castiglione and Lonato.
The first Austrian relief attempt.
Battles of Bassano and St. Giorgio.
The second Austrian relief attempt.
Battles of Caldiero and Arcole.
The third Austrian relief attempt.
Bonaparte crossing the Alps.
Picture by Delaroche.
Battles of Arcola and Rivoli.
"Bonaparte's instinct for war
- had met every challenge !"
.
In 1790s "France had been an aggressive neighbor..." - John Elting
The French invaded Sardinian provinces of Savoy and Nice.
They captured Mainz and raided German Frankfurt.
In 1793 the French army invaded Holland.
The 1790s were turbulent times in Europe. France had been
an aggressive neighbor and other European powers were
willing enough to see her weakened. The undisciplined
French revolutionary troops invaded Belgium but refused to
fight against the highly trained Austrians.
In 1792 Duke of Brunswick's 100,000 Prussians, Austrians,
French Royalists and some Hessians gathered for a march on
Paris. The desertion was high and the weather was awful.
Duke of Brunswick detached many of his troops to guard his
line of communication. All what was left were 35,000 men. They crossed the French
border and met 33,000 French under Kellermann and Dumoriez at Valmy. The
French won, thanks to their artillery.
The French invaded Sardinian provinces of Savoy and Nice, captured Mainz
(Mayence) and raided Frankfurt. In autumn they invaded Flanders, defeated the
Austrians and took the whole country, incl. the wealthy city-port of Antwerp.
Great Britain was enraged (the British called the capture of Antwerp "a pistol
pointed at the heart of England"). Austria, after the loss of Flanders, was absolutely
furious. The Sardinians were frightened. Austria, Great Britain, Sardinia, Prussia,
Spain and Holland formed the First Coalition against France.
In 1793 the French under Dumoriez invaded Holland but were defeated by the
Austrians at Neerwinden. The French commander attempted a counter-revolution,
failed and fled to the Austrians. The morale of French armies collapsed and they
withdrew behind their own borders.
The British supported with money and troops the Royalist revolts in Vendee and
Toulon, while the Austrians and Prussians besieged French fortresses on the
northern borders. France was in crisis and Jacobin fanatics, incl. Robespierre, took
power. Many unsuccessful generals went to the guillotine, the troops were
reorganized and thousands of highly enthusiastic volunteers filled its ranks.
In 1796, France, having won its own freedom, would now fight for the liberation of
all Europe. The only problem was her armies. The troops were unpaid, hungry and
lacked clothes, they were almost mutinous. The Austrian Supreme War Council
gave up hope of recovering Belgium but considered an offensive to clear the
French from Italy. Great Britain pressed Austria for more decisive action and
offered money. Austria, hoping for substantial financial support, sent another
strong army to Germany. Approx. 95,000 white-coats were under the command of
Archduke Charles.
Map: France's military situation in
1796
-
Jourdan's Army of Sambre-Meuse of
75,000 men faced 95,000 Austrians
under Archduke Charles. It was the
best and the largest of allies' armies
in that time. Soon it will enjoy series
of victories against the French army.
Archduke Charles will win his fame
and Wellington will declare him as
the best of Allied generals.
-
Moreau's Army of Rhine-Moselle of
80,000 men faced 85,000 Austrians
under Wurmser
- Bonaparte's
Army of Italy of 60,000 men faced
55,000 Austrians and Italians (Sardinians)
- Kellermann's Army of the Alps of 18,000 men guarded the Alps passages
- Hoche's Army of the West of 15,000 men were designated for the invasion of
Ireland.
In February 1797 General Tate [an American officer] made a raid with 4 ships and 1,230 French troops
against Fishguard in Great Britain. The soldiers were second rate troops, they were recruited from
convicts, deserters etc. For several days they looted the English villages and searched for food. There were
also several skirmishes with the British Yeomanry, militia, Royal Navy sailors, and some artillery before
Tate and his few starwing aoldiers surrendered. For more info click here. (ext.link)
In 1793 at French Royalists invitation, British and Spanish forces occupied Toulon,
the main French naval base on the Mediterranean. Bonaparte first made his name
here as a young officer of artillery, by spotting an ideal place for his guns to be set
up in such a way that they dominated the city's harbour. Once this was done (by
means of a sharp assault on an enemy position), the British Navy ships under
Admiral Hood and the Spaniards under Juan de Langara were compelled to
withdraw, and the resistance crumbled.
Robespierre was enthusiastic and wrote to Paris about this ambitious young officer
of artillery and his achievement. Bonaparte was promoted to general of brigade. In
1795 Bonaparte was in Paris when a counter-revolutionary uprising broke out in
the city. Barras selected him to restore order. This he did quickly, he smashed the
rebellion in a matter of hours. On October 5, 1795, when he fired the famous "whiff
of grapeshot" a single artillery salvo in that suppressed the uprising. Bonaparte was
promoted to general of division.
Although soon Bonaparte was assigned to a very high post, the commander of the
Army of the Interior, he continued writing about the Army of Italy. He criticized
that army's operations, slowness, lack of success and poor tactics. Scherer, the
commander of Army of Italy was infuriated by the flow of plans, which he
considered to be beyond the capabilities of his army. Scherer resigned and was
replaced with Bonaparte.
Napoleon during the siege of Toulon, by Onfray de Breville Job.
He personally led his men in the assault on the field earthworks guarding the city.
During one of the attacks he received a bayonet wound. Napoleon with his artillery
also destroyed several British warships anchored in Toulon's harbor, forcing them to
sail away. It was his first victory and he was promoted to brigadier general.
~
Bonaparte in Italy.
Bonaparte arrived in Italy and immediately
intensified reconnaissance and stiffened
discipline of French troops.
"Bonaparte is not known for any striking feat,
but he is understood to be a profound theorist
and a man of talent."
- Allies' chief-of-staff in 1796
An often
overlooked
offensive that
began in the
mountains
leading into
the Piedmont-
Sardinia
kingdom, it
constitutes
one of
Napoleon's
most
remarkable
achievements.
But let's start
from the
beginning. The motives for Bonaparte's appointment as commander of the French
Army of Italy were political. By placing him in command of the Army of Italy,
Bonaparte was being relegated to obscurity.
Of the French Republic's 13 field armies, the army in Italy was the most neglected.
It was in horrible condition when Bonaparte arrived. Bonaparte's army lacked
sufficient cavalry and artillery and his infantry was weakened by detachments sent
to guard the coast against British and Sardinian navies. The French soldiers were
chronically unpaid and short of everything: uniforms, shoes, greatcoats, bayonets,
ammunition etc. etc. They kept themselves alive by plundering the French and
Italian countryside.
"In Italy the outlook for France seemed desperate. The French army of Italy was
unshod, clothed in rags, half-starved. It lacked transport; it had no money. Under
the stress of privations its discipline was beginning to fail. Its experienced
commander, Scherer, though he had won in the autumn the battle of Loano,
declared himself helpless unless he could be supplied with reinforcements,
provisions, and funds. But the Directory was penniless; it could not create
transport out of nothing nor raise troops in a country exhauseted by the exactions
of the Terror." (Wilkinson, Spenser - "The French army before Napoleon; lectures
delivered before the University of Oxford ..." p 9)
Napoleon believed that his soldiers were
better than their opponents' but were
disciuraged by lack of supplies, good
leadership and action. Furthermore,
Bonaparte was confidant in his own skills.
Allies commanders in Italy, Colli and
Beaulieu, had noted Bonaparte's arrival.
Colli's chief-of-staff had reported: "Bonaparte
is not known for any striking feat, but he is
understood to be a profound theorist and a
man of talent." The Allies knew that the
Army of Italy was in poor shape and believed it was incapable of an attack in the
near future.
The Austrians were eager to occupy Genoa, for from there they could maintain
contact with the British fleet under Admiral Jervis and Nelson. Meanwhile
Bonaparte intensified reconnaissance and stiffened discipline. He also reorganized
the army into advance guard under Massena (18,000), and the main body under
Augereau and Serurier.
Bonaparte knew that there was not much love lost between the Austrians and
Italians. Therefore he would strike between the two enemy armies, splitting them
apart. This accomplished, he was certain that the enemy would be concerned
primarily with the protection of their bases in Milan and Turin. Bonaparte could
then concentrate against Colli's army, without interference from Beaulieu.
~
Battle of Dego, 14th-15th April 1796.
Austrian light cavalry came with sensational news
that Dego is full of sleeping French veterans.
Austrian infantry "promptly hit Dego like a rockslide."
Bonaparte was angry, Massena and his troops
were again routed by the white-coats.
Allies led
by Beaulieu
began their
offensive
by
attacking
Bonaparte's
advance
guard
commanded by Massena.
General Beaulieu (1725-1819) was not a pushover. He was a seasoned general and
had held his own in Belgium against Dumouriez in 1792, and Jourdan in 1794.
Beaulieu was chief of staff to the army of Duke of York. In 1794 he received the
rank of Feldzeugmeister.
Gnral Massna's advance guard stood in the little town of Voltri (see map) on the
coast and Beaulieu attempted to trap the whole French command. When the white-
coats pushed Massena out of Voltri, Bonaparte was furious. Bonaparte's army was
not yet ready for offensive but he recognized that this little combat offers him an
excellent opportunity to trick Beaulieu out of position. Beaulieu personally
commanded the troops in Voltri and met with the British squadron under Nelson.
Unfortunately Argentau's troops (part of Beaulieu's army) were still far away and
Beaulieu was worried.
Bonaparte arrived, noticed that Beaulieu and Argentau were separated and Colli's
Italians were not stirred up by the event, so he issued orders for the offensive.
Bonaparte's troops moved immediately after the issue of ammunition, in rain and
darkness. His scouting parties were reconnoitering very aggressively against
Argentau. Against Colli's army were sent troops under Serurier, they were to
immobilize the enemy by demonstrations, but not to attack.
Beaulieu happy with his victory at Voltri.
The general leisurely began establishing a new cordon from Voltri to Monte
Negino.
Then on 12th April 1796 Bonaparte crushed 6,000 Austrians under Mercy
d'Argenteau at Montenotte. The Austrians suffered 2,500 casualties. Meanwhile
GVukassovich's 3,500 white-coats slowly marched toward Dego. The weather was
horrible, cold and rainy. Austrian light cavalrymen came with sensational news
that Dego is full of sleeping French veterans. Vukassovich's infantry "promptly hit
Dego like a rockslide."
The French woke up and fled in panick before Massena was able to stop them.
Bonaparte was angry, Massena and his troops were again routed by the white-
coats !
Bonaparte gathered up Victor's and Laharpe's troops, while Vukassovich occupied
Dego and called for Argentau to join him. The timid Argentau assumed that
Vukassovich was in a hopeless situation, and had himself hastily retired. At 2 PM
the French attacked. The white-coats repulsed three assaults but when after 4 PM
the French outflanked them, Vukassovich abandoned Dego and retired toward
Spigno. For Bonaparte Vukassovich's action indicated the proximity of Beaulieu'a
army, he immediately sent strong patrols to determine its location. The patrols had
reported that the Austrians abandoned Voltri and are moving north and north-
west.
Scontro franco austriaco in italia
(Austrians versus French in Italy)
~
Operations Against Colli and Beaulieu.
King of Sardinia decided that his Austrian allies
were as dangerous as the French, and he accepted
Bonaparte's terms.
Vukassovich stalled Bonaparte's
advance at Dego, but Beaulieu
and Argentau took no advantage
of this situation. Timid Argentau
turned around and retired.
Beaulieu abandoned Voltri and
was focused on collecting his
scattered troops and restoring
the cordon screen. Later
Vukassovich while shut up in
Mantua, did great service during
the siege of that place.
Bonaparte decided to turn against the other army, Colli's Italians. Colli put 6,500 of
his 25,000 men into entrenched camp. The French under Gnral Amde-
Emmanuel-Franois de La Harpe attacked him but without result. After learning
about Baron Josef Vukassovich's defeat at Dego, Colli gathered up 13,000 troops,
left the camp and took a new strong position. The Austrian defeat and withdrawal,
made a very bad impression on the Sardinians, and desertion rocketed. On 20 April
Colli had only 10,000 men.
Bonaparte arrived and reconnoitered Colli's position but in the night the
Sardinians withdrew northwest. Bonaparte caught up with Colli east of Mondovi.
Approx. 1,500 Sardinians and a heavy battery deployed on a steep hill covering a
bridge. The French fixed them with heavy skirmishing and enveloped on the right
and left. After some fighting they drove Colli to Mondovi.
Rumors of French-Sardinian negotiations rejuvenated the Austrians, but Beaulieu
halted his slow advance on learning that the French are already in Alba. The angry
Austrians demanded posession of Alessandria fortress as pledge of Sardinian
loyalty. King of Sardinia decided that his Austrian allies were as dangerous as the
French, and he accepted Bonaparte's terms.
After signing the armistice, Bonaparte sent his troops after the retreating Austrians.
Beaulieu took position behind Po River and had destroyed the bridges along his
front. Bonaparte had no pontoon bridge but he sent 100 picked light cavalrymen to
secure boats.
Bonaparte formed a special advance guard by detaching the elite grenadier and
carabinier companies and forming them into provisional division. This division was
strengthened with horse battery and 1,600 light cavalrymen. The French grenadiers
captured a big ferry and surged across the Po River. On another side stood 2
squadrons of Hungarian hussars but they soon left and Fench engineers
improvised a trail bridge and were fortifying a bridgehead on the north bank.
~
Battle of Lodi, 10th May 1796.
Bonaparte would say that "it was Lodi that made him
certain he could be a man of high destiny."
The troops gave him the affectionate nickname
Le Petit Corporal (Little Corporal)
Bonaparte after crossing the river Po near Piacenza, was making a determined
effort to trap General Beaulieu west of the Adda. In fact the French arrived too late
to prevent the Austrian retreat, and at Lodi only fought Beaulieu's rear guard (light
cavalry and grenadiers under Sebottendorf). At Zorlesco the French attacked them,
"the Austrian grenadiers died hard, but quickly." Their survivors poured into Lodi
with the French hot on their heels. Bealieu had 10,000 white-coats at Lodi against
30,000 under Bonaparte.
At 11 AM the French brought 2 guns and were raking
the length of the bridge, to the discouradgement of any
Austrian attempt to burn it. As 28 more cannons came
up, Bonaparte massed them along the river to pound
the Austrian battery.
Bonaparte then formed 3,000 infantry in one long
column, six abreast. Meanwhile the French guns
doubled its ratio of fire and the Austrian battery was
forced to retire.
Now, out of the
smoke, straight
across the very
long bridge,
roared the 3,000
Frenchmen. They
got to the center
of the bridge
before the white-coats opened musket fire and smashed the front ranks into a
tangle of killed and wounded.
Red-bearded Major Dupas shouted the men on, while Berthier seized a flag and
went forward. The infantrymen rushed forward with outstretched bayonets. The
French advanced with their hats down over their eyes, just as if advancing against a
hailstorm.
The Austrians' counter-attack was magnificent, and they pushed the French all the
way back toward the river. French cavalry regiment then swam below Lodi and hit
the Austrians left. Massna's and Augereau's infantry poured through Lodi and
joined the fight. The Austrians had enough and retired. Bonaparte lost 1,000-2,000
killed and wounded, Beaulieu had 2,000 casualties.
The news about victory at Lodi created a tremendous sensation in Paris. Bonaparte
would say that "it was Lodi that made him certain he could be a man of high
destiny." Napoleon's troops gave him the affectionate nickname Le Petit Corporal
"The Little Corporal" (he sighted a cannon, usually it was job for an corporal). The
Battle of Lodi solidified Bonaparte's personal relationship with his troops, who
admired him for his courage and willingness to face the same dangers as common
soldiers.
Bonaparte
successfully
divided
Allies.
While Colli
was
surrounded
in the west,
Beaulieu
was
pursued in
the east.
The Allies
crossed Po
River and
marched
toward
Mincio
River and
the
powerful
Mantova
(Mantua)
fortress. It
was the key
to control
of northern
Italy.
Beaulieu hastily retired toward the fortress of Mantua and took positions behind
the Mincio River. In 4 days Bonaparte had hacked a bloody breach between Colli
and Beaulieu, sending Beaulieu staggering northward to regroup. Then, wheeling
westward, in 14 days more he had crushed General Colli and his Sardinians.
Bonaparte's troops also seized Leghorn on Italian coast, which the English had
appropriated as a naval base and commercial port. The French occupied Leghorn
with 2,500 infantry.
The French infantrymen slipped through the British fleet and raised Corsica in
revolt against the British forces. (In 1794 British warships were sent to Corsica by
King George III to help the Corsicans rid the island of the French and to establish a
secure base for the British who had been kicked out of Toulon).
Bonaparte made a triumphant entry into the wealthy and important city Milan. He
organized the occupied territory to support and feed his troops. Bonaparte's
soldiers were finally clothed, well fed and well paid. "The wealth of Milan gave
hard currency to the soldiers and great wealth to the Directory in Paris." (- David
Markham)
On 24th May an insurection exploded around Milan and Pavia, sparked by French
greed. A whirlwind march of Bonaparte's troops ended with Pavia stormed and
pillaged. Terrified by the successes of the godless French, Naples requested
armistice and the Pope swiftly made territorial concessions, and also yielded 34
million francs in treasure.
Lodi: Allied and French order of battle.
General Beaulieu
at Lodi. at Corte Palasio and Fontana
General Karl Sebottendorf
. . . . . . . 2nd Hussars (4 sq.)
. . . . . . . Uhlans (2 sq.)
. . . . . . . I/16th Infantry
. . . . . . . II/19th Infantry
. . . . . . . I/39th Infantry
. . . . . . . I/43rd Infantry
. . . . . . . I/44th Infantry
. . . . . . . 8 6pdr guns
General Josef Phillip Vukassovich
. . . . . . . 3 Grenzer Battalions
. . . . . . . 2 6pdr guns
General Nicoletti
(at Corte Palasio)
. . . . . . . Hussars (2 squadrons)
. . . . . . . II/19th Infantry
. . . . . . . I/23rd Infantry
. . . . . . . I,II/27th Infantry
General Anton Schbirz
(left Lodi early morning)
. . . . . . . Hussars (4 sq.)
. . . . . . . I,II/??th Infantry
. . . . . . . I,II/??th Infantry
.
.
(30 minutes east of
Lodi, at Fontana)
. . . . . . . Neapolitan Chasseurs (8 sq.)
Napoleon Bonaparte
Chief-of-Staff Berthier
at Lodi
Combined Grenadier Division - Dallemagne
. . . . . . . I and II Carabinier Batalion
. . . . . . . I and II Grenadier Batalion
. . . . . . . III and IV Grenadier Batalion
. . . . . . . 2 4pdr guns
. . . . . . . 1st Hussars (3 sq.) under Kilmaine
Infantry Division - Massna
Brigade - de La Salcette
. . . . . . . 17th Light Demi-Brigade (3 btns.)
Brigade - Meynier
. . . . . . . 14th Line Demi-Brigade (3 btns.)
. . . . . . . 32nd Line Demi-Brigade (3 btns.)
Brigade - Rondeau
Artillery : 6 6pdrs and 4 4pdrs
Infantry Division (part) - Laharpe
Brigade - Cervoni
. . . . . . . 51st Line Demi-Brigade (2 btns.)
. . . . . . . 2 4pdr guns
Cavalry Division - de Beaumont
. . . . . . . 10th Chasseurs (3 sq.)
. . . . . . . 24th Chasseurs (3 sq.)
. . . . . . . 5th Dragoons (2 sq.)
. . . . . . . 20th Dragoons (3 sq.)
Notes:
demi-brigade = infantry regiment
btns. = battalions
sq. = squadrons
~
The battle of Borghetto
and the siege of Mantua.
Following the battle of Lodi, Beaulieu
rallied the remnants of his army and
positioned them along the left bank
of the river Mincio. He used a
traditional but ineffective cordon
system, spreading his troops along a
20-mile front from the powerful
fortress of Mantua to the Lake
Guarda . There were about 19,000
Austrians in three divisions guarding
the river line: Melas held the
northern sector around Peschiera,
Sebotendorf was in the center at
Valegio and Borghetto, and Collis
division was on the left. The outposts
were on the right (French) side of the
river.
The Austrians had also the garrison
in Mantua under Cando dIrles,
which Beaulieu reinforced to the
strength of 15,000 men by deploring
his field army of 20 of its best
battalions. The decision to defend the Mincio line was right because with Lake
Guarda it constituted the last strong natural obstacle to Bonapartes control of
northern Italy, but Beaulieus deployment of troops was vulnerable to concentrated
attacks because he had no central reserve to counterattack and restore the broken
part of the line. Beaulieu set his headquarters near Borghetto.
Bonaparte deceived Beaulieu into thinking that the major attack will be launched at
Peshiera, but the real target was the Austrian center. He also ordered general Rusca
to demonstrate toward Riva on the northern tip of Lake Guarda, leaving the
impression that he intended to cut the Austrian line of communication with Tyrol.
Bonaparte attacked on 30 May with 29,000 men. Kilmaines cavalry led the
advance, followed by Augereau, Massena and Serurier from left to right. The
French easily drove the enemys outposts across the Mincio and gained the
bridgehead at Borghetto, where the grenadiers stormed the bridge before the
Austrians managed to destroy it. The Austrians had only one infantry battalion and
three squadrons at Borghetto and they were quickly routed, and Beaulieu himself
narrowly escaped capture. Beaulieus position collapsed quickly, but he was still
able to maintain some degree of control, retreating with his army across the Adige
and then north to the Tyrol with the loss of only 1,000 men and 5 guns.
The Austrians now didnt have a field army in Italy, but they still held the crucial
fortress of Mantua. It was surrounded on three sides by the river Mincio and on the
fourth by the marsh. On the opposite (left) bank of the Mincio there were the
outlaying works, Citadel Porto and fort St. George, and both were connected with
the main defences by pontoon bridges. The fortress was impregnable to direct
assault and the only option left for the French was a time-consuming siege and
starving the defenders into surrender. The entire area was ravaged by fever that
would take the lives of thousands of soldiers from both armies.
Bonaparte at first hoped to surprise the defenders and already on the day after the
battle of Borghetto he made a frontal attack on Mantua with two newly arrived
divisions but was easily repulsed and forced to adopt more methodical approach.
He began to extend his forces around the city and by 4 June, the Austrians were
completely encircled. Bonapartes siege artillery was still engaged at reducing the
fortress of Milan and it was only at the beginning of July that the French big guns
were brought before Mantua and the real siege began. Meanwhile, the Austrians in
Tyrol were preparing for the counteroffensive.
Branislav Petrovic
~
Battles of Castiglione and Lonato.
The first Austrian relief attempt.
Even before the battle of the Mincio, the Emperor Francis had
decided to replace Beaulieu. The new commander, Dagobert
Sigmund von Wurmser (picture), arrived in Rovereto on 4 July
to replace him. Wurmser was a 72 years old Alsatian who had
first served in French Army and then transferred to Austrian
service and became a dashing hussar leader in Seven Years War.
By now, he was almost deaf and too old for a field command,
but still competent. In previous year, he had frustrated French
offensive in Germany, defeating them at Manheim and driving
them across the Rhine.
Wurmser also received reinforcements, 25,000 from his former Army of the upper
Rhine and 10,000 from Tyrol, but they were arriving slowly and it was only at the
end of July that he was ready to take the offensive. He was under orders to relive
Mantua and recapture Lombardy. The mountainous nature of the country restricted
his freedom of movement and there were only three practicable axis of advance
along the narrow river valleys:
1. The valley of the river Adige-the most direct route to Mantua.
2. The valley of Brenta to the east
3. The valley of Chiese to the west, which leads to Brescia (Bonapartes advanced
base).
Wurmser decided to sent parts of his army along each of these routes and then to
unite them south of Lake Guarda and advance on Mantua. He moved forward on
29. July in following order:
- I column Quasdanovich (18,000), down the valley of Chiese
- II column Melas (14,500) down the right bank of the Adige
- III column-Davidovic (9,500) down the left bank of the Adige
- IV column-Meszaros (5,000) down the Brenta valley
Bonaparte knew that the Austrians would launch counteroffensive, but he could
not tell where the main blow would be struck. He extended his troops along the 75
miles front to detect the enemys movements but intended to unite them for a
major battle as soon as it became clear where the main Austrian concentration is.
His army was deployed as follows:
- Sauret (4,000) guarded the French line of communication around Brescia and
Salo west of the Lake Guarda
- Massena (15,700) at Rivoli east of the Lake Guarda. He guarded the line of the
Adige from Rivalta on the north to Verona on the south
- Augereau (4,300) at Legnano guarded the lower Adige
- Despinois (4,300) at Peschiera, with one of his brigades
at Adige forming the link between Massenas and Augereaus sectors
- Kilmaines cavalry (2,700) and artillery reserve at Valegio.
Bonaparte intended them to reinforce any threatened sector
- Serurier (9,000) besieged the numerically superior garrison of Mantua
The Austrians at first achieved considerable success. On 29 July their
II and III columns, under Wurmsers direct command attacked
Massena at Rivolli. One of Massenas brigades led by Joubert,
Napoleons favorite officer, put up a strong resistance but the
Austrian numerical superiority began to tell.
By the nightfall, Massena had lost 2,800 men and 9 guns, and
retreated to Castelnuovo and Peshiera (this action at Rivoli is not to
be confused with the major battle that would be fought at the same
place on 14 January 1797). Next day Wurmser attacked again and drove Massena
out of Castelnuovo.
West of the Lake Guarda on 29 July, Quasdanovichs column attacked Saurets
troops and drove them out of Salo, capturing 600 men, but General Jean-Joseph
Guieu with another 600 men retreated to the nearby castle and refused to
surrender. Next day Quasdanovich captured French base at Brescia, taking 700
prisoners, 2,000 sick Frenchmen in hospital and a mass of materiel.
On the 31th Sauret counterattacked and recaptured Salo, relieving Guieus men in
the castle, but then retreated, fearing to be surrounded by superior numbers. On
the same day, Quasdanovichs troops drove the French from Lonato but Despinois
division counterattacked and recaptured the place. The result of the days fighting
was that Quasdanovich became cautious and concerned about his line of
communication. Instead of following his initial victories by establishing contact
with Wurmser, he stopped and gave the French a chance to recover. These series of
confused actions west of the Lake Guarda from 29-31 July became collectively
known as the first battle of Lonato.
By this time Bonaparte knew that the Austrian II and III columns were their main
strength, but he decided to deal first with Quasdanovichs I column which
threatened his line of communication. He decided to abandon the siege of Mantua,
spike the guns, to attack Quasdanovich with the divisions of Massena, Despinois
and Sauret while Augereau held Wurmser in place. After defeating Quasdanovich,
Bonaparte intended to turn east, reinforce Augereau and defeat Wurmser. It is one
of first instances of his favorite maneuver of the central position.
Meanwhile, on 1 August Wurmsers troops entered Mantua and resupplied the
garrison. They were joined by Meszaros IV column which had meet no serious
resistance during previous days. Wurmser sent Quasdanovich an order to do
everything in his power to drive enemy before him, and on the 3rd he started to
march his army to the northeast to help him, leaving the strong garrison in
Mantua.
His advance guard, led by Liptay, run into Augereaus troops near
Castiglione. Augereau (picture) outflanked Liptay and forced them on
next Austrian column commanded by Davidovic. The Austrians
counterattacked, pushed back Augereaus left wing but were
eventually stopped. Soon after, Wurmsers entire army was on the
battlefield but the Austrian commander was puzzled by strong French
resistance and called off the further attacks. He believed that the
French in front of him were much stronger than they actually were, and even
expected to be attacked next day.
While the fighting was tactically undecided, Augereau had succeeded in stopping
the main Austrian army and giving Bonaparte time to defeat Quasdanovich. It was
a great operational success and Bonaparte never forgot what Augereau had done
for us at Castiglione.
On the same day, both Quasdanovich and Bonaparte intended to attack each other
and it resulted in a day of confused fighting around Lonato. One of
Quasdanovichs brigades led by Ocksay defeated and captured Pigeons demi-
brigade, only to run into Massenas division personally commanded by Bonaparte
and was destroyed. Another brigade commanded by Reuss repulsed the initial
French attacks but Bonaparte in person again restored the French fortune and
drove Reuss north of the battlefield. Other French divisions attacked during the
day but meet with little success and the day ended without a clear victory for any
side.
Next day Quasdanovich intended to renew the battle but his dispirited
subordinates convicted him that he had no chance of success against Bonapartes
main strength and that his line of communication is in danger. On the afternoon, he
began to retreat to Tyrol, leaving Wurmser to his fate. His rear-guard was attacked
immediately and destroyed near Salo, and during the previous days, he had lost
about 7,000 men, more than one third of his original strength.
Once it became clear that Quasdanovich is in full retreat, Bonaparte turned his
army south to reinforce Augereau and finish off Wurmser. He planned to attack
the Austrians frontally on the 5th with the divisions of Masena and Augereau. At
the same time, Seruriers division, which had spent the previous days inactive at
Marcaria 20 miles south of Castiglione will be finally used for a decisive attack on
Austrian left flank and rear. It was expected that Despinois division would also
arrive in time to be involved in battle. On the Austrian side, Wurmsers
quartermaster Zach advised a retreat, but the Austrian commander decided to
remain in place and accept the battle.
Early on the 5th Massena attacked Austrian right (northern) flank and Augereau
their center. The Austrian front line battalions repulsed the French and Wurmser
counterattacked, pushing back Massena and Augereau. He became increasingly
involved in frontal struggle with Bonaparte but still held his second line out of
fight so that he could use them to intervene on the flanks. Moreover, his left flank
(Bonapartes main target) was protected by a strong redoubt at Monte Medolano
and the troops stationed here were still not used to reinforce Austrian attacks
against Massena and Augereau.
As a result of this, when Seruriers division (led by Fiorella) arrived on the
battlefield and attacked Austrian left flank, they met much stronger resistance than
Napoleon expected. Seeing his left in danger, Wurmser also sent there
reinforcements from his second line. The first French attempt to capture the Monte
Medolano was repulsed, but with the help of Marmonts artillery, the French
attacked again and captured the redoubt. Wurmser realized that the battle is lost
and began a retreat. Bonapartes army was too exhausted and confused for
immediate pursuit, but on next day, Massenas division was sent forward and
drove Wurmser from Peshiera north to Tyrol.
The French had lost
about 1,500 men at
Castiglione, the
Austrians 3,000 and 20
guns. The battle was
important as a first
example of Napoleons
strategic battle, a
concept of destroying the enemys main field army in a single major engagement
by fixing it frontally while falling unexpectedly on its flank and rear. The same
pattern would be repeated on many battlefields in years to come.
The first Austrian attempt to relieve Mantua had ended in failure
and they had lost 13,000 men in entire operation, the French 9,000.
Branislav Petrovic
~
Battles of Bassano and St.Giorgio.
Second Austrian relief attempt.
From strategic point of view, the Austrians were not in desperate situation after
Lonato and Castiglione. Although their offensive had failed with heavy losses, the
Kaiserlichs had achieved some results- they had in fact relieved Mantua for a few
days and resupplied the garrison for several months, and Bonaparte had sacrificed
his siege train and could not hope to capture the fortress quickly.
Wurmser intended to gather sufficient reinforcements and give his army some time
to recover before rushing into new battle, but Hofkriegsrath (Austrian Supreme
Was Council) overruled him. For them, Bonaparte was an irritating thorn in the
side of the Habsburg Monarchy, a man who threatened her centuries long
dominating position in northern Italy. Even more dangerous, two other Republican
armies led by Moreau and Jourdan had crossed the Rhine and were now deep in
Germany, pushing back outnumbered Austrian forces and conquering small
German states loyal to the Habsburgs. The Hofkriegsrath feared that Bonaparte
would march north through Tyrol to southern Germany and reinforce Moreaus
army for a final offensive. They demanded from Wurmser an immediate offensive
to keep Bonaparte busy in Italy with active operations and to try to relieve Mantua
again.
It had always been a difficult task for an army commander to achieve victory with
recently defeated army, and to make Wurmsers position even worse, he was not
allowed to create his own plan of operations. The Hofkriegsrath sent general Lauer
with a plan of operations created in Vienna to take position as Wurmsers chief of
staff.
Wurmsers army, 40,000 strong at the beginning of September, was now divided in
two equal-sized wings. One wing under Davidovich will remain in Trent to defend
Tyrol, while the other, under Wurmsers direct command will march down the
Brenta valley and then west to Mantua. It was hoped that Bonaparte would
concentrate the bulk of his forces to meet Wurmser, so that Davidovich could shift
from defensive to offensive, march south to relieve Mantua without serious
resistance and unite with Wurmser somewhere south of Lake Guarda.
Meanwhile in French camp, Bonaparte planned to march east on Trieste and then
threaten Vienna itself, but he needed strong reinforcements to achieve this. The
Directory refused to support his ambitious plan, retaining conviction that Germany
is main theater and that Bonapartes primary task is to support Moreaus army by
active operations against Austrian forces in Tyrol. Moreover, they considered it too
risky to advance east to Trieste while the Austrians hold Mantua and Wurmser is
in position to fall on the left flank of Bonapartes marching columns.
Napoleon Bonaparte was forced to accept Directorys view and in late August,
he began preparations for the offensive. His army was deployed as follows:
- Sahuguet (10,000) blockaded Mantua
- Kilmaines cavalry (2,500) guarded the Adige against any attack from the east
- Massena, Augereau and Vaubois (30,000 in all) as a striking force for the
offensive.
Massena was ordered to advance up the Adige; Augereau was to move on his
right,
while Vaubois marched up the Valley of Chiese, east of Lake Guarda.
Bonapartes columns started their advance on 2
September. They found the Austrians in the midst
of preparation for their own offensive and too
dispersed to put up a strong resistance. Almost
7,000 men from Davidovichs wing were scattered
in the mountains, and the remaining 13,000 were
divided in two groups: two brigades under
Vukassovich and Sporck were around Rovereto,
while third brigade under Reuss was further
north at Trent. Wurmsers wing, comprising of
Meszaros, Sebotendorfs and Quasdanovichs
divisions, was further east in the Brenta Valley,
scattered along the road from Trent to Bassano.
On the 3rd, Massenas advance guard made
contact with some Austrians from Vukassovichs
brigade and drove them north to Rovereto. Next
day, Both Massena and Vaubois made major
attacks at the enemy forces before them, which
resulted in a series of actions at San Marco, Mori,
Rovereto and Calliano, known collectively as the
Battle of Rovereto. The French inflicted 3,000 loses
on the enemy and took 25 cannon, largely as a
result of numerical superiority, an effect of
surprise and aggressive tactics. Their own loses
were less than 800. All three French divisions, which had marched separated, were
now united for another strike.
Despite recent developments, Wurmser took a bold decision to continue with
previously planned operations. He ordered Davidovich to defend Trent with
remaining troops while his own wing started the advance down the Brenta Valley.
With most of Bonapartes army entangled north of Lake Guarda, he saw a chance
to defeat the remaining French troops and relieve Mantua. Unfortunately,
Davidovich was able to gather only 5,000 troops against 30,000 French so he
decided to abandon Trent and retreat north to the better position on the river Lavis.
Early on the 5th, the French marched into Trent without resistance and Bonaparte
was now in position to attack Wurmsers rear. In the afternoon, the French attacked
Davidovich at the Lavis and drove his heavily outnumbered troops further north
into mountains. After only three days of fighting and maneuvering, Bonaparte had
managed to effectively drive one-half of Austrian field army out of campaign and
get into the rear of the other half.
Leaving Vaubois division at Trent, Bonaparte marched down the Brenta Valley
with Augereaus and Massenas division to attack Wurmsers rear. On the 7th,
Augereaus division surprised and routed 3 Grenzer battalions from Quasdanovics
division at Primolano. Wurmser was at that moment further south at Bassano with
the under strength divisions of Quasdanovich and Sebotendorf (7,000 in all), while
his strong advance guard division under Meszaros (10,000) was marching down the
road from Vicenca to Montebello .
Realizing that Bonaparte is in his rear, Wurmser for a moment thought about
escaping to the east, but it will mean that Meszaros would be left isolated and
destroyed.
He then decided to stand and fight
at Bassano, but his position was
not strong, his forces were
separated by the river Brenta and
he was heavily outnumbered by
Bonaparte. On the 8th, Bonaparte
executed a double flanking attack
by sending Massenas division to
attack the Austrians on the east
bank of the river while Augereaus
division attacked those on the
western bank. Wurmsers position
collapsed quickly. About 3,000
Austrians were captured, along
with 35 cannon and a pontoon
train. About one-half of the
remaining Austrians fled to the
east, while Wurmser with another
group retreated to the south and
joined Meszaros at Vicenza.
The battle of Bassano decided the
outcome of entire operation, and
now Wurmsers main concern was
how to avoid the destruction of his
remaining field strength gathered
at Vicenza. He continued his
march to Mantua, hoping to broke
through the weak French
blockading forces and reach the safety of the fortress before Bonaparte could catch
him in the open.
Bonaparte sent Augereau south to Padua and then Legnano to block any
Wurmsers attempt to escape to the east, while Massena pursued the Austrians
more closely and tried to get around their western flank. Bonaparte hoped to catch
and destroy Wurmser by using Massena and Augereau as a hammer and
Sahuguets troops around Mantua as an anvil.
The line of the Adige was expected to be guarded by Kilmaines cavalry, but by
some error the bridge at Legnano was left unguarded and Wurmsers main body
crossed the Adige there on the 10th. On the next day Massenas advance guard,
consisting of Murats cavalry and Pigeons brigade, outrun the Austrians and
occupied a small town of Cerea on their line of advance. Wurmsers leading
brigade attacked them and was soon reinforced by his main body. After desperate
fighting, the small French force was almost destroyed, losing 1,200 men and 6
cannon, and Wurmser continued his march. On the 12th, he brushed aside some of
Sahuguets men at Roncoferrara and reached Mantua. Next day his rear guard, left
isolated at Legnano, surrendered to the French, but Bonapartes attempt to destroy
Wurmser in the open field had already failed.
Wurmser did not shut himself into fortress but deployed 16,000 men along a strong
line on the opposite bank of the Mincio, with his right flank protected by the
bastion of St Giorgio and his left by the redoubt at La Favorita. On the 14th,
Massena arrived before Wurmers position and attacked his right flank. After initial
success, he was counterattacked and pushed back. Both sides then launched several
attacks but all of them were repulsed and the day ended without clear victory for
any side. Next day Bonaparte arrived with Augereau and Sahuguet and sent them
against Wurmsers flanks. Then, at critical moment, he launched Massena at the
Austrian center and Wurmser finally withdraw into Mantua after losing 4,000 men
and 27 cannon.
Wurmsers second attempt to relieve Mantua was a far more serious failure than his
first operation. The Austrian field army in Italy was practically eliminated, with
one-half of its starting strength routed at Rovereto and driven into Tyrol and the
other half defeated at Bassano and chased down the Brenta Valley into Mantua.
Although the remnants of Wurmsers army reinforced the garrison of Mantua, this
had only negative effects, since they had proved unable to challenge the French in
the open field, and their presence in the fortress only worsened its supply
problems.
Branislav Petrovic
~
Battles of Caldiero and Arcole.
"Caldiero is significant as being Bonapartes
first undisputable defeat in open field ... "
Third Austrian relief attempt.
While Bonaparte and Wurmser fought their September battles in Italy,
situation changed dramatically in the main theater-Germany. When
everything seemed lost for the Austrians, the young Archduke Charles
(picture) executed his brilliant counterstrokes at French armies
confronting him and by the end of October both Jourdan and Moreau
were defeated and forced back across Germany to their starting
positions along the Rhine. Charles victories overshadowed Bonapartes
by their strategic significance and encouraged the Austrians to launch
another offensive in Italy.
Meanwhile, Bonaparte was unable to fully exploit his victories over Wurmser. Many of
his soldiers were sick, and he had neither siege train needed to reduce Mantua quickly
nor reinforcements to launch previously planned offensive toward Trieste. The Directory
practically abandoned him to his fate after French failure in Germany. At the beginning
of November, his army was deployed in following order:
-Kilmaine (9,000) blockaded Mantua
-Dumas and Macquard (4,000) at Villafranca, in position to support Kilmaine
-Vaubois (10,000) at Trent guarded the northern sector against any Austrian threat from
Tyrol
-Massena (10,000) guarded the line of the Brenta against attacks from the east
-Augereau (9,000) at Verona, acting as a strategic reserve
On Austrian side, the Hofkriegsrath completely reorganized its field forces in Italy
(almost non-existent and without commander in chief after Wurmser had been shut up
intro Mantua). Wurmser was replaced by another old, experienced, competent but too
old-fashioned and dogmatic commander-Joseph Alvinczy von Berberek. At the
beginning of November, the Austrians had two new field forces in Italian theater:
The Friuli Corps under Quasdanovich (30,000) at the line of the Piave. At the end of
September Quasdanovics forces in this sector (a part of Wurmsers army which had
escaped east after Bassano) were only 2,000 strong, but meanwhile they were heavily
reinforced by young recruits, stiffened with few veteran troops moved there from Tyrol.
In following operations, these inexperienced troops will fight surprisingly well.
The Tyrol Corps under Davidovich (20,000). It was formed by reinforcing the
remnants of Austrian forces in Tyrol by troops from Germany.
Moreover, the garrison of Mantua under Wurmser (24,000), although extremely inactive,
could be expected to participate in following operations. They were two times stronger
than French forces blockading them, but about half of them were too sick for active duty.
Once again, the Hofkriegsraft planed a two-pronged advance, but unlike previous cases
in which the Austrians had used their strongholds in Tyrol to advance down the river
valleys in roughly north-south direction, the main force (Quasdanovichs Friuli Corps)
will now advance along east-west axis, using Trieste as a base. Moreover, Friuli Corps
was numerically stronger than any forces that Bonaparte could concentrate against it,
since at least one French division was needed to blockade Mantua and another to keep
an eye on Tyrol. Alvinzy planned to launch forward both his field forces forward on 3
November. The Tyrol Corps would march south down the Adige to capture Trent and
Rovereto. Meanwhile, the Friuli Corps, accompanied by Alvinczy himself, would march
west, cross the Brenta, unite with the Tyrol Corps and relieve Wurmsers troops in
Mantua.
Bonaparte knew that the Austrians were ready for another offensive
but he underestimated their numbers and decided to launch a pre-
emptive strike, hoping to achieve same successes as in September.
Vaubois received an order to attack Davidovichs Tyrol Corps, while
Bonaparte himself would attack the Friuli Corps with the divisions of
Massena and Augereau. On 2 November Vaubois attacked
Davidovichs advanced troops at Zankt Miheln and the Lavis but
was unable to dislodge them. Next day, Davidovics main force
started its previously planned advance and pushed back Vaubois
who found himself outnumbered two to one.
Vaubois abandoned Trent and retreated south to Calliano. On 6 November, Davidovich
attacked his new position but was repulsed all along the line. Next day, the Austrians
renewed their attacks without success, but toward nightfall Grenzer troops made inroad
into French line and Vaubois position began to disintegrate. Next day Vaubois retreated
south to Rivoli, where he was able to gather only 5,000 men. Davidovich, who had lost
about 3,500 men in previous days, remained strangely inactive after the victory at
Calliano. He probably feared to advance too far until he received information about how
the main offensive was developing.
Meanwhile, the Friuli Corps crossed the Piave on 2 November and marched west
toward the Brenta. Alvinczy now separated his force into two wings led by
Quasdanovich and Provera to attack both Bassano and Cittadella simultaneously. Both
places fell without serious resistance on November 4, the Austrians meeting only
Massenas outposts. In fact, Massena realized that he was heavily outnumbered and had
no chance of stopping the Austrian drive, so he retreated east to Vicenza. Bonaparte
reinforced him with Augereaus division and Macquards brigade and took personal
command of troops gathered at Vicenza. He planned to attack both wings of the Friuli
Corps while they were in the process of crossing the Brenta.
On November 6, French troops moved forward. Bonaparte accompanied Augereaus
division for an attack on Quasdanovich at Bassano, while further south Massena
attacked Provera near Cittadella. Bonaparte drove Austrian advance guard back to
Bassano but the majority of Quasdanovichs force was already on the west side of the
Brenta and soon joined the fighting. The French made some progress but by the end of
the day, it was clear that they could not drive the enemy across the river. At the same
time Massenas attempts to force a river crossing at Fontaniva were repulsed by
Proveras troops with heavy casualties on both sides. In these two separate actions on
the Brenta (collectively known as the battle of Bassano), both sides lost about 3,000 men.
Some authors consider the fighting along the Brenta as Bonapartes first defeat in open
field, but it could be argued that the action at Bassano in which he personally
commanded was a tactical draw or even French victory. On the other hand, from
strategic point of view it could not be disputed that Bonapartes attempt to defeat the
Friuli Corps failed and next day he retreated east to Verona.
Bonaparte feared that the Tyrol Corps would get into his rear after Vaubois defeat at
Calliano, but its inactivity encouraged him to stay at Verona and launch another blow at
the Friuli Corps. Alvinczy followed Bonaparte slowly, and it was only on 11 November
that his advance guard led by Hohenzollern made contact with French outposts near
Verona. Bonaparte reacted immediately, sending forward both divisions and pushing
Hohenzollern back to Caldiero. At that moment, the Friuli Corps was stretched along six
miles of road and Bonaparte decided to launch a major attack next day.
On the morning of November 12, Bonaparte sent Augereau against Hohenzollerns left
and Massena against his right flank. The Austrians disputed every inch of ground
stubbornly and were helped by bad weather that slowed French progress. Bonaparte
captured Caldiero but his progress had only negative effects, since he was unable to rout
Hohenzollerns troops and only pushed them back closer to their reinforcements.
Meanwhile Alvinczy gathered his dispersed troops and then launched determined
counterattack against the French right flank. As battle progressed, more Austrian troops
arrived to press back the French left, and Bonaparte found himself in danger of being cut
off from Verona. By now, it was clear that the battle was lost for the French, and
Bonaparte ordered retreat to starting positions. The French lost about 2,000 men and 2
guns during the battle, the Austrians 1,300.
The battle of Caldiero is significant as being Bonapartes
first undisputable defeat in open field, and although most
of the Napoleonic authors passed quickly over this episode
to describe and analyze the following battle of Arcole in
much more detail, the fact remains that by the standards of
the Italian Campaign Caldiero is a major battle. Napoleon
was much depressed by his defeat, and on next day he
wrote a letter to the Directory that he would oppose the
Austrians once again but that he had no hope of stopping
their drive to Mantua and would probably retreat to the line of the river Ada.
It was one of critical moments in career of future French Emperor, but as often in such
cases, he decided to risk another battle, hoping that his military genius and inflexibility
of his opponents would help him to win. Two attempts to stop the Austrians frontally
had failed, but there was one more option left. Like all monarchical armies of the period,
Alvinczys army didnt use requisitions but supplied itself from the rear by convoys
from their magazines and this system made them vulnerable to outflanking movements.
Like majority of Austrian commanders, Alvinczy was a man who often saw his problems
more clearly than his chances and was overly concerned with supplies, lines of
communications and administrative matters.
Bonapartes new plan was to cut Alvinczys line of communication by capturing his
magazines at Villanova, forcing him to turn back from Caldiero and fight a battle at a
disadvantage. He would use geography of the area to the maximum. The River Adige,
her left hand tributary the Alpone and mountains to the north formed a triangle of
marshy ground whose apex was at Verona. Alvinczy had entered this triangle by
crossing the Alpone at Villanova, had beaten Bonapartes direct attack at Caldiero, but
he was now in military dead-end and needed to cross the Adige to regain his
operational freedom. He decided to cross the river at Zevio, halfway between Verona
and the confluence of the Adige and the Alpone on the night of November 14-15, and
then to unite with Davidovich for a final drive to Mantua. Much irritated by
Davidovichs inactivity, he ordered him to resume the offensive against Vaubois
immediately.
At the same time, Bonaparte left only 3,000 men under Kilmaine to defend Verona, and
marched his striking force, which he reinforced to 16,000 men, down the right bank of
the Adige. He planned to cross to the left bank at Ronco, far behind the Austrians, and
then march up the Alpone to capture their magazines at Villanova. Thus he would stole
strategic initiative from Alvinczy and force him to turn back and fight in a marshy
ground with only few causeways where the Austrians would be unable to deploy and
use the full potential of their numerical superiority. However, even if Alvinczy played
right into Bonapartes hand, much depended on the outcome of the fighting in the north.
If the Tyrol Corps routed Vaubois division, it would made contact with both Alvinczy
and Wurmsers garrison of Mantua. Bonaparte could not allow himself to be entangled
in a battle with Alvinczy while Davidovich is cutting his line of communication. At first
bad news from Vaubois sector, he must disengage his army, recross the Adige to regain
operational freedom and march east to help Vaubois or to cut his way to safety through
Davidovichs troops.
Bonapartes striking force crossed the Adige at Ronco during the early morning of 15
November, while at the same time Alvinczy was preparing for his own river crossing
further upstream at Zevio. Bonaparte deployed Massenas division at Ronco to guard
against Alvinczys possible reaction from the west, and at the same time sent
Augereaus troops up the Alpone to capture his main objective, Villanova. The road
from Ronco to Villanova followed the right bank of the Alpone to Arcole, where it
crossed the river by the wooden bridge and then continued along the left bank. It was
the only road the French could use to advance from Ronco to Villanova. Unfortunately
for them, Alvinczy had left a force of 2,000 men (4 batallions of Grenzers and a cavalry
squadron) to guard the bridge at Arcole and to serve as a flank guard for his own
crossing of the Adige. Augereaus troops ran into heavy resistance as they approached
Arcole and could not capture the bridge. Bonaparte was surprised to find any sizable
Austrian force at that point, and all hopes that they could be brushed aside easily were
soon lost.
Alvinczy might well have ignored Bonapartes maneuver, cross the Adige, rout Vaubois
and Kilmaines weak forces to unite with Davidovich and Wurmser, supply his troops
from Tyrol and magazines in Mantua and leave Bonaparte isolated in his rear, but as
soon as he heard about it, he decided to turn back and defend his own line of
communication. Thus, Bonaparte still had a chance to keep Austrian forces separated
and to achieve decisive victory he desperately needed. The XVIII century dogmatism
still prevailed in European military thinking, and it would be only in 1814 that
Napoleons opponents began to ignore his outflanking moves and continued to march
ahead to their objectives.
Alvinczy sent 4,000 men under Provera down the only practicable road in the area from
Caldiero to attack Massena at Porcile. At the same time, Alvinczy himself with 7,000
men marched east to Villanova and then south to Arcole to reinforce the defenders of
the bridge, but most of these reinforcements would not arrive until nightfall. General
Mittrowskys brigade arrived first and he took command of bridges defence. Alvinczy
also moved his wagon trains and magazines east to the safety of Vicenza.
During the day, Bonaparte made several frontal attacks on the
bridge but was repulsed each time, and at one moment he almost
drowned while leading yet another attack with tricolor in hand.
He also sent a force of 3,000 men under Guieu to cross the
Alpone near its confluence with the Adige, march north and
came up on the flank of the defenders of Arcole. Guieu
succeeded in crossing the river but his further progress was
slowed by the marshy ground and he would not arrive in time to
help Bonaparte at Arcole.
Toward nightfall, Bonaparte received information that Davidovich had attacked Vaubis
and pushed him back south to Bussolengo. He called of the attack on Arcole and
withdrew both his divisions to the right bank of the Adige, to be in position to march
quickly to Vaubois help, but he left a small bridgehead on the left bank to serve as a
jumping point for another attack against Alvinczi-if situation allowed. Ironically, as
soon as the French retreated from Arcole, Guieus small force finally arrived and
attacked the Austrian left. The Austrians were surprised and Guieu captured the bridge.
If this attack had been made simultaneously with Bonapartes, the French might have
won victory, but Guieu quickly realized that he was left alone against much stronger
Austrian force and retreated south to rejoin Bonaparte. Overnight, Alvinczy further
reinforced his troops at Arcole and occupied Porcile and some important points in front
of the French bridgehead.
Next morning, after receiving news that Davidovich is once again became inactive,
Bonaparte returned his army to the left bank of the Adige and gambled on another
attack, but this time without the effect of surprise and with much stronger Austrian
forces in front of him. After desperate struggle in the marshes, the French recaptured
Porcile but were stalled once again at the bridge of Arcole. Once again, Bonaparte sent a
small force to cross the Alpone downstream from Arcole and attack the Austrians in
flank, but this time the French met a strong resistance on the opposite bank and failed
even to cross the river. When fighting died away at nightfall, Bonaparte was still far
from victory he badly needed. His outflanking maneuver against Alvinczy had
developed into a two-day battle of attrition that exhausted both sides. The only thing he
achieved so far was drawing Alvinczys attention from Mantua and Verona and keeping
him separated from Davidovich. Overnight he fell back again to the right bank of the
Adige to be in position to react to Davidovichs expected advance, leaving a small
bridgehead on the left bank. The Austrians reoccupied Porcile and all ground they had
lost during the day.
In the morning, Davidovichs continued inactivity encouraged Bonaparte to return to
battle against Alvinczy. This time, however, he modified his plan, sending only
Massenas division back to the left bank of the Adige to keep the Austrians in check,
while Augereaus division marched down the Adige to try to cross the river at
Albaredo, near the confluence with the Alpone and thus outflank the entire Austrian
line. Massena played his role brilliantly. After crossing the Adige, he sent 3,000 men
against Proveras troops near Porcile, while leading the rest toward Mittrowskys
position in front of Arcole. He sent forward a small force while placing the rest in an
ambush. Mittrowskys men rushed forward against weak French force in front of them
but fell straight into Massenas trap and were badly mauled. The French then charged
against the fleeing Kaiserlichs and finally captured the bridge at Arcole but their further
progress was checked, and Alvinczys defensive line along the Alpone still held.
A part of Massenas division left at Porcile managed to push back Proveras men and
Alvinczy sent them order to withdraw back toward Caldiero and then east to Villanova
to take place along the line of the Alpone. Meanwhile, Augereau crossed the river and
advanced slowly up the Alpone, but Austrian reinforcements checked him before Arcole
and then forced him back. The Austrian line somehow still held, but they were suffering
heavy casualties and Alvinczy was losing his nerve after three days of fighting and
already considered retreat to Vicenza. Sensing that victory is close, Bonaparte sent a
small group of his Guides and trumpeters to cross the Alpone at one unguarded point,
ride around the rear of Alvinczys army and create as much noise as possible, deceiving
the Austrians into thinking that they were about to be attacked by French
reinforcements. The Austrians began to fall back and soon Alvinczy ordered general
retreat north to Villanova and then east to Vicenza. The French lost 4,500 men during
this desperate and confusing battle, while inflicting 6,200 casualties on their enemies and
taking 11 guns.
Bonaparte won the battle of Arcole at practically last possible moment (as events in
Vaubois sector would prove), but it was not instantly decisive victory, as Alvinczys
army was still capable of fighting another battle, and he still had to confront
Davidovichs Tyrol Corps. In fact on 17 November, the third day of the battle of Arcole,
Davidovich finally attacked Vaubois troops along the hills near Rivoli. The
outnumbered French fought desperately but were routed, losing 2,000 men and inflicting
only 600 casualties on Davidovichs men. Vaubois retreated west behind the Mincio, and
Davidovich was now in position to march south to relieve Mantua or turn east to attack
Verona, but he moved too slowly to exploit his victory.
Bonaparte reacted quickly to the news of Vaubois defeat.
He marched with Massenas division west to Villafranca to block Davidovichs advance
and ordered Vaubois to join him there. At the same time, Augereau was sent up the left
bank of the Adige to try to get around Davidovichs flank. On 19 November Davidovich
heard about Alvinczys defeat at Arcole and pulled his troops back to Rivoli. Two days
later, Bonaparte advanced against him, using Massena and Vaubois as a pining force
while directing Augereau to cut his line of communication. Davidovich realized that he
is about to be encircled and retreated north to Tyrol before the French ring closed, but in
ensuing fighting around Dolce he lost about 900 men and 3 guns. Bonaparte had finally
driven one Austrian field force out of campaign, but he knew that he still had to deal
with Alvinczy and possibly with Wurmser.
On 20 November, while Bonaparte maneuvered against Davidovich, Alvinczy advanced
again toward Verona with 16,000 men. He occupied Caldiero and his advance guard
appeared before Verona, but was checked by Kilmaines troops. At this moment,
Bonapartes striking force numbered only 15,000 men, and Alvinczy could have
achieved decisive numerical superiority by supporting Davidovichs 10,000 men by
active operations or marching south to relieve Mantua and add Wurmsers strong
garrison to his field army, but that critical moment he remained as inactive as
Davidovich. On 23 November, he heard about Davidovichs defeat and retreated east to
the line of the Brenta, effectively abandoning the campaign.
Ironically, on the same day Wurmser after long period of inactivity made a sortie from
the fortress with 8,000 men against much weaker blockading forces. If he had done it
only few days before, he could have help his colleagues to win the campaign, but now
his attempt had no effect. At first, he drove the French back and destroyed some of their
siege works, but captured French officers informed him that Alvinczy was in full retreat
and he pulled back to the fortress.
Bonaparte and his fast marching, hard hitting divisions had managed to frustrate one
more Austrian offensive and by now were developing a moral advantage over their
opponents. The Austrians had put up a good fight, but their commanders were once
again outgeneraled by greatest military genius of the time, Napoleon Bonaparte.
Branislav Petrovic
~
Battles of Arcola and Rivoli.
"Napoleon always considered this (battle of Arcola)
to have been one of his most dangerous moments."
- David Markham
Two other battles of this campaign have become a part of Napoleonic legend:
Arcola and Rivoli. "In November, Napoleon fought a 3-day battle against the
Austrian forces of Josef Alvintzi von Berberek. The action centered on the ridge
near the town of Arcola. Both sides took heavy losses, but eventually Napoleon was
able to prevail. He led his troops in actioon on the bridge, his horse was wounded,
and Napoleon found himself in the murky waters by the bridge. He was essentially
helpless but his nbrother Louyis and friend Marmont pulled him out and the
French carried the day. Napoleon always considered this to have been one of his
most dangerous moments.
In January 1797, the Austrians made a determined effort to push back the French
and relieve their troops under siege at Mantua. Napoleon met them near the town
or Rivoli. He was outnumbered and surrounded, but with skillful deployment of
his soldiers (and a fair amount of luck) he won a major victory. Almost immediately
afterwards, the French totally defeated the armies led by Provera and Alvintzi.
With no relieve in sight, Mantua surrendered on 2 February. The Austrian fate in
Italy was sealed." (Markham - "Napoleon's road to glory" pp 54-55)
Battle of Arcole (15-17 November, 1796)
20,000 French under Napoleon Bonaparte (- 4,500 killed, wounded, and prisoners)
25,000 Austrians under Alnonchi (- 6,000 killed, wounded, and prisoners, and 11
guns)
Battle of Rivoli (14-15 January, 1797)
20,000 French under Napoleon Bonaparte (- 5,000 casualties)
27,500 Austrians under Alnonchi (- 12,500 casualties)
The fighting for the bridges
and dikes near Arcole was
very bitter. "... the French
had been making continued
attempts to take Arcole.
Bon's attack had been
stopped in its tracks some
way short of the bridge, and
Augereau had then sent
forward Verdier with the 4th
Line (Infantry Regiment),
whose reception was
described by Petitbon:
Having arrived close to the village, we found the 5th Light (Infantry Regiment) thrown back
on the right side of the causeway by a terrible musket fire. We advanced, and experienced the
same fate.
Sulkowski was with Verdier, and recounted how the men tried to shelter from the
fire by sliding down the slope of the dike. Augereau ordered the rest of the
division to move up in support, but this took time, and the enemy also sent up
reinforcements, Sulkowski commenting we saw them arrive at the double, towing their
cannons behind them.
By now it was probably late morning, or even midday, and these new Austrian
troops may well have been the first of Mittrowsky's men, who are reported to have
arrived at 12:30. They placed two howitzers on the dike itself, which now became
even more deadly than before. Augereau and Lannes, who had turned up that
morning having just recovered from a wound, then essayed an attack with two
battalions of the 51st (Line Infantry Regiment) which ewere present, but they got no
closer than 80 paces from the bridge, where Lannes was hit in the leg. The historian
of the 51st did not seek to hide the men's reaction:
Taken aback by the greatness of the danger, and influenced by the disastrous
example of the other demi-brigades, the rest of the battalions suddenly fell back
onto the slope of the causeway, and were soon mixed up with the rest of the
division. Some enemy sharpshooters overlooked this slope and killed many of
our men. We stayed there without taking a step forward or backwards, getting
ourselves killed to no purpose. Nothing was capable of making the troops make
a new attempt and advance on the enemy again ..."
Augereau (picture) tried again with Verne and the 40th Line, but with
no better success. Augereau was untouched during the fighting, but
Bon, Verdier and Verne were all wounded while trying to lead their
men forward. While the attack had thus stalled on the French right,
Massena was invlolved in a struggle to hold off the Austrians on the
left. From the earliest, they had made attempts to find a way round
Massena's flank, Brabeck detaching four companies with 2 3pdrs to
make their way along the Adige and create diversion. ...
Infantry Regiment Splenyi threw back the French, captured 2 guns and continued
their advance. This movement was shadowed by a battalion of Croats that Brabeck
had sent along the other dike, which ran close to the Adige, and went through a
wood where there was a sharp bend in the river. The Croats became confused by
the nature of the terrain, and seeing the fighting between Infantry Regiment Spleny
and the French on the dike leading from Bionde, opened fire, thinking they were
shooting across the river. Infantry Regiment Spleny, which did not know of the
Croats' advance, believed they were being attacked from the rear, and retreated in
confusion, leaving behind 3 guns. Massena took advantage of this, and advanced
easily to Bionde, then to Belfiore di Porcile. ... "
It was also at some time in the mid-afternoon that the 3rd battalion of the 51st,
commanded by Soules, received orders to cross the Alpone by boat ... We are told
by Andre Estienne, a drummer with the 51st's grenadiers, that at the same time as
this attack was being made [probably around 4 pm] Augereau tried to incite his
men to move along the right bank and make a supporting assault on the bridge. He
took a color, and advancing 15 paces beyond his skirmishers, stood in the open on
the road leading to the bridge, and shouted
Grenadiers ! Come and seek your colour.
This produced
no great effect,
but Bonaparte
decided to try
the same thing.
... Sulkowski
continued:
The soldiers saw
him, and none of
them imitated
him. I was
witness to this
extraordinary
cowardice, and I
cannot conceive
it. Was it for the victors of Lodi to cover themselves with infamy ? The moment was short,
but it was catastrophic for all those who surrounded Bonaparte: his ADC Muiron, General
Vignolle, the lieutenant of the Guides, and Belliard's two assistants fell at his side. I myself
was struck right on the chest by a grape-shot, but my rolled cloak, which I was wearing
bandolier fashion, saved my life.
Sulkowski was then knocked out by explosion of a shell, so the rest of his story is
second-hand. The General-in-Chief, as they told me later, seeing that his efforts were
useless, retired, and this time the greandiers hastened to follow his example. Soules's men,
having got quite close to the village, were also forced back by a vigorous (Austrian)
counter, and had to recross the Alpone. There was great disorder among
Augereau's troops, as those at the front tried to fall back, but because of the
narrowness of the dike were prevented by those behind. Some (French) soldiers fell
in the marsh while trying to escape as the Austrians launched an attack over the
bridge.
Bonaparte's horse also lost its footing, slid down the bank, and the two of them
tumbled into the marsh, from where they were rescued, covered in mud, by a
number of men. These included several from the 4th Line, one of them, Sergeant
Boudet, was killed in the process.
The division soon rallied at a safe distance, but made no other serious attacks since
it was now almost night. Guieu, however, met with much greater success when he
finally reached Arcole after dark. His first attack, at about 6 or 7 pm, was beaten
back, but he later managed to enter the village ... The fighting eventually came to an
end at about 11 pm." (Boycott-Brown - "The Road to Rivoli" pp 463-466)
Arcole
The battle of Arcole 1796 (wargame)
The Bridge at Arcole (wargame)
~
Bonaparte's instinct for war had met every challenge !"
"For a century the first (Napoleon's) campaign in Italy
has been described - I am almost tempted to say, sung -
as a triumphant epic of offensive movements ..."
- Liddell Hart
The Directory ordered him to move against the Papal State.
Napoleon's army almost immediately exacted millions in gold from it. Then
Napoleon turned northward and marched to within a short distance of Austria's
capital, Vienna. Austria quickly agreed to peace and the war was over.
According to David Gibson "Italy was a secondary theater, locked in a defensive
strategy at the time Napoleon assumed command. His strategy clearly was to
divide the Piedmontese Army from their Austrian senior partners. Initially, his
campaign against the Piedmontese was unsuccessful and wasteful. His frontal
assaults at Ceva were futile. This is not the Napoleon of legend; the aggressiveness
is there, but not the tactical finesse. Italy was Napoleon's "on-the-job training." He
did not spring, fully developed, into the great military mind that history holds him.
But the seeds of military genius are present in this campaign. He was eventually
able to neutralize the Piedmont Army by a threatened movement against Turin. His
subsequent campaigns against the Austrian Army in Italy further honed his
strategic and tactical skills."
By maintenance of the initiative, rapidity of maneuver and concentration of
superior forces at the right moment and the right place, he defeated every army
thrown at him. According to British historian Liddell Hart "For a century the first
(Napoleon's) campaign in Italy has been described - I am almost tempted to say,
sung - as a triumphant epic of offensive movements, according to which Bonaparte
conquered Italy so easily because he followed up attack with attack, with a
boldness that was equal to his good luck."
In 4 days Bonaparte had hacked a bloody breach
between Colli and Beaulieu, sending Beaulieu
staggering northward to regroup. Then, wheeling
westward, in 14 days more he had crushed Colli.
According to American historians Vincent Esposito and John Elting, Bonaparte's
Italian campaign revolutionized the prevaling deliberate, chessboard concepts of
the art of war. Luck not favored Bonaparte, the weather had clogged his operations,
and the carelessness of his generals and poor supplies invited disaster. Bonaparte's
instinct for war had met every challenge !"
At the end of the campaign, Bonaparte's first year of independent command (!), he
stood less than 100 miles from Vienna, the Austrian capital. He forced the
Austrians to a truce and then a peace, captured 160,000 prisoners of war, 170 flags
and more than 2,000 guns, and extorted untold millions of francs in contributions.
Within next months Bonaparte had defeated 7 armies. It was astounding success.
Very quickly he became the idol of all Frenchmen and half of Europe. His
reputation and fame had spread like a wildfire, from England to Russia, and from
Germany to Italy.
28-years old Napoleon Bonaparte
Back in France in December 1797, Napoleon was given a
hero's welcome by both the government and the people.
He had brought security to France, riches to the government
and fame and glory to himself. He had Paris at his feet.
Sources and Links
Commandant Camon - "La Guere Napoleoninne - Precis des Campagnes"
Esposito, Elting - "A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars"
Chandler - "The Campaigns of Napoleon"
Chandler - "The Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars"
Herbert - "Napoleon Bonaparte's first campaign."
Markham - "Napoleon's road to glory."
napoleon-series.org
wikipedia.org
Wilkinson, Spenser - "The French army before Napoleon; lectures delivered before the University of Oxford ..."
LES COMPAGNIES DE CHASSEURS DES REGIMENTS D'INFANTERIE
D'ORDONNANCE NATIONALE DU ROYAUME DE SARDAIGNE - article by Dr. Jean Cerino Badone
Battle of Heilsberg (Lidzbark Warm.) 1807 : Schlacht : Bataille : Bitwa
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Heilsberg_battle.htm[2012-05-21 12:42:47]
Heilsberg, June 1807
"At Heilsberg Mashals Murat and Soult brought Bennigsen to action.
But so savage a stand did the Russians make that only the arrival
of Marshal Lannes prevented the battle from ending in a French defeat."
- Christopher T. Atkinson
"... the word 'butchery' occurs in many accounts of Heilsberg."
- Georges Blond
Introduction. The Year of 1807.
From Berlin to Warsaw.
"The First Polish War."
"Quel massacre! Et sans resultat."
Sieges of Danzig and Dirschau.
General Bennigsen decided to attack
the advanced corps of Marshal Ney.
"Bennigsen, having failed in this attempt
at a surprise stroke, had nothing to do but
fall back" on fortified Heilsberg.
Russian order of battle.
French order of battle.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Murat and Soult vs Bagration.
Murat was unable to break Bagration
and decided to wait for Soult's corps.
Together they drove Bagration back.
Massive cavalry battle.
It was Russian cuirassiers' glory day.
They defeated a body of enemy
estimated at two times their number.
The Guard Fusiliers rescued
Murat's cavalry.
"It would be better for us if he (Murat)
was less brave and had a little more
common sense."
Bagration's die-hards.
After suffering almost 50 % casualties
Bagration decided to fall-back.
Map of battle.
Fight for the redoubts.
At 7 pm the French infantry captured
one of the Russian redoubts. By 8 pm
however the Russians retook it.
Russian counter-offensive.
The fleeing French infantry run in the
direction of Lawden Wood where stood
d'Espagne's cuirassiers. The cavalry
became disordered.
Lannes' arrival and furious attack.
Casualties and aftermath.
The next day the odour of the corpses
festering in the sun became horrible.
French victory.
After receiving information that Davout's corps
had been sighted Bennigsen abandoned his
position , and quickly marched away.
From Heilsberg to Friedland.
Peace Treaty.
Napoleon in battle.
"After so many presumptuous demonstrations, the enemy's general (Bennigsen)
could not but feel a temptation not to run away so swiftly, but to stop and fight,
especially in a position where a great many precautions had been taken to render
the chances of a great battle less disadvantageous." (- Adolphe Thiers)
Introduction. The Year of 1807.
In January 1807 was born Robert Edward Lee, one of the most celebrated generals in American history.
He is best known for commanding the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in the American Civil
War. Lee's victories against superior forces won him fame as a crafty and daring battlefield tactician, but
some of his strategic decisions, have been criticized by military historians. (Pictures, ext.link)
Britain and France were at war; the U.S. was neutral and trading with both sides.
Both sides tried to hinder American trade with the other. President Jefferson's goal
was to use economic warfare to secure American rights, instead of military
warfare. Initially, these acts sought to punish the British for its violation of
American rights on the high seas; among these was the impressment of those
sailors off American ships, sailors who claimed to be American citizens but not in
the opinion or to the satisfaction of the Royal Navy, ever on the outlook for deserters.
The Embargo Act was passed by the US Congress, during the second term of President Thomas
Jefferson was partly brought upon by the 'Chesapeake Incident' involving Britain attacking a U.S. ship,
(in June the British board USS Chesapeake) and partly by Britain prohibiting on her trading partners
from trading with France.
The Slave Trade Act was passed by the British Parliament in March 1807.
The act abolished the slave trade in the British Empire, but not slavery itself.
In October 1807 the serfdom is abolished in Prussia. In Russia however the
serfdom was still legal. (According to the census of 1857 the number of serfs was
23 million out of 62 million Russians. By comparison, the U.S. had 4 million
slaves by 1860, the British Empire had 750,000 slaves in 1833.)
Robert Fulton's first American steamboat, leaves New York for Albany on the
Hudson River, inaugurating the first commercial steamboat service in the world.
The Oystermouth Railway (pictures, ext. link) in Great Britain becomes the first
passenger carrying railway in the world.
Pall Mall in London (pictures, ext. link) becomes the first street with gas
lighting.
Geological Society of London founded.
Milan Decree issued by Napoleon, stating that no European country was to trade with the Great Britain.
In March 16th the Royal Navy and 5,000 redcoats under General A. Mackenzie Fraser
invaded and occupied Alexandria in Egypt. The aim was to secure the port as a base
for Mediterranean operations and to prevent the French from taking advantage of it.
The action however not only alienated Russian allies but was also a military
catastrophe, with Fraser losing two battles at Rosetta (modern Rashid) on 29 March and
21 April. The crushed battalions suffered "almost 1.400 casualties". It forced the British
to abandon the idea of expanding the conquered territory, and they were confined
only to the city. Agreement to leave Egypt was signed in September, 1807.
On 27th May, the Sultan Selim III was overthrown and replaced by Mustafa IV. His troops felt that the
Sultan's anti-Islamic reforms were directly responsible for the decline of the Ottoman empire. A mutiny
in part of the Turkish army ensued.
In July 1807 take place the disastrous British attack on Buenos Aires.
In September 1807, after a Danish refusal to surrender their biggest city,
Copenhagen, to the British, the warships bombarded the place killing
2.000 civilians and destroying 30 % of the buildings. Then during
armistice the Royal Navy carried off the Danish fleet and "all the naval
stores in the arsenal."
In September 1807, British ambassador from Constantinopole, Arbuthnot,
had already pressed for warships to be sent to bully the Turks. Admiral
Collingwood sent number of ships to the Dardanelles and shortly after
this the British Cabinet decided to send Vice-Admiral Duckworth with
more ships to the Turkish capital "to demand the immediate surrender of
the Turkish Fleet , together with that of supply of naval stores from the
arsenal ..."
The Turks however showed no signs of being intimidated. They cannonaded the British forcing them to
a hastily retreat on March 3rd. The British barely escaped being battered by 300 cannons. This military
action ended up in humiliation.
On 6 June 1807 an earthquake strikes Lisbon, Portugal.
In 1807 Portugal refused Napoleon's demand to accede to the Continental System of
embargo against Great Britain. Thus in October and November a French invasion under
Junot followed. Lisbon was captured. (Portugal tried to manage an equilibrium between
Britain (Portugal's oldest ally) and aggressive France, opting for a policy of neutrality while
continuing to trade with both countries. However, France was anxious to break the Anglo-
Portuguese alliance in order to close Portuguese ports to British merchants.)
.
1807
~
From Berlin to Warsaw.
After humiliating Prussia in 1806, the French Emperor
turned his attention to subduing his mighty Russian foe.
Negotiations between France, Britain and Russia, during the early months of 1806, broke down. Prussia
had been lashed to fury by the discovery that Napoleon had attempted to bribe Britain with Hanover,
which he had so recently ceded to Prussia. Wishing to strike her before succour reach her from Russia,
Napoleon anticipated her ultimatum by marching against her towards the Elbe River.
In August 1806, the Prussian king, made the decision to go to war independently of any other great
power. The Prussian ultimatum reached Napoleon on the 7th October. Approx. 150,000 French soldiers
moved with such speed that Napoleon was able to destroy the fearsome Prussian army in two quick
battles, Jena and Auerstadt. These defeats were a heavy blow to the Fourth Coalition against Napoleon.
Napoleon entered into Berlin in October and visited the tomb of King Frederick the Great. He instructed
his marshals to remove their hats, saying, "If he was alive we wouldn't be here today."
The defeat of Prussian army in Jena and
Auerstadt did not end the war. Some Prussian
troops survived the catastrophe and joined
those stationed in Eastern Prussia. The French
troops followed them. Napoleon also hoped on
finding the Russians and defeating them in a
pitched battle.
In late autumn Napoleon's army entered land
inhabited by the Poles. They moved through
Posen (PolisH Poznan) and Kalisz. "The topography of Poland was little known [to the French]. A
survey detachment directly under imperial headquarters was accordingly organized to which was
entrusted the task of mapping the country as the army advanced. The instructions issued to these
'surveyors' are not without interest. They were to move with the advanced guard of each corps and to
send their work daily to imperial headquarters. Attention was especially called to the necessity for
recording the name of each village - this, one would think, was a somewhat superfluous instruction -
with its population and nature of soil. Each sketch was to be signed so that, if more precise information
was subsequently required by Napoleon, the officer concerned could be readily summoned. The
emperor complained later that it was to find on his maps a place mentioned in a dispatch, and gave
orders that places named must have their locality plainly described." (- F.D. Logan)
Napoleon's army crossed the Vistula River in several points and turned north-east. The French entered
Eastern Prussia (German: Ostpreuen, today Mazury in Poland), inhabited by Prussians and Poles.
The theater of war, Eastern Prussia, was for the most part flat, marshy, and thickly wooded area. There
were some small hills (approx. 500 feet above the sea) but only in the north-western corner. It is a land
of 1,000 lakes, like the state of Wisconsin in the United States.
It was difficult to find an area sufficiently clear of continuous forest to allow of the deployment of larger
force. It was also a difficult terrain for speedy maneuvers. There were only few roads and even fewer
cities.
Links:
Pictures of landscape of Eastern Prussia
(today Mazury in Poland) Part 1. , Part 2.
~
The "First Polish War".
"... France's enemies happened to be Poland's oppressors ..."
The war in 1807 was called by Napoleon the First Polish War.
and resulted in the formation of the Polish state.
Marshal Murat and the French cavalry entered
Warsaw to a rapturous welcome. (See picture).
He was feted by the Poles igniting hopes of
future kingship.
"In the 16th century Poland had been one of the
most powerful countries in Europe ... within
the space of 200 years, however, Poland had
been eclipsed by its neighbours ... Soon the
country's history culture and language were
extinguished and its very name abolished. In
this way was the white eagle of Poland
devoured by the three black eagles of Prussia,
Russia, and Austria. ... Meanwhile the Poles
looked for France, with its revolutionary ideas of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity, as a beacon of hope.
The fact France's enemies happened to be Poland's oppressors was an obvious attraction, and many
Polish soldiers volunteered for service in the French army." (Summerville - "Napoleon's Polish Gamble" p
15)
Napoleon was furious with Marshal Murat, for forwarding one petition from Warsaw, in which it was
prayed that the Polish kingdom might be reconstituted under a French commander. Napoleon's replies
to Poles were sufficiently encouraging to assure to him the moral and material support of the Poles in
the ensuing campaign, and to deprive Prussia and Russia of all hope of recruiting their armies by
voluntary enlistment in Poland.
To the Polish deputations which approached the French Emperor in Berlin and at Warsaw, he replied
vaguely, "France has never recognised the different partitions of Poland; nevertheless, I cannot proclaim
your independence until you have decided to defend your rights as a nation with arms in your hands
by every sort of sacrifice, even that of life. You have been reproached with having, in your continued
civil dissensions, lost sight of the interests of your country. Instructed by your misfortunes, reunite
yourselves and prove to the world that one spirit animates the whole Polish nation."
Napoleon finally entered Warsaw in 1807 and French eagles
soared over the Vistula. The Emperor was hesitant about
reenacting the Kingdom of Poland. It would enrage Russia and
Austria. In spite of the ovations given him by the Poles, he wrote:
"Only God can arbitrate this vast political problem ... It would
mean blood, more blood, and srtill more blood ..."
But it was not long before the Duchy of Warsaw became a bastion
of France in central and Eastern Europe, and Polish troops stood
ready to fight for Napoleon and independence. The war in 1807
was called by Napoleon the "First Polish War" and resulted in the
formation of the Polish state. The country was divided into
departments. The branches of justice, war, finance and police,
were assigned to Polish government.
In 1812 Napoleon, in an attempt to gain increased support from Polish nationalists, termed the war
against Russia the "Second Polish War. The Poles formed the largest of the contingents (100,000)
provided by any of the states allied with France. According to American historian, George Nafziger, the
Poles became "Napoleon's staunchest allies" and followed him through thick and thin.
Poland, or rather the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, supplied thousands of soldiers for the Emperor,
while he beat the hell out of Poland's oppressors.
~
"Quel massacre! Et sans resultat"
The casualties at Eylau were such that the French soldiers
cried out for peace after the battle. Eylau was the first
serious check to the splendid Grande Armee, which in the
previous two campaigning seasons had carried all before it.
Altghough the Russian army was routed at Austerlitz
with easy, the Russian soldiers were formidable
opponents. The artillery was very numerous and
many pieces were of heavy calibre. The cavalry was
good and the Cossacks very numerous. The infantry
were rather poor marksmen and without much
initiative, but they were firm in defensive action, and
eager to charge with the bayonet. The Russians were
very disciplined troops. Napoleon once said, "If the
Frenchmen had the firmness and the docility of the Russians the world not be great enough for me."
Two of the four bloodiest napoleonic battles were between the French and Russian armies. British
General Sir Charles Stewart admired many aspects of the Russian army, "The whole appearance of a
Russian army denotes hardihood and bravery, inured to any privations . They subsist well on black
bread: few cattle are seen following the army. Their commissaries have little to do; and the great burden
of managing the commissariat, which is so irksome to a British commander on service, seems perfectly
light to a Russian chief." The weakest link of the Russian army were their officers and generals.
The winter campaign in eastern Prussia and Poland exhausted the French troops mentally and
physically. They campaigned mostly in the wooded area and with few inhabitants, virtually wilderness.
It was with extreme difficulty that the artillery could be moved along.
It was also very difficult situation for the Russians. An unknown from name officer of Azov Musketier
Regiment wrote: I am so numbed, mentally and physically, by hunger, cold, and exertion, that I hardly
have the strength or the desire left to write this down. No army could suffer more than ours has done in
these days. It is no exaggerated calculation to say that for every mile between Jonkerdorf and this place
the army has lost 1.000 men who have not come within sight of the enemy... The poor soldiers glide
about like ghosts."
On 7-8
February
1807
Napoleon
finally
met the
Russian
army at
Eylau
(Preussisch-Eylau). After 12 hours of continuous battle, there was still no result but enormous loss of
life. The Russian casualties are estimated at 15,000, while the French have suffered 10,000-15,000 killed
and wounded.
Riding over the battlefield one of the French commanders said: "Quel massacre ! Et sans resultat" (What a
massacre! And for no outcome.) The French soldiers cried out for peace after Eylau.
Eylau was the first serious check to the splendid Grande Armee, which in the previous two campaigning
seasons had carried all before it.
.
Huge formation of French cavalry at Eylau 1807.
Picture by Simon Fort

Charge of French heavy cavalry at Eylau in 1807.
Battle of Eylau
(Some of the uniforms are not correct historically.)
The rest of the winter and spring passed in quietness. Napoleon had said that the army would go into
winter quarters. The army had to recover 60,000 wounded, missing and deserters. The hospitals were
overcrowded. The Emperor appreciated surgeons' hard work and rewarded them with promotions and
money.
In France thousands of young men were called to arms. They were then rushed to the front and were
drilled en route. The news from France however were not good. The slaughter at Eylau had had the
worst effect. The military police combed the rear areas to round-up deserters.
Although in general the French troops in spring of 1807 were still excellent they were not
as good as those at Austerlitz, Jena, Auerstadt, and Eylau. "The rank and file of the
(French) army was but little, if at all, past its best. In the earlier part of the campaign, its
youngest men were the conscripts of 1806 who had, owing to their premature enrolment,
already undergone a years' training. Many of the troops had been with Napoleon in his
earlier campaigns and in Egypt, very many had been at Ulm and Austerlitz, the majority
had just emerged from the briliant campaign of Jena.
They were now preparing for a renewed war against fresh enemies; the hardest task that
an army can undertake. Even these hardened and enthusiastic warriors contemplated
with dread the prospect of a fresh winter campaign in an inhospitable and difficult country, and
Napoleon was often remonstrated with, as he rode alongside of his men, for insisting on their advance to
Poland.
To such complaints he would reply with the rough jests which his veterans loved to hear from him ... In
action, the infantry was still splendid, and did not as yet require to be formed in deep columns of many
battalions, such as was macdonald's at Wagram, three years later. The cavalry was excellent and well
mounted, though, in the latter respect, they fell short of many Russian cavalry regiments. The artillery
was highly trained and invariably made good practice." (Petre - "Napoleon's Campaign in Poland, 1806-
1807" pp 27-28)
Napoleon decided to build a military camp in Osterode. The French engineers constructed a palisade
around a vast square inside which were streets bordered by wooden huts. Each street bore the name of
one of the latest victories. The Imperial Guard had its own camp, built with a degree of luxury. In the
centre was a brick building where Napoleon installed himself.
In spring 1807 though the weather was still severe, Napoleon rousted his troops out of their winter
quarters for drills and frequent field exercises. During this campaign in winter and spring Napoleon was
so tired that several times he fell asleep while sitting in the chair. He would later complain that he had
not removed his boots for 14 straight days !
~
Sieges of Danzig and Dirschau.
"All the best engineer officers of the French army
were collected together ... at Danzig, and the
operations were conducted with great rapidity,
though not fast enough to please the Emperor ..."
In the beginning of April Napoleon set up his headquarters at Finkenstein (Le chteau de Finkenstein )
near Osterode, in East Prussia, now part of Poland. He was to stay there for few weeks. "I have just
moved my headquarters to a very fine chteau, rather like the one which belongs to Bessires. Here I
have many fireplaces, and this is something I like very much; since I often get up in the night, I like to
see a fire burning. My health is perfect."
Napoleon had begun to contemplate a renewal of the
campaign so early as the end of April, when he wrote
Marshal Soult to send his sick to the rear, preparatory
to a general advance.
All he needed was only the capture of Danzig, an
important sea port and fortress at the mouth of the
Vistula River. In Danzig (60,000 inhabitants),
defended by Prussian troops and few Russians, were
immense stocks of ammunition and weapons. Danzig
was a direct threat to the French left - it lay to the rear
of the French army as it advanced eastward. Thus on
the 19th of March 1807, around 25,000 French under
Marshal Lefebvre laid siege to around 12,000 Prussian
and Russian troops garrisoning Danzig.
Lefebvre had a German accent, a very loud voice and a sergeant's vocabulary. But he
looked after his soldiers as if they were his own children. Lefebvre was an outstanding
"general of execution, an excellent leader of men, but given a semi-independent mission
he was apt to go looking for a head to hit, regardless of orders."
Because Lefebvre knew nothing of that type of warfare, Napoleon sent him an engineer,
Chasseloup, and a fine gunner, Jean-Ambroise-Baston comte de Lariboisire. Baron
Lejeune writes: "All the best engineer officers of the French army were collected together
under General Chasseloup at Danzig, and the operations were conducted with great rapidity, though
not fast enough to please the Emperor, who, at a distance from the scene of action, did not realize that
fresh obstacles were thrown in our way every day by the skill of the directors of the defence."
Another point of importance for Napoleon was the fortress
of Dirschau (Polish: Tczew) situated on the Vistula River.
Dirschau stands on the west bank of the Vistula protecting
the approaches to Danzig.
Georges Blond wrote, "The Poles in the Grande Armee had
wantonly wrecked the small town of Dirschau because it
had been defended by Prussians - only 500 of them, but
General Dombrowski [sic] had first battered it with artillery.
Then the Polish troops had opened fire indiscriminately on
both the enemy and the population. Some houses remained
miraculously intact amid the carnage." ( Georges Blond - "La
Marian Kukiel gives the strength of Prussian garrisson at
one infantry battalion under Major Both, 650 men, and some town militia. (Kukiel - "Dzieje oreza polskiego
w epoce napoleonskiej 1795-1815", publ. in 1912, pp 137-138.) Dirschau was probably defedned by 1,000
Prussians with 2 guns. The Poles had 2,500-3,000 raw recruits.
The Poles brought up 1 gun, blew in the gates and took the city by storm. (See picture).
The capture of Dirschau meant that Prussians and Russians were holed up Danzig.
In May the Russians made an attempt to bring 7,500 reinforcements to
Danzig, ferried in 57 transports and protected by the British sloop Falcon,
and a Swedish ship of the line. Owing to the absence of the Swedish
vessel (bearing 1,200 troops), the Russians were delayed in their
operations. This allowed the French time to reinforce their positions.
When the Russo-Prussian garrison finally made a sortie in force, Lefebvre
went flailing happily into the middle of the uproar, pushing aside the
grenadiers who tried to shield him: "Come on my lads ! This I understand
!" The Allies were beaten back.
A further attempt by a British 18-gun Dauntless to bring badly needed
supplies of gunpowder via the river failed, when the ship ran aground and was boarded and captured
by the French infantry.
When Danzig finally fell to French hands on 24th May, Levebvre became the Duke of Danzig and was
awarded with a lot of money. Each soldier wounded at Danzig was to receive 10 francs. The unwounded
soldiers 10 francs and a bottle of wine. Marshal Lefebvre was to receive an individual who spoke with
envy of the riches he enjoyed. Lefebvre replied: "You can have the lot at cost. ... I will fire 60 musket
rounds at you and if you are still alive after that you can have the lot."
On September 9, Napoleon established the Free City of Danzig, as a semi-independent state.
Meanwhile Mortier (see picture) beat Swedish troops at Anklam, leading to the armistice
of Schlachtow, on 18 April. The attack was ordered because Swedish troops had crossed
the strategically important river Peene. After the armistice, the Swedes retained their part
of Pomerania and Stralsund. Mortier's corps was free to rejoin Napoleon preparing to
face the Russians.
On 26th April Russia and Prussia signed the secret Convention of Bartenstein
(Bartoszyce). Prussia and Russia agreed not to sign separate peace treaties with France.
On 4th May France and Persia signed the Treaty of Finkenstein.
Napoleon dispatched General Gardanne to Tehran. For Napoleon, the Persian alliance served a dual
purpose. While it created a temporary diversion against Russia, it also threatened British interests in
India. "France guaranteed Persia's territorial integrity and acknowledged her legitimate rights to
Georgia, from which, and from all other Persian territory, France would make every effort to drive
Russia." (- Iradj Khan )
Picture:
Persian delegation at Finkenstein >>
~
General Bennigsen decided to attack
the advanced corps of Marshal Ney.
The French light cavalry patrols noticed
some activity on the Russian side. The
Emperor wrote: "Everything leads to the
belief that the enemy is on the move,
though it is ridiculous on his part to
engage in a general action now that
Danzig is taken ..."
The Russians soon attacked French
advance posts. Napoleon left Finkenstein
riding in a carriage and escorted by the
cavalry of Imperial Guard. He wrote to
Marshal Bernadotte: "I have yet to deduce
what the enemy was trying to do. The whole thing had a smell of a rash move.
In early June, General Bennigsen decided to attack the advanced corps of Marshal Ney in East Prussia.
His plan for the destruction of Ney was very complicated. The scheme had in its favor the fact that Ney
his front being surrounded by woods, could not see what was going on at any considerable distance.
Nevertheless, Ney obtained sufficient information from his cavalry to convince him that some serious
movements were in progress before fim. He requested Soult to support his left and Davout to
strengthen his position at Bergfried on the right.
Bennigsen postponed the movement till the 5th. Then he took on the offensive and after several small
engagements had expanded its force and came to a standstill. The Emperor had not been idle, he
ordered the Guard cavalry to assemble at Finkenstein, and sent orders to his marshals. His design now
was, to cut the Russian army from the Baltic Sea and Koenigsberg and its resources. On the 9th, the
French troops occupied these positions:
- Marshal Soult's corps was at Altkirch
- Marshal Davout held the left bank of the Alle River above Guttstadt
- Marshal Ney's corps was at Guttstadt
- Marshal Murat's Reserve Cavalry was at Guttstadt
- the Guard was at Guttstadt
- Marshal Mortier was approaching Guttstadt
Bennigsen was furious at Ney's miraculous getaway: outnumbered by 3 : 1, it was an
easy victory for the Russians. Fuming Bennigsen blamed Sacken for allowing Ney to
escape.
Then Bennigsen fell victim to a French ploy that stopped his advance in its tracks. The
Russian general received a captured dispatch, addressed to Ney, stating that Davout's
corps is about to fall on Bennigsen's rear.
Thrown into a panic, Bennigsen shifts into reverse, ordering a retreat. First he marched
to Guttstadt, and then to Heilsberg. But the dispatch is bogus, planted on the Russians
in an effort to save Ney.
~
"Bennigsen, having failed in this attempt
at a surprise stroke, had nothing to do but
fall back" on fortified Heilsberg.
"Bennigsen, having failed in this attempt at a surprise stroke, had nothing to do but fall back along the
main road which leads to Konigsberg, for his numbers were inferior to those which the Emperor could
bring now against him ... On the other hand he felt fairly sure ... of being able to maintain the defensive
indefinitely as he so fell back ... first of all he had heavily fortified Heilsberg, a place on the main road ...
and next because he had proved during all the winter fighting the stubbornness of the Russian line." (-
Hilaire Belloc)
Heilsberg (today Lidzbark Warminski in Poland) was a small town, situated on the left bank of the Alle
River. In Heilsberg stood an old Teutonic castle. For many years it was a residence of the bishops of
Warmia and a stronghold protecting the eastern border of their domain. By the power of the Second
Peace Treaty of Torun signed in 1466, Warmia was incorporated into Poland. The year of 1772 brought
the incorporation of Warmia into Prussia.
On the north side of the Alle River (Lyna River today), an undulating plain stretched in all directions. It
was intersected by the course of the Spuibach Stream. On the left side of the stream was the Lawden
Wood. Half a mile south-west of the wood was the village of the same name.
This whole area was familiar to the Russians. Between February and May they had made use of every
fold of the terrain around Heilsberg. Majority of the earthworks stood on the southern bank of Alle
River as Bennigsen anticipated the French to come from that direction.
There were several heights around Heilsberg. "Numerous redoubts had been erected on those heights.
They were occupied by the Russian army, parted in two by the Alle. This very serious inconvenience
was redeemed by 4 bridges constructed in well-sheltered nooks, and allowing troops to be moved from
one shore to the other. As according to all indications, the French would come along the left bank, the
greater part of the Russian troops had been concentrated on that side. In the redoubts of the right bank,
General Bennigsen had left only the Imoerial Guard and Bagration's division, fatigued with the actions
fought on the previous day. Batteries had been disposed to fire from one bank to the other." (- Adolphe
Thiers)
The Russians had made use of every fold of the terrain around Heilsberg. On the northern bank stood 3
redoubts, probably 3 or 4 smaller earthworks were there as well. Mjr Karl-Friedrich von Both wrote
shortly after the war about 6 redoubts on northern bank of Alle. Another author, Petre, mentioned just 3
redoubts, 1 earthwork by the river to defend the bridges, and further 2 earthworks interspersed. He also
stated that the Redoubt #1 stood approx. 500 paces from the river, and Redoubt #2 stood approx. 900
paces north of the Redoubt #1. On Hoepfner's map are at least 7 redoubts and earthworks (fleches ?).
The Redoubt #1 and #2 had walls 10 feet high and 12 feet thick. Wooden logs supported the inner and
outer walls.
Left: Redoubt #1 on the
northern bank of Alle River.
Right: redoubts on the
southern bank of Alle and the
town of Heilsberg (in the
upper right corner).
On the southern bank of Alle
River stood in a semicircle
numerous field works. They
were strongly garrisoned
until Benigsen moved his troops on the
northern bank.
There were several bridges across the Alle River. One bridge was near the Redoubt #1, three pontoon
bridges were set closer to Heilsberg and five bridges were in Heilsberg itself. These bridges were very
useful for Bennigsen who moved cavalry, infantry and artillery across the river.
According to Russian author V.N.Shikanov, General Bennigsen didn't really know when and where
exactly Napoleon will strike. Therefore he deployed his army on both sides of the Alle (Lyna) River
behind fortified heights. The deployment of Russian troops was as follow:
- On the southern bank of Alle was Bagration's troops
(excl. 20 squadrons of Shepelev's light cavalry brigade).
- On the northern bank, with its left flank resting on the
small fieldwork near the river , stood the 8th Division.
- In the Redoubt #1 was placed one battery. This redoubt
and its surroundings were defended by 4 battalions.
- Next to the 8th, on the right, was deployed the 6th Division.
- In and nearby Redoubt #2 stood one battery and 4 guns
(total of 16 pieces) and some infantry. Behind this redoubt,
as a reserve were 5 squadrons of Prussian Towarzysze.
- In Redoubt #3 was one battery and 2 guns (total of 14).
It was also garrisoned by infantry.
- The area behind the Redoubt #2 and #3 was defended by
Kamenski's Reserve Division.
- Between #1 and #2, were deployed 6th and 4th Division.
- In reserve were 1st and 2nd Division.
- To the north, in and around the village of Wielochowo and
beyond the lake, were Platov's Cossacks.
- The Lifeguard Hussar Regiment "was out in front on the
Guttstadt road, two more cavalry regiments on that leading
to Seeburg". But when it became certain that no attack was
to be apprehended on he right bank (it was in the evening)
these regiments were withdrawn to the cavalry reserve.
Every infantry regiment of 8th, 6th, 4th and 5th Division had two battalions deployed in line,
and the third battalion (grenadier battalion) behind them in column as a reserve.
~
Russian Order of Battle.
The Russian army in 1806 was an army in transition. "Among the army's deficiencies certain things
stand out. There were few large scale maneuvers to familiarize everyone with the difficulties of moving
large formations in concert. For most of the year, individual regiments were even billeted among
scattered villages so that regimental esprit the corps was impossible to develop. Initiatiative at all levels
was discouraged. Units maneuvered according to parade ground drill while the tactical situation
around them collapsed.
Absteeeism and drunkenness not to mention gambling and fraud plagued the officer corps. A surprising
number of irregulars, supernumeraries, and non-combatants accompanied the army, clogging the roads
and consuming scarce provisions. Irregula cossack formations behaved like freebooters, coming and
going as they pleased. In a private communication, Wilson observed, In some respects this army resembles
the Turkish army with its large, disorderly mass of camp followers.
Yet, among continental armies, the Russians consistently provided the sternest battlefield opposition to
the French." (Arnold - "Crisis in the Snows" p 63)
GoK - gieneral ot kavalerii [general of cavalry]
GL - gieneral-lejtnant [general lieutenant]
GM - gieneral-major [general major]
Plk. - polkovnik [colonel]
Pplk. - podpolkovnik [lieutenat-colonel]
Mjr. - major
Musketier Regiment = 3 battalions (1 grenadier, and 2 musketier).
Grenadier Regiment = 3 battalions (1 grenadier, and 2 fusilier).
Jager Regiment = 2 or 3 battalions (all jagers)
Hussar Regiment = 10 squadrons
Horse Regiment = 10 squadrons
Dragoon Regiment = 5 squadrons
Cuirassier Regiment = 5 squadrons
Heavy Battery = 12 guns (8 12pdr cannons and 4 unicorns)
Light Battery = 12 guns (8 6pdr cannons and 4 unicorns)
Horse Battery = 12 guns (8 6pdr cannons and 4 unicorns)
.

Commander-in-Chief: GoK Leontii Bennigsen
Before the battle Gen. "Bennigsen, was suffering from the stone,
which occasionally subjected him to the tortures of the damned.
He slept in his bivouac fully dressed, wrapped in his cloak ..."
(Georges Blond - "La Grande Armee" p 1446)

Chief-of-Staff: GM Steinheil
LIGHT TROOPS FIRST LINE
Rear Guard - GL Prince Bagration
Division - GM Raievski
- - - - - Jger Brigade - Plk. Ogarev
- - - - - - - - - - 20th Jgers
- - - - - - - - - - 23rd Jgers
- - - - - - - - - - 24th Jgers
- - - - - Jger Brigade - Plk. Fritzsch
- - - - - - - - - - 25th Jgers
- - - - - - - - - - 26th Jgers
Division - GM Baggovout
- - - - - Jger Brigade -
- - - - - - - - - - 3rd Jgers
- - - - - - - - - - 4th Jgers
- - - - - - - - - - 5th Jgers
- - - - - - - - - - 7th Jgers
- - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade - Plk. Shepelev
- - - - - - - - - - Grodno Hussars
- - - - - - - - - - Pavlograd Hussars
- - - - - Artillery: Horse Battery
(part of) 6th Division - GM Lvov
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - Plk. Verderovski
- - - - - - - - - - 2nd Jgers
- - - - - - - - - - Kexholm Musketeers
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GM Rahmanov
- - - - - - - - - - Nisov Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Revel Musketeers
- - - - - Detached: Light Cavalry Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - Tartar Horse
- - - - - - - - - - Kiev Dragoons
- - - - - Artillery (half of Cossack battery)
.
.
Cossacks - GL Ataman Platov
- - - - - Cossack Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - Cossack regiment
- - - - - Cossack Brigade
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Corps - GL Prince Gorchakov
(part of) 6th Division - GL Knorring-II
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GM Bykov ?
- - - - - - - - - - Pernau Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Volhynia Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Belosersk Musketeers
- - - - - Artillery (1 heavy and 2 light batteries)
(part of) 8th Division - GL Essen-III
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GM Engelhardt
- - - - - - - - - - Schlusserbourg Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Podolia Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Old Ingermanland Musketeers
- - - - - Artillery (4 heavy batteries)
Reserve Division - GL Kamenski (or GL Kamenski-I)
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GM Warneck
- - - - - - - - - - Perm Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Kalouga Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Sievsk Musketeers
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GM Arseniev-II
- - - - - - - - - - 21st Jagers
- - - - - - - - - - Mohilev Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Navazhinsk Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Arhangelgorod Musketeers
- - - - - Artillery (half of horse battery)
.
.
Corps - GL Dohturov
3rd Division - GL Titov-II
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GM von Netting
- - - - - - - - - - Chernihov Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Dniepr Musketeers
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GM ?
- - - - - - - - - - Koporsk Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Muromsk Musketeers
- - - - - Cavalry Brigade - GM Ushakov-II
- - - - - - - - - - Lithuanian Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Taurida Grenadiers
(part of) 7th Division - GL Dohturov
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GM Zapolski
- - - - - - - - - - Moscow Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Ekaterinbourg Musketeers
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GM Pasek
- - - - - - - - - - Voronezh Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Vladimir Musketeers
14th Division - GM Olsufiev
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - Plk. Gersdorff
- - - - - - - - - - Sophia Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Uglitza Musketeers
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GM Alexeiev
- - - - - - - - - - Riazan Musketeers
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GM Somov
- - - - - - - - - - Tula Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Vilno Musketeers
CAVALRY RESERVES
Cavalry (right flank) - GL Uvarov
- - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade - GM Yurkovski
- - - - - - - - - - Soumy Hussars
- - - - - - - - - - Elisavetgrad Hussars
- - - - - - - - - - Lithuanian Horse
- - - - - Dragoon Brigade [from ?th Div.] - GM Prince Dolgoruki-
III
- - - - - - - - - - Kazan Dragoons
- - - - - - - - - - Riga Dragoons
- - - - - - - - - - Courland Dragoons
- - - - - - - - - - horse battery
- - - - - Dragoon Brigade [from 7th Div.] - GM Alexeiev
- - - - - - - - - - Livland Dragoons
- - - - - - - - - - Finland Dragoons
- - - - - - - - - - Mitava Dragoons
- - - - - - - - - - horse battery
- - - - - Dragoon Brigade [from 8th Div.] - GM Meller-
Zakomelski-II
- - - - - - - - - - St.Petersbourg Dragoons
- - - - - - - - - - Ingermanland Dragoons
- - - - - - - - - - Kargopol Dragoons
- - - - - - - - - - horse battery
Cavalry (left flank) - GL Prince Golitzin-V
- - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade - GM de Lambert
- - - - - - - - - - Polish Horse
- - - - - - - - - - Alexandria Hussars
- - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade - GM Dorohov
- - - - - - - - - - Olviopol Hussars
- - - - - - - - - - Isoum Hussars
- - - - - Dragoon Brigade - GM Korff
- - - - - - - - - - Moscow Dragoons
- - - - - - - - - - Pskov Dragoons
- - - - - - - - - - horse battery
- - - - - Cuirassier Brigade - GM Kozhin
- - - - - - - - - - His majesty Cuirassiers
- - - - - - - - - - Military Order Cuirassiers
- - - - - - - - - - Little Russia (or Ekaterinoslav) Cuirassiers
- - - - - - - - - - horse battery
Prussian cavalry
- GM von Renbow
- - - - - Brigade - Baczko
- - - - - - - - - - dragoons [5 squadrons]
- - - - - - - - - - hussars [2 squadrons]
- - - - - Brigade - von Ziethen
- - - - - Brigade - ?
- - - - - - - - - - Towarzysze [10 squadrons]
- - - - - Artillery (horse battery)
Reserves - Grand Duke Constantine
- - - - - Advance Guard Brigade - GM Chernosubov
- - - - - - - - - - Life Cossacks
- - - - - - - - - - Lifeguard Jgers
1st 'Guard' Division (infantry) - GL Malutin
- - - - - Guard Infantry Brigade - GM Depreradovich-I
- - - - - - - - - - Preobrashensk Lifeguard Infantry
- - - - - - - - - - Semenovsk Lifeguard Infantry
- - - - - - - - - - attached: Vielikie Louki Musketeers
- - - - - Guard Infantry Brigade - GM Bashutzki
- - - - - - - - - - Ismailovsk Lifeguard Infantry
- - - - - - - - - - detached Lifeguard Jagers
- - - - - - - - - - attached Life Grenadiers
1st 'Guard' Division (cavalry) - GL Kologrivov
- - - - - Guard Cavalry Brigade - GM Depreradovich
- - - - - - - - - - Horse Guard [5 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - detached: Chevaliers Garde
- - - - - Guard Cavalry Brigade - GL Kologrivov
- - - - - - - - - - Lifeguard Hussars
- - - - - - - - - - detached: Life Cossacks
- - - - - - - - - - attached: Grand Duke Constantine's
Uhlans
Reserve Artillery
(2 heavy batteries, and 1 Lifeguard Light Battery)
2nd Division - GL Sukin
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - Plk. ? Liven-III ?
- - - - - - - - - - Yeletz Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - St. Petersbourg Grenadiers
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GM Mazovski
- - - - - - - - - - Rostov Musketeers
- - - - - - - - - - Pavlovsk Grenadiers
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
~
French Order of Battle.
NOTES
MdE - Marchal d'Empire
GdD - Gnral de Division
GdB - Gnral de Brigade
Col. - Colonel
Mjr. - Major
CdB. - Chef de Bataillon
CdE. - Chef de Escadron
btns. = battalions
sq. = squadrons
.

Commander-in-Chief:
Emperor Napoleon

Chief-of-Staff:
Marshal Berthier
FIRST LINE RESERVES
IV Army Corps - MdE Soult
1st Infantry Division - GdD St.Hilaire (9,908 men)
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GdB de Candras
- - - - - - - - - - 10th Light [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - 14th Line [2 btns.]
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GdB Buget
- - - - - - - - - - 22nd Line [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - 36th Line [2 btns.]
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GdB de Lorencez
- - - - - - - - - - 43rd Line [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - 55th Line [2 btns.]
- - - - - Artillery [2 foot batteries x 8 guns]
2nd Infantry Division - GdD Carra St.Cyr (9,275 men)
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GdB Vivies
- - - - - - - - - - 24th Light [2 btns.]
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GdB Amey
- - - - - - - - - - 4th Line [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - 28th Line [2 btns.]
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GdB Ferey
- - - - - - - - - - 46th Line [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - 57th Line [2 btns.] "The Terrible"
3rd Infantry Division - GdD Legrand (8,964 men)
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GdB Ledru
- - - - - - - - - - 26th Light [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - 18th Line [2 btns.] "The Brave"
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GdB de Lamartiniere
- - - - - - - - - - 75th Line [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - 105th Line [2 btns.]
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GdB Pouzet (979 men)
- - - - - - - - - - Tirailleurs Corses [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - Tirailleurs du Po [1 btn.]
Other troops:
- - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade - GdB Soult
- - - - - - - - - - 8th Hussards (333 men)
- - - - - - - - - - 16th Horse Chasseurs (300 men)
Reserve Cavalry - MdE Murat
Light Cavalry Division - GdD Lasalle (2,700 men)
- - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade - GdB Pajol
- - - - - - - - - - 5th Hussars [3 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - 7th Hussars [3 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - 3rd Horse Chasseurs [3 sq.]
- - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade - GdB Durousnel
- - - - - - - - - - 7th Horse Chasseurs [3 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - 22nd Horse Chasseurs [3 sq.]
- - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade - GdB Wattier (or Wathier)
- - - - - - - - - - Bavarian 2nd Chevauxlgers (260 men in 3 sq.)
- - - - - - - - - - Wurttemberg Chevauxlgers (388 men in 3 sq.)
2nd Dragoon Division - GdD Latour-Maubourg (2,900 men)
- - - - - Dragoon Brigade - GdB Pereymond
- - - - - - - - - - 1st Dragoons [3 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - 2nd Dragoons [3 sq.]
- - - - - Dragoon Brigade - GdB Digeon
- - - - - - - - - - 4th Dragoons [3 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - 14th Dragoons [3 sq.]
- - - - - Dragoon Brigade - GdB d'Oullenbourg
- - - - - - - - - - 20th Dragoons [3 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - 26th Dragoons [3 sq.]
- - - - - Artillery (1 horse battery of 6 guns)
3rd Dragoon Division - GdD Milhaud (2,000 men)
- - - - - Dragoon Brigade - GdB Maupetit
- - - - - - - - - - 5th Dragoons [3 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - 8th Dragoons [3 sq.]
- - - - - Dragoon Brigade - GdB Debelle
- - - - - - - - - - 9th Dragons [3 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - 12th Dragoons [3 sq.]
- - - - - Dragoon Brigade - GdB Barthlemy
- - - - - - - - - - 16th Dragoons [3 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - 21st Dragoons [3 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - 26th Horse Chasseurs (513 men)
- - - - - Reserve Artillery (1 position and 1 horse battery)
- - - - - Engineers (2 companies of pontoneers)
.
.
Reserve Corps - MdE Lannes
1st Infantry Division - GdD Oudinot (11,400 men)
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GdB Ruffin (3.398 men)
- - - - - - - - - - 1st Provisional * [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - 2nd Provisional * [2 btns.]
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GdB Conroux (3.031 men)
- - - - - - - - - - 3rd Provisional * [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - 4th Provisional * [2 btns.]
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GdB de Coehorn (3.350 men)
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GdB Albert (1.665 men)
- - - - - Cavalry (9th Hussars, 659 men)
- - - - - Artillery (2 foot batteries x 8) **
- - - - - Engineers (1 sapper company)
* - Regiment Provisoire (for more info clicke here)*
** - or 1 foot and 1 horse battery (or 3 foot and 6 horse guns)
2nd Infantry Division - GdD Verdier (6,239 men)
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GdB Harispe
- - - - - - - - - - 3rd Line [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - 72nd Line [2 btns.]
- - - - - Infantry Brigade - GdB Vedel
- - - - - - - - - - 2nd Light [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - 12th Light [2 btns.]
3rd Infantry Division - GdD von Polentz
- - - - - - - - - - Saxon grenadiers [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - Saxon fusiliers [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - Saxon fusiliers [2 btns.]
Other troops:
- - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade - GdB von Besser
- - - - - - - - - - Saxon cuirassiers (3 sq.)
- - - - - - - - - - Saxon chevaulgere (2 sq.)
3rd Heavy Cavalry Division - GdD de Espagne (1,800 men)
- - - - - Cuirassier Brigade - GdB Reynaud
- - - - - - - - - - 4th Cuirassiers [4 sq.]
- - - - - Cuirassier Brigade - GdB Fouler
2nd Heavy Cavalry Cavalerie - GdD St Sulpice (1,800 men)
- - - - - Cuirassier Brigade -
- - - - - - - - - - 1st Cuirassiers [4 sq.]
- - - - - Cuirassier Brigade -
NOTES:
According to "Journaux de marche" (Archives Historiques)
the 2nd Heavy Cavalry Division was present at Heilsberg.
However Tony Broughton in his article "French Cuirassier
Regiments and the Colonels who Led Them : 1792 to 1815"
doesn't mention Heilsberg in battle record of the 1st, 5th,
10th and 11th Cuirassier Regiment.
1st Regiment - 1807: Hoff and Eylau
5th Regiment - 1807: Hoff, Eylau, Wittenberg, Koenisberg
10th Regiment - 1807: Eylau and Hoff
11th Regiment- 1807: Eylau and Friedland
.
.
General Savary
(part of) Imperial Guard
- - - - - Guard Fusilier Brigade - GdD Roussel
- - - - - - - - - - Guard Fusilier-Grenadiers [2 btns.] ***
- - - - - - - - - - Guard Fusilier-Chasseurs [2 btns.] ***
- - - - - (part of) Guard Cavalry
- - - - - - - - - - Guard Horse Chasseurs [4-6 sq.]
- - - - - Artillery - Col. Grenier [2 horse batteries]
*** - during the Napoleonic Wars the names of the two
regiments of Guard Fusiliers were altered several times:
Regiment of Fusiliers-Grenadiers:
- - - - - 1806 Regiment de Velites-Grenadiers
- - - - - 1806 2e Regiment de Fusiliers
- - - - - 1809 Regiment de Fusilier-Grenadiers
Regiment of Fusiliers-Chasseurs:
- - - - - 1806 Regiment de Fusiliers
- - - - - 1806 1er Regiment de Fusiliers
- - - - - 1809 Regiment de Fusiliers-Chasseurs
*
On 1 June 1807 the 1st Infantry Division under General Oudinot,
also called the "Grenadier Division", consisted of 16 elite battalions:
1st Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - I/1st Provisional Regiment (6 carabinier companies)
- - - - - - - - - - II/1st Provisional Regiment (6 voltigeur companies)
- - - - - - - - - - I/2nd Provisional Regiment (6 grenadier companies)
- - - - - - - - - - II/2nd Provisional Regiment (6 voltigeur companies)
2nd Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - I/3rd Provisional Regiment (6 carabinier companies)
- - - - - - - - - - II/3rd Provisional Regiment (6 voltigeur companies)
3rd Brigade
4th Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - I/7th Provisional Regiment (6 carabinier companies)
Artillery
Sappers
In December 1808 Napoleon began breaking up Oudinot's division by
returning those companies whose parent regiments were assigned to
Bernadotte's and Davout's army corps. Thus this crack division was
reduced to 10 elite battalions. In 1809 this division was disbanded.
~
Murat and Soult versus Bagration.
Murat was unable to break Bagration
and decided to wait for Soult's corps.
Together they drove Bagration back.
The leading echelons of the French army were under Marshal Joahim Murat. With his
plumed hat, gold-braided uniform, and magnificent warhorse, Murat was the very
image of a cavalier. Behind Murat's cavalry is marching infantry and artillery.
Summerville writes: "The emperor, with the whole Grand Army in his wake, is riding
towards the final showdown with Bennigsen. It is time to make the Polish gamble pay
off. ...
Stretching miles to the rear, his columns advance, toiling dusty dirt tracks in
suffocating heat. ... Since Mohrungen, 15 miles west of Deppen, the troops have
breathed the scent of war: burning houses, rotting corpses. Napoleon finds Deppen a
ruin, torched by Bennigsen before turning tail for Guttstadt. ... Napoleon is delighted by developments ...
" (Summerville - "Napoleon's Polish Gamble" p 118)
Near the village of Lanau (Laniewo today), 6 km from the main Russian positions at Heilsberg, stood
Borosdin's small force. His four regiments occupied the village itself and the plain nearby.
- cossack regiment (5 sotnias)
- Finland Dragoons (5 squadrons)
- Nizovsk Musketiers (1 grenadier and 2 musketier battalions)
- Revel Musketiers (1 grenadier and 2 musketier battalions)
About 8 AM Murat had driven in Borosdin's force and began pushing back the greencoats.
The French then brought their batteries into position and opened fire upon the Russians.
Before 10 AM (or much earlier, according to Shikanov) Bennigsen
received information from Borosdin that the French were advancing in
the direction of Launau. Thus Bennigsen sent GM Lvov with the task of
supporting Borosdin. Lvov's force included several light troops (jagers
and cavalry) and the excellent Kexholm Musketeers:
- Kiev Dragoons (5 squadrons)
- jager regiment (2 jager battalions)
- jager regiment (2 jager battalions)
- Kexholm Musketiers (1 grenadier and 2 musketier battalions)
- militia (1 battalion)
- 2 horse guns
Murat moved Latour-Mauborg's 2nd Dragoon Division forward.
- 1st Dragoons (3 squadrons)
- 2nd Dragoons (3 squadrons)
- 4th Dragoons (3 squadrons)
- horse battery (6 guns)
While the French artillery kept firing on
Borosdin and Lvov's troops, GdD Latour-
Maubourg led his dragoons in an all-out charge.
Yermolov wrote that the French dragoons
attacked Russian infantry not only from the
front but also from the rear. Yermolov was able
to escape only because he had a fast horse.
About 2 PM Murat drove back Borosdin and
Lvov.
Meanwhile Bennigsen sent orders to Bagration
who was retiring on the opposite side of the river, to cross by the pontoon bridges and to move again
up the north bank and fend off the French. Bagration was himself here, there, and everywhere, directing,
assisting, and encouraging his jagers and cavalry.
Bagration met Borosdin's and Lvov's forces at Bewernick (Bobrownik today) retiring before
Murat and Latour-Maubourg. Bagration deployed his forces behind Bewernick and
Dlugoleka. Jagers in skirmish order and some Cossacks were posted along and behind the
Bewernick brook. Cavalry and horse battery towards Langwiese (today Dlugoleka), two
batteries and three columns of infantry stood behind Bewernick.
Bagration's artillery then poured cannonballs and shells into the enemy's cavalry. The
French halted and at 2 pm Murat - already in a filthy temper - decided to wait for Soult's
corps as his cavalry alone was not enough to take on Bagration's force.
Bagration was the type of general who was well suited for a rear guard action. He was a seasoned and
energetic officer, exceptionally brave, and very popular with the troops. Alexander Mikaberidze writes,
"Soldiers called him The Eagle, while among the population he was known as "Bog-rati-on" The God of
the Army. ... Napoleon himself considered Bagration to be the best general in the Russian army."
(Mikaberidze - "Peter Bagration: The Best Georgian General of the Napoleonic Wars" napoleon-series.org)
Once Soult's infantry and artillery arrived they unlimbered 36 cannons on a heightened
ground 500 m from Bobrownik, and opened fire. The French soon got the upper hand over
the two Russian batteries (24 guns) and the green-clad gunners limbered up and withdrew.
The Russian jagers and Cossacks covered the retreat of Bagration's force. About 3 PM
St.Cyr's infantry division occupied Bewernick.
Meanwhile the bulk of Bennigsen's army was on the southern bank of Alle (Lyna) River
near Heilsberg. The Russians ate their meal and sat near their stacked muskets, awaiting the call to arms.
Few moments later they began crossing the Alle River on the pontoon bridges. The Lifeguard Hussars
were sent on the road toward Guttstadt (Dobre Miasto) south-west of Heilsberg. Two cavalry regiments
were sent toward Jeziorany, south-east of Heilsberg, to link with a flying column commanded by GM
von Knorring.
"Bagration was sick with fever and fell
unconscious from his horse several times
during the battle." - Charles Summerville
~
Massive cavalry battle.
At Heilsberg it was Russian cuirassiers' glory day.
Their attack upon French cavalry, for daring and gallantry
could not be exceeded. They succeeded in defeating
a body of enemy estimated at two times their number.
Murat's cavalry, with dragoons in the lead, advanced towards Langwiese. Numerous riders were rising
and falling in unison with the motion of their horses. Bagration's cavalry (Shepelev's Hussar Brigade)
then attacked Murat before he reached his destination. Murat rallied his troops but then he was again
attacked, this time by a larger force of cavalry and infantry led by Uvarov.
Uvarov (picture) placed three jager regiments in the wood near
Lawden, and sent cavalry under Kozhin and Fock across the
Spuibach just as Bagration's troops were slowly faling back. The
Russian cavalry force included some fine troops. The Pavlograd
Hussars (see picture) were one of the very few allied regiments
who distinguished themselves during the disastrous Austerlitz
Campaign in 1805. The dark-blue clad Grodno Hussars were new
unit but soon they became one of the best light outfits in Europe. His Majesty
Cuirassiers (light blue facings) and Military Order Cuirassiers (black facings) were
very solid regiments. Russian cuirassiers wore no armor in 1807.
GM Dmitrii D Shepelev:
- Pavlograd Hussars (10 squadrons)
- Grodno Hussars (10 squadrons)
GM Sergei-Alexeievich Kozhin:
- His Majesty Cuirassiers (5 squadrons)
- Military Order Cuirassiers (5 squadrons)
- Little Russia Cuirassiers (5 squadrons)
Kozhin and Fock threw their squadrons against
the flank of Latour-Maubourg's 1st Dragoon
Division. The timing of the attack was perfect as
the French were in a vulnerable situation after
endeavoring to sort themselves out after their
fight with Bagration's cavalry.
Latour-Maubourg's dragoons (18 squadrons)
were hit hard by the cuirassiers (15 squadrons)
and folded almost instantly. The French fled
with the Russians and Prussians hot on their
heels. The victors however got under artillery fire the French foot and horse batteries and were forced to
fall back.
The situation stabilized for a short while. It was however a proverbial silence before the storm.
Murat rode to the front of the 3rd Heavy Cavalry Division and cried "Forward !"
The cuirassiers drew their sabers and began their advance. De Gonneville of the 6th Cuirassiers writes:
"At this moment the grand duke of Berg (Murat) came up to us; he came from our right rear, followed
by his staff, passed at a gallop across our front, bending forwards on his horse's neck, and as he passed
at full speed by General Espagne, he flung at him one word alone which I heard, "Charge !" In the front
was GdB Fouler's brigade (7th and 8th Cuirassiers). Murat throws himself into the thick of the fighting,
heedless of all danger.
GdD Jean-Louis-Brigitte d'Espagne:
- 4th Cuirassiers (4 squadrons)
On the fields by Langwiese - 1 km southwest from Lawden - developed a cavalry battle bewteen
Uvarov's cavalry and d'Espagne's cuirassiers and Latour-Mauborg's dragoons. It was a bloody fight and
very costly for the French. Wounded were GdD d'Espagne, GdB Fouler, and colonels of 4th, 6th and 7th
Cuirassiers. Colonel Fulgent of the curassiers received a serious head wound from a sabre from which
he eventually died. Also wounded were Colonel Davenay and Colonel Offenstein of the cuirassiers. The
only regimental commander to escape unscathed that day was Merlin of the 8th Cuirassiers, but one of
the squadron flags of 8th was captured. Among the dragoons were wounded colonels of the 4th, 14th
and 26th Dragoons.
Napoleon watched the raging battle. He was
surrounded by marshals and generals. Staff
officers and adjutants were in the rear,
hunched over the manes of their horses. They
could hear the rumble of the cannonade and
pillars of smoke rose into the air.
Napoleon kept looking in the direction where
French cavalry have been fighting. The
Emperor anxiously asked Murat 'what's
going on over there ?'
Unable to relax the Emperor, Murat mounted
his horse and rode to the front of 5th
Hussars. In the past this regiment was part of
the legendary Hellish Brigage led by GdB
Lasalle. At Heilsberg the 5th and 7th Hussars
and 3rd Chasseurs formed GdB Pajol's
brigade.
Murat charged with a
headlong rashness but his
horse was struck by canister.
Horse and rider were
knocked over together like a
stand of muskets. Murat - now without one boot, it was stuck in the strirup of killed
horse - quickly mounted another horse. He took the entire brigade led by Pajol and
advanced against the enemy.
The reinforcements brought by Murat however changed very little. The French
continued to suffer heavy casualties and the battle continued.
Meanwhile Colonel Dery and several other officers were wounded. Murat homself was
surrounded by 12 Russian dragoons but the dare-devil General Lasalle arrived and
saved his life. Atteridge, biographer of Murat, wrote: "He [Murat] caught and mounted a
riderless horse, but was hardly in the saddle again when he was cut off and surrounded
by a party of Russian dragoons. He was fighting for his life, when Lasalle in person
arrived to the rescue, cutting down several of the enemy."
A well-mounted Saxon cavalry
regiment charged into the fray
but it didn't change the situation.
Cavalrymen in blue, white, red
and green uniforms all
intermingled in one confused
mass.
Murat's 6.000-9,000 cavalrymen
(Lasalle's, Pajol's, de Espagne"s,
and Latour-Maubourg's
brigades) were thrown back by
3,000-4,500 Russians and
Prussians. By day's end, each
cavalryman sabre will be
dripping with blood. Colonel
Chipault of the French
cuirassiers had received 56 sabre
cuts !
If the cavalry fight between Uvarov and Murat was so impressive, why does it receive such little
attention? Quite possibly, most historians and scholars have concluded that the cavalry engagement was
minor in comparison with the infantry and artillery actions and has been treated accordingly.
.

Photo of the northern part of the battlefield at Heilsberg (Lidzbark Warminski today).
View from position of Legrands infantry and Murats cavalry (from the Lawden forest)
on the Russian positions. Somewhere here took place large cavalry battle.
Photo taken in 2002 by Jan Kowalik of Poland.
.
Napoleon was very disappointed with behaviour of Murat's cavalry;
"they did nothing I ordered" he said.
~
The Guard Fusiliers rescued Murat's cavalry.
He said "It would be better for us if he (Murat)
was less brave and had a little more common sense."
Jean Barres and his battalion of Guard Foot Chasseurs was at Heilsberg. He writes, "An hour later the
Emperor, his suite, and the entire Guard marched off to Saafeld, which we reached during the night.
The Emperor passed through our ranks in his carriage, driving very swiftly; the Grand Duke of Berg had
taken the place of the driver of the Emperor's caleche. The speed of our march and the activity of all the
officers attached to the Imperial staff told us that matters were urgent, and that heavy blows would be
struck on our front.
When we reached the heights above the plain before the town of Heilsberg, not far from the left bank of
the Alle, there had been sharp fighting since the morning. Placed in reserve, we could make out the two
armies engaged, and the incessant attacks delivered by the French, to seize some elevated redoubts,
which, down on the plain, covered the front of the Russian army." (Barres - "Memoirs of a French
napoleonic officer" pp 107-108)
Napoleon's ADC Jean-Marie Ren Savary received order to take GdD Roussel's 4 battalions of Guard
Fusiliers and 12 guns and support Murat. On came these gallant men of the Fusilier Brigade in
magnificent formation and were almost swept away by the fleeing French cuirassiers and dragoons.
Marshal Murat met Savary and insisted that the guardsmen attack with bayonet. Savary was
annoyed with Murat's actions: "It would be better for us if he (Murat) was less brave and had
a little more common sense." Savary then ordered his infantry and artillery to open fire at the
enemy. The allied cavalry was checked by crisp volleys and many horsemen were unsaddled.
The gallant commander of the Russian cuirassiers, GM Kozhin, was killed. One of the
cuirassiers picked up his body, threw over saddle and rode away to the Russian lines.
Encouraged by this success, Murat rallied his cavalry and made a dash at the Russians. There was no
more show of resistance and the Russians disappeared to whence they came. It is due, however, to say
that this attack of the Russian cavalry was of a most daring character, when the extent of their advance
from all support is considered, and that they thus attacked the French positively in their own lines. Pity
for their character that so dashing an advance should have been followed by so poor ending.
Russian artillery then opened fire on Savary's force. According to Adolphe Thiers "The brave
General Roussel, who was, sword in hand, amidst the Fusiliers of the Guard, had his head
carried off by a cannon ball." (- Adolphe Thiers)
The same moment was described by St.Hilaire: "The fusilier-chasseurs of the Young Guard,
commanded by General Savary, were put in motion to support the Saint-Hilaire division;
those proved themselves as prodigious combatants with an intrepidity, which marked them
throughout all the army. General Roussel, chief of staff of the Guard, who was in the midst
of them, had his head carried off by a ball. General Curial, colonel of the fusilier-chasseurs of
the Young Guard, was seriously wounded as a combatant at the head of this regiment with
his accustomed courage." (St.Hilaire - "History of the Imperial Guard.")
One Russian cuirassier regiment was pursued longer than other allied units. The Russian
Polish-Horse Regiment was sent to counter-attack. The Russians cried 'Hurrahh !' but their fighting
spirit evaporated quickly. They halted and then fled before making any contact with the enemy. The
great cavalry battle was over.
~
After suffering almost 50 % casualties
Bagration's die-hards decided to fall-back.
With the repulse of Russian cuirassiers by French artillery and the Guard Fusiliers, the flank of
Bagration was exposed. This warhorse however was still on the 'French' side of the Spuibach and
St.Cyr's infantry division attacked him frontally. Being pressed from the front and having his right flank
exposed Bagration rapidly fell back. During crossing the Spuibach Stream Bagration's horse was killed.
Bagration was the master of rear-guard or advance-guard fighting, and was a tactically
aggressive commander. In April 1799 Bagration captured Brescia in Italy, then he defeated
French General Serurier and forced another commander, Moreau, to retreat to Marengo. At
Trebia he led the advance guard. In 1805 Bagration again commanded advance guard of
Kutuzov's army and then during retreat took command over the rear guard. Prince
Bagration was placed in the most dangerous situations, where it would be necessary to
fight against overwhelming odds. His heroics in 1806-1807 as rear-guard commander are
well-known in Russia.
Once on the 'Russian' side of the Spuibach, Bagration halted and redeployed his troops. St. Cyr attacked
him two times and two times Bagration threw him back. Carra St.Cyr's division then was furiously
counterattacked by Russian infantry. The French 24th Light, 4th and 28th Line suffered heavy casualties.
Two brigade commanders, GdB Vivies and GdB Ferey were wounded.
Exhausted Cyr's division was replaced with St.Hilaire's infantry division.
GdD St Hilaire:
- 10th Light Regiment (2 battalions)
- 14th Line Regiment (2 battalions)
- 22nd Line Regiment (2 battalions)
- 43rd Line Regiment (2 battalions)
About 3 PM Saint-Hilaire went into action. The French drummers beat pas de charge.
Senior officers, riding out in front of the ranks with their sabers unsheathed, barked out
orders and words that even Russian veterans remembered having heard many times
and that always made a deep impression on them. The infantry marched through the
fields, in cadence with the monotonous roll of the drums and took Bewernick. The Russians were awed
by the French advance. After a vicious fight St.Hilaire succeeded in getting to the other bank of
Spuibach.
The 18th Line Infantry (nicknamed "The Brave") was detached from Legrand's division and marched
north to outflank the Russian lines. It was then attacked by Cossacks near the village of Grossendorf.
The 18th found itself isolated and in a difficult situation. Two more battalions and one battery were sent
and only then the 18th was able to withdraw.
Meanwhile Grand Duke Constantine established a mighty battery on the right bank of the Alle
River and pounded St.Cyr's and St.Hilaire's divisions. This magnificient battery was
commanded by Diebich or Diebitzsch. (This ambitious and skilled officer became - in 1830 -
commander of the main Russian field army.)
Pillars of milky smoke drifted in clouds over the fields. After a cannon discharged and
recoiled, the crew grabbed hold of the wheels, and pushed it back to its previous spot. It was hard work;
the guns and the ammunition were heavy.
Bennigsen ordered Bagration's die-hards to march behind the main Russian frontline and rest.
Bagration's jagers crossed the river and moved south where they took positions by the redoubts facing
south and south-west. Bagration's light cavalry remained on the northern side of the Alle River and
joined Uvarov's cavalry on the flank of army.
About 6 PM Bagration himself joined Kamenski and his staff in the center of the Russian army.
Legrand's infantry division and Savary's Guard Fusiliers attacked the Lawden Wood. The wood was
defended by three weak jager regiments left there by Uvarov. After a fierce battle and several bayonet
charges made by both sides the French captured the wood. Tactically it was very important as the wood
gave support to the northern flank of the French line.
~
Map of the Battle of Heilsberg 1807.
Map of Battle of Heilsberg 1807 (Lidzbark Warminski).
Link to a French website with maps of Heilsberg
~
At 7 pm the French infantry captured
one of the Russian redoubts. By 8 pm
however the Russians retook it.
By now Murat's cuirassiers and some dragoons were moved from the flank to the reserve. The
remaining dragoons and the light cavalry guarded the northern flank against Cossacks and Uvarov's
cavalry. The most severe trial for the Russian infantry however was not the French heavy cavalry but
the artillery fire. Forced to remain on their feet by the French cavalry, the infantrymen were exposed to
the cannonballs and to the fragments of shells.
Meanwhile Bennigsen brought over the Alle River the 7th, 3rd, and 14th Division. The 1st
and 2nd Division formed the reserve. The Russian battalions moved against the enemy,
with their flags snapping in the wind.
With Bagration's troops out of the way, the powerful Russian
artillery deployed along the entire position and opened fire. Up
and down the line, men were reeling and falling, horses
plunging and mad with wounds, the men yelling, shells
bursting, it was as if the last day of Pompei. The cannonballs
were throwing up chunks of soil where they struck. Smoke,
splinters, blood, wreck and carnage were indescribable.
The galling fire of so many cannons made a tremendous moral effect on the infantry and cavalry. If the
cannonball struck column of infantry, the first man would have his head taken off, the next was shot
through the breast, the next through the stomach, and the fourth and fifth had all their bowels torn out.
Many wounded horses were limping over the field and suffering. Colonel of the French 4th Line
Regiment and commanders of both battalions were wounded.
Finally Legrand's infantry division rushed forward as it was intolerable to stay under such a galling fire.
Savary's Guard Fusiliers left the safety of the Lawden Wood and marched on Legrand's flank. On the
columns pushed, closing the gaps, dressing the line, their pace breaking into a run as they neared the
redoubts.
Legrand's division was one of the best infantry divisions in the French army. It consisted of the 18th
Line Infantry Regiment (nicknamed The Brave), the 26th Light Infantry, the superb Tirailleurs Corses
(nicknamed Les Cousins de l'Empereur), and the excellent Tirailleurs du Po. The 26th Light won 7 battle
honors, more than any other infantry regiment in the French army (except the 6th and 10th Light).
GdD Legrand :
- 26th Light Regiment (2 battalions)
- 18th Line Regiment (2 battalions) - not participating in this action
- Tirailleurs Corses ( battalion)
- Tirailleurs du Po ( battalion)
GdD Savary:
- 1st Guard Fusiliers (2 battalions)
- 2nd Guard Fusiliers (2 battalions)
The 26th Light Infantry stormed the Redoubt #2. With muzzles of their cannons
projecting through the embrasueres and ammunition close at hand, the Russian gunners
awaited the French. Adolphe Thiers wrote: "General Legrand then detached the 26th
Light to attack that of the three redoubts which was within his reach. That gallant
regiment dashed off at a run, carried the redoubt in spite of General Kamenski's troops,
and kept possession of it, after an obstinate fight. But the officer who commanded the
enemy's artillery, having had his guns drawn off at a gallop, quickly removed them to the
rear, to a spot which commanded the redoubt and covered the 26th with grape, which
made prodigious havoc."
Terrible grape fire and musket volleys decimated the 26th Light and 105th Line. To
modern man, long accustomed to repeating and automatic firearms, one, two, or even
three rounds per minute is nothing to write home about. However, once one comes to
grips with the idea of 600 men, packed into front of about 200 paces, able to fire
anywhere from 1000 to 3000 rounds per minute, then the image alters drastically, even in the eyes of a
modern soldier. Colonel of the French 105th Line Infantry was wounded twice. The two Russian
battalions defending the redoubt also suffered heavy casualties.
Nothing could stop the 26th Light, they carried the redoubt about 7 PM. According to Military Journal
of the IV Army Corps it was the 26th Light, but according to Russians the 26th was repulsed and the
redoubt was taken by the Guard Fusiliers. Shikanov thinks that the 26th Light could indeed take the
redoubt but the Fusiliers held it while the 26th Light continued its advance. The Russians claimed that
they saw the Guard Fusiliers very near to the redoubt.
Half of the Prussian Towarzysze Regiment (lancers) attacked the 26th Light before being driven back by
musketry. The Prussians returned to Bennigsen's line passing between columns of Russian infantry.
GM Warneck's troops (Pernov, Kalouga
and Sievsk Musketiers) were near the
Prussians and could see in the fading
daylight the outline of enemy formations.
Then came the yellow flashes, followed
by loud explosions, and the field was
blanketed in smoke and blood. Although
the Russians suffered heavily they were
moving at the double quick as steadily as
if at drill. The men of the 26th Light
turned the captured guns against the
musketiers and opened fire.
St.Hilaire had sent 55th Line Infantry to support the brave 26th Light. Sweeping forward like an
incoming tide, the 55th Line Infantry battled their way toward the redoubts, only to find their valor
matched by that of their opponents.
Although General Warneck and numerous officers and men fell, the Russian infantry pressed forward.
Soon some French and Russian subunits crashed together with a force that caused a murderous
rebound, and rippling aftershocks sent men tripping and sprawling in the pack ranks that followed. All
order disintegrated in a wild, frenzied fight of point-blank shots and clubbed muskets, and the
wounded and dying were trampled underfoot.
Finally the Kalouga Musketier Regiment, having its grenadier battalion in the front, retook the Redoubt
#2 at bayonet point.
~
Russian counter-offensive.
The fleeing French infantry run in the direction of
Lawden Wood where stood d'Espagne's cuirassiers.
The cavalry became disordered.
GL Knorring's 6th Divison, GM
Titov's 3rd Divison, and Sukin's
2nd Division attacked along their
fronts. This massive force included
several fine units: the Pavlovsk
Grenadiers, st. Petersburg
Grenadiers, and the Pernau
Musketiers. Shikanov mentions
two other musketier regiments
advanced with the 2nd Division.
The French stubbornly held their
ground with musketry and
artillery fire. Once the advancing Russian columns halted under the fire, the 10th Light (one of the best
in the army), 43rd, and 46th counter-attacked. The 57th Line (nicknamed "The Terrible") also charged
with the bayonet. They pushed the Russian infantry way back but were shattered by canister and fell
back.
The Russian infantry however returned and again attacked.
The greencoats captured (battalion) Eagle of the 36th Line Infantry.
The French then abandoned the area around Redoubt #2.
The Russian musketiers
and Prussian cavalry
(Ziethen's dragoons and
Towarzysze Regiment) rushed after the fleeing
enemy. The French infantry run in the
direction of Lawden Wood where stood GdD
d'Espagne's 3rd Cuirassier Division. The
cuirassiers became disordered and fled too.
GdD Oudinot suggested the Emperor go to the
safety. Oudinot added jokingly that if the
Emperor refuses then Oudinot's grenadiers
will take him by force.
The Prussians then pursued the heavies into
the midst of the French artillery where they cut
down number of gunners. French infantry
formed squares and opened fire, forcing the Prussians to retire to their original position.
St.Hilaire's division suffered heavy casualties from artillery fire. The colonel of 14th Line was wounded.
Saint-Hilaire was considered by Napoleon as the bravest of all generals of the infantry. ("The brave
General Saint-Hilaire, the pride of the army, as remarkable for his wit as for his military talents ..." -
Baron Lejeune)
The 55th Line was attacked by Prussian cavalry and Russian infantry and was
overthrown. They also lost their eagle, colonel, and number of officers. The eagle of
55th Line Regiment was captured by NCO Anton Antonov of Pernov Musketiers.
After war the Pernov was awarded with georgievskiie znamenia.
Prussian historians claimed that the
Prittwitz Hussars captured the
Eagle. German artist Knotel painted a picture showing
this moment. There is however no data, no names of
Prussian soldiers who captured the Eagle, no nothing to
back up this claim. So it looks like the Russians and not
the Prussians did it.
The confusion in this sector of the battlefield was
riotous. Legrand's division and Savary's Fusiliers
were formed in hollow squares, containing the
Russian prisoners. The squares were then repeatedly
attacked by Russian and Prussian cavalry and forced
to retire behind Spuibach.
With Legrand's division and Savary's Fusiliers falling back, St.Hilaire's and St.Cyr's divisions found
themselves close the Redoubt #1 but with exposed flank. So they, too, began withdrawal during which
they have suffered heavy losses from the Russian artillery. Almost the whole French line was pushed
back beyond Spuibach. Only the Lawden Wood was in French hands.
Darkness was falling and the victorious Russians decided to go back to their redoubts.
The battle seemed over for the night.
~
Lannes' arrival and furious attack.
Warned by a French deserter
of the impending attack,
Bennigsen was prepared to meet it.
Marshal Lannes arrived with his divisions. At about 10 PM he sent Verdier's division
from the Lawden Wood forward against the Redoubt #2. Warned by a French
deserter of the impending attack, Bennigsen was prepared to meet it.
Bennigsen sent the 14th Division on the right flank. The commander of this division,
Olsufiev, was wounded and replaced by GM Alexeiev. Verdier's division, supported
by the 75th Line (of Legrand's division), advanced across the plain separating the
two armies. The French infantry received such a load of iron that they rapidly fell
back on the Lawden Wood. Bennigsen then sent several jager battalions against the
wood. The French however repulsed them.
It was dark, about 11 PM, when the last shots were fired. There was however no silence, the groans of
the wounded and their heart-wrenching cries for water and help, made it impossible to rest. "Bennigsen,
a prey to acute pain and to great perplexities, passed the night at bivouac, wrapped in his cloak. It
requires a strong mind to defy at once physical pain and moral pain. General Bennigsen was capable of
enduring both." ( Adolphe Thiers - "History of the Consulate and the Empire of France under Napoleon." p 308
Vol II, publ. in 1849 in Philadelphia.)
Rain fell in the night.
~
Casualties and aftermath.
The next day, at noon, the odour of the corpses
festering in the sun became horrible.
"With such losses, it is easy to judge
how fierce was the struggle." - Loraine Petre
In the morning all the horrors of battlefield were clearly visible. There were thousands upon thousands
of wounded and killed soldiers who had been already stripped of all clothes. Large patches of grass
were covered with blood. The level of suffering for the soldiers was beyond compare. There were bodies
without heads, without legs, shot through the belly, with blown away foreheads, with holes in their
chests, wounded, kicking horses.
Faddei Bulgarin of Grand Duke Constantine Uhlans met a Frenchman who had
his face shott off by canister. No skin, no eyes, no jaws, only tongue was left in
the throat of this sufferer. Chalikov asked if there is a volunteer to shot thim
and end his pain. There was not one man who wanted to do it. Finally the
blacksmith of this regiment, a Swede named Tortus, agreed to do it. He drank
vodka and took the Frenchman into a forest. The uhlans heard one shot and the
matter was over. Bulgarin wrote that the entire night his every dream was about this poor guy.
At noon the odour of the corpses festering in the sun became so horrible the troops had to retire some
distance. The men were thirsty and hungry. Gonneville of the 6th Cuirassiers recorded: "The baggage
had not come up; we had no bread or anything else to eat. I had a little tea made in a bit of a canister
shot case."
Russian artillery from the southern bank of the Alle cannonaded St.Cyr's division.
According to Shikanov the Russians suffered 6,000 casualties at Heilsberg.
The French lost 12,600 (1.398 killed, 10.359 wounded and 864 prisoners).
Each side had 7 generals wounded.
Loraine Petre writes: "The loss in this great battle was enormous on both sides.
Soult's corps alone admittedly lost 6,601 the total loss of the French was at least 10,000.
According to L Petre the Russians
had lost 2,000 or 3,000 killed and
5,000 or 6,000 wounded; in all, not
less than 7,000 or 8,000 besides
prisoners. Tthe 1st and 2nd Divisions,
and the greater part of the Russian
cavalry, had not been engaged at all.
With such losses, it is easy to judge
how fierce was the struggle." (Petre -
"Napoleon's campaign in Poland, 1806-
1807" pp 302-303)
Casualties among the generals and
senior officers were heavy. "... the
brave General Roussel, chief of staff
of the Guard, had his head blown off
by a shell. Curial was severely
wounded marching at the head of the Fusiliers-Chasseurs who covered themselves with clory. Major
Vrigny and Captains Schramm, Deshayes, and Labusuquette were among the wounded." (Lachoque -
"Anatomy of Glory" p 97)
Baron Marbot wrote: ".. Colonel Sicard was mortally wounded. He had already been wounded at Eylau,
and although scarcely recovered from his injuries, had returned to take part in the renewed fighting.
Before he died, the good colonel requested me to say his farewell to Marshal Augereau, and gave me a
letter for his wife. I was very much upset by this painful scene. "
~
French victory.
After receiving information that Davout's corps
had been sighted Bennigsen abandoned his
position , and quickly marched away.
Bennigsen received information that Marshal Davout's corps had been
sighted on the Landsberg road. Bennigsen at first failed to appreciate the
significance of the French appearance in that place. He conceived that the
French were moving on Konigsberg, and that Lestocq's Prussians, might
not be strong enough to resist the advance and cover Konigsberg.
Bennigsen therefore detached Kamenski with 9,000 men to join him and
ordered Lestocq to retire to Konigsberg.
Meanwhile Davout's leading echelon met Platov's Cossacks.
Before midnight Bennigsen finally understood what is in store for him, he crossed the Alle River and
quickly marched away. His movement was unperceived by the French. Jean Barres of the Imperial
Guard wrote: "The day closed without result ... and we bivauacked on the ground we occupied, amidst
the dead ..."
There was no rest for Bagration's troops. "Bagration once more, with Platov's Cossacks, took the post in
which he had already shown such marked capacity, the command of the rear guard. It was not tll the
morning of the 12th was well advanced that the last troops had passed the river, burning the bridges
behind them, as well as the camp on the right bank." (- Petre)
From Napoleon's point of view, it is certain that his object, in so far as it consisted of compelling
Bennigsen to evacuate the position he had prepared with such care, could have been attained with
trifling loss on the next day. As marshal Davout appeared beyond Bennigsen's right flank, there can be
no doubt that he would have felt himself bound, as he actually did on the 11th, to seek temprorary
safety, once more, on the right bank of the Alle River.
Battles of Marshal Davout
Ps.
Napoleon entered the town of Heilsberg, wrote a short letter to young and beautiful
Marie Countess Walewska and then left. Marie was 16 (17) years younger than
Napoleon. "Their affair was passionate." (- wikipedia.org 2009)
"I want no one but you. ...
Marie, my sweet Marie,
my first thought is of you ...
Love me my pretty one, and
hold your bouquet tight !"
- Napoleon
She gave him a son, Alexandre, and remained faithful to him until he was exiled. At
fourteen Alexander refused to enter the Russian army (after the Napoleonic Wars
Poland was occupied by Russia), escaping to London and thence to Paris, where the
French government refused to extradite him to the Russian authorities. After the fall of
the November Uprising in 1831 he took out letters of naturalization in France and
entered the French army. In 1855 Alexandre Walewski succeeded Drouyn de Lhuys as
minister of foreign affairs.
~
From Heilsberg to Friedland.
"But Heilsberg cannot be described as a French success.
As at Eylau, Napoleon is left in possession of a battlefield,
not a decisive victory."
(Summerville - "Napoleon's Polish Gamble" p 124)
"Of the tactics of the French in this terrible combat, there is not much that is
favourable to be said. Napoleon attacked a very strong position with very
inferior forces, for it was not till too late in the day to save the situation that
Lannes' corps, Ney, and the Guard could reach the battlefield. The two
latter took no part in the fighting, and merely served as a support on which
the beaten corps in front could fall back.
With Soult's endeavours, in face of an overwhelming enemy, no fault could
be found. But for Napoleon's presence on the field, it is not impossible that
that cautious marshal would have refrained from pressing his attack much
beyond Bewernick, until the turning movement on the Russian right should
take effect. Murat, on this day, appeared to no advantage. ...
Napoleon was disgusted with behaviour of his cavalry; 'they did nothing I
ordered' he said. Lannes' final attack, at 10 PM, was mere waste of life; it
could not reasonably be expected to succeed with a single division." (Petre -
"Napoleon's campaign in Poland, 1806-1807" pp 303-304)
"Bagration's conduct of his rear guard action against Soult was admirable as
his fight on the previous evening before Guttstadt. His steadfast resistance
wore out the enemy, before they even arrived within striking distance of
Bennigsen's line of battle. Similarly, Uvarov, and the Prussian cavalry
behaved magnificently towards Lawden against Murat, Savary, and
Legrand. The promptitude with which the Grand Duke Constantine
supported Bagration, by his battery on the right bank of the Alle, must not
be forgotten." (Petre - "Napoleon's campaign in Poland, 1806-1807" p 304-305)
.
Bennigsen led his
decimated army in
retreat along the right
bank of the Alle River
in the direction of
Konigsberg. In
Konigsberg were
located huge military
magazines.
Alle River makes a
great bend to the east
and north, so that the
French, moving across
the chord while he
followed the arc, were
able to outstrip him.
Bennigsen crossed to
the left bank of Alle
only to find his way
barred by Marshal
Lannes' corps.
Friedland was a battle
Bennigsen should
never have fought. It
would have been wiser
for Bennigsen to have
fallen back, behind the
Pregel River, and
united there with
Lestocq's Prussian
corps, which had been
moving parallel with
the Russian army but
nearer the Baltic Sea.
The battle of Friedland
was a total disaster for
Bennigsen's army and
one of Napoleon's
greatest victories. Napoleon with 70,000 men defeated Bennigsen's 75,000-men strong army. The French have
suffered 7,000 casualties, while the Russians lost 28,000 killed, wounded and prisoners.
Bennigsen's defeat at Friedland strengthened the peace party at the Russian court. Grand Duke Constantine
(Tsar's brother, commander of the Russian Imperial Guard), Prince Czartoryski (a Pole, friend and advisor of
Tsar), Kurakin (Ambassador of Russia in Vienna in 1806 and in Paris in 1808), and many others, were now in
the ascendant.
.
Charge of French cuirassiers at Friedland in 1807
Battle of Friedland (reenactment)
~
Peace Treaty.
Napoleon and Tsar Alexander
met on a raft in the middle of
the Nemunas River.
Few days after the battle of Friedland, Napoleon and Tzar Alexander met at Tilsit. French author
Georges Blond described the Tzar: "At 30, Tzar Alexander was a blue-eyed blond, extremely handsome.
The French called him 'the Greek lover'. A born seducer, courteous, gallant, perpetually smiling, with all
the symptoms of a sensitive heart easily moved. Six years earlier, he had coldly allowed his father, Paul
I, to be murdered." Alexander asked Napoleon's agreement to inviting King of Prussia, and Napoleon
said yes. Napoleon judged the king severely: "He is an extremely limited man, lacking character or
talent, truley a simpleton, a dunce and a bore."
Soon the Treaty of Tilsit was concluded. Napoleon and Tsar Alexander met on a raft in the middle of
the Nemunas River. Marshal Davout had his entire III Army Corps in white trousers for the review
celebrating the peace treaty.
"The engineers had built a large wooden hut in which
the officers of the Guard were to feast their erstwhile
opponents. On the 30th the sun shone briliantly in a
cloudless sky. In a well-chosen meadow, a cannon-
shot from the town, planks nailed to trestles formed
picninc tables for the 'brotherly feast', arranged
around a square in which the band would play.
The meal consisted of soup, beef, mutton, pork, goose
and chicken. To drink: beer, brandy in barrels at the
ends of the tables.
The Guards ate standing.
The Russians, initially suspicious and awkward, were reassured
by the French. Coignet has left a detailed account of this feast, and
although he may have exaggerated some details, he did so
inadvertently, having written his memoirs more than 30 years after
leaving the service and one can understand that this was in no
way a formal banquet.
'These hungry men [the Russians] could not restrain themselves:
they knew nothing of the reserve which one should exhibit at
table. They were given brandy to drink, which was the drink of
the meal and, before offering them a glass, it was proper to drink
and then to pass them a goblet in white metal containing a quarter
of a litre. The contents immediately disappeared; they swallowed
a morsel of meat as large as an egg with each swig. They were
quickly uncomfortable and by signs, invited us to unbutton, as
they were doing. We saw that, in order to exagerrate their manly
chests, they were swathed in cloth, which we were disgusted to see them discard." ( Georges Blond - "La
France and Russia secretly agreed to aid each other in disputes France pledged to aid Russia against
Turkey, while Russia agreed to join the Continental System against Britain. Napoleon also convinced
Alexander to instigate the Finnish War against Sweden in order to force Sweden to join the Continental
System. Russia agreed to evacuate Wallachia and Moldavia, which had been occupied by Russian
troops. The Ionian Islands, which had been captured by Russian navy, were to be handed over to the
French. Prussia lost about half its territory: the left bank of the Elbe was awarded to the newly-created
Kingdom of Westphalia, and the Polish lands in the Prussian possession were set up as the Duchy of
Warsaw. Prussia was to reduce the army to 40,000 men.
The treaty ended war between Russia and France and began an alliance between the two empires which
rendered the rest of Europe almost powerless. However, Napoleon's matrimonial plans to marry the
tsar's sister were stymied by Russian royalty.
Napoleon and Tsar Alexander at Tilsit
determine the future of Europe.
The treaty ended war between Russia and France and began an alliance
between the two empires which rendered the rest of Europe almost powerless.
Prussia lost about half its territory.

Napoleon Tilsit 1807
Sources and Links.
Shikanov - 'Piervaia Polskaia Kampaniia 1806-7"
von Hpfner - "Der Krieg von 1806 und 1807" Vol. III and IV
Petre - "Napoleon's Campaign in Poland, 1806-1807"
The Department of History at the US Military Academy - series of campaign atlases
Georges Blond - "La Grande Armee" publ. in 1995
Adolphe Thiers - "History of the Consulate and the Empire of France under Napoleon." publ. in 1849
Sir Wilson - "Brief remarks on the Character and Composition of the Russian Army,
and a Sketch of the Campaigns in Poland in the Years 1806 and 1807"
Summerville - "Napoleon's Polish Gamble"
Battle of Somosierra 1808 : Bataille : Schlacht :Napoleon : Spain
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/battle_somosierra.htm[2012-05-21 12:42:55]
Battle of Somosierra, 1808
"... talk of the charge of Somosierra evoked the same reactions in Warsaw
as mention of the charge of the [British] Light Brigade in London.
The flower of the nation's youth was thought to have perished
in a distant land ..." Gates - "God's Playground. ..." 1982, p 301
The charge of "these gallant warriors ... can hardly be paralleled
in the annals of war... The charge itself, viewed as a simple
military operation, was extravagantly rash ..."
- William F.P. Napier
"Nearly the whole of the squadron was laid low ...
I only saw one trumpeter left standing, motionless
in the midst of the firing which was still going on.
The poor child was weeping for his squadron..."
The cannons were silent.
Awed Napoleon saluted the troops:
"I proclaim you my bravest cavalry !"
"Spain ... must be French"
Spanish troops and batteries at Somosierra.
"... the task dislodging them [Spaniards]
was obviously going to be a tedious affair."
French troops at Somosierra.
Lasalle pushed forward the French cavalry but
the Spanish advance guard threw them back.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
The battle.
"The French [infantry] ... commenced
a warm skirmishing fire, which was
as warmly returned ..."
Map
The charge.
"Forward, you sons of dogs,
- - - - - The first battery.
- - - - - "But they aimed only too well !"
- - - - - The second and third battery.
- - - - - Riderless horses, as the men dropped,
- - - - - still kept their places in the column.
- - - - - The fourth battery.
- - - - - The Spanish gunners defended their guns
- - - - - to the very last before being cut down.
On Madrid !
The Somosierra Pass being forced,
the French army came down from
the mountains.
Myths and Legends.
Battle of Somosierra, 1808. Picture by W Kossak. (Situation shortly before the charge.)
Here is the French army on the road to Madrid. Napoleon (mounted on grey horse) is by the small bridge.
In front of the Emperor you can see two horsemen, probably Guard Horse Chasseurs. They form his escort.
The Guard Lighthorse and Guard Horse Chasseur Regiment are behind the road (in the center of the picture).
The French line infantry is swiftly moving forward, they are about to attack the enemy. In the right bottom
corner is an adjutant , followed by a chasseur.
"Spain ... must be French"
Napoleon's march on Madrid.
Picture: French infantry and supply wagons
in the mountains of Peninsula in 1807.
Picture by M Orange.
Why had He invaded Spain ?
There were several reasons; desires to extend
the benefits of the French Revolution, dreams
of conquests, and hatred of the Bourbons.
Napoleon said to Roederer: "Spain ... must be
French. ... I have dethroned the Bourbons for
no other reason than it was in the interest of
France to assure my dynasty. ... I have the
rights of conquest: call whoever governs
Spain king ... viceroy or governor general,
Spain must be French."
The campaign in Perninsula started well. In summer 1808 however one of the French corps was
defeated by the Spaniards at Baylen (or Bailn). The postbattle terms of surrender included the
repatriation of the French corps back to France. Arguing that a repatriated French troops would
simply be marched back into Spain to fight again, the British convinced Spain to renege on its
promise. Thus the Spaniards dumped the POWs on the deserted island of Cabrera, which had
insufficient food, water, shelter and medical facilities. Thousands of POWs died from malnutrition
and disease. The French held on the hulks in Britain also suffered greatly.
The news
about French
defeat at
Baylen sent
shock waves
throughout
Europe. The
Spanish
regiments
proclaimed
themselves the
"conquerors of
the conquerors of Austerlitz."
Napoleon was furious: "The capitulation of Baylen ruined everything. In order to save his wagons
of booty, Dupont commited his soldiers to the disgrace of a surrender that is without parallel."
Nowhere was the news of Spanish successes more welcome than in London. Past enmities were
forgotten, as British society went mad with fabulous notions of Hispanic heroism and zeal. The
press launched a popular campaign in support of the Spanish rebels.
The Emperor gathered part of his army and entered Spain.
"The emperor, at the head of 45,000 men, resumed his march to Madrid on 22
November. Comforted by the success of the maneuvres in the north and east, he
pushed on to the Somosierra Pass, which he found defended by some 9,000 troops,
hastily gathered together by General San Juan. The Spanish corps was an
extemporised formation, consisting of units of the 'Army of the Centre' left by
Castanos in the capital, and a hotchpotch of odd battalions, volunteers and levies.
Nevertheless, strongly entranched at the head of the pass, they constituted a
formidable barrier to the French advance and the task dislodging them was
obviously going to be a tedious affair." (Gates - "The Spanish Ulcer' p 104)
~
Spanish troops and batteries at Somosierra.
"... the task dislodging them [Spaniards]
was obviously going to be a tedious affair."
Picture:
1 - Soldier of the Patria Regiment, 1808
2 - Officer of the Santa Fe Regiment, 1808
3 - The Muerte Regiment, 1808
4 - Soldier of line infantry, 1805
5 - Soldier of the Regiment of Fernando VII,
1808
6 - Soldier of the Victoria Regiment, 1808
7 - Soldier of the Valencia light infantry
(Lilianne et Fred Funcken - "The Napoleonic Wars:
The French Garde Imperiale, the Armies of the
German Duchies, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Poland"
Arms and Uniforms, Part 2)
The quality of Spanish troops varied from poor to good. The militia was generally of poor quality,
but some regulars were fine troops. There were numerous examples of bravery of the Spanish
regulars. For example on 29 October 1808 "The First Regiment of Catalonia ... received the attack
with the greatest coolness and kept up a very regular fire by platoons, maintaining their position
against an enemy nearly 5 times their number ... The most veteran troops could not possibly have
displayed more soldeirlike firmness or more sangfroid in action ..." (- W.Parker Carroll to
Castlereagh, Nov 1808)
Napoleon's army marching on Madrid was faced with 21,000 Spanish troops. Of this force 9,000
men were dispatched west to guard the Guadarrama Pass. Approx. 3,000 occupied an advanced
post at Sepulvida, and 9,000 men were on the heights of Somosierra. (Sources vary on the
strength of the Spanish troops from 6,000 to 15,000).
- According to Arteche According to Lt. Col. Salazar
Guardias Walonas (500) - Wallon
Guard
de la Reina (927) - Queen's Own
Irlanda (1.180) - Irish Regiment
Crdoba (1.300)
Corona (1.040)
Badajoz (560)
Jan (1.300)
Milicia Provincial de Toledo (500)
Milicia Prov. de Alczar de S.Juan
(500)
Voluntarios de Sevilla (400)
1. Voluntarios de Madrid (1.500)
2. Voluntarios de Madrid (1.500)
O
Guardias Wallonas 3er bat. (500) - Wallon
Guard
Reg. Infanteria de la Reina (927) - Queen's
Own
O
Reg. Infanteria de Crdoba (1,300)
Reg. Infanteria de la Corona (1,039)
Reg. Infanteria de Badajoz (566)
Reg. Infanteria de Jaen (350)
Reg. Milicia Provincial de Toledo (500)
Reg. Milica Provincial de Alcazar de S.Juan
(500)
Reg. Voluntarios de Sevilla (500)
Voluntarios de Madrid: 1er regimiento
(1,500)
Voluntarios de Madrid: 2 regimiento
(1,500)
O
Infanteria de la Reina (3 bat.) - Queen's
Own
O
Infanteria de Crdoba (3 bat.)
Infanteria de la Corona (2 bat.)
O
Milicia Provincial de Toledo (1 bat.)
Milicia Provincial de Jaen (1 bat.)
Milicia Provincial de Jerez (1 bat.)
Milicia Provincial de Ecija (1 bat.)
Milicia Provincial de Ronda (1 bat.)
O
O
O
600 cavalrymen
Reg. Principe (200)
Reg. Voluntarios de Madrid (200)
? cavalry
22 guns and 200 gunners 16 guns and 200 gunners ? artillery
The Spanish troops at Somosierra were led by Don Benito San Juan. He served as a Lieutenant-
Colonel of Hussars of Estremadura during the War of the Oranges. In 1805 San Juan was
promoted to the rank of mariscal (in fact a general's grade), and became the General Inspector of
Infantry and Cavalry. In 1808 Benito de San Juan assumed the command over the major part of
the Spanish forces defending Madrid. Knowing the weakness of his corps, much inferior to the
French army, he prepared a plan of indirect defence of the Spanish capital by defending the
narrow Somosierra pass on the road leading towards it.
The Spaniards prepared their positions well.
At Cereze de Abajo was their advance post: 200 mounted Madrid volunteers and few hundreds of
militia.
Six guns were placed on the road, forming three batteries of two guns each.
The first battery of 2 4pdr guns stood behind a stone bridge.
The gunners were protected from infantry fire by a small earthwork.
In front of the bridge and across the road was a ditch (an obstacle for cavalry and artillery).
Approx. 700 m behind the first battery stood the second battery.
Approx. 1,000 militia took positions on both sides of the highway.
In reserve, on the summit stood 2,000 militia and 10 guns.
The regular infantry was deployed on the road between Somosierra and Madrid.
PS.
Seeveral authors claimed that all guns were placed in one battery:
- Adolph Thiers in L'Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire
- de Segur in Victoires et Conquetes
- William Napier in History of the War in the Peninsula
Other authors, for example M Kujawski, gives four batteries of 4 guns each.
~
French troops at Somosierra.
Lasalle pushed forward the French cavalry but
the Spanish advance guard threw them back.
Napoleon advanced on Madrid with 45 000 men. He left Burgos with Marshal Victor's I Army
Corps and part of the Imperial Guard under Marshal Bessieres. Napoleon sent cavalry scouts to
collect more information about the enemy. William Napier writes, "The French patrols sent
towards the Somosierra ascertained, on the 21st, that above 6,000 men were intrenching
themselves in the gorge of the mountains ..." (Napier - "History of the War in the Peninsula 1807-
1814" p 278)
The cavalry did more scouting on the following days and Lasalle reported that the enemy at
Somosierra was 25,000-men strong. The Emperor however thought that two infantry divisions
should be enough to capture the pass.
General Lasalle again pushed forward the cavalry. Antoine Charles Louis, comte
de Lasalle (1775 1809) was one of the best light cavalry commanders in Europe.
He was frequently charging with a long pipe instead of a saber in his hand. His
trick of the trade was to charge at the trot, holding his men solidly in hand to
meet an enemy exhausted from galloping. Only Marshal Murat was more popular
among the cavalry.
On November 29th one squadron of Guard Horse Chasseurs (see picture) attacked the Spanish
advance guard at Cereze de Abajo. The guardsmen however were unable to move further. The
Guard Horse Chasseurs were Napoleon's escort and for this reason they became the most known
troops in the French army. The Emperor himself wore uniform of colonel of this regiment.
Seeing the cavalry alone unable to make progress, the Emperor sent in
a small advance guard under General de Brigade Lebrun:
- 6 companies of voltigeurs drawn from infantry regiments
- Guard (Polish) Lighthorse Regiment
The voltigeurs were the shortest men of the line (or light) infantry battalion well suited for
skirmishing, scouting, and fighting in broken terrain and in the woods. Sometimes the voltigeurs
were detached from their parent battalions and formed in separate, independent voltigeur
battalions for specific tasks.
The Emperor however needed more information about the enemy and his
positions and ordered one platoon of the Guard Lighthorse to capture a
prisoner. The guardsmen did do, brought one (see picture) and he was soon
interrogated.
Napoleon was faced with 21,000 Spanish troops. Of this force 9,000 men
were dispatched west to guard the Guadarrama Pass. Approx. 3,000
occupied an advanced post at Sepulvida, and 9,000 men were on the heights
of Somosierra. (Sources vary on the strength of the Spanish troops from
6,000 to 15,000).
It was getting dark.
A guardsman standing by the fire lit his pipe in the Emperor's presence.
"You might at least thank His Majesty for the priviledge" - his officer scolded.
"I'll thank him up there" replied the trooper pointing to the Somosierra Pass.
.
Guard Lighthorse, by W Kossak.
A guardsman standing by the fire lit his pipe in the Emperor's presence.
"You might at least thank His Majesty for the priviledge" - his officer scolded.
"I'll thank him up there" replied the trooper pointing to the Somosierra Pass.
~
Map of battle of Somosierra 1808
Map of the battle of Somosierra on a Spanish website >>
~
The Battle.
"The French [infantry] ... commenced a warm skirmishing fire,
which was as warmly returned ..." - William Napier
At 5 am in the morning, Napoleon with his escort and Marshal Victor (picture) moved
toward Somosierra. The Emperor attentively examined the scene although thick fog
blanketed the mountains. At 7 am arrived three regiments of French infantry;
- 9th Light "The Incomparable"
- 24th Line
- 96th Line
- 6 guns of Guard Artillery moved forward to support the infantry.
These were fine regiments. During the Napoleonic Wars the 9th Light Infantry won 4 battle honors. It
was one of the better known French infantry units. (Several years ago there were quarels between the
Consular Guard and the 9th Light , which - Napoleon having dubbed it "The Incomparable" in Italy -
was not about to be impressed by any "Praetorians." In January 1814 a 60-man detachment from the 9th
Light crossed the Saar River, burned a farmhouses defended by Prussian infantry, and returned the
river barges to the French bank. The lieutenant who commanded the mission received the chevalier of
the Legion of Honor in recognition of the operation's success. (Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon" p 260)
The 96th Line was not worse than the 9th Light, they also won 4 battle honors, and participated in as
many as 44 battles and combats. Jean-Chrisostome Cales was the colonel of the 96th Line.
Arriving at Somosierra Napoleon
sent half squadron of Guard Horse
Chasseurs along the highway. The
Chasseurs were fired upon by 2
guns of the first Spanish battery and
quickly withdrew. The Spanish
cannonballs began reaching
Napoleon and his staff.
At 8 am the Emperor ordered
Marshal Victor's three infantry
regiments to attack. Lachoque
mentions 9 am as the beginning of
the battle. The first moved 96th Line
Regiment covered with chain of
skirmishers. The men could not see
50 paces ahead. The Spanish militia
and artillery poured a hail of missiles into the French and arrested their advance.
Then the 9th Light and the 24th Line, covered with skirmishers, moved against the flanks of the
enemy. The Spaniards however held their ground with musket fire. The French were forced to
strengthen their skirmish line with fresh companies but were unable to make a breakthrough. "The
French wings, spreading over the mountain side, commenced a warm skirmishing fire, which was as
warmly returned, while the frowning battery at the top of the causeway was held in readiness to crush
the central column, when it should come within range." (Napier - "History of the War in the Peninsula
1807-1814" p 27p)
A dense fog, mingled with the gunsmoke, settled down upon the defile.
Between 11 am and noon the sun pierced through the fog.
French infantry skirmishing at Somosierra, by W Kossak.
~
The Charge : "Forward, you sons of dogs,
Before the Guard Lighthorse charged up the pass, the French cavalry tried their luck.
"Pire's cavalry advanced and then retreated.
It's impossible ! - Pire exclaimed.
The Emperor cracked his riding-whip.
Impossible ? I don't know the meaning of the word ! he raped."
Annoyed with lack of progress
the Emperor rode toward the
Guard (Polish) Lighthorse and
ordered them to charge. He
knew the shock of a massed
charge by sword-wielding
horsemen is a powerful
psychological weapon. But it
was not clear if he ordered the
cavalry to take only the first
battery or all batteries.
The first battery caused a lot of
problems for the French
infantry while the other
batteries were far away and
invisible in the fog.
According to Kozietulski who
commanded one squadron of
the lighthorsemen, when they
passed by, Napoleon shouted:
"Poles, take the cannons !"
(Polonais, prenez moi cez canons !")
On 30th November the III Squadron (3rd & 7th Company) of Guard Lighthorse consisted
of 216 of all ranks, including 5 trumpeters (3 Frenchmen and 2 Poles). They were all
rookies, it was their first battle. The commander of the squadron was not present, instead
they were under the temporary command of Kozietulski, commander of the II Squadron.
Jan-Leon-Hipolit Kozietulski (1781-1821) was a Polish noble. In 1812 at Horodnia,
Kozietulski saved the life of Napoleon himself by charging between the Emperor and the
assaulting Cossacks. His uniform, pierced with a Cossack lance and stained with blood, is
preserved to this day in museum in Warsaw. In 1814 he was made the commander of the French 3e
Rgiment des Eclaireurs de la Garde Impriale. In Poland Kozietulski is known as "The Hero of
Somosierra."
.
The first battery.
"But they aimed only too well !"
The cavalry charge was done in a column of 4s. They started down the road in a column, four men
abreast, officers and file closers at intervals. The riders were rising and falling in unison with the
motion of their horses. They were almost 1 km away from the enemy and the fog screened their
advance. De Segur wrote: "I was hoping that in their astonishment at our audacity the enemy
would aim badly; that we should have time to dash into the midst of their guns and bayonets and
throw them into disorder. But they aimed only too well !"
Picture: Battle of
Somosierra 1808.
Spanish artillery and
infantry. Author ?
As the first bullets
ripped through the
air (fired by Spanish
skirmishers) the
Poles began to drop.
Then they received
the first artillery
salvo at 300-400 m.
The canister shattered the head of the squadron, and the disordered troop halted. They were forced
to trample over the fallen bodies of their comrades. Some struggled with wounded and panicking
horses.
It took 1-2 min for the officers to put order in the ranks and continue the charge. Despite the fog it
was close enough for the gunners to see the formation of the cavalry. They immediately loaded
their cannons with solid cannonballs. These projectiles ploughed through the long column. The
wounded horses and men fell down, and the whole squadron became one mangled, disordered and
hideous mass of death. Officer Rudowski was hit by a musketball and killed on the spot. Those in
the tail of the column dismounted.
Officer Kozietulski was in front and urged the men to resume their charge. The Spaniards were
loading their pieces again when the Poles moved over and around an earthwork and attacked
them. After hand-to-hand fight the the first battery was taken. Some of the gunners and supporting
them troops were sabered down. No quarters were given.
.
The second and third battery.
Riderless horses, as the men dropped,
still kept their places in the column.
Fog and powder smoke covered the road. Kozietulski's squadron moved up against the second
battery, positioned few hundreds meters away.
The III Squadron was no longer a well-aligned unit, and the distinction between platoons was
gone. In this point Kozietulski's squadron was joined by one platoon led by officer Niegolewski. The
brave Spaniards poured in a discharge of musketry and the second battery joined in. The discharge
wrought fearful havoc. Men and horses were dropping singly or by twos. Riderless horses, as the
men dropped, still kept their places in the column. Officer Krzyzanowski was killed, Kozietulski's
horse was hit by musketball and fell down. Dismounted Kozietulski was badly bruised and Captain
Dziewanowski took the commandand, they kept going. Despite the losses there was neither pause
nor hesitation and the cannons of the second battery spoke no more.
The guardsmen then moved up the road and against the third battery. The cannons roared - officer
Rowicki's head was taken off by cannonball, Captain Dziewanowski had shattered leg and broken
arm, his body was bruised and bleeding. Terrified riderless horses thundered out of the smoke.
The cavalry hacked at the enemy who hunched their heads between their shoulders. There was not
much resistance from the Spanish militia but the regulars, and especially the gunners were
formidable foes.
.
The fourth battery.
The Spanish gunners defended their pieces
to the very last before being cut down.
Only 30-40 Poles on exhausted horses moved against the fourth 10-cannon battery deployed on the
very summit. The Spaniards opened fire and officer Krasinski was one of the first being hit.
Wounded stumbled back through the muddle of bleeding horses and their dead and dying friends.
Niegolewski's platoon took the lead and rushed forward. The Spanish gunners defended their
pieces to the very last before being cut down. The Poles captured the battery but only few were still
mounted. Niegolewski looked around and asked Sergeant Sokolowski "Sokolowski ! Where are our
boys ?" - "All are killed" the sergeant replied.
Niegolewski's group drove back one group of Spanish infantrymen and militia although other
groups continued firing and Niegolewski's horse was hit. He fell down and was bayoneted. Despite
9 bayonet wounds and one saber cut he was still alive. The enemy thought he was dead and went
through his pockets in search of money. Behind Niegolewski the struggle continued unabated and
the brave Spaniards retook the fourth battery. The Poles were forced to withdraw toward the third
battery. The Spanish success however was shortlived.
When Napoleon noticed that the
Poles were not halted by the first
battery he sent in his personal
escort to support them. These
fresh troops were: platoon of
Guard Horse Chasseurs and
platoon of Guard Lighthorse (of I
Squadron). The reinforcements
hastily moved forward and
passed by the three captured
batteries. Two fresh platoons
caught up at the third battery
with the handful of Poles under
Niegolewski. Together the
assaulting troops had 150-200
men and readied for assault. The
overall cammand fell to Tomasz
Lubienski.
The cannons were silent but the Spanish infantry was everywhere and getting stronger. The Poles
and Frenchmen charged and dispersed the enemy. The fourth battery was recaptured.
After 10-15 minutes arrived on the summit voltigeurs of the 96th Line Regiment. The short of
breath French infantrymen did find Niegolewski and brought him near captured cannons where
French doctors took care of his wounds. Everywhere the dying and the dead, the Poles, Spaniards
and the Frenchmen were mixed indiscriminately. The smoke-begrimed, powder-blackened,
exhausted soldiers shared their scant supply of water with the wounded and suffering. The Poles
suffered heavy casualties, for example according to Pierre Dautancourt 57 were killed and
wounded, according to others up to 100. Many of the wounded were later taken into hospital in
Madrid.
The commander of the Imperial Guard, Marshal Bessieres (see picture),
followed the advancing troops and soon was at the top of the pass. With
Bessieres arrived more Poles and several companies of French voltigeurs. They
were sent along the highway in pursuit of the retreating enemy. French
voltigeurs combed the rocky area on both sides of the road. Then came
battalions of the French line infantry.
Awed Napoleon saluted
the Poles: "I proclaim
you my bravest cavalry
!"
The Foot Grenadiers of
Imperial Guard drained
a bumper in the honor
of the Poles. British
author William Napier writes: "This surprising exploit ... can hardly be paralleled in the annals of
war... The charge itself, viewed as a simple military operation, was extravagantly rash ...The
Somosierra being forced, the imperial army came down from the mountains ..." (Napier - "History of
the War in the Peninsula 1807-1814" pp 279-280)
.
"Poles, take the cannons !"
- Napoleon
It was not clear if Napoleon wanted the Poles
to take only the first battery or all batteries.
~
On Madrid !
"The Somosierra being forced, the imperial army
came down from the mountains ..." - W Napier
French patrols reached Madrid on December 1.
San Juan moved his corps back to
Madrid. French patrols reached the
outskirts of Madrid on December 1. San
Juan made an attempt to defend the
capital, but French artillery barrage
brought the Spanish defence to grief.
Madrid surrendered before Napoleon.
Albert-Jean-Michel de Rocca writes: "On
the 2nd December, in the morning, the
Emperor Napoleon proceded the main
body of his army, and arrived, with the
cavalry only, on the heights, close to the
capital of Spain. Instead of the order one
commonly perceives on approaching fortified towns, where all the circumstances of war are
foreseen, instead of that silence, which is only interrupted by the deep and lengthened call of
'Sentry, take heed !' by which the sentinels, placed around a rampart, make sure of each other's
vigilance, were heard the bells of the 600 churches of Madrid, ringing in continued peals, and,
from time to time, the sharp cries of the mob, and the quick roll of the drum.
The inhabitants of Madrid had only thought of their defence 8 days before the arrival of the
French armies, and all their preparations were marked by precipitation and inexperience. They
had placed artillery behind sandbags and barricades, or raised entrenchements, in haste, with
bales of wool or cotton. The houses, at the entrance of the princpal streets, were filled with armed
men, placed behind mattresses, at the windows.
One of Marshal Bessieres' ADCs was sent, according to the custom, in the morning, to
summon Madrid. He narrowly escaped being torn to pieces by the inhabitants, when
he proposed their submitting to the French, he owed his life to the protection of the
Spanish troops of the line.
The Emperor employed the evening in reconnoitring the environs of the city, and in
fixing his plan of attack.
The first columns of infantry having arrived, at 7 PM, a brigade of
the 1st Division, supported by 4 pieces of artillery, marched
against the suburbs, and the sharpshooters of the 16th Regiment
seized the great burying ground, after having dislodged the
Spaniards from some advance houses. The night was employed in
placing the artillery, in making every preparation for an assault
on the following day. ... and on the 3rd, at 9 AM the cannonade began. Thirty
cannons under the command of General Senarmont, battered the walls of the
Retiro, while 20 pieces of the Imperial Guard, and some light troops, made a
false attack in another quarter, to distract the attention of the enemy, and to
oblige him to divide his forces. ...
At 11 AM, our soldiers already occupied the important posts of the
observatory, the china manufactory, the great barracks, and the Palace of Medina Coeli. Masters
of all the Retiro, the French might have burned Madrid in a few hours. The cannonadew then
ceased to be heard, the progress of the troops was stopped in every direction, and a third envoy
was sent into the place. It was of consequence to the Emperor to conciliate the capital of the
kingdom he destined for his brother. ...
At 5 PM General Morla ... and Don B. Yriarte ... came back with the French envoy. They were
conducted to the Prince of Neufchatel's tent. They demanded a suspension of arms during the 4th
that they might have time to persuade the people to give themselves up. The Emperor reproached
them with the greatest appearance of anger, for not executing the treaty of Baylen, and for the
massacre of the French prisoners in Andalusia. ....
Meantime the inhabitants refused to lay down their arms, and they continued to fire upon the
French ... the inhabitants, without any discipline, ran up and down the streets tumultuously,
vociferating for orders, and accusing their leaders of treason. General Castellar and the other
military men of rank left Madrid during the night, with the regular troops, and 16 pieces of
cannon. On the 4th December ... General Morla and Don de Vera came back to the Prince of
Neufchatel's tent and at 10 AM the French troops took possesion of Madrid." (de Rocca, - pp 45-48)
~
Myths and Legends.
Participants of the charge effectively
countered Adolph Thiers' and de Segur's
partially fictional accounts.
There were several authors who described the battle of Somosierra, one of them was Philippe de
Segur. His "Histoire et Memoires" appeared in 1873 in unchanged form after death of its author.
Segur's memoirs were issued so late because earlier were met with strong opposition from the
participants of the charge: Andrzej Niegolewski, Jozef Zaluski, Wincenty Szeptycki, Wiktor
Lubanski, Walenty Zwierkowski, Wincenty Toedwen, Tomasz Lubienski and others.
The participants also protested against Louis Adolphe Thiers description of the Somosierra
charge in his famous "Histoire du Consulat et de lEmpire". Officer Niegelewski, participant of the
charge, left a valuable memoires Les Polonais a Somosierra en Espagne en 1808. He effectively
countered Adolph Thiers' and de Segur's accounts. Thiers agreed with Niegolewski and promised
to make the necessary corrections but actually never did it. Niegolewski wrote not only in Polish
but also in French, so his account became known for French and other historians.
There is also a very accurate description of the charge left by French senior field officer,
Pierre Dautancourt. This is rather surprising and disappointing that there are still
authors taking the easy way and using Thiers' and de Segur's partially fictional (but
quite entertaining) accounts of the battle. For example George Blonde La Grande Armee published
in Paris in 1979 see p 224, and even Sir Oman.
Myth: the Poles were armed with lances.
Fact: they received lances in the next year.
Myth: the were only 80-125 cavalrymen attacking the batteries.
Chandler gives only 88 Poles. He writes: "Despite the greatest gallantry, 60 of
the 88 horsemen who attempted this task were killed and wounded by the
Spanish cannons." (Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" p 415, publ.
1993)
Gates gives 87 Poles. "... irritated by the delay, [Napoleon] turned to his escort
squadron - 87 Polish horsemen - and ordered them to take the position for him
with a frontal attack. ... Napoleon immediately sent forward Montbrun with
1,000 more cavalry." (Gates - "The Spaish Ulcer" 104)
Fact: there were more than 200 men in the III Squadron. Additionally there were
I Squadron and platoon of French Guard Chasseurs-a-Cheval. The total
strength was approx. 450 cavalrymen, not incl. the French voltigeurs.
Myth: it was the I Squadron that captured the Spanish batteries.
Fact: it was the III Squadron, that captured the first, second, third and the
fourth battery. Then they were forced to withdraw from the last battery. The I
Squadron and platoon of French Guard Horse Chasseurs then arrived and
helped the III Squadron to recapture the fourth battery. The I Squadron and the
Guard Horse chasseurs pursued the fleeing Spanish troops.
Myth: "Seeing Niegolewski laying besides the captured cannons, the
Emperor pinned his own Legion of Honor on him."
From napoleon-series.org (Robert Burnham, 2005): "The Emperor was soon at
the top of the pass. Seeing Lieutenant Niegolewski laying besides the guns he
tried so valiantly to capture, the Emperor pinned his own Legion of Honor on
him."
Fact: none of the Poles was awarded with Legion of Honor on the battlefield.
Several days later NCO Jakub Dabczewski was awarded for being the first who
reached the enemy's cannons. Niegolewski was awarded almost three months
after the battle, on March 10th 1809.
Myth: the charge was led by Colonel Krasinski, commander of the
Regiment.
(According to Krasinski himself and to William Napier.)
William Napier wrote: "General Krasinski as suddenly rallied them, and
covered by the smoke and the morning vapor led them sword in hand up to the
mountain. As these gallant horsemen passed, the Spanish infantry on each side
fired ..." (- Napier p 27p)
Fact: Krasinski was sick and the entire regiment was commanded by a
Frenchman, Pierre Dautancourt, a senior officer in this regiment and second in
command. In the moment when the III Squadron began charging, Dautancourt
was in the rear with the I, II and IV Squadron.
Myth: the charge was led by de Segur (according to de Segur himself).
Fact: de Segur was wounded during a reconnesaince and taken to the rear.
While surgeon Ivan was taking care of his wound de Segur was wounded again.
This was confirmed by several witnesess. For example in Sep 1818 Pierre
Dautancourt wrote that de Segur was wounded twice before the battle and
didn't participate in the charge. According to Dautancourt the charging
squadron was led by Kozietulski.
However the the author of Victoires et Conquetes (where de Segur was one of the
editors) pressed Dautancourt to change this part of his story. When in 1821 the
description of the charge in Victoires et Conquetes was published in Polish
'Wanda' many officers of Guard Lighthorse incl. Pierre Dautancourt,
Niegolewski, Lubienski, and Szeptycki, all participants of the charge, responded
and gave their own descriptions.
All of them wrote that de Segur didn't take part in the charge, he was wounded
in earlier reconnesaince and stayed in the rear. They also wrote that although de
Segur's description of the charge is entertaing it is not correct.
Myth: the charge was led by General Montbrun (according to Napoleon's
Bulletin, Thiers, and Barbot).
Gates writes: " ... Napoleon immediately sent forward Montbrun with 1,000
more cavalry." (Gates - "The Spaish Ulcer" 104)
According to Pierre Dautancourt the brave Montbrun was with Napoleon and
his staff. Then Montbrun was sent with order to the Poles to attack the pass but
didn't lead the charge. When Montbrun learned about the claims in Bulletin he
had a good laugh.
Myth: the charge was led by officer Lubienski (according to Lubienski
himself).
In the very end of the charge Lubienski brought the I Squadron to recapture of
the last fourth battery. Lubienski's squadron then pursued the enemy.
So if not de Segur, not Krasinski, not Montbrun, and not Lubienski then who led
the attack ? The attackers were led by officers in the rank of captain and
lieutenant not by colonels and generals.
These officers, one after another came down wounded. There was not a single
commander who led them from the beginning to the end of charge. The III
Squadron was led by Captain Kozietulski when they took the first battery.
Kozietulski lost horse and was replaced by Captain Dziewanowski.
Dziewanowski took the second battery but was seriously wounded in front of
the third battery. Dziewanowski was replaced by Captain Piotr Krasinski.
Krasinski captured the third battery and was wounded. Then officer Lubienski
brought up the I Squadron.

Charge at Somosierra from the movie "Ashes" by Wajda.
=
"You are worthy of my Old Guard."
- Napoleon
The Guard Lighthorse
.
Sources and Links.
Recommended Reading
Bielecki - "Somosierra 1808"
Bielecki - "Szwolezerowie Gwardii"
Napier - "History of The War In The Peninsula 1807-1814"
Brandys - "Kozietulski i inni."
de Rocca - "In The Peninsula With A French Hussar"
La bataille de Somosierra
Los Voluntarios de Madrid 1808-1814. (Somosierra photo gallery).
Battle of Raszyn 1809 : Bataille : Schlacht : Poniatowski : d'Este
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Raszyn_battle.htm[2012-05-21 12:43:00]
Battle of Raszyn, April 1809
"Outnumbered 3 to 1, Poniatowski fought an outstanding defensive campaign,
covering all of Napoleon's northern front while Napoleon faced off against
the main Austrian army at Wagram."
- Gunther E. Rothenberg
In the war against Austria the Poles lost only
3 guns and captured 62 pieces.
.
Campaign of 1809. - - Austrian Corps at Raszyn. - - Polish-Saxon Corps. - - Deployment of troops (+ map)
The First Blood. - - Heavy Fighting. - - Stalemate. - - Casualties.
.
Battle of Raszyn 1809, by January Suchodolski.
Left bottom corner: Polish horse artillery
Right bottom corner: Polish line infantry
Right: Poniatowski and his staff on a hill
Center: the village of Raszyn and the stream
In the foreground: line of Austrian artillery.
.
Campaign of 1809 in Poland.
This was only Poniatowski's second field command but he proved
himself once and for all as the commander of an independent army.
Outnumbered 2 to 1, Poniatowski fought an outstanding campaign.
Napoleon, left Spain in January,
1809 and travelled to Paris
believing that Austria to be on the
point of declaring war. In February
His Majesty the Kaiser of Austria,
Franz I, declared war on France.
Army reforms gave them
confidence in being able to tackle
the French army. The Austrians
fought with great determination
along the Danube, and even
triumphed at Aspern-Essling,
before the Emperor won a narrow
victory at Wagram.
Very little has been written about the defense of the Duchy of Warsaw in 1809. The
Austrian generals had assigned the entire VII Army Corps to this front. For the
Austrians the Polish campaign had been a dead end. It illustrated the problem created
by Austrian strategic decision-makers trying to fight on several fronts with
inadequate resources. (Rothenberg - "The Emperor's Last Victory" p 107)
The commander responsible for the defense was Prince Jozef Poniatowski. The French
in Warsaw suggested to concentrate all available Polish troops in Warsaw.
Poniatowski however disagreed, giving away all initiative to the Austrians would
demoralize the troops. Outnumbered more than 2 to 1, Poniatowski fought an
outstanding defensive campaign, covering all of Napoleon's northern front while
Napoleon faced off against the main Austrian army at Wagram.
The theater
of war was
bounded on
the south by
the
Carpathian
Mountains
and was
crossed by
the Vistula
River. The
Vistula was
joined on the
right bank by
the San, the
Wieprz, the
Bug, and the
Narew, all
four rivers
were
navigable.
On the left
bank were
the Pilica
and Bzura
rivers.
The most important roads for the Austrians were from Lvov to Warsaw (along the
right bank of Vistula), the second road moved on Pulawy by the left bank of Vistula,
and the third road went to Cracow (Krakow). There were other roads in the Duchy of
Warsaw but they were in poor shape. The only paved road ran from Bilitz, through
Lvov to Brody in Galicia and crossed bridges erected on piles.
The Polish government was informed of the Austrian preparations by the inhabitants
[vast majority of them were Poles] of the country ruled by the Austrians. Poniatowski
sent Marshal Davout detailed reports on this matter. Poniatowski estimated that the
enemy have a strength of 40,000 men.
In March the King of Saxony came to Warsaw. The Diet convened on March 10 and
voted a subsidy of 30,000,000 florins for the support of the army. Poniatowski asked
Davout to obtain from Napoleon a subsidy of 8,000,000 florins to begin the
reorganization and strengthening of the Polish army. On March 25 the King of Saxony
left Warsaw to return to Dresden.
The war in Poland had opened favourably for Austrian generals. At the beginning of
April they moved towards the Polish border and their advance guard reached Nowe
Miasto. The main body of the Austrian corps was in Odrzywol, and one brigade was
detached and marched on Olkusz. Two squadrons of hussars were sent to Okuniew to
observe Praga.
"Before crossing the frontier, the Austrian Prince resolved to issue a proclamation.
Dated from Odrzywol on April 12th this proclamation was not made public until the
moment he crossed the Pilica. There, Ferdinand declared to the inhabitants of the
Grand Duchy of Warsaw that he was bringing an army into their territory, but that he
was not coming as their enemy, as the Emperor of Austria was making his war against
Napoleon and he was the friend of all who did not defend the cause of France. He
then gave them an explanation of the motives for the war ... He went on to say,"
"... I ask you, do you enjoy the happiness promised you by the Emperor ? Your blood, which
was spilled below the walls of Madrid, was it spilled in your interests ? What do Tagus River
and the Vistula have in common ? And has the valor of your soldiers brought you greater
prosperity ? The Emperor Napoleon has need of your troops for himself, not for you. You
sacrifice your property and your soldiers to an interest that is far from yours ... "
~
The Austrian Corps at Raszyn.
"Nearly all of his (d'Este) force was formed of
veteran regiments, hardened in combat."
By the beginning of March
1809, the entire Austrian
field army consisted of
240.000 - 320.000 men. The
Austrian generals had
assigned the entire VII
Army Corps (35,000-
40,000 men) to the Polish
front. "In view of expected
resistance by the famed
Polish light cavalry
(picture -->), the VII
Corps also had close to
5,000 cavalry." (Arnold -
"Napoleon Conquers Austria" p 106)
The Austrian cavalry at Raszyn consisted of fine
regiments of heavy cavalry (regiments of Somariva
and Lothringen Cuirassiers) and light cavalry
(regiment of Emperor's Own Hussars, and regiment
of Emperor's Own Chevaulegers were one of the best
light outfits in Europe).
Roman Soltyk gives the strength of d'Este's corps at 33,000 men (25,000 infantry, 5,200
cavalry, and 2,800 artillery). His reserve in Galicia was commanded by Prinz
Hohenzollern-Indelfingen and consisted of 7,400 men (7,200 infantrymen and 200
cavalrymen).
"In the first quarter of March, the Austrians had begun, in the two regions of Galicia
they controlled, a levy of 20,000 recruits, which were intended to raise their army to a
strength of 60,000 men. However, this levy advanced slowly and did not produce
anything of use for the campaign. In addition, it did bring into the army a large
number of men who were unfriendly towards the interests of Austria." (- Roman
Soltyk)
Several sources indicate a number of Austrian regiments have suffered through
straggling and desertion. After detaching several troops the Austrians reached Raszyn
with 30,000 men. James Arnold in "Napoleon Conquests Austria" has the Austrians
having 25,000 infantry and almost 5,000 cavalry. George Nafziger gives the strength of
the Austrian corps at Raszyn at 28,500 men (23 battalions, 36 squadrons and 86 guns).
The Polish-Saxon corps is at 13.000 men (12 battalions, 14 squadrons and 39 guns).
[Nafziger - "Poles and Saxons ..." p 103]
Picture: Austrian general with staff officers.
Picture by G Rava >>, Italy.
There were only few bridges in the Duchy and it
was necessary for the Austrians to use pontoon
bridges to cross any major river. Despite this the
Austrian corps had no bridging train.
There were several fortresses in the Duchy, yet the
Austrians had no siege artillery. The Austrians
held two fortresses in this region: Zamosc and
Sandomir (Sandomierz), and one fortified city,
Cracow (Krakow). The walls of these strongpoints
however were in poor shape and the Archduke
ordered it rebuilt and added a few fieldworks
prepared.
The base of operations for the Austrians was formed by magazines along the main
roads to Cracow (Krakow) and Lvov. This area was covered by the Vistula and San
rivers.
Approx. 25 % of d'Este soldiers were ethnic Poles who had no loyalty to the Austrian
monarch. (Austria participated in three partitions of Poland and occupied a large
territory inhabited by the Poles.)
The commander of the Austrian VII Army Corps was Archduke Ferdinand
d'Este (Erzherzog Ferdinand Karl von Habsburg d'Este). He was an Italian
prince closely related to the Habsburgs of Austria. He had a great
influence in the Aulic Council. Archduke's personal courage was known,
the softness of his character and the certainty of his principles, made him
the choice of the Austrian monarch.
Roman Soltyk wrote: "His mission was as much political as it was military.
In addition to fighting the Polish army, his mission was to gain the support of the
[Polish] nation. The choice of the regiments that were to be part of his corps was given
to him. Nearly all of his force was formed of veteran regiments, hardened in combat."
NOTES:
FL - Feldmarschall Lieutnant
GM - Generall Major
Ob. - Oberst [Colonel]
Mjr. - Major
btn. - battalion
sq. - squadron

Commander-in-Chief of VII Corps : Archduke Ferdinand de Este
Corps-Adjutant : Ob. Neypperg
Chief-of-Staff : Ob. Brusch
Chief-of-Artillery : Ob. Gilet
Advance Guard - GM Baron Mohr
- - - - - Emperor's Own Hussar Regiment No.1
(6-1 sq.)
- - - - - Wallachian Grenzer Regiment No.16 (1
btn.)
- - - - - Wallachian Grenzer Regiment No.17 (1
btn.)
- - - - - Vukassovich Infantry Regiment No.48 (3
Cavalry Division - FL von Sharouth
Hussar Brigade - von Gehringer
- - - - - Palatine Hussar Regiment No.12 (8 sq.)
- - - - - Szekler Hussar Regiment No.11 (8 sq.)
Cuirassier Brigade - Baron von Speth
btn.)
- - - - - Foot Battery (8 3pdr cannons)
- - - - - Horse Battery (4 3pdr cannons, 2
howitzers
Infantry Division - FL von Mondet
Infantry Brigade - Count de Civalart
- - - - - De Ligne Infantry Regiment No.30 (3
btns.)
- - - - - Kotulinsky Infantry Regiment No.41 (3
btns.)
- - - - - Foot Battery (8 6pdr guns)
Infantry Brigade - Baron von Trautenberg
- - - - - Baillet-Latour Infantry Regiment No. 63 (3
btns.)
- - - - - Strauch Infantry Regiment No.24 (3 btns.)
Infantry Brigade - von Pflacher (von Piking ?)
- - - - - Weidenfeild Infantry Regiment No.37 (3
btns.)
- - - - - Davidovich Infantry Regiment No. 34 (3
btns.)
.
.
.
.
- - - - - Somariva Cuirassier Regiment No.5 (6 sq.)
- - - - - Lothringen Cuirassier Regiment No.7 (6 sq.)
- - - - - Horse Battery
Reserve Artillery
(Note: out of the eight batteries
only four were at Raszyn)
- - - - - - - - - - Heavy Battery (6 guns)
- - - - - - - - - - Position Battery (6 guns)
- - - - - - - - - - Horse Battery (6 guns)
Detached:
Infantry Brigade - Branowatzky
- - - - - Szekler Grenzer Regiment Nr.14 (1 btn.)
- - - - - Szekler Grenzer Regiment Nr.15 (1 btn.)
- - - - - Emperor's Own Chevauleger Regiment No.1
(8 sq.)
- - - - - Horse Battery (8 6pdr guns)
One squadron of Emperor's Own Hussars was
detached
on east bank of Vistula.
NOTE.
The Austrian cavalry at Raszyn was excellent, but the infantry was rather average.
There were no grenadiers and none of the best five regiments. The artillery however
was solid.

Archduke de Este
30,000

Prince Poniatowski
13,450 Poles + 1,350 Saxons
24.000 infantry
4.500 cavalry
artillery (72-94 guns)
10.500 infantry
3.685 cavalry
artillery (26-28 guns)
Polish-Saxon Corps at Raszyn.
"Poniatowski ... commanded the defenders, a small army of
newly raised Polish troops reinforced by a detachment of Saxons ..."
Prince Jozef Poniatowski
Poniatowski was a young,
dashing and inspirational
general. The Grand Duchy of
Warsaw was a new state.
Furthermore, of the 35,000 strong
army raised in the Duchy,
Napoleon took 20,000 out of the country and
send to Spain, Prussia and elsewhere. "Prince
Poniatowski ... commanded the defenders, a
small army of newly raised Polish troops
reinforced by a detachment of Saxons ..." John
Gill - "With Eagles to Glory" p 35
Thus the Polish field army in 1809 consisted of 15,000 men and almost 40 guns. The
garrisons were as follows: in Warsaw 1,509 men, in Praga 980 men, in Sierock 1,410
men, Czestochowa 790 men, in Modlin 1,265 men and in Thorn (Torun) 1,590 men.
The cavalry depots contained 1,810 men and 1,410 horses.
The fortress of Thorn (today Torun) had a pontoon bridge over the Vistula. The works
at Modlin had been completed before the campaign. Soltyk writes: "... Poniatowski
could have used Modlin as the pivot of his operations and Thorn as his depot. They
would have assured his communications with [the province of] Great Poland and the
line of the Oder River [and the French troops in Prussia].
NOTES:
Strength of the Polish troops below is from April 15th -
four days before battle, by Roman Soltyk - "Relation des
operations de l'armee polonaise ..."
btn. - battalion
sq. - squadron
GD - General Dywizji
GB - General Brygady
Plk. - Pulkownik [Colonel]
Mjr. - Major

Commander-in-Chief : GD Prince Poniatowski
Chief-of-Staff : Fiszer
Chief-of-Cavalry : GdD Rozniecki
Chief-of-Artillery : GdB Pelletier (Frenchman)
Saxons under Polentz , or von Dyherrn
Infantry
- - - - - 1st Infantry Regiment (1.642 men)
- - - - - 2nd Infantry Regiment (1.742 men)
- - - - - 3rd Infantry Regiment (1.927 men)
- - - - - 6th Infantry Regiment (1.346 men)
- - - - - One battalion moved to Warsaw in order
- - - - - to protect this city from a flank attack.
Cavalry
- - - - - 1st Horse Chasseur Regiment (730 horses)
- - - - - 5th Horse Chasseur Regiment (505 horses)
- - - - - This unit went to Warsaw in order to
- - - - - protect this city from a flank attack.
- - - - - 2nd Uhlan Regiment (800 horses)
- - - - - 3rd Uhlan Regiment (760 horses)
- - - - - 6th Uhlan Regiment (709 horses)
Artillery
- - - - - Foot Battery (6 guns, 200 men)
- - - - - Horse Battery (5 guns, 100 men)
- - - - - Horse Battery (4 guns, ??? men)
Saxons
Saxon Infantry Battalion (503 men)
Saxon Hussar Squadron (90 men)
(another squadron was detached to Blonie)
Several sources (for example Exner) list
a detachment of 90 Saxon cuirassiers
from the Zastrow Regiment at Raszyn.
They were probably in Poland in 1808
or in early 1809 but had returned to join
the reminder of tehir regiment in Danzig
(probably) in March 1809.
.
.
.
.
.
Eagle-bearers of Polish infantry regiments.
Due to problems with supplies part of the Polish infantry in 1806-1809
wore modified captured Prussian (blue) and Austrian (white) uniforms.
Three infantry regiments were issued French uniform articles.
~
The First Blood.
"Ferdinand declared to the inhabitants of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw
... that he was not coming as their enemy, as the Emperor of Austria
was making his war against Napoleon ..." - Roman Soltyk
On April 15th, Poniatowski received an Austrian
delegation, which presented d'Este's declaration.
This declaration announced the Austrian troops
were entering the territory of the Duchy at 7 a.m.
on April 17th.
Poniatowski planned to leave Raszyn and move
against the Austrians. However, General
Rozniecki, the commander of Polish cavalry,
informed him that the enemy is quite strong.
General Pelletier, a Frenchman who commanded
the Polish artillery, expressed concern about
advancing the army too far forward and exposing
it to the danger of being cut off from Warsaw.
In this situation Poniatowski decided to hold his position at Raszyn. A small force
under GB Bieganski (3rd Infantry Regiment with 4 guns, and the 6th Uhlan Regiment)
entered the village. Poniatowski with 8 battalions, 6 squadrons and 19 guns departed
Warsaw for Raszyn. The Saxons followed Poniatowski on the next day.
While 2 squadrons of Hungarian hussars moved against Praga, the main Austrian
corps advanced on Warsaw. Soltyk wrote that "the garrison of the bridgehead at Praga
directed a reconnaissance force on Grzybow, which encountered 2 squadrons of
Austrian hussars. The Poles charged them vigorously, despite the Austrian superiority
in numbers, drove them, routed them and put 40 men horse de combat."
The
Polish
cavalry had been
called upon to
cover the infantry
positions at
Raszyn. Rozniecki
with the 1st Horse
Chasseurs, and
the 2nd and 3rd
Uhlans screened
the region south
of Raszyn and
then moved
toward the
advancing Austrians. They had engaged the enemy in several skirmishes and took up
to 100 prisoners. (The three cavalry regiments distinguished themselves in numerous
battles in 1812 and 1813.)
Picture (left): men of the elite and center companies of the Polish 2nd Uhlans in 1810.
Theoretically each regiment had one elite and seven center companies.
Picture (right): men of the elite and center companies of the Polish 1st Horse
Chasseurs in 1810. The elite troops distinguished themselves with fur caps and red
cords and red plumes.
Between the villages of Janczewice and Wolica took place another cavalry combat.
Polish cavalry (12 squadrons) met the Austrian cavalry of Mohr's Advance Guard (8
squadrons) coming from Tarczyn. From Nadarzyn was coming Schauroth's cavalry (16
squadrons).
Both sides made gallant charges. The horses were sweating and their ribs heaving,
while the men thrusted and slashed. The Austrian horse battery arrived and opened
fire on the Poles. The cavalry battle was claimed as victory by both sides. On Polish
side especially the 2nd Uhlans (picture) performed well.
Then the Austrian cavalry (24 squadrons) attempted to outflank the Poles (12
squadrons) but the uhlans withdrew to Michalowice. Rozniecki ordered to move
beyond Raszyn where together with the 1st Horse Chasseurs formed Poniatowski's
main reserve.
Picture : Kaiser Hussar (Emperor's Own)
Picture by Brian Fosten from Haythornthwaithe's -
"Austrian Army of the Napoleonic Wars (2): Cavalry"
The Hungarian hussars had reputation of being excellent horsemen
known for quality of their mounts. They had been familiar figures since
XVII Century and had been imitated by other armies. Although the
Hungarian hussars were not big guys (their height between 165 and 173.5
cm) they were known for dash in combat.
On 14-15th September 1813 at Lipa (Lippa) the Austrian infantry began a
gradual withdrawal to a second position. During the withdrawal, the
Italian cavalry (France's allies) took advantage of this situation and
launched an attack. However, half squadron of the Austrian Radetzky
Hussars pushed through the intervals in the withdrawing Austrian
infantry and drove back six squadrons of the Italian cavalry (chasseurs-
a-cheval) under General Perreimond. That's incredible, 1 vs 6 squadrons. (Nafziger and
Gioannini - "The Defense of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Northern Italy 1813-1814" pp 52 and
265)
~
Deployment of troops at Raszyn (+ Map).
Poniatowski defended the crossing points with small detachments
while quite strong reserve was held in the center. "It was a
good defensive position..." - George Nafziger
Poniatowski selected his battlefield at Raszyn, several km from Warsaw, a city he could not
politically afford abandoning without a fight. "It was a good defensive position behind a
river that was bordered with heavy marshes crossed by only a few bridges and causeways."
(Nafziger - "Poles and Saxons of the Napoleonic Wars" p 102)
Map:
The stream was marshy and only crossable at few points. Poniatowski defended these
crossing points with small detachments and strong reserve was held in the center. Along
the stream were numerous trees obstructing the full sight of the battlefield. The Raszynka
Stream is also called Rawka or Rawa Stream.
The exact location and size of the "alder wood" is unknown to me.
Here is another map of this battle (ext. link, French website)
Poniatowski deployed his corps as follow:
- Cavalry screen under GD Rozniecki: 2nd, 3rd and 6th Uhlan Regiment (2.340 sabers)
kept eye on the advancing Austrians. Once the enemy began deploying his troops into
battle formation the cavalry screen was withdrawn and placed in the reserve with the 1st
Horse Chasseur Regiment and horse artillery.
- Advance-Guard under Sokolnicki: I/1st Infantry (850 bayonets), I/8th Infantry (760
bayonets) and 4 cannons. This force stood near the village of Falenty. In front of the dike
was placed the I/6th Infantry with 2 cannons.
- Right Wing under GB Bieganski: I, II/3rd Infantry (1,700 bayonets) and 4 guns.
- Left Wing under GB Kamieniecki: II/1st Infantry (800 bayonets), II/8th Infantry (800
bayonets) and 6 guns
- Center under Polentz: I, II/2nd Infantry and 2 guns, and Saxons (3 battalions, hussars
and 12 guns)
- Reserve : 1st Horse Chasseurs and 5 horse guns
Battle of Raszyn - Bitwa pod Raszynem (video)
Heavy Fighting.
The Alder Wood and the dike changed hands several times.
Prince Poniatowski dismounted and with bayonet in hand
led the infantry in a counterattack. The Austrians were
routed, the village of Falenty and the wood were retaken.
Poniatowski thought that the Austrians will halt their advance and set a camp. He
feared an Austrian attempt to march on Jaworowo and outflank him on the next day.
Such maneuver would force Poniatowski into quick retreat to Warsaw. But that didn't
happen. Ferdinand d'Este was eager to attack immediately and ordered Mohr to
attack Falenty without waiting for the rest of the corps.
In afternoon the Poles saw the first echelons of MG Mohr's Advance Guard. Looming
dust clouds and the firing of skirmishers heralded the advance of Austrian II Army
Corps. The whitecoats were coming in large numbers, battalion after battalion
marched out of the woods. The infantry started forward from the fringe of pines, their
well dressed formations surging on like a white wave crested with a glistening foam
of steel.
"Surprised at finding the entire army before him, he (the Austrian commander)
decided to attack immediately with his main effort at Jaworow on the shortest route to
Warsaw. Confounded by difficult terrain and Polish bullets, however, the main attack
soon dissolved into a time-consuming search for bridging materials and the battle
came to focus on the action in the centre." (Gill - "With Eagles to Glory" p 282)
About 2 PM the
cannonade
errupted along
the entire front.
The Austrian
artillery opened
fire and the
Polish weren't
slow to return
the salute.
Pillars of milky
smoke drifted in
clouds over the
fields. After a cannon discharged and recoiled, the crew grabbed hold of the wheels,
and pushed it back to its previous spot. It was hard work; the guns and the
ammunition were heavy.
Then GM Mohr's 5 battalions with 12 cannons attacked Sokolnicki's 3 battalions with 6
guns. Mohr soon received support from Civalart's 6 battalions with 12 guns. Thick
gun smoke covered the fields and marshy meadows. In that moment Poniatowski was
in his headquarters in Raszyn. He immediately mounted his horse and rode toward
Falenty. Three guns were brought from the reserves and deployed in front of the
village.
.
Austrians' attempts to outflank the Poles
During the struggle between Sokolnicki's advance guard and Mohr's advance guard, 4
squadrons of of Austrian hussars moved against Polish troops (under Kamieniecki) at
Jaworowa. Polish artillery however opened fire and halted the attackers. The hussars
fell back into a marsh where they became stuck. The artillery pounded them more,
inflicting some serious casualties before the hussars were able to withdraw.
Austrian general attempted to encircle Polish
position at Jaworowo with heavy cavalry. The
Austrian cuirassiers wore white coats and
breeches (see picture). During campaign they
wore grey overalls over or instead of the white
breeches. The black boots were below knee.
Moustaches were obligatory for the privates but
officers had to be clean shaven.
One of the Austrian cuirassier regiments moved
against Kamieniecki's troops and found
themselves in the knee-deep mud. The iron-clad
men mounted on big horses found it difficult to
escape from the trap and the Polish artillery
punished them too. The cuirassiers finally
withdrew toward Tarczyn.
The Austrians continued their attempts to turn Poniatowski's flank at Jaworowo.
Kamieniecki's troops were attacked frontally by Austrian infantry regiment and from
the left flank by two battalions of Wallachian Grenzers. Approx. 4,000 Austrians were
passing with some difficulties through the marshy ground when the Polish artillery
opened fire and brought them to a sharp stop. The Polish infantry also opened fire
and the attackers fell back.
.
Polish counter-attack
The Austrians had their focus set on Falenty and the Alder Wood. At 3 pm they
attempted to take both points with the Vukassovich Infantry Regiment (2.100-2.400
bayonets). The position was defended by I/8th Infantry (700-800 bayonets) under
Colonel Godebski, a veteran of Italian campaigns. Both sides were supported by
artillery.
The heavy fighting raged for 1 hour. Colonel Godebski was mortally wounded, he
received one musketball in his leg and one "below chest" and was carried off the
battlefield. The 8th Infantry began slowly falling back toward the Raszyn causeway.
In this critical moment Prince Poniatowski arrived and halted their withdrawal. Then
he rode to battalion of 1st Infantry already formed in column. Poniatowski
dismounted and with bayonet in hand led them in a counterattack (see picture). The
Austrians were routed and the village of Falenty and the wood were recaptured.
.
Picture: Poniatowski at Raszyn.
In the left upper corner are Austrian hussars, they were swept aside by Polish attack.
In the center is Prince Poniatowski (wearing red breeches) with the infantry behind him.
On the right are Austrian infantrymen. There were no Austrian grenadiers at Raszyn.
.
Austrian offensive.
Meanwhile frustrated Mohr was joined by Civalart's brigade with 12 guns. Now Mohr
had 11 battalions and 24 guns against Sokolnicki's 3 battalions and 9 cannons. The
heavy cannonade caused a lot of damage within short time: several Polish caissons
with amunitions exploded forcing the guns positioned near Raszyn to withdraw and
the village of Falenty was set on fire.
The Austrians
sent forward 2
battalions to
capture the
grove by
Falenty in the
very center of
Polish positions.
Although the
fighting lasted
for 2 hours the
Austrians were
unable to
dislodge
Sokolnicki's
infantry.
It was 6 pm and getting dark when several Austrian battalions joined the fighting.
Two battalions found a gap in Polish position, the line between Janki and the grove
was not defended. Once the attackers moved into the gap the troops under Sokolnicki
fell back. They left 2 guns and were quickly withdrawing down the causeway when
Austrian artillery opened fire on them.
The Poles suffered badly, groups of infantrymen hurriedly crossed the muddy stream
while others run across the causeway. Polish chief of staff Fiszer was wounded.
Meanwhile Schauroth's cavalry (other sources give Civalart's and Mohr's battalions)
moved against the village of Janki defended by I/6th Infantry. Fearing being cut off
the 6th Infantry abandoned the village.
The victorious Austrian infantry pursued the Poles and even pushed to the area
south-east of Raszyn.
Reenactment of the battle of Raszyn (2009)
Stalemate.
The burning Raszyn was retaken at bayonet point
but the causeway was in Austrian hands.
Raszyn itself was defended by the following troops:
- Saxon I/Oelschoelwitz Infantry
- Saxon I/Einsiedel Grenadiers
- Saxon 12 guns
- held in reserve behind the village were Polish I/2nd Infantry
with 2 guns
According to John Elting the "Saxon cavalry was among the finest in
Europe ... The infantry was usually reliable." The artillery however
was in a very poor shape. Marshal Bernadotte wrote in 1809 that,
"The (Saxon) artillery is poorly organized." Other French generals
complained that the Saxon foot artillery was "horrible."
Raszyn was then directly attacked by Austrians. While one column
moved directly on the village, another column marched across a wet meadow on the
left of Raszyn. The marshy terrain however prevented them from bringing forward
their guns and decimating the Saxons. The artillery was limited to long range canister
and uneffective roundshot fire.
Around 8 pm the Austrians managed to capture part of Raszyn.
Poniatowski brought forward 12 Saxon and 4 Polish
guns and opened a galling fire on the Austrian
infantry in the village.The Prince was among the
gunners and encouraged them to double their
efforts. The Austrian guns provided only a weak
support for their hard marching infantry as they
were too far behind. For almost an hour the Poles
and Saxons bombarded Raszyn with grenades and
the Austrian infantry with canister.
At 9 pm the Polish infantry counterattacked and
drove the enemy back.
The burning Raszyn was retaken but the causeway
was in Austrian hands.
Picture (right): green-clad Polish foot artillery.
The strength of Polish artillery was not in the numbers of guns but in the quality of
men and officers. They were well-trained professionals. Among them were many
French officers; Pelletier, Mallet de Grandville, Bontemps, Charlot, Daret, and others.
They were transferred by Napoleon to the army of Duchy of Warsaw on Prince
Poniatowski's request. "The Army of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw had excellent
artillery, both horse and foot ... " - Kevin Kiley, p 141
Between 9 pm and 10 pm the battle was over and the Saxons
marched off angering the Poles. The Polish soldiers had no idea
that French Marshal Bernadotte had attempted to order these
Saxons back to Saxony already 4 days before battle. Poniatowski
countermanded the order for the duration of the first battle.
In this situation at 10 pm Poniatowski decided to leave the
battlefield and march on Warsaw.
PS.
Upon his arrival before
Warsaw, Archduke
Ferdinand d'Este asked
Poniatowski for an
interview. According to Soltyk, the Austrian
commander received Poniatowski with great
courtesy, "commending his conduct at Raszyn
and the conduct of his brave troops." The Polish
defense at Raszyn convinced the Austrians to
allow the tiny Polish army south-east passage,
in exchange for the surrender of Warsaw.
Poniatowski's troops then overran Austrian-
occupied Poland while the Austrian corps was
tied up garrisoning Warsaw. During the
campaign "The Poles continued to push south
and west into Austrian territory and were in a position to threaten Moravia and
northern Hungary when the armistice was concluded." (John Gill - "With Eagles to
Glory" p 59)
After Napoleon won his campaign along the Danube and Poniatowski in Poland, the
north-western part of the Austrian territory was incorporated into the Duchy of
Warsaw. The territory of Poland was very much enlarged.
~
Casualties.
Austrians: 2,000-2,500
Poles and Saxons: 1,000-1,500
According to George
Nafziger and
Wesolowski ("Poles and
Saxons of the Napoleonic
Wars" p. 104) the Poles
lost "450 killed, 800 to
900 wounded, and 43
prisoners. The Austrian
losses amounted to
about 2.500 killed and
wounded."
Roman Soltyk writes
that "the Polish army
lost about 450 killed, 900 wounded and 40 prisoners. The Austrians, who fought most
of the day in the open, lost substantially more. Their losses were estimated at 2,500
men."
Digby Smith ("The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book" publ. 1998) list the Polish
casualties as above, but lists the Austrian losses at 450 dead and wounded.
Schuster and Francke gives the Polish casualties at 450 dead, 900 wounded and 300
missing.
Thus the Poles suffered 1,000-1,500 casualties, while the Austrians 2,000-2,500. The
heavier casualties were due to the fact that the Austrians were fighting in open field
while the Poles were positioned in the wood and villages. Some of the slightly
wounded whitecoats wandered into the wood and roamed about all night in fear of
capture by the Polish light cavalry.
Sources and Links.
Information supplied by Jan Kowalik, P B Black, L. Sorensen and Stefan Swietliczko
John Stallaert's website devoted to the Austrian army and uniforms.
Soltyk - "Relation des operations de l'armee polonaise pendant la campagne de 1809.."
Hollins - "Austrian Grenadiers and Infantry"
Zych - "Polish-Austrian War of 1809"
Zych - "Armia Ksiestwa Warszawskiego 1807-1812"
Wojcicki - "Cmentarz powazkowski" 1855
Exner - "Die Antheilnahme der Koniglich Sachsischen Armee am Felkdzuge gegen
Oesterreich und die kriegerischen Ereignisse in Sachsen im Jahre 1809"
1809
Reenactments of the Battle of Raszyn:
polish 1 ~ polish 2 and austrian
Battle of Corunna 1809 : French Victory : British Defeat : Corua : Elvia : Batalla : Bataille
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/battle_of_corunna.htm[2012-05-21 12:43:08]
Battle of Corunna (Corua, Elvia), 1809
"Threatening Napoleons communications was as dangerous
as trying to snatch the prey from a lion."
- Cyril Falls, Oxford University
"... Moore was well aware of the danger and fled westwards
as soon as he got news that Napoleon was on the march ... "
Esdaile - "The Peninsular War"
Sir Moore " ... had been chased half way across Spain ...
Destroying the army by his wild, precipitate retreat
he had become obsessed by his overwhelming anxiety
to reach the sea."
"The British army had been driven ignominiously
from the Iberian Peninsula, suffering heavy
casualties in the process ... "
Introduction.
- - - - - The general "who abhorred the use of the lash."
- - - - - Moore's and Baird's troops.
Moore's advance into Spain.
Napoleon versus Moore. Moore's flight.
" the enemy close at our heels,
thirsting for our blood !"
Soult takes over command from Napoleon.
British and Spanish troops separated.
Whenever we gained summit of a hill,
all eyes were on the watch to catch a
glimpse looked out for ships.
In Corunna.
.
French troops at Corunna (+ order of battle)
British troops at Corunna (+ order of battle)
Deployment of troops (+ map).
French infantry drove the British outpost.
Bitter fighting for Elvina in the center.
"... the cavalry - had found it difficult to deploy."
Diversions in Palavea and Piedralonga.
A great man meets his death.
French victory.
"The French opened a cannonade upon the
shipping in the harbour, which caused great
confusion amongst the (British) transports."
"... we have suffered a shameful disaster"
Napoleon spent only few months in Spain.
Picture by Hippolyte Lecomte.
Introduction.
"The Spaniards, forgetting that the English were only auxiliaries
in their quarrel, reproached them, first with the slowness of their
marches, and soon after with remaining stationary.
The English general, in his turn, accused the Spaniards of having
constantly concealed from him their situation , and their defeats ,
and of exaggerating their strength and means of resistance."
- de Rocca
The retreat of the British army to Corunna is one of the less known campaigns of the Napoleonic
Wars. Following the Convention of Cintra, the commanders of the British army were recalled,
including Sir Arthur Wellesley, to face a court of inquiry. The British expedition to Portugal and
Spain was left to General Sir John Moore.
This campaign began as follow: General Moore left a garrison in Lisbon of 10,000 men and entered
Spain with 20,000 to aid the Spanish. His command was to be augmented with 16,000 more under
General Baird being sent through Corunna. Moore hoped that his action will disrupt Napoleon's
offensive and draw his attention away from Portugal.
"The English had entered Spain ... There was a momentary misunderstanding between the Spaniards
and English, which occasioned a want of union in their military operations. The Spaniards, forgetting
that the English were only auxiliaries in their quarrel, reproached them, first with the slowness of
their marches, and soon after with remaining stationary. The English general, in his turn, accused the
Spaniards of having constantly concealed from him their situation, and their defeats, and of
exaggerating their strength and means of resistance." (de Rocca, - p. 63)
.
The general "who abhorred the use of the lash."
Moore enjoyed a reputation "as a bold and
enterprising officer of great promise." - Esdaile
Sir John Moore was born in 1761 in Glasgow.
At the age of 11 joined his father on a tour of France, Italy and Germany, including a 2-
year stay in Geneva, where Moore's education continued.
He joined the infantry in 1776 as an ensign in the 51st Foot. John Moore first saw action
in 1778 during the American War of Independence as an officer of the 82nd Foot. In
1783 he returned to Great Britain and four years later he was made Major and joined
the 60th Foot briefly before returning to the 51st. In 1791 John Moore participated in the campaign in
Corsica and was wounded at Calvi. He was given a Colonelcy and became Adjutant-General to Sir
Charles Stuart. Friction between Moore and the new British viceroy of Corsica led to his recall and
posting to the West Indies under Sir Abercromby. In 1798 John Moore was made Major-General and
served in the suppression of the rebellion in Ireland. Although the Irish rebels were crushed with
incredible brutality, John Moore stood out from most other generals and senior officers for his
humanity and refusal to perpetrate atrocities.
In 1799 General Moore commanded a brigade in the expedition to Egmont-op-Zee.
His force was badly defeated by the French troops and Moore himself was seriously injured.
Sir John Moore had a reputation as a humane leader and trainer
of men. For the British soldier himself discipline was invariably
harsh and enlistement was for long time. Some French deserters
who joined the British Army in the Peninsula promptly deserted
from it because they found discipline too severe. Some
punishments included riding the wooded horse a sharp-backed
frame on which the offender sat astride, sometimes with weights
attached to his feet to increase discomfort.
Generally offenders were flogged on the bare back for a variety
of offences, and shot or hanged for more serious ones.
According to Wellington flogging was absolutely essential to
control "the scum of the earth." He defended the harsh discipline, arguing that the army contained a
proportion of blackguards who could not be kept in line in any other way, while reformers
maintained that it dishonoured both the victim and the army in which he served.
Moore was a humanitarian, who abhorred the use of the lash declaring on one occasion, that it would
be unfair to flog soldiers for drunkenness, unless officers were flogged for it too !" (Summerville -
"March of Death" p 21)
In 1803 Moore established the innovative training regime that
produced Britain's first permanent light infantry regiments. "He
had made his name as an innovative instructor, pioneering and
developing light infantry tactics. He was rewarded for his
services with a knighthood, promotion to the rank of
lieutenant-general, and a string of independent commands in
Sicily, Gibraltar, and Sweden." (Summerville - "March of Death"
p 21)
Moore was Britain's foremost soldier and as such, the obvious
candidate for command. In 1804 he was promoted to
Lieutenant-General and in 1808 was sent to Portugal. Gates
writes: "After Sir Harry Burrard and his immediate successor,
Sir Hew Dalrymple, had hastily concluded the controversial
Cintra Convention with the French, the British government,
horrified the public outrage it caused, recalled the officers
involved to face a court of enquiry. With Burrard, Dalrymple and Wellesley all away, the command
of the army in the Peninsula passed to Lieutenant General Sir John Moore, who had arrived at the
end of August 1808 from the Baltic." (Gates - "The Spanish Ulcer" p 106)
Speaking shortly Moore was excellent general and great man.
He is one of our favorite generals of the Napoleonic Wars.
.
Moore's and Baird's troops.
"They were all, however, volunteers ...
The average age of the soldiers was 23 ..."
- Summerville
Moore's field army consisted of infantry, cavalry, artillery and engineers. "They were all, however,
volunteers The average age of the soldiers was 23, and their average height 5'6". Most had been
farm labourers, many from impoverished villages of Ireland and Scotland. They were paid 1 shilling
per day, and led by an officer corps of aristocrats and gentlemen, many of whom had simply bought
their commissions " (Summerville - "March of Death" p 26)
In the beginning of September arrived reinforcements. The British government designated another
army (under Baird) to go to Peninsula and decided to assist the Spanish armies in the field. On 20th
December Moore's and Baird's corps united at Mayorga and the force was organized as follow:
~ 20th Dec 1808 ~
Commander-in-Chief: Ltn-Gen. Sir John Moore
Adjutant-General: on 8th October Brig-Gen. Clinton
Quartermaster-General: on 8th October Ltn-Col. Murray
1st Division: Ltn-Gen. Baird
Brigade: Mjr-Gen. Warde
- - - - - - I/1st Guards
- - - - - - III/1st Guards
Brigade: Mjr-Gen. Bentinck
- - - - - - I/4th Foot
- - - - - - I/42nd Highland
- - - - - - I/50th Foot
Brigade: Mjr-Gen. Manningham
- - - - - - III/1st Royal Scots
- - - - - - I/26th Foot
- - - - - - II/81st Foot
Company of Artillery
.
.
2nd Division: Ltn-Gen. Hope
Brigade: Mjr-Gen. Hill
- - - - - - 2nd Foot
- - - - - - I/5th Foot
- - - - - - II/14th Foot
- - - - - - I/32nd Foot
Brigade: Col. C Craufurd
- - - - - - I/36th Foot
- - - - - - I/71st Light
- - - - - - I/92nd Highland
Brigade: Mjr-Gen. Leith
- - - - - - 51st Foot
- - - - - - II/59th Foot
- - - - - - 76th Foot
.
3rd Division: Ltn-Gen. Mackenzie Fraser
Brigade: Mjr-Gen. Beresford
- - - - - - I/6th Foot
- - - - - - I/9th Foot
- - - - - - II/23rd Royal Welsh Fusiliers
- - - - - - II/43rd Light
Brigade: Brig-Gen. Fane
- - - - - - I/38th Foot
- - - - - - I/79th Highland
- - - - - - I/82nd Foot
.
.
.
.
.
Reserve Division: Mjr-Gen. Paget
Brigade: Brig-Gen. Anstruther
- - - - - - 20th Foot
- - - - - - I/52nd Light
- - - - - - 5 comp. I/95th Rifles
Brigade: Brig-Gen. Disney
- - - - - - I/28th Foot
- - - - - - I/91st Highland
Flank Brigade: Brig-Gen. Baron von Alten
- - - - - - I/Light KGL
- - - - - - II/Light KGL
Flank Brigade: Col. R Beresford
- - - - - - I/43rd Light
- - - - - - II/52nd Light
- - - - - - 8 comp. II/95th Rifles
- - - - - - 5 comp. V/60th
- - - - - - (on 6th Dec returned to Portugal
- - - - - - escorting the heavy baggage,
- - - - - - reserve ammunition and sick
- - - - - - soldiers.
Cavalry: Ltn-Gen. Paget
Brigade: Brig-Gen. Stewart
- - - - - - 3rd Light Dragoons KGL
Brigade: Brig-Gen. Slade
B and C Troop of Horse Artillery
Reserve Artillery: Col. Harding
- - - - - - five companies of artillery
~
Moore's advance into Spain.
"Threatening Napoleons communications was as dangerous
as trying to snatch the prey from a lion."
- Cyril Falls, Oxford University
"Moore took up his post on 6 October, and orders shortly arrived for him to advance into Leon....
However, the transport and logistical problems that bedevilled all armies in the Peninsula soon
plunged the British commander's calculations into confusion. Moore and his staff were remarkably
ignorant of the geography of the country they were to cross, and little useful information could be
extracted from the Portuguese." (Gates - "The Spanish Ulcer" p 106)
Meanwhile Baird was having difficulties getting his force to move as fast as he wished. He made a
landing at Corunna on October 26th and by November 22nd his corps had penetrated no further than
Astorga.
Moore arrived at Salamanca and after hearing of the defeat of Blake's Spaniards at
Espinosa, the annihilation of Army of Estremadura and the destruction of Castaos
(picture) at Tudela, he was having second thoughts about his own campaign. He rejected
the entreaties of the Supreme Junta and ordered a withdrawal to Portugal.
General Castanos (Don Francisco Javier Castaos Aragorri Urioste y Olavide) is
remembered for his spectacular victory over the French under General Dupont, whom he
surrounded and compelled to surrender at Bailn in 1808. The news about French defeat at Bailn
sent shock waves throughout Europe.
On December 5th however Moore received news that the population of Madrid offered resistance to
the French army. A letter arrived from General La Romana, in which the Spaniard assured Moore
that he had rallied Blake's divisions and was ready to take the field with 23,000 men.
Pedro Caro y Sureda, 3rd Marqus de la Romana began his military career in the navy.
Jose M. Rodriguez of napoleon-series.org writes: "... Pedro was promoted to ensign and
aide to General Moreno. When, in 1779, Spain and Great Britain went to war ... the
[Spanish] king ordered an attack to retake the island of Minorca (in British hands since
1763). A fleet ... with 8,000 soldiers on board, was dispatched to the island. The land
forces were under the command of General Moreno, and so the young Pedro was
attached to him.
On February 5th, 1781, the last British post, the castle of San
Felipe, surrendered and Minorca returned to Spanish hands."
A captured French dispatch revealed the isolation of Marshal Soult's scattered corps. Moore decided
to strike a blow at the French communication lines at Burgos and guarding them Soult's troops and
thus oblige Napoleon to relinquish his grip on Madrid. However, much of the information Moore
received was incorrect. Madrid had surrendered to Napoleon on December 4th and on December 11th
Moore received gloomy information about it.
On December 13th British cavalry picked up a copy of Napoleon's order to Soult. Thus advised as to
the location of the various French units, Moore decided that he had time for a hit-and-run attack on
Soult. One of Soult's infantry divisions being in Santander and his cavalry brigade in the Tagus
valley, there seemed every chance that he could be overwhelmed before he could receive any help.
Moore crossed the
Douro at Zamora. On
December 20th he
swinged to the left,
linked up with Baird at
Mayorga and
established contact
with La Romana.
Moore was warned by
Romana that Napoleon
had been advancing
northward. Meanwhile
Moore's cavalry
surprised Soult's
cavalry picket at
Sahagun, but the
fugitives fled to the
main body and warned
of the danger. Soult
sent a messenger to
Napoleon informing
him of the British and
asking him for
reinforcements.
Napoleon already had
been aware of Moore's army at Salamanca and was hurrying northwards. On December 19th three
British deserters from the 60th Foot (actually they were Frenchmen captured at Trafalgar and enlisted
in the British army) reached the French outposts with news that Moore's army had been in
Salamanca as late as December 13th.
However, the chances of catching the British were slim. "Setting the weather aside, Moore was so far
to the north that it was unlikely that a force from Madrid would ever have been able to cut him off.
The Emperor's only chance, indeed, was that his opponent would be caught unawares, but Moore
was well aware of the danger and fled westwards as soon as he got news that Napoleon was on the
march, whilst he had also long since requested that his transports should be sent round from Lisbon
to La Corunna. Vigorous action on the part of Soult, it is true, might just have slowed Moore down
enough to allow Napoleon's forces to get behind him, but the marshal elected to wait for the first
reinforcements that were being sent up to him from Burgos and then was slowed down by pouring
rain ..." (Esdaile - "The Peninsular War")

Spain region by region: Castilie and Leon.
This region of S p a i n includes cities of Valladolid,
Leon, Benevente and Burgos. What a beautiful land.
~
Napoleon versus Moore. Moore's flight.
The English are running away as fast as they can. - Napoleon
He feared that they might flee before he brought them to battle.
Realising what Moore had in mind, the Emperor saw a golden opportunity to swing into
his rear, while Soult contained him frontally. The British army would be encircled and
destroyed. Napoleon took his army towards the Guadarrama Pass and in appalling
weather led through the mountains. He believed that Moore's communications stretched
back from Valladolid and along the Douro. But Moore's army was actually further north.
Napoleon ordered Lahoussaye's cavalry to scout westward toward Salamanca. The VIII
Corps and Lorge's dragoon division were assigned to Soult, who was instructed to
maneuver to fix the English while Napoleon cut them off from Salamanca. Napoleon had
decided that the appearance of British infantry in Valladolid would be a good indication
that Moore was in earnest, and he therefore would remain in Madrid until this was reported. When
the report reached him that afternoon, he ordered Lapisse, Dessoles and part of his Guard to march at
once. It seemed obvious that Moore had changed bases and that Soult might be in considerable
danger. However by hard marching, he hoped to overtake and destroy Moore.
In the Sierra Guadarrama the French were struck by a
terrible blizzard, the cavalry was forced to dismount,
and when the snow turned to rain the infantrymen
were struggling through deep mud. Coignet
remembers fording a freezing river and emerging
with his legs "as red as lobsters".
Napoleon walked 8 miles up the steepest part of the
pass, arm in arm with his soldiers. Lapisse's
infantrymen "exasperated by fatigue, shouted
insults as he passed."
Ney's corps cavalry lacked the strength for long-
range reconnaissance through this broken country.
Though it found Salamanca evacuated, thus confirming Napoleon's deduction that Moore had given
up Lisbon for another base, farther north, it also reported the English no farther ahead than
Valladolid.
Napoleon felt so hopeful that - while ordering Ney to seize the Tordesillas Bridge - he wrote to
Joseph to have Madrid papers publish the news that "20,000 English are cornered and doomed." The
actual situation was considerably different. Moore was reported nearing Valladolid, and La Romana
advancing from Leon. On 21st British cavalry surprised and defeated Debelle at Sahagun. Learning
that Ney had reached Tordesillas, Soult ordered an advance through Sahagun to fix the enemy, while
Ney came in on their flank and rear.
Had Moore been at Valladolid, his army would have been destroyed. It was
extremely fortunate for Moore that the Emperor found it as difficult as he
did to get accurate information of enemy movements and that he was 50
miles further than his enemy supposed. The British had far better
knowledge of the French positions. "If Moore's operations were being
conducted with a sure grasp of the positions and intentions of the enemy, it
was in large part due to the guerillas' capture of large numbers of French
couriers. Not until 15 December was Soult informed that Moore was on the
move, whilst Napoleon did not hear of the matter for another 4 days."
Napoleon learned about Moore's presence at Sahagun area, but his own troops were so exhausted
that he had allowed them to rest most of the 26th. On the next day Napoleon sent his army forward
at daybreak, Marshal Ney leading. Unfortunately, worried that Soult might be too weak to resist a
major offensive, he directed Ney toward Medina-de-Rio-Seco, instead of Benavente. By the 28th,
with English infantry reported in Benavente, it was evident that Moore was retreating.
Napoleon feared that the English might flee before he brought them to battle. Still hopeful of striking
Moore's flank, he drove his troops forward along roads knee-deep in mud, galloping ahead of them
with a small escort in his anxiety to determine whether Moore were retiring through Astorga or
Zamora.
During the 28th and 29th, he checked his infantry along the flooded Esla River, awaiting the outcome
of his cavalry reconnaissances - which proved disappointing. Ney's cavalry could not find a ford. La
Romana's troops were defeated at Mansilla and were compelled to relinquish Laon. La Romana's
corps joined the British in Astorga.
At Benavente a small French cavalry force was ambushed and
defeated by the British and German cavalry. French General
Lefebvre-Desnouettes crossed the river with 600 cavalrymen
and impetuously attacked the British and German cavalry. The
enemy at first gave way.
General Stewart however brought in more cavalry. The French
continued advancing, until Lord Paget, accompanied by a
hussar regiment forced them to re-cross the river. The British-
German cavalry captured 70-100 prisoners, incl.Lefebvre-Desnouettes.
Despite the moral-boosting success in this small combat, British retreat towards the sea continued.
Soult, meanwhile, maintained the pressure on Moore's corps.
.
The exhausted Royal Horse Artillery on the road to Corunna.
Picture by Elizabeth Butler
~
" the enemy close at our heels,
thirsting for our blood !"
- W Green of 95th Rifles
Many British units' morale cracked
once the headlong retreat began.
Everywhere, Soult's advance guard
encountered evidence of the enemy's
mounting demoralization; the roads
were littered with wagons, supplies,
equipment, weapons and scores of
stragglers who were captured at every
turn.
Sullen, the British treated Galicia like a
hostile country. Moore writes: The
people run away, the villages are
deserted, and I have been obliged to destroy great part of the ammunition and military stores. For the
same reason I am obliged to leave the sick. In short, my sole object is to save the Army.
Almost every village which the British infantry passed, a cavalry officer of the rearguard reported,
exhibited melancholy proofs of the shameful devastation committed by the infantry which had
preceded us; we observed in flames whilst we were at a considerable distance, and it was still
burning when we passed through it. The inhabitants shouted Viva los Francesces! and we overtook
some stragglers who had been stripped and maltreated by the Spaniards.
According to General Stewart the Spaniards " abandoned their houses as the British army
approached, locking their doors and concealing the little stock of provisions of which they were
possessed These things increased the irritation under which the troops already laboured. They
[soldiers] began to look upon the Spaniards as enemies and treat them as people unworthy of
consideration. This was severely retaliated by an enraged peasantry ..."
The officers were quite unable to control their men. Except of the rearguard and a few of the more
ordely regiments such as the Guards, the discipline no longer existed. One officer wrote: In the end
Vilafranca was literally plundered, and the drunkenness that prevailed among the troops led to the
most shameful incidents. Down by the river the artillery destroyed all their stores, and lighting big
fires burnt all their ammunition wagons, which they broke up for the purpose. They also threw all
their ammunition into the river.
According to Commissary Schaumann the combination of raw salt fish and rum in empty stomachs
resulted in the death of many men. One of them took up a defiant attitude, a la Fabius, in the middle
of the road, and with fixed bayonet shouted that he was General Moore. The commander in chief
ordered his troops out of town and back onto the Corunna road, but 'Great numbers would not leave
the town, but concealed themselves in the wine cellars, which they had broken open, and were left
there." (Summerville - "March of Death" p 120)
Bembibre exhibited all the appearance of a place lately stormed and pillaged. Every door and
window was broken. Wagon after wagon was abandoned and even the headquarters' supply of ready
cash had to be thrown into a ravine. At Bembibre, the French dragoons rounded up hundreds of
drunken British soldiers, and at Villafranca, British deserters were found to have looted their own
army's depots !
Captain Gordon wrote: "They [British stragglers] were soon overtaken by the French
chasseurs (picture) who treated them most unmercifully, cutting to their right and
left, and sparing none who came within reach of their swords."
A few maimed and lacerated survivors made the safety of the British column, their
injuries arousing howls of horror, pity, and outrage. Moore made public exhibits of
them, in the hope that their shocking wounds might deter others from quitting the
colours. The retreat remains a dark chapter in the history of the British army.
~
Marshal Soult takes over command from Napoleon.
Napoleon received news of political intrigues in Paris
and that Austria was mobilising her large army.
On December 30th, the main French army began crossing the Esla River, and Marshal Soult entered
Leon. Napoleon pushed forward. Unfortunately the cares of his vast empire were plucking at his
coattails. He received news of political intrigues at Paris and that Austria was again mobilising her
large army. The Emperor was needed in France. Immediately.
Picture: Kaiser [Emperor] Francis II of Austria
(German: Franz II, Erwhlter Rmischer Kaiser)
The court in Vienna was a nest of hawks these days. The overthrow of the
Spanish Bourbons had hit Austria almost with the force of the news of
Louis XVI's execution in 1793. Austria also wanted to recover her standings
in Europe and lost holdings in Germany and Italy. The shocking French
defeat against the Spanish troops at Bailen gave hope to Napoleon's
enemies. Army reforms gave Austria confidence in being able to tackle the
French.
On January 1st, the Emperor left Benavente, still hopeful that Moore would
stand at Astorga. Some distance from Astorga, a messenger from Paris
overtook him: Austria seemed on the verge of declaring war; Fouche and
Talleyrand were deep in intrigues against him;
On January 17th he began a breakneck ride for Paris, arriving there on the 24th.
Before leaving, Napoleon announced his decisions:
- the Guard and Lapisse's infantry would return to Benavente
- Ney would concentrate at Astorga
- only Soult (3 infantry divisions, light cavalry, 2 dragoon divisions) would continue the direct
pursuit.
Soult was left with only 16,000 infantry and 3,500 cavalry.
He pressed Moore hard, but ran no unnecessary risks.
"Moore had previously let it be known that he hoped to
make a stand at Astorga and, upon his arrival, Romana tried
to persuade him to hold the mountain passes The idea
was not totally without merit and 25.000 British troops
were more than enough to defend the two narrow defiles,
yet Sir Moore dismissed the possibility out of hand." (Summerville - p 85)
The British general sent his light troops through Orense to Vigo, where they embarked on the 17th.
General La Romana moved southward. At midnight, after the destruction of the remaining stores and
500 horses, Moore ordered his army back on the Corunna road. "The country the English left behind
them in their retreat was totally wasted, and every night Soult's troops had to seek provisions at very
great distances from the beaten road, which considerably retarded their march and augmented their
fatigues." (de Rocca - p 65)
There were several small combats between the French
advance guard and British rear guard. " at about 1
PM, with Colbert closing in on Cacabellos, Paget
hustled his troops down the snow-clad hill and across
the Cua to the safety of the western bank. Here,
screened by the vineyard walls, his infantry fanned
out into extended order, while the 6 guns of
Carthew's artillery battery were wheeled into position
astride the road commanding the bridge. Moments
later, Colbert's troopers poured over the brow of the
recently-vacated hill, pursuing the riflemen and hussars of Paget's pickets into
Cacabellos itself. It was in this point that, according to Cpt. Gordon, the 15th Hussars
made a stand
'For some minutes were were so jammed together in a narrow street that it was impossible for either
party to advance or retire. Nevertheless, the flood of the French horsemen proved too much for
Gordon and his comrades and they eventually broke, stampeding through the ranks of retreating
riflemen (as well as panic-stricken staff officers out on reconnaissance) and making a mad dash for
the bridge
Blakeney described the scene 'The situation of the Light Company [of the 28th Foot] was now very
embarrassing, in danger of being trampled down by our own cavalry [hussars], who rode over
everything which came in their way for in their confusion the were firing in every direction and
we were so mixed up with them and our own cavalry that we could offer no formation to receive the
enemy' As for Colbert's men, though they had hacked down several British hussars and taken 48
riflemen prisoner had been recalled by their commander in order to rally, prior to launching of
another sortie." (Summerville - p 125)
Shortly after that small combat, the French light cavalry under Franceschi bagged some 500 British
prisoners on the road. There were also deserters and sick. Five guns and thousands of muskets
intended for Romana's army were dumped in the river at Betanzos. "Moore lost around 1,000 men on
the road from Lugo" (Summerville - p 165)
"... French light cavalry ... bagged some 500
British prisoners" (Summerville - p 165)
~
British and Spanish troops separated.
While the British had to reach Corunna
where the Royal Navy was to evacuate them,
the Spaniards had no such haven to run to.
In military terms, Moore's decision to retreat was probably sensible enough, but in
other aspects it was a disaster. Especially from the Spanish point of view. Having first
failed to appear in time to meet Napoleon's counter-offensive and then allowed
Madrid to fall without firing a shot, the British seemed to be abandoning Spain
altogether.
At all events La Romana (picture) was absolutely furious, for many of the supplies
stored at Astorga had been intended for his army, whilst Moore had initially promised him that he
would defend the town. And there was worse to come. As Moore retreated so desertion, drunkeness
and large number of British stragglers appeared.
While the British army had to reach Corunna where the Royal Navy was
to evacuate them, La Romana's Spanish troops had no such haven to run
to. Soon the British and Spanish troops separated. Soult sent Francesci's
cavalry after La Romana who fell on the Spanish rear guard at the
Foncebabon Pass and captured 1,500 prisoners. Romana had planned to
withdraw northward into Asturias. Now, finding the passes there
blocked with snow, he turned toward Astorga, crowding in on Moore's
withdrawal.
In Astorga "many British soldiers took to
prowling the streets in search of alcohol. ..
Fights were started with Romana's troops over
possession of the best billets; shops and houses
were looted The excesses committed by the
British moved Romana to lodge an official complaint with Moore"
(Summerville - p 82)
General Stewart wrote: "In Astorga, the blowing up of ammunition wagons,
the destruction of entrenching tools and the committal of field equipments
to the flames for a whole division, gave signal for all the bad passions of
those who witnessed them, to let loose; and, mortifying as it is to confess it,
the fact cannot be denied, that from that hour we no longer resembled a
British army."
The only troops still in good order were the Foot Guards, the cavalry, and
the few light troops. The worst situation was in the most numerous
battalions of the line infantry.
~
Whenever we gained summit of a hill,
all eyes were on the watch to catch a
glimpse looked out for ships.
According to Crabb
Robinson The retreat was
more properly a flight. It
was conducted very
blunderingly and with
precipitation.
Inexperienced English
officers, unaware of the
hardships to come, had
permitted a large number
of women to accompany
the army at the outset of
the campaign. Their plight
was one of the most tragic
aspects of the whole
retreat.
Everybody was tired of this situation. Cpt. Patterson of 50th Foot writes: Whenever we gained
summit of a hill, all eyes were on the watch to catch a glimpse looked out for ships. Harris wrote
that "Many talked of home and recollected previous Christmas Eves in Old England, shredding tears
as they spoke of the relatives never to be seen again"
According to Sir Oman, Moore "shocked at the state of indiscipline into which his regiments were
falling, throught only of getting to the sea as quickly as possible." "Moore had made the safety of the
mountains and his eventual salvation - courtesy of the Royal Navy - seemed all but guaranteed."
(Summerville - p 91)
But with Napoleon and his army gone, the general outlook improved so much that Moore even
offerred battle in an extremely strong position outside Lugo. He eventually decided to take the road
again when Soult declined to attack immediately. The weather was atrocious and Soult's troops were
stretched across the mountains.
"Lieutenant General Cradock had tried to reinforce Moore's army in early December by sending
forward Brigadier General Cameron with the 1/45th Foot, 1/82nd Foot, and the 97th Foot. Only the
1/82nd Foot got through and the others turned back.
Sometime betwen 26-29 December, Brigadier Generals R. Stewart and Drieberg with the 29th Foot,
2/31st Foot, 5th Battalion and 7th Line Battalion King's German Legion, and half-brigades of light 6
pounders under Lawson and Rettberg were sent to reinforce Moore's army; however, they only
reached Castello Branco and on 8 January they turned back to Abrantes.
On 5 January, Brigadier General Cameron, with 1/45th Foot, 97th Foot and the convalescents of
Moore's army, advanced again into Spain, but on 9 January news of Moore's retreat caused him to
return.
Lieutenant General Cradock, on 14 January, ordered a Brigade [probably commanded by Major
General Mackenzie] of 14th Light Dragoons, 2/9th Foot, and 3/27th Foot to embark for Vigo and try
to reach Moore's army from there. While still in the Tagus, news of Moore's retreat caused them to
disembark." (- Ron McGuigan, napoleon-series.org)
~
In Corunna.
The mayor of the city of Corunna, galloped round the streets,
shouting words of encouragement and giving advice. Shopkeepers
and barbers were given muskets. "The people of Corunna, however,
were inspired with nothing but pity at the sight of Moore's army."
- Summerville - p 169
The British troops who finally reached Corunna were in very poor state. "The people of Corunna,
however, were inspired with nothing but pity at the sight of Moore's army. In fact, so shocked and
appalled were they at this procession of spectres-men hollowed out by hardships that they made
sign of cross as the soldiers passed." (Summerville - p 169)
Captain Gordon of 15th Hussars wrote: A comparison drawn at this period between the British army
and Romanas mob would not have been much in favour of the former. The brave Spanish mayor of
the city of Corunna, on a fine Andalusian stallion, galloped round the streets, shouting words of
encouragement and giving advice. Shopkeepers and barbers were given muskets from the British
stores and looked as if they meant to use them. Even the women [of Corunna] pitched in, willingly
supplying the batteries with baskets of ammunition, which they carried on their heads.
" ...La Corunna and its environs were crammed with stores and
munitions of all sorts, most of which had to be burned or blown
up ..." (Esdaile - "The Peninsular War" 2002, p 155)
Most of the British artillery wagons that had escaped the
holocaust at Villafranca were thrown over the cliffs into the sea.
By January 14th, most of what could not be used by the British
army and its Spanish allies had been destroyed.
On the evening of that day over
100 transports and 12 warships
sailed into the bay from Vigo, and
at last the embarkation could
begin.
Hastily, before the wind should change, the remainder of the sick, all
the guns except 9, and all the cavalry regiments, which would be of
little use on the rocky broken slopes outside the town, were sent
aboard.
Less than 1,000 horses went with them. The rest had to be killed !
The slaughter of the horses was performed with appalling clumsiness. The
animals were brought to the edge of the cliffs overhanging the beach and were
shot and then pushed over on the sands below where soldiers with hammers
despatched those who had landed there alive because of a badly aimed shot.
So uncertainly, in fact, were the pistols aimed that the men were advised to cut
the horses throats with swords instead of trying to shoot them. Many terrified
horses neighed and screamed as the sight of their fellows struggling on the
blood-splashed beach.
Moore could not hope that the infantry would be able to follow the cavalry
with as little interference from the enemy. Reports had reached him that
Soults engineers had come up to repair the bridge at Burgo a few hours after Paget had been
withdrawn, and the infantry divisions of Merle and Merment were now streaming across it towards
the Heights of Palavea. Moore ordered preparations for departure and the destruction of 4,000 barrels
of gunpowder. The tremendous blast had broken virtually every window in Corunna.
.
Fragmento adicado a cidade da Corua do programa
"Espaa, entre el cielo y la tierra" de T V E.
~
French troops at Corunna.
The appearance of warships and transport fleet
and the detonation of 4,000 barrels of gunpowder
- convinced the French that the British's escape
was imminent.
The strength of the French troops at Corunna vary from author to author. The
most often given numbers are 15,000 men, 16,000 men, 20,000 men and even
24,000 men. According to Hibbert, Marshal Soult had 16,000 men in three
infantry and three cavalry divisions. Since cavalry (3,600 men) was of very little
use in the rugged terrain, Soult could use 12,000 infantrymen.
According to Philip Haythornthwaite the British troops had been rested and
many re-equipped with new muskets, whereas Soult's infantry was handicapped
by damaged ammunition and battered muskets. (Haythornthwaite - "Corunna
1809" p 91)
Each regiment of French infantry consisted of three or more battalions. There
were six companies in battalion. One of the best regiments in Soult's corps were the 17th Light
Infantry (four battle honors) under Colonel Marc Cabanes de Puymisson, and the 36th Line Infantry
(four battle honors) under Colonel Pierre-Andre-Hercule Berlier.
There were also the excellent Swiss infantry. "The
Swiss, like all mountaineers, make capital soldiers
when drilled; and, wherever they have served as
regular troops under foreign banners, they have
fought exceedingly well. But being rather slow-
headed, they need drilling much more, indeed,
than either French or North Germans, to give them
confidence in themselves and cohesion." (Source -
"The Armies of Europe" in Putnam's Monthly, No.
XXXII, published in 1855)
One of Soult's divisional commanders was Henri-Francois Delaborde (1764-1833). Delaborde was son
of a baker and was educated for the church. He was a leanly big man and spoke Latin language.
According to Colonel Elting "he said little, but what he said was very definite." In the beginning of
the French Revolution he joined the volunteers and passing rapidly through all the junior grades was
made general of brigade after the battle of Rhein-Zabern (1793).
He was present at the siege of Toulon where the British and French royalists were
defeated, and was promoted general of division. In 1807 Delaborde was training new
conscripts at his camp at Pontivy in France.
In 1808 he fought a brillant delaying action at Rolica against British troops that
outnumbered him 4 to 1. Amazingly the French lost only 550 men and retreated in fighting
order. The British lost approx. 500 men.
In 1812 Delaborde commanded the 1st Infantry Division of Young Guard. He traveled by carriage.
Only 48, his bent back and protruding paunch made him look much older. Delaborde distinguished
himself at Krasne in 1812 against the Russians. He led the division of Young Guard with these words:
"My children, when you smell powder for the first time, it is stylish to stick up your nose !" The
Bourbons hated him and wanted to execute for supporting Napoleon to the very end.
NOTES:
MdE = Marechal de Empire
GdD = General de Division
GdB = General de Brigade
btns. = battalions
sq. = squadrons

MdE Soult
Infantry Cavalry
Infantry Division - GdD Merle
- - - - - - - 2nd Light Regiment (3 btns.)
- - - - - - - 4th Light Regiment (4 btns.)
- - - - - - - 15th Line Regiment (3 btns.)
Cavalry Division - GdD Franceschi
- - - - - Light Cavalry Regiment
- - - - - Dragoon Regiment
Infantry Division - GdD Delaborde
- - - - - - - 17th Light Regiment (3 btns.)
- - - - - - - 4th Swiss Regiment (1 btn.)
Infantry Division - GdD Merment
- - - - - - - 31st Light Regiment (4 btns.)
- - - - - - - 122nd Line Regiment (4 btns.)
- - - - - - - 2nd Swiss Regiment (2 btns.)
- - - - - - - 3rd Swiss Regiment (1 btn.)
Cavalry Division - GdD Lahoussaye
Cavalry Division - GdD Lorge
~
British troops at Corunna.
According to Philip Haythornthwaite the British troops
had been rested and many re-equipped with new muskets,
whereas Soult's infantry was handicapped by damaged
ammunition and battered weapons.
The strength of Moore's army at Corunna is given at
15,000 men, 16,000 men and 20,000 men. "Since Sir
John had lost some 5,000 men on the reatreat, and was
in the process of shipping his cavalry and artillery -
plus 3,000 sick and wounded - he would be left with
approx. 15,000 foot soldiers with which to hold the
ground." ... "Moore's decision to despatch the light
brigades to the port of Vigo, south of Corunna, was a controversial one which has divided historians
ever since Oman - with the benefit of hindsight - states, '3,500 fine soldiers were wasted for all
fighting purposes." (- Summerville)
There were several excellent regiments in Moore's corps. The 1st Foot Guards is the most senior
regiment of the Guards, and, as such, is the most senior regiment of infantry. The 42nd Foot is the
oldest and the most famous of regiments of Scotland. The first companies of the Black Watch were
raised in 1725. The regiment's name, Black Watch, comes from the very dark tartan (a cloth having a
crisscross design, tartan that they wear). During the American Revolutionary War, the 42nd Foot was
involved in the defeat of George Washington at Long Island. The 95th 'Rifles' earned the nickname
"The Grasshoppers" for their dark green uniforms and agility.
One of Moore's divisional commanders was Lord Paget (later Lord Uxbridge, and
subsequently Marquis of Anglesey). Henry Paget was not only an excellent officer but also a
womanizer. When he decided to elope with Wellington's sister-in-law (and got her
pregnant, before returning her to a tearful husband only to elope for a second time, forcing
a parliamentary divorce and then marrying the lady), the military establishment in London
wrongly supposed that his talents were no longer required by Wellington because of the
scandal. Lord Paget was a brave man, and well known general.
.
Commander - General Moore
Infantry
[British infantry was had been rested
and many re-equipped with new muskets.]
-
1st Infantry Division - General Baird (5,000 men)
- - - - - Warde - I, II/1st Foot Guards (2,000)
- - - - - Manningham - III/1st, I/26th, II/81st Foot
- - - - - Bentinck - I/42nd Highland, I/4th, I/50th Foot
- - - - - artillery
2nd Infantry Division - General Hope (5,500 men)
- - - - - Crawford - 71st Light, 92nd Highland, 36th Foot (2,000)
- - - - - Leith - I/51st, II/59th, II/76th Foot
- - - - - Hill - I/2nd, I/5th, II/14th, I/32nd Foot
- - - - - Catlin - I/36th, I/71st, I/92nd Foot
- - - - - artillery
3rd Infantry Division - General Fraser
- - - - - Beresford - I/6th, I/9th, II/23rd, II/43rd
- - - - - Fane - I/38th, I/79th, I/82nd
- - - - - artillery
4th (Reserve) Infantry Division - General Paget
- - - - - Anstruther - I/95th Rifles, I/52nd Light, I/20th Foot
- - - - - Disney - I/28th, I/91st Foot
- - - - - artillery
~
Map and deployment of troops.
Like those in Dunkirk in 1940, the British forces in Corunna were trapped with their backs to the sea. The
appearance of British warships and transport fleet and the detonation of 4,000 barrels of gunpowder -
convinced Marshal Soult that the British's escape was imminent. (British cavalry and most artillery were
already on transports.) Realising that, he resolved to attack immediately.
Mermet's infantry division formed Soult's left flank, Merle's was in the center, while Delaborde's division
formed the right flank. Lorge's dragoons were behind Delaborde's division. Franceschi's light cavalry was
west of San Cristobal, facing Fraser (near Corunna). The best part of the Soult's corps was the superb
French artillery. Unfortunately the " nature of the ground also prevented any movement of artillery on
either side."
Paget's division formed Moore's right flank, Baird's formed the center, and Hope's division stood on
Moore's left flank. Fraser's division was placed near Corunna. Cavalry was of very little use in the rugged
terrain so it was already on transports. Three of guns Moore gave to Paget; the remaining 6 he placed in
pairs along the crest of Monte Mero.
Forces not participating in the battle:
- Spanish garrison in Corunna under General Alcedo.
- Spanish civilians armed with Spanish and British weapons.
- Considerable proportion of Soults corps had never been engaged.

Moore

Soult
16,000 infantry 12,000 infantry
~
The French infantry drove the British outpost.
Suddenly, from behind a low stone wall beneath guns,
a line of French infantry rose up and fired a volley of
devastating effect. Colonel MKenzie and several of his
men dropped dead. The rest turned and fled down the
slope.
When daylight came on January 15th the British guns had been waiting silently for 4 days. Moore
had begun to doubt that the French would attack at all. But the French came. Soult sent captured
Irish woman of 50th Foot that he should soon visit the British. " some senior [British] officers
thought the situation so perilous, so desperate, as to warrant peace talks with Soult." (Summerville -
"March of Death" p 182)
The last days were quiet but on 15th the whole scene changed. The Spanish people rushed up to roofs
and balconies, and British sailors clambered up the ships rigging looking inland towards the hills.
They had heard the sound of gun fire and were looking at each other with anxious enquiry. During
the morning, when Delabordes infantry division had crossed the Mero River, the men of Mermets
and Merles infantry divisions came up to the crest of the Penasquedo Heights.
On their right Delabordes division climbed up the Heights of Palavea and dragged up 2 guns which
before noon were firing across the valley at the forward regiments of Hopes division. According to a
soldier of the 42nd Highland "The French army did not advance very rapidly, on account of the
badness of the ground." (Summerville - "March of Death" p 186)
Approx. 480 French tirailleurs spearheaded the attack. They were led by
General Jardon, a tough, scarcely literate old soldier, hard-drinking and
hard-swearing, who marched with his men, a musket in his hand and a
dirty shirt on his back. The French infantry drove the British outpost from
the Palavea and Penasquedo plateaus. Now walking, now running, they
came on shouting, En avant ! Tuez ! Tuez ! En avant ! pushing the
English picquets before them, driving the light company of the 59th Foot
out of the village and then advancing up the slopes of Monte Mero.
"When Laborde's division arrived ... the Duke of Dalmatia made no idle
evolutions of display, for distributing his lighter guns along the front of his
position, he opened a fire from the heavy battery on his left, and instantly
descended the mountain with three columns, covered by clouds of
skirmishers ... The nature of the ground also prevented any movement of
artillery on either side, and the French columns in their attack were
exposed to grape, which they could not return because of the distance of
their batteries." (- Napier)
Colonel MKenzie of the 5th Foot decided to take some companies of his
regiment through the village of Piedralonga and make a charge on the guns, which, so far as he could
see, were unsupported. He led his men through the village of Piedralonga and then opened them up
in line for the charge up the slope beyond it. They ran few yards only.
Suddenly, from behind a curving, low stone wall beneath guns, a line of French infantry rose up and
fired a volley of devastating effect. Colonel MKenzie and several of his men dropped dead. The rest
turned and fled down the slope. On the right, also, some lives were lost as a force of French cavalry
edged forward and began a skirmish in the valley beneath the Heights of San Cristobal which
continued intermittently all day.
~
Bitter fighting for Elvina in the center.
The 50th Foot and 42nd Highland fired a volley and then rushed on
with the bayonet. There was a brief and savage struggle, and then
the French gave ground. They quickly recovered, however, and the
Highlanders were held half-way down the slope. The French rallied
and turned on the pursuers, the 50th Foot, routing them and inflicting
"grevious casualties." The redcoasts fled to their lines
where Moore rallied them.
It was 6 AM in the morning of 16th January. Moore mounted his
horse and rode off to his forward outposts along the ridge of
Monte Mero. He told Col. Anderson, who had been acting as
Adjutant-General since Brigadier-General Clinton had gone to
bed with diarrhea, that he hoped all the remaining baggage and
horses would be aboard by 4 oclock as he wanted the boats to be
free by then for the embarkation of the reserve division. At 12
oclock the men of the reserve received orders to march for the
harbour.
At noon the French were in position and at 2 PM their principal
battery opened fire on Elvina. Major Napier rode across his front
to the ridge of his regiment. He noticed that each time a cannon
shot whistled over their heads they all ducked. French General
Mermet took light infantry and opened the ball. The French surged forward and fell on Bentinck's
brigade. The British light infantry was quickly evicted from Elvina.
The French 31st Light Regiment crashed straight into Elvina, drove out the British pickets, and
continued up the slopes of Monte Mero. Eight French battalions advanced up the slopes beyond the
village, while others wheeled to assail Bentinck's right.
After passing Elvina, the French 31st Regiment had split into
two. The right hand column, which had been marching up the
slope against the 42nd Regiment, halted to deploy. The British
50th Foot and 42nd Highland fired a volley and then rushed
on with the bayonet. There was a burst of ferocious shouting,
a brief and savage struggle, and then the French gave ground.
They quickly recovered, however, and the Highlanders were
held half-way down the slope. The French rallied and turned
on the pursuers, the 50th Foot, routing them and inflicting
"grevious casualties."
The redcoasts fled to
their lines where
Moore rallied them.
The 42nd Highland
was so hard pressed
that Moore brought
up 2 Guard battalions
to support the Scots.
After more bitter
fighting the French
finally fell back from
the ridge to Elvina.
The balls flying without warning over William Napier's head
so frightened him that for the first time that day he felt
tempted to turn his back and run for his life. He was stopped
by a weak but excited Irish voice. And then the man began to
scream in pain and hysteria and terror, and Napier infected
by the man's fear became frightened again too. Behind him
the French were once more pouring down into Elvina and re-taking the village.
Napier had driven the French out of Elvina, and, although his regiment was broken now and the
42nd Highland had also been badly mauled, the enemy having taken the village again were moving
up from it for the second time. "The struggle for Elvina was long and bitter, and by 3:30 PM both the
42nd and the 50th Foot were spent forces, and Napier wounded and a prisoner." (Chandler -
"Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" p 109)
"The fighting in Elvina continued for some time,as dusk began to fall. Mermet fed in
his reserves, and although the reinforced British pushed forward some way, part of
the village appears to have remained in French hands until the fighting died down.
(Haythornthwaite - "Corunna 1809" p 82)
As soon as the two battalions
of the Foot Guards arrived,
Moore told his staff, he would
send one battalion down to
attack a large house and
garden on the outskirts of Elvina from which
a company of voltigeurs was maintaining a
fierce fire on the 42nd Highland, who were
unable to reply to it because their
ammunition was almost finished.
The Highlanders, indeed, kept looking over
their shoulders for signs of relief; and when
they saw the Guards marching in their
direction they decided to fall back. Moore
checked the movement himself. Immediately the Highlanders turned about again and went back to
face the enemy.
PS.
In Scotland there were two distinct societies. In the lowlands, the people were a mixture of all the
races that had invaded England and the Isles. Lowlanders spoke a version of English and lived in a
society based on the emerging mercantile economy. The Highlanders on the other hand, were largely
Celtic in ancestry with a sprinkling of Viking and a few other races. The Highlanders spoke Gaelic,
and lived in a largely feudal society based on loyalty and power, not money. They were hardy men:
"The limbs of the Highlander are strong and sinewy, the frame hardy, and of great physical power, in
proportion to size. He endures cold, hunger, and fatigue with patience..." (Source:
www.electricscotland.com/history)
~
"... the cavalry - had found it
difficult to deploy."
Four dragoon regiments under Lahoussaye
trotted out from the cover of the hills behind
them and edged northwards, as if to get
round the right of the British frontline troops
and cut them off from their line of retreat to
Corunna. "The French offensive had been
severely hampered by broken terrain, criss-
crossed by walls and gulleys, and the troops -
especially the cavalry - had found it difficult
to deploy." (Summerville - "March of Death" p
199)
To check the turning movements of the cavalry on his right Moore sent back orders to Fraser to move
out of the Corunna suburbs on the heights of San Margarita, and orders to Paget to move towards
San Cristobal. Paget had sent out the 95th Rifles in extended order as soon as he had received
Moore's first order. A little later the 52nd Light, with the 28th Foot in support, had joined the 95th
and, followed by the other 2 battalions of the division - the 20th and the 91st - moved along the right
bank of the Menelos River.
All 5 battalions moved quickly and had reached the edge of
Monte Mero while the French dragoons were still stumbling
through the maze of rough stone walls and rutted enclousers
between Elvina and San Cristobal in the valley below.
Unable to charge or even to change front on that broken
ground, the French horsemen slowly gave way until
Lahoussaye ordered them to dismount and fight as tirailleurs.
The figthing deteriorated into petty fusiliade. The dragoons
were in disadvantage as their dragoon-type muskets had
shorter range than infantry muskets, and cavalryman will never
match infantryman in markmanship.
~
Diversions in Palavea and Piedralonga.
"... neither side had gained any significant
territorial advantage." - Summerville
The French skirmishers also
moved down into the valley
near the sea to exchange shots
with their British counterparts;
and behind these skirmishers a
column of French infantry was
already pushing Hopes
outposts out of the village of
Palavea. But the attack here was
no more than a diversion and
Moore concentrated on the
danger to his right where
Mermets infantrymen were
moving behind Jardons
tirailleurs.
"The left of the British line had
not been seriously assailed until
around 4.30 PM, when Delaborde's troops advanced into Piedralonga, evicting the British pickets.
Fierce fighting ensued, much of it hand-to-hand but when the bloodshed ceased about 6 PM,
neither side had gained any significant territorial advantage." (Summerville - "March of Death" p 199)
The final French attack here came at 5:15 PM, against the Piedralonga sector, but Delaborde was soon
repulsed and the fighting petered out in the gathering dusk of a cold winter's day.
~
A great man meets his death.
A French cannonball had torn a hole so deep in
Moore's left shoulder that the lung was exposed.
Hardinge galloped up to report the
Guards' arrival. Moore looked in the
direction in which Hardinge was pointing
and was suddenly thrown from his
saddle. He fell on his back at the feet of
Colonel Graham's horse. A round-shot
had torn a hole so deep in his left
shoulder that the lung was exposed, the
ribs over the heart and part of the collar-
bone had been smashed, the muscles of
the breast had been torn into strips and
the arm was hanging only by the sleeve of his coat and a shred of flesh.
Napier writes: "Sir John Moore, while earnestly watching the result of the fight about the village of
Elvina, was struck on the left breast by a cannon shot; the shock threw him from his horse with
violence, but he rose again in a sitting posture "
"No less a victim of this galling fire was Sir David Baird himself, his left arm smashed by a
roundshot Lord Bentinck now came up on his quiet mule " (Summerville - "March of Death" p 188)
In the valley below the Mero ridge the fight still went on.
As the remains of the 42nd Highland, turned about by Moore's stern words, approached Elvina for
the second time that day, Mermet's infantrymen poured down into the village from the south and
Reynaud's brigade from Merle's division approached it from the east. Brig-Gen. Manningham sent
forward his two right-hand battalions, the III/1st and II/81st. The forces clashed on the gorse and
rock covered ridges of the lower slopes and fought with bitter fury. The 81st Foot lost 150 men, the
1st Foot almost as many. When their ammunition was running low, Hope sent down the reserve
regiment from Leith's brigade, the II/59th and as darkness fell the French finally retired.
According to Philip Haythorrntwaite as darkness fell the fighting ended, even skirmish-fire ceasing
by 6 pm without much territorial advantage to either side. The French however had a foothold in
Piedralonga. Considerable proportion of Soults army had never been engaged. According to Sir John
Hope the British troops quitted their positions about ten at night. All night long the men of the
rearguard had kept the fires burning on the hills to give the impression of activity.
~
French victory.
"The French opened a cannonade upon the shipping in the harbour,
which caused great confusion amongst the transports." - Capt. Gordon
The
French
troops
became
undisputed masters of the battlefield and Marshal Soult had begun closing in on Corunna and the
sea port.
All night long the sailors had been rowing backwards and forwards between the ships and the
harbour wall. By morning the wounded and more than half the rest of the army were safely aboard
the fleet where "many fell asleep immediately and never awoke for 3 days and nights On Leith's
ship were the fragments of six different regiments; on another, men from fourteen units were
crammed between the decks. In the gathering light of the early mornng the embarkation continued.
Moore's body, wrapped in blankets and a military cloak, was lowered into the grave by the red
sashes of his staff.
Moore mortally wounded, died that night, while Hope pressed the embarkation. Benjamin Miller
writes: "As we drifted down the harbour we saw hundreds of our soldiers, which had been doing
duty in the garrison, sitting on the rocks by the water's side waving their hats and calling for the
boats to take them off "
The British had almost finished the embarkation by morning, when French
artillery came into action from cliffs overlooking the bay. James Moore writes:
"Towards 8 o'clock in the morning some firing was heard" The firing heard by
the mourners at Moore's graveside had been occasioned by a French advance.
Beresford's brigade began to embark when suddenly from the heights above Fort
San Diego there was 'a sudden terrific outburst of fire and it seemed to
Commissary Schaumann as if the Day of Judgement had come. "Shot and shell
whistled about our heads, and striking first the water, then the sloops, and anon
the ships themselves, made hearing and seeing almost impossible. It was the
French who at this very moment had opened fire from their batteries in order to
shell and bombard the harbour and the fleet."
The French fire created great confusion on
the British side. Cpt. Gordon writes: "The
French opened a cannonade upon the
shipping in the harbour, which caused
great confusion amongst the transports.
Many were obliged to cut their cables, some suffered damage
by running foul of each other, and 5 or 6 were abandoned by their crews and drifted on shore." In
fact, 4 transports ran aground, 3 of which had to be burned, their cargo of men ferried to other
vessels in the harbour in a confused operation, during which some men were drowned.
"Moore's campaign" was over. The British lost their commander, they abandoned the battlefield, and
they were also forced to embark and leave. The Times called it "a shameful disaster." The battle itself
was a decent cloak to cover the shame of an embarkation. Some British authors however regard
Corunna as a British victory because the British army was saved.
According to the popular napoleonic website www.napoleon-series.org (2005)
the battle of Corunna was a French victory. In list of napoleonic battles they write:
"Here in this list France is mentioned as victor because it occupied the place at the end.
In February 1998 there was quite a dispute in the discussion forum about who's victory
this was (most voted for France)."
For the Spaniards the battle of Elvina, as they called it, was also a French victory.
The British did not win, they only succeeded in a hasty retreat. They were lucky to
escape. ("Oh how lucky you English are to have your ships and to be able to get away !")
For the French it was their victory. When the dust settled, it was the French army
that held the battlefield and Corunna itself, not the British. They sent the redcoats
skulking off to the sea. The redcoats had enough and quit.
French line infantry, by L et F Funcken
~
"...we have suffered a shameful disaster."
- The Times, London
"Wars are not won by evacuations."
- Winston Churchill
In four or five days the fleet carried home about
26,000 men of Moore's army. Corunna's defences
were left in the hands of its small Spanish garrison
under the command of General Alcedo. A young
Spanish girl said to August Schaumann: "Oh how
lucky you English are to have your ships and to be
able to get away !"
Alcedo would fend off the French just long enough
for the British to depart. "... at Coruna some
Spanish gunners tried to snipe at [French]
individuals with a 32 pounder gun." (- Patrick Griffith)
De Rocca, a French officer, writes: "The town of Corunna, surorunded by fortifications, was defended
by its inhabitants and only capitulated on the 20th." (de Rocca, - p 66)
The expedition reached England between 21 and 23 June, having lost some 8,800 men. "The people of
Portsmouth looked on in horror at the spectacle that was emerging from the harbour. The British
expeditionary force had returned home, but there was no grand parade through the streets, no pomp
or colour, no tale of victory. What appeared seemed rather to be the mere wreckage of an army."
Harry Smith of the Rifles went into the George Inn where a colonel roared at his this white face, 'Who
the devil's ghost are you ?" Some soldiers, ashamed of their appearance were 'glad to escape
observation and march quickly into barracks'" It was all very well to talk about the courage and
endurance of the troops but of what use were these virtues alone when pitted against Napoleon ?
Despite his hero's death, Sir John Moore himself was widely blamed. While Soult gave orders for the
erection of a monument in Corunna, the Government in London did little to defend his reputation
against his critics He had placed his army in an impossible situation and then, after days of
uncertainty and vacillation, had been chased half way across Spain ignoring every position of
strength at which he might have turned and fought back successfully. Destroying the army by his
wild, precipitate retreat he had become obsessed by his overwhelming anxiety to reach the sea.
One of his own young officers afterwards wrote: "Sir John Moore proved lamentably deficient in
those qualities of decision and firmness which he had so often displayed on former occasions, and
which alone would have enabled him to extricate the army ... from the perilous situation in which it
had been placed by his own ill-advised measures and the disasters of our Spanish allies. At this
juncture, however, he appeared to labor under a depression of spirits so different from his usual
serene and cheerful disposition as to give a mournful expression to his countenance, indicative of the
greatest anxiety of mind."
The news of the horrifying return of the soldiers spread fast through an indignant country. 'The fact
must not be disguised,' wrote a correspondent to The Times, expressing a general opinion, 'that we
have suffered a shameful disaster." The campaign led to turmoil in England. Many politicians were
alarmed at the manner in which the experiences of Moore's army had produced on the public
opinion. Politician after politician "demanded the publication of the official correspondence, pressed
for the establishemnt of a parliamentary committee of enquiry ..." (- Esdaile).
After the victory at Corunna, Soult took
the great naval base of El Ferrol. The
marshal captured 8 battle-ships, 3
frigates, several hundred prisoners and
enormous equipment stockpiles, incl.
20,000 British muskets.
General Sir John Moore was buried
wrapped in a military cloak in the
ramparts of Corunna. Charles Wolfe
wrote a poem:
Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note,
As his corse to the rampart we hurried;
Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot
O'er the grave where our hero we buried.
and ends, six verses later, with:
Slowly and sadly we laid him down,
From the field of his fame fresh and gory;
We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone,
But we left him alone with his glory.
The casualties in the battle of Corunna are difficult to assess. British authors (Omar, Napier, and
others) did their guesswork and gave higher casualties for the French, which is not surprising, as
every nation present their own troops in the best possible light. William Napier, for example, wrote:
"The loss of the British was never oficially published, but was estimated at 800, and that of the French
at 3,000. The latter is undoubtedly an exaggeration " (By the way, the British casualty returns of the
troops preserved in the War Office, signature W.O.25/2105 for the Fuengirola battle in 1810 where
the British were also defeated, have had the three sheets with the casualty listings torn out. So you
have to be careful about such "estimates" regardles if they come from British or French authors.)
It would be interesting to know what the French have to say about their own and the Britsh
casualties. I mean some numbers and not "estimates". It's important to know both sides of the story,
not just only the British perspective.
Both sides probably had suffered around 800-1,000 casualties, with the British also losing their
commander (and the second in command seriously wounded).
A. Nuez and G.A. Smith
.
Map of Europe in 1809.
Taking advantage of France's preocupation with Spain, the massive Austrian army
launched a surprise attack in Bavaria, France's ally. Faulty intelligence gave
Napoleon the impression that the Austrian attack would come north of the Danube.
Additional information from one of our readers:
Dear Sir
I am a complete novice in the study of war in general and the Napoleonic Wars in particular. While
engaged on background research for a book Im writing, I came across your site and it is remarkably
informative. However, there is an error which I feel should be corrected. On the Battle of Corua page
there are 10 references to William Napier or just to Napier, with the implication being that the writer
is still referring to William Napier.
The Major Napier in the first reference is Major Charles James Napier. Although the personal
quotations throughout the page are indeed taken from a work by William Napier they are from his
book The Life and Opinions of Charles James Napier, Volume I. William Napier was not present at
the battle of Corua, having parted company with his brothers Charles and George (who was John
Moores ADC) at Astorga to go with the Light Division under Craufurd to Vigo [page 199 of The
Sword Dance volume 1 of Priscilla Napiers biography of Lady Sarah Lennox and the Napiers]
William wrote his book to exonerate his brother Charles for what he felt had been a number of slights
against his brother on the part of the British Government and its army. It is sad to note that although
there are quotations on your page illustrating Charles Napiers fear, something he never denied, there
are none illustrating his extraordinary bravery and tenacity at that battle. I would refer you to
Charless own account of what happened to him at Corua, which William transcribes in full in his
book pages 94-116 under the heading MY PART IN THE BATTLE OF Corua AND THAT OF
JOHN HENNESSY and which you can read on Google books here. In that section you will find the
quotations on your web page. William Napier also wrote a history of the Napoleonic Wars and other
references on your page may be from this work.
In later years, General Sir Charles James Napier became known as the conqueror of Scinde and was
noteworthy for being very popular with soldiers over whom he had authority. The statue of him in
Trafalgar Square, London states that the funds for it were raised by public subscription the most
numerous being private soldiers. There are several pubs in the UK called the Charles Napier and of
course there is a whole city named after him in New Zealand! He had radical opinions and a
reputation for being a man of great fairness.
Finally, a quotation from page 278 of Priscilla Napiers book The Sword Dance:
in later life when he English position in India was in great danger and the
East India Company asked Wellington to recommend to them the three best generals
in the country, he replied crisply
Sir Charles Napier
Sir Charles Napier
Sir Charles Napier
Yours sincerely
LucyAnn Curling
- Thank You LucyAnn for the interesting information !
Sources and Links.
Estudio Historico y Uniformologa de la Guerra de la Independencia
GUERRA DE LA INDEPENDENCIA ESPAOLA 1808-1814
Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" (1993)
Esdaile - "The Peninsular War" 2002
Hibbert - "Corunna"
De Rocca - "In the Peninsula with a French hussar."
Jean Barres - "Memoirs of a Napoleonic Officer"
La Gorce - "The French Army; a military-political history"
Georges Blond - "La Grande Armee"
Adolphe Thiers - "History of the Consulate and the Empire of France Under Napoleon"
Pictures of Highlanders by Dmitrii Zgonnik of Ukraine.
Haythornthwaite - "Corunna 1809"
Battle of Wagram 1809 : Schlacht : Bataille : Batalla : Bitwa
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Battle_of_Wagram_1809.htm[2012-05-21 12:43:20]
Battle of Wagram, 1809
"Conspicious on his white charger, Napoleon had ridden through Austrian fire
to be present when column moved out towards Sussenbrunn, flags flying,
drums beating the charge , and the m e n cheering .
The Austrians opened up with everything they had."
Rothenburg - "The Emperor's Last Victory"
The battle noise was deafening, all encompassing, as if the world was
indeed ending. The horizon was red and flickering with the fires of
burning villages. These were the two days of competitive homicide.
Introduction.
War !
Napoleon's attempts to cross the Danube.
Napoleon's army on Lobau Island.
Archduke Charles defeated Napoleon
at Aspern-Essling.
Napoleon crosses Danube again.
Austrian Order of Battle.
Plans and deployment (+ map).
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Battle of Wagram.
I.
- - - - - Right flank : Davout vs Rosenberg.
- - - - - Center: Bernadotte's Saxons vs Bellegarde.
- - - - - Left flank : Massena's advance.
II.
- - - - - Center : Austrian grenadiers took Aderklaa.
- - - - - They also captured two French Eagles (!)
- - - - - and mauled the brave Hessians.
- - - - - Left : Austrian offensive against Massena.
- - - - - "Austrian movement greatly perplexed the
- - - - - French."
- - - - - Center : failed French heavy cavalry charge.
- - - - - "... in crisis of battle a sudden beserk fury
- - - - - possessed him."
III.
- - - "... erase the enemy masses."
- - - (Guard Arttillery halted the Austrians advance).
- - - Seeing Davout's progress on the flank
- - - Napoleon announced "The Battle is Won."
- - - "... this brave man [General Oudinot],
- - - sword in hand, led from the front "
- - - (Fighting along the Russbach Stream)
- - - MacDonald's multi-battalion column
- - - dented the Austrian line but could not
- - - break it !
IV.
- - - Napoleon decided to commit his reserves.
- - - Austrian withdrawal.
.
Peace and assassination attempt on Napoleon.
Introduction.
The shocking French defeat against the Spanish troops at Bailen
gave hope to Napoleon's enemies. Army reforms gave Austria
confidence in being able to tackle the French.
In 1809 Napoleon confronted his implacable continental foe, the
Austrian Empire. The court in Vienna was a nest of hawks these
days. The overthrow of the Spanish Bourbons had hit Austria almost
with the force of the news of Louis XVI's execution in 1793. Austria
also wanted to recover her standings in Europe and lost holdings in
Germany and Italy.
Johann-Philipp-Karl-Joseph Stadion played a large part
in the formation of the 3rd and 5th coalition against
France. Notwithstanding the failure of this alliance in
1805, he was made foreign minister, and pursued a
policy of quiet preparation for a fresh trial of strength
with Napoleon. In 1808 Stadion abandoned the policy
of procrastination, and with the help of Metternich
hastened the outbreak of a new war.
Although grimly prepared to fight alone, Austria sought allies. Prussia secretly promised
support, but when the time came, proved afraid to deliver.
Great Britain offered up minor subsidies and indicated that she would send a small corps to
the northern Europe. Napoleon failed to secure Russia's compliance with the armistice
agreement of 1807. Therefore, in January 1809, the Ottoman government concluded the Treaty
of the Dardanelles with Britain (being now in war with both France and Russia).
That power that counted most in 1809 - Russia - was not yet ready to abandon her alliance
with France.
Army reforms gave Austria confidence in being able to tackle
the French. The Austrian army became even larger. The new
guns, the smell and feel of the fresh military clothing, the
comradeship of fellow men all contributed to the mens
growing sense of excitement about meeting the French army
in battle. For many, war was a glorious spectacle. While the
starry-eyed new recruits tossed around vibrant tales of their
planned prowess as soldiers, the actual combat veterans
within the regiments grimly went about the task of teaching
this motley collection of recruits how to act like soldiers. Most
of whom knew how unrealistic it was to expect these boys to
stop the cream of Napoleon's army.
The Austrian army was organized into corps. The staff
however was not capable of handling the corps system. "The
officers of the Quartermaster General Staff were still primarily
trained in mapping, mathematical computations,
horsemanship, drawing and penmanship. Many were
personally brave and on paper quite capable of elaborating
plans for moving troops. In the field, however, it was a
different matter. The new system created much confusion and
the Austrian general staff lacked a common doctrine and manuals of procedure. And this
became especially critical when because of the small size of the permanent staff untrained
officers had to be assigned for duty when the army was activated." (Rothenberg - "Napoleon's
Great Adversary")
In 1808 the landwehr (militia) was formed. "Only provinces in Germany were allowed to form
landwehr battalions, as the territory of Galicia, heavily populated with Poles and sympathetic
towards Napoleon, were forbidden to raise such formations." (John Stallaert - "The Austrian
Army")
In 1809 Austrian Empire had 300,000-450,000 regulars and 100,000-150,000 irregulars (grand
total of 400,000-600,000 men under arms). Thus the Austrian army was the third largest army
in the World. It was possible due to two factors, good organization and large population. ".. in
May and June of 1809, Archduke Charles began to incorporate the landwehr into the ranks of
the regulars in order to shore up losses which could no longer be filled by depleted depot
ballalions. Finally, whole battalions of landwehr were deployed at Wagram and their behavior
was commendable." (- John Stallaert)
The shocking French defeat against the Spanish troops at Bailen gave hope to Napoleon's
enemies. The news about French defeat at Baylen sent shock waves throughout Europe. The
Spanish regiments proclaimed themselves the "conquerors of the conquerors of Austerlitz."
Napoleon was furious: "The capitulation of Baylen ruined everything. In order to save his
wagons of booty, Dupont commited his soldiers to the disgrace of a surrender that is without
parallel."
The
victorious
Spanish
troops at
Baylen
called
themselves
the
"conquerors
of the
conquerors
of Austerlitz." It was after Baylen that the revolution came to a head, and that part of the
Spanish high nobility who had accepted the Bonaparte dynasty or wisely kept back, came
forward to join the popular cause. Nowhere was the news of Spanish successes more welcome
than in London. Past enmities were forgotten, as British society went mad with fabulous
notions of Hispanic heroism and zeal. The press launched a popular campaign in support of
the Spanish rebels.
~
War !
Austria reformed her army and went all out,
putting arms in the hands of more soldiers
than ever before in her long history.
According to Englund, Napoleon was not ready for a fight right
now. His army was busy in Spain fighting against the guerillas.
Russia was a dubious ally. There were numerous French troops
occupying various German states. Speaking shortly, Napoleon's
army was divided. Fortunately Austria's strategy was helping him.
The Austrians divided their army into three separate groups, one in
Germany, one in Italy and one in Poland. It would turn out to be a
major mistake. (Englund - "Napoleon: A Political Life")
Inflamed by patriotic feelings Austria went to war, one army
invaded Bavaria and another entered Italy. Napoleon concentrated
his main force in Bavaria.
The Emperor then marched against the strung out but confident
whitecoats. At Abensberg, he split the Austrian army in two, and vigorously pursued. The French
won at Landshut and Eckmuhl, and captured Ratisbon. Napoleon then marched on Vienna and
crossed the Danube at Aspern-Essling. Unfortunately the bridge was broken by high waters and
objects sent down by the Austrians.
.
Map of Europe in 1809.
Taking advantage of France's preocupatio with Spain, the massive Austrian army
launched a surprise attack in Bavaria, France's ally. Faulty intelligence gave
Napoleon the impression that the Austrian attack would come north of the Danube.
Other maps of Europe 1809 (ext.links) - 1, - 2,
~
Napoleon's attempts to cross the Danube.
Trees were cut down and the abandoned buildings
were dismantled to provide necessary lumber.
With the bridge ready, Napoleon moved his troops
on the island.
The French first attempt to cross Danube failed. The
voltigeurs of 72nd and 105th Line, supported by an entire
infantry battalion were attacked by Nordmann's Grenzers
and Vienna Volunteers. The French were driven back,
some to a corner of an island, and approx. 700
surrendered.
Baron de Marbot of French cavalry described this action:
"Marshal Lannes ordered General Saint-Hilaire to send
500 men to the island of Schwarzelaken, which is
separated from the left bank by a small arm of the river,
and almost reaches the end of the Spitz bridge. General
Saint-Hilaire composed this force of men from two
regiments under two majors, which was likely to interfere
with combined action. Thus, on reaching the island these
officers, not acting in concert, committed the great
mistake of having no reserve in a large house well placed
for protecting the landing of more troops.
Then dashing on blindly, without organisation, they
pursued some detachments of the enemy who were
defending the island. These shortly received
reinforcements from the left bank, and though our soldiers repulsed the first attacks with
vigour, forming square and fighting with the bayonet, they were overwhelmed by numbers,
more than half being killed and all the rest wounded and taken before support could reach
them.
The Emperor and Marshal Lannes arrived on the river-bank just in time to witness this
disaster. They bitterly reproached General Saint-Hilaire, who, though he had much experience
of war, had made the mistake of first composing his detachment badly, and then of letting it
go before he was in a position to support it promptly by successive reinforcements. It is true he
had few boats at his disposal, but plenty more were coming up, for which he might have
waited, and not acted precipitately. In this affair the Austrian troops were commanded by a
French migr, General Nordmann. "
On May 18 the French voltigeurs rowed across the Danube carrying a cable that would
support the bridge to the large Lobau Island. The voltigeurs cleared the island and
construction of a bridge began. Trees were cut down and the abandoned buildings were
dismantled to provide necessary lumber. Once ready, Napoleon moved his troops and artillery
on the island. The cannons and howitzers dominated the area that would become the
bridgehead, later called tete de pont.
In the evening the French pontoneers had completed the
second bridge and Molitor's infantry division (of MdE
Massena's IV Army Corps) crossed over the river. By
exercising great care, the cannons and howitzers were brought
across. French horse battery drove off Austrian battery.
However the effort to push 50,000 infantry and cavalry across
the river became tangled and the problem delayed deployment
of French forces until after the Austrians had a chance to react. After the French light cavalry
moved to the front, the second bridge broke. It was soon repaired and in the night the rest of
Massena's IV Army Corps reached the Austrian bank. The next day Massena climbed the
church tower in Aspern and watched the Austrian positions. His soldiers built several
earthworks near the bridgehead.
~
Napoleon's army on Lobau Island.
"There were many happy renewals of friendship
as French soldiers who had been scattered in
garrisons throughout Europe met one another
for the first time since ... 1805"
Picture: exhausted Napoleon fell asleep with
his boots on.
Energy, endurance, and skill were taxed to
the utmost; but the crossing was effected.
Napoleon's army camped on Lobau Island
covered in meadows, scrub and woods of
elms and willows.
It was an incredible assembly of the best
troops and generals of Europe. Most of
them camped in the open, and slept on the
ground, with their greatcoats rolled up as
pillows. Only few built huts. Marbot writes:
"On the evening of May 20, the Emperor and Marshal Lannes being lodged in the only house
which existed on the island, my comrades and I took up our quarters close by, in brilliant
moonlight, on beautiful turf. It was a delicious night, and with the carelessness of soldiers,
thinking nothing of the morrow's dangers, we chatted gaily, and sang the last new airs ..."
(Marbot - "The Memoirs of Baron de Marbot" Vol. I)
"There were many happy renewals of friendship as French soldiers who had been scattered in
garrisons throughout Europe met one another for the first time since departing the camps
along the Atlantic coast back in 1805." (- James Arnold)
On the other side of the river the French could see a level expanse stretching to the villages of
Aspern and Essling, and the wooded heights of Bisamberg.
~
Archduke Charles defeated Napoleon at Aspern-Essling.
News of the victory spread in Europe like wildfire.
The battle demonstrated how far the Austrian army had
progressed since the catastrophic defeats in 1805.
"Aspern was a reasonably prosperous village of 106 brick-built houses, mainly along two
roads that ran west to east through the village, connected by cross-streets. The church at the
western end, on slightly higher ground, had a cemetery with a chest-high wall as well a a
vicarage and garden surrounded by a lower wall. ...
Smaller than Aspern, Essling consisted of 55 houses, either side of the village pond. The most
important feature of the village was the huge three-storey granary with walls metre thick.
West of the granary was the walled Great Garden and on the south side was the Long Garden,
surrounded by ditches, ending a short distance from the Stadtler Arm of the Danube." (Castle -
"Aspern and Wagram 1809")
In the
morning
the
Austrian
troops
took up
their
position
facing
the
French
under
Marshal
Massena
already
situated
in
Essling
and
Aspern.
Massena
had four
infantry
divisions (Legrand, Molitor, St.Cyr and Boudet) and one cavalry (Marulaz) at his disposal.
Unfortunately the infantrymen failed to have loopholed the houses of these villages. His
infantrymen however occupied the two strongpoints; the church in Aspern and the granary in
Essling.
Bessires' Reserve Cavalry (two heavy cavalry divisions) was formed in the space between
Essling and Aspern.
The overall command over Massena and Bessiers was given to French Ajax, Marshal Lannes.
The French position was strong.
Aspern and Essling contained stout buildings and the elevated road between the villages
provided shelter. Between Aspern and Danube River was marshy and wooded terrain, good
for light infantry combat. And there was no better light infantry than the French infantry. The
area between Essling and Danube was covered by very strong French artillery from Lobau.
The only problem for the French were the unstable bridges. The water was high.
Detailed map of the area:
1. Bridges on Danube. On
the island stood French
heavy guns. To damage the
bridges the Austrian
engineers had launched
boats laden with rock into
the current.
2. Gemeine Au wood was
the battleground for French
voltigeurs and Austrian
Grenzers and jagers.
3. Tree-lined elevated road
from Aspern to Essling. South of the road stood Bessieres' cuirassiers. Between the road and
Danube were tile works where Napoleon sat on a drum.
4. Park.
5. Granary in Essling. Nearby was a large farm with a walled garden. Marshal Lannes was in
Essling.
6. Church in Aspern. From the church tower Massena observed the enemy. Three large trees
shaded the cemetery. Aspern was erased by a hail of cannonballs, burned by howitzer shells
and changed hands 6 times!
At 9 AM Archduke Charles called the commanders of corps to his headquarters and informed
them about his plans. Not all corps were available right now. For example the V Corps was
stretched along the Danube, watching the river crossings upstream. The elite Grenadier Corps
was near Gerasdorf and was expected to join the main army. The Archduke then ordered an
address to be read to the army.
Charles' army consisted of:
- 70,000 infantry
- 12,000 cavalry
- 288 guns
At 2 PM the whitecoats attacked.
At once there opened such an artillery
combat as the armies had never before seen.
It was almost impossible for aids to report
or for orders to be given from the center of
so much noise and confusion. Great
volumes of smoke obscured the battlefield.
Marbot wrote: "The cannonade was terrible;
the enemy's force was so much superior to
ours that they might easily have hurled us
into the Danube ... and if the Emperor had
been in the Archduke's place he would
certainly have taken that course. But the
Austrian commander-in-chief was too
methodical to act in this determined way, therefore instead of boldly massing a strong force in
the direction of our tte de pont, he occupied the whole of the first day in attacking Aspern and
Essling, which he carried and lost five or six times after murderous combats.
As soon as one of these villages was occupied by the enemy, the
Emperor sent up reserves to retake it, and if we were again driven
from it, he took it again, though both places were on fire. During this
alternation of successes and reverses, the Austrian cavalry several
times threatened our centre, but ours repulsed it and returned to its
place between the two villages, though terribly cut up by the enemy's
artillery. Thus the action continued till ten in the evening, the French
remaining masters of Essling and Aspern, while the Austrians,
withdrawing their left and centre, did nothing but make some fruitless attacks on Aspern.
They brought up, however, strong reinforcements for the morrow's action." (Marbot - "The
Memoirs of Baron de Marbot")
At dawn of the 22nd the battle was resumed. Massna cleared Aspern of the Austrians, but at
the same time Rosenberg stormed Essling. In Aspern, Massna was driven out by a counter-
attack of Hiller and Bellegarde. The whole of the French center, with Lannes on the left and
the cavalry in reserve, moved forward.
The Austrian line was broken through and
victory was almost won when Archduke
Charles brought up his last reserve, leading
his soldiers with a colour in his hand
(picture).
Lannes was checked, and with his repulse
the impetus of the attack died out all along
the line. Aspern had been lost, and the
bridges had been cut by heavy barges,
which had been sent drifting down stream
by the Austrian engineers.Napoleon at once
suspended the attack. Essling was taken by
the Austrians and then lost.
The French lost over 20,000 men including Marshal Lannes, who
died after being mortally wounded by an Austrian cannonball. It
was a great loss to the French army as he ranked as one of the
ablest French marshals. Lannes was also a personal friend of the
Emperor. (Details of his death: As Lannes sat at the edge of a
ditch, a small 3pdr cannonball ricochetted, and struck him just
where his legs crossed. Lannes said, I am wounded; it's nothing
much; give me your hand to help me up. He tried to rise, but could
not. He was carried to rear where the surgeons proceeded to
dress his wound. One of the marshal's legs was amputated. He
bore the operation with great courage. Napoleon then came up
and, kneeling beside the stretcher, wept as he embraced the
marshal. Lannes' other leg was later also amputated. Several days later he succumbed to his
wounds.)
The French Young
Guard (picture) also
took part in the battle.
Henri Lachoque wrote
"A desperate struggle
commenced during
which Marshal Lannes
was mortally wounded.
Massena held the
village of Aspern with
admirable tenacity
while the Austrian
grenadiers wrested
Essling from Boudet's
division. Then the
Emperor's aides, Generals Mouton and Rapp, recaptured it with troops from Curial's [Guard]
division.
'Forward in column ! Keep your heads down and don't bother about the number of enemies'
the Emperor ordered.
The Guard batteries supported the attack, firing at top speed. Captain Bizard had his arm shot
off. Some of the gun crews were reduced to 2 men. Many senior officers and generals were
hors de combat. Durosnel, Drouot, Curial, and Gros were all wounded, as was Mouton who
was created Count of Lobau after the battle. The Guard Tirailleurs drove the enemy out of
Gross-Aspern. Captain Ciceron was sent to the cemetery where he was overwhelmed by a
superior force and obliged to retreat. Wounded, and with the rear-guard of his company
surrounded, he had to surrender. In its baptism of fire the Young Guard lost a quarter of its
effectives. Lieutenant-Colonels Lanabere and Lonchamp as well as Rousseau, Secretan,
Labusquette, and Ciceron were all wounded more or less severely."
Such casualties had been enough to fill all their ambulances. The Young Guard was so enraged
at the heavy losses that they bayoneted some of the wounded and crippled grenadiers. The
destruction of the bridge delayed Davout's III Corps. Knowing he did not have enough men to
break the Austrians, Napoleon ordered to pull back on to Lobau Island. The retreat was done
in good order. The French lost at Aspern-Essling approx. 20,000 killed and wounded. The
Austrians had suffered similar casualties.
The Austrians (pictures)
fought very hard at
Aspern-Essling and had
secured the first major
victory against the French
for over a decade. News of
the victory spread in
Europe like wildfire. The
battle demonstrated how
far the Austrian army had
progressed since the
catastrophic defeats in
1800 and 1805. (-
wikipedia.org 2007)
Repairing the bridge,
Napoleon withdrew his
army back to Lobau Island
ending the very bloody battle. Archduke Charles however failed to follow up on his victory.
Conversely, for Napoleon, Aspern-Essling marked his first major defeat in the field. Having
allowed his army to recover, the Emperor again crossed the river in July and scored a decisive
victory over Charles at Wagram.
.
.
.

Napoleon - Essling 1809

La bataille d'Essling (1809).
Movie.
~
Napoleon crosses Danube again.
This crossing in July was in great contrast to the
improvisational crossing back in May.
The Emperor established his headquarters on Lobau Island on 3rd July. Marshal MacDonald
writes: "It was clear that a great operation was being prepared. We were not the last to arrive,
and by nine o'clock in the evening of July 4 we were at our posts on the Danube at the crossing-
place that had been selected for the surprise of the enemy. We had marched sixty leagues in
three days, and notwithstanding our excessive fatigue, and the heat of the season, we had but
few laggards, so anxious were the men of the [French] Army of Italy to take part in the great
events that were preparing, and to fight in presence of their brothers-in-arms of the [French]
Grand Army, and under the very eyes of the Emperor. That night an appalling storm burst upon
us; rain and hail fell in torrents, driven by a raging north wind, the whistling of which mingled
with the peals of thunder and the roar of cannon.
This tempest was extremely favourable to our passage of the Danube upon bridges built on piles,
at which they had been working since the fatal 22nd of the previous May ; were masked by the
thickly-wooded island of Lobau. "
On 4th July the French troops were ready to cross Danube again. This crossing in July was in
great contrast to the improvisational crossing back in May.
The advance guard however crossed the river in the night in boats and rafts. It was raining and
the Austrians were not too vigilant. The French took the Austrian camp by surprise and captured
prisoners. Large flatboats were employed as pontoons to carry a bridge. Once the bridge was
secure Oudinot's II Army Corps left the island and moved against the whitecoats. Oudinot
ordered the Portuguese infantry to digg trenches to protect the bridges. Before midnight 109
heavy guns on island opened fire on Austrian fortifications.
The rain ended in early morning of the next day. Austrian advance posts were able to see masses
of French soldiers on both sides of the river. The Austrian emperor and Archduke Charles were
in Bisamberg and realized that Nordmann's advance guard won't be able to halt the enemy.
Between 2 and 4 PM the French surged through Raasdorf.
The center of the attacking force was the 57th Line (nickamed "The
Terrible 57" for their ferocity in combat), the flower of the French
infantry; but many other regiments took part in the assault. They
stormed Baumersdorf with elan but were repulsed by the Austrians.
Von Angeli described the fight for Baumersdorf: "One exchanged
musketry at very close range. The enormous din, as wave upon wave
of musketry constantly erupted ...is completely beyond the
imagination. Evrything, even the thunder of the numerous cannon,
seemed insignificant amid the raging storm of the so-called
smallarms." Meanwhile Oudinot's infantry crossed Russbach before
the Vincent Chevauxlegeres drove them back.
The Saxons stormed Wagram and attempted to capture the 20-pace-
wide bridge. The Austrians opened musket fire from buildings and
across the river. Although the elite Saxon LeibGarde held the ground
they have suffered badly. As night fell there was a great deal of
confusion. The Saxons and Austrians wore white uniforms and
friendly fire resulted in many casualties. Both sides sent in
reinforcements to keep the fighting going. However, they had entered
the fight piecemeal. Wagram was burning.
The French and the Austrians set up their videttes on an arc several miles long.
It was Henri Gratien Bertrand who directed the building of the bridges by which the
French army crossed the Danube at Wagram. His life was closely bound up with that
of Napoleon, who had the fullest confidence in him. He accompanied Napoleon to
Elba Island in 1814. (Condemned to death in 1816, he did not return to France until
after Napoleon's death, and then King Louis XVIII granted him amnesty.)
~
Austrian order of battle.
(128,968 men)
NOTES:
btns. = battalions
sq. = squadrons
FM = Feldmarschall (Field Marshal)
GdK = Generall der Kavallerie (General of Cavalry)
GdI = Generall der Infanterie (General of Infantry)
FzM = Feldzeugmeister
FL = Feldmarschall-Leutenant
GL = Generalleutnant (General Lieutenant)
GM = Generallmajor (General Major)
V Army Corps was facing Vienna
I Reserve Corps (Grenadiers) and Cavalry Corps - 18,436 men
.
Commander-in-Chief : Archduke Charles
Chief-of-Staff : GM Max von Wimpfen
Advance Guard (Light "Division")
FML Armand von Nordmann
14,365 men
I ARMY CORPS
GdK Heinrich Graf Bellegarde
21,693 men
- - - - - - - - Cavalry Brigade: GM Schneller
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hessen-Homburg 4th
Hussars [8 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6pdr Horse Battery [6 guns]
- - - - - - - - Advance Guard Brigade: GM Frelich
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Stipsich 10th Hussars [8
sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - VII/Jagers [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13th Grenzers [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - Advance Guard Brigade: GM Vecsey
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Palatin 12th Hussars [6 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - I/Jagers [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Beaulieu 58th Infantry [2
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - III/Meinharts-Berg
Landwehr [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Meyer
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Duetschmeister 4th
Infantry [3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Kerpen 49th Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - V/Vienna Woods
Landwehr [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - VI/Vienna Woods
Landwehr [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6pdr Brigade Foot Battery
[6 guns]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Riese
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Bellegarde 44th Infantry [3
- - - - - - - - Advance Guard Brigade: GM
Stutterheim
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Klenau 5th Chevauxlegeres
[8 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - II/Jagers [1 btn.]
Infantry Division: Martin Dedovich
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Henneberg
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Reuss-Plauen 17th Infantry
[3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Kollowrath 36th Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6pdr Brigade Foot Battery [8
guns]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Vacquant
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Archduke Rainer 11th
Infantry [3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Vogelsang 47th Infantry [3
btns.]
guns]
Infantry Division: FML Graf de Fresnel
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Clary
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Anton Mitrovski 10th
Infantry [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Erbach 42nd Infantry [2
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - I/Hradisher Landwehr [1
btn.]
guns]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Motzen
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Argentau 35thth Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - IV/Archduke Charles Legion
[1 btn.]
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Chasteler 46th Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - I/Vienna Woods Landwehr
[1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - II/Vienna Woods
Landwehr [1 btn.]
.
guns]
Reserve Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12 pdr Position Battery [6
guns]
guns]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12pdr Position Battery [6
guns]
guns]
II ARMY CORPS
GdK Friedrich Hohenzollern
25,951 men
III ARMY CORPS
FZM Karl Graf Kollowrath-Krakowski
16,596 men
- - - - - - - - Advance Guard Brigade: GM Graf
Hardegg
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Vincent 4th
Chevauxlegeres [6 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - VIII Jagers [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - II/Archduke Charles
Legion [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6pdr Horse Battery [6
guns]
Infantry Division: FML Thomas Brady
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Buresh
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Zach 15th Infantry [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Josef Colloredo 57th
Infantry [3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - I/Brunner Landwehr [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - III/Brunner Landwehr [1
btn.]
[8 guns]
guns]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Paar
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Zedwitz 25th Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Froon 54th Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - II/Znaimer Landwehr [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - III/Hradischer Landwehr
[1 btn.]
[8 guns]
Infantry Division: FML Josef Ulm
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Alstern
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Rohan 21st Infantry [3
btns.]
[8 guns]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Weid-Runkel
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Frolih 28th Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - de Aspre 18th Infantry [3
btns.]
[8 guns]
Reserve Artillery
guns]
guns]
guns]
guns]
- - - - - - - - Advance Guard Brigade: GM Schneller
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Schwarzenberg 2nd Uhlans [6
sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Lobkovitz Jagers Free Corps
[1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - II/Berauner Landwehr [1
btn.]
Infantry Division: FML Friedrich Graf St.Julien
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Lilienberg
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Kaiser (Emperor's) 1st
Infantry [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Manfredini 12th Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Wurzburg 23rd Infantry [2
btns.]
guns]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Bieber
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Kaunitz 20th Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Wurtemberg 38th Infantry [2
btns.]
guns]
Infantry Division: FML Josef Vukassovich
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Grill
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Wenzel Colloredo 56th
Infantry [3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Karl Schroeder 7th Infantry
[3 btns.]
guns]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Wratislaw
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Prager Landwehr [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - I/Berauner Landwehr [1 btn.]
guns]
Reserve Artillery
guns]
guns]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6pdr Position Battery [6 guns]
.
.
IV ARMY CORPS
FML Franz von Rosenberg-Orsini
18,187 men
VI ARMY CORPS
FML Johann Graf von Klenau
13,740 men
Provencheres
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - de Este 3rd Hussars [8 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Carneville Free Corps [1 sq.
+ 1/3 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Waltrich Jagers [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - II/Mahrish Volunteers [1
btn.]
Infantry Division: FML Hohenlohe-Bartenstein
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Hessen-
Homburg
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hiller 2nd Infantry [3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sztarrai 33rd Infantry [3
btns.]
guns]
Infantry Division: FML Victor Rohan von Guem
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Swinburne
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Archduke Ludwig 8th
Infantry [3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Koburg 22nd Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - I/Iglauer Landwehr [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - I/Znaimer Landwehr [1 btn.]
guns]
Infantry Division: FML Radetzky
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Weiss
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Archduke Charles 3rd
Infantry [3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Stein 50th Infantry [3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - II/O.M.B. Landwehr [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - IV/Vienna Woods Landwehr
[1 btn.]
guns]
Reserve Artillery
guns]
guns]
guns]
guns]
guns]
.
.
.
.
Wallmoden
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Liechtenstein Hussars [8
sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Kienmayer Hussars [8 sq.]
Infantry Division: FML Hohenfeld
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Alder
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Klebek 14th Infantry [2
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Jordis 59th Infantry [2
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - III/Archduke Charles
Legion [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - III/Mahrish Landwehr [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Outer Austrian Landwehr
[1 btn.]
[8 guns]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Hoffmeister
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Giulay 60th Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Kollowrath 36th Infantry [3
btns.]
[8 guns]
Infantry Division: FML Friedrich Kottulinski
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Splenyi
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Beniowski 31st Infantry [2
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Splenyi 51st Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - III/Vienna Volunteers [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - IV/Vienna Volunteers [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Combined Mahrish
Landwehr [1 btn.]
[6 guns]
Infantry Division: FML Karl Vincent
- - - - - - - - Grenzer Brigade: GM Vecsey
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Warasdiner 7th Grenzers [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Border 6th Grenzers [1/2
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3pdr Grenzer Foot Battery
[6 guns]
- - - - - - - - Landwehr Brigade: GM Mariassy
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - I/Vienna Volunteers [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - II/Vienna Volunteers [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - III/Lower Austria
Landwehr [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3pdr Grenzer Foot Battery
[6 guns]
Reserve Artillery
guns]
guns]
guns]
guns]
I RESERVE CORPS
GdK Johann Liechtenstein
CAVALRY CORPS
GdK Friedrich Hessen-Homburg
Grenadier Division: FML Aspre von Hoobruck
- - - - - - - - Grenadier Brigade: GM de Merville
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Grenadier Battalion [1 btn.]
[6 guns]
- - - - - - - - Grenadier Brigade: GM Hammer
Cuirassier Division: FML Hessen-Homburg
- - - - - - - - Cuirassier Brigade: GM Kroyer von
Helmsfels
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Kaiser (Emperor's)
Cuirassiers [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Liechtenstein Cuirassiers [6
sq.]
[6 guns]
[6 guns]
Grenadier Division: FML Johann Prohaska
- - - - - - - - Grenadier Brigade: GM Murray de
Melgum
[6 guns]
- - - - - - - - Grenadier Brigade: GM Steyrer von
Edelberg
[6 guns]
[6 guns]
.
.
.
- - - - - - - - Cuirassier Brigade: GM Ignatz Lederer
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ferdinand Cuirassiers [6 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hohenzollern Cuirassiers [6
sq.]
- - - - - - - - Cuirassier Brigade: GM de Hurbal
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Este Cuirassiers [6 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Albrecht Cuirassiers [6 sq.]
Cavalry Division: FML Karl-Filip Schwarzenberg
- - - - - - - - Cavalry Brigade: GM Teimern
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Rosenberg Chevauxlegeres [8
sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Levenehr Dragoons [6 sq.]
- - - - - - - - Cavalry Brigade: GM Timoteus
Kerekes
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Insurection Hussars [6 sq.]
Cavalry Division: FML Graf Nostitz-Rieneck
- - - - - - - - Cavalry Brigade: GM Leopold
Rotkirch
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Archduke John Dragoons [6
sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Riesch Dragoons [6 sq.]
- - - - - - - - Cavalry Brigade: GM Wartensleben
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Blankenstein Hussars [10 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - O'Reilly Chevauxlegeres [8
sq.]

~
French order of battle.
(178,400 men)
NOTES:
btns. = battalions
sq. = squadrons
MdE = Marchal d'Empire
GdD = Gnral de division
GdB = Gnral de Brigade
Col. = Colonel
Mjr. = Major
.
Commander-in-Chief : Emperor Napoleon
Chief-of-Staff : MdE Berthier
IMPERIAL GUARD
Commander:
12,363 men
RESERVE CAVALRY
MdE Jean-Baptiste Bessieres
8,778 men
1st Guard Infantry Division: GdD Curial
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: Rouget
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Tirailleurs-Chasseurs [2 btns.]
(Young Guard)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Tirailleurs-Grenadiers [2 btns.]
(Young Guard)
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: Rouget
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Fusiliers-Chasseurs [2 btns.]
(Young Guard)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Fusiliers-Grenadiers [2 btns.]
(Young Guard)
2nd Guard Infantry Division: GdD Dorsenne
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Foot Chasseurs [2 btns.] (Old
Guard)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Foot Grenadiers [2 btns.] (Old
Guard)
Guard Cavalry Division: GdD Walther
- - - - - - - - Guard Light Cavalry Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Polish Guard Chevauxlegere [4
sq.] (Guard)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Chasseurs-a-Cheval [4 sq.]
(Guard)
- - - - - - - - Guard Heavy Cavalry Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Empress Dragoons [4 sq.] (Guard)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Grenadiers-a-Cheval [4
sq.] (Guard)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Gendarmes d'Elite [2 sq.] (Guard)
Guard Artillery: GdD Lauriston
- - - - - - - - Guard Horse Artillery: Col. d'Aboville
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6pdr Horse Battery [6 guns] (Old
Guard)
Guard)
Guard)
Guard)
(Young Guard)
(Young Guard)
- - - - - - - - Guard Foot Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8pdr Foot Battery [8 guns] (Young
Guard)
Guard)
Guard)
- - - - - - - - Guard Heavy Artillery: Drouot
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12pdr Foot Battery [4 guns] (Old
Guard)
Guard)
Guard)
The infantry of the Imperial Guard was officially
1st Heavy Cavalry Division: GdD
Nansouty
- - - - - - - - Heavy Cavalry Brigade: GdB
Defrance
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Horse Carabiniers
[4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Horse Carabiniers
[4 sq.]
Doumerc
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Cuirassiers [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9th Cuirassiers [4 sq.]
St.Germain
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Cuirassiers [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Horse Battery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Horse Battery
2nd Heavy Cavalry Division: GdD
St.Sulpice
Fiteau
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Cuirassiers [4 sq.]
Guiton
- - - - - - - - Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Horse Battery
3rd Heavy Cavalry Division: GdD Arrighi
Raynaud
Bordesoulle
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Horse Battery
In early morning, during the first Austrian
attack
against Davout, Napoleon assigned Arrighi's
division
to Davout's III Army Corps.
.
.
divided
into the Old Guard and Young Guard in 1810, not
earlier.
II ARMY CORPS
GdD Oudinot
28,060 men
III ARMY CORPS
MdE Davout
36,571 men
- - - - - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade: GdB Colbert
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9th Hussars [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7th Horse Chasseurs [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - + Saxon Prinz Johann Chevauxleg.
[4]
1st Infantry Division: GdD Tharreau
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Conroux
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Corsican Tirailleurs Corses [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6th Light Infantry [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Albert
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8th Line Infantry [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Jarry
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 63rd Line Infantry [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8pdr Foot Battery [6 guns]
2nd Infantry Division: GdD Claparede
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Coehorn
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Italian Tirailleurs du Po [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 21st Light Infantry [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Razout
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Ficatier
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 103rd Line Infantry [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
3rd Infantry Division: GdD Grandjean
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Marion
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10th Light Infantry [3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Lorencez
- - - - - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade: GdB
Pajol
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5th Hussars [3 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11th Horse
Chasseurs [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12th Horse
Chasseurs [3 sq.]
1st Infantry Division: GdD Morand
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Lacour
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13th Light Infantry
[3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 17th Line Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB
l'Hullier
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30th Line Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 61st Line Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8pdr Foot Battery [8
guns]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6pdr Foot Battery [8
guns]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4pdr Foot Battery [6
guns]
2nd Infantry Division: GdD Friant
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Gilly
[3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 33rd Line Infantry [3
btns.]
Barbanegre
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 48th Line Infantry [3
btns.]
Grandeau
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 108th Line Infantry
[3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 111th Line Infantry
[3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8pdr Foot Battery [8
guns]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6pdr Foot Battery [8
guns]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4pdr Foot Battery [6
guns]
3rd Infantry Division: GdD Gudin
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Leclerc
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7th Light Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Boyer
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12th Line Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 21st Line Infantry [3
btns.]
Dupellin
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 25th Line Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 85th Line Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8pdr Foot Battery [8
guns]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8pdr Foot Battery [8
guns]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4pdr Foot Battery [6
guns]
4th Infantry Division: GdD Puthod
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Girard
[1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30th Line Infantry [1
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Line Infantry [3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 57th Line Infantry [3 btns.] "The
Terrible 57th"
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Brun
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 72nd Line Infantry [3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 105th Line Infantry [3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
Reserve Artillery
- - - - - - - - Portuguese Legion: GdB Logo
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Portuguese Infantry [3 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Portuguese Cavalry [2 sq.]
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 33rd Line Infantry [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 61st Line Infantry [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 65th Line Infantry [1
btn.]
Desailly
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 21st Line Infantry [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 25th Line Infantry [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 85th Line Infantry [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 111th Line Infantry
[1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - Artillery: Hanicque
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4pdr Foot Battery [6
guns]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4pdr Foot Battery [6
guns]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4pdr Horse Battery
[6 guns]
Reserve Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12pdr Foot Battery [8
guns]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12pdr Foot Battery [8
guns]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12pdr Foot Battery [8
guns]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4pdr Foot Battery [6
guns]
.
.
.
IV ARMY CORPS
MdE Massena
30,948 men
IX ARMY CORPS
MdE Bernadotte
16,850 men
- - - - - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade: GdB Marulaz
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Horse Chasseurs [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23rd Horse Chasseurs [3 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - + Bavarian Chevauxlegeres [4
sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - + Hessen-Darmstadt Guard
Chev. [2 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - + Baden Light Dragoons [1 sq.]
Light Cavalry Division: GdD Lasalle
- - - - - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade: GdB Pire
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8th Hussars [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade: GdB Bruyere
1st Infantry Division: GdD Legrand
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Ledru
"The Brave"
- - - - - - - - Baden Brigade: Neuenstein
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Baden Jagers [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Baden 1st Infantry [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Baden 2nd Infantry [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Baden 3rd Infantry [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
- - - - - - - - Light Cavalry Brigade: GM
Gutschmidt
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Prinz Clemens
Chevaxleg. [4]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Herzog Albert
Chevaxleg. [1]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Hussars [3 sq.]
- - - - - - - - Heavy Cavalry Brigade: GM
Feilitzsch
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Garde-du-Corps
[2]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Leib-Garde
Cuirassiers [4]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Carabiniers [2 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon 8pdr Horse Battery
[6 guns]
1st Infantry Division: GL Zeschwitz
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Hardtitzsch
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Leib Grenadier
Garde [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon II/Grenadiers [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon II/Schutzen [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Zeschau
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon II/Schutzen [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon King's Infantry [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Niesemeuschel
Infantry [1]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon combined infantry
[1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon 8pdr Foot Battery
[8 guns]
[8 guns]
2nd Infantry Division: GL Polentz
2nd Infantry Division: GdD Carra St.Cyr
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Cosson
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Delasme
- - - - - - - - Hesse-Darsmstadt Brigade: .....
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hesse-Darsmstadt Leib-Garde
Musket. [2]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hesse-Darsmstadt Leib
Musket. [1]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hesse-Darsmstadt Leib-Garde
Fusil. [1]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hesse-Darsmstadt Leib Fusil.
[1]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
3rd Infantry Division: GdD Molitor
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Leguay
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Viviez
- - - - - - - - Artillery
4th Infantry Division: GdD Boudet
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Fririon
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Light Infantry [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Valory
- - - - - - - - Artillery
Reserve Artillery: Pernetti
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Lecoq
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Prinz Clemens
Infantry [1]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Low Infantry [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Cerrini Infantry [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GM Steindel
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Prinz Anton
Infantry [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Prinz Maximilian
Infantry [1]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Saxon Prinz Frederich
Infantry [1]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
[8 guns]
[8 guns]
3rd Infantry Division: GdD Dupas
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Gency
btns.]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Veau
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 19th Line Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - + Saxon I/Grenadiers [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - + Saxon I/Schutzen [1
btn.]
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
XI ARMY CORPS
Marmont
10,700 men
Cavalry screening the right wing
(On Davout's III Army Corps' flank)
4,177 men
1st Infantry Division: GdD Montrichard
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Soyez
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Launay
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 81st Line Infantry [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
2nd Infantry Division: GdD Clausel
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Delzons
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Bachelu
- - - - - - - - Artillery
Dragoon Division: GdD Grouchy
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7th Dragoons [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30th Dragoons [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Italian Dragoons [4 sq.]
Dragoon Division: GdD Pully
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23rd Dragoons [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 28th Dragoons [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 29 Dragoons [4 sq.]
Light Cavalry Division: GdD Montbrun
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7th Hussars [3 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Horse Chasseurs [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Horse Chasseurs [3 sq.]
.
.
FRENCH ARMY OF ITALY
23,306 men
Commander-in-Chief: GdD Prince Eugene de Beauharnais
ARMY CORPS
GdD Macdonald
ARMY CORPS
GdD Grenier
1st Infantry Division: GdD Broussier
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Dutruy
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Dessaix
- - - - - - - - Artillery
2nd Infantry Division: GdD Lamarque
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Huart
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Almeiras
- - - - - - - - Artillery
==========================================
Royal Italian Guard: GdD Lecchi
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Fontanelli
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Velites [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Honor Guard [1]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Guerin
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Chasseurs [1]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Grenadiers [1]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Dragoons [2]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Horse Battery [6 guns]
==========================================
2nd Bavarian Division: Wrede
- - - - - - - - Bavarian Infantry Brigade: Minucci
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - VI/Light Infantry Btn. [1 btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Prinz Karl 3rd Infantry [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Herzog Wilhelm 6th Infantry [2]
- - - - - - - - Bavarian Infantry Brigade: Beckers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Lowenstein 7th Infantry [2 btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13th Infantry [2 btns]
- - - - - - - - Bavarian Cavalry Brigade: Preysing
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - King's 2nd Chevauxlegeres [4 sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Leiningen 3rd Chevauxlegeres [4
sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Light Battery [6 guns]
- - - - - - - - Bavarian Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6 pdr Foot Battery [6 guns]
Wredes Bavarians arrived at Wagram
too late to see much action but in time to join
the pursuit of the withdrawing Austrians.
Light Cavalry Division: GdD Sahuc
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6th Horse Chasseurs
[4 sq.]
[4 sq.]
[3 sq.]
1st Infantry Division: GdD Seras
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Garraud
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Light Infantry [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 35th Line Infantry [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 53rd Line Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Roussel
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 42nd Line Infantry [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 106th Line Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6pdr Foot Battery [6
guns]
2nd Infantry Division: GdD Durutte
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Valentin
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 22nd Light Infantry [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23rd Line Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 60th Line Infantry [1
btn.]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Bruch
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 62nd Line Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 102nd Line Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6pdr Foot Battery [6
guns]
3rd Infantry Division: GdD Pacthod
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Teste
btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Line Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - - - Infantry Brigade: GdB Abbe
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 52nd Line Infantry [4
btns.]
- - - - - - - - Artillery
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6pdr Foot Battery [6
guns]
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
~
Plans, deployment, map.
Napoleon's plan hinged on Davout's attack
against the Austrian left flank and the
village of Markgrafneusiedel.
Napoleon had not been idle. The French commander had formulated
his battle plans by the time he had his army on Lobau Island. The
enemy was known to be in large force behind the river, and this
made the crossing of Danube exceedingly hazardous. The French
occupied Vienna with infantry and the Lobau Island with heavy
artillery. The main army held line from Aspern (left flank), to
Aderklaa and Wagram in the center, and to Markgrafneusiedel on
the right flank.
The Imperial Guard, cuirassiers, and Marmont's and MacDonald's
corps stood in reserve. Napoleon's plan hinged on Davout's attack
against the Austrian left flank and the village of Markgrafneusiedel.
Davout planned to fix the Austrians with two divisions while his other two maneuvered to
outflank the enemy.
General Jomini writes: "At Wagram his [Napoleon's] order was ... bringing up two masses
upon the center and right, while keeping back the left wing; and this he wished to repeat [in
1812] at Borodino and [in 1815] at Waterloo before the Prussians came up.
According to Karl von Clausewitz "The left wing, which was opposed to the Austrian right
resting on the Danube, was extremely weak and was totally defeated. Even their centre at
Aderklaa was not very strong, and was obliged to give way to the Austrians on the first day.
But that did not signify, because the Emperors right, with which he attacked the Austrian left
in front and flank, had such a depth that he brought a heavy column of cavalry and horse
artillery to bear upon the Austrians in Aderklaa, and if he did not beat them, was able, at all
events, to stop their progress."
Before midnight Archduke Charles issued battle instructions. His all army corps were to form
in two lines, screened by skirmishers and supported by artillery. "Recalling the success of his
fire ships, the erzherzog (archduke) ordered that the 18 great fire rafts already built by his
pontoneers be launched into the Danube's current laden with stones and barrels of
gunpowder. Charles hoped that they would ram and burn their way through the French
bridges to create havoc similar to that which had occured in May." (- James Arnold)
Charles' dispositions:
- Archduke Charles instructed Kollowrath-Krakowski's III Corps and Klenau's VI Corps to
attack the French exposed left flank and Massena's corps. They would begin their approach
march at 1 AM.
- In the center stood Bellegarde's I Corps facing the village of Aderklaa. Archduke Charles
was with Bellegarde's corps.
- The waist-deep Russbach Stream was held by Hohenzollern's II Corps.
- On the flank stood Rosenberg's VI Corps facing the villages of Markgrafneusiedel and
Grosshofen, and Davout's corps.
- In reserve were held the elite Grenadier Corps and Cavalry Corps.
- Charles sent a cavalry division from his reserve to Rosenberg's VI Corps. A single cuirassier
regiment was sent to Hohenzollern's II Corps.
- Two excellent hussar regiments were dispatched east to reach out toward Archduke John's
army.
- The Austrian V Corps and infantry brigade of Kollowrath's III Corps were left facing the
French in Vienna.
Maps of the battle of Wagram (ext.links) 1 - 2
The battlefield at Wagram was a ground that was familiar to the Austrians,
for it was the place where peacetime manoeuvres were held.
The Battle of Wagram.
"The most beautiful sight I have ever seen in my life then
unfurled before our eyes. Within a radius of about a mile,
we could see the entire Austrian army, with its right flank
anchored on the Danube, and its left extending beyond "
Wagram ... "- Chlapowski of Napoleon's Guard Cavalry
Napoleon observed the countryside, hunched
over the mane of his horse. One of Guard
Chasseurs carried Napoleon's despatch case and
another his field glass. If the Emperor
dismounted his escort would immediately do
likewise. The Emperor was surrounded by
generals and staff officers. Couriers began to
move briskly about.
(Napoleon was never the best of horsemen, and
most often travelled by coach. It was painted in
green, drawn by 6 large grey horses, and had 2
coachmen on top and a servant on the box. The
coach contained pull-out bed, hand-operated printing press, his mobile treasury, and small library.)
The open fields between Wagram and Danube River, although intersected by many roads, admitted
of movement in any direction. When the French advance guard first reached this place the scene
was as peaceful as if no war existed. A large body of Austrian cavalry had been observed moving
toward the Austrian left. The first sign of activity on the Austrian side came from the light troops.
With the French infantry and gunners wearing dark blue coats and white trousers, and the Saxons
and Austrian foot soldiers wearing white coats, the battlefield looked very colorful. Officer of
Napoleon's Guard Cavalry wrote: "The most beautiful sight I have ever seen in my life then
unfurled before our eyes. Within a radius of about a mile, we could see the entire Austrian army,
with its right flank anchored on the Danube, and its left extending beyond Wagram..."
Numerous Austrian infantrymen were placed in skirmish order facing southward, eyes straining
under shakos and helmets to see the approaching legendary French army coming from Raasdorf,
Aspern and Essling.
.
.
.
Right flank: Davout vs Rosenberg.
To Davout's surprise, while he maneuvered to strike Rosenberg,
Rosenberg attacked him. Although the Austrians were pushed
back, their attack had disrupted Davout's preparations for
the important flank attack.
The artillery roared to life at 4 AM around Markgrafneusiedel.
Pillars of smoke rose into the air. The grand roar followed from
all the guns of both armies and the inhabitants of Vienna could
hear it.
Marshal MacDonald wrote "At daybreak, on July 6, a violent
cannonade began on our extreme right. We re-established our
line, and formed up. The enemy in front of us remained
motionless, but soon advanced some troops on the right; they slowly descended the heights as if to
cross the stream in front of Bernadotte, who was posted on my left in front of the village of
Wagram. On the right was Marshal Davoust, who, marching against the enemy, was either warned,
or else met them coming towards him."
Davout's corps was more trustworthy and exact in the performance of its duty than
any other troop except the Imperial Guard. It was often entrusted with the most
difficult part of the work in hand. Napoleon had great confidence in Davout's
abilities and he became Emperor's most effective and feared marshal.
There was something about him which warned his subordinates he was not to be
triffled with and would stand no nonsense from either friend or foe. He was a stern
disciplinarian who exacted obedience from his troops. But also Davout was difficult
to get on with and had no patience with those who tried to take easy ways out.
Davout was nicknamed the Iron Marshal.
To Davout's surprise, while he maneuvered to strike Rosenberg's corps, Rosenberg
attacked Davout. Suddenly, all the cocksure attitudes began to change as the French
noted the ever-growing forms of the advancing Austrians. Rosenberg's attack had
wrong-footed the French.
As soon as the skirmishers of the leading battalions had pressed in, the columns came
forward. The Austrian infantry marched with enthusiasm, bands playing, and senior
officers riding at the front. Davout's artillery greeted them with a hailstorm of
projectiles. One of Davout's divisons under GdD Friant held the village of
Glinzendorf. Another division under GdD Gudin occupied Grosshofen. Both villages were attacked
by the white-coats and partially captured. Then Gudin took the enemy in flank and drove them
back. Friant's division also counter-attacked.
The French hussars, chasseurs and dragoons advanced against the Austrian horse.
The Austrians made several attempts to take the villages. Advancing with the same precision as
before the whitecoats stopped only to fire then advanced with fixed bayonets to meet with the same
fate as the previous assaults. Although the Austrians fell back, their attack had disordered Davout's
preparations for the important flank attack. His troops had fired a massive amount of ammunition.
Davout reported to Napoleon that it would take 1-2 hours to replenish the ammunition and then
deliver the planned flank attack. Davout kept the situation well under control and satisfied
Napoleon returned to the center. The Emperor also recalled his reserves already marching to
support Davout. Only Arrighi's cuirassier division was assigned to Davout's corps.
.
.
.
Center: Bernadotte's Saxons vs Bellegarde.
The Austrians took the village of Aderklaa.
Bernadotte's Saxons failed to retake it,
then they broke under fire and fled.
Bellegarde's I Army Corps advanced against the village of Aderklaa
occupied by a detachment of Bernadotte's Saxon infantry. The Austrians
marched with fixed bayonets. (Undertaking a task 'with fixed bayonets'
has this connotation of no room for compromise.) The Austrians stormed
the village and took some prisoners. Then the rest of Bellegarde's corps
deployed on both sides of Aderklaa.
Bernadotte deployed his Saxon batteries and prepared a counterattack. In
the artillery duel the more numerous Austrian cannons dismounted 15 of
26 Bernadotte's guns. Several French batteries arrived to support the Saxon artillery. There was no
faltering - the men stood nobly to their work. The Austrains and Saxons were dropping dead or
wounded on all sides, by scores, some with an arm dangling, some with a leg broken, were limping
and crawling towards the rear.
Several battalions of French infantry joined the Saxons.
At 7 AM Marshal Bernadotte counterattacked with Saxon (picture) and French
infantry and cavalry. The artillery and musket fire all along the line was
terrific. It is a wonder how anything human could have stood before it.
Finally, the Saxons and some French (Dupas' division) had enough, they failed
to retake Aderklaa and withdrew. Two Austrian battaries deployed on their
flank and poured in a destructive enfilade fire. Some of the Saxons and
Frenchmen broke and fled.
Napoleon stood on a rise east of Aderklaa and saw the rout and MdE Massena
futilely trying to make them stop. They ran toward Raasdorf and by
midafternoon there were "12,000 stragglers miling about the village. Riding
Euphrates, his snow-white Persian horse, Napoleon coursed the field to rally
the Saxons. ... The French soldiers facing the Russbach Stream needed
encouragement as well because they were beginning to waver under the Austrian bombardement.
... To steady his men Napoleon rode 'from one extremity of the line to the other, and returned at a
slow pace." (- James Arnold)
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.
.
Left flank: Massena's advance.
"Go, my friend, into that village
and slaughter those rogues !"
(Marshal Massena to Gen. St.Cyr)
Marshal
Massena left
Boudet's
division in
Aspern, near
the Danube,
and with the
rest of his
corps began moving in the direction of Wagram and Aderklaa. Massena rode in a coach (picture).
GdD Carra St.Cyr took his division (24th Light, 4th and 46th Line, and Hessians) and marched
against Bellegarde's advance guard. "From a drainage ditch 100 paces in front of the village, a
battalion of Austrian jagers rose up to deliver a heavy fire. The French infantry closed ranks and
pressed forward. Stutterheim's 2,700 men, sheltered behind the earthen dike surrounding the
village, put up a stout defense. Fighting quickly degenerated into the type of bloody melee already
seen at Ebelsberg and Aspern-Essling. Garden walls, farmyards, and individual buildings were
captured and recaptured." (- James Arnold)
Stutterheim's force (2,700 his own troops + 2 battalions) was numerically weaker than the French
and after heavy fighting they fell back. The sight of fleeing comrades broke the morale of several
battalions of Fresnel's division, and they joined the rout toward Wagram.
The victorious French troops however had lost all order during the action and pursuit. Archduke
Charles rode to Fresnel's troops and rallied them. Then he continued on to Bellegarde's I Corps,
gave a speech and ordered three battalions to support Stutterheim and retake Aderklaa.
.
.
.
Center: Austrian grenadiers took Aderklaa.
The Austrians captured, lost and retook Aderklaa.
They also captured two French Eagles. The Hessians
suffered badly.
Map:
Wagram - it was defended by Austrian I Corps
under Bellegarde. Archduke Charles and the
Austrian army headquarters were behind
Wagram.
Baumersdorf and Russbach Stream - here was
deployed Oudinot's corps.
Aderklaa - here took place a very heavy
fighting between the Austrians and Saxons (+
some French). For Napoleon it was very
important to keep Aderklaa as it secured the
flank of Oudinot's corps along the Russbach
Stream. Archduke Charles will commit his
reserves, the elite Grenadiers, to master this
area.
Raasdorf - "12,000" Saxon and French
stragglers were "miling about." The Imperial
Guard soon arrived and halted by Raasdorf.
French army headquarters were nearby.
Breitenlee - Massena's stretched corps
defended the line from Aderklaa, through
Breitenlee, to Aspern-Essling by the Danube.
Austrian offensive against the left
flank interrupted Massena's march.
Legrand's division halted and faced
the advancing whitecoats. Massena's
own nerves somewhat unsettled as
he watched the approach of Austrian
cavalry followed by long columns of
infantry. The marshal realized that he has to act fast as his troops were now surely outnumbered
and outgunned.
On came the gallant whitecoats in magnificent formations. In the front marched their skirmisheers.
Behind them, more ominously, massive columns and lines could be seen. Return fire crackled from
the French skirmishers, and some of Austrians fell, blood streaming from open wounds. The
whitecoats then fixed bayonets and drove the few French from their position.
The French 4th Line Infantry was hit in the flank and routed, with all battalion
commanders dead or wounded. They also lost their Eagle. The 4th Line was one
of the best regiments of line infantry. It was awarded with four battle honors
and was commanded by Colonel Louis-Leger Boyeldieu. (In 1804-1806 their
colonel was Joseph Bonaparte, brother of the Emperor).
The fury of the Austrians broke the French defenses as they threw down their
weapons and ran. The shock action of a successful charge exhilarated the attackers and demoralized
the defenders.
The noise was deafening, all encompassing, as
if the world was indeed ending. The men could
not help but be thrilled by the power and
intensity of it.
The 24th Light was in
disorder after long pursuit
when Austrian grenadiers
(picture) attacked them. The
24th was mauled and also
lost its Eagle. The 24th Light
was a superb unit, it was
awarded with as many as six (!) battle honors.
Their colonel was Charles-Sebastien Marion.
The Hessians also suffered very heavy losses. They were thrown back and lost one of their flags. As
the Austrians overwhelmed the desperate Hessians, the battalion's two standard bearers, Kempf
and Bornemann, struggled to rescue their precious flags. kempf was captured but managed to free
himself and hid in a dovecote until he could make his way back to his comrades. Bornemann
courageously defended his charge, refusing to surrender and finally falling with his head crushed
by a butt stroke. The Austrians cut off his hand to seize the flag he still tightly gripped. (Gill - "With
Eagles to Glory") The Hessians were raised from a population with a long tradition of generations of
worldwide mercenary service.
The French 46th Line fought hard before yielding.
The Austrians gave them a volley in
their faces, and advanced upon them
with the bayonet. The 46th fled in
confusion. The whitecoats then
captured the village of Aderklaa.
The Saxons counter-attacked and got
under artillery fire from the front
and flank. It was too much for them
and they hastily withdrew. The
Austrians retook Aderklaa. The
fighting for Aderklaa was costly for
the Austrians. Many officers were
killed and wounded, Archduke
Charles received a painful shoulder
wound, and the brave and talented GM Stutterheim was down.
For Napoleon it was very important to keep Aderklaa as it secured the flank of Oudinot's corps
along the Russbach Stream. After Carra St.Cyr's failure at Aderklaa, Marshal Massena sent forward
Molitor. After some skirmishing the French attempted a charge, which was met in front by the
Austrians. The whitecoats however were driven back to the support of their artillery. While one part
of Molitor's division and heavy artillery drove the Austrians from Aderklaa, other part formed itself
in squares and repulsed the charging Austrian cuirassiers.
By 11 AM Bellegarde's infantry again attacked and captured Aderklaa.
The French had been roughly handled during the short engagement.
The loss of this village uncovered the French line along Russbach.
.
.
.
Left flank: Austrian offensive against Massena.
"Massena could not make a stand against troops
much superior to his own. He was driven back ..."
Austrian movement on the flank greatly perplexed
and bewildered the French.
Klenau's VI Corps and Kollowrath's III Corps advanced methodically against French left
flank. Klenau and Kollowrath had approx. 30,000 men (One infantry brigade was
detached from V Army Corps facing Vienna and attached to III Army Corps).
Three divisions, most of Massena's forces, faced west to meet the growing Austrian
threat. The Austrian infantry came on magnificently and the French artillery opened
upon them. Gaps were made in the ranks, but the white-clad soldiers closed up and the
color-bearers leaped to the front, shaking and waving the flags. The Austrians reserved
their fire until the French were within easy range, when the musketry crashed out with
a roar. The guns began to fire canister.
The Austrians also moved against Aspern. This village was defended by one of
Massena's divisions under GdD Boudet (3rd, 56th and 93rd Line). While the 93rd Line
defended cemetary and the 3rd Line occupied Aspern's northern edge. Approx. 500
paces north of the village the 56th Line awaited with fixed bayonets. Two batteries stood nearby.
At 7 AM Klenau deployed his own batteries and a brisk artillery fire was opened upon the French
columns. The bombardement continued until the enemy moved a force of infantry against the guns.
The Austrian batteries also inflicted some damage on the few French batteries. Veczay's Grenzers
then advanced against Aspern from the south and chased the French voltigeurs from the Gemeinde
Au. The Grenzers also made a false attack from the northeast.
GM Walmoden's Liechtenstein Hussars (light blue jackets and breeches, green shakos) captured two
French batteries. Then the 56th Line formed squares against cavalry, counter-attacked and retook
the guns. The hussars however pressed very hard and the 56th Line turned into a rabble of terrified
men. Klenau's corps took Aspern and then moved against Essling and the earthwork called tte de
pont. Boudet's division made few brief stands before falling back. The whitecoats now moved along
Danube.
Marshal MacDonald wrote: "Massena (picture) could not make a stand against troops much
superior to his own. He was driven back with great loss on to the tete-de-pont, by which we had
passed after crossing the Danube. The Austrians sent forward their right. ... The retreat of Massena,
which I then learned for the first time, and the retrograde movement made by Bernadotte, had left
the centre of the army exposed."
Kollowrath-Krakowski's III Corps moved from Bisamberg against one of Massena's
divisions under GdD Legrand. Legrand's veterans were on their way toward Wagram
when the whitecoats hit them in the flank. It was a terrific assault. On came the
Austrians, the men falling by tens, the colors fluttering in front like a little forest; for
as fast as a color-bearer was shot some one else seized the flag from his hand before it
fell. While one part of Legrand's division was sent flying toward Raasdorf, other part
retired toward Aderklaa. Finally, rallying his troops, Legrand turned to wait for
renewed hostilities, expecting to see hordes of Austrians massing on his new front.
Though suffering great loss Kollowrath checked the enemy so as to enable two of his
batteries to be placed in position. They opened fire against Massena's flank near
Aderklaa.
It is very certain that Klenau's movement on the flank greatly perplexed and
bewildered the French. The Austrians pursued Boudet's men toward Essling. In the
village GdD Boudet rallied his troops. The French guns fired on all cylinders. Out of
the lifting smoke there appeared, beautiful and terrible, the picked thousands of the
Austrian troops coming on to the assault. They advanced in columns and in perfect
order. "By 10 AM the Austrians had captured Essling and established two large
batteries to open fire against the French bridges south of Enzesdorf. Klenau's advance spread panic
in the French rear." (- James Arnold)
The French artillery on Lobau Island became unmasked and opened fire. Klenau's whitecoats
suffered heavy casualties and fell back. The smoke clouds rose slowly, and the sunlight glinted
again on the long line of cannons which had been hidden from view during the cannonade.
Massena rallied his troops near
Raasdorf. "Massena fortyfied his
men for the coming ordeal by a
special reserve, a bracing gulp of
gut-roaring army brandy ..." ( - James
Arnold) and then began his march
toward the Austrian breakthrough.
Napoleon supported him with
St.Sulpice's cuirassiers. Massena's
corps completed the march in no
longer than 2 hours. His troops
suffered from artillery flank fire and
were attacked by Hungarian hussars.
By 12:30 PM Massena's troops
reached Essling, not far from the
Danube, and saw Boudet's division
being driven back. The Austrian
artillery fired on the Danube bridges.
Massena sent forward his light cavalry (Marulaz's 3rd, 14th, 19th and 23rd Horse Chasseurs)
against Austrian battery. Enemy's gunners fled. The Austrian cavalry, Liechtenstein Hussars and
Kienmayer Hussars, counterattacked and sent the French horse chasseurs flying. The hussars also
recaptured the abandoned battery. Lasalle sent one of his brigades (Bruyere's 13th and 24th Horse
Chasseurs) to extricate Marulaz's chasseurs.
Massena's infantry stormed Essling and the granary defended by 1,200 Austrians. The
attackers send the Austrians running toward Aspern. By 2 PM the French took
Aspern as well. Massena dispatched an officer on fast horse to the Emperor telling
him that his order was executed.
Klenau's infantrymen were slowly retiring and Massena sent Lasalle's light cavalry
division in pursuit. Lasalle led from the front, saber in hand, against one of infantry
squares. The square stood behind a moat and repulsed Lasalle's men with a musket
volley. Lasalle was wounded in the chest and 2 hours later he was dead.
Marulaz tried to avenge Lasalle and led a hussar regiment against the square. Colonel of the
hussars was hit and Marulaz was wounded. The defiant square slowly retired.
The movement of thousands of men and horses had raised a considerable amount of dust in the air,
not to mention the powder smoke generated by the firing of hundreds of guns. The combined
effects of dust, smoke and battle fatigue impaired the vision of the soldiers as the battle was
renewed back and forth across the plain. Neither party seemed willing to give way.
General Antoine-Charles Lasalle.
Lasalle was the most famous French light cavalryman.
"The man for high adventure and reckless deeds. In
1806 after the Battle of Jena, with only 900 hussars
at his back and no weapon heavier than their popgun
carbines, he bluffed the great fortress of Stettin,
with 200 guns and a garrison of 5,000 men, into surrender.
... Utterly brave, loving danger, laughing at his own
hardships, frequently charging with a long pipe instead
of a saber in his hand ...." ( Elting - "Swords ...", p 163)
.
.
.
Center : failed French heavy cavalry charge.
"... in crisis of battle a sudden beserk fury
possessed him."
The Austrian offensive on the flank was
over. It was one of the greatest assaults in
any battle of modern times, and it had
failed. In the center however, fighting was
general along the line. The French infantry
stiffened their resistance and Marshal
Bessieres took Nansouty's 1st Heavy
Cavalry Division and attacked the enemy.
Nansouty's division consisted of six
regiments of heavy cavalry; the elite 1st
and 2nd Horse Carabiniers, and 2nd, 3rd,
9th and 12th Cuirassiers.
Bessieres (picture,
right), face aflame
with the eager joy of
battle, was in the thick of the action rising in his stirrups as he called Vive
l'Empereur ! The Austrians however held their ground. A cannon ball tore into
Bessieres' thigh and knocked him stunned onto the ground. Despite being
rigorous in discipline, he was adored by every cavalryman for his honesty, even
temper, and bravery. His orders and speeches were cold and dry. Bessieres was
thourough soldier and all soldier. His courage never flinched, in crisis of battle
a sudden beserk fury possessed him.
With Bessieres being out of the action, General Nansouty (picture, left) took the lead.
"He was considered cautious ... or even reluctant to bring his squadrons to battle, but
that was mainly on those occasions that Murat was in overall command, who Nansouty
considered to be somewhat over zealous and headstrong ... Although he was
considered a good, level headed, reliable and tactically sound commander he lacked
the flare and initiative of a LaSalle or Montbrun." (- Terry Senior, napoleon-series.org)
Nansouty's men were always carefully trained and cared for.
The Austrian infantry
formed themselves into
'squares' against cavalry and
opened musket fire. The
cavalry charged and routed
one battalion of Grenzers.
The remaining squares
however held fast.
Actually the Austrian infantry was formed in battalion-mass as the square on 3-ranks deep was
considered not strong enough against cavalry. The battalion-mass was a closely packed column, one
company wide and six companies deep. The mass could manoeuvre, if slowly, either in closed or
open order. At Aspern-Essling and at Wagram the battalion-masses withstood repeated charges of
Napoleon's heavy cavalry. But these deep formations were vulnerable to artillery fire. Another anti-
cavalry formation was division-mass. Two companies broke into 4 half-companies, aligned
themselves behind the other, and closed their ranks up to about 3 feet between the half-companies.
Having passed between the squares, Nansouty turned part of his heavy
cavalry division to the right, to charge the artillery deployed in front of the
grenadiers. This charge however failed when enemy cavalry counter-attacked.
The Austrian Kronprinz Cuirassiers and Rosenberg Chevaulegeres took the French horse
carabiniers (picture) in flank. The two regiments of carabiniers formed the 1st Brigade of the 1st
Heavy cavalry Division. They were elite troops, strong men mounted on big, black horses. During
the Wagram Campaign, with the temporary absence of the Guard Cavalry, the 1st Horse
Carabiniers formed Napoleon's escort.
The carabiniers never had a much closer call during the battle than at this place. All colonels fought,
saber in hand, at the head of their troopers, and every man on each side was put into the struggle.
The flanks were the weakest points of cavalry line. If one can maneuver so as to attack the enemy's
cavalry in flank, his success will be certain. In a combat against cavalry, the flank attack is the most
decisive form of attack. Its effect is increased in proportion to the suddenness with which it is
made. If the attack is directed against the flank of the entire hostile force, in a broader sense, it will
compel the enemy to change formation at a critical moment and may, when combined with a
frontal attack, through envelopment, bring about a decisive victory. Thus the flank attack is the
strongest form of attack for cavalry. In this situation this is not surprising that the brave horse
carabiniers were sent flying.
Charge of Austrian cuirassiers, by Udo Sixel.
.
.
.
"... erase the enemy masses."
- Napoleon to the Guard Artillery
Picture: French artillery in the battle
of Wagram. Diorama made by Cesar
Yudice. (Photo by Alejandro
Albanez).
After the cavalry combat a fierce
artillery duel ensued and the wheat
fields began to burn. The dense
smoke prevented the gunners from
seeing anything beyond their
immediate front.
At 11:30 AM the Emperor ordered General Lauriston to bring the Guard Artillery and deploy south
of Aderklaa. The French own offensive would be preceded by a terrific cannonade. To the right of
the 72 guns of the Guard Artillery were deployed 40 guns from the Army of Italy. The massive
battery was deployed "well within musket range of the white-coated infantry" (- James Arnold)
There was, perhaps, no class of men on the face of Earth, who led a life of more continued exertion,
and danger, and who were more enamored of their occupation, than the gunners of the Guard.
They were stalwart and resolute, with bodies toughened by years of war.
Now the roar of battle has become
twice the volume that it was before.
The artillery produced an
unprecedented percusive din, and
caused both sides serious damage. De
Aboville, the commander of Guard
Horse Artillery, was wounded by a
cannonball. The round tore off his arm.
Canister struck the foot of Drouot of
the Guard Artillery There were 476 killed and wounded gunners of the Guard Artillery. Napoleon
called for 20 volunteers from each company of Old Guard infantry to replace the fallen. Twice the
number responded. The French now increased their fire until it seemed as if nothing could stand
before it. (Each gun of Guard Artillery fired approx. 200 rounds.)
In both the French and Austrian lines caissons were blown up by the fire, riderless horses dashed
hither and thither, the dead lay in heaps, and throngs of wounded streamed to the rear. The air
shuddered with a massive roar, and the houses and barns trembled. The concussions scrambled the
senses of the gunners and infantrymen nearby.
This tremendous artillery fire finally made a breach in Austrian line between the villages of
Breitenlee and Sussenbrunn. The Austrians were driven back, many hid in the village. GdK
Bellegarde deployed three batteries to fill the void, and they too were forced into retreat.
Only the Austrian
grenadiers held their
ground under the fire.
These men were
distinguished by stature
and large mustache. The
requirements for candidates on Austrian grenadiers were: valor, marksmanship, at least one
campaign and 5 years' service. They were all seasoned soldiers, strong men, but somehow not so
tall as the French grenadiers.
.
Napoleon's Guard Artillery
.
.
.
Seeing Davout's progress, Napoleon
announced "The battle is won."
The Austrians who were not at the point directly menaced peered anxiously across the space
between the lines to watch the next French move. As the sun waxed higher and higher, the smoke,
dust, and heat became insufferable, and the men moved in a grimy, reddish haze.
On the flank of the Austrian army, General Prinz Franz von
Rosenberg-Orsini "assigned the defence of the tower and the village
[of Markgrafneusiedel] to Radetzky (picture), who used the dry moat
around the tower to shelter some of his infantry. He placed the
reliable Stain Infantry Regiment along the southwest perimeter of the
village." (- James Arnold)
Generals Rosenberg and Radetzky watched Davout's troops from this
tower (photo).
Radetzky was not an average Austrian general. He was
not old, and he was not timid. Radetzky was a very
active mentally and physically man, and had the attribute, not very common among
Austrian generals, of being idolized by his troops. His personality was inspiring and
his courage was conspicuous; at Fleurus he had led a party of cavalry through the
French lines to discover the fate of Charleroi. At Valeggio on the Mincio, with a few
hussars, he rescued Beaulieu from the midst of the enemy !
On the extreme flank of the Austrian army stood Nordmann's Advance Guard. (Nordmann was a
French emigree in Austrian service.) The Advance Guard consisted of several fine troops; Hessen-
Homburg Hussars (one of the best Austrian cavalry regiments), I and VII Jager Battalion, and the
Hoch-and-Deutschmeister Infantry Regiment (arguably the best unit of Austrian line infantry).
Thus Archduke Chalres used 32,000 men (Rosenberg's 18,000 and Nordmann's 14,000) to defend his
flank against Davout's 40,000 men (Davout's 36,000 and 4,000 attached dragoons and light cavalry).
Although the Austrians here were slightly inferior in numbers, they were protected by several
small fieldworks and the buildings of the village.
The best part of Davout's force were the divisional and brigade generals
and the officers. Among them were the so-called "Davout's Iron Three":
General Friant (picture), General Morand (picture) and General Gudin.
The three were with Davout in 1805 during the Austerlitz Campaign and
in 1806 in the Jena-Auerstadt Campaign. They also served together during
the so-called First Polish War in 1807 (campaign in Eastern Prussia) and
in 1809. Charles Gudin was killed during the invasion of Russia in 1812.
During the Waterloo Campaign in 1815, Friant and Morand were again in the field and
commanded the infantry of the Old Guard. Marshal Davout however was left in Paris. After
Napoleon's second abdication and the return of the Bourbons, General Friant retired. The scarface
Charles Morand was condemned to death so he left France for Poland. (Morand was married to a
Polish woman.) The general, however, would later return to France and even join the army. Morand
died in Paris in 1835.
At 10 AM Davout hurled forward his infantry. Two infantry divisions (Gudin's 3rd and Puthod's
4th) attacked the village of Markgrafneusiedel, while two other infantry divisions (Morand's 1st
and Friant's 2nd) attacked Nordmann's troops. The French guns boomed. The French infantry
advanced with drums beating, skirmishers extended.
Puthod's division was a collection of individual battalions drawn from
various infantry regiments. It was the weakest of Davout's divisions and
struggled against Radetkzy's three battalions in the village. With several
thousands of French infantrymen entering the village,
Markgrafneusiedel disappeared as if swallowed up by the earth !
Bloody fighting followed. Finally most of the village was in the French
hands. The Austrians defended the tower until French horse battery (from
Arrighi's cuirassier division) showered them with cannonballs and canister.
Photo: Church in Markgrafneusiedl (2001)
While Puthod's division stormed Markgrafneusiedel, Gudin's very strong division exchanged fire
with the whitecoats deployed in the open by the village. Although Gudin and several senior
officers were wounded, it was the enemy who fell back. The Hohenzollern Cuirassiers charged but
were repulsed by the 85th Line Infantry.
Morand and Friant
crossed the Russbach
Stream and got under
artillery fire. Morand
then formed his
division into battalion
columns and
advanced up the
slope. It was too much
for the Austrians and
some battalions began
wavering. Seeing it,
the French began
running, instinct told
them that the quicker
they ran towards the
enemy, the less time
the whitecoats would
have to fire their
muskets. Nordmann
however sent his light
infantry in a counter-
attack against Morand's flank. The surprised French reluctantly halted their advance. The enemy
pressed hard but Morand held his ground.
Meanwhile Friant rode to the 15th Light and 33rd Line, spoke few words and launched them
against the enemy. It was too much for the Austrians. They just halted Morand's division when
Friant hit them. The Austrian line swayed and bent. To makes things even worse for the Austrians,
Nordmann was killed while rallying his brave troops.
The French infantry then "pressed ahead to overrun a line of shallow Austrian fieldworks." (- James
Arnold)
Davout ordered cuirassier division under General Arrighi (picture)s to charge. The
heavy cavalry advanced several hundred paces and then became entangled among
the huts that served as the whitecoats' camp. Arrighi ordered a retreat. Soon he
received another order from Davout to join the French cavalry on the flank.
Arrighi's division consisted of four regiments of armor-clad cuirassiers; 4th, 6th, 7th
and 8th. It was a powerful force which Davout could use against the Austrian infantry. Davout
probably could achieve this with his own infantry but he could do this faster together with Arrighi.
The cuirassiers could be also used, if necessary, against the fine Austrian light cavalry on the
extreme flank.
The light-blue clad Blankenstein Hussars (10 squadrons) stood behind Austrian
infantry before they charged and routed several squadrons of French cavalry.
Grouchy's dragoons (12 squadrons), in turn, routed the victorious but disordered by the pursuit
hussars.
Hohenzollern Cuirassiers (6 squadrons) and O'Reilly Chevauxlegeres (8 squadrons) came and
forced back the dragoons.
The robust Austrian cuirassier carried 2 pistols and straight broadsword. The British heavy cavalry
broadsword was entirely modeled on this weapon. The Austrian cuirassier was protected with
amor, front-plate only. The chevaulegeres formed large regiments and served well not only in
pitched battles but also in escort duty, smirmishes, and in small warfare. The chevauleger carried a
carbine and saber.
Although the Austrian cavalry did all the right things it was Grouchy who had the last
reserve and he won. "[Grouchy] was of the ancient chivalry of France, his family
acknowledged aristocracy from at least the 14th Century. ... From the first it was clear
that he was 'a horseman by nature and cavalry soldier by instinct.' Better, he knew how
to handle forces of all arms and took good care of his men. When he was suspeneded in
1793 because he was an aristocrat, his troopers came close to mutiny. ... Grouchy's
correspondence shows a thin-skinned man, reluctant to assume responsibility yet conscientious in
discharging it. Actually he was abler than he realized. He failed to show the necessary initiative
during Waterloo but, left isolated after that battle, managed a masterful retreat. As a cavalryman, he
was far superior to Murat in tactical skill, administrative ability, and common sense. Clean-handed
and very courageous ..." (Elting - "Swords around a throne")
Napoleon sent courier to Davout to hurry him along and ordered MacDonald's corps to begin his
attack in the center. Archduke Charles galloped to Rosenberg and sent 5 battalions against Davout.
This attack halted the French but Davout reacted with his favorite tactics by once more seeking to
outflank his opponent. Rosenberg had no choice but to order a retreat. Rosenberg's and
Nordmann's troops fell back in good order.
Davout ordered Arrighi's cuirassiers to charge. While the Austrian infantry opened fire their light
cavalry counter-attacked. Napoleon's brother-in-law, Prince Borghese, was wounded, and three of
Arrighi's four colonels were hit.
Davout sent Grouchy's 7th and 30th Dragoon Regiment, and Montbrun's 1st and 2nd Horse
Chasseurs around Austrian flank. This force was probably joined by the 7th Hussars and Italian
Dragoons. Being under flank attack was an extremely unpleasant thing so the Austrian light cavalry
reined up short and turned about. Then both sides used their reserves. French and Austrian cavalry
moved in small columns as the vineyards and huts restricted their movements. When Montbrunn's
green-clad chasseurs finally broke their opponents and pursued, a concealed enemy battalion
delivered a deadly point-blank volley, putting an end to the pursuit.
The difficult terrain restricted the use of the French cuirassiers in a massive charge against the
retreating Austrian infantry. Seeing Davout's progress, however, the smiling Emperor announced
"The battle is won."
.
.
.
"... this brave man [General Oudinot],
sword in hand, led from the front "
- James Arnold
Between Davout on the flank and the center Bernadotte, stood Oudinot's II Army
Corps. Oudinot was one of the bravest generals in the world. Few days earlier, during
the battle of Aspern-Essling he was wounded in the arm, and his horse was covered
with wounds. He mounted a fresh horse and announced that he would not leave a
battlefield that had been soaked with his own blood !
There were several difference between Davout's and Oudinot's corps.
Davout had three infantry divisions made of veterans and only one division composed of young
recruits. Oudinot had one division of veterans and two of recruits (total of 29 battalions of young
men). Furthermore, Davout was supported with five cavalry divisions, while Oudinot with only one
cavalry division. Thus Oudinot's force was weaker than Davout's not only in quality but also in
numbers. (This is not surprising at all as Oudinot was not Davout in terms of tactical skills.)
Oudinot had more infantry battalions than his Austrian counterpart (46 vs 26 !) but the French units
were smaller. After counting all troops, infantry, artillery and cavalry, Oudinot had 28,000 men
while Hohenzollern 25,000. There was also part of Bellegarde's corps near Wagram.
For long hours Oudinot's men suffered from artillery
fire. The Austrian light infantry concealed themselves
in the folds in the ground. Behind the stream were
several fieldworks defended by Austrian line infantry.
The whitecoats were ready to greet Oudinot's men.
The orders came and the French infantry advanced to
the Russbach Stream. The French gunners hauled
some of their pieces across the stream, then loaded
with canister and fired. Oudinot galloped along the
line yelling orders.
The Austrian Vincent Chevaulegeres' charge halted
the French infantry and forced them to form squares.
Musket volleys however sent the cavalry flying and
Oudinot's men resumed their advance. "Re-forming
his columns and taking a moment to have a surgeon
dress his wound, Oudinot sent Coehorn toward the
road to Znaim - one of the main routes Charles would
need if he were to retreat - and placed himself at the
head of Albert's brigade for an advance on Wagram.
Seruzier, in spite of having his fifth horse shot out from under him, brought up the corps' horse
artillery to provide fire support. The artillerists positioned their batteries in echelon formation;
while one battery fired, the other advanced and unlimbered, and when the second battery opened
fire, the first battery limbered and advanced. These modern fire-and-move tactics helped pave the
way for a successful assault.
Still, in the end it required naked valor to take Wagram, and none surpased that of General
Oudinot and his staff. Again, leading the way, sword in hand, Oudinot rode at the front of his men.
A bullet hit his thigh; his chief of staff went down with a mortal wound; his senior aide received a
mortal canister wound; four ADCs were hit. Bleeding profusely, Oudinot refused to relinquish
command and called upon General Colbert and his 'Infernal Brigade' of light horse to clear the
way." (- James Arnold)
Colbert's 9th Hussars, 7th and 20th Horse Chasseurs, and Saxon chevauxlegeres,
rushed against Austrian infantry. The 7th Horse Chasseurs was greeted with
musket volley and fell back. Colbert was seriously wounded. The 20th Horse
Chasseurs moved against the square that had just repulsed the 7th. The infantry
however had emptied their muskets and were in a vulnerable position. They were
broken by the cavalry and cut to pieces. Other square was broken by the 9th
Hussars.
Oudinot then advanced against Wagram itself. The French were strung out along
the village's northern edge, exchanging volleys with an enemy that they could
barely see. The musketry was heavy, and advance in face of such a fire was a clear test of mettle
and discipline. Despite the men dropping everywhere, Oudinot made great progress.
Hohenzollern's II Corps was in a very difficult situation. With Rosenberg's and Nordmann's troops
falling back before Davout, Hohenzollern's flank became exposed. Anxious Hohenzollern
responded by sending several battalions and squadrons to face Davout. At the same time his front
was constantly pressed by Oudinot.
.
.
.
MacDonald's multi-battalion column
dented the Austrian line but could not
break it.
At noon Napoleon could see that the line of smoke on the right flank of the army had passed the
tower in Markgrafneusiedel. The Emperor concluded that Davout pushed back Rosenberg's and
Nordmann's troops and had turned the enemy flank. Napoleon then gave the order to MacDonald
to begin his attack.
General tienne Joseph MacDonald was born in 1765 in France. His father however
(Neil MacEachen, later MacDonald), came from a Jacobite family from Howbeg in
South Uist, in the west of Scotland. Etienne MacDonald began his military career in
1785, by joined the Irish legion raised to support the revolutionary party in the
Dutch Republic against Prussia. When Suvorov invaded Italy, and was undoing the
conquests of Bonaparte, MacDonald with 35,000 men attacked Suvorov's 20,000 at
Trebbia. After three days' fighting MacDonald was utterly defeated. He was
associated with Moreau and thus incurred the dislike of Napoleon, who did not include him in his
first creation of marshals. MacDonald remained without employment until 1809, but then Napoleon
made him adviser to Prince Eugne and a corps commander. Wagram became MacDonald's day of
glory.
MacDonald led his two divisions (Lamarque and Brousier) personally, aiming in the intersection
between Kollowrath's III Corps and Liechtenstein's Grenadier Corps. MacDonald was supported
with one division (Seras) from Grenier's corps. As the Austrian artillery opened upon MacDonald
with several batteries, firing fast, the French with as many batteries replied. However, it was not
cavalryman or gunner that would determine the result of this confronting of the two armies, but the
man with the musket.
Macdonald's
infantry
were formed
in a huge
column, or
rather in a
formation
called ordre-
mixte (mix of
battalions
formed in
columns and
lines). Some
even called
it a "square".
The front of
MacDonald's
formation
consisted of
8 battalions
formed in
two lines On
the right
flank were 8 battalions formed in column. On the left flank were 4 battalions also in column. Three
battalions formed in battalion columns side by side, formed the rear.
This unusual and very heavy formation was not adopted because the infantrymen were
inexperienced but because of the probability that it would be attacked from three sides by the
Austrians.
In front of the huge column were placed several artillery batteries. Both flanks of the infantry were
protected with cavalry positioned to the rear.
Macdonald however "was far from thinking that this demonstration was to be the main attack on
the enemy's centre".
Conspicious on his white charger, Napoleon had ridden through Austrian
fire to be present when column moved out towards Sussenbrunn, flags
flying, drums beating the charge and the men cheering.
Unable to manoevre effectively, the column came under assault from three
sides. The Austrians opened up with everything they had. Soon 15 French
guns were disabled and within an hour the column was reduced to little
more than half-strength. Macdonald continued forward and dented the
Austrian line but could not break it. (Rothenburg - "The Emperor's Last
Victory" pp 191-193)
Austrian artillery
fire was so heavy
that MacDonald
would later report
that he had been reduced to 1,500 men (!)
Many were wounded and killed, and even
more lied on the ground as if they were hit.
Once the danger passed they either joined
their battalions or run to the rear. The
artillery fired cannonballs and canister.
Cannonballs were used in two ways: direct
shot and ricochet. When it was fired at a
slight elevation the shot bounced destructively through enmey's troops. In direct shot the
cannonball was fired on a straight trajectory. The effects of direct shot were truly devastating. (Read
below). When canister was fired, the effect was that of a giant shotgun blast.
The cannonballs when fired at close range, pierced not only enemy lines; but the whistle and the noise that they caused,
caused a terror among the enemy troops which, joined by the cries of the wounded and dying, caused a feeling much stronger
than the blood drawn by canister at short range. When canister was fired, the effect was that of a giant shotgun blast. It was
essentially short-range anti-personnel ammunition. Faddei Bulgarin of Grand Duke Constantine Uhlans (Russian) described a
Frenchman he met near Heilsberg, who had his face shott off by canister. No skin, no eyes, no jaws, only tongue was left in
the throat of this sufferer. Bulgarin wrote that the entire night his every dream was about this poor lad.
The wounds caused by cannonball were horrific. Thomas Austin, officer of British infantry, was injured by
cannonball. He writes, "The instant after ... another cannon-ball swept off my left leg below the knee-joint;
and although felled to the earth by the irresistible force of the blow, I experienced no sensation of faintness;
but felt excessively hot, thirsty and savage. ... The momemnt after being struck down, I had sufficiently
recovered from the shock, or more correctly had not been prostrated by it, as to be able to sit up and examine
my wound. I found the bones were laid bare for some distance up the limb, and appeared as white as the
finest ivory, the tendons dangling and quivering like so many pieces of thread; while the haemorrhage was
much less than might have been expected ... Soon after receiving my wound, however, there came on a burning sensation in
the injured part which gradually spread over my whole frame, and I felt parching thirst which seemed to have converted my
tongue into a fire-brand; but there was no water at hand to allay the heat which seemed as though it would consume me ...
The battlefield was, to me, now divested of all the exctiment and dignity of glorious war."
The Kronprinz Cuirassiers then charged and forced MacDonald's infantry to halt and form squares.
The French infantry, however, repulsed the cuirassiers with musketry and resumed their advance.
The long white lines of infantry then came sweeping
down upon MacDonald, and mixed with the battle
smoke. Steyrer's Grenadier Brigade and Lilienberg's
Infantry Brigade took up a position on MacDonald's
left and right flank. The Austrian artillery kept firing
from the front and both flanks.
Now came the dreadful battle picture. Generals
were galloping hither and thither - the infantrymen
were all in their places, and you might have heard
the rattle of several thousand ramrods as they drove
home and "thugged" upon the little globes and cones of lead.
MacDonald's infantry halted again, they needed support. Nansouty's elite
carabiniers and iron-clad cuirassiers were too far to the rear and arrived late, so MacDonald rode to
General Walther of the Imperial Guard and asked: "... why in the world did you not charge the
enemy at the decisive moment ? In the Guard we require orders direct from the Emperor himself,
or from our chief, Marshal Bessieres. Now, as the latter was wounded, there only remained the
Emperor and he sent us no orders."
James Arnold's comments on MacDonald's formation:
"There are two famous examples of French column attacks most often cited as illustrative cases of
French tactical abuse, MacDonald's attack at Wagram and DErlons attack at Waterloo. Criticized
by French and British authors alike, MacDonald's advance on Wagram's second day, July 6, 1809, is
typically identified as an extreme example of Napoleon's increasing reliance upon mass tactics.
A careful reading of MacDonald's post-battle report and his memoirs challenges this viewpoint.
MacDonald relates how he was preparing to attack the Austrian position along the Russbach when
he received orders from the Emperor to redirect his advance. Archduke Carl had surprised
Napoleon by launching an offensive against the French left. There was a gap in the French line
toward which an Austrian cavalry force was headed. Macdonald commanded the nearest available
troops to oppose the Austrian cavalry. MacDonald wrote,
The Emperor .. kept sending officers, one after another, to me to hasten my movements ... Vexed and anxious
to know the reasons for these reiterated orders, I galloped toward the Emperor. The enemy, who were in great
number at this point, were marching the more boldly as they encountered no resistance: I then understood (as
the Emperor afterwards admitted) that his intention in thus hurrying me was to show that he was not in
retreat ... It was therefore necessary to risk something in order to carry this out with the utmost speed.
MacDonald formed his first units, which advanced at the double, in two lines of four battalions
each. As his other units arrived he formed them in column to secure his flanks. This unusual
formation, necessitated by the dual pressures of time and the presence of enemy cavalry,
successfully repulsed the Hapsburg horsemen. Only then did the French proceed to make an attack.
MacDonald's formation can be explained as one extemporized in haste."
.
.
.
Napoleon decided to commit his reserves.
Whip the enemy or get whipped yourself.
The great French assault, the greatest ever made upon this continent, has been made and signally
almost repulsed. MacDonald's massive column was unable to continue its advance deeper into the
Austrian positions and Napoleon decided to commit his reserves. The Emperor ordered two
uncommitted divisions of Army of Italy (Pacthod's and Durutte's), and Wrede's Bavarian division
to support MacDonald. The Young Guard was also moved in that direction. The only troops left in
the reserve was the Old Guard Infantry Division, and half of the Guard Cavalry Division under
Walther.
To relieve the pressure on Macdonald, Napoleon ordered Pacthod's division to attack Wagram
itself, while Marmont moved forward to fill the gap now created to the left of Oudinot, and
Durutte's division, was to move to Macdonald's left and capture Breitenlee.
marched . On the way toward Wagram Pacthod's division attacked Austrian
grenadier brigade in the flank. Now began to appear the countless flashes, and the
long fiery sheets of the muskets, and the rattle of the volleys, mingled with the
thunder of the guns. Pacthod drove the grenadiers and the infantry toward
Aderklaa. Four grenadier battalions took cover in the village. Pacthod's division (9
battalions) stormed the village and after a bloody fight took it. Commander of the
grenadiers, de Aspre (French emigree), fell with a mortal wound.
Meanwhile Durutte's infantry division captured Breitenlee.
Broussier's division of MacDonald's corps and Curial's Young Guard Division attacked
Sussenbrunn. The farmyard outside the village was defended by 2 grenadier battalions and the
cemetery by 200 infantry. Both strongpoints were taken by the French and now the Bavarian
division stormed the village itself. Sussenbrunn was defended by a weak garrisson and was easily
captured by the attackers.
With the Austrian front broken in several
points, the word "charge" was then given
and on the French light cavalry went. The
hussars and the horse chasseurs were upon
the enemy with drawn sabers. The fighting
was quite sharp for some time, but the
enemy fell back as the French infantry
advanced. At one time a gallant counter-
charge was made by a party of Austrian
hussars.
The Horse Chasseurs of
Imperial Guard (picture),
made a dash right in the
face of the bullets and bayonets of the whole infantry battalion.
Such charges had succeeded in combat against infantry on several occasions. This
time however, the daredevils received a salvo at point-blank and fell back. The
Austrian infantry and grenadiers were retreating in good order, there was no panic.
"A nearsighted French colonel in the Polish (Guard) Horse almost ruined this elite
regiment. Advancing toward a line of Austrian uhlans, the colonel misjudged the
distance and ordered his unit to right about-face. His subordinate understood that
this was disastous because it would allow the uhlans to charge the unit's rear. He immediately gave
the same order again, followed by the command to advance at the trot. Having performed a neat
360-degree pirouette, the Polish (Guard) Horse was by all rights lost."
(- James Arnold)
Officer of the Light Horse wrote; "The
Emperor called me to him ... When he
had finished speaking and I raised
my hat in salute ... a cannon ball hit
my headwear and hurled it through
the air. The Emperor roared with
laughter and said to me: It's a good job
you're not taller !' (Chlapowski, - p 84)
Chlapowski delivered emperor's
orders to Polish Horse to attack the
Austrian Schwarzenberg Uhlans and
Latour Dragoons. The two front
squadrons of the Poles were
commanded by Delaitre and the other
two by Kozietulski. Delaitre was
senior to Kozietulski but he was
short-sighted and wore spectacles.
Seeing the uhlans preparing to
charge, and overestimating their
strength, he decided that the regiment
should retire on the Guard Horse
Chasseurs who were in support to the rear.
Thus Delaitre ordered the entire regiment to turn right about face. Kozietulski saw the danger that
the uhlans would catch the regiment from behind, and so immediately gave the same order again.
So having twice turned about face, the Lighthorse again found themselves facing the Austrian
uhlans. Kozietulski ordered: "Advance at the trot !" The Poles fought well, they captured 150
prisoners including several officers and the Duke of Auersberg. Majority of the prisoners were
Poles who no longer wanted to serve in the Austrian army. It was the greatest 'catch' the regiment
enjoyed. The majority of the uhlans, however, were loyal to the Austrian monarch and fought very
well. The Lighthorse suffered 26 killed and wounded, making it the most costly cavalry-vs-cavalry
combat in the history of the regiment. Even the Prussian Guard Cavalry and the Russian dragoons
and uhlans in 1813-14 were unable to inflict heavier casualties on the Poles.
Few minutes after the cavalry combat, the Schwarzenberg Uhlans made another charge, this time
on French horse chasseurs. The uhlans were upon the enemy with drawn sabers, and a short hand
to hand fight was the result. The uhlans recaptured the entire battery abandoned by the Austrian
gunners and withdrew.
.
.
.
Austrian withdrawal.
Archduke Charles had no hope that his brother Archduke John
will reach the battlefield. At 8 PM he ordered a withdrawal.
Such fighting as this
could not last long.
Especially when
Archduke Charles had
no hope that his brother
Archduke John will
reach the battlefield. (On
4 July, aware that the
French had weakened
their position at
Pressburg, Charles sent a
message to Archduke John ordering him to leave enough troops to defend the river and move with
all speed, initially to Marchegg on the March river. The battle here on the Marchfeld will determine the
fate of our Dynasty ... I request you march here at once, leaving behind all baggage and impedimenta, and join
my left wing. (- Ian Castle)
At 8 PM Charles ordered a withdrawal.
The horizon was red and flickering with the fires of burning villages. Black smoke fanned by wind
curled into the air in thick whirls. The sound of pounding horseshoes to their rear meant French
cavalry threatened to cut them off from their line of retreat. Small parties charged in from all sides,
the Austrians turned. Then there was a pell-mell rush, the French following in close pursuit. Many
prisoners were captured, and some of Frenchmen, through their impetuosity, were carried away by
the overpowering current of the retreat. The Austrians found themselves overpowered, and fell
back closely pressed.
The day's action had resulted in a French victory. The Austrian withdrawal was covered by rear
guard made of some resolute troops. It would be impossible to surpass the gallantry of these men.
The Austrian army was retiring without panic, with their rear guards occupying several defiles.
General Savary wrote that the Austrian rear-guard had "fought in a manner calculated to instill a
cautious conduct into any man disposed to deeds of rashness." The Austrians carried off
thousands of French and Saxon prisoners, several captured standards, and 21 guns.
According to James Arnold neither side provided a complete tabulation of the losses.
Total Austrian casualties exceeded 30,000 (24,000 killed and wounded, and 6,000 captured).
French casualties approximated those suffered by the whitecoats. Reports
to Napoleon's chief-of-staff for the battle on July 6 list 25,142 killed and
wounded. General Andreossy, appointed as 'governor' of Vienna, reported
that 5,844 wounded soldiers from Bernadotte's corps alone (two Saxon and
one French division) had been admitted to the various hospitals. Archduke
Charles stated that his army carried off 7,000 French prisoners.
As the French fought off one crisis after another, the battle proved to be a very close-fought affair.
Karl von Clausewitz wrote: "Though the Austrians were the real defenders at Wagram, they did
attack the emperor on the second day with the greater part of their forces. Therefore Napoleon can
also be considered a defender. With his right wing he attacked, outflanked and defeated the
Austrian left wing. At the same time he paid little attention to his weak left wing, which was resting
on the Danube. Yet through strong reserves (i.e., formation in depth), he prevented the victory of
the Austrian right wing from having any influence on his own victory gained on the Russbach."
Napoleon told that his artillery had won the battle. As a special favor, the emperor selected the son
of General Lariboisiere of artillery, to carry the battle news to Paris. Archduke John's failure to
arrive on the battlefield and attack Davout, had a significant impact. To block John's army
Napoleon had only Marmont's corps.
~
Peace with Austria and attempt to assassinate Napoleon.
In October 1809 France and Austria signed a peace agreement.
Austria had to pay a huge monetary indemnity to the French,
ceded the maritime Croatia, and several ports to France.
Grand Duchy of Warsaw (France's ally) reincorporated
Lublin and Krakow. Overall, Austria lost 3,5 million inhabitants.
Napoleon promoted generals MacDonald and Oudinot to the
rank of marshal. Also General Marmont became marshal.
However the news came to Marmont with Napoleon's words
"Between ourselves, you have not yet done enough to justify
my choice." Marshal Davout became Prince of Eckmuhl;
Marshal Massena, Prince of Essling; Marshal Berthier (chief-of-
staff), Prince of Wagram. Napoleon also awarded all NCOs of
the Guard Artillery. Several days after Wagram, Napoleon
would "adopt" all children orphaned by the battle deaths of
their fathers. These children received between 500 and 2,000
francs.
While Napoleon crushed the main Austrian army at Wagram,
on northern front Prince Poniatowski with 15,000
outmaneouvered and outfought the VII Austrian Corps of 35,000 men. (For more info click
here.) In this little known but brilliant campaign the Poles lost only 3 guns and captured 62
pieces. As a result of this victory the north-western part of the Austrian territory was
incorporated into the Duchy of Warsaw. Overall, Austria lost 3,5 million inhabitants.
Several months after Wagram Napoleon visited the battlefield at Austelitz.
It was the place of his greatest ever victory.
In October France and Austria signed a peace agreement. Austria had to pay a huge monetary
indemnity to the French. The Austrian Empire ceded the maritime Croatia, the ports of Fiume,
Istria and Trieste, along with Carinthia to France. Grand Duchy of Warsaw (one of France's
allies) reincorporated Lublin and Krakow. Overall, Austria lost 3,5 million inhabitants and
access to the Adriatic Sea.
There was an attempt to assassinate Napoleon. Just few days after the signing of the Treaty of
Schnbrunn, an eighteen-year-old German patriot called Friedrich Stapps approached
Napoleon during an army review and attempted to stab the emperor, but he was intercepted
by General Rapp. Stapps was interogated and executed. On the scaffold Stapps had loudly
exclaimed, "Liberty for ever ! Germany for ever !"
Infantry of the Imperial Guard, by Dmitrii Zgonnik
"On the 26th the guns announced the conclusion of the peace; it was signed on the 25th at Presburg.
On the 28th, in the morning, our battalion (Guard Foot Chasseurs) was sent to Vienna, to take over
and escort the treasury of the army to Strasbourg; it consisted of 8 waggons and of 12 to 15 millions
in gold or silver. Most of it came from France, and had not been spent in this brief campaign, which
instead of impoverishing, enriched it." (Jean Barres - "Memoirs of a French napoleonic officer" p 80)
Sources and Links.
Arnold - "Napoleon Conquers Austria", Praeger Publishers, Connecticut USA
Castle - "Aspern and Wagram 1809"
Baron de Marbot - "The Memoirs of Baron de Marbot" Vol. I
Marbot - "Memoirs of General Baron de Marbot"
Macdonald - "Recollections of Marshal Macdonald"
MacDonald - "Recollections of Marshal MacDonald."
Arnold - "A Reappraisal of Column Versus Line ..."
Picture of French light infantry, by G Rava
Battle Fuengirola 1810 : British Defeat : Bataille : Batalla
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Fuengirola.htm[2012-05-21 12:43:29]
Battle of Fuengirola, 1810
Approx. 150 Polish infantry ran out of the castle and then
up the slope where stood British battalion with a battery.
The Poles were joined by 11 French dragoons. They routed
the battalion and took 40 prisoners incl. Blayney's adjutant.
The Poles loaded the cannons with British ammunition and
bombarded the Allies on the beach. Lord Blayney was shocked.
Blayney's force sailed from Gibraltar toward Fuengirola.
"The infantry is the best portion of the British army."
"... little dependence could be placed" on them."
"Come and Take It !"
They formed a line but soon broke ranks
and joined the 89th Foot in their flight to
the boats.
The casualty returns of 89th Foot have had the sheets
with the casualty listings for Fuengirola torn out.
Battle of Fuengirola.
Blayney's force sailed from Gibraltar toward Fuengirola.
Fuengirola is southwest of Malaga, east of Cadiz, in Spain. To the
north of Fuengirola is Sierra Mijas, to the south is Mediterranean Sea.
Fuengirola used to be a quaint fishing village. In the 17th century, a
new settlement developed, once the threat from Turkish and
Moroccan pirates disappeared, and at the beginning of the 18th
century, an inn was opened near the beach, offering accommodation
to travellers, muleteers and seafarers.
The British forces at Fuengirola were commanded by
Andrew Thomas Blayney, 11th Baron Blayney. He
was veteran of Irish, Dutch, Italian, Egyptian and
Indian campaign and participant of the siege of
Malta. Blayney served during the retreat through
Holland (1794-95) "distinguishing himself in every
encounter." It was Lord Blayney's resistance to
surrender at Boxtel which prevented this retreat from
being a rout. In 1796 he was promoted to the rank of
Lieutenant-Colonel.
"As commander of the 89th Foot, Blayney's Bloodhounds as they were
called, Blayney fought with distinction in the Napoleonic Wars." (-
wikipedia.org 2005) In 1810 Blayney's force sailed from Gibraltar
toward Fuengirola.
~
"The infantry is the best portion of
the British army..." - French Gen. Foy
During the
Napoleonic Wars
with the exception of
only three units (60th
and 95th and the
King's German
Legion) the British
infantry wore red jacket. The cloth was dull red for rank and file and
bright scarlet for senior NCOs and officers. The companies of
grenadiers and light infantry wore wings of red cloth at the
shoulders. Officers jackets were double-breasted, well tailored and
often padded to exaggerate the outline. During campaign they wore
white (in summer) or grey-blue (in winter) comfortable trousers.
The field battalion had ten companies. Each infantryman carried
musket.
Lord Blayney had 2,512 British and Spanish troops and number of
guerillas:
- British II Btn./89th Regiment of Foot (353 men) nicknamed
"Blayney's Bloodhounds."
- British I Btn./82nd Regiment of Foot (932 men)
- 5 guns (incl. one giant 32pdr) and 69 British gunners
- foreign battalion (509 men)
- Spanish Regiment de Toledo (650 men)
- large group of Spanish guerillas
- British battleship "Rodney" with 74 cannons
- British frigates and 5 gunboats
~
"... little dependence could be placed" on them.
- Lord Blayney
In
1809
Marshal Davout
(nicknamed The Iron
Marshal, see picture)
reviewed the Polish
infantry in Warsaw
and selected three of
the best regiments
(4th, 7th and 9th
Infantry Regiment).
These troops were
sent to Spain where
already was the
Vistula Legion.
The men of the 4th Infantry Regiment wore dark blue jacket with
yellow lapels and scarlet collars, cuffs and turnbacks. Dark blue
trousers (of warm wool) were worn in winter, and white trousers (of
cloth) in summer. The shako was black, top-square, and was called
chapka (means headwear).
The Poles were armed with captured Prussian and Austrian muskets,
and with French weapons. (In 1812 Napoleon provided 40.000 French
muskets 1777, 1793 and 1800/1801 Models).
One company of the 4th Infantry garrissoned an old castle in
Fuengirola that remembered the times of wars against the Arabs.
This tiny garrison was commanded by Captain Franciszek
Mlokosiewicz. (He was killed in 1813 at Leipzig.)
- 150 men of 4th Infantry Regiment
- 11 French dragoons for patrolling the area
- 4 very old guns and ... 3 Spanish gunners.
(The Spaniards however deserted after first shots.)
William Napier: "garrison, which did not exceed 200 men."
In 1809 Blayney had very low opinion about the Poles saying that
"little dependence could be placed" on them.
~
When asked by the British to surrender his post
the commandant replied: "Come and Take It !"
Blayney's troops landed at noon and marched northeast along the
shore toward the old castle. At 1 pm "large group of Spanish
guerillas" attacked the Poles, captured their cattle and killed and
wounded 2 Polish guard. Approx. 40 Poles grabbed their muskets
and ran out after the Spaniards. However when Mlokosiewicz saw
British warships he recalled his troop.
The British and Spanish infantry after the initial show of force
deployed on the hills and Blayney demanded immediate surrender.
Officer Mlokosiewicz, while his eyes flashed defiance bluntly
responded: "Come and take it !"
The British frigates and gunboats opened fire. The Poles were forced
to serve their old cannons after the Spanish gunners deserted. The
Poles sank one gunboat and caused numerous casualties on the
remaining 4 gunboats. Soon the British withdrew out of range and
only 2 frigates continued fire.
The British and Spanish infantry advanced toward the castle and the
frigates moved closer to the shore. The Poles opened fire and killed
commander of the II/89th Foot Regiment and many others forcing
the redcoats to fell back. On the Polish side was wounded
Mlokosiewicz, 3 were dead and 13 were wounded. In the night the
Poles expected that they were joined either by 60 Polish infantrymen
stationed in Mijas or by 200 Poles and 80 French dragoons in
Alhaurin. It wasn't long before 60 Poles slipped through the positions
occupied by British infantry and joined the defenders.
In the morning the British opened cannonade from land and sea - it
broke the tower that collapsed. The British again asked Poles to
surrender but Mlokosiewicz didn't even let the emissary in. The
bombardement continued and the castle went on fire. There were
very many wounded and at 1:30 pm. Mlokosiewicz called a war
council - all officers voted for fight.
A British ship-of-the-line "Rodney"
arrived with its 74 cannons, carrying
the entire I Btn./82nd Regiment of
Foot. Lord Blayney ordered the 89th
Regiment to leave the hill and march
to the beach and draw rations, in the
same time he sent boats for the 82nd
Regiment. British battery on a hill was
left guarded by Spaniards and "foreign
battalion".
Mlokosiewicz saw all British
movements and - in the same time -
saw 11 French dragoons coming from
the direction of Fuengirola village. These dragoons were commanded
by Polish officer Bronisz. Mlokosiewicz immediately took 130
infantry and ran out of the castle and up the slope where stood
British battery. They were joined by French dragoons and together
attacked 1.060 recoats.
They routed entire battalion and took 40 as prisoners including
Blayney's adjutant. The Poles loaded British cannons with British
ammunition and bombarded the British infantry on the beach.
Blayney was shocked, he took the 89th Foot Regiment and rallied the
foreign battalion.
~
The 82nd Foot formed a "thin red line" but soon broke ranks
and joined the 89th Foot in their flight to the boats.
Blayney however fought to the end, before he was knocked
to the ground and taken prisoner.
Picture: battle of
Fuengirola by Keith
Rocco.
(The Poles advancing up
the hill and capturing
the British guns).
The British infantry
advanced up the slope
against the handful of
Poles. The Poles
detonated ammunition,
left the battery and happily returned to the castle. Blayney retook his
guns and formed 350 British and 1.000 German and Spanish infantry
into line.
Officer Bronisz arrived with 200 Polish infantrymen. They set their
muskets to talking and whistling about their ears so lively that
majority of the redcoats broke and fled before bayonets touched
them. Blayney fought to the end, before he was knocked to the
ground and taken prisoner. The Poles wanted to kill him but
Frenchman Frederic Petit saved him. The "foreign battalion" was also
routed, it was Mlokosiewicz who attacked them. The Spaniards after
few volleys at long range retreated to the beach where groups of
panick stricken redcoats attepted to get on the boats. The Poles
retook the battery and cannonaded the British before 11 French
dragoons drew sabers and charged.
The 82nd Foot landed on the beach under the
cover of 74 cannons from "Rodney". They formed
a "red line" but soon broke ranks and joined the
89th Foot in flight to the boats. Meanwhile the
Poles brought their prisoners, including Blayney,
to the castle. Blayney had to step on the castle
wall and signal to the ships to cease fire. So he
did without any hesitation.
The warships sailed away. Napier writes: "He was immediately made
prisoner; his troops again fled to the beach ..." (Napier - "History of the
War in the Peninsula 1807-1814" Vol III, p 19)
~
"The British casualty returns of 89th Regiment of Foot
(preserved in the War Office, signature W.O.25/2105)
have had the three sheets with the casualty listings
for Fuengirola torn out." - George Nafziger
Picture: Captain Mlokosiewicz was awarded by the
French with Legion d'Honneur.
General Sebastiani de la Porta commanded all French
and Polish forces around Malaga. He arrived to
Fuengirola on October 16th and showered the Poles
with praise. He also praised them in the report to
Marshal Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult. Mlokosiewicz
was awarded with Legion d'Honneur.
Blayney's saber is today in Poland, in the city of
Krakow. In Warsaw, in
the Museum of Army is a picture depicting the heroic defence of
Fuengirola.
During Blayney's long incarceration, the 2nd Earl of Caledon looked
after his financial, domestic, and political affairs. On his return,
Blayney was given a seat in parliament for Caledon's infamous
"rotten borough" of Old Sarum, Wiltshire.
David Chandler calls this old castle as a fortress and the Poles as
French ("The French-occupied fortress refused to capitulate ...") and
blamed the foreign troops for Blayney's defeat. He also writes on
page 163 "General Sebastiani at the head of 5,000 French troops was
heading for the scene from the interior." and on the next page "His
[Blayney's] error was soon clear as Sebastiani's column appeared
through the smoke ..." Chandler also doesn't mention Lord Blayney
and many of the redcoats being captured. He writes: "This abortive
but colorful and gallant action thus came to an end." (Chandler -
"Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" publ. 1993)
"The casualty returns of the II Btn./89th Foot Regiment [preserved in
the War Office, signature W.O.25/2105] have had the three sheets
with the casualty listings for Fuengirola torn out". (Nafziger - "Saxons
and Poles" p 109)
Blayney described his captors, "The scene that presented itself at this
moment can never be effaced from my memory; both [Polish]
officers and soldiers had all the appearance of those desperate
banditti described in romances; their long moustachios, their faces
blackened by smoke and gunpowder, and their bloody and torn
clothes, giving to their whole appearance a degree of indescribable
ferocity."
Today Fuengirola is probably most famous for its sandy beaches,
with high-rise hotels offering magnificent views of the
Mediterranean. Of 60,000 inhabitants registered in the municipality,
25% come from other countries, mainly United Kingdom and
Sweden. In the summer especially, the town plays host to throngs of
visitors both Spanish and foreign.
Polish infantry 1807-1809, by B Gembarzewski.
The men of the 4th Regiment "... had all the appearance of
those desperate banditti ... their faces blackened by smoke
and gunpowder, and their bloody and torn clothes, giving
to their whole appearance a degree of indescribable ferocity. "
- Andrew Thomas Blayney, 11th Baron Blayney
ps.
The men of the 4th Infantry covered themselves with glory again at
Leipzig.
In 1813 at Leipzig, the 4th Infantry Regiment was part of Dabrowski's
independent division and defended the nothern flank of Napoleon's
army. Despite being outnumbered by the Allies by three to one, they
held the village of Wiederitzsch, then Gohlis, and finally Leipzig
itself. It was a very aggressive defense, they made several bayonet
charges to clear off the streets from the swarming enemy. The 4th
Infantry however was forced to fall back before the powerful Russian
artillery. They left behind streets littered with dead and wounded
greencoats. Prussian Graf Henkel von Donnersmark wrote, "Honour
should be given to whomsoever earns it, even if it is the enemy, and
in this case I must admit that the Poles repeatedly beat off the
Russian assaults even though heavily outnumbered."
On the last day of the battle of Leipzig, the 4th Infantry was assigned
by Napoleon to form part of the rear guard. Outnumbered by almost
ten to one the desperate banditti fought to the very end and almost
perished. The few remaining survivors managed to join the fleeing
French troops.
Sources and Links.
Nafziger - "Saxons and Poles of the Napoleonic Wars."
Chandler - "Dictionary of Napoleonic Wars."
Bielecki and Tyszka - 'Dal Nam Przyklad Bonaparte"
Polish Infantry.
Ayuntamiento de Fuengirola.
4th Infantry Regiment (reenactment group)
Battle of Albuera 1811 : Stalemate : Schlacht von Albuera : Bataille : Batalla
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Albuera_1811.html[2012-05-21 12:43:36]
Battle of Albuera (16 May 1811)
Albuera was the bloodiest battle of the Peninsular War (1807-1814).
The British redcoats and some Spanish infantry covered themselves with glory.
This battle ended as something of a draw with awesome casaulties on both sides.
Marshal Sir Beresford was severely criticised for his leadership during the battle.
At Albuera, the tremendous impetus of the Vistula Uhlans broke through
and scattered the British redcoats like chaff before the wind. They went
with such a right good cheer, bang through the enemy and cut like sheep.
History will never know what they would have done to Wellington's allied
infantry at Waterloo.
Introduction.
Marshal Sir Beresford and his army.
(Anglo-Portuguese order of battle)
Generals Blake's and Castanos and their forces.
(Spanish order of battle)
Marshal Soult and his army.
(French order of battle)
Colborne and Konopka.
French feint attack.
- - - "Forward and charge, Sir Granby, if you please."
- - - The Green Rascals defended the village of Albuera.
French main attack.
- - - "French infantry advanced with vigor."
- - - Spanish thin line halted French columns.
- - - British brigade joined the Spaniards.
The phenomenal charge of the Vistula Uhlans.
- - - "Over the ground strewn with dead
- - - and wounded rode the "Devils Poles."
- - - "Incomprehensible valour" of the British infantry.
- - - The 'heat of battle' led to some despicable behaviour.
- - - "I was left alone to run the gauntlet as well as I could."
- - - Friendly fire.
- - - The end of the great cavalry charge.
- - - "Comrades, don't give up! Vive l'Empreur!"
Vistula Uhlans with captured British Colors.
The charge of the Vistula Uhlans and some French horsemen
was "one of the most successful cavalry charges of the entire
Napoleonic era" - Guy Dempsey
British Die Hards - vs - French Die Hards.
- - - Bloody stalemate.
- - - The last actions of the day.
- - - "This, will be a proud day for the Fusiliers."
- - - End of the battle.
Aftermath.
- - - "Oh Albuera, glorious field of grief !" (Casualties.)
- - - "The worst of the story I have not related.
- - - Our Colors were taken."
- - - The French and British generals
- - - became fascinated with lancers.
Introduction.
35 300 British, German, Portuguese and Spanish troops under Beresford
and 22 800 French and Polish troops under Marshal Soult deployed on
low hills with gentle slopes studded with olive groves.
"The Battle of Albuera (16 May 1811) was an indecisive battle during the
Peninsular War. A mixed British, Spanish, and Portuguese corps engaged elements
of the French Arme du Midi (Army of the South) at the small Spanish village of
Albuera, about 20 kilometres (12 mi) south of the frontier fortress-town of Badajoz,
Spain."
(- wikipedia.org 2009)
The strategic situation and the movements of the troops before the battle were
quite interesting. Marshal Soult left the fortress of Badajoz strongly garrisoned. In
April, following news of Marshal Massna's withdrawal from Portugal,
Wellington sent a veuy strong British-Portuguese corps commanded by Beresford to retake the
town. The Allies drove some of the French from the surrounding area, and laid siege to the
remainder in Badajoz. Soult gathered an army and marched to relieve the siege. Beresford's
force had moved south away from Badajoz to fend off French attempt to relieve the first siege
of that frontier fortress.
The battlefield was a rolling line of low hills along a narrow stream, facing a gentle slope
studded with olive groves. To the west of the hills was an extensive plain. The river was
fordable in several places.
Beresford deployed his British, German, Portuguese, and
Spanish troops on the low hills, parallel with the river
Albuera. The infantry and artillery took up position
overlooking the village of Albuera. The village was held by
two battalions of King's German Legion.
"The Allied army was deployed in a strong defensive
position across the undulating, treeless fields south of
Albuera. ... The left wing - Hamilton's Portuguese division
and most of the Portuguese cavalry - lay to the north of
the Badajoz road. The centre - founded on Albuera itself -
comprised the divisions of Cole and Stewart, supported by
Alten's light brigade and over 1,000 horse. The southern
section was made up of the four Spanish infantry divisions
- some 12 000 men - backed by another mass of Allied
cavalry and several batteries of artillery." (Gates - "The
Spanish Ulcer" pp 256-258)
The French and some Polish troops, under Marshal Soult, came from the south-
east and on the morning of May 16th drew up facing west. The marshal knew that
Blake had landed from Cadiz and was anxious to strike Beresford before the two
hostile forces could unite. This had already taken place, but Soult - denied a view
of most of Beresford's army and thus unable to calculate its size - felt certain that
he had arrived in time to prevent the junction of his adversaries and formulated a
strategy to keep things that way. Believing Blake to be marching up from the
south, he resolved to turn Beresford's right flank, thus interposing himself between
the two Allied forces. With any luck, Beresford would be defeated, and the relief of
Badajoz secured. Then, over a field strewn with Allied death, the French army
would sweep southwards to deal with Blake [Spanish troops]." (Gates - "The
~
Marshal Sir Beresford and his army
By the summer of 1810 he had so far improved
the moral and discipline of the Portuguese infantry
that Wellington brigaded their regiments with British ones.
Picture: uniforms of British
infantry. From left to right:
- drummer of 27th Foot
- fusilier of 23rd Foot
- grenadier of 32nd Foot
- senior officer of 51st Foot
- officer of light company of
30th Foot
- officer of 31st Foot
- sergeant of grenadier
company of 33rd Foot
During the Napoleonic Wars
with the exception of few units
the British infantry wore red
jacket. The cloth was dull red
for rank and file and bright
scarlet for senior NCOs and
officers. The companies of grenadiers and light infantry wore wings of red cloth at the
shoulders. Officers jackets were double-breasted, well tailored and often padded to exaggerate
the outline.
Red coat is a term often used to refer to British infantryman, because of the colour of the
uniforms formerly worn by the majority of regiments. In 1645, the Parliament passed the New
Model Army ordinance. The infantry regiments wore coats of Venetian red with white facings.
In the USA, 'Redcoat' is particularly associated with those British soldiers who fought against
the colonists during the American Revolution. It does not appear to have been a contemporary
expression - accounts of the time usually refer to "regulars" or "the King's men". Abusive
nicknames included 'bloody backs' (in a reference to both the colour of their coats and the use
of flogging as a means of punishment for military offences) and "lobsters" or "lobsterbacks"
(most notably in Boston around the time of the Boston Massacre. (wikipedia.org)
The British contingent at Albuera was commanded by Beresford. William Carr Beresford
(1768-1854) was a general in the British army and a marshal in the Portuguese army. He
joined the British army in 1785, served in North America and lost an eye in a hunting accident
in 1786. He remained in the army being promoted to captain by 1791 with the 69th Regiment
of Foot. Beresford fought the French troops at Toulon and, in 1795 went to India. He also
served in Egypt and the Cape.
Then came the embarrassment of being captured at
Buenos Aires. After a relentless 2-day fight with the
Buenos Aires and Montevideo militias in August
1806, the British infantry were defeated and forced to
capitulate. Beresford had to surrender, remaining
prisoner for 6 months; in the end, he managed to
escape and arrived in England in 1807.
Picture: William Carr Beresford surrenders to
Santiago de Liniers and the Argentinians during the
British invasions of the Ro de la Plata.
After his return to Europe, Beresford served in Peninsula. In January 1809 he was appointed to
reorganise and train Portuguese army. From the General Headquarters, Beresford dispatched
many orders altering some points of the Infantry ordnance, creating a general command of
Artillery, establishing the separation of the battalions and hiring and firing officers. By the
summer of 1810 he had so far improved the moral and discipline of the Portuguese infantry
that Wellington brigaded their regiments with British ones. Especially the Portuguese light
infantry, called Caadores, (ext.link) were superb. In most battles in Penisnula the Portuguese
and English fought side by side.
After peace was signed in 1814 Beresford went to Britain on leave and came back again to
Lisbon to reassume the command of the Portuguese Army. He also intended to intervene in
the politics of the country, from this Beresford came into conflict with the Regency. During the
Liberal Revolution in 1820 the British officers, for the most part, had been discharged, and the
government didn't even consent that Beresford could disembark. He briefly returned to
Portugal in 1827 at request of the Regent, but gave up his ambitions due to the resistance he
found among the Portuguese Army and returned to Britain.
In 1830 Beresford retired from public life, and for some time subsequently he was occupied in
a VERY heated controversy with William Napier, the historian of the Peninsular War, who
had severely criticised his tactics at Albuera.
Beresford
.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------
---
.
ANGLO-PORTUGUESE ARMY
Commander-in-Chief: Marshal Sir Beresford
Assisatant-Adjutant-General: Lt.Col. Rooke [British]
Adjutant-General: Brig.Gen. de Brito Mozinho [Portuguese]
Chief-of-Artillery: Mjr. Hartmann [King's German Legion]
Chief-of-Engineers: Capt. Squire [British]
2nd Infantry Division: Mjr.Gen. Stewart
1st Brigade: Ltn.Col. Colborne
- - - - - - I Battalion / 3rd Regiment of Foot
- - - - - - II Battalion / 31st Regiment of Foot
- - - - - - II Battalion / 48th Regiment of Foot
2nd Brigade: Ltn.Col. Abercromby
3rd Brigade: Mjr.Gen. Hoghton
- - - - - - 29th Regiment of Foot
- - - - - - I Battalion / 48th Regiment of Foot
- - - - - - I Battalion / 57th Regiment of Foot
Divisional Artillery
- - - - - - 2nd Company of King's German Legion [6 pieces]
- - - - - - 4th Company of Royal Artillery [6 pieces]
Other Troops
- - - - - - 3 companies of 60th Foot (mostly Germans, rifles)
4th Infantry Division: Mjr.Gen. Sir Cole
1st Brigade: Brig. Kemmis (absent on 16 May)
- - - - - - 3 light companies from II/27th, I/40th, and I/97th (absent on 16 May)
2nd Brigade: Ltn.Col. Myers
- - - - - - I Battalion / Regiment of 7th Foot
- - - - - - II Battalion / Regiment of 7th Foot
- - - - - - I Battalion / Regiment of 23rd Foot
3rd Brigade: Brig.Gen. Harvey
- - - - - - I , II / 11th Line Regiment [Portuguese]
- - - - - - I , II / 23rd Line Regiment [Portuguese]
- - - - - - I / Loyal Lusitanian Legion
- - - - - - 4th Company of King's German Legion [6 pieces]
Other Troops
- - - - - - 1 company of Brunswick Oels (Germans, marksmen)
Portuguese Infantry Division: Ltn.Gen. Hamilton
1st Brigade: Brig.Gen. da Fonseca
- - - - - - I , II / 2nd Line Regiment [Portuguese]
2nd Brigade: Brig.Gen. Campbell
- - - - - - Company of Portuguese 1st Artillery Regiment [6 pieces]
- - - - - - Company of Portuguese 2nd Artillery Regiment [6 pieces]
Other Troops
KGL Brigade: Mjr.Gen. Alten
- - - - - - I Light Battalion of King's German Legion
- - - - - - II Light Battalion of King's German Legion
Portuguese Brigade: Brig.Gen. Collins
- - - - - - I , II / 5th Line [Portuguese]
- - - - - - I / 5th Light [Portuguese] Cacadores
Cavalry Division: Mjr.Gen. Lumley
(superseding Brig. Long.)
Heavy Cavalry Brigade: Col. de Grey
- - - - - - 3rd Regiment of Dragoon Guards (23 officers and 351 other ranks)
- - - - - - 4th Regiment of Dragoons (30 officers and 357 other ranks)
1st Portuguese Cavalry Brigade: Col. Otway
- - - - - - 1st Portuguese Cavalry Regiment (327 men)
- - - - - - 7th Portuguese Cavalry Regiment (314 men)
3rd Portuguese Cavalry Brigade: Brig.Gen. Madden
- - - - - - 3rd Portuguese Cavalry Regiment (??? men in 2 squadrons)
- - - - - - 5th Portuguese Cavalry Regiment (104 men in 1 squadron)
- - - - - - 8th Portuguese Cavalry Regiment (104 men in 1 squadron)
Other Troops
- - - - - - 13th Regiment of Light Dragoons (23 officers and 380 other ranks)
- - - - - - Battery of Royal Horse Artillery [4 pieces]
British infantry muskets.
Source: Brent Nosworthy - "With Musket, Cannon, and Sword."
~
Generals Blake's and Castanos and their forces.
"To the surprise of everyone (even, perhaps, incl. themselves)
the Spaniards performed superbly." [at Albuera] - Guy Dempsey
General Castanos (Don Francisco Javier Castaos Aragorri Urioste y Olavide) is
remembered for his spectacular victory over the French under General Dupont,
whom he surrounded and compelled to surrender at Bailn in 1808. The news
about French defeat at Bailn sent shock waves throughout Europe. The Spanish
regiments proclaimed themselves the "conquerors of the conquerors of Austerlitz."
Napoleon
was furious:
"The
capitulation
of Bailn
ruined
everything.
In order to
save his
wagons of
booty,
Dupont commited his soldiers to the disgrace of a surrender that is without parallel." After the
news reached Madrid, King Joseph abandoned the city, and the French retreated back to the
Ebro in the north east of Spain. Nowhere was the news of Spanish successes more welcome
than in London. Past enmities were forgotten, as British society went mad with fabulous
notions of Hispanic heroism and zeal. The press launched a popular campaign in support of
the Spanish rebels.
In November 1808 however Marshal Lannes soundly defeated Castaos at Tudela. (pictures,
ext. link) Approx. 20 000 Spanish soldiers fought against 30 000 French and Polish soldiers;
about 4 000 Spanish became casualties, compared to only 650 French. Castanos' forces were
present at Albuera. For the rest of 1811 Castaos' army was based in Estremadura. From there
they carried out a series of raids on the French, even reaching as far as the borders of
Andalusia.
General Blake (Joaqun Blake y Joyes) was born in 1759. His father was an
Irishman. Blake saw action as a lieutenant of the grenadiers in the American
Revolutionary War. He took part in the siege of Gibraltar and the 1783 reconquest
of Minorca from the British. At the outbreak of war with France in 1793, Blake
took part in the invasion of Roussillon. Exploits in the field led to further
promotions, and by the start of the Peninsular War in 1808, Blake held the rank of Lieutenant
General.
Blake and Cuesta were defeated in July 1808 at Medina del Rio Seco. (pictures, ext. link) In
October Marshal Lefebvre fell upon Blake at Pancorbo, turning back the hesitant Spanish
advance. Blake retreated in good order, preventing Napoleon's planned envelopment of the
Spanish flank. Furious, the Emperor dispatched Lefebvre and Victor in pursuit. The French
were careless and allowed their forces to disperse during the pursuit. On 5 November Blake
surprised his enemies again when, at Valmaceda, he suddenly turned about and attacked the
French vanguard, inflicting a stinging defeat on Vilatte's leading division. However, another
French corps then joined the chase, and Blake raced west once more to evade encirclement.
Blake chose to make another stand at Espinosa. Victor spent the day recklessly flinging his
divisions against the Spaniards without success. The next day, however, a well-coordinated
attack shattered Blake's center and drove his army from the field in rout.
In 1811 Blake fought the French at Albuera alongside Beresford's AngloPortuguese army.
"The Spaniards under Blake's command successfully held the allied flank against the strongest
French infantry attack of the war, earning him a promotion to Captain General. In reality, it
was largely the personal initiative of Jos de Zayas that defeated the French assault and very
likely saved the allied army from destruction." (- wikipedia.org 2009)
The opinions on the quality of the Spanish troops varies from author to author. Gates writes,
"... irrespective of the quality of their men, the Spanish armies constituted a threat that the
French quite simply could not ignore. Any sizeable concentration of enemy soldiers had to be
engaged, or at least contained, by a sufficiently strong force of Imperial troops; otherwise they
were free to go on the rampage with impunity. Consequently, a collosal percentage of the
French army' was rendered unavailable for operations against Wellington because
innumerable Spanish contingents kept materialising all over the country. ( Gates - "The Spanish
Ulcer")
For some Polish officers the Spanish soldiers were brave but poorly led by their officers.
For Officer de Rocca of French 2nd Hussar Regiment "The Spaniards were a religious and
warlike
but not a military people ..."
The militia was generally of poor quality, but some regulars were fine troops. For example on
29 October "The First Regiment of Catalonia ... received the attack with the greatest coolness
and kept up a very regular fire by platoons, maintaining their position against an enemy
nearly 5 times their number ... The most veteran troops could not possibly have displayed
more soldeirlike firmness or more sangfroid in action ..." (- W.Parker Carroll to Castlereagh,
November 1808)
William Napier in "History of the War in Peninsula" writes that the Spaniards "being divided
in corps, under different generals of equal authority, they could execute no combined
movement with rapidity or precision, nor under any circumstances could they unite more than
40,000 men at any given point... The generals had lost nothing of their presumption, learnt
nothing of war ... " and "Her [Spain] efforts were amongst the very smallest causes of his
[Napoleon] failure. Portugal has far greater claims to that glory."
Spanish soldiers, picture by Funcken:
5 - Soldier of the Regiment of Fernando VII,
1808
8 -Soldier of light infantry, 1805
(Lilianne et Fred Funcken - "The Napoleonic
Wars: The French Garde Imperiale, the Armies
of the German Duchies, Switzerland, Italy,
Spain, Poland" , Arms and Uniforms, Part 2)
.
IV (ANDALUCIAN) ARMY CORPS
Commander-in-Chief: Gen. Don Joaquin Blake
Chief-of-Staff: Adj.Gen. Burriel
Chief-of-Artillery: Ltn.Col. Savaria
Chief-of-Engineers: Ltn.Col. de Ribacoba
Advance Guard Division: de Lardizabal
- - - - - - Murcia Regiment
- - - - - - Canarias Regiment
- - - - - - 2nd de Leon Regiment
- - - - - - Campo Mayor Regiment
- - - - - - Cazadores Reunidos
3rd Infantry Division: Gen. Ballasteros
- - - - - - 1st Voluntarios de Cataluna
- - - - - - Voluntarios de Barbastro
- - - - - - Pravia Regiment
- - - - - - Lena Regiment
- - - - - - Castropol Regiment
- - - - - - Cangas de Tineo Regiment
- - - - - - Infiesto Regiment
4th Infantry Division: de Zayas
Chief-of-Staff: de la Roca
1st Brigade: Brig. de la Cruz Mourgeon
- - - - - - 2nd Reales Guardias Espanoles
- - - - - - 4th Reales Guardias Espanoles
- - - - - - Irlanda Regiment
- - - - - - Voluntarios de la Patria
2nd Brigade: Brig. Polo
- - - - - - Imperiales de Toledo Regiment
- - - - - - Legion Extrangera
- - - - - - Ciudad Rodrigo Regiment
- - - - - - Reales Guardias Walons Regiment
- - - - - - Zapadores
Cavalry Division: Brig. Loy
- - - - - - Grenaderos [24 officers and 260 other ranks in 1 squadron]
- - - - - - Escadron de Instruccion [12 officers and 120 other ranks in 1 squadron]
- - - - - - Provisional de Santiago
- - - - - - Husares de Castilla
FIFTH (EXTREMADURAN) ARMY
Commander-in-Chief: Gen. de Castanos
Chief-of-Staff: de la Carrera
Chief-of-Artillery: Brig. Paredes
Chief-of-Engineers: Puella
1st Infantry Division: Brig. de Espana
- - - - - - Zapadores (1 company)
- - - - - - Guias
- - - - - - Rey Regiment
- - - - - - Zamora Regiment
- - - - - - Voluntarios de Navarra
Cavalry Division: Brig. Count Penne-Villemur
- - - - - - Carabineros Reales
- - - - - - Reina Regiment (20 officers and 118 other ranks)
- - - - - - Borbon Regiment
- - - - - - Lusitania Regiment
- - - - - - Algarve Regiment (13 officers and 88 other ranks)
- - - - - - Husares d'Extremadura (12 officers and 80 other ranks)
- - - - - - Cazadores de Sevilla
Artillery under Col. Miranda (6 x 4pdrs, 4 officers and 58 other ranks)
~
Marshal Soult and his army.
For several years he carried on this unhappy war in Spain
- now pursuing, and now retreating - until after the
disastrous issue of the Russian campaign, when he was called
by Napoleon in 1813 to support his falling empire in the north.
The French infantry at Albuera consisted
of line and light regiments. In 1803 the
French army had 89 regiments of line
infantry, numbered 1st-112th, and 26
regiments of light infantry, numbered 1st-
30th. New regiments were formed of
French, Dutch, Belgians, Italians and other
nationalities.
French infantry (line and light) was armed
with musket and bayonet. The basic
tacical formation was battalion. Battalion
consisted of six companies, each of 90-140
men.
The light
infantrymen
usually formed
the advance
guards and
scouting parties.
This kind of
service had
fostered the soldier's intelligence and
independent judgement. Although they were shorter men than the line infantrymen, they
were more agile and better marksmen.
Unfortunately Marshal Soult used them as if they were line infantry, in heavy and deep
columns.
The French cavalry at Albuera was represented by dragoons, chasseurs, hussars, and (Polish)
lancers. While the dragoons were the heaviest cavalry (helmets, long sabers, and stronger
horses), the hussars and lancers were the best horsemen and swordsmen.
The French army at Albuera was commanded by Marshal Soult.
Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult was born in 1769. He was well-educated, and intended for the
bar, but his father's death made it necessary for him to seek his fortune, and he enlisted as a
private in the French infantry in 1785. Soult served with distinction in Germany and Italy. He
was wounded and taken prisoner by the Austrians at Monte Cretto on April 13, 1800.
Bonaparte's victory at Marengo restored his freedom. Though he was one of those generals
who had served under Moreau, and who therefore disliked Napoleon, Soult had the wisdom
to show his devotion to the ruling power; in consequence he was in August 1803 appointed to
the command-in-chief of the famous Camp of Boulogne, and in May 1804 he was made one of
the first marshals.
In Boulogne Camp, under Napoleon's eye, he commenced a course of discipline to which
French soldiers had rarely before been subject. Soult's corps was superbly trained and
disciplined. He was nicknamed the Hand of Iron. But when on his own, in Spain, Soult's army
plundered many cities. Soult himself was a quiet and skillful looter.
Soult performed very well as corps commander and under Napoleon's direct control
(Austerlitz, Jena, Eylau, Heilsberg). Napoleon complimented him after Austerlitz, and even
called Soult "the finest tactician in Europe." Why Soult so successful in corps command, failed
when given an independent army command ? For several years he carried on this unhappy
war in Spain - now pursuing, and now retreating - until after the disastrous issue of the
Russian campaign, when he was called by Napoleon in 1813 to support his falling empire in
the north. After Lutzen and Bautzen he was again in Peninsula.
During the Waterloo Campaign in 1815 Soult served as a chief-of-staff. The new chief-of-staff
however was not made for staff work at all. There was chaos and delays on the roads, and the
staff work was poorly organized. The new chief-of-staff, Marshal Soult, was not made for staff
work. In Charleroi there was a massive pile-up of vehicles and such disorder near the bridge
that the military police were unable to overcome.
Marshal Soult, the Duke of Dalmatia
(corrupted to Duke of Damnation by
the British troops in Peninsula :-)
Abbreviation of French ranks:
Col. = Colonel
Mjr. = Major
----------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------
-----
.
Commander-in-Chief of the Army: MdE Soult
Chief-of-Staff: GdD Gazan
Chief-of-Artillery: GdB Ruty
Chief-of-Engineers: GdD Lery
Gendarmerie: Col. Mathis
.
V CORPS
Commander: GdD Girard
Napoleon remarked that Girard was "one of the most intrepid
soldiers in the French army" who displayed the 'sacred fire'
of a warrior. But he had his limitations as tactician. In 1813
Girard and his corps were routed by Prussian Landwehr and
Russian Cossacks at Hagelberg.
1st Infantry Division: GdD Girard
1st Brigade: GdB Brayer
- - - - - - 34th Line Infantry Regiment [2 battalions + detachment of one battalion]
2nd Brigade: GdB Veilande
- - - - - - 19th Company/6th Foot Artillery Regiment
- - - - - - 11th Company/6th Foot Artillery Regiment [part]
2nd Infantry Division: GdB Pepin
1st Brigade: GdB Pepin
- - - - - - 21st Light Infantry Regiment [2 battalions]
- - - - - - 100th Line Infantry Regiment [2 battalions]
2nd Brigade: GdB Maransin
- - - - - - 28th Light Infantry Regiment [3 battalions]
- - - - - - 103rd Line Infantry Regiment [3 battalions]
Corps Artillery
- - - - - - 4th Company/6th Horse Artillery Regiment [part]
Other Troops
First Independent Brigade: GdB Werle
Second Independent Brigade: GdD Godinot
- - - - - - 51st Line Infantry Regiment [1 battalion]
- - - - - - Combined Grenadiers under Col. Vare
- - - - - - [two companies from 8th, one company from 45th, 63rd, 95th, 4th Polish, and several other regiments]
CAVALRY CORPS
Commander: GdD Latour-Maubourg
Light Cavalry Brigade: GdB Briche
- - - - - - 2nd Hussar Regiment [305 men in 3 squadrons]
- - - - - - 10th Hussar Regiment [262 men in 3 squadrons]
- - - - - - 21st Horse Chasseur Regiment [256 men in 3 squadrons]
1st Dragoon Brigade: GdB Bron
- - - - - - 4th Dragoon Regiment [406 men in 2 squadrons]
2nd Dragoon Brigade: GdB Bouvier des Eclats
Other Troops
- - - - - - Vistula Uhlan Regiment [591 men in 4 squadrons]
- - - - - - 27th Horse Chasseur Regiment [431 men in 3 squadrons]
- - - - - - 4th Spanish Horse Chasseur Regiment [196 men in 2 squadrons]
- - - - - - 4th Company/6th Horse Artillery Regiment [part]
Reserve Artillery Park
- - - - - - 12th Company/1st Foot Artillery Regiment
- - - - - - 8th Company/7th Foot Artillery Regiment
- - - - - - 2nd Company/2nd Horse Artillery Regiment
- - - - - - 2nd Company/3rd Horse Artillery Regiment
- - - - - - 3rd Company/3rd Horse Artillery Regiment
- - - - - - 7th Company/4th Horse Artillery Regiment
~
Colborne and Konopka.
Commander of British infantry brigade
and commander of the Vistula Uhlans.
There were several generals and senior officers who distinguished themselves at Albuera.
General Zayas and the senior officers of several Spanish battalions (incl. the II and IV Btn. of
Reales Guardias), and most of the British commanders of infantry brigades (including Ltn.Col.
John Colborne) were among the best.
On the French side General Maransin and Colonels Praefke and Konopka, are our choice.
.
Ltn. Col. John Colborne.
He won every step in his regimental promotion
without purchase. At Waterloo Colborne took
part in the repulse of the French Middle Guard.
John Colborne entered the 20th Regiment of Foot in 1794 as an ensign. He won every step in
his regimental promotion without purchase. In 1799 Colborne participated in the Helder
expedition. He also took part in the expedition to Egypt in 1801.
Colborne distinguished himself at Maida (1806), and during the Corunna campaign. In 1809
He was again in the Peninsula and with the 66th Foot fought at Busaco and shared in the
defence of the Lines of Torres Vedras. He commanded the 1st Brigade of 2nd Infantry Division
at Albuera.
- - - - - - I Battalion / 3rd Regiment of Foot (27 officers and 728 other ranks) "The Buffs"
- - - - - - II Battalion / 31st Regiment of Foot (20 officers and 398 other ranks)
- - - - - - II Battalion / 48th Regiment of Foot (29 officers and 423 other ranks)
- - - - - - II Battalion / 66th Regiment of Foot (24 officers and 417 other ranks)
Colborne was severely wounded at Ciudad Rodrigo (1812). In 1813 he "was placed in
temporary charge of a brigade of the Light Division which he commanded in the battles of the
Nivelle, Orthez and Toulouse. For his services, he was awarded the Army Gold Cross with
three clasps." (- wikipedia.org)
John Colborne was associated with the 52nd Regiment of Foot. The 52nd became one of the
most celebrated British regiments, described by William Napier as "a regiment never
surpassed in arms since arms were first borne by men". (ext.link) In 1815 at Waterloo, Colborne
with the I Battalion of 52nd took part in the repulse of the French Middle Guard. (This
battalion was 1130 men strong and was not only the largest British battalion, it was larger than
any other such unit at Waterloo. The French battalion, on average, was only 520 men strong.)
Colborne was promoted to Major-General in 1825.
Colborne served as Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada from 1828 to 1836.
In 1843 he became the high commissioner of the Ionian Islands.
Colborne died in 1863 and was buried in the churchyard of Newton Ferrers, Devon.
.
Colonel Jan Konopka.
"A brave man with cold mind in combat."
In 1811 Napoleon made him the Chief Inspector
of Training for the newly formed French lancers.
Jan Konopka was born in 1777. He was the son of Anna, a distant relative of the Princes of
Conde. (ext.link) Konopka served in the Polish army since 1792. He took part in the Polish
Russian War of 1792 (War in Defence of the Constitution). After the war Konopka emigrated
to France and volunteered for the French army. In 1795 entered the ranks of the French 1st
Hussars. In 1797 he joined the Polish Legions in Italy (Legion of Lombardy) and took part in
the Legion's campaigns and battles. Between 1797 and 1802 Jan Konopka served in the
grenadier battalion of the Legion of Italy. In 1802 served in a cavalry as chef de escadron. In 1807
Konopka left Naples and returned to Poland where served as a major in Polish excellent 5th
Horse Chasseur Regiment. In October he was awarded the Cross of Legion d'Honneur
(ext.link) for the Battle of Friedland.
In 1807 Jan Konopka became the commander of the Vistula Uhlan Regiment.
In December 1808 he was awarded Comm. of Legion d'Honneur for the Battle of Tudela. After
the defeat at Jevennes (Ybenes) in March 1809, Konopka left his regiment in May. In the heat
of battle several wagons were left by the Poles on the side of the road. In one of them were
neatly packed all four colors of the regiment. Nobody defended the colors as the uhlans
assumed they were left in the depot !
Next months he spent in France. In August 1810 Konopka returned to his uhlan regiment.
In 1811, for the Battle of Albuera, Jan Konopka was promoted to the rank of French general de
brigade.
Napoleon made Konopka the Chief Inspector of Training for the newly formed French lancer
regiments.
Shortly, in 1812, Konopka commanded the Old Guard Lancer Regiment. This appointment
however was not well taken by many guardsmen. (The were proud warriors who already
enjoyed a great reputation in Napoleon's army. Most of them came from the gentry, were
literate, and their regiment had excellent battle record. And then came somebody from the
outside and took over the regiment. And on top of this he was bragging about his old
regiment's exploits. And by the way, most of the Vistula Uhlans were peasants.)
Thus in July 1812 Konopka received new command, this time over the newly formed 3rd
Young Guard Lancer Regiment. Unfortunately his regiment was destroyed by Cossacks and
Russian cavalry at Slonim and Konopka was taken prisoner. After being released from prison
in 1814 Konopka was offered the command of Polish cavalry brigade but he declined.
Exhausted by wounds and fatigue he died the same year in Warsaw.
I would say Konopka was a superb commander on the battlefield (Mallen, Talavera, Ciudad
Real, Tudela, Albuera) but not so good in small warfare. In 1809 the Spanish cavalry (incl. the
carabinier regiment) ambushed Konopka and his Vistula Uhlans at Jevennes (Ybenes). The
regiment lost all four colors to the Spaniards. In 1812 the Russian cavalry and Cossacks
ambushed and destroyed Konopka's regiment of 3rd Young Guard Lancers at Slonim. He was
taken prisoner.
IMHO he would make a perfect leader of medium cavalry rather than light outfit.
~
French feint attack.
Infantry struggle for the village of Albuera.
Cavalry combat.
Marshal Soult determined to make a feint attack on the village of Albuera in Allies' center,
whilst his main attack was to be directed against enemy's right flank. The French advance
guard arrived and drove allied skirmishers back across the Albuera Brook. Then General
Latour-Maubourg sent part of the Vistula Uhlan Regiment and several French squadrons
across the river.
Approx. 100 uhlans (four platoons) crossed the brook through the narrow
ford just south of the new bridge. In the first line was Sous-lieutenant
Rogajski's platoon (25 men) and Sous-lieutenant Wojciechowski's platoon
(25 men). The two platoons of flankers (horse skirmishers) were formed in
a skirmish chain. Behind them were two other platoons. Some distance
behind the uhlans deployed the French 4th Dragoon Regiment.
Near the village of Albuera stood infantry of the King's German Legion [KGL]. According to
the uhlans, the Germans watched them but not a single shot was fired. The Poles passed them
and moved toward the mass of British troops deployed on low hills. The two leading platoons
of horse skirmishers advanced uphill, while the two other platoons halted by the brook.
.
"Forward and charge,
Sir Granby, if you please."
General Long ordered Ltn. Col. Sir Granby Calcroft of the 3rd Dragoon Guards (370-374 men)
to meet the attackers: "Forward and charge, Sir Granby, if you please." (Ian Fletcher wrote that
General Long brought 3rd Dragoon Guards and 13th Light Dragoons. The Poles however
mention only one British regiment.) The 3rd Dragoon Guards was a fine unit. The dragoon
guards regiments took precedence over all other cavalry regiments of the line. The right to use
the 'Ich Dien' badge was granted to the 3rd Dragoon Guards in 1765, and subsequently
became their cap badge.
The dragoon leading squadron consisted of 120 men; and they were the first ones to clash with
the Poles (50 men). The combat was short and the dragoons broke and fled. Immediately the
remaining squadrons of 3rd Dragoon Guards attacked the uhlans. The Polish horse
skirmishers fled downhill.
Once the pursuers became disordered the uhlans slowed
down their "flight", halted, turned around and attacked the
disordered dragoons. The dragoons were driven uphill and
pursued until British infantry opened fire. The musketry
forced the uhlans to fall back. The Poles had suffered 16
killed and wounded (12 from infantry fire and only 2 from
dragoons), while the dragoons suffered at least 20
casualties (10 killed, 9 wounded, 1 missing). For this battle,
Rogoyski and Wojciechowski were awarded with Legion
d'Honneur. (Kirkor - "Legia Nadwislanska 1808-1814" p 298)
Meanwhile the mass of French cavalry (incl. the 4th
Dragoons), 10 horse guns, and the Vistula Uhlan Regiment, began moving against enemy's
flank. Thus Colonel Konopka recalled the four platoons of flankers so the regiment could fight
as one united force. The French cavalry crossed the brook using a second ford located a further
to the south. Once across, they halted between the two fords and formed regimental columns
in echelon separated by 'full intervals'. The horse guns that were placed in front of the cavalry
and began firing on the Allies.
.
The Green Rascals (Les Coquins Verts)
defended the village of Albuera.
While the uhlans and
dragoons enjoyed their
combat, seven battalions of
French infantry under
General Godinot reached
the brook and began their
first attack on the village.
Godinot's force consisted of
16th Light (49 officers and
1.624 other ranks in 3
battalions), 51st Line (1
battalion) and 55th Line (58
officers and 1.757 other
ranks in 3 battalions). Not
far from this force were
deployed the Combined
Grenadiers under Colonel
Vare.
Albuera was defended by two light battalions (I and II) of King's German Legion drawn from
von Alten's brigade. The French nicknamed them , the Green Rascals. They were known for
their marksmanship and their fighting ability. "The British supplied uniforms, weapons and
equipment, but some of the uniforms, especially that of the 1st Light Battalion, kept some very
Germanic influences. ... The 1st and 2nd Light Battalions took part in all the major British
campaigns between 1805 and 1815." (- website "History of the King's German Legion (UK)" By the
way, the II KGL Light Battalion defended the farm of La Haye Sainte located in the center of
Allies' position at Waterloo.
General Sir Carl von Alten (ext.link)
- - - - - - I KGL Light Battalion - 23 officers and 565 other ranks
- - - - - - II KGL Light Battalion - 19 officers and 491 other ranks
"Even that limited advance had the desired effect, however, as Beresford rose to the bait
offered by Soult and ordered more troops towards his centre. The first thing Beresford did was
to move Campbell's Portuguese brigade closer to the north side of the village. He then moved
Colborne's brigade closer to the south side: The fire becoming extremely warm at the village and
bridge, Sir William Beresford ordered forward our brigade to support the fatigued battalions of the
German Legion, who were gallantly defending those posts. [- from Brooke]
The marshal even brought forward two Spanish battalions from General Lardizabal's division,
the Campo Major Regiment and the combined light companies (Cazadores Reunidos) of all
the units in the division. These actions, of course, played right into the hands of the French:
Soult must have been much delighted on observing this movement: it, no doubt, was precisely what he
most wished ... [- from Leslie] (Dempsey - "Albuera 1811")
~
French main attack.
"Girard's flank march looks easy on paper, but it was
vastly complicated in practice and involved a delicate
orchestration of cavalry, infantry and artillery units."
- Guy Dempsey
At 9:00 AM mass of French infantry under General Girard moved against Beresford's right flank.
The first blue division had stopped by the stream. The commander of that division came up the hill
on a fine charger, trailed by a small cloud of aides and staff officers.
"After a quick breakfast, Girard and his whole staff led his men left off the Royal Road, then cross-
country through the edge of the woods on the French side of the river, his own first division in
front. They crossed the Nogales unseen by the allies, then used the high ground and woods on the
tongue of land between the Nogales and Chicapierna streams to conceal their approach as long as
possible. Finally, Girard reached the point where he could see the first objective for the attack, the
ford across the Chicapierna near where the track between Nogales and Albuera intersects with the
road between Albuera and Almendral. Having thus far avoided premature exposure of the plans,
the French were now ready to engage the enemy.
... Girard's flank march looks easy on paper, but it was vastly complicated in practice and involved
a delicate orchestration of cavalry, infantry and artillery units. Throughout the initial French
advance towards Albuera, there were some allied observers who remained unconvinced that this
was the main French attack. ... " (Dempsey - "Albuera 1811" page 103)
"The crossing of any watercourse, no matter how small, is a risky undertaking in the face of a
prepared enemy and the precautions taken by Soult to mitigate those risks demonstrate the
profesionalism of the French command. As soon as the men of V Corps approached the stream,
Latour-Maubourg sent the 2nd Hussars and the Vistula Legion Lancers (less the flankers already
engaged with the Abritish cavalry) rapidly south along the Almendral road to the ford to protect
the advancing troops.
These horsemen were joined shortly thereafter by Battalion Chief Supersac of the 40th Line with the
combined voltigeurs of the 34th and 40th Line Regiments (probably four companies, one from each
battalion present), who crossed the ford in skirmish order to establish an infantry perimeter on the
allied side of the stream. The remaining mass of Latour-Maubourg's cavalry then also galloped
south away from Albuera, turned west after the intended crossing point, climbed up over the ridge,
and took up a position in the plain behind it ..." (Dempsey - p 105)
Marshal
Beresfords asked
General Blake to
take some of his
Spanish troops
and place them
across the ridge
so as to block any
French attempt to
roll up the right
flank. Beresford
also moved the
British 2nd
Infantry Division
(incl. Colborne's
brigade) toward
the right to
strengthen the
Spanish positions.
Hamilton's
Portuguese
division was
ordered to occupy
the ground being
quitted by the
2nd Division,
while the Spanish
cavalry, the
British 3rd
Dragoon Guards,
half of the 4th
Dragoons, and
Lefebure's horse
battery were sent
even farther
south and east.
"... one of Blake's
aides rode up and
announced that
his general had
concluded that
the principal
attack of the
French 'was still
intended against
the village and
bridge' and that
he had decided to
'suspend' the
execution of
Beresford's orders
pending further clarification from the marshal. British historians (incl. in particular, Napier) have
charged Blake with arrogance and insubordination in resisting Beresford's orders ...
There is however a simpler explanation for Blake's actions - he was genuinely uncertain as to where
the French were headed. The French cavalry were certainly committed on the allied right flank, but
the French infantry had been disordered by the crossing of the Chicapierna and halted on the allied
side of the stream to dress their formation and await the arrival of the last units in the column of
march ...
During this delay, the French were formed on a road running from Albuera to Almendral and were
even better positioned for a sudden switch back towards Albuera than they were for further off-
road movement around the allied right flank. In addition, the French cavalry had already
demonstrated the feasibility of rapid movement across the front of the allied position. It was
consequently not unreasonable in light of that circumstances for General Blake to believe it would
be prudent to wait for the French to begin their next move before deciding the best way to commit
his own troops." (Dempsey - p 107)
.
"The French infantry
advanced with vigor."
The French attacking force, the fist, was made of two divisions, the 1st and 2nd Infantry.
1st Brigade: GdB Brayer
- - - - - - 34th Line (23 officers and 930 other ranks)
2nd Brigade: GdB Veilande
- - - - - - 64th Line (50 officers and 1.539 other ranks)
2nd Infantry Division
- - - - - - 21st Light (43 officers and 745 other ranks)
- - - - - - 28th Light (62 officers and 1.305 other ranks)
- - - - - - 103rd Line (38 officers and 1.252 other ranks)
Combined Grenadiers (33 officers and 1.000 other ranks)
Three companies of Spanish skirmishers drove off the first French voltigeurs. However, when more
voltigeurs arrived on the scene, followed by several infantry columns, the Spaniards quickly fell
back. General Girard rode with the front columns and could now observe increased troop activity
in the center of enemy's position. The intrepid general misinterpreted it as sign of an imminent
allied retreat.
"The formation used by the advancing French troops of V Corps has always been a subject of great
interest to students of Napoleonic tactics in the context of the long-standing discussion of the
respective combat merits of lines and columns of troops. The most relevant French sources are all
consistent in stating that Girard sent his men forward in columns, although the precise description
of the type of column used varies slightly from source to source.
Lapane says Girard used colonnes serrees par bataillons - closed columns by battalion. Soult refers to
Girard's colonnes d'attaque - attack columns. ... The definitive description, however, is that provided
by Brigade General Jean Maransin, one of the commanders involved in the attack: '... Girard's
division marched towards the enemy in attack columns, the second division was 150 paces behind
in attack columns by battalion.' "
(...)
"Notwithstanding the clarity and consistency in French sources concerning the formation used by
the French, an alternate view has held sway since 1909 when Professor Charles Oman (ext. link)
disclosed in a lecture that he had discovered a report about Albuera in the French Army Archives
that, in his opinion, settled the question once and for all. Oman concluded that this report
demonstrated that the French had employed a mixed tactical formation (ordre mixte) that combined
some battalions in line with other battalions in column ... All subsequent British authors (incl.
Fortescue and Brigadier B.P. Hughes in his book Firepower) have relied on this information without
further inquiry to advance their own treatments and analyses of the battle.
Their reliance is certainly understandable given Professor Oman's well-deserved reputation as a
careful historian but, in this one case at least, it is misplaced because the document simply doesn
not contain the information described by Oman. It is indeed a post-battle analysis of the action
written by someone second-guessing the decisions made by Soult and his generals ... As a result of
this mistake by Oman, Albuera has long been considered as an exception to the general rule that
French armies in the Peninsula always fought in columns. In fact, the battle was not exceptional at
all in this regard.
The information about Girad's formation that is available from the French sources is, however,
incomplete in one important regard - it says nothing about the way in which the various French
battalions were aligned in relation to each other. [Note. James Arnold correctly concluded in an
article that Oman was mistaken about the formation adopted by V Corps, but he did so for the
wrong reason, expressing the opinion that the document in the French Army Archives was merely
a 'pre-battle order explaining the intended French dispositions to be used.' ...]
"The likeliest probability is that all the battalions of a single regiment were arrayed one behind the
other. It also seems likely that both regiments of a brigade would have been side-by-side with the
lower numbered regiment on the right (as a matter or precedence) and with enough room (approx.
the width of four companies) between the two regimental columns to allow the individual
battalions to deploy into lines if circumstances required. If all that was true at Albuera, and if the
generals of V Corps followed the 1808 decree, then Brayer's brigade would have been formed in
two regimental columns, each one consisting of 2 battalions in column arranged one behind the
other. Since the light companies of the regiments had been detached as skirmishers, each of these
battalion columns would have been one company wide." (Dempsey - pp 109-111)
James R. Arnold, "A Reappraisal of Column Versus Line in the Napoleonic Wars." ext. link.
.
Spanish thin line halted French columns.
The Spanish 4th Infantry Division was commanded by Zayas.
It consisted of several fine units.
1st Brigade: Brig. de la Cruz Mourgeon
- - - - - - II Reales Guardias (24 officers and 606 other ranks)
- - - - - - IV Reales Guardias (19 officers and 628 other ranks)
- - - - - - Irlanda (41 officers and 708 other ranks)
- - - - - - Voluntarios de la Patria (28 officers and 566 other
ranks)
2nd Brigade: Brig. Polo
- - - - - - Imperiales de Toledo
- - - - - - Legion Extrangera
- - - - - - Ciudad Rodrigo
- - - - - - Reales Guardias Walons
- - - - - - Zapadores
On Zayas' left flank stood the Murcia Regiment (49 officers
and 657 other ranks) and the Canarias (13 officers and 420
other ranks).
The Spanish infantry and artillery opened fire, not only from Zayas' men directly in front of them,
but also from the troops of Ballesteros and Lardizabal shooting at the French right flank. The French
artillery became as busy as their Spanish counterparts. Spanish ammunition caisson was blown up
by a French grenade making a tremendous noise. It quieted the Spanish artillery but only for a
moment.
The leading French columns were shattered by musket and artillery fire. In this situation the
columns lost their impetus and yet were also unable to reply properly with their muskets as they
sought to form line. In the few minutes approx. 400 men of Brayer's brigade had been killed or
wounded. General Veilande moved his battalions into the spaces alongside Brayer's battalions.
Veilande's men however could not overcome the inertia created by the appaling casualties and also
deployed from columns nto lines.
-
Note: The positions of the French and Allied artillery are not included.
The few Spanish pieces were probably deployed in front of the Guards.
-
British brigade joined the Spaniards.
Meanwhile Stewart's 2nd Division was moving to
the right flank to support the Spaniards. General
Stewart formed three brigades of his division into
open company columns for the move.
"This formation was similar to the columns used by
Girard's troops, but was only one company wide
and had longer intervals between the companies in
each battalion column. Once commenced, the movement was hampered by the same heavy rain that
had hit the French ... The British troops travelled along the track on the reverse slope of the original
allied position and came under fire much sooner than they expected. ... The accuracy of their
gunnery can be judged by the remarks of Ensign Benjamin Hobhouse of the 57th Foot: 'During our
advance in column the incessant and well-directed fire of the French artillery mowed down many
of our poor fellows.'"(Dempsey - p 117)
The British batalion column was It was a deep formation, with all 10 companies lined up one behind
the other, like rungs on a ladder. It was the best formation for waiting troops, but it certainly wasn't
suitable for withstanding artillery fire. Majority of British eyewitness accounts from Waterloo
confirm that the infantry massed on the high ground beyond Hougoumont came under French
artillery fire from the very first moment and suffered a steady attrition that gradually began to wear
on the men's nerves.
The British battalion column was always formed with a frontage of one company. With a column at
open distance the gaps between the rear rank of the leading company and the rear rank of the next
one was the same as the company frontage; say 20-25 m. A column at half distance had gaps of 10-
12.5 m, at quarter distance 5 m and in the close column the men were virtually treading on each
other's heels.
British battalion formed in column.
It was used for movement or for waiting
to enter into contact with the enemy.
Gren.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Light
- - - - - - I / 3rd Foot (27 officers and 728 other ranks)
- - - - - - II / 31st Foot (20 officers and 398 other ranks)
- - - - - - II / 48th Foot (29 officers and 423 other ranks)
Colborne's brigade arrived on the right flank at 11 AM. Now it turned from bad to worse for the
French. The British musketry subjected the French to a demoralising crossfire. Ltn. Madden of the
4th Dragoons writes "The French being strongly supported stood firm, and a more awful scene was
never witnessed; it was a perfect carnage on both sides, bayonet against bayonet for nearly half an
hour."
Major Brooke of the II/48th wrote: 'Finding these [French] columns were not to be shaken by fire,
the three leading battalions of the brigade prepared to charge with the bayonet, by order of Major
General the Hon. William Stewart, who led them on in person to the attack in the most gallant
manner."
The British however halted their further advance because they noticed that the right hand French
column was working its way into the rear of the brigade. Furthermore, most of the "demoralised"
and "routed" French units rallied and returned to the fight despite being outflanked.
Positions of artillery and cavalry are not included in this diagram.
One rectangle = 70-80 men . This means that , for example , the
II/48th Foot (452 men in 10 companies) will have six rectangles.
~
The phenomenal charge of the Vistula Uhlans.
The Spaniards met the Vistula Uhlans in several engagements and called them
"Los Diablos Polacos" (The Devils Poles) or Picadors of the Hell.
Now it was the right time for the Devils to introduce themselves to the British.
When the 'Polanders' appeared, "armed with lances which they handled
with great dexterity" the British unit's cohesion disintegrated.
The Vistula Uhlans were mostly seasoned veterans, commanded by Colonel Jan Konopka.
They rode on Polish chestnuts and bays, excellent mounts for light cavalry. There were also
some French and captured horses. The Vistula Uhlan Regiment consisted of 4 squadrons (four
platoons each). Although it was a lancer regiment only the front rank was armed with lances.
All uhlans carried sabers.
The 590 men of Konopka's regiment, followed by 305 men of the French 2nd Hussars, made
straight for the British brigade commanded by Colborne. This brilliant movement was as
unexpected by, as it was unwelcome to the enemy. The British battalions were deployed in a
line 2 or 4 ranks deep, but not a square. Infantry formed in line or column (not in square) was
the most welcomed sight for the charging cavalry. The line was attacked from one or both
flanks where the musket fire was the weakest. In vast majority of cases the infantry was
routed, and the men chopped, cut to pieces, annihilated etc. For more info read our article
"Cavalry versus infantry not formed in square."
.
"Over the ground strewn with dead
and wounded rode the "Devils Poles".
The French hussars and the
Poles (see picture, author ?)
sped up uphill with their
lance-pennons swinging in
the air. They lowered their
lances before a thunderous
volley greeted them. The
shock was irresistible, and
the redcoats fled before the
charging ranks in a
tumultuous throngs. The
lances pierced their clothes, the men clapped their hands to their saber-cut faces, blood oozing.
Captain Gordon writes, "I was stabbed at the time with a pike in the breast, in the back, and
elsewhere, and the enemy's cavalry galloped over me."
The Poles went with such a right good cheer, bang through the infantrymen, and cut right and
left like sheep. The men of the II/31st Foot found themselves under assault. One of the uhlans
spurred his horse, caught up with the flag-bearer, exchanged a few strokes with him, and
having split his opponent's head open, triumphantly took possesion of this war trophy.
Captain Vincent Konopka, the brother of the colonel, was apparently the individual who rode
off in triumph with the colours of the 3rd Foot.
The next battalion to be overrun by the Poles and French was the II/48th Foot. They had more
time to react to the charge but "once again, the British were unable to muster any organised
resistance." ( Dempsey - p 132) Ltn. Close of II/48th Foot writes, "... their cavalry ... rode
through us in every direction, cutting down the few that remained on their legs. There was
nothing left for it but to run. In my flight I was knocked down by some fugitive like myself,
who, I suppose, was struck by a shot."
Both colors of the II/48th were captured, with the king's color being carried off by NCO
d'Aumont of the French 10th Hussars.
The French cavalry then attacked the II/66th (or Brkshire) Regiment of Foot, with much the
same result. "When the 'Polanders' appeared, 'armed with lances which they handled with
great dexterity.' the unit's cohesion disintegrated. Of this moment, Ltn George Crompton
wrote, "It was then that our men began to waver, and for the first time (and God knows I hope
the last) I saw the backs of English soldiers turned upon the French."
Ltn. Clarke wrote, "... at this moment a crowd of Polish Lancers and Chasseurs-a-Cheval
swept along the rear of the brigade; our men now ran into groups of 6 or 8, to do as best as
they could; the officers snatched up muskets and joined them, determined to sell their lives
dearly. Quarter was not asked, and rarely given.
Poor Colonel [sic] Waller ... was cut down close to me; he put up his hands asking for quarter,
but the ruffian cut his fingers off. My Ensign, Hay, was run through the lungs by a lance which
came out of his back; he fell, but got up again. The lancer delivered another thrust, the lance
striking Hay's breat-bone; down he went, and the Pole rolled over in mud beside him ... "
This attack delivered and completed within the brief space of several minutes, entirely
demoralised the British brigade.Scattered groups of panicked redcoats either surrendered, ran
for safety, or fought to their death. The confusion was riotous - whinnying horses, screaming
soldiers, raised lances, cracking muskets, the battlefield was a cacophony of violent sounds.
The redcoats seemed to become totally disintegrated. They threw down their arms, stripped
themselves of their belts and ran to the rear.
Guy Dempsey writes, "If discipline is the glue which makes a mob into an efficient fighting
force, fear is the solvent which can reverse the responses to their predicament. The men of
Colborne's brigade seem to have had three primary responses to their predicament.
Many, perhaps most, fled for their lives, with or withour their weapons.
Others banded together in clusters with bayonets facing outward, hoping
to achieve a semblance of the solidity of the prescribed square formation by
a sheer mass of bodies.
A last group simply surrendered, attempting to avoid their extraordinary
peril by formally declaring themselves vanquished. ...
The Buffs took the brunt of the charge and were for all immediate practical purposes ,
annihilated as an efficient fighting force: "The soldiers lost all presence of mind, broke, and
fled in every direction. The French cutting them down and showing no quarter at the moment.
... The term 'shock tactics' merely hints at the stupendous physical and psychological mayhem
wreaked by a galloping half ton of horseflesh bearing a hostile, heavily armed rider into a
mass of men on foot." ( Dempsey - p 129)
Horse Battery of KGL under Cleeves was also attacked by the cavalry. Cleeves wrote that the
cavalry "... turned us, and cut and piked the gunners of the right division down. The left
division limbered up, and both guns would have been saved; but the shaft horses of the right
gun were wounded, and came down, and the leading driver of the left gun got shot from his
horse. Corporal Heinrich Fincke had presence of mind enough to quit his horse, to replace the
driver, and then galloped boldly through the enemy's cavalry; his own horse, which ran
alongside of him ... At this moment I was made prisoner, but had the luck to escape unhurt.
Two guns were nearly immediately retaken; but the howitzer was carried off." The men of the
10th Hussars however were unable to carry off the other 2 guns because camp followers
swarmed onto the field cut the harness of the horses and led them to the rear.
Battle of Albuera by William B. Wollen.
The uhlans finishing off the Buffs.
.
"Incomprehensible valour"
of the British infantry.
By now some French dragoons joined the hussars and lancers in their charge.
The fight for the colors was dramatic and bloody. Joseph Carpue writes, "... in attempting to
seize the colour [from Ensign Charles Walsh], he [Ltn. Latham] lost an arm by a sabre cut. Still
persevering, he tore the colour from the staff, but not before he received 5 wounds, one of
which took off part of his cheek and nose.
One of the lancers charged through the others, and, with his lance, hit him with such force in
the groin, as to throw him to the distance of some yards, almost in a state of insensibility, but
still with the color in his possession." (!)
It is worth mentioning that not only during the charge most of the redcoats behaved gallantly.
The 57th Regiment of Foot earned their nickname of "the Die Hards" after their participation in
the hellish firefight between Hoghton's and Maransin's brigades. The commanding officer of
the 57th Foot, Inglis, was struck down but refused to be carried to the rear for treatment. "He
lay in front of his men calling on them to hold their position and when the fight reached its
fiercest cried, "Die hard the 57th, die hard!". The casualties of the 57th were 422 out of the 570
men in the ranks and 20 out of the 30 officers. The Allied commander of the Anglo-Portuguese
force Field Marshal Beresford wrote in his dispatch, "our dead, particularly the 57th Regiment,
were lying as they fought in the ranks, every wound in front". (- wikipedia.org 2010)
.
The 'heat of battle' led to
some despicable behaviour.
It was a carnage. In the heat of the fight some of the infantrymen
who signaled to surrender were killed. There is no doubt that the
death-roll of the furious charge was increased by the spearing of
armed and unarmed, or attempting to flee. After battle the British
refused to provide the few badly wounded uhlans with medical
treatment in a petty act of revenge. (Cavalrymen were no angels
no matter what is their nationality. In 1815 at Waterloo, the British
dragoons sabered men of French 45th and 105th Line Infantry
even though many of them had thrown down their weapons and
surrendered. Captain Martin of 45th Line writes: "They even cut
the boys who served as our pipers and drummers."
During the battle of Aspern-Essling in 1809 Napoleon's Young
Guard suffered very heavy casulaties. They were so enraged at the
heavy losses that they bayoneted the wounded Austrian
grenadiers.)
Ltn. Woods writes, "... a number of hussars came upon us and
rode me and the 4 men all down together. Before I could get up, a
French officer came [and], I called out in French 'I am an English officer.' The scoundrel made
no reply, but spurred his horse violently to get him over me. He was followed by several
[French] dragoons, and I was trampled upon and bruised in several places, but not half so
severely as I expected. I got up as soon as I could, and was cut at by two dragoons in all
directions."
One British participant of the battle wrote: "I was knocked down by a horseman with his
lance. which luckily did me no serious injury. In getting up I received a lance in my hip, and
shortly after another in my knee, which slightly grazed me. I then rose, when a [French]
soldier hurried me to the rear a few yards, striking me on the side of my head with his lance.
He left, and soon another came up, who would have killed me had not a French officer came
up, and giving the fellow a blow told the fellow to spare the English [prisoners], and to go on
and do his duty against ... [the rest] of my unfortunate comrades. This officer conducted me to
the rear of the French lines and here, the sight that met the eye was dreadful ! Many dead,
where the column had stood, heaped on each other; the wounded crying out for assitance and
human blood flowing down the hill !
I came to where the baggage was where I found a vast number on my own regiment . . .
Here then I offered my most fervent thanks to Heaven for having escaped to safe."
Guy Dempsey explains the situation, "The extreme casualties inflicted by the French may have
been caused in part by the difficulty they had in distinguishing between those soldiers who
were still resisting or fleeing capture and those who had already given up the fight and were
trying to surrender. It also seems, however, that the proverbial 'heat of battle' led to some
despicable behaviour such as the experience of Major Brooke of the II/48th Foot. ... "I was an
instance of their inhumanity: after having been most severely wounded in the head, and
plundered of everything that I had about me, I was being led as a prisoner between two
French infantry soldiers, when one of these Lancers rode up, and deliberately cut me down.
Then, taking the skirts of my regimental coat, he endeavoured to pull it over my head. Not
satisfied with this brutality, the wretch tried by every means in his power to make his horse
trample on me, by dragging me along the ground and wheeling his horse over my body." (
Dempsey - p 133)
The Picadors of the Hell.
"Some of the most feared cavalry in Napoleon's armies
were the Polish lancers of the Vistula Uhlans."
(- wikipedia.org 2007)
.
"I was left alone to run the gauntlet
as well as I could." - Lieutenant Light
The charge of Spanish and British cavalry.
Lumley sent 4 squadrons to Colborne's rescue. Two squadrons were Spanish and two were
from the British 4th Dragoons. The Poles and Frenchmen spurred forward, like whirlwinds,
against the enemy. Napier described what happened next. "That Penne Villemu's cavalry fled
in a shameful manner, the following statement by Colonel Light proves: 'Afetr our brigades of
infantry first engaged were repulsed, I was desired by General d'Urban to tell the Count de
Penne Villemur to charge the lancers, and we all started, as I thought, to do the thing well;
but when within a few paces of the enemy, the whole pulled up, there was no getting them
farther, and in a few moments after I was left alone to run the gauntlet as well as I could.'
(Napier - "History of the War in the Peninsula 1807-1814" Vol V, p 319)
The British 4th Dragoons charged home but
paid heavy price for their decision. "Two British
dragoon sqadrons who tried to pursue them
(Polish and French horsemen) were
overthrown, losing their commanding officers
and several men." (Gates - "The Spanish Ulcer" p
259)
Madden gives more details, "The charge of our
right wing was made against a brigade of Polish
cavalry, very large men, well-mounted; the
front rank armed with long spears, with flags
on them, which they flourish about, so as to
frighten our horses, and thence either pulled
our men off their horses or ran them through.
They were perfect barbarians ... two captains and one lieutenant taken and one captain and
one lieutenant severely wounded, with a great proportion of men and horses killed and
wounded."
(Note: by exaggerating some things Madden is making an excuse for the defeat of his
regiment. It was not a brigade of cavalry but a regiment. They were not "large men, well-
mounted", they were light cavalry, average men mounted on not very impresisve looking but
agile horses. The dragoons simply folded.)
The dragoons fled "faster than they arrived," as it is stated in British report.
The British and Spanish cavalry however managed to drive back some of the French
horsemen. The combat however was sharp and not one sided, and Capt. Poitiers of 2nd
Hussars claimed to have killed three dragoons himself.
.
Friendly fire.
So impetuously did the Poles and the French charged that some 30-40 men rode right down
the rear of Zayas line. Hoghtons brigade, with the 57th Regiment of Foot in the centre, the
Die Hards, was just coming up, and by opening fire on the uhlans shot many of Zayas brave
Spaniards in the back. The redcoats were checked in time, and the Spaniards, undisturbed by
such a disaster, maintained their fight till ordered to retire.
William Napier mentions the unfortunate friendly fire in his interesting book. He writes, "I
supposed the mutual firing between a British and Spanish regiment happened when the
Fusiliers were mounting the hill. I had understood Colonel Robert Arbuthnot so, and that he
rode between both parties; the writer of the Strictures says he has Sir Robert's letter
contradicting the fact. Nevertheless, that such an event did take place at one period of this
battle, is proved by the contradictory evidence as to which party fired upon the other." (Napier
- "History of the War in the Peninsula 1807-1814" Vol V, p 319)
"... the 29th Foot who, rather unwisely, began firing on the dispersed lancers: most of the shots
passing the horsemen harmlessly by and striking the rear ranks of Zayas' formation instead.
Nevertheless, the pertinacious Spaniards stood their ground and almost certainly saved
Beresford from disaster." (Gates - "The Spanish Ulcer" p 259)
.
The end of the great cavalry charge.
Allied Commander-in-Chief, Marshal Beresford and
his staff officers were attacked. Stewart and Colborne
and their staff officers scattered, while some of the
Spanish and Portuguese officers were chassed off
the battlefield.
General Stewart, Colonel John Colborn, and their staff officers were horrified by the
developments. Stewart responded to the disaster saying "It is of no use getlemen, we must
make the best of our way. Then they all scattered by outrunning some of the French and
Polish cavalrymen. Also some Spanish and Portugese officers were chassed off the battlefield.
By this point, the Vistula Uhlans and the French hussars and dragoons were in some disarray,
with squadrons intermingled and horses and men starting to show the effects of exertion.
Most of the horsemen fell back to regroup. According to some sources Latour-Maubourg
ordered the exhausted Poles to charge one more time, now against Cole's British Division and
Portuguese infantry. Others however claim that there was no more charges from the uhlans,
and only single horsemen rode to the infantry squares and brandished their lances as if in
defiance, before slowly falling back.
Few uhlans however engaged Marshal Beresford, the commander-in-chief of the Allied army,
and several senior Spanish and Portuguese officers in hand-to-hand combat.
"General Zayas' ADC von Schepeler first became aware of the threat when he received a lance
thrust in the back that, fortunately, was too weak to do him any serious harm. His staff
colleague, Ltn. Col. Oppen ... unhorsed a lancer and when Brigadier de Espana prepared to
strike the dismounted man, Oppen chivalrously prevented the general from doing so. It was
probably also at this time that Grenadier Juan Pastor of the II Battalion of Royal Spanish
Guards earned a mention in Gen. Zayas report by unhorsing a lancer who attacked him.
Another Pole made straight for Marshal Beresford. [See
picture -->]
The allied leader could have been killed or disabled,
but the Pole had not reckoned on the physicall prowess
of his adversary ..."
Another Pole who attacked the rest of Beresford's staff
about the same time proved even harder to overcome: 'A
lieutenant of these Polish heroes upset and discomfitted
the whole of the Portuguse staff. he charged one, knocked another with the butt of his lance
overset and 3rd and in short the DQM [deputy quartermaster ?] who had neither the nerve
nor the force of the Marshal had great difficulty in dispatching him. They swear he bit the
ground and was a very devil.'
The few remaining lancers scattered after this last effort and one of the most successful
cavalry charges of the entire Napoleonic era finally came to an end. From start to finish, it had
probably lasted no more than 20 minutes." ( Dempsey - p 142)
Picture: Beresford attacked by an uhlan at Albuera.
Unfortunately almost everything about this uhlan's
uniform is wrong.
.
"Comrades, don't give up ! Vive l'Empereur !"
The uhlans triumphantly shook the captured British Colors
and the French infantrymen loudly applauded them.
Finally Latour Maubourg's cavalry began the great movement which should have taken place
earlier. Now it was however too late and the momentum was lost. French dragoons charged
the British Division (I,II/7th "Royal Fusiliers", I/23rd "Welsh Fusiliers" and the I and II
battalion of light inf. of KGL) commanded by Major-General Galbraith Lowry Cole. Four
battalions of Portuguese infantry were also attacked. The fresh infantry however delivered
several volleys and repulsed the mass of dragoons.
Meanwhile the uhlans, with the help of French infantry and cavalry, collected the prisoners
and took them to the rear. The Poles while passing the disheartened French infantry shouted,
"Comrades, don't give up ! Vive l'Empereur! Vive l'Empereur!" They triumphantly shook the
captured standards and the French loudly applauded them.
Vistula Uhlan at Albuera 1811 .
Picture by one of our visitors.
Although this is not 100 % correct
(historically) this is a nice picture.
~
British Die Hards - vs - French Die Hards.
"The proverbial 'hail of lead' unleashed by the British staggered Maransin's troops,
but the French were able to respond with a 'most overwhelming fire of artillery and
small arms' of their own. This return fire felled both General Hoghton and his horse"
- Guy Dempsey
At this point the situation was difficult for both sides. The entire British infantry brigade was
destroyed and the flank of the allied army was under heavy pressure. The French however
had their own problems. Girard's 1st Division suffered heavy casualties from Zayas' and
Colborne's infantry and then was further disorganised by the task of taking prisoner the
British infantry fleeing the cavalry attack. Girard's disvision was either withdrawn or was
slowly falling back on its support when the next French division, the 2nd, came and resumed
the fight.
Meanwhile Marshal Beresford made plans to substitute the 2nd British Division for Zayas'
Spanish Division. The Spanish Guards however were intent on keeping up the fight with the
French. They left their position only after some pressure from their British allies. Now it was
the 2nd British Division and some Spanish units versus the 2nd French Division and the
Combined Grenadiers.
2nd British Infantry Division: Gen. Stewart
1st Brigade: Ltn. Col. Colborne DESTROYED
2nd Brigade: Ltn.Col. Abercromby
3rd Brigade: Mjr.Gen. Hoghton
- - - - - - 29th Foot (31 officers and 476 other ranks)
- - - - - - I / 48th Foot (33 officers and 464 other ranks)
- - - - - - I / 57th Foot (31 officers and 616 other ranks)
All the British units above were of good quality. Some had more veterans in their ranks than
others. For example, the great majority of men of the 57th Foot were veterans of 6 years of
military service. (They could easily qualify for the French Middle Guard.) Two-third of them
were Englishmen and one-third were Irish.
2nd French Infantry Division: GdB Pepin
- - - - - - 21st Light (43 officers and 745 other ranks)
- - - - - - 28th Light (62 officers and 1 305 other ranks)
- - - - - - 103rd Line (38 officers and 1 252 other ranks)
Although the four regiments were not the best of the French infantry they were
solid units. The 21st Light won two battle honors, the 100th Line won three,
and the 28th Light two.
On the flank of the British 2nd Division were 2 or 3 Spanish battalions (1,300-
1,800 men). On the flank of the French 2nd Division stood the Combined
Grenadiers (1,033 men). It gives total of approx. 5,200 Frenchmen versus 4,500-5,050 British
and Spanish infantrymen.
Both sides were supported with artillery. Ltn. "Unger reported that Hoghton's brigade was
supported by 2 guns of unspecified calibre while Abercromby's men were accompanied by 4
9-pounders." I don't know if there were any Spanish guns involved in this fight. The French
had probably several pieces of artillery more than the Allies.
.
Bloody stalemate.
"The courageous behaviour of Colonel Praefke
suggests that his regiment could claim to be
the 'Die Hards' of the French army." -Guy Dempsey
The brave General Maransin took charge of both brigades of the 2nd Infantry Division. First
they had to pass through Girard's 1st Division. "Placing himself in the centre of the line, he
delivered a short address to the carabiniers of the 28th Light who were near him and ordered
them to fix bayonets; they greeted his words with cheers that seemed to presage victory.
Girard's division had just recoiled through the intervals in the second division and already the
enemy was pressing forward. Maransin ordered a charge which he led at the head of the
carabiniers of the 28th Light." [- from Cambon's Maransin pp 82-83] The 21st Light and 100th
Line moved up alongside Maransin's men.
"The proverbial 'hail of lead' unleashed by
the British staggered Maransin's troops,
but the French were able to respond with
a 'most overwhelming fire of artillery and
small arms' of their own. This return fire
felled both General Hoghton and his horse
..." ( Dempsey - p 147) Ensign Robert
Torrens, carrying the king's color of the
57th Foot was wounded and the flag
dropped to the ground. General Maransin
was struck down by a musketball and was
carried to the rear.
The commanding officer of the 57th Foot,
Inglis, was struck down but refused to be
carried to the rear for treatment. "He lay in
front of his men calling on them to hold
their position and when the fight reached
its fiercest cried, "Die hard the 57th, die
hard!". The casualties of the 57th were 422 out of the 570 men in the ranks and 20 out of the 30
officers. The Allied commander of the Anglo-Portuguese force Field Marshal Beresford wrote
in his dispatch, "our dead, particularly the 57th Regiment, were lying as they fought in the
ranks, every wound in front". (- wikipedia.org 2010)
The casualties on the French side were also heavy. Many of the generals and senior officers
who were mounted were put out of action in minutes. "The battalions deployed without
orders and this infantry, deprived of its officers, still had enough tenacity to fire almost all
their cartridges. They held their position until they were outflanked by a converging
movement by several enemy units." ( Dempsey - "Albuera 1811" p 159)
D'Heralde writes in his Memoires that Colonel Praefke "was mortally wounded and fell at the
head of his regiment; he raised himself to a sitting position and ordered his men not to budge.
His three battalion chiefs and three most senior captains were killed outright ... The men of the
regiment, faithful to the command of their dying colonel, kept firing and held their ground."
The fight between the 2nd British Division and the 2nd French Division involved not only
columns and lines. French voltigeurs were lying on the ground and using their shakos as rests
to steady their muskets for more accurate fire. Many British and Spanish sharpshooters were
also involved in this combat.
.
The last actions of the day.
Beresford tried to bring up de Espaa's brigade, but they refused to move. "... Beresford
arrived at the conclusion that his best alternative would be to break the stalemate on the ridge
with some of the Portuguese troops from his left flank. The fighting in that sector had, after
Godinot's first rush at the bridge, settled down to a relatively desultory skirmish and artillery
fight, but it certainly did not seem any less dangerous to the participants." ( Dempsey -
"Albuera 1811" p 179)
Leaving Cole's British Division in place, to protect the flank of his army from
further cavalry charges, although Wellington was of the opinion that
Beresford was actually securing his line of retreat, Beresford instead called
upon the Portuguese Division, but they had moved closer to Albuera to
support the King's German Legion.
Beresford also sent for Alten's KGL, ordering 3,000 Spaniards to Albuera to
relieve them and take over the defence there. Alten marched to the Allies' right wing, but the
French infantry under Godinot took Albuera before the Spaniards could arrive, exposing
another Beresford's flank to the enemy !
Meanwhile Colonel Hardinge of the Portuguese force, rode up to General Cole and urged him
to immediately advance against the flank of French infantry. Cole redeployed his brigades and
battalions from columns into lines and began his march. Fearing the French cavalry, however,
Cole flanked his line at either end with a unit in column. Lumley formed up the Spanish and
British cavalry and horse guns to the rear and right of Cole's division.
2nd Brigade "Fusilier Brigade" : Ltn.Col. Myers
- - - - - - I / 7th Foot (27 officers and 687 other ranks) Royal Fusiliers
- - - - - - II / 7th Foot (28 officers and 540 other ranks) Royal Fusiliers
- - - - - - I / 23rd Foot (41 officers and 692 other ranks) Royal Welch Fusiliers
3rd Brigade: Brig.Gen. Harvey
- - - - - - I , II / 11th Line [Portuguese]
- - - - - - I , II / 23rd Line [Portuguese]
- - - - - - I / Loyal Lusitanian Legion
Latour-Maubourg charged with four or six regiments of dragoons. The green-clad dragoons
swept down on Harvey's Portuguese brigade. The Portuguese, however, stood firm and drove
away the cavalry with sharp musketry. Having once been repulsed the dragoons made no
further charges.
1st Dragoon Brigade: GdB Bron
- - - - - - 4th Dragoons (406 men)
- - - - - - 20th Dragoons (266 men)
- - - - - - 26th Dragoons (421 men)
2nd Dragoon Brigade: GdB Bouvier des Eclats
- - - - - - 14th Dragoons (316 men)
- - - - - - 17th Dragoons (314 men)
- - - - - - 27th Dragoons (249 men)
.
"This, will be a proud day for the Fusiliers."
The Fusilier Brigade (23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers and 7th Royal Fusiliers) and Lusitanian
Legion on the division's left encountered Werl's brigade. GdB Werle's independent brigade
was a strong unit.
- - - - - - 12th Light (62 officers and 2.102 other ranks)
- - - - - - 58th Line (55 officers and 1.587 other ranks)
Although the
French
outnumbered the
Fusiliers and the
Lusitanians, they
did not deploy
from columns to
lines to take
advantage of their
superiority in
musket fire-fight.
Thus allied
infantry inflicted
heavy casualties
on Werle's brigade
and after a long
firefight (2030
minutes) the French columns finally broke and fell back. (One or two sources however claim
that some of the French columns actually deployed into lines and it was a well-matched
exchange of volleys.)
The Fusiliers also suffered heavy casualties. Myers was killed, Cole (the Divisional
Commander), the three colonels, Ellis, Blakeney and Hawkeshaw, fell wounded and the
fusiliers battalions, "struck by the iron tempest, reeled and staggered like sinking ships." Lt.
Henry Ireson Jones of the 7th Royal Fusiliers was severely wounded and died of his wounds
that summer. He may be buried in the British Cemetery, Elvas.
(The Royal Welch Fusiliers is one of the oldest regiments in the British army, hence the archaic
spelling of the word Welch instead of Welsh. The regiment has traditionally had a goat
mascot. The goat is given full honours of an officer by all ranks and attended to by the "Goat
Major".)
Meanwhile, Abercrombie's brigade and some Spanish troops had wheeled round to face the
right flank of the the V Corps. Latour-Maubourg however placed his dragoons between the
advancing Allied divisions and the falling back French infantry, and aborted the offensive.
The British, Spanish and Portuguese drew up on the part of the battlefield they had just took.
The dragoons and the Combined Grenadiers ensured there was little further fighting between
the infantry.
The Combined Grenadiers however suffered as much from the artillery fire as the British
Fusilier Brigade mentioned above. (By the way, this reminds me of Vorontzov's Russian
Grenadiers at Borodino. Although Vorontzov's division was almost annihilated by the French
artillery they managed to hold their ground until t reinforcements arrived.)
.
End of the battle.
Beresford brought up three fresh
Portuguese brigades (the allied
army was much larger than Soult
force) and drove the Grenadiers
back, but by this time Soult had
brought up his artillery (see
picture) and Marshal Beresford
did not dare to commit his
infantry.
"As a postscript to the battle,
Alten's KGL, who had not had
time to join the southern front,
returned to Albuera and drove out
what French force remained in the
village. After six or seven hours of
bitter conflict, the battle had come to an end." (- wikipedia.org 2010)
The very bloody encounter in which were involved almost 60,000 well armed men (35,300
Allies vs 22,800 French and Poles) was now over.
"Morning came, and both sides remained in their respective situations, the wounded still
covering the field of battle, the hostile lines still menacing and dangerous. The greater
multitude had fallen on the French part, but the best soldiers on that of the allies, and the dark
masses of Soult's powerful cavalry and artillery, as they covered all his front, seemed alone
able to contend again for the victory; the right of the French also appeared to threaten the
Badajos road, and Beresford, in gloom and doubt, awaited another attack. ... On the 18th Soult
retreated." (Napier - Vol III, p 102)
~
Aftermath.
Wellington's reaction to Beresford's account of the battle was:
"This won't do. Write me down a victory". The Duke also
requested to stop any reports of Albuera being sent.
Napoleon awarded the uhlans with numerous crosses of Legion d'Honour. Colonel Jan
Konopka was promoted to general de brigade. Later on he became chief instructor for the
newly formed French six lancer regiments. (Kirkor - "Legia Nadwislanska 1808-1814" p 278)
Beresford was severely criticised for his leadership during the battle. This battle ended as
something of a draw with awesome casaulties on both sides. At Salamanca (1812) 30,500
British and German troops in Wellington's army lost 3,100 casualties (just over 1 in 10), at
Albuera 4 in 10 of the British and German infantrymen under Beresford's command were
killed, wounded and missing. In 1830 Beresford retired from public life, and for some time
subsequently he was occupied in a heated controversy with William Napier, the historian of
the Peninsular War, who had severely criticised his tactics at Albuera.
.
Casualties.
"Oh Albuera, glorious field of grief !"
- Lord George Byron
Marshal Soult only admits to some 3,000 casualties, but a return of casualties dated 11 July
1811 lists 5,936 casualties. French historians Belmas and Lapne place Soult's losses at approx.
7,000. (Some webmasters however happily "upgraded" the French casualties to 9,000 and even
10.000 killed, wounded and missing.)
The British-Portuguese-Spanish casualties amounted to 5,916 or slightly more than 6.000. The
3rd Regiment of Foot The Buffs were nicknamed "The Nutcrackers" for Albuera, where they
supposedly "cracked the heads of the enemy." I love the cool nickname, however, the truth is
there were only few survivors, and many simply surrendered.
The British did most of the fighting on allied side
and they have suffered the heaviest casualties:
- - - - - - British troops - casualties 39 %
- - - - - - Spanish troops - casualties 10 %
- - - - - - Portuguese troops - casualties 4 %
The French casualties were 25 %.
(Guy Dempsey gives 26 % of 22,856).
Casualties on the French side:
Artillery
- foot and horse batteries (casualties 16 %)
Elite Infantry
- Combined Grenadiers (casualties 36 %)
Light Infantry
- 28th Light (36 %) - the French Die Hards
- 12th Light (36 %)
- 21st Light (32 %)
- 16th Light (23 %)
Line Infantry
- 88th Line (45 %)
- 34th Line (44 %)
- 40th Line (43 %)
- 64th Line (41 %)
- 100th Line (36 %)
- 103rd Line (22 %)
- 58th Line (20 %)
- 55th Line (19 %)
Cavalry
- Vistula Uhlans (22-26 %)
- 2nd Hussars (24 %)
- 4th Dragoons (17 %)
- 10th Hussars (12 %)
- 21st Chasseurs (10 %)
- 27th Chasseurs (6 %)
- 4th Spanish Chasseurs (0-3 %)
Casualties on Allies' side:
Artillery
- King's German Legion (16 %)
- Spanish batteries (15 %)
- British batteries (6 %)
- Portuguese batteries (5 %)
Infantry
- British 3rd Foot "The Buffs" (85 % !)
- British 48th Foot (75 % !)
- British 66th Foot (62 % !)
- Spanish Irlanda (36 %)
- Spanish II Reales Guardias (28 %)
- Spanish 1. Voluntarios de Cataluna (27 %)
- Spanish IV Reales Guardias (26 %)
- Spanish Canarias (20 %)
- Spanish Murcia (13 %)
Next month we will add more
British and Portuguese units.
Cavalry
- Spanish Escadron de Instruccion (10 %)
- Spanish Reina (9 %)
- Spanish Algarve (9 %)
- British 4th Dragoons (7 %)
- Spanish Husares (7 %)
- Spanish Escadron de Grenaderos (6 %)
- British 3rd Dragoon Guards (5 %)
- British 13th Light Dragoons (0.25 %)
.
"The worst of the story I have not related.
Our Colors were taken." - Ltn. Crompton
Gates writes that "Five colors were taken, as was their supporting artillery battery and, of the
1,648 men in the three leading battalions, 1,248 were killed, wounded, or taken." (Gates - "The
Major Mervin Nooth of the I/7th Foot wrote that his battalion recaptured some abandoned
allied guns and they discovered the regimental color of I/3rd Regiment of Foot with these
trophies.
Actually six British Colors were captured: 5 by Polish uhlans and 1 by the French hussars.
Four Colors were complete and two reduced to the flagstaff. British battalions each carried 2
colours, the Kings colour and the regimental colour. These captured Colors and parts of them
remained hidden until 1827. In that year five of them were displayed in the Museum of
Artillery. The sixth Color was of the 3rd Foot. During the fighting at Albuera it had been
reduced to shreds and presented no value for public presentation. In 1830 a mob stormed the
Museum of Artillery and took weapons and stole standards from it, including the Colour of
the 66th Foot. In 1851 a fire seriously damaged these trophies from Albuhera.]
Luis Sorandos Muzas wrote that in 1831, the four remaining Colors were placed in the Hotel
des Invalides. In August 1851 a fire broke out and the Colour of the 66th was destroyed, while
the Colour of the 48th was seriously damaged "with only its central shield surviving." The
Colors of the 3rd and the 48th "had only small fragments of its cloth" survived. One Color
disappeared and of the others only 3 small fragments remained. On 26 February 1861, General
Duffourc d'Antist donated to the Invalides his collection of flags.
Some Spanish sources claim that Spanish Infantry Regiment Murcia captured colors of the
Vistula Ulans. These claims vary from 1 to 3 Colors taken. The problem however is that the
uhlans lost all their four Colors (each squadron carried one color) to the Spanish cavalry two
years earlier at Yevennes [Jebenes ?]. It infuriated the Emperor.
Thus the uhlans carried no Colors at Albuera. Could it be one or two of the company markers
?
The Spaniards don't substantiate their claim by evidence so this is difficult for me to speculate
on this subject.
.
The French and British became fascinated
with lance-armed cavalry.
The cavalry charge at Albuhera is one of the most notable incidents in the history of the
cavalry arm. Seventeen days after Emperor Napoleon received news of the performance of
Vistula Ulans at Albuera, that left an entire British infantry brigade laying dead on the
battlefield, he ordered the establishment of lancer regiments in his army.
Shortly after the Napoleonic Wars the British 16th Light Dragoon Regiment was equipped as
lancers. According to British website "During the Peninsula wars the British army suffered
terrible casualties from the Polish Vistula lancers, so the 16th Light Dragoons, now as lancers
tried to emulate them not only in skill at arms, but also in appearance." The Polish connection
is not hard to miss, the uniforms, lances and pennants can all be traced in style to the Polish
regiments that inspired them ... the 17th Lancers were involved and which is still celebrated
every year "The Charge of the Light Brigade".
The devil himself.
Officer of the Vistula Uhlans.

Left : the British hell-raisers at Balaclava.
Right : Death of Glory of the British lancers.
After the Napoleonic Wars the British formed several
lancer regiments that tried to emulate the Vistula
Uhlans not only in skill at arms, but also in appearance.
Sources and Links.
Guy Dempsey - "Albuera 1811"
Nafziger - "Poles and Saxons of the Napoleonic Wars"
Oliver and Partridge - "The battle of Albuera - 1811"
Kirkor - "Legia Nadwislanska 1808-1814"
Lemonofides - "British Infantry Colours"
Kirkor - "Pod sztandarami Napoleona"
Milne - "The Standards and Colours of the British Army from 1661-1881"
Fletcher - "Bloody Albuera"
French invasion of Spain Portugal : Peninsular War : Guerra de la independencia espaola
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/cruel_war_in_Spain.html[2012-05-21 12:43:48]
The Spanish Ulcer 1808-1814
The Peninsular War is called Napoleon's Vietnam.
This was one of the most successful partisan wars
in history and was where the word guerrilla was
first used in this context.
"The lion in the fable tormented to death by a gnat
gives a true picture of the French army in Spain."
- Abb de Pradt
The average casualties suffered by the French army during
Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 were 2,000 - 3,000 men per day.
During Napoleon's campaign in Germany in 1813 the average casualties
were up to 3,570 per day (or 25,000 men per week by Scotty Bowden)
"... the French forces in the Peninsula lost 100 men per day" (- D Gates)
In the American Civil War 1861-1865 the average casualties for the
Union were 400 per day.
Introduction.
The French invasion of Portugal
"was an armed parade, not a war."
"Spain ... must be French."
French army in Peninsula.
(Strength and quality)
Napoleon seemed to ignore
the important supply question.
The Spanish army
(Strength and quality)
.
.
.
.
Madrid: blood on the streets.
French occupation of Spain :
rape, pillage, drunkenness.
Spanish vs French: battles,
sieges and combats.
The two sieges of Saragossa
became known in whole Europe.
Spanish victory at Baylen in 1808.
"...and war to the knife was declared
upon the French. (Guerilla War.)
The British in Peninsula.
Viva os Ingleses valerosos !"
Royal Navy's contribution to victory
in the Peninsular War.
Conclusions and questions.
"The Third of May 1808:
The Execution of the Defenders of Madrid."
Great picture by Francisco Goya of Spain.
Introduction: The war in Spain and Portugal.
"It was neither armies nor fortresses that were to be conquered in Spain,
but that one, yet multiplied sentiment which filled the whole people.
It was the inmost soul of each and every one that resisted the blow -
which neither ball nor bayonet could reach."
- de Rocca, officer of the French hussars
The Spanish War of Independence (called Peninsular War in English speaking world)
pitted Spain, Great Britain, and Portugal against Napoleonic France. The war began
when French troops occupied Portugal in 1807 and Spain in 1808. It was the first large-
scale guerilla war, from which the English language borrowed the word. It was a war of
contrasts; a war fought in the icy passes of the high Pyrenees and on the burning wastes
of the Sierra Morena. It was a war of infinite cruelty.
According to David Gates, books which cover the Peninsular War have been
disappointing. Many are accompanied by an irritangly jingoistic - or blatantly
unimpartial - style, a common failing is to concentrate almost exclusively on the
campaigns of Wellington and his immediate opponents. The conflict waged against the
French by other British generals and the Spanish army, although crucially important, is
dismissed in a few brief comments. This betrays a failure to grasp the very core of the
military and political problems confronting the French.
It can - and often does - even call into question the title of the book: a work which only
tells selected parts of the story cannot accurately be described as a history of the
Peninsular War, particularly when ommissions frequently include the bulk of the 5 years
of major campaigns that occurred in the Peninsula's southern and eastern reaches. Just
because relatively few British troops were involved in them, they are not to be dismissed
as insignificant.
The main players of the conflict were:
1. The Spanish nation
2. The invaders and occupants: napoleonic troops
3. Spain's ally, Great Britain. The British gave
financial and military support to the Spanish.
The treaty of Tilsit in 1807
ended war between
Russia and France and
began an alliance between
the two empires which
rendered the rest of
Europe almost powerless.
The Peninsular affair
began in 1807, through a
secret convention signed
by Prince Kurakin and
Talleyrand. It contained,
among other things, the
following stipulations:
- Art. I. Russia is to take
possession of European
Turkey, and to extend her possessions in Asia.
- Art. II. The Bourbon dynasty in Spain and the house of Braganza in Portugal will cease to
reign. Princes of the Bonaparte family will succeed to both of these crowns.
The Emperor believed there, in Peninsula, to be sound strategic and economic reasons for
intervening. Portugal was not involved in the embargo of British goods and Spain was
only a half-hearted participant.
.

Ejercito Frances entra en Espana.
~
French invasion of Portugal "was an armed parade, not a war."
"Godoy and Napoleon advocated immediate partition of Portugal."
- David Gates
Portugal opted for a policy of neutrality while continuing to trade with Spain, Great
Britain (Portugal's oldest ally) and France. However, France wanted to close Portuguese
ports to British merchants and through a series of diplomatic treaties agreed on an
invasion of Portugal with Spain (who was eager to recover the territory lost in 1640 after
the end of the Iberian Union).
In January 1801 an ultimatum was sent to Lisbon. Portugal refused the ultimatum, and
war was declared. Approx. 30,000 Spanish troops under Manuel de Godoy, invaded
Portugal.
French troops under General Leclerc did not arrive in Spain in time for war
as it was a short military campaign. The Spanish corps occupied Olivena,
Arronches, Portalegre, Castelo de Vide, Barbacena and Ouguela without
resistance. Campo Maior resisted for 18 days before falling to the Spanish.
Elvas resisted a siege until the end of the war. (The short war in 1801
between Portugal and Spain is called the War of Oranges.)
In June 6 the defeated and demoralised Portugal was forced to sign the
Treaty of Badajoz. The Portuguese ports were closed to British ships. Portugal
was to recover all of the strongholds previously conquered, although Spain
still retained the town of Olivena and all territory on the eastern margin of the
Guadiana. Portugal was also forced to pay for Spain's war expenditures.
This treaty however was rejected by Napoleon who wanted to impose more severe terms
on Portugal, so he decided to invade the country. By a secret convention reached at
Fontainebleau (1807) Spain agreed to support France against Portugal. In summer 1807,
France and Spain pressurised Portugal to align with France against Britain. "The French
force destined to invade Portugal, was already assembled in Bayonne ... It was
commanded by General Junot, a young man of a bold, ambitious disposition, but of
greater reputation for military talent than he was able to support; and his soldiers,
principally conscripts, were ill-fitted to endure the hardships which awaited them."
(Napier - History of the War in Peninsula 1807-1814 p 25)
Junot thrusted down the Tagus
Valley to Lisbon. The French troops
found the terrain barren and
inhospitable. Portugal is split in two
by its main river, the Tagus (Tejo).
Northern landscape is mountainous
in the interior areas with plateaus.
The South area between the Tagus
and the Algarve features mostly
rolling plains with a climate
somewhat warmer and drier than
the cooler and rainier north.
Portugal is one of the warmest
European countries. In mainland
Portugal, yearly temperature
averages are about 15 C (55 F) in the north and 18C (64F) in the south.
Jean-Baptiste Lemonnier-Delafosse, an officer of light infantry in the division of General
Heudelet described his entry to Portugal: "The French army entered Portugal with 6 days'
worth of supplies in each soldier's haversack, and on top of that w few wagons. It was,
therefore, without any proper magazines, and soon it found itself without food of any
sort. Nevertheless, it was necessary to live. Once the initial resources had run out ... a
regular system of marauding was organized ... Woe be to the peasant who was caught by
such an expedition ! ... When the troops were operating in places they did not know,
guides were needed. If no-one came forward at their call, someone would be seized at
random."
Fortunately for Junot's troops, the Portuguese offered no resistance and on November 30,
with only 1,500 men about him, Junot entered Lisbon - having covered 300 miles in only
14 days ! Lisbon contained 250,000 inhabitants and was a large city despite the fact that
in 1755 earthquake and tsunami killed more than a third of capital's population.
When the French troops marched on Lisbon, the royal family of Bragana fled to Brasil
without resisting. They were escorted by British squadron. Godoy of Spain and
Napoleon advocated immediate partition of Portugal. The civil authorities in Lisbon
collaborated with the French, but the Portuguese people took matters into their own
hands. Already in December a serious riot erupted in Lisbon. Gates writes: "Ordering the
dissolution of the tiny Portuguese army, he [Junot] then begun a programme of exactions
which the infuriated population, lacking weapons and leaders, were powerless to resist.
A sinister calm fell over Portugal and Napoleon began preparing his next move." (Gates -
"The Spanish ulcer" pp 8-9)
One observer noted that "The invasion was an armed parade, not a war."
The Portuguese army (exrcito Portugus) in 1800-1805 was almost 60,000-men strong
but it was poorly trained. It consisted of 47,500 infantry, 7,500 cavalry and approx. 5,000
artillerists, engineers, staffs, medical services etc. Since the 15th century, the Portuguese
troops have participated in numerous overseas campaigns in Africa, Asia, and south
America. The Portuguese infantrymen were brave, steady and respected by English and
French alike. Polish officer Chlapowski of Napoleon's Guard cavalry described the
Portuguese soldiers as "small, gaunt, but very tough breed." They were the most efficient
in mountain warfare. The Portuguese cavalry however was not as good as the infantry.
William Napier writes that the abuses and desertions in the Portuguese cavalry "had
been so great that one division was suppressed."
In 1809 British
General William
Carr Beresford
Beresford was
given the task of
turning the
Portuguese army into an efficient
and disciplined fighting force. In
this task, by systematic weeding-out
of inefficient officers and men, he
achieved good results. By the summer of 1810 he had so far improved the moral and
discipline of the force that Wellington brigaded some of the Portuguese regiments with
English ones, and in many battles the Portuguese and British fought side by side.
A French officer remarked that the Portuguese bragged less than English and French and
so got less credit for their service.
In 1809 a Portuguese-British naval squadron took French Guiana for the Portuguese
Empire.
With the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1814 the region was handed back to the French.
.

Portuguese Discoveries and (Colonial) Empire.
The Portuguese navy was the first navy in the World which gave New Worlds to the World.
1412 Prince Henry, the Navigator, orders the first expeditions to the African Coast.
1472 Vaz Corte-Real and Homem reached the Land of Cod, now called Newfoundland .
1484 Diogo Co reached Namibia in southern Africa.
1488 Bartolomeu Dias, rounded the Cape of Good Hope and entered the Indian Ocean.
1495 Voyage of Fernandes Barcelos to Greenland. They reached Labrador in today Canada.
1498 Vasco da Gama led the first fleet from Europe, around Africa, to India.
1500 Cabral discovered Brazil on his way to India.
1511 Duarte Fernandes is the first European to visit the Kingdom of Siam (Thailand).
1513 The first trading ship to touch the coasts of China, under lvares and Perestrello.
1542 Ferno Mendes Pinto, Diogo Zeimoto and Cristovo Borralho reached Japan.
~
"Spain ... must be French" - Napoleon
The ease with which Junot's troops had seized Portugal
lulled the Emperor into a false sense of conquest.
Picture: Carlos IV, King of Spain from 1788 until his abdication in 1808.
His father was king of the Two Sicilies. His elder brother was passed
over for the two thrones as mentally retarded and epileptic. Carlos had
inherited an immense physical strength from the Saxon line of his
mother, granddaughter of August II the Strong. August the Strong was
Elector of Saxony and King of Poland. (He liked to show that he lived up
to his name by breaking horseshoes with his bare hands!)
The ease with which Junot's troops had seized Portugal lulled the
Emperor into a false sense of conquest. He was excessively optimistic in
calculating some of the benefits he hoped to gain from Spain.
Doubtlessly fascinated by Spain's history of splendour, Napoleon was
convinced that the country was excessively wealthy when, in fact, she was virtually
bankrupt. According to Summerville In 1807 Spain was one of the most backward
nations of Europe
On the pretext that they were reinforcements for Junot, large numbers of French troops
entered Spain. Officer Chlapowski of Napoleon's Guard Lighthorse writes: "I spent 3
days in Bayonne, just at the time when the old Spanish king, Charles IV, his queen, and
the Prince of Peace [Godoy] were leaving for Valencay, where the Emperor was to
imprison them. ... The Emperor also invited Ferdinand to Bayonne, but refused to
recognize him as king and packed him off to Valencay as well. ... The Emperor and
Empress lived in the palace of Marac a quarter of a mile from the city on the road to
Pamplona. ... A battalion of Old Guard Grenadiers were camped in tents by the chateau,
so close that only a carriage could pass between them and the wall.
Right beside them were 200 Basques from the Pyrenees, who had formed a guard of
honor for the Emperor. Their costume was a short blue jacket, short black breeches ...
They were fine looking, lively people, and reputedly good shots. Five hundred paces
further on along the Pamplona road was a squadron of our Polish Guard Lighthorse
under Cpt. Dziewanowski. ...
There can be no frontier in Europe which so starkly divides two such markedly different
countries. ...
On one side of the Bidassoa the people are short, cheerful and lively, and on the other
side [Spanish] tall, serious and dreary. On the French side, little houses ... are scattered
here and there, over more or less flat countryside, while on the far side stands the town
of Irun, hewn from the local stone, with high mountains behind it into which the road
climbs immediately on leaving the town, twisting and turning upwards from peak to
peak until it reaches Vittoria ... There wass a post rider, a Spaniard in his great cape,
galloping along in front of me. His horse's bridle was covered with bells, so at night,
although I could not see him, I could always hear him. Spanish post horses are
marvellous mounts ... " (Chlapowski/Simmons - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" pp 33, 35)
The French seized Pamplona and Barcelona. It allowed fresh
troops to pour across the Pyrenees with complete impunity. Godoy
(picture) responded by recalling the Spanish troops aiding Junot
and advising the Royal family to leave Madrid for the Americas.
The Spanish people, however, blamed him for the situation and
the announcement of the Royal family's departure provoked a
major riot. Order was restored when Prince Ferdinand proclaimed
that the unpopular minister had been dismissed and taken into protective custody. This,
however, was interpreted as further defence of Godoy by the king and fresh riots
errupted. Charles agreed to abdicate in favour of Ferdinand.
On 23rd March 1808 the French entered Madrid and refused to recognize Ferdinand as
the rightful monarch. French officer de Marbot wrote: "On the 23rd Murat entered
Madrid at the head of Marshal Moncey's corps. The new king had called upon the people
to give a good reception to his friend Napoleon's troops. He was punctually obeyed; we
saw nothing but friendly faces among the vast and curious crowd."
Napoleon's march on Madrid in 1808, by W Kossak.
The French Army in the Peninsula.
"It is certainly astonishing that the enemy [French]
have been able to remain in this country so long;
and it is extraordinary instance of what a French
army can do." - Wellington
Picture: the French pursuing Wellington's
army in 1812. Picture by Motte.
"the French arrived [at Tordesillas], sixty ... headed
by Captain Guingret, a daring man, formed a small
raft to hold their arms and clothes, and plunged into
the watre, holding their swords with their teeth,
swimming and pushing their raft before them. Under
protection of a cannonande they crossed this great
river, though it was in full and strong water, and the
weather very cold, and having reached the other side,
naked as they were, stormed the tower: the
Brunswick regiment then abandoned the wood, and
the gallant Frenchmen remained masters of the
bridge." (Napier - "History of the War in the Peninsula 1807-1814" Vol IV, p 138)
Central Europe was the primary theater of war for Napoleon and this is not surprising that
the largest armies, and the best French troops led by the best commanders fought there most
of the time. After all the strongest and largest armies were the Russian, Prussian and Austrian
armies and not the British and Spanish. Britain had a formidable navy but her field army,
although excellent, was a small force. Napoleon spent few years in Italy and only few months
in Spain.
- in Spain the French army campaigned for 11 years (1793-1795, 1807-1814).
- in Italy they campaigned for 14 years (1792-1801, 1805, 1809, 1813-1814).
- in central Europe the French campaigned for 18 years (1792-1801, 1805, 1806, 1807, 1809,
1812, 1813, 1814, 1815).
Deployment and strength of the French army in September 1808 :
- Marshal Bessieres with 15,000 men at Brivesca, Pancorbo, Santa Maria and behind Burgos
- Marshal Moncey with 16,500 men at Milagro, Alfaro, Caparosa and Pampeluna
- Marshal Ney with 13,750 men at Logrono, Nalda and Najera
- General Dorsenne's 2,400 men of the Imperial Guard as reserve
- Garrisons: 6,000 men in Pampeluna, and 1,500 men in Bilbao
- Guarding the communication lines: 7,000 men in small movable columns
- General Drouet's 22,000 men watching the valleys of the Pyreneeses
Total almost 100,000 men present under arms, exclusive of the troops in Catalonia, and when
the communications were secured, and the fortresses garrisoned, there remained about 50,000
men disposable on a line of battle extending from Bilbao to Alfaro.
October 10th 1808:
- I Corps (Marshal Victor) - 33,900 men (incl. 3,000 in hospitals)
- II Corps (Marshal Bessires) - 33,000 men (incl. 5,500 in hospitals)
- III Corps (Marshal Moncey) - 37,700 men (incl. 7,500 in hospitals)
- IV Corps (Marshal Lefebvre) - 26,000 men (incl. 2,100 in hospitals)
- V Corps (Marshal Mortier) - 26,700 men (incl. 1,900 in hospitals)
- VI Corps (Marshal Ney) - 38,000 men (incl. 5,000 in hospitals)
- VII Corps (General St.Cyr) - 42,100 men (incl. 3,550 in hospitals)
- VIII Corps (General Junot) - 25,700 men (incl. 3,500 in hospitals)
- Reserve - 42,400 men (incl. 3,550 in hospitals)
- Movable columns for defence of the frontier of France - 8,860 men (incl. 146 in hospitals)
- Artillery and engineers coming from troops stationed in Germany - 3,440 men
On 25th October 1808:
- 298 battalions (800-men each)*
- 184 squadrons (200-men each)*
- 34,500 men in hospitals
- 33,400 men detached
* - this is theoretical strength
The first French "Army of Spain" had 160,000-170,000 men in five army corps:
- Corps under General Junot [25,000 men in 22 battalions and 7 squadrons]
- Corps under General Dupont [24,000 men in 21 battalions and 15 squadrons]
- Corps under Marshal Moncey [29,000 men in 47 battalions and 12 squadrons]
- Corps under Marshal Bessieres [19,000 men in 27 battalions and 9 squadrons]
- Corps under General Duhesme [12,500 men in 14 battalions and 9 squadrons]
- Imperial Guard under General Dorsenne [3,000 infantry and 1,700 cavalry, ???? artillery
and engineers]
- Troops joining army in summer 1808 [48,000 men]
On October 1st 1809 :
- 180,800 men under arms
- 23,200 cavalry horses
- 8,060 "draught horses"
On 15th August 1810:
On 15th April 1811 :
In July 1811 there were 355,000 French soldiers [290,000 effectives].
They were organized as follow:
Army of the Centre - King Joseph Bonaparte [25,000 men]
. . . . . . . . . . . King Joseph's Guard [2,500 men]
. . . . . . . . . . . Spanish Division - General Hugo [5,000 men in 10 battalions and 3 squadrons]
. . . . . . . . . . . German Infantry Division - [4,200 men in 6 battalions] Germans
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Dessolles [3,200 men in 6 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Cavalry Division - General Lahoussaye [2,200 men in 4 dragoon regiments]
. . . . . . . . . . . Cavalry Brigade - [660 men in 2 light cavalry regiments]
. . . . . . . . . . . Artillery and Engineers [1,250 men]
. . . . . . . . . . . Miscellaneous [4,000 men]
. . . . . . . . . . . Sick and detached [2,400 men]
Army of the North - General Dorsenne [100,000 men]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Reille [8,200 men in 15 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Cafarelli [7,500 men in 16 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Souham [8,000 men in 14 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Serras [5,060 men in 6 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Bonnet [8,000 men in 13 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Severoli [8,500 men in ?? battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Artillery and Engineers [2.350 men]
. . . . . . . . . . . Garrisons in Navarre, Biscay, Burgos and Valladolid [22,700 men]
Imperial Guard (held in reserve, mostly unused)
. . . . . . . . . . . Guard Infantry Division - General Dumoustier [7,600 men in 11 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Guard Infantry Division - General Roguet [7,500 men in 10 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Guard Cavalry Division - General Lepic [2,020 men in 3 regiments]
. . . . . . . . . . . Guard Artillery and Engineers [878 men]
Army of the South - Marshal Soult [90,000 men]
I Army Corps - Marshal Victor
. . . . . . . . . . . 1st Infantry Division - General Conroux [5,900 men in 10 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . 2nd Infantry Division - General Godinot [8,100 men in 13 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . 3rd Infantry Division - General Villate [5,800 men in 12 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Cavalry Division - General LatourMaubourg [2,900 men in 6 dragoon regiments]
. . . . . . . . . . . Cavalry Brigade - General Perreymond [1,000 men in 2 light cavalry regiments]
. . . . . . . . . . . Artillery and engineers [2,000 men]
. . . . . . . . . . . Marines and sailors for Cadiz lines [1,500 men]
IV Army Corps - General Sebastiani
. . . . . . . . . . . 1st Infantry Division - General LigierBelair [11,000 men in 15 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . 2nd Infantry Division - [4,900 men in 6 battalions] Poles
. . . . . . . . . . . Cavalry Division - General Milhaud [2,500 men in 5 dragoon regiments]
. . . . . . . . . . . Cavalry Brigade - General Ormancey [1,500 men in 3 light cavalry regiments]
. . . . . . . . . . . Artillery and Engineers [880 men]
V Army Corps - General d'Erlon
. . . . . . . . . . . 1st Infantry Division - General Girard [4,250 men in 10 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . 2nd Infantry Division - General Claparede [4,200 men in 12 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Cavalry Brigade - General Brich [515 men in 2 light cavalry regiments]
. . . . . . . . . . . Artillery and engineers [620 men]
. . . . . . . . . . . Garrison in Badajoz [2,900 men]
. . . . . . . . . . . Sick and detached [9,840 men ]
. . . . . . In Cordova [5,000 men in 6 battalions]
. . . . . . Unattached cavalry [1,940 men in 4 regiments]
. . . . . . Unattached artillery [1,380 men]
Army of Portugal - Marshal Marmont [58,000 men]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Foy [5,500 men in 12 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Clausel [6,500 men in 12 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Ferey [5,070 men in 11 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Sarrut [4,900 men in 11 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Macune [5,050 men in 12 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Brennier [5,300 men in 12 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Light Cavalry Division - General Lamotte [613 men in 4 light cavalry regiments]
. . . . . . . . . . . Light Cavalry Division - General Fournier [701 men in 3 light cavalry regiments]
. . . . . . . . . . . Light Cavalry Division - General Wathier [564 men in 3 light cavalry regiments]
. . . . . . . . . . . Dragoon Division - General Montbrun [1,450 men in 7 dragoon regiments]
. . . . . . . . . . . Sick and detached [19,300 men !]
Army of Aragon - Marshal Suchet [51,000 men]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Musnier [7,700 men in 11 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Frere [7,800 men in 12 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Harispe [6,400 men in 11 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Habert [4,400 men in 11 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Peyri [4,160 men in 10 battalions] Italians
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Brigade - General Compere [1,642 men in 3 battalins] Neapolitans
. . . . . . . . . . . Attached cavalry [730 men in 2 regiments]
. . . . . . . . . . . Cavalry Division - General Boussard [1,870 men in 3 regiments]
. . . . . . . . . . . Garrisons [2,200 men]
. . . . . . . . . . . Misc. [3,000 men]
Army of Catalonia - Marshal Macdonald [30,000 men]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Mathieu [5,400 men in 8 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Quessnel [3,900 men in 6 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Infantry Division - General Plauzonne [4,400 men in 8 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . 2 Infantry Brigades - Generals Petit and Lefebvre [6,100 men in 14 battalions]
. . . . . . . . . . . Artillery and engineers [824 men]
. . . . . . . . . . . Garrisons [3,335 men]
In July 1813:
The quality of the French troops in Peninsula varied. Bloodbaths like Heilsberg, Eylau (picture
below), wiped out much of the cream of the French army and by the time the Peninsular War
was in full swing many of the troops that had won Austerlitz (1805) and Jena (1806) were
dead.
Picture: Battle of Eylau 1807 (French vs Russians).
After 12 hours of continuous battle, there was still no result but enormous loss of life. Riding over the battlefield one of
the French marshals said: "Quel massacre ! Et sans resultat" (What a massacre! And for no outcome.) The French
soldiers cried out for peace.
According to David Gates there was a tremendous variety in the quality of soldiers that
Napoleon committed to the Peninsula at various stages of the war. The first French army to
march into Spain in 1808, for example, was predominantly composed of inexperienced
conscripts.
Baron de Marbot wrote: "But it was easy to perceive how astonished they were at the sight of
our young infantry soldiers. The moral effect was wholly to our disadvantage, and as I
compared the broad chests and powerful limbs of the Spaniards who surrounded us with
those of our weak and weedy privates, my national pride was humbled. Though I did not
foresee the disasters which would arise from the poor opinion of our troops on the part of the
Spaniards, I was sorry that the Emperor had not sent into the Peninsula some veteran
regiments from the Army of Germany."
Picture: arresting those who attempted to avoid
conscription. Picture by T de Thulstrup.
Marshal Bessiers' corps contained just 2,000 reasonably
seasoned soldiers, of the cavalry a mere 1,250 had had
any real previous experience. Junot's "Army of Portugal"
was little better either, only half approached veteran
status. The rest were raw conscripts. Lieutenant Jean
Barres of French infantry, wrote, "December 1809. I had
to take a hundred refractory conscripts from the citaled
of Blaye to be incorporated in the corps after our entry
into Spain. Lest they should again desert they had to march together under an escort and to be
shut up every night behind bolt and bar." (Barres - "Memoirs of a French napoleonic officer" page
134 )
James Arnold" writes, A young French conscript, Phillipe Gille, provides a detailed account of
the inadequate manner in which French soldiers were rushed to the front. Mobilized in France
in 1808, Gille apparently did not even receive his musket until arriving at the Spanish border.
There he joined a provisional unit composed of fellow conscripts, crossed the border, and
soon engaged in combats with guerilla. Eventually his unit merged with similar ad-hoc
formations to make up Dupont's ill-fated army. Near the Spanish town of Jaen they faced their
first formed opposition from Spanish regulars. In spite of their inexperience, the conscripts
formed line, advanced with trailed arms, received a close range volley, charged at the bayonet,
and routed the Spanish. While such intrepid shock action worked against poorly trained
Spanish infantry, it was ill-suited for more professional opponents such as the British. ...
During the Peninsula years, how large a numerical contribution to the
French armed forces were conscripts such as Gille? For the decisive years
1808 to 1812, French annual conscript calls ranged from 181,000 to 217,000.
During 1810 and 1811, when France was at peace in the rest of Europe, the
majority of these conscripts went to the Peninsula and substantially diluted
the quality of the French forces serving there. Simultaneously, troop quality
declined further as veterans suffered some of the nearly 100,000 casualties
sustained in the Peninsula in 1810-1811.
The impact of this dilution is clearly stated by General Anne Savary.
Savary's report on the 1809 Battle of Essling, where he fought with troops
substantially better than the average Peninsula soldier, observes, "if instead
of troops consisting of war levies [raw conscripts], we had opposed to them such soldiers as
those of the camp of Boulogne [the Grande Arme], which we might easily have moved in
any direction and made to deploy under the enemy's fire without any danger their being
thrown into disorder". Innumerable Peninsular battlefields demonstrated this need....
The problem worsened as the Peninsula became a secondary front.
A typical Peninsula regiment of 2,500 men would send 120 to 200 men back to France as a
depot unit, 50 to the artillery, 10 to the gendarmes, and 12 of the best men to the Imperial
Guard. These subtractions, coupled with the unprecedented guerilla-inflicted losses
experienced in the never secure rear areas, seriously eroded the staying power of the infantry
regiment. It got worse in 1811 and thereafter when Napoleon withdrew the best troops from
the Peninsula to prepare for the Russian invasion." (James Arnold - "A Reappraisal of Column
Versus Line in the Peninsular War")
Students of Napoleon's central European campaigns will be struck by the
relatively small numbers of cannon employed in Spain. This is largely explained
by the terrain and a chronic shortage of horses. The atrocious roads and
mountainous topography of Spain and Portugal, were unsuited for larger
number of guns. (The French however were not the only ones having this
problem, the Spanish and especially the British also carried small number of
guns.)
The terrain greatly deterred the French from employing heavy cavalry. Consequently, apart
from the 13th Cuirassier Regiment (with no armor) and a tiny handful of provisional
cuirassiers, the heaviest mounted troops consistently used were dragoons.
The Imperial Guard was in Spain but only for a short time.
During 1810-1811, the majority of the French annual conscript calls of 180.000-200.000
conscripts went to Spain and dramatically lowered the quality of the French troops. The lack
of seasoned officers caused replacement battalions and squadrons returning to Spain to be led
by inexperienced officers of reserve formations and second rate troops.
The invasion of Spain and Portugal led to the formation of a large number of provisional
infantry and cavalry regiments, mostly from conscripts detached from regular regiments. In
April 1809 Napoleon described them as all big boys of 20 years, with whom I am satisfied. Baron de
Marbot, who had a closer look at them, wrote that they didn't impress him, and he very much
doubted that they impressed the Spaniards.
Picture: British 15th and 16th Light Dragoons
engage the French 1st Provisional Chasseurs
at Sahagun. Picture by Chris Collingwood.
The provisional troops lacked experienced
NCOs, and their officers were often either
too young or too old. General Grouchy
remarked that you had to begin by training
the officers and making them do their duty !
Some of the regiments had a fairly long
existence, but they lacked the morale and
solidarity of regular regiments. The men were unhappy over their transfer from an established
unit, and their regimental staffs improvised from whatever officers might be available.
~
Napoleon seemed to ignore the important supply question.
To live, the poorly supplied French troops had to disperse and,
once they were scattered, they were easy prey for enemy.
Wellington wrote: "The more ground the French hold down, the
weaker will they be at any given point."
In 1812 Marshal Marmont (picture) bitterely
complained to Napoleon: "... the English army is
always concentrated and can always be moved,
because it has an adequate supply of money and
transport. 7,000 to 8,000 pack mules bring up its
daily food ...
His Majesty may judge from this fact the
comparison between their means and our's - we have not 4 day's
food in any of our magazines, we have no transport, we cannot
draw requisitions from the most wretched village without
sending thither a foraging party of 200 strong; to live from day to
day, we have to scatter detachments to vast distances, and
always to be on the move ...
Lord Wellington is quite aware that I have no magazines, and is acquinted with the
immensely difficult character of the country, and its complete lack of food resources ...
He knows that my army is not in a position to cross the Coa, even if nobody opposes me,
and that if we did so we should have to turn back at the end of 4 days, unable to carry on
the campaign ..."
Jean-Baptiste Barres of French infantry wrote; "All (infantry) regiments had at least 120
to 150 asses in its train, to transport the sick and wounded, the knapsacks of the
convelescents, and the stores of victuals, when we were lucky enough to posses more a
day's rations. This mass of quadrupeds took a number of men out of the ranks, and
greatly delayed the march of the columns, but it saved many an unlucky wight. A few
days after our arrival before the English lines our poverty became so poignant, so
general, that all these inoffensive creatures were killed and eaten with a sort of sensual
hunger."
To live, the French troops had to
disperse and, once they were
scattered, they were easy prey for
enemy. The guerrillas ambushed
French convoys (picture), and pounced
upon French columns. Wellington
wrote: "The more ground the French
hold down, the weaker will they be at
any given point." The French marshals
came to realise that large armies
simply starved and smaller armies
were defeated.
French General Thiebault wrote that the scattered state of the French army in Spain
rendered its situation desperate, and that only the slowness of Sir Arthur Wellesley
saved it several times.
The French troops however were known for their skills of extracting
provisions locally - much to the annoyance of local population.
Wellington wrote; "It is certainly astonishing that the enemy [French]
have been able to remain in this country so long; and it is extraordinary
instance of what a French army can do. It is positively a fact that they
brought no provisions with them, and they have not received even a
letter since they entered Portugal. With all our money and having in our
favour the good inclinations of the country, I assure you that I could not maintain one
division in the district in which they have maintained not less than 60,000 men and
20,000 animals for more than two months."
David Gates on the survival thing; "In contrast, the Allies, particularly the British, seem
to have been peculiarly inept at surviving without plenty of supplies. Even in times of
minor food shortages, indiscipline erupted on a vast scale. The British divisions went to
pieces in the lean days after Talavera for example - and as late as the Waterloo campaign
of 1815, we find Wellington commenting to his Prussian friends that 'I cannot separate
from my tents and supplies. My troops must be well kept and well supplied in camp ..." (
David Gates - "The Spanish Ulcer")
Napoleonic troops in Spain (from Ashes by A Wajda).
The devastation in parts of Spain was such the French soldiers
quipped that even a crow flying over the ruined country would
have to carry its own provisions.
One of the few well-supplied French troops was Suchet's army.
The British took seriously the supply problem.
"Historians will say that the British army ... carried on war
in Spain and Portugal until they had eaten all the beef and
mutton in the country, and then compelled to withdraw."
(- Larpent April 1813, in Longford's "Wellington")
~
The Spanish Army.
"The Spaniards were a religious and warlike
but not a military people ..."
- Officer de Rocca, French 2nd Hussars
The Spanish army comprised of the following troops:
Infantry
- - - - - 2 Foot Guards regiments (x 3 battalions X 1,000 men)
- - - - - 35 line infantry regiments (x 3 battalions X 700 men)
- - - - - 6 Swiss infantry regiments
- - - - - 3 Irish infantry regiments
- - - - - 1 Neapolitan infantry regiment
- - - - - 12 light infantry battalions (6 companies x 200 men)
- - - - - 43 militia battalions (x 600 men)
- - - - - 4 provincial grenadier regiments (x 2 battalions X 800 men)
Cavalry * (due to lack of horses, the 15,000 cavalrymen had only 9,000 mounts)
- - - - - 2 Horse Guards regiments (5 squadrons x 120 men)
- - - - - 12 heavy cavalry regiments (x 5 squadrons)
- - - - - 6 light dragoon regiments (x 5 squadrons)
- - - - - 6 hussar regiments (x 5 squadrons)
Artillery and Engineers
- - - - - 13 foot batteries
- - - - - 6 horse batteries
- - - - - 21 fortress batteries
- - - - - 1,000 sappers and engineers
In autumn 1808 the Spanish troops were organized into seven armies and one reserve:
- "Army of the Centre" under General Castanos [45,000 men in 69 battalions and 60
squadrons, ? guns]
- "Army of Galicia" under General Blake [37,000 men in 79 battalions and 4 squadrons,
38 guns]
- "Army of Aragon" under General Palafox [23,500 men in 32 battalions and 5
squadrons, 5 guns]
- "Army of Estremadura" under General Belvedere [12,500 men in 14 battalions and 7
squadrons, 24 guns]
- "Army of Granada" under General Reding [11,500 men in 12 battalions and 4
squadrons, 6 guns]
- "Army at Somosierra" under General San Juan [11,500 men in 20 battalions and 6
squadrons, 22 guns]
- "Reserves" 51,000 men. They were stationed in various points of the country,
including the Balearic Islands.
In October-December of 1808 the Spanish troops were distributed as follow:
- Blake's Army - 30,000 infantry, 100 cavalry, 26 guns
- Castanos' Army - 24,500 infantry, 2,200 cavalry, 48 guns
- Palafox's Army - 17,500 infantry, 500 cavalry, 20 guns
- Belvedere's Army - 11,150 infantry, 1,100 cavalry, 30 guns
- Romana's Army - 8,000 infantry
William Napier claims that these numbers "prove the monstrous exaggeration put forth
at this time to deceive the Spanish people and the English government. The Spaniards
pretended that above 140,000 men in arms were threatening the French positions on the
Ebro, whereas less than 76,000 were in line of battle, and those exceedingly ill-armed and
provided. The right under Palafox, held the country between Zaragoza and Sanguessa on
the Aragon River, the centre, under Castanos, occupied Borja, Taranzona, and Agreda;
the left, under Blake, was posted at Reynosa, near the sources of the Ebro."
The quality of Spanish troops varied. The militia
was generally of poor quality, but some regulars
were fine troops. For example on 29 October 1808
"The First Regiment of Catalonia ... received the
attack with the greatest coolness and kept up a
very regular fire by platoons, maintaining their
position against an enemy nearly 5 times their
number ... The most veteran troops could not
possibly have displayed more soldeirlike firmness
or more sangfroid in action ..." (- W.Parker Carroll to
Castlereagh, November 1808)
During Napoleon's invasion of
Russia in 1812, there were two
Spanish and 15 French
battalions in Friant's superb
2nd Infantry Division. The
Spaniards fought well at
Shevardino. The two battalions marched toward the village when
Russian dragoons (picture) charged them. The Spaniards formed
squares and opened fire. The dragoons fell back. The Spanish
Rgiment Joseph Napolon was an unit formed from Spanish
prisoners of war, which served in the French Army from 1809 until
1813.
For some Polish officers serving in the French army, the Spanish
soldiers were brave but poorly led by their officers. Dezydery Chlapowski of Napoleon's
Guard Light Horse wrote; "Some regiment which looked like black hussars, which I had
never seen before, drew particular attention to themselves. Their attack failed, and was
doomed from the start as they had begun to gallop at 1,000 paces and so were exhausted
by the time they had covered half this distance.
A regiment of French dragoons was sent out against them, but advanced only at a walk,
and seeing that they would not reach it, it halted and sent out skirmishers, who were
able to catch up with a dozen or so of the more poorly mounted hussars. Yet each of
these, whether wounded or dismounted, fought on to the death, which proves these
were valiant soldiers but they lacked experienced officers." (Chlapowski - p. 43)
For other authors however the Spanish forces and their leaders were useless, cowardish,
poorly trained and disciplined, stupid etc. They supposedly amounted to nothing and
lost every battle they have fought. For example William Napier in "History of the War in
Peninsula" writes that the Spaniards "being divided in corps, under different generals of
equal authority, they could execute no combined movement with rapidity or precision,
nor under any circumstances could they unite more than 40,000 men at any given point...
The generals had lost nothing of their presumption, learnt nothing of war ... "
Napier also wrote about the "constant and shameful misbehaviour of the Spanish troops
before the enemy ... In the battle of Talavera, in which the Spanish army with very
trifling exceptions was not engaged, whole corps threw away their arms and ran off in
my presence when they were neither attacked nor threatened with an attack, but
frightened I believe by their own fire ... I mean the infantry - it is lamentable too see how
bad that of the Spaniards is. ... It is said that sometimes they behave well; though I
acknowledge I have never seen them behave otherwise than ill. ... Nothing can be worse
than the officers of the Spanish army... I cannot say that they do anything as it ought to
be done, with the exception of running away and assembling again in a state of nature.
The Spaniards have neither numbers, efficiency, discipline, bravery or arrangements to
carry on the contest." (Napier - Vol V, p 381)
Napier also claimed that "Her [Spain] efforts were amongst the very smallest causes of
his [Napoleon] failure. Portugal has far greater claims to that glory." Spanish author,
Antonio Moliner Prada, described Napier in Esdaile's Popular Resistance in the French
Wars on page 100 as "extremely anti-Spanish".
Picture: Spanish soldiers in 1805-1808:
5 - Soldier of the Regiment of Fernando VII, 1808
8 -Soldier of light infantry, 1805
(Lilianne et Fred Funcken - "The Napoleonic Wars:
The French Garde Imperiale, the Armies of the
German Duchies, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Poland" ,
Arms and Uniforms, Part 2)
The role played by the Spanish army
during the Peninsular War is
downplayed by some authors. But not
by David Gates, he writes: "It has been the practice of many historians to pour scorn on
just about everything the Spanish forces did and a good deal of this criticism is justified.
However, the fact remains that without the Spanish Army it is doubtful that the Allies
would have won the war. Whilst it is true that their soldiers and generals performed
badly on a large number of occasisons, it is also the case that Spanish units behaved
outstandngly well on others: Baylen, Tamames and Alcaniz are all examples of clear-cut
Peninsular victories by indigenous armies and, at San Marcial, in 1813, a major Imperial
offensive was brought ot a complete standstill by the determined Spanish troops that lay
in its path. Indeed, by the later months of the war, the Spanish were providing some
units of extremely good quality ...
Ironically, the point most often neglected about the Spanish army was its greatest
contribution to the Allied cause. At the outset of the Peninsular conflict there were well
over 100,000 men on the service's rolls and by 1812, despite innumerable calamities, there
were still 160,000 regular troops in being. This vast army was larger than the Portuguese
and British divisions combined. Admittedly, many of the soldiers had neither the
training nor equipment for open combat, but they did prove most valuable in such
operations as blockades and sieges, releasing thousands of better troops for more
demanding undertakings elsewhere. Without this support, it is difficult to see how the
depleted Anglo-Portuguese field army would have been able to take the offensive and,
consequently, victories such as Salamanca would have become impossible.
Furthermore, irrespective of the quality of their men, the Spanish armies constituted a
threat that the French quite simply could not ignore. Any sizeable concentration of
enemy soldiers had to be engaged, or at least contained, by a sufficiently strong force of
Imperial troops; otherwise they were free to go on the rampage with impunity.
Consequently, a collosal percentage of the French army'was rendered unavailable for
operations against Wellington because innumerable Spanish contingents kept
materialising all over the country.
In 1810, for example, when Massena invaded Portugal, the Imperial forces in the
Peninsula totalled a massive 325,000 men, but only about 1/4 of these could be spared
for the offensive - the rest [3/4] were required to contain the Spanish insurgents and
regulars. This was the greatest single contribution that the Spaniards were to make
and, without it, Wellington could not have maintained himself on the continent for
long - let alone emerge triumphant from the conflict." (Gates - "The Spanish Ulcer" pp 33-
34)
The better known Spanish generals were: Castanos, Blake, Reding, Romana, Belvedere,
San Juan, Cuesta, and Palafox.
General Castanos (Don Francisco Javier Castaos Aragorri Urioste y Olavide)
is remembered for his spectacular victory over the French under General
Dupont, whom he surrounded and compelled to surrender at Bailn in 1808.
In early 1808 Castanos acted steadily upon the principles which the Junta of
Seville had laid down; he harassed the French by detachments on all sides,
cut them off from supplies, and allowed them no opportunity of coming to a
regular engagement; "and thus, while the difficulties and distresses of the French were
continually increasing, the Spaniards acquired habits of discipline, and obtained
confidence in themselves and in their officers. Castanos even attempted to reform the
Spanish army, and introduce among them the moral and religious discipline, by which
Cromwell and the great Gustavus before him, made their soldiers invincible." (Robert
Southey - "History of the peninsular war ... " pp 490-491)
Then came the great victory at Baylen (Bailen).
In November 1808 however Marshal Lannes soundly defeated Castaos at Tudela.
Approx. 20 000 Spanish soldiers fought against 30 000 French and Polish soldiers; about 4
000 Spanish became casualties, compared to only 650 French. Castanos' forces were
present at Albuera, the bloodiest battle of the Peninsular War.
General Blake (Joaqun Blake y Joyes) was born in 1759. His father was an
Irishman. Blake saw action as a lieutenant of the grenadiers in the American
Revolutionary War. He took part in the siege of Gibraltar and the 1783
reconquest of Minorca from the British. At the outbreak of war with France
in 1793, Blake took part in the invasion of Roussillon.
Exploits in the field led to further promotions, and by the start of the Peninsular War in
1808, Blake held the rank of Lieutenant General. Blake and Cuesta were defeated in July
1808 at Medina del Rio Seco. In October Marshal Lefebvre fell upon Blake at Pancorbo,
turning back the hesitant Spanish advance. Blake retreated in good order, preventing
Napoleon's planned envelopment of the Spanish flank. Furious, the Emperor dispatched
Lefebvre and Victor in pursuit. The French were careless and allowed their forces to
disperse during the pursuit.
On 5 November Blake surprised his enemies again when, at Valmaceda, he suddenly
turned about and attacked the French vanguard, inflicting a stinging defeat on Vilatte's
leading division. However, another French corps then joined the chase, and Blake raced
west once more to evade encirclement. Blake chose to make another stand at Espinosa.
Victor spent the day recklessly flinging his divisions against the Spaniards without
success. The next day, however, a well-coordinated attack shattered Blake's center and
drove his army from the field in rout.
In 1811 Blake fought the French at Albuera alongside Beresford's AngloPortuguese
army. "The Spaniards under Blake's command successfully held the allied flank against
the strongest French infantry attack of the war, earning him a promotion to Captain
General. In reality, it was largely the personal initiative of Jos de Zayas that defeated the
French infantry assault and very likely saved the allied army from destruction." (-
wikipedia.org 2009)
For details of the fighting at Albuera (Zayas and Colborne vs French) read our article
here.
~
Madrid: blood on the streets.
"The Mamelukes, dashing scimitar in hand into the dense mass (of civilians),
sent a hundred heads flying in a trice, and opened a way for the Guard Chasseurs
and Guard dragoons, who set to furiously with their sabres." - de Marbot
Marshal Murat of Napoleon's cavalry, a simple and unsophisticated
soldier, squabbled with the Regency Junta by Ferdinand to govern in the
absence of the king. On 2nd May disorders began in all of Madrid, and
only in the evening the French were again masters of the city. The
French were attacked by the people of Madrid because it protected the
hated Godoy (one of the ministers of the Spanish sovereign Charles IV
who had taken shelter in France). Godoy's house was broken into and
sacked, his Guard Hussars dispersed by the King's body-guard.
On May 3rd - a day Francisco Goya would commemorate in one of his
most famous paintings - French soldiers fired into the Madrid crowds who had attacked
them. Some Spaniards were captured and executed by the French.
Chlapowski of Napoleon's Guard
Light Horse wrote: "There were
no more than 4,000 infantry in
Madrid, the Fusiliers of the
Guard, 12 artillery pieces and 200
Mamelukes at the Royal Palace.
The cavalry of the Guard was
stationed in villages 1 to 1.5 miles
from the city ... The inhibitants
collected in the key areas around
the city, armed with long swords
and knives. Many had firearms.
Most of them gathered in the city center at the square called the Puerto del Sol, but they
were also milling around in the side streets.
They shot at officers riding past with orders. Murat's ADC, Gobert, was stabbed several
times in the legs as he fought his way through the Puerto del Sol, but despite this he
made it right across town to the (Guard) Fusiliers, who straight away marched to the
arsenal. They took it without a shot and dispersed the crowd which had taken a few old
artillery pieces, but did not know how to fire them. About 2,000 peasants and citizens
were captured." (Chlapowski - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" p. 36, translated by Tim Simmons)
Baron de Marbot added his own description of the
events: "While defending the dismounted dragoon,
I had received a blow from a dagger in my jacket
sleeve, and two of my troopers had been slightly
wounded. My orders were to bring the divisions to
the Puerta del Sol, and they started at a gallop. The
squadrons of the guard, commanded by the
celebrated Daumesmil (picture), marched first, with
the Mamelukes leading.
The riot had had time to increase; we
were fired upon from nearly all the
houses... We lost there several men,
among others the terrible Mustapha,
that Mameluke who went near to
catching the Grand Duke Constantine
at Austerlitz. ... In the Puerta del Sol
we found Murat engaged with a huge compact
crowd of armed men.... The Mamelukes, dashing scimitar in hand into the dense mass,
sent a hundred heads flying in a trice, and opened a way for the Guard Chasseurs and
Guard Dragoons, who set to furiously with their sabres.
The Spaniards, rolled back from the square, tried to escape by the many wide streets
which meet there from all parts of the town, but they were stopped by other French
columns whom Murat had bidden to rendezvous at that point. There were also partial
combats in other quarters, but this was the most important, and decided the victory in
our favour. The insurgents had 1,200 or 1,500 men killed and many wounded, and their
loss would have been much greater if Murat had not given the order to cease firing."
When this massacre became known, an insurrection broke out in other parts of Spain,
namely Asturias, and soon afterward embraced the whole country. It is to be remarked
that this first spontaneous rising originated with the people, while the 'better' classes had
quietly submitted to the foreign yoke.
.

A los Heroes del 2 de mayo de 1808
~
French occupation: rape, pillage, and drunkenness.
The French did not or could not distinguish between
guerrilla and civilian. Hence innocent civilians
killed in reprisal or revenge.
"... number of towns whose inhabitants were accused of
firing on the French ... experienced appaling massacres."
Picture: French cuirassiers raping Spanish nuns.
Picture by La Roche.
The civilian population were treated by the French in a
manner that ranged from the merely boisterous to
downright brutal. Rape, pillage, murder, thievery,
drunkenness and anything else were common. "... the
number of towns whose inhabitants were accused of firing
on the French - most notably, Medina de Rio Seco and
Chinchon - experienced appaling massacres. To decribe this
policy as genocide - a term that can certainly be applied in
other contexts, most notably the Vendee - would be to go
too far.
Many French officers were, in fact, keenly aware that their aim had to be driving a
wedge between the insurgents and the populace as a whole and struggled hard to keep
their men under control, whilst further restraints were often exercized by the civilian
officials who became involved in the various anti-bandits tribunals established by such
rulers as Joseph Bonaparte." (Esdaile - "Popular Resistance in the French Wars" p 12)
Officer Jean Barres wrote; "A few grenadiers and a woman canteen-keeper, having
dropped behind, stopped in a village to pass the night. Next day they were given a guide
who led them into a prepared ambush; there their throats were all cut with refinements
of cruelty. The commandant of the (French) battalion, informed of the horrible ambush,
marched on the village, caused it to be burned to the ground, seized all the able-bodied
men, and announced that he would have them all out to death if they did not point out
the murderers. Four had already fallen under the bullets of the Grenadiers without
confessing, but the fifth revealed the assasins. ... This severe reprisal gives some idea of
what the Spanis war was like." (Barres - "Memoirs of a French napoleonic officer" pp 136-137)
Many French officers and generals looked for loot and women, with both seduction and
rape being frequent occurrences. Some generals brought their wives which angered
Napoleon. In July 1813 Napoleon wrote to General Clarke: "Give orders that all the wives
... (and) all the loose women, including those who go dressed as men, ... be removed
beyond the Garonne immediately."
Picture: Napoleonic troops in
Spanish church.
From the Film "Ashes" by A Wajda
(229 mins.)
Wherever the French soldiers went
the Church's property was
expropriated and the religious orders
dissolved. The French did not or
could not distinguish between
guerrilla and civilian. Hence innocent
civilians killed in reprisal or revenge.
The enraged soldiers often went on a
frenzy of carnage. Napoleon
attempted to improve the situation.
For example "before the Young
Guard hit the road to Spain for on-
the-jog training, the conscripts
received a very modern-seeming
orientation, stressing the Spanish
attitude toward such matters as religion and women ..." (Elting - "Swords Around a
Throne" pp 194-195)
Despite more or less genuine efforts to maintain discipline, the soldiers supplemented
their rations by living off the country, fed their campfires with furniture, window frames,
doors and fencing, and made off with a wide variety of valuables and trinkets.
The supplies of food and uniforms were unsufficient. The soldiers began wearing
captured Spanish uniforms. The Baden infantry replaced their leather helmets with the
ones of British 23rd Regiment of Light Dragoons, which had lost half their men in a
foolish charge at Talavera. The French 13rd Cuirassier Regiment had no armor and wore
brown Spanish jackets.

Los Sitios de Zaragoza - film polaco Popioly ("Cenizas" / "Ashes")
~
Spanish vs French: battles, sieges and combats.
The only battle to have a real impact on European diplomacy
and where won Wellington was Vitoria. The other battle of
importance was Baylen, being won by the Spaniards.
Surprisingly there was a great number of battles, sieges, combats and actions fought
between the Spaniards and the French. There were probably more fighting between the
two than between the French and the the excellent British-Portuguese army.
French vs Spanish: - 26 battles, combats and sieges in 1807-1808
- 19 battles, combats and sieges in 1809
Picture:
Spanish
gunners
and
infantry
in 1808.
Battle of
Somosierra Pass. (Author ?)
The Spanish troops fought well in several battles. Baylen, Tamames and Alcaniz are all
examples of clear-cut victories by the Spanish troops. After his defeat in 1813 at Ordal
Cross, Lord Bentinck stated: "The only good notice I can give is the bravery of the
English and Spanish soldiers and the valiant steadiness of the last."
According to Miquel Mir in May of 1815, the Spanish soldiers headed by Col. Torres
were "all honored with the distinction Cross of the Battle of Ordal with the legend "Rey,
Patria o la Muerte" (King, Our Country or Dead). Colonel Antony Bray was
distinguished with the highest Spanish military honor: the Cruz Laureada de San
Fernando."
The Spanish troops enjoyed several notable victories over the French:
- In July 1808 at Bailen Castanos defeated French corps under Dupont
- In May 1809 at Alcaniz the Spanish defeated General Suchet .
- In 1809 the Spanish troops defeated Marshal Ney at Ponte Sampaio.
The Spanish regulars and militia prevented Ney's force (7,200 infantry,
1,200 cavalry, and 13 guns) from the passage of the river. The French
were obliged to withdraw. The battle took place after Soult defeated
British corps at Elvina [Corunna]. (A vitria do marechal Soult na batalha de
Elvia, nas proximidades da Corunha,)
In October and November 1811 Lacy sent Eroles into France to raid the valley of the
Cerdagne. The Spaniards defeated the French National Guard and stole away with cattle
and huge contributions of money from the civilians. Napoleon was furious.
On 31 August 1813 at San-Marcial the Spanish infantry led by Freire
and Longa defeated French infantry. The Spanish infantry used British-
style tactics, delivered a volley and charged with bayonets. After a short
resistance the French fled. "Clouded by an early morning mist, seven
French divisions crept toward the Bidassoa (Spain) on August 31 (1813),
fording the river under cover of their guns. The allied positions at Vera
and Irun were surprised and overrun but not before alerting Freire, who drew his troops
into a line on the heights. The French columns lost all cohesion as they climbed over the
difficult terrain, reaching Freire in a confused mass.
The Spaniards welcomed them with a scathing volley and, advancing
with fixed bayonets, rolled Soult's leading divisions back down the hill.
Soult rallied the broken units at noon and committed fresh troops to a
second assault on the heights, but the line of Spanish bayonets held firm
against his final assault and the faltering French were badly beaten.
Unable to keep his men from retreating back over the river, Soult
(picture) ordered a withdrawal back to Irun and called off his offensive.
When, in the last laps of battle, Freire requested reinforcements from
the British to shore up his battered line, Wellington magnanimously
replied, "As he has already won his victory, he should keep the honour
of it for his countrymen alone." (-wikipedia.org)
There were also numerous Spanish defeats, see diagrams below:
.
1808: Battles, Sieges
Combats and Actions
1807/11/04 Pancorbo French under Lefebvre defeated Blake.
1808/02/16 Fall of Pamplona French under Darmaignac won.
1808/02/29 Fall of Barcelona French under Lecchci won.
1808/06/07 Bridge of Alcolea French under Dupont defeated Echavarri.
1808/06/20 1st Siege of Gerona
Spaniards under delRey/Bolvar defeated
Duhesme.
1808/06/14 2nd Battle of the
Bruch
Spaniards under Pamies defeated Chabran.
1808/06-08/15
1st Siege of Saragossa
Spaniards under de Lazan defeated Lefebvre.
1808/06/26-28 1st Battle of
Valencia
Spaniards under Saint-Marq defeated Moncey.
1808/07/14 Medina del Rio
Seco
French under Bessires defeated Cuesta/Blake.
1808/07/16 Mengibar Spaniards under Reding defeated Gobert.
1808/07/22 Bailn Spaniards under Castaos defeated Dupont.
1808/07-08/20 2nd Siege of
Gerona
Spaniards under Del Palacio defeated Duhesme.
1808/10/29 Zornoza
French under Lefebvre defeated Spaniards led by
Blake
1808/11/05 Valmaceda Spaniards under Blake defeated Vilatte
1808/11-12/05 Siege of Rosas Spaniards under Reding defeated St. Cyr
1808/11/07 Guenes French under Villatte defeated Blake
1808/11/10 Gamonal French under Bessires defeated Belvedere
1808/11/10 Espiosa French under Victor defeated Blake
1808/11/14 Reynosa French under Soult defeated Blake
1808/11/23 Tudela French under Lannes defeated Castaos
1808/11/30 Somosierra French under Napoleon defeated San Juan
1808/12/04 Fall of Madrid French under Napoleon defeated Castelar
1808/12/16 Cardadeu French under St. Cyr defeated Reding
1808/12/20 1st Battle of
Saragossa
French under Moncey defeated Palafox
1808/12/20 - 1809/02/20
2nd Siege of Saragossa
French under Moncey and Lannes defeated
Palafox
1808/12/21 Molins de Rey French under St. Cyr defeated Reding
.
Combats and Actions
1809/01/13 Ucls French under Victor defeated Venegas
1809/02/18 Igualada French under St. Cyr defeated Castro
1809/02/19 Valls French under St. Cyr defeated Reding
1809/02/20 2nd Battle of
Saragossa
French under Lannes defeated Palafox
1809/03/17 Meza de Ibor French under Victor defeated Del Paarque
1809/03/21 Miajadas
Spaniards under Henestrosa defeated
Subervie and Bordesoulle
1809/03/29 Medelln French under Victor defeated Cuesta
1809/05-12/11 3rd Siege of
Gerona
French under Verdier and Augerau defeated
Alvarez
1809/05/05 Monzon Spanish under Perena defeated Habert
1809/05/21 Alcaniz Spanish under Blake defeated Suchet
1809/05/22 Santiago Spanish under Carrera defeated Macune
1809/06/08 Ponte Sampaio Spanish under Norona defeated Ney
1809/06/15 Maria French under Suchet defeated Blake
1809/06/18 Belchite French under Suchet defeated Blake
1809/08/08 Arzobispo French under Soult defeated Albuquerque
1809/08/11 Almonacid French under Sebastiani defeated Venegas
1809/10/18 Tamames Spaniards under Del Parque defeated Marchand
1809/11/19 Ocaa French under Soult defeated Areizago
1809/11/29 Alba de Tormes French under Kellerman defeated Del Parque
.
Combats and Actions
1810/02/20 Vich French under Souham defeated O'Donnell
1810/03-04/21 Siege of Astorga French under Junot defeated Santocildes
1810/03/25 El Ronquillo French under Gazan defeated Ballesteros
1810/04-05/13 Siege of Lerida French under Suchet defeated Conde
1810/04/15 Zalamena French under Mortier defeated Ballesteros
1810/04/20 Margalef French under Harispe defeated O'Donnell
1810/05/16-24 Siege of Mequinenza French under Suchet defeated Carbon
1810/05/26 Aracena French under Mortier defeated Ballesteros
1810/05-07/10 Siege of Ciudad
Rodrigo
French under Ney & Massena defeated
Herrasi
1810/08/11 Villagarcia French under Girard defeated La Romana
1810/09/14 La Bispal
Spaniards under O'Donnell defeated
Schwartz
1810/11/03 Baza French under Milhaud defeated Blake
1810/12/16 - 1811/01/02
Siege of Tortosa
French under Suchet defeated Lilli
.
Combats and Actions
1811/01/11-23 1st Siege of
Olivenza
French under Soult defeated Herck
1811/01/15 Pla
Spaniards under Sarsfield defeated Orsatelli
Eugenio
1811/01/24 Villanueva de los
Castillejos
French under Gazan defeated Ballasteros
1811/01-03/10 1st Siege of
Badajoz
French under Soult defeated Imaz
1811/02/19 Gebora French under Mortier defeated Medizabal
1811/03/15-16 Siege of
Albuquerque
French under Latour-Maubourg defeated
Cagigal
1811/03/19 Monjuch French under Mathieu defeated Campoverde
1811/04-08/19 Siege of Figueras French under Macdonald defeated Martinez
1811/05/03 Figueras
French under Baraguay d'Hilliers defeated
Campoverde
1811/05-07/28 Siege of Tarragona French under Suchet defeated Contreras
1811/06/05-07 around Almeida French under Marmont defeated Spencer
1811/06/23 Benavides Spaniards under Santocildes defeated Valletaux
Spaniards under Santocildes defeated Serras &
1811/07/02 1st Combat at Orbigo
Bonnet
1811/07/18 2nd Combat at Orbigo
French under Serras & Bonnet defeated
Santocildes
1811/07/25 Monserrat French under Suchet defeated the Spaniards
1811/09-10/25 Siege of Saguntum French under Suchet defeated Blake
1811/10/25 Saguntum French under Suchet defeated Blake
1811/10-11/02 Spanish Raid into
France
(Cerdagne)
Spaniards under Eroles conducted successful
raid.
1811/11/05 1st Combat of Bornos Spaniards under Ballasteros defeated Semele
1811/12/24 Murviedro French under ??? defeated Spaniards
1811/12/25 - 1812/01/08
Siege of Valencia
French under Suchet defeated Blake
.
Combats and Actions
1812/01/09 Valencia French under Suchet defeated Blake
1812/01-02/02 Siege of Peniscola French under Severoli defeated Navarro
1812/01/24 Altafulla French under Mathieu defeated Eroles
1812/02/01 Los Poblaciones French under Conroux defeated Ballasteros
1812/06/01 2nd Combat of Bornos French under Conroux defeated Ballasteros
1812/06-08/18 Siege of Astorga Spaniards under Santocildes defeated French
1812/07/21 Castalla French under Delort defeated O'Donnell
1812/08/13 Bilbao Spaniards under Mendizabal defeated French
1812/08/14 Valladolid French under Clausel defeated Santcildes
1812/08/27-29 Bilbao French under Cafarelli defeated Mendizabal
.
Combats and Actions
1813/02/11 Tafalla Spaniards under Mina defeated French
1813/04/11 Yecla French under Harispe defeated Mijares
1813/04/11-12 Siege of Villena French under Suchet defeated Spaniards
1813/04-05/12 Siege of Castro-
Urdiales
French under Foy defeated Alvarez
1813/06/13 Carcagente French under Suchet defeated Del Parque
1813/06/23 La Salud Spaniards under Eroles defeated Decaen
1813/06-10/31 Blockade of Pamplona
Spaniards under de Espana defeated
Casson
1813/07/11 Capture of Saragossa Spaniards under Mina defeated Paris
1813/08/19 Amposta French under Robert defeated Del Parque
.
Combats and Actions
1814/04/16 Barcelona
10 days after Napoleon's abdication
Spaniards under Sarsfield defeated Habert

Actos Bicentenario Batalla Alcaiz 1809 - 2009
* Suchet's force : 7,200-9,600 infantry and 800 cavalry.
Blake's force : 7,800-8,500 infantry and 500 cavalry.
The victory is creditable to Spanish artillery, which
allowed the French infantry columns to close and
then mauled them with well-directed salvos . The
Spanish victory caused Suchet to evacuate most of
Aragon. The Spanish secured 25,000 new recruits.
French casualties : 800-2,000
Spanish casualties : 300
* - The tall and cheerful General Suchet was one of Napoleon's most
brilliant generals. After the Siege of Saragossa, he was given command of
the run-down III Corps which had been mishandled by Junot. "By way of
welcoming him, these troops - grandly renamed The Army of Aragon -
promptly ran away from a smaller Spanish force. That was their last
defeat. Suchet rebuilt his army from rear-rank yardbirds on up; restored
discipline and morale; and saw that it was properly paid, clothed, and fed,
largely from local resources." (Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" p 152)
Suchet also became governor of Aragon, which he by wise, unlike that of most of the
French generals, and adriot administration, in 2 years brought into submission. His
abolition of medieval restrictions on trade and industry so increased local prosperity that
the higher taxes needed to support his troops went almost unnoticed. The clergy was
treated with respect. Beaten soundly by the Spanish at Alcaiz (as mentioned above by
John Elting), Suchet sprung back and defeated Blake at Mara on 14 June 1809, and on 22
April 1810 defeated O'Donnell at Lleida.
Suchet was made marshal of France in 1811. (He was the only one general who won his
baton in Spain.) "Brilliant battles and methodical sieges added Catalonia and Valencia to
his realm. ... In just 3 years, with an amry that never numbered more than 50,000, he had
occupied three fortress-studded provinces and had bagged some 77,000 prisoners and
1,400 guns. Napoleon later declared that with 2 Suchets he could have conquered all of
Spain and kept it. During 1813-14, because of French defeats elsewhere, Suchet extricated
his troops from Spain, still undefeated. ... When word came of Suchet's death, Spanish
priests in the cathedral of Saragossa, the historic capital of Aragon, said mass in his
remembrance. Spanish peasants told travelers that he had been a good man.
Suchet defeated two British amphibious expeditions launched from Sicily against Spain's
east cost ... " (- J Elting, p 152)
~
Two sieges of Saragossa.
French marshal asked Palafox about "peace and capitulation."
Palafox responded, Guerra y cuchillo: "war and knife."
"The extreme brutality and vicious street fighting has
prompted comparison to the Battle of Stalingrad."
Picture: Polish infantry
storming Saragossa, by Jan
Suchodolski.
Some of the finest Polish foot troops, the
1st, 2nd, and 3rd Vistula Legion,
participated in the storming of the city's
walls.
The Spaniards rarely
surrendered a city without a
siege, and usually fought
fiercely even after the city walls
were breached. The siege of
Saragossa was very bloody and
became known in whole
Europe. During the First Siege
of Saragossa in summer 1808 a
French army under General
Lefebvre repeatedly stormed,
and was repulsed from the city.
After Lefebvre
(picture) received
reinforcements a
month of carnage
followed in
which the French
and Poles
demolished large sections of Saragossa. The French mines reduced many buildings to
ruins. The Spaniards saturated the timbers of many houses with rosin and pitch, and set
fire to those which could no longer be maintained.
The defenders also interposed a burning barrier, which often delayed the French and
Poles and prevented them from pushing their successes during the confusion that
necessarily followed the bursting of the mines. The constant bombardment, the explosion
of mines, the crash of falling buildings, clamorous shouts, and the continued echo of
musketry deafened the ear, while volumes of smoke and dust clouded the air.
Part of the city was captured by the French and Polish infantry, only to be forced out
again in furious street fighting. "A Polish cavalry squadron of the Vistula Uhlans battled
its way into the heart of the city but unsupported by infantry it fell back." (- wikipedia) In
August the French were compelled to lift the siege and retreat north. By then the
unconquerable commander of Saragossa, Palafox, had become legendary in Spain.
Palafox then attempted a campaign in the open country, but when Napoleon's own army
destroyed one of the Spanish armies, Palafox was forced back into Saragossa, where he
sustained a still more memorable second siege.
The Second Siege
of Saragossa
(December 1808 -
February 1809) is
noted for its
brutality. The
French, Polish and
Swiss troops were
commanded by
Marshals Lannes (picture), Moncey and Mortier.
The Swiss infantry were known for discipline, training, and well controlled musket
volleys. French General Merle once said: "it was pity that the Swiss couldn't handle 2
muskets at once, if they only could , he would issue them".
A French marshal asked Palafox about "peace and capitulation." Palafox responded,
Guerra y cuchillo: "war and knife." Individual combats were remarkable for their ferocity.
At one point in a convent the French infantry held the altar end of the chapel and
exchanged shots for hours on end with the Spanish entrenched in the nave and the
belfry. In February the fighting ended in the fall of the city, or rather the cessation of
resistance, for Saragossa was in ruins and a pestilence had swept away thousands of the
defenders. Palafox himself, suffering from the epidemic, fell into the hands of the French
and was kept prisoner until 1813. Approx. 50,000 (!) people had perished in the siege.
French General Suchet wrote, "It would be impossible correctly to describe the spectacle
which was then presented by the unfortunate city of Saragossa. The hospitals could no
longer admit any more sick or wounded. The burying grounds were too small for the
number of dead carried thither; the corpses sewed up in cloth bags were lying by
hundreds at the doors of the several churches." (Suchet - "War in Spain")
"Although ultimately defeated, the defenders of Saragossa had once more covered
themselves with glory and had given the invader a demonstartion of fanatical, national
resistance. It was a demonstration the French army was never to forget and, at Gerona
and elsewhere, it was to inspire Spaniards to maintain replica struggles that have few
parallels in the history of war." (Gates - "The Spanish Ulcer" p 128)
The sieges of Saragossa are widely considered one of the most brutal battles of the
Napoleonic Wars.
"The extreme brutality and vicious street fighting has prompted comparison to the Battle
of Stalingrad."
(- wikipedia.org)
Don Jos de Palafox y Melzi,
Duke of Saragossa
Below is a British poem "The Siege of Saragossa"
published in The Morning Chronicle in April 1809:
But native valour, noble pride,
Arrange her heroes side by side,
A rampart that defies the tide,
Which threatens Saragossa.
Each house a fortress to defend,
Father and Son refuse to bend,
And sights are seen which hearts might rend,
In struggling Saragossa.
Not so with thee, thou pride of Spain!
Carnage and ruin spread in vain;
Still Sons of Arragon remain
To fight for Saragossa.
In house by house, in street by street,
The Franks a brave resistance meet;
Hopeless and baffled they retreat
Huzza! for Saragossa. (...)
Though wasting flames around thee curl'd,
Thou bursting mines to ruin hurled,
Defiance still her flag unfurled,
In gallant Saragossa.
O'erwhelm'd by numbers and o'ercome,
No hand to parley beat the drum,
Still true at heart, sullen and dumb,
Fell, glorious, Saragossa.

Rodaje "Los Sitios de Zaragoza"

Trailer de "Zaragoza, ciudad sitiada"

Los sitios de Zaragoza
Map of Bailen Campaign in 1808

Storming of the city by Polish and French infantry.
~
Spanish victory at Baylen in 1808.
The victorious Spaniards proudly proclaimed themselves
the "conquerors of the conquerors of Austerlitz."
The news about French defeat sent shock waves
throughout Europe.
In May 1808, the
whole Spain was
up in arms
against the
French. Juntas
led the revolts
from Aragon to
Galicia, and
from Catalonia
to Asturia.
Despite this
situation Murat
continued to
send relatively
optimistic
reports to
Napoleon and
so, the Emperor
was badly
misinformed
about the true
nature of the
war.
To deal with the
supposedly
weak and
isolated trouble
spots, Napoleon
drew up a plan
which Murat put
into operation.
Large army was to be kept at and around Madrid, while Dupont's corps was to move
south, on Cordova and Seville.
(See map).
Dupont's corps when it first entered Spain was about 25,000 men, of these 21,000 were fit
for duty. It was strengthened by:
- Guard Marine Battalion
- Swiss Infantry Regiment
- Swiss Infantry Regiment
- a provisional heavy cavalry regioment
"General Dupont was entrusted with the pacification of Andalusia in southern Spain by
Napoleon, but after sacking Cordoba the French commander found himself faced by a
massive popular rising and the 30,000-strong army of General Reding.
Instead of retreating over the Sierra Morena immediately, Dupont unwisely lingered in
the plain of Andujar, and when at last he did decide to retire, his column, burdened by
wounded and loot, found the road toward distant Madrid threatened by the Spaniards."
(Chandler- "Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" p 39)
"Along the line of march, and in the town of Andujar, where he arrived the evening of
the 18th, Dupont found terrible proofs of Spanish ferocity: his stragglers had been
assasinated, and his hospital taken; the sick, the medical attendants, the couriers, the
staff officers, in fine, all who had the misfortune to be weaker than the insurgents, were
butchered, with circumstances of extraordinary barbarity, and upwards of 400 men had
perished in this miserable manner since the fight of Alcolea." (Napier - History of the War
in Peninsula 1807-1814 p 88)
On
19th
July
the
Spanish troops met Dupont at Baylen (Bailn, Bailen). The battle went wrong for the
French already in the beginning. "The Spanish General had 25.000 regular infantry, 2,000
cavalry and a very heavy train of artillery. Large bodies of armed peasantry, commanded
by officers of the line, attended this army, and the numbers varied from day to day, but
the whole multitude that advanced towards the Guadalquivir could not have been less
than 50,000 men." (Napier - p 90)
Dupont sent Chabert's brigade (3.000 infantry) west of Baylen against Spanish positions.
But Coupigny's division threw back the attackers. Dupont feared that Spanish troops led
by Castaos will attack him from the rear and ordered a fresh attack. French brigade of
heavy cavalry drove through 2 Spanish battalions but was forced to withdraw. Chabert's
brigade was again repulsed and Schramm's brigade (2,000 Swiss) were thrown back by
Reding's Spanish division.
At 8am the French attacked again. Pannetier's brigade (3,500 infantry) however was
forced to fall back by Reding's troops. At about 12.30 pm Dupont led a last and desperate
attack against the centre of the Spanish line. In front marched the Marines of Imperial
Guard.
But this attack also failed, Dupont was
wounded, some battalions
disintegrated while the Swiss deserted
to the enemy.
"Towards evening Dupont placed
himself at the head of the Guard
Marines who were ployed in column
along the road. Sword in hand and
followed by his staff, he ordered the
drummers to beat the charge and advanced. What remained of his division moved
forward under a withering fire. Dupont was wounded, the marines' attack repulsed, and
some of the Swiss, refusing to fight against their compatriots, deserted to the enemy."
The Spanish division led by La Pea closed in on the French rear Dupont sued for a
ceasefire. After prolonged negotiations, the French surrendered on condition that his
troops would be shipped back to France. Approx. 12.000-18.000 French soldiers laid
down their arms; and 2.000 were dead and wounded on the battlefield. The Spanish
casualties were less than 1.000 killed and wounded.
The postbattle terms of surrender included the repatriation of the French army back to
France. Arguing that a repatriated French army would simply be marched back into
Spain to fight again, the British convinced Spain to renege on its promise. The Spaniards
dumped the POWs on the deserted island of Cabrera, which had insufficient food, water,
shelter and medical facilities. Thousands of POWs died from malnutrition and disease.
The French held on the hulks in Britain also suffered greatly.
The news about French defeat at Baylen sent shock waves
throughout Europe. The Spanish regiments proclaimed
themselves the "conquerors of the conquerors of Austerlitz." It
was the worst disaster suffered by the French army since the
turn of the century. Spain was overjoyed, France dismayed, and
Napoleon outraged. The defeat was inflicted by an opponent
for whom the emperor had affected nothing but scorn.
Napoleon was furious: "The capitulation of Baylen ruined
everything. In order to save his wagons of booty, Dupont
commited his soldiers to the disgrace of a surrender that is
without parallel." The defeat had widespread consequences. Although Napoleon was not
personally involved, the reputation of his armies suffered. Napoleon was forced to
intervene personally in Spain, temporarily restoring the French position in the Peninsula,
but any hope of an easy occupation of Spain ended at Baylen.
Nowhere was the news of Spanish successes more welcome than in London. Past
enmities were forgotten, as British society went mad with fabulous notions of Hispanic
heroism and zeal. The press launched a popular campaign in support of the Spanish
rebels. British enthusiasm turned to delirium, however, when deputies from Supreme
Junta arrived in London seeking aid.
The Spanish deputies ask for cash and they got it - 1.5 million in silver as well as 120,000
muskets and 100,000 uniforms. It was after Baylen that the revolution came to a head,
and that part of the high nobility who had accepted the Bonaparte dynasty or wisely
kept back, came forward to join the popular cause. Napier wrote: "It is truly astonishing
that Dupont, who from his rank must have been well acquainted with Napoleon's Italian
campaigns, should have caught so little of the spirit of his master. And then the
capitulation of General Vedel, after his retreat was actually victory by himself, without
any great imprudence ! Joseph called Dupont's capitulation a 'defection". (- Napier p 97)

BAILEN 1808

Batalla de Bailn
French casualties: 2,200 dead, 400 wounded, 17,635 captured
Spanish casualties : 243 dead, 735 wounded
~
"...and war to the knife was declared upon the French.
-Ch Summerville
"The War of Independence did not produce on the Spanish side
great generals ... The true giants ... were the leaders of those
intrepid bands that almost from the very beginning made the
war in Spain a nightmare for the Napoleonic armies."
(G Lovett- "Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain")
Picture: guerillas attack on French
convoy.
Picture by: ?
The Spanish word guerilla means
"little war". It is very old and well-
established way of fighting,
usually employed against
overwhelming odds. Spain is
Europe's second most
mountainous country and only
Switzerland has a higher terrain.
The central 2/5 of the country is
primarily high plains crossed by
mountain ranges and rivers. The
French transport wagons could
only be dragged with difficulty
and toil, by hill and hollow, over
roots, rocks and stumps. Nature
had formed the country for a war
of ambuscades and surpirses.
Who were the guerillas ?
They were no models of discipline
and good behaviour. It is also
difficult to show that they were of
very much value in military terms.
In places where the French could
not deploy their cavalry (dragoons) the guerillas were able to gain the occassional
success, whilst they were also able to put up a good show behind the walls of such towns
as Gerona and Roses. Gerona even came to rival Saragossa as the embodiment of
Spanish patriotism.
William Stothert of the British 3rd Foot Guards wrote: "... they are incited to attack the
enemy's convoys and straggling parties as much by the hope of plunder as from
patriotism." The guerillas also captured quite few Englishmen (stragglers, deserters etc.)
who were either killed, sold or exchanged for weapons, money or gold.
Not only local peasants formed the guerilla bands. There was also an assortment of
freebooters, deserters, smugglers and bandits who were organized into ad hoc regional
private armies. The guerrillas carried on the war as their own cause, independently of all
foreign influence and to their own interest. They made no formidable appearance as a
body, but were nevertheless extremely dangerous to the French. As an opportunity
offered itself the most daring among the civilians came out and joined the guerrillas.
It was not uncommon to see them standing out a whole day in sight of a vigilant enemy,
in order to intercept a carrier or to capture supplies. It was in this way that the younger
Mina captured the Viceroy of Navarra, appointed by Joseph Bonaparte, and that Julian
made a prisoner of the commander of fortress at Ciudad Rodrigo. Rovira captured the
great citadel of San Fernando de Figueres. Antonio Moliner Prada writes: "Thus, at the
head of 2,000 irregulars, on the night of 9 April 1811 Rovira got into the fortress with the
help of three young Catalans who had secured employment in its magazines. Having
knocked out the Neapolitan troops defending the gate and detained the sleeping
governor, the Spaniards found that they had taken 850 prisoners ... 16,000 muskets,
immense supplies of clothing and shoes, and 400,000 francs."
Actually the population of whole provinces took up arms and made a partisan warfare,
as in Galicia and Asturias. Antonio Moliner Prada writes: " Citizens of Igualada, Manresa
and other neighbouring towns raised such a force in the Bruc mountains with the aim of
halting General Schwartz's march on Zaragoza. The skirmish, which took place on June 6,
had the desired effect and suceeded in putting the imperial troops to flight. Made
famous by the incident of the so-called 'drummer of Bruc', this was an important
psychological victory - it was, indeed, the first defeat that Napoleon's army suffered in
Spain - and was to become symbol repeatedly exploited by the civil and military
authorities in their anti-French propaganda campaign."
Napoleon, failing to grasp the nature of the revolt
in Spain, issued orders to the marshals which incl.
the usual talk of 'flying columns', making
examples', 'utilising the Spanish authorities' and so
on. He assumed that the French troops would be
capable of holding the territory and be free to
release units for service in other theaters.
Picture: French dragoons searching for
Spanish guerillas. Artwork by M Churms.
However, Napoleon's calculations
were unrealistic, for example Ney
tried frantically to crush the
opposition but without success. He virtually gave up attempting to
pacify the southern reaches of Galicia. Ney he had to deploy entire
brigades to keep a grip on Lugo, Corunna and Ferrol. Two brigades were
absorbed in pacyfying the Mondonedo district. The drain of occupying
and garrisoning their conquests was weakening the French and their
offensive capabilities.
Private Mignolet of 1st Young Guard Tirailleurs wrote: "We are surrounded by 40.000
Spanish brigands whom we must fight every day - and the situation gets no better, but
worse. Their bands grow bigger every year, for we burn their towns and villages ... "
(The few regiments of Young Guard left for Spain in October 1809)
The guerrillas ambushed French
convoys, attacked French
encampments, and pounced upon,
dodged, and fought French columns.
Local guides could not be trusted
unless their families were held hostage
for their good behaviour. It was best to
move quickly and by night. Lists of
casualties included many "ambushed"
and "disappeared". Couriers and
convoys could get through only under
strong escort from one fortified post to
another.
The passage of the French troops across Spain and Portugal became disruptive. The
French were obliged to be constantly armed against an enemy who, continually flying,
always reappeared, and was everywhere without being actually seen. Abb de Pradt
described the situation "It was, neither battles nor engagements which exhausted the
French forces, but the incessant molestation of an invisible enemy, who, if pursued,
became lost among the people, out of which he reappeared immediately afterward with
renewed strength. The lion in the fable tormented to death by a gnat gives a true picture
of the French army in Spain."
On few occassions the guerrillas aped the army and swelled their corps to several
thousands men. This however gave the French considerable advantage. Rendered
incapable by their great numbers to conceal themselves, and to suddenly disappear
without being forced into battle, the guerrillas were dispersed and disabled for a length
of time.
The activities of guerillas required enormous numbers of French troops to simply protect
messengers, escort supply trains, and hold the territory. These wild warriors held down
200,000 of Napoleon's troops. Especially busy were the French dragoons and provisional
regiments of cavalry and infantry. But their mission was a Mission Impossible; the roads
were poor, the terrain was difficult, the populace was hostile and the guerillas were
elusive.
The French had great difficulties with communicating with each other, it resulted slower
concentration of troops. Napier writes: "... the French could never communicate with
each other nor combine their movements, except by the slow method of sending officers
with strong escorts; whereas, their adversaries could correspond by post, and even by
telegraph an advantage equal to a reinforcement of 30,000 men." (- Napier p 129)
Wellington wrote: "The French armies have no communications
and one army has no knowledge of the position or of the
circumstances in which the others are placed, whereas I have
knowledge of all that passes on all sides."
Scores of vital messages failed to get through and, for example,
hardly any of the correspondance between King Joseph and
Marmont reached destination, with the result that, the marshal
was unaware that Joseph' Army of the Centre was en route to
join him, and, consequently, went ahead and fought the Battle
of Salamanca with 15,000 men less than he might have had.
Likewise, on a number of occassions, Wellington owed his
salvation to the intelligence role of the guerillas. Gates writes:
"Immediately after Talavera ... [Wellington] confidently
marched off to attack what he believed to be only 10,000 French troops with a force of
18,000-strong.
In fact, the Imperial 'detachment' consisted of three entire army corps and numbered
well over 50,000 men.
Had Wellington not received a timely warning of his miscalculation from the guerillas, it
is extremely probable that in the ensuing battle both he and the British army would have
ceased to be active factors in the scenarios of the Peninsular war. As it was, he was able
to retreat in time." (- Gates, p 35)
Wellington was not the only allied general who benefited from the
activities of the guerillas. "If Moore's operations were being conducted with
a sure grasp of the positions and intentions of the enemy, it was in large
part due to the guerillas' capture of large numbers of French couriers."
John Tone, whose study of the guerillas
of Navarre is by far the most detailed work that the
English-language boasts on the subject, writes: "The
guerillas also effected a kind of psychological warfare
in which the French had to be constantly on the alert,
while the Allied armies could rest securely in the midst
of a vigilant peasantry. ... In guerilla country, the
French governed only where they could actually have
troops in place. ... War in Spain did not pay Napoleon
as it had in other parts of Europe. On the contrary,
guerilla action made the occupation of Spain a constant
burden and made the Spanish war unwinnable." (John
Tone - "The Fatal Knot: the Guerilla War in Navarre and the
Defeat of Napoleon" p 5)
Spain was to Napoleon's army what Vietnam was to
the powerful US Army in 20th century.
The guerilla war in Spain was a very bloody war. The
Spaniards were fired up by priests who were terrified
by the fate that had fallen upon their brethren in
France. (The Spanish clergy was hostile not only to the French atheists and occupants but
also to English "heretics". Local peasants sometimes had hidden all their kids having
been told the English would eat them.) Sometimes the priests and monks led the
peasants into action. Jomini wrote: "... one fine night the companies of the train-men and
horses- disappeared, and we were never able to discover what became of them: a solitary
wounded corporal escaped to report that the peasants, led by their monks and priests,
had thus made away with them." ( Jomini - "The Art of War.")
"The outstandning characteristic of this war in Spain was its squalid cruelty. Shooting
prisoners out of hand was common on both sides and, for captured Frenchmen,
comparatively merciful treatment. The French came with a hard hand, living off the
country, dealing harshly with opposition, too frequently plundering. The Spanish waged
war as they had always done, at home or in other countries. A captive Frenchman might
be buried with only his head above the ground, to be used as a pin in a bowling match.
As alternatives he might be
hanged by his feet,
sawn apart between two planks,
skinned alive,
boiled alive,
impaled, and then grilled over a campfire,
or crucified upside down.
Hospitals were favorite guerillas targets; patients
and medical personnel were massacred together.
Women were usually mistreated; gang rape was
only the introduction to torture. Even children
might not be spared. Some Spanish regular units
rivaled the guerillas
(at first some veteran Spanish officers tried to observe the rules of war, at considerable
personal risk.)
In one early engagement the 15th Chasseurs a Cheval lost 30 men taken
prisoner. The two armies remained in confrontattion during the night,
and the chasseurs watched Spanish regulars kindle a big fire - then throw
their captive comrades into the middle of it. For the rest of the war the
15th Chasseurs never took a Spanish prisoner, once sabering a claimed
total of 1,500 Spaniards as they begged for mercy.
Roguet shot all 600 prisoners taken from one guerilla band, using a local
cemetery for convenience's sake and sparing only 4 boys. He did the
same to Porlier's guerillas in nearest town.There were always casual
murders by individual Spaniards and violent French reprisals, sometimes
10 lives to 1. Eventually the National Junta took the courageous step of ordering rewards
for living prisoners, which somewhat reduced the needless bloodshed." (Elting - "Swords
around a throne" pp 514-515)
In Catalonia, the guerillas subjected tens and perhaps hundreds of captured French
soldiers and officers to torture and humiliation before killing them. One of the guerilla
leaders, Merino, specialized in castrating captured French officers. Another leader,
Chacarito, had no other pleasure than rape and torture. He was the terror of Castille. A
captive Frenchman might be buried with only his head above ground, to be used as a
pin in a bowling match. After the battle of Salamanca some Spaniards had dug up the
body of a French general and were mutilating it; the English "rescued it."
Not only the Spanish nation resisted the French occupation, there were also guerillas in
Portugal as well. The guerilla war in Portugal however is poorly researched. According
to Charles Esdaile "there is no discreet study of her insurection and guerilla movement at
all, the only information that we have coming from British accounts of the Peninsular
War. Yet these are in reality all but useless: written by historians interested only in the
doings of Wellington's army, their treatment of the subject is at best superficial." (Esdaile -
"Popular Resistance in the French wars" pp 207-208)
Facing in Spain by seemingly endless struggles that entailed a great deal of danger but
precious little glory, the once loyal soldiers of the emperor grew cynical and resentful,
with the result that their willingness to sacrifice their lives fell off dramatically.
Still worse, perhaps, frightened, harassed and
frustrated, the French troops became increasingly
undisciplined and engaged in acts of revenge or
casual brutality. Esdaile writes: "Also problematic
in this respect was an increase in desertion that
provided the Allies with an important source of
manpower whilst simultanously augmenting the
need for new conscripts; ... substantial numbers of
deserters also appear to have been serving with the
famous guerilla commander, Francisco Espoz y
Mina" (Esdaile - Popular Resistance in the French
Wars p 202)
Relations between the various guerilla bands were sometimes stormy, or even broken by
open clashes over foraging or recruiting areas. Personal quarrels among their leaders
might result in killings and desertions to the French. Espoz Mina shot several
competitors for "displaying treasonous intentions."
The French took advantage of this situation. "General Roguet twice arranged the capture
of forged documents which made it appear that he had negotiated an understanding
with certain guerilla leaders, thus creating first-class rows among various bands.
Deserters from the guerillas could pass into well-paid counter-guerilla units." (- John
Elting, "Swords ...")
French line infantry 1808-1812,
by Dmitrii Zgonnik of Ukraine
"He (General Foy) warned us that we should always march before daybreak
and that we should not halt before night, in order to conceal our traces from
the numrous parties that were scouring the kingdom. He recommended us
to march with closed ranks and not to stray from the column under penalty
of being killed by the peasants." - officer Jean Barres

La Guerilla

Guerilla
~
The British corps in Peninsula.
It is a curious fact that by the mere force of circumstances
the Spanish Catholics were driven to an alliance with
protestant England, a power which the Spaniards were
accustomed to look upon as the incarnation of the most
damnable heresy and little better than the Grand Turk
himself became ally.
"Before the Peninsular War, British
military operations on mainland Europe
had been marked by bungling half-
measures and a series of failures. The
British Army was not large enough to
operate on its own against the French,
and without strong allies, Britain had
been forced to withdraw from Europe.
On June 18, the Portuguese uprising broke out. The popular uprisings in Portugal and
Spain encouraged the British to commit substantial forces once again and British
propaganda was quick to capture the novelty of the situation; for the first time, peoples,
not princes, were in rebellion against the Great Disturber". (wikipedia.org)
"As early as April, General Castanos, then commanding the camp of San Roque, had
entered into communication with Sir Hew Dalrymple, the Governor of Gibraltar. He was
resolved to seize any opportunity that offered to resist the French, and he appears to
have been the first Spaniard who united patriotism with prudent calculation - readily
acknowldging the authority of the Junta of Seville, and stiffling the workings of self-
interest, with a virtue by no means common to his countrymen at that period." (Napier -
History of the War in Peninsula 1807-1814 p 36)
For Sir John Moore's failed campaign in Spain
and the battle of Corunna in 1809 click here.
With the Spanish armies defeated and the British under Sir John Moore
driven from the country, the winter 1808/1809 seemed full of promise for
the French troops. The projected invasion of Portugal - delayed by Moore's
interference - could now go ahead. However, the interminable guerilla
warfare continued to occupy vast numbers of French troops and the ever resilient
Spaniards were soon raising new troops to fling into the fray.
Britain actually profited from the campaign of 1809 after Napoleon had been compelled
to leave Spain hurriedly to take command in Germany. Had he been able to remain on
the Peninsula, it is probable the campaign in Spain would have turned out very
differently. The Emperor might well have broken Spanish resistance and driven
Wellington into the sea. (Rothenberg - "The Emperor's Last Victory" p 27)
In April Wellesley took command of the British army in Portugal, plus a new, British-
trained Portuguese army. On landing at Mondego Bay, Wellington (Wellesley), heard the
welcome news of the great Spanish victory at Baylen and, later, General Spencer arrived
with units drawn from the Mediterranean. Wellington was a skilfull tactician, and later
he earned reputation among the French for being a cautious general who only fought
defensive actions from positions of overwhelming advantage (named by some Fabius
The Cunctator). By May 1809, the French armies were victorious almost everywhere in
Spain. Victor advanced on Badajoz, defeating Cuesta at Medellin. Soult occupied
northern Portugal, but halted at Oporto to refit his army before advancing on Lisbon.
Fabius the Cunctator (280 BC203 BC)
Some Frenchmen thought Wellington was the modern Fabius the Cunctator.
The Duke earned reputation among his enemies for being a very cautious
general who only fought defensive actions from positions of overwhelming
advantage. This is not really correct as Wellington fought also several ofensive
actions (for example Salamanca, Vittoria).
Duke of Marlborough (16501722)
To some British military historians Marlborough is the greatest British
commander in history. For others this is Wellington. Wellington raised
the reputation of the British army to a level unknown since Marlborough.
Meanwhile more British troops were landing in Peninsula. Edward Costello of 95th Rifles
writes: "... after a tolerably pleasant voyage we anchored off Lisbon [28 June 1809]. From
thence, in a few days, we proceeded in open boats up the River Tagus, and landed about
4 miles from Santarem, where we encamped for the night. On the following day we
marched into the city of Santarem amid the cheers of its inhabitants, who welcomed us
with loud cries Viva os Ingleses valerosos !" (Costello - "The Peninsular and Waterloo
Campaigns" p 17)
Initially Wellington's corps in Spain was viewed by Russia, Prussia and Austria as of
little importance, and the Allied politicians and generals saw no British troops in the
main theater of war facing the Emperor himself. The Allies asked Great Britain to send
troops into central Europe, to fight the French, but the Government refused.
As strategist Wellington was one of the best in Europe. Striking north, he surpised Soult
and drove him into the interior. With Portugal in revolt all around him, Soult seemed
doomed, but escaped by a daring march through the mountains to Orense. Wellesley
then turned on Victor and advanced up the Tagus River together with Cuesta. Victor
retired to Talavera, where Joseph joined him with the French reserves. Wellesley
repulsed Victor in a 2-day battle, but had to retreat hurriedly when Soult, Ney, and
Mortier emerged from the mountains to his left rear.
In 1810 Soult rapidly cleared all of southern Spain except Cadiz, which he
left Victor to blockade. Massena took Ciudad Rodrigo, and forced
Wellington back through Almeida to Busaco, where Wellington offered
battle. Goaded by his headstrong corps commanders, Massena made an
unsuccessful frontal attack. The next day, he turned Wellington's flank, and
the latter thereupon retired - devastating the countryside as he went - into
a previously fortified position called the "Lines of Torres Verdes."
De Rocca wrote: "The French sought, in vain, to provoke Lord Wellington
to come out and give them battle. That modern Fabius The Cunctator remained
immovable in his lines, and coolly contemplated his enemies below him, from the top of
his high rocks." (de Rocca, - p 177)
During the retreat from Torres Vedras, Ney worsted Wellington in a series of much-
lauded rearguard actions (Pombal, Redinha, Casal Novo, Foz d'Aronce), but was
ultimately removed from command for insubordination.
In 1811 Massena grimly held his starving army before Lisbon for a month, then fell back
to Santarem, where Wellington did not choose to attack him. In March, with supplies
exhausted, Massena managed a skillful retreat on Salamanca, with Ney again displaying
a savage talent for rear-guard fighting. Soult, meanwhile captured Badajoz. Victor was
defeated at Barrosa by Graham, but the cowardice of La Pena made it a fruitless success,
and Victor soon renewed the blockade.
In April, Wellington besieged Almeida. Massena advanced to its relief, attacking
Wellington at Fuentes de Onoro. The French claimed victory, because they won the
passage at Poco Velho, cleared the wood, turned the British right flank, obliged the
cavalry to retire, and forced Wellington to relinquish 3 miles of ground. The British also
claimed victory because the village of Fuentes was in their hands and their object
(covering the blockade of Almeida) was attained. The French, without being in any
manner molested, retired.
Outgeneraled, Wellington was saved only by the innate
toughness of his troops and Bessieres' failure to support
Massena. Marshal Bessiers refused to obey orders from
Massena. After this battle, the Almeida garrison escaped
through the British lines by a night march. Napier writes: "In
the battle of Fuentes Onoro, more errors than skill were
observable on both sides ..." (Napier - Vol III, p 87)
Part of Wellington's army under Beresford had
besieged Badajoz, until Soult forced it to retire on
Albuera. Albuera was the bloodiest battle of the
Penisnular war. Both sides claimed victory.
Wellington joined Beresford and unskillfully
renewed the siege of Badajoz. Soult then moved to
Seville. Marmont (who had replaced Massena) joined Soult, and Wellington retired - but
soon appeared before Ciudad Rodrigo. In September, Marmont crowded him back and
reprovisioned that fortress.
During 1810-1811, the majority of the French annual conscript calls of 180.000-200.000
conscripts went to Spain and dramatically lowered the quality of the French troops. The
lack of seasoned officers caused replacement battalions and squadrons returning to Spain
to be led by inexperienced officers of reserve formations and second rate troops.
Additionally Napoleon considered the war in Spain so insignificant that he rarely
bothered to bring to it his military genius, relying instead on his marshals and
simultaneously launching his disastrous Russian campaign of 1812. The French armies
were commanded by the bowlegged and grumpy Soult, the growing bald and
irresponsible Ney, and the well educated Marmont who outmarched and often
outmaneuvered Wellington.
At Salamanca in
1812 Wellington
defeated Marshal
Marmont. French
General Foy wrote
in his diary, "This
battle is the most
cleverly fought, the
largest in scale, the
most important in
results, of any that
the English have
won in recent times.
It brings up Lord
Wellington's reputation almost to the level of that of Marlborough. Up to this day we
knew his prudence, his eye for choosing good positions, and the skill with which he used
them. But at Salamanca he has shown himself a great and able master of manoeuvring.
He kept his dispositions hidden nearly the whole day: he allowed us to develop our
movement before he pronounced his own: he played a close game; he utilised the oblique
order in the style of Frederick the Great.".
.

Batalla de Arapiles (Battle of Salamanca) 1812.
The great victory was flawed by the failure of Spanish troops to guard
a crucial escape route over the bridge at Alba de Tormes, possibly by
a misunderstanding between Spanish and British commanders.
Furthermore, the pursuit failed to destroy or to capture the fleeing French.
Between September 19 and October 21 Wellington besieged
Burgos but failed to capture it and retreated to Portugal
being pursued by the enemy and losing several thousands
men. Napier wrote: "The French gathered a good spoil of
baggage ... According to muster-rolls, about 1,000 Anglo-
Portuguese were killed, wounded and missing ... but this
only refers to loss in action; Hill's loss between the Tagus
and the Tormes was, including stragglers, 400, and the
defence of Alba de Tormes cost one hundred.
If the Spanish regulars and partidas marching with the two
armies be reckoned to have lost a 1,000 which considering
their want of discipline is not exaggerated, the whole loss
previous to the French passage of the Tormes will amount
perhaps to 3,000 men.
But the loss between the Tormes and the Agueda was certainly greater, for nearly 300
were killed and wounded at the Huebra; many stragglers died in the woods, and
Jourdan said the prisoners, Spanish, Portuguese and English, brought to Salamanca up to
the 20th November, were 3,520. The whole loss of the double retreat cannot therefore be
set down at less than 9,000, including the loss in the siege.
Some French writers have spoken of 10,000 being taken between the Tormes and the
Agueda, and Souham estimated the previous loss, incl. the siege of Burgos, at 7,000. But
the King in his dispatches called the whole loss 12,000, including therein the garrison of
Chinchilla, and he observed that if the cavalry generals, Soult [not the marshal] and
Tilley, had followed the allies vigorously from Salamancathe loss would have been much
greater. ... On the other hand English authors have most unaccountably reduced the
British loss to as many hundreds." (Napier - "History of the War in the Peninsula 1807-1814"
Vol IV, p 155)
Despite the heavy losses suffered during retreat, the year of 1812 was a good year for
Wellington, his troops captured Cuidad Rodrigo and Badajoz and defeated Marmont at
Salamanca. The effect of Salamanca was to convince the British Government finally that
the war in Spain should be continued. This battle partially dispelled Wellingtons
reputation for being a cautious general who only fought defensive actions from positions
of overwhelming strength. For Napoleon however, losing in Spain in 1812 or 1813 would
have meant little if there was a decisive victory in Germany or Russia.
In August Wellington entered Madrid.
In
1813
Wellington's army advanced against Joseph and Jourdan. In June Wellington (75,000-
90,000) he routed the French (50,000-60,000) at Vittoria.
After Vittoria Wellington failed to pursue effectively and the French recovered. He now
shortened his communications by shifting his base of operations to the northern Spain
coast, and began operations against san Sebastian and Pampeluna, at first unsuccessfully.
Soult was given command of all French troops in Spain and advanced through western
Pyrenees, but was finally repulsed. Wellington captured San Sebastian, later invading
southern France as far as Bayonne.
Soult fought and almost won at Toulouse, the last battle of the war. Suchet evacuated
Valencia, but defeated two British expeditions from Sicily. The Peninsular War went on
through the allied victories of Bera pass, the battles of Nivelle, Nive near Bayonne,
Orthez and Bayonne, the latter occurring after Napoleon's abdication.
.

Ludwig van Beethoven's tribute to Wellington's
victory at Vittoria, 1813.
French officer Jean Barres writes, "Our general-in-chief, Comte Regnier, used to send his aide
Captain Brossard, who spoke English, once or twice a day to the outposts, to carry despatches
and bring back replies and the English newspapers. ... an English officer handed us the
newspapers and letters, and the captain, for his part, did the same. We talked, drank rum, ate
some excellent ship's biscuits which the Englishmen had brought, and withdrew, excellent friends."
The relations between the Spaniards and the French, however, were much more hostile.
After all the French occupied Spain not Britain.
For more information on the battles of the British-Portuguese army during the
Peninsular War (for example El Bodon, Rolica, and many others) read Charles Oman's
detailed and focused on the British army "History of the Peninsular War".
- Volume I: 1807-1809 was published in 1902
- Volume II: Jan. 1809-Sep. 1809 in 1903
- Volume III: Sep. 1809-Dec. 1810 in 1908
- Volume IV: Dec. 1810-Dec. 1811 in 1911
- Volume V: Oct. 1811-Aug. 1812 in 1914
- Volume VI: Sep. 1812-Aug. 1813 in 1922
- Volume VII: Aug. 1813-Apr. 1814 in 1930
~
Royal Navy's contribution to victory in Peninsula.
Without the Royal Navy, Britain's campaign in Spain
and Portugal could never have been waged.
The British fleet greatly increased in size, from about 500 in
1793 to approx. 950 vessels in 1805. The principal royal
dockyards were in Woolwich, Plymouth and Portsmouth
and they worked on all cylinders. The decisive British
victory at Trafalgar ended Napoleon's power on the sea
and made any French invasion of Britain virtually
impossible.
Without the Royal Navy, Great Britain's campaign in
Spain and Portugal could never have been waged and
certainly not with the success that was eventually
achieved. Gates writes: "As well as ferrying troops to and
from the war zone, the fleet transported virtually all the
gold, equipment, food and munitions used by the Allied
armies and guerillas. ... Moreover, whereas the lack of any naval support of their own
confined the French to moving via the appalling Peninsular roads, the Allied forces
could frequently transport men and material by sea; a method that was invariably safer,
cheaper and quicker.
This provided them with enormous advantages in the fields of logistics and strategy. ...
Eternally threatened with landings on the sea-shore, their [French] army had to detach
thousands of badly needed troops to patrol beaches, garrison ports and man coastal
batteries. In 1810, for example, two Allied squadrons - based on Ferrol and Corunna -
tied down some 20,000 Imperial soldiers along the Biscay coast. A further 20,000 soldiers
were needed to invest the naval base at Cadiz, and several thousands more spent their
time fruitlessly chasing Allied detachments that constantly embarked and disembarked
along the Andalusian coast. Very few of these men ever saw an enemy ship or soldier,
but they had to be deployed to counter the possible threat of attack. Furthermore, the
sea-shore guards frequently became targets in themselves. Required to patrol enormous
lengths of coastline, they were invariably thin on the ground and easy prey for
amphibious forces composed of thousands of men." (Gates - "The Spanish Ulcer" p 29)
During 1811 the British-Portuguese army did not share the fate
of that of Massena, was almost entirely the responsibility of the
Royal Navy. In sharp contrast to the Allied army, the French
supply network was constantly disrupted by guerilla bands and
the rebellious population.
Consequently, the operations of the French army were
repeatedly undermined or delayed by shortages of such basic
equipment as munitions, horses, weapons and money. Unable to
rely on their forces being adequately supplied by convoy, French
marhsals had to resort to extracting provisions locally - much to
the annoyance of the populace.
The total naval dominance lasted until 1812, when the USA
interfered, albeit indirectly, on the side of the French. In 1812 the
war with USA broke out and American privateers arrived on
European and African coast. The Royal Navy was forced to devote
hundreds of warships to a blockade of the American coast. "Then
the American privateers, being unmolested, ran down the coast of
Africa, intercepted the provision trade from the Brazils, one of the principal resources of
the army, and emboldened by impunity infested the coast of Portugal, captured 14 ships
loaded with flour off the Duoro, and a large vessel in the very mouth of the Tagus."
(Napier - Vol IV, p 185)
The French naval vessels, backed by a powerful force of privateers and American ships,
instigated a relentless campaign againt British vessels, and by summer 1814, about 800
merchantmen had been sunk, damaged or captured, many of them in home waters.
Gates wrote: "With ships like USS 'Argus' rampaging up and down the English Channel,
Wellington's formerly smooth supply system was appreciably disrupted."
~
Conclusions and Questions.
"I am bound to admit that the fundamental mistakes
lie at my own door." - Napoleon on St. Helena
Enjoying many advantages over the French, Wellington achieved a record of victory
perhaps unmatched in the history of the British army. The British infantry performed
gallantly especially when placed on a strong defensive position. Wellington's Portuguese
troops were steady and respected by British and French alike. However, despite all of
this, Wellington's campaign in Peninsula was "the most protracted campaign of the
period". Claims were made that "the Peninsular War had been pursued with insufficient
vigour."
According to some British authors, however, it was Wellington's army, and not the
Spaniards, was the primary cause of victory in Spain. Without the British, the guerillas
would do more harm to the Spanish people than to the enemy. Napier writes: "That the
guerilla system could never seriously affect the progress of the French, is proved by the
fact, that the constant aim of the principal chiefs was to introduce the customs of regular
troops; and their success against the enemy was proportionate to their progress in
discipline and organization. There were not less than 50,000 of these irregular soldiers, at
one time, in Spain; and so severely did they press upon the country tha it may be
assumed as a truth, that if the English army had abandoned the contest, one of the surest
means by which the French could have gained the good will of the nation would have
been extirpating of the partidas." (- Napier Vol II, p 128)
Battles alone however don't win this type of wars. British military historian Hart wrote:
"Wellington's battles were materially the least effective part of the operations. By them he
[Wellington] inflicted a total loss of some 45,000 men only - counting killed, wounded
and prisoners - on the French during the 5 years' campaign... whereas Marbot reckoned
that the number of French deaths alone during this period averaged 100 a day. Hence it
is a clear deduction that the overwhelming majority of the losses which drained the
French strength, and their morale still more, was due to the operations of the guerillas..."
(Hart - "Strategy" 1991, pp 110-111)
Gates added "... the Spanish 'nation in arms' ... may have lacked the polished
professionalism of the British Light Division but, in the long run, they probably inflicted
considerably more damage on the French forces than all of Wellington's pitched battles
combined. The sieges of Gerona alone cost the Imperial armies over 20,000 casualties
and, exclusively from sickness and guerilla raids, the French forces in the Peninsula lost
approx. 100 men per day for over 4 years, a total of some 164,000 casualties. It is,
therefore, easy to see how the war in Spain bled the French army white ..."
Could the Spaniards win the war without Wellington's British-Portuguese army ?
Probably. One has only to look at the example of Soviet Invasion of Afganistan to realize
that armies - with facilities and innovations beyond anything that Napoleon could ever
have dreamt of - were strained by the type of warfare that he encountered in the
Peninsula. (The Soviet invasion of Afganistan took place in 1979. Soviet Russia had
population of 140 mln. while Afghanistan's population was 28 mln. For comparison
Napoleonic France had population of 30 mln, and Spain had 10 mln. Although the Soviet
troops virtually won every battle , they lost the war.)
John Elting however thinks the French would win the war in Spain if not the British
support for Spain. He wrote: "... without Wellington's dangerous little army, the guerillas
would have been eliminated by the same methods the French found successful in the
Vendee, Egypt, Piedmont, Naples, and the Tyrol. It might have taken years, but it would
have been accomplished. Many Spaniards were wearing of the guerillas' continuous
exactions and abuse; where the French could offer effective protection and a chance of
self-government, a pro-French party, the Afrancesados, was developing." (Elting -
"Swords around a throne" p 514)
John Tone on another hand, thinks the war was unwinnable for the French. He wrote;
"The War in Spain did not pay Napoleon as it had in other parts of Europe. On the
contrary, guerilla action made the occupation of Spain a constant burden and made the
Spanish war unwinnable." (John Tone - "The Fatal Knot: the Guerilla War in Navarre and the
Defeat of Napoleon" p 5)
For France the war in Spain was if not a sideshow, it was of a secondary importance,
with the exception of couple of years. Losing in Spain in 1812 or 1813 would have meant
little if there was a decisive victory in Russia and Germany. Henri Lachoque writes: "No
matter how grave affairs became in Spain Napoleon considered them of secondary
importance. The principal danger lay in the east." (Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory" p
195)
The Peninsular War however had the greatest importance for the Spanish and
Portuguese people.
Without their determination to fight the French there would be no British expeditionary
corps.
There would be no resistance.
After Napoleon's definite defeat, King Ferdinand VII, was restored to the Spanish throne
and reigned with rigid absolutism.
Ps.
Just few years after the Napoleonic Wars took place another French invasion of Spain. In
1823 the French led by Duke of Angoulme and several old napoleonic commanders
(Moncey, Oudinot, Guilleminot, Molitor) managed a military promenade through Spain
to overthrow an upstart constitutional government and restore Ferdinand's absolute
authority. Most of the Spaniards welcomed them, and there was only little fighting. The
French captured Madrid, and freed Ferdinand, who had been taken from Madrid as a
captive, and placed him on the throne. Unexpectedly, he took ruthless revenge on his
opponents, revoked the 1812 constitution and restored absolute monarchy to Spain.
A Nuez and G Smith
Sources and Links.
Brandt - "In the Legions of Napoleon: Memoirs of a Polish Officer in Spain..."
Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" 1993
Esdaile - Popular Resistance in the French Wars (2005)
Esposito, Elting - "A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars."
Gates - "The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War"
Jomini - "The Art of War"
Napier - History of the War in Peninsula 1807-1814
Nina Consuelo Epton - "The Spanish mousetrap: Napoleon and the Court of Spain"
Oman - "A History Of The Peninsular War"
Sanudo - "La crisis de una alianza - la campaa del Tajo de 1809"
Smith - "The Prisoners of Cabrera: Napoleon's Forgotten Soldiers, 1809-1814"
Tranie, Lachouque - "Napoleon's War in Spain"
Map from The Department of History at the United States Military Academy
Napoleon's Invasion of Russia 1812 : Clausewitz : Strategy :
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Invasion_of_Russia_1812.htm[2012-05-21 12:44:02]
Napoleon's Invasion of Russia in 1812.
(According to Karl von Clausewitz and others)
.
" . . . . in five years I shall be master of the world:
there only remains Russia, but I shall crush her."
- Napoleon in 1811
The War in 1812 was a struggle between Europe's most formidable armies, the French and Russian.
It was fought on an unprecedented scale over vast expanses of territories whose sheer size ,
geographical complexity, and seasonal climatic extremes made the conflict episodic in nature.
The average casualties suffered by the French army were 2,000 - 3,000 men per day.
During Napoleon's campaign in Germany in 1813 the average casualties were up to 3,570 per day
(or 25,000 men per week by S Bowden) "... the French forces in the Peninsula lost 100 men per day"
(- D Gates) In the American Civil War 1861-65 the average casualties for the Union were 400 per day.
The invasion of Russia was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars.
wrote that "The French fled in a manner in which no other army has
ever fled in history."
.
Introduction.
In 1812 France's position was
one of unprecedented power.
The Second Polish War.
(for the French and allies)
The Patriotic War of 1812.
(for the Russians)
Order of battle of the Russian armies.
The theater of war.
Generals' Paradise
(Fools' Paradise)
French and Russian plans.
"The 'majestic migration' -
advanced eastward in silence."
The Tzar saw his plan of campaign
half-destroyed.
"... the enormous multitude of
[French and allied] stragglers ..."
" ... to thank God on his knees for
thus having diverted our steps
from the mouth of an abyss."
Battles of Krasne, Smolensk
and Valutina Gora.
Kutuzov assumes command
of Russian armies.
Great battle. The bloodbath at Borodino.
Moscow.
That old fox Kutuzov cheated me off
by his flank march.
French retreat: from Moscow to Viazma.
Davout in trouble.
Russians won on the northern and southern
flank. Abortive coup d'tat in Paris!
Marshal Ney's finest hour.
"You met your Berezina !"
C'est la brzina !
The French army had ceased to exist.
"I have no army any more!" - Napoleon
Conclusions.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Battle in Northern America: British vs Americans.
A hall of military fame in the Winter Palace in St.Petersburg
with portraits of the Russian heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812.
Introduction.
In March 1811 a comet was seen over Europe.
By autumn it lit up the sky from Lisbon to Moscow.
The people prepared themselves for some
extraordinary event.
1812:
In February Russia established fur trading colonies in California and Oregon in Northern America.
Napoleon authorizes the usage of Mesures usuelles, the basis of the Metric System.
In May, Russian Field Marshal Kutuzov signs the Treaty of Bucharest, ending the Russo-Turkish
War
and making Bessarabia a part of Russia.
In June began war between USA (population 6 millions) and Great Britain (18 millions).
Napoleon said: "If this rupture had
occurred earlier it might perhaps have
contributed to keep Tsar Alexander
inside the Continental System !" And in
fact an American army will shortly - if
not very successfully - be invading
British Canada.
Major battles of the 1812-1815 war:
battle of Raisin River, Thames, Lake
Erie, siege of Fort Meigs, Lundy's Lane,
Chippewa, and New Orleans. During
this war British troops set fire to many
public buildings in Washington (incl.
the White House.)
This attack was in retaliation for the
American burning and looting of York
(now Toronto) in 1813, and the burning down of the buildings of the Legislative Assembly there.
Picture: battle in Northern America. British infantry, the redcoats, and their Indian allies (Shawnees,
Miamis, Delawares and others) versus American regulars and militia.
.
Number of combatants in the two conflicts of 1812.
War of 1812-15 between
Great Britain and United States
War of 1812 between
French Empire and Russian Empire
approx. 100,000 combatants
Americans: 35,000 (at war's end)
Additional forces: 3,000 Rangers.
British: 48,000 (at war's end)
Additional : provincial regulars 10,000
approx. 1,000,000 combatants
600,000-800,000 French and allies
vs
300,000-400,000 Russians
.
NOTE 1.
Troops not included in the count:
- Russian opolchenie (militia), and navy
- British provincial militia, and navy
- American militia and navy
NOTE 2.
Karl von Clausewitz gives Russian strength at approx. 400,000 men (Cossacks excluded)
On the frontier towards Poland and Prussia - 180,000 men
On the Dvina and Dnieper, depots and new formations - 30,000 men
In Finland - 20,000 men, in Moldavia - 60,000 men
Interior, new levies and depots - 50,000 men
Garrisons - 50,000 men.
(- Clausewitz, p 7)
~
In 1812 France's position was one of unprecedented power.
It was, in all probability, the highest point of Napoleon's glory.
"Now begins the finest epoch of my reign" - Napoleon exclaimed.
"In 1811 the Emperor's power over the continent, as far as
the frontier of Russia, was, in fact, absolute; and in France
internal prosperity was enjoyed with external glory."
(William Napier - Vol III, p 192)
In 1811-1812 France's position was
one of unprecedented power. It was,
in all probability, the highest point of
Napoleon's glory. "Now begins the
finest epoch of my reign" - he
exclaimed. Over the past decade he
had turned France into an Empire
which included the whole of
Belgium, Holland and the North Sea
coast uo to Hamburg, the Rhineland,
the whole Switzerland, Piedmont,
Liguria, Tuscany, the Papal States,
Illyria and Catalonia, and ruled
directly over some 45 million people.
The French Empire was surrounded
by a number of dependent states.
"He (Napoleon) had managed to
destroy the unity of purpose which
had fed the coalitions against France
for so long. Austria, Russia and Prussia were now as ready to fight each other as to fight France, the
original repugnance to treat with 'the Corsican upstart' had largely evaporated, his imperial title was
recognised across the Continent, and the Bourbon pretender Louis XVIII was beginning to look like
an anachronism. Yet Napoleon was keenly aware of his continuing vulnerability, for nothing had
been finally settled ... The real problem facing Napoleon was how to achieve some kind of finality
and to fill his conquests into a system that would guarantee his and his successors' position. While
others regarded him as a megalomaniac bent on conquering all, he saw his wars as defensive, aimed
at guaranteeing France's security as well as his own." (Zamoyski - "Moscow 1812" pp 10-11)
"The European powers either submitted voluntarily or were conquered. It was the execution of this
grand project, as much as the personal ambition of Napoleon, that drove him towards world
domination. ... However, in the execution of his plan, immense difficulties were encountered. The
interests of the various sovereignes often conflicted with this system. The states were humiliated by
a despotic military system.
On its side, England made prodigious efforts to augment its arms, to sustain Napoleon's enemies
and to support their struggle. However, all the wars undertaken up to 1808 against France ended in
France's advantage and only caused the power of the new empire to grow, increasing its dominance
of the Continent. Only Russia, though weakened by its defeats, could not be broken and remained
independent." ( - Roman Soltyk)
Political causes of War between France and Russia in 1812:
- Russia's commitment to Napoleon's Continental System was a mere lip-service.
The Continental System was embargo of British goods adopted by Napoleon in his economic warfare
with Britain. It caused great hardship in England, there was a spate of business failures and strikes
throughout the country. Large-scale smuggling thrived all along the European coast. The
Continental System was ruinous not only for the British but also for the Russians. In 1807 Tsar
promised to implement it but Russia chafed under the embargo, and in 1812 reopened trade with
Britain. Napoleon dreamed about crushing the British economical empire. Napoleon: "Imagine
Moscow taken - Russia crushed - the Tsar reconciled or dead in some palace conspiracy ... And tell
me whether we a great army of Frenchmen and auxiliaries from Tiflis would have to do more than
touch the Ganges River with a French sword for the whole scafolding of Britain's mercantile
greatness to collapse." (- Austin "1812: The March on Moscow" p 31)
- Differences between France and Russia over influence in Poland and the Balkans.
Russia under Peter the Great expanded westward towards Europe, absorbing Poland and Lithuania.
Under Napoleon however the Polish Grand Duchy of Warsaw was created. According to Adam
Zamojski Napoleon was determined to hold the possibility of the reunification of the Kingdom of
Poland as a carrot before the Poles, a semi-sincere promise to ensure loyalty. Alexander, on the other
hand, saw a reunified Poland as a serious threat to the integrity of Russia.
~
The Second Polish War.
The Duchy of Warsaw became a bastion of France,
and 100,000 (!) Polish troops stood ready to fight
for Napoleon and independence of Poland.
For nowhere else had Napoleon a more loyal and devoted ally
than the Poles who stood by him through thick and thin and
did not abandon him until his very last hour. They formed a
striking contrast to the Prussians under Yorck, who as soon as
Napoleon's defeat became known joined the Russians, as did
also the Austrians.
The Polish populace considered Napoleon and his troops as
friends and liberators. This is confirmed by many French
offices who campaigned in Poland. Parquin wrote: "After our
passage of the [Vistula] river ... the enemy [Russians] gave way
and we occupied the Polish villages, where we were received
like brothers by the people, miserably poor though they were."
(Parquin - "Napoleon's Victories" p 63)
Napoleon proclaimed 'Second Polish war' but against
expectations of Poles that gave 100,000 soldiers to his army he avoided any concessions toward
Poland having in mind further negotations with Russia. But with the reconquered Russian lands,
Poland would have recovered all of her former domains. (The first Polish War being the liberation of
Poland from Russia, Prussia and Austria in 1807).
The Duchy of Warsaw became a bastion of France, and 100,000 Polish troops stood ready to fight for
Napoleon and independence. The Poles waited for the moment when Napoleon would pronounce
the sacred words "independent Poland" but he never uttered these words. Although Napoleon
appeared at Kovno wearing the cap and uniform of a Polish officer, the dispersion of the Polish
troops among the various French corps was strongly resented by the Poles.
In spite of his continuous assurances that "the dangerous Polish dreams" as Alexander called them,
would never be permitted realization, the Russian monarch was forever restive. He demanded that
the word "Poles" be not used in public documents, that Polish orders be abolished and that the
Polish army be considered as a part of that of Saxony.
French troops enter Warsaw.
~
'The Patriotic War of 1812' or
"an invasion of twelve languages."
Napoleon's invasion is better known in Russia as
the Patriotic War of 1812, not to be confused with
the Great Patriotic War, which refers to Hitler's,
rather than Napoleon's, invasion of Russia. It was
also termed the "Fatherland War", and later the
"First Fatherland War", with both World Wars
later being termed the "Second Fatherland War." In
earlier Russian literature found such an epithet of
the war as "an invasion of twelve languages." The
Patriotic War of 1812 is also sometimes referred to
as the War of 1812, which is not to be confused
with the conflict of the same name between Great Britain and USA.
The Russian armies opposing Napoleon in 1812 were outnumbered by approx. two to one. In this
situation they sought to avoid open battle and turned to attrition warfare. They left nothing behind
that was of use, burned crops and villages, while the bold Cossacks constantly harassed the
invaders. Chlapowski of Guard Lancers writes: "As the Russian Army retreated, they were burning
most of the villages and forcing the inhabitants to load up their carts with their pitiful belongings
and flee with their livestock to Moscow." (Chlapowski, - p 115)
Russian strategy of retreat and scorched earth was very tough on Napoleon's soldiers. The Russians
fell back but as the summer wore on, Napoleon's supply and communication lines were stretched to
maximum. By September without having engaged in a major battle, Napoleon's army had been
reduced by more than half from fatigue, hunger, desertion, and relentless raids by Cossacks.
Russian army in 1812, by Oleg Parhaiev.
~
Order of battle of the Russian armies.
(June 1812)
The Russian land forces in June 1812 consisted of four armies, six independent corps, and several
smaller troops. The infantry corps consisted of two infantry divisions, cavalry, and artillery. Infantry
division was made of three infantry brigades, each of two regiments of 2 battalions (total 12
battalions) and three artillery batteries. Light cavalry regiment had 8-10 squadrons, cuirassier and
dragoon regiment 4-5 squadrons. Battery consisted of 12 pieces (8 cannons and 4 unicorns). The
unicorn was half-howitzer half-cannon.
The First Western Army, under General Barclay, who at the same time was war minister, was placed
along the Niemen, the Second Western Army, commanded by Bagration, in south Lithuania; the
reserve under Tormasov, in Volhynia.
"The Tzar (picture) wished to take the command of the whole. He had
never served in the field, still less commanded. For several years past he
had taken lessons in the art of war from General von Phull in Petersburg.
Phull (picture) had held the rank of colonel of the general
staff of the Prussian army, and in 1806, after the battle of
Auerstadt, had left the Prussian service and entered that of
Russia, in which he had since obtained the rank of General-
Lieutenant without having passed through any active
service. Phull pass in Prussia for a man of much genius. He,
Massenbach, and Scharnhorst, were the three chiefs of staff
in 1806. Each of these had his own peculiarities of character." (- Karl von
Clausewitz)
"... he [Phull] had, from the earliest period, led a life so secluded and
contemplative, that he knew nothing of the occurances of the daily world; Julius Caesar and
Frederick the Great were the heroes and the writers of his predilection. The more recent phenomena
of war [Napoleonic Wars] passed over him without impression." (- Clausewitz, p 3)
"Unpractical as he was, in 6 years of residence in Russia he [Phull] had not thought of learning
Russian, nor, which is more striking, had he thought of making himself acquainted with the principal
persons in the administration of affairs, or with the institutions of the civil and military departments.
The Tzar felt that under these circumstances Phull was to be considered as an abstract genius, to
whom no particular function could be assigned. He was therefore nothing more than friend and
adviser to the Tzar pro forma, also his adjutant-general. He had already in St.Petersbourg drawn out
a plan of campaign for the Tzar, which was now brought to Wilna, and some measures were
adopted towards its execution." (- Clausewitz, p 5)
ABBREVIATIONS:
btns. - battalions
sq. - squadrons
FM - (Field Marshal)
GA - Gieneral-Adjutant (General-Adjutant)
GoI - Gieneral ot Infanterii (General of Infantry)
GoK - Gieneral ot Kavalerii (General of Cavalry)
GoA - Gieneral ot Artillerii (General of Artillery)
GL - Gieneral Lieutenant (General Lieutnant)
GM - Gieneral Major (General-Major)
Plk. - Polkovnik (Colonel)
Pplk. - Podpolkovnik (Colonel-Lieutenant)
Mjr. - Major
Kpt. - Kapitan (Captain)
Por. - Poruchik (Lieutenant)
Order of battle of the Russian field forces in June 1812
General Barclay de Tolly
First Western Army
Commander: Tzar Alexander of Russia (GoI Barclay de Tolly)
Chief-of-Staff: GL Lavrov
Chief-of-Artillery: GM Kutaisov
Chief-of-Engineers: GL Trusson
General-Quartermaster: GM Muhin
- - - - - I Infantry Corps - GL Wittgenstein [28 btns., 16 sq., 3 Cossack regs., 120 guns]
- - - - - - - - - - 5th Infantry Division [12 infantry and 2 combined grenadier btns., 1 heavy and 2 light
batteries]
- - - - - - - - - - 14th Infantry Division [12 infantry and 2 combined grenadier btns., 1 heavy and 2 light
batteries]
- - - - - - - - - - Cavalry [8 dragoon sq., 8 hussar sq., 3 Cossack regs.]
- - - - - - - - - - Artillery [2 heavy and 2 horse batteries]
- - - - - II Infantry Corps - GL Baggovout [24 btns., 8 sq., 78 guns]
- - - - - - - - - - 4th Infantry Division [12 infantry btns., 1 heavy and 2 light batteries]
- - - - - - - - - - Cavalry [8 hussar sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - Artillery [1/2 horse battery]
- - - - - III Infantry Corps - GL Tuchkov-I [26 btns. 2 Cossack regs., 84 guns]
- - - - - - - - - - 1st Grenadier Division [12 grenadier and 2 combined gren. btns., 1 heavy and 2 light
batteries]
- - - - - - - - - - 3rd Infantry Division [12 infantry btns., 1 heavy and 2 light batteries]
- - - - - - - - - - Cavalry [2 Cossack regs.]
- - - - - - - - - - Artillery [1 horse battery]
- - - - - IV Infantry Corps - GL Shuvalov [25 btns., 8 sq., 78 guns]
- - - - - - - - - - 23rd Infantry Division [8 infantry btns., 1 heavy and 2 light batteries]
- - - - - - - - - - Combined Grenadier Brigade [5 grenadier btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - Artillery [1/2 horse battery]
- - - - - V (Guards) Infantry Corps - Grand Duke Constantine [22 btns., 20 sq., 74 guns]
- - - - - - - - - - Guard Infantry Division [18 guard infantry btns., 2 heavy and 2 light batteries of the
Guard, + 2 guns]
- - - - - - - - - - Combined Grenadier Brigade [4 combined grenadier btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - 1st Cuirassier Division [8 guard cuirassier sq., 12 cuirassier sq., 2 horse batteries of the
Guard]
- - - - - VI Infantry Corps - GoI Dohturov [24 btns., 8 sq., 84 guns]
- - - - - I Cavalry Corps - GA Uvarov
- - - - - - - - - - 1st Cavalry Brigade [4 guard uhlan sq., 4 guard dragoon sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - 2nd Cavalry Brigade [4 guard hussar sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - 4th Cavalry Brigade [8 dragoon sq.]
- - - - - II Cavalry Corps - GA Korf
- - - - - - - - - - 5th Cavalry Brigade [8 uhlan sq.]
- - - - - III Cavalry Corps - GM Pahlen-III
- - - - - - - - - - 11th Cavalry Brigade [8 hussar sq.]
- - - - - Cossack Corps - GoK Platov [14 Cossack regs, and 12 horse guns]
NOTE:
Chief-of-Staff was principally concerned with affairs in general
General-Quartermaster with the tactical and strategical details
.
General Prince Bagration
Second Western Army
Commander: GoI Prince Bagration
Chief-of-Staff: GM St.Priest
Chief-of-Artillery: GM Loevenstern
Chief-of-Engineers: GM Foerster
General-Quartermaster: GM Vistitzkii-II
- - - - - VII Infantry Corps - GL Raievski
- - - - - VIII (Grenadier) Infantry Corps - GL Borosdin
- - - - - - - - - - 2nd Grenadier Division [12 grenadier btns., 1 heavy and 2 light batteries]
- - - - - - - - - - 2nd Combined Grenadier Division [10 combined grenadier btns., 2 heavy batteries]
- - - - - - - - - - 2nd Cuirassier Division [20 cuirassier sq.]
- - - - - IV Cavalry Corps - GM Sievers
- - - - - - - - - - 12nd Cavalry Brigade [8 dragoon sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - 14th Cavalry Brigade [8 uhlan sq.]
.
General Tormasov
Third Reserve Army
Commander: GoK Tormasov
Chief-of-Staff: GM Inzov
Chief-of-Artillery: GM Sievers
General-Quartermaster: Plk. Renni
- - - - - Corps - GoI Kamenski-I
- - - - - - - - - - Combined Grenadier Brigade [6 combined grenadier btns.]
- - - - - Corps - GL Markov
- - - - - Corps - GL Osten-Sacken
- - - - - - - - - - Infantry Division [18 reserve btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - Cavalry Division [24 reserve sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - Artillery [1 heavy and 1 horse battery]
- - - - - Cavalry Corps - GM Lambert
- - - - - - - - - - 5th Cavalry Division [16 dragoon and 8 uhlan sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - 8th Cavalry Division [12 dragoon sq.]
- - - - - Cossacks [5 Cossack, 2 Kalmuk, 2 Bashkir, 1 Tartar regs.]
- - - - - Reserve Artillery [1 heavy battery]
.
Admiral Chichagov
Danube Army
Commander: Admiral Chichagov
Chief-of-Staff: GL Sabaneiev
Chief-of-Artillery: GM Rezvoi
General-Quartermaster: GM Berg
- - - - - I Corps - GoI Langeron
- - - - - - - - - - 22nd Infantry Division [12 infantry btns., 1 heavy and 2 light batteries]
- - - - - - - - - - Cavalry [10 dragoon sq., 3 Cossack regs.]
- - - - - II Corps - GL Essen-III
- - - - - III Corps - GL Voinov
- - - - - - - - - - Cavalry [5 dragoon and 10 hussar sq., 3 Cossack regs.]
- - - - - - - - - - Artillery [1 heavy and 1 light battery]
- - - - - IV Corps - GL Zass
- - - - - - - - - - 16th Infantry Division [6 infantry btns., 1 heavy and 1 light battery]
- - - - - - - - - - Cavalry [15 dragoon and 10 uhlan sq., 2 Cossack regs.]
- - - - - - - - - - Artillery [1 heavy and 1 light battery]
- - - - - Reserve Corps - GL Sabaneiev
- - - - - - - - - - Infantry Division [9 infantry btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - Cavalry [10 hussar sq., 1 Cossack reg.]
.
General Steinheil
Finland Corps
Commander: GL Steinheil
- - - - - - - - - - 6th Infantry Division [8 infantry btns., 1 heavy and 1 light battery]
- - - - - - - - - - 21st Infantry Division [12 infantry btns., 1 heavy and 1 light battery]
- - - - - - - - - - 25th Infantry Division [12 infantry btns., 1 heavy and 3 marine half-batteries]
Riga Corps
Commander: GL Essen-I
- - - - - - - - - - 30th Infantry Division [12 reserve btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - 31st Infantry Division [12 reserve btns.]
I Reserve Corps
Commander: GA Meller-Zakomelski
- - - - - - - - - - 32nd Infantry Division [15 reserve btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - 33rd Infantry Division [12 reserve btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - Cavalry [33 reserve sq.]
II Reserve Corps
Commander: GL Ertel
- - - - - - - - - - Infantry Division [18 reserve btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - Cavalry [4 reserve sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - Cossacks [3 Cossack regs.]
Smolensk Reserve Corps
Commander: GA Wintzingerode
- - - - - - - - - - 41st Infantry Division [12 reserve btns.]
- - - - - - - - - - 13th Cavalry Division [10 reserve sq.]
- - - - - - - - - - Artillery [2 heavy, 4 light, and 2 horse batteries]
Kalouga Reserve Corps
Commander: GoI Miloradovich
- - - - - - - - - - 43rd Infantry Division [12 reserve btns.]
Bobruysk Detachment
Commander: GM Ignatiev
- - - - - - - - - - 34th Infantry Division [12 infantry btns.]
Detachment in Serbia
Commander: GM Luders
- - - - - - - - - - 16th Infantry Division [9 infantry btns., 1 light battery]
- - - - - - - - - - Cavalry [10 uhlan sq., 2 Cossack regs., 1 horse battery]
Commander: GM Neverovski
- - - - - - - - - - 27th Infantry Division [12 infantry and 2 grenadier btns., 1 heavy and 2 light batteries]
~
The theater of war.
Generals' Paradise
(Fools' Paradise)
The arena in which the mighty war was to be fought is something of generals' paradise. It presents
many features to try a soldier's and general's fieldcraft. In reality, however, it is a fools' paradise, and
had humbled the greatest generals who ever risked their fortunes there.
The northern part of the theater of war form part of a glacial lakeland, stretching from Polish
Mazury (Eastern Prussia in 1800s) to the region near Moscow. In the central part lie the Pripet
Marshes (extensive riverlands and numerous streams and ponds). The settlements were few,
supplies sparse, and good roads almost nonexistent.
On either side of the Pripet Marshes run two upland zones with altitude not exceeding 1,000 feet.
The vast uplands are broken only by large rivers. The lakelands and marshlands were heavily
wooded. The dominant types of trees were birches and pines. There was plenty of wild game
(wolves, boars, deer and even few wood bisons in Belovieza Forrest).
Any army moving into Russia from western Europe (or Russian army moving into Poland and
Germany) invariably prefered to march through one of the two uplands. The immensity of the
theater of war made garrisoning it efficiently almost impossible. The vast uplands however were
heaven for the fast moving light cavalry (especially the Polish uhlans and Russian Cossacks who
knew this land well).
The population of this vast area was neither Russian nor Polish.
In the north the peasants were Lithuanians, in the centre Belorussians, and in the south Ukrainians.
The towns were mostly Jewish. The Poles were numerically weak but strong socially and culturally.
They also formed the vast majority of the aristocracy and petty gentry dating from Poland's
medieval conquests. There were only few Great Russians on that area.
U - uplands
M - Marshes (Pripet Marshes)
L - Lakelands (Mazury)
~
French and Russian plans.
"The Russian realm is so large that we may
play at hide and seek with enemy's army ..."
- Karl von Clausewitz
"The Tzar and Phull (picture) had hit upon the sound idea that the real resistance must
begin later and from the interior, on account of their weakness of the frontier. Phull,
therefore, proposed to draw back the struggle to a considerable distance, thus
approaching their reinforcements, gaining time, weakening the enemy by means of
detachments which he would be compelled to make, and gaining space for strategical
operations upon his flank and rear. This project was the better entertained by the Tzar,
because it reminded him of Wellington's Portuguese campaign in 1811." (- Clausewitz p
8)
"Phull's plan was that the First Western Army should withdraw into an entrenched camp, for which
he had selected the neighbourhood of the middle Dvina; that the earliest reinforcements should be
sent hither, and a great provision of articles of subsistence be accumulated there; and that Bagration
with the Second Western Army should press forward on the right flank and rear of the enemy,
should engage himself in the pursuit of the First Western Army. Tormasov was destined to the
defence of Volhynia against the Austrians. What were the active principles of this scheme ?
1st.
Approximation to reinforcements. The spot selected lay 20 miles from the frontier
(German miles were to the English as 5 to 1); it was hoped at first to raise the First
Western Army to 130,000 men, but the reinforcements it obtained was far less than
expected. As the Austhor was informed, it did not exceed 10,000 men ... The retreat
was therefore not sufficiently extended to produce any considerable accession of
numbers. ...
2nd.
The weakening of the enemy on his advance is never considerable on such a
distance as the one in question, and when he is not checked by fortresses, and it
may here be considered as nothing.
3rd.
The attack of Bagration on the flank and rear of the enemy is not to be considered as
a valid feature. If this army was to fight the enemy from behind, it could not do so
from before, and the French had only to oppose to it a proportionate mass of troops in
order to restore the balance, by which the advantage would remain to them of finding
themselves between our armies, and able to fall on either of them with an overwhelming
force." (- Clausewitz, p 9)
"The principal persons at HQ, such as Barclay (picture), Bennigsen
(picture), and Arenfeld, could not see their way in this plan of campaign
... Thus there arose at Wilna a conflict of opinions, which at least shook
the Tzar's confidence in the plan of Phull." (- Clausewitz, p 12)
"Phull's idea was this: to leave in the entrenchment 50,000 men, out of the
120,000 he hoped to muster, as a sufficient garrison, and with the
remaining 70,000 to advance against the enemy, who should have crossed
the river to attack the camp from behind." (- Clausewitz, p 13)
"Should the enemy cross in considerable force and thus weaken himself too much on the left bank,
Phull intended to break out of the camp with over-powering numbers and attack the weakened
portion. The whole advantage, therefore, of the camp, would consist in its affording an easier and
shorter connection between the two sides of the river, while the enemy would be compelled to
communicate between the two parts of his army by a single bridge at some distance." (- Clausewitz, p
14)
"Buonaparte's plan was to cross at Kowno on the 24th June
with 230,000 men, and to drive Barclay as quickly as possible.
The 78,000 men under Jerome were to cross a week later, on
the 1st of July, and to march against Bagration.
By this delay he hoped to induce both Bagration and Barclay's
left wing under Doctorof, to postpone their retreat, and then to
cut them off entirely from Barclay by detaching troops against
them from the centre.
The 67,000 men under Eugene, who were also to cross later, i.e. on the 30th June, were intended to
cover the right flank of the main army of the centre, and to form an army of communication with
Jerome. Schwarzenberg and MacDonald were to advance towards their object of operation,
regulating their progress by that of the centre." (- Clausewitz, p 29)
~
"The 'majestic migration' -
advanced eastward in silence".
Napoleon's Grande Armee of 1812 included Germans from the states of the Confederation of the
Rhine, Poles, Spanish, Portuguese, Austrians, Prussians and Italians, by 'fear or favor' all allied with
the French under the 'Emperor of Battles' to fight the eastern nemisis. The massive Napoleonic army
moved from Germany to Prussia and then Poland (Grand Duchy of Warsaw). In March 1812 the
main Napoleon's force was massed between Gdansk (Danzig) and Warsaw, along the banks of the
Vistula River.
"On 23 June 1812 a closed carriage drawn by 6
horses suddenly appeared in the middle of the
bivouac of the 6th (Polish) Uhlan Regiment. The
troopers were even more startled when it stopped
and Napoleon, himself, climbed out. Spotting a
major, Napoleon approached him, asking to see
the regiment's commander. ... Napoleon asked the
route to the Niemen River and the location of the
most advanced Polish outposts. The next request
was the most surprising.
Napoleon requested Polish uniforms for himself and his staff. ... Napoleon did not wish to warn the
Russians of the pending invasion. Napoleon and his staff quickly exchanged their uniforms with
some very surprised Polish officers and headed for the border. ... Napoleon carefully examined the
terrain. ... At 10 PM General Morand [of Davout's I Corps] passed three companies of the 13th Legere
across the Niemen in small boats so they could serve as a screen to protect General Eble's engineers
as they raised the pontoon bridges.
At the sight of this crossing, a group of Polish uhlans, probably
belonging to the 6th Uhlans, spurred their mounts froward into
the river, hoping to seize the honor of being the first to be on
Russian soil. Unfortunately, the current proved too swift and
they were quickly swept downstream, engulfed by the river.
As the men slipped beneath its waters they were clearly heard
to cry, 'Vive l'Empereur !'
Meanwhile elements of the 13th Legere landed and began
spreading across the far bank. They quickly encountered a
company of Russian hussars. A Russian officer advanced and
challenged the French skirmishers. They responded to this
challenge with musketry." (Nafziger - "Napoleon's Invasion of
Russia" pp 114-5, 1998)
De Segur gives more literary description of the crossing: "Napoleon ordered a squadron of Poles to
throw themselves into the river. Unhesitatingly these elite troops do so. At first they ride in good
order, and when they can no longer touch bottom they redouble their efforts. Swimming, they soon
reach midstream. But the current, which is at its swiftest there, scatters them. Their horses panic.
Their loss is certain, but it;s their own country that lies ahead, their devotion is to the liberator !
About to be engulfed, they renounce their efforts, and turning their heads towards Napoleon, shout
Vive l'Empereur ! as they drown."
Baron de Marbot however saw only one man drown "I took the man's name. It was Trzcinski."
Thus the epic war with Russia began.
War on an unprecedented scale, over vast expanses of territories whose sheer size ,
geographical complexity, and seasonal climatic extremes made the conflict episodic in nature.
The multi-
national
Grande Arme
was
assembled
along the
line of the
Niemen
River. These
troops were
all well
provisioned
and mounted
and all
flushed with
the successes
of the previous campaigns. "The 'majestic migration' - in the words of Louis Madelin - advanced
eastward in silence, if not in secret. " (Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory" p 217)
The French light infantry and Polish light cavalry crossed the Niemen River without problem. They
were followed by the bulk of the Grand Army. "The passage of the Niemen was thus conducted ...
Immediately after the passage he detched Oudinot, strengthened with one cavalry division, to left
against Wittgenstein who, at the moment, was posted near Keidany, in order, if possible, to separate
him from Barclay." (- Clausewitz, p 29)
"War and Peace" (The Year of 1812) - Part 1
The Tzar saw his plan of campaign half-destroyed.
"Meanwhile, the events of the war had taken a shape
by no means in consonance with the plans of Phull."
While the French entered Russia and advanced eastward, the Russian armies began falling back.
"The Author was several times sent to General Barclay to hurry him on his retreat ... The Russian
rearguard had the advantage , in several affairs, with the French advanced troops. This gave the troops
and their leaders a certain confidence; and General Barclay, a very calm man, feared to impair this spirit
by a retreat without resisting." (- Clausewitz, p 16)
"Meanwhile, the events of the war had taken a shape by no means in consonance with the plans of
General Phull. When the moment arrived for forwarding to General Bagration the order for an offensive
movement on the French rear, the Russian courage failed, and either the representations of that general,
or the sensation of weakness, brought it to this; that Bagration took a line of retreat, with a view to a later
junction with the First Western Army, a resolution by which was avoided a leading calamity incident to
the plan of Phull, viz. the total destruction of this Second Western Army." (- Clausewitz, p 19)
"The Tzar, therefore, saw his plan of campaign, on which he had at first depended, half-destroyed; he saw
his army in Drissa about 1/6 weaker than he had expected; he heard from all sides significant expressions
of opinion respecting the camp; he had lost his confidence in the plan and its author; he felt the difficulty
of commanding such an army.
General Barclay made the most urgent remonstrances against a battle at Drissa, and demanded, as a
preliminary, the junction of the two armies, in which he was perfectly right. Under these circumstances,
the Tzar took the resolution of giving up the command; of placing General Barclay, for the moment, at the
head of the whole army; and of proceeding in person to Moscow, and thence to St.Petersburg, in order
everywhere to push forward the reinforcements of the army, to provide for its subsistence and other
wants, and to set on foot a militia which would place under arms a great portion of the nation. The Tzar
could not take a better resolution. ...
The French had not yet passed by the position of Drissa. The road to Witebsk by Polotzk was still open;
and as the enemy had not yet pressed in strongly, it might be hoped, under the protection of the Dwina,
to execute this march in safety, although from the position of Witebsk it was, in fact, a flank march. It was
hoped that, in any case, a junction might be affected with Bagration in Witebsk. ... The Author felt himself
relieved, and rejoiced when he saw affairs taking the turn of a retreat in this direction." (- Clausewitz, p 20)
Strategic situation between 1 June and 1 July 1812.
The fortified Drissa Camp is in the center of the map.
It controls the two great roads in Russia; to Moscow
and to St. Petersburg, by its central position.
~
"... the enormous multitude of [French] stragglers ..."
"The heat was excessive ... The main road ... is sandy, and the Army, marching
in several columns abreast, raised such clouds of dust that we could not see one
another 2 yards away and our eyes, ears and nostrils were full of it, and our faces
encrusted." ( - Captain Girod de l'Ain, French army)
"From Wilna Buonaparte sent some 50,000 men under Davout by Oszmiany, Woloschin, and Rakow,
upon Minsk, to effect the contemplated separation of Bagration from Barclay. ... Barclay, with the
centre of the First Western Army, had commenced his retreat from Wilna the 26th of June by
Swienziany towards Drissa: but so slowly, that on July 2 he was still at Swenziany, and both
Wittgenstein and Doktorof were able to join him." (- Clausewitz, p 29)
"... the temperature would swing dramatically from burning heat to freezing cold. The heat was terrible
and the wind swept up huge billowing clouds of dust that were so thick it was often impossible to see
the great trees on either side of the road ..." ( - Jozef Brandt, infantry of the Polish elite Vistula Legion)
"The heat was excessive: I had never experienced worse in Spain ... The main road ... is sandy, and the
Army, marching in several columns abreast, raised such clouds of dust that we could not see one
another 2 yards away and our eyes, ears and nostrils were full of it, and our faces encrusted." ( -
Captain Girod de l'Ain, French army)
According to Jakob Walter, an infantryman from Wurttemberg, the marches and the
pursuit of the Russian army, were difficult. "On June 25 the army went over the bridges.
We now believed that, once in Russia, we need do nothing but forage - which, however,
proved to be an illusion. The town of Poniemon (?) was already stripped before we could
enter, and so were all the villages. Here and there a hog run around and then was beaten
with clubs, chopped with sabers, and stabbed with bayonetrs; and , often still living, it
would be cut and torn to pieces. Several times I succeeded in cutting off something; but I
had to chew it and eat it uncooked, since my hunger could not wait for a chance to boil
the meat.
The worst torture was the march, because the closed ranks forced all to go in columns;
the heat and the dust flared up into our eyes as if from smoking coal heaps. The hardship
was doubled by continual halting of the troops whenever we came to a swamp or a
narrow road. ... The march proceeded day and night toward Vilkomirz and Eve (?)." (Walter - "The
Diary of a Napoleonic Foot Soldier / Jakob Walter" pp 41-42)
"The French with their allies, advanced in four main bodies:
The left wing, MacDonald, 10th Corps, 30,000 men, crossed the Niemen at Tilsit, destination against
Riga.
The centre, Buonaparte in person ... 297,000. This mass crossed the Niemen at two points: 230,000 men
at Kowno, and 67,000 at Pilona, three miles above Kovno; and was destined against Barclay. Attached
also to the centre, under Jerome ... 78,000 ... crossed near Grodno, and was directed against Bagration.
The right wing, under Schwarzenberg, crossed the Bug near Drohyczyn, and appeared to be directed
against Tormasow." (- Clausewitz, p 29)
"On the 1st July, Jerome (Jerome Bonaparte, Emperor's brother) advanced by Grodno and Bialystock
towards Novogrodeck. Bagration had broken up from Wolkowisk on the 29th June, and marched by
Slonim and Novogrodeck to Nikolajef, where, on the 4th July, he wished to pass the Niemen. ... He
remained 3 days from the 10th July in Njeswich, in order to collect his troops, and give time to the
baggage and artillery to gain the advance. Tormasov was still in Volhynia ... " (- Clausewitz, p 31)
"Buonaparte, with the flower of his army, remained a forthnight at Wilna. (He individually left Wilna
on the 16th July). Murat, Ney, and Oudinot pressed the Russians so feebly that the latter were able to
spend 15 days on the march of 30 miles from Wilna to Drissa, and then to remain some 8 days longer
before the latter. Even Davoust halted in Minsk 4 days before moving on Mokhilev. ... This suspension
was produced by the great difficulties of subsistence; the enormous multitude of stragglers, as well as
of sick, produced by a violent and cold rain, which fell for 8 days together towards the end of June. (-
Clausewitz, p 31)
"Towards the middle of July, Buonaparte set his force in motion towards Glubockoe, moving
thitherward himself on the 16th. While he was meditating thence the attack, or rather the surrounding
of the Drissa Camp, with his whole central army exclusive of Davoust, Jerome, and Eugene, Barclay
gave up the idea of fighting a battle in the camp, and determined upon a further retreat upon the
Moscow road, and thus in the direction of Witebsk in the first instance. He broke up on the 16th, took
his way along the right bank of the Dwina by Polotzk, and reached Witebsk the 23rd. He left
Wittgenstein behind with 25,000 men in the neighbourhood of Polotzk to cover the roads to
Petersbourg. Buonaparte despatched Oudinot with his corps and a cavalry division after Wittgenstein,
and followed Barclay with the rest towards Witebsk ... "(- Clausewitz, p 31-32)
"The march to Witebsk was accomplished in 10 days - no great speed, but the Russians had learnt from
their detachments of light cavalry that the French had not yet taken the direction of Witebsk. Barclay,
on arriving, marched through the town, and placed himself on the left bank of the Dwina ... A more
detestable field of battle could hardly be imagined. General Barclay, on the day following his arrival,
had pushed forward General Tolstoi Ostermann as an advance guard to Ostrovno. This officer was
attacked on the 26th by Murat, and suffered a considerable defeat ...
It was in fact intended to wait at Witebsk for Bagration, whom they believed to be in the direction of
Orsha and, if this were so, even to accept a battle. This idea was the ne plus ultra of indistinct
conception; and we should term it madness, if the calm Barclay were capable of such." (- Clausewitz, p
62)
Strategic situation between 1 and 25 July.
Barclay de Tolly gave up the idea of fighting a battle in the [Drissa] Camp and
defending the line of Dwina River with his army. "Barclay ... determined upon
a further retreat upon the Moscow road ..." - von Clausewitz
"The Russian army determined to retire, not upon Petersburg, but into the interior,
because it could be there best reinforced and make front in all directions against
the enemy. (- von Clausewitz, p 84)
~
" ... in a frame of mind to thank God on his knees
for thus having diverted our steps from the mouth
of an abyss."
"... when he [Barclay de Tolly, picture] found the French army approaching him in
earnest, begun to feel apprehensive as to the position in which he had intended to
deliver battle, and had changed his resolution at the last moment. ... The Author felt
himself delighted, and in a frame of mind to thank God on his knees for thus having
diverted our steps from the mouth of an abyss." (- Clausewitz, p 64)
"Bagration broke up on the 13th from Njeswisch, marched by Sluzk, Glusk, and
Bobruisk over the Beresina, and then upon Staroi-Bychow on the Dnieper which he reached on the
21st. He proceeded up the stream towards Mokhilev, in order to avail himself on the bridges there. ...
Davoust ... after making several other detachments he marched with his main body on Mokhilev,
which he reached on the 20th July. He had now but 20,000 men remaining, with whom he put
himself in motion against Bagration, who hadd 45,000. He found, about a mile and half from
Mohilev, a strong position at the village of Saltanovka, in which he waited for Bagration on the 22nd,
and was attacked by him ineffectually on the 23rd. The latter had not the courage to devote his
whole force to this attack, nor time to turn the position. It therefore remained rather a feint on his
part with his cavalry and the corps of Rajefskoi while he was throwing a bridge over the river at
Staroi-Bychow. He effected his passage the 24th, and retired by Mstislaw upon Smolensk, which he
reached on the 4th August, 2 days after Bagration." (- Clausewitz, p 32)
"The mass of troops under Jerome (see picture), which was immediately destined against Bagration,
and by the 10th July had advanced to Novogrodeck, following Bagration's march to Mir. There
Platoff laid an ambuscade for his advance guard, which occasioned it severe loss, and which seems
to have made Jerome cautious. He allowed Bagration to delay for 3 days in Njeswisch, and was still
there himself on the 16th, when Buonaparte sent him severe remonstrances on his slowness, and
ordered him to place himslef under orders of Davoust. Discontented with this, he forthwith left the
army." (- Clausewitz, p 32)
"The result of the campaign up to this period was that the Russians had evacuated of 60 miles in
depth, with the sacrifice of all the magazines - and they were considerable - which it contained. In
men and artillery, on the other hand, their loss was triffling: 10,000 men, perhaps, and 20 guns. They
had now a great army in the centre of 120,000 men, and two smaller of some 30,000 each on the
flanks; the fortresses also of Riga and Bobruisk had come into play, the latter in connection with the
observation corps under General Hertel, stationed near Mozyr.
The French on the other hand had, in the first weeks of their advance, undergone an enormous loss
in sick and stragglers, and were in a state of privation which gave early warning of their rapid
consumption. This did not remain concealed from the Russians. General Shuvalov had been sent
from Swenziany to the Imperial HQ on a political mission, and returned to Widzy full of
astonishment at the state of the route of the French army, which he found strewn with the carcases of
horses, and swarming with sick and stragglers. All [French] prisoners were carefully questioned as
to the matter of subsistence ... " (- Clausewitz, p 66)
"Barclay reached Smolensk the 2nd of August, Bagration on the 4th,
where they found a reinforcement of 8,000 men." (- Clausewitz, p 34)
"The Russians had an important accessory
interest in reaching Smolensk, in order to
effect a junction with Bagration sooner than it
could elsewhere have been managed.
Smolensk might also hold out for some days.
It contained considerable stores, and some
troops; and it would therefore have been well
worthwhile to have forced the Russians in a
contrary direction.
Buonaparte, however, pursued only as far as
Rudnia, and made a second halt at Witebsk,
during which he called in the last troops of his right wing, which had been destined to operate
against Bagration ..." (- Clausewitz, p 65)
"After Buonaparte had arrived before Smolensk, it is again not easy to conceive why he insisted on
taking it by assault. If a respectable force had been sent across the Dnieper, and the French army had
made a demonstration of following it, and placing itself on the Moscow Road, Barclay would have
hastened to anticipate it, and Smolensk would have fallen without a blow. (- Clausewitz, p 76)
"Buonaparte sat down at Witebsk, and distributed his army between the Dwina and Dnieper. Here
ensued the second halt of the French army, which lasted to the 8th August. Before it terminated, the
corps of Jerome, Eugene, and Davoust, which had been detached against Bagration, rejoined the
main army ... Poniatowski with the V Corps remained till the 8th at Mokhilev, whence he despatched
Latour-Maubourg with the IV Cavalry Corps and the division of Dabrowski against Bobruisk and
General Hertel. Latour-Maubourg returned ultimately also to the great army, but Dabrowski
remained in that quarter, to cover Minsk, till the period of retreat. Poniatowski joined the centre at
the moment of its advance on Smolensk. Reynier, as we have mentioned, had been sent to Volhynia.
During this period of quiescence and reformation of the centre, Wittgenstein had retired a day's
march from the Dwina on the road of Droja ... and in danger of being attacked on one hand by
Oudinot, who was advancing from Polotzk ... on the other by MacDonald ... had resolved to attack
Oudinot, before MacDonald was enough advanced to co-operate with the latter. He advanced,
therefore .. against Kliastitzi, and fell upon Oudinot the 31st July with 20,000 men near Jakubowo,
and beat him. On the pursuit, however, the following day his advanced guard under General
Kulniev, after crossing the Drissa, suffered such a defeat as would have overbalanced the advantage
of the day before, if General verdier had not in his turn stumbled on the main body of Wittgenstein,
and been compelled to retire with great loss ... Schwarzenberg was advancing against Tormasow.
Such was the state of things to the 8th of August, and perhaps this suspension would have lasted
somewhat longer if Barclay had not made an attempt at the offensive." (- Clausewitz, p 35)
~
Battles of Krasne, Smolensk and Valutina Gora.
"Gudin's division were drawn up on top of their companions' and Russian corpses,
amidst half-broken trees, on ground ripped up by roundshot ..." Britten-Austin
"The distribution of the French army, for the most part in canonments, was at least extended enough
to afford hope of advantage from a rapid offensive to the extent of placing isolated corps in
difficulty. Even though no general defeat of it should result, it might prove a brilliant feat of arms to
Russia, calculated to exalt her moral strength, and to debilitate her enemy, both physically and
morally, on which everything depended for the success of Russia." (- Clausewitz, p 36)
"Barclay, therefore, resolved leaving behind only the division of Neverovski, which had been
advanced on Krasnoi, to direct both armies on Rudnia, as the central point of the enemy's position ...
The result of this unsuspected movement was that Platoff fell, with the Russian advanced guard, on
that of the French under Sebastiani at Inkovo, and drove it in with great loss. But Barclay on the first
day conceived the apprehension that the main body of the enemy was on the Poreczie Road, and
that he was on the point of making a blow in the air. He became anxious about his retreat, gave up
the offensive, and took up a position on the Poreczie Road.
By this uncompleted attack the French were roused, and Buonaparte resolved to resume his own
offensive operations. On the 14th all the troops hitherto on the right bank of the Dnieper crossed it at
Rasasna, and advanced on Smolensk; while Barclay, who at the end of 3 days recognised his mistake,
wished to make a new attempt on the Rudnia Road. The French movement however called him back
on the 16th from the neighbourhood of Kasplia to Smolensk.
"On the 15th the Russian division
Neverovski, which remained still near
Krasnoi, was attacked by Murat, and driven
back (picture) with great loss." (- Clausewitz,
p 37)
Neverovski' s force consisted of 10 - 16
battalions, 4 squadrons of Harkov
Dragoons, 3-4 Cossack regiments, 8-12
heavy guns. They were attacked by
overwhelming numbers of French, Polish
and German cavalry under Marshal Murat.
Already in the beginning all dragoons and
two Cossack regiments were routed by the
9th (?) Polish Uhlans and fled. The Russians lost their guns; 7 were captured and 5 fled with the
dragoons.
Neverovski formed his inexperienced infantry into one (two ?) large square and slowly retreated
along the highway. According to the Russians 40 attacks of cavalry were repulsed. Polish historian
Marian Kukiel gives 30 chargesas being repulsed.
Neverovski's force was able to reach the city of Smolensk where they shot the gates behind. De
Segur wrote that Neverovski fought like a lionMurat made a comment that he never saw such
tough infantry before. Napoleon & Ney however, criticized Murat for his tactics.Forexample the
cavalry was not supported with horse artilery The guns arrived late and were able to fire only few
shots.
On the 16th the French attacked
Smolensk. "This city, one of the
most considerable in Russia,
with a population of 20,000 souls,
had an ancient wall, something
such as that of Cologne, and a
bad and ruinous earthen work
on the bastion system." (-
Clausewitz, p 72)
Of the French army 50,000 men
were engaged, on the Russian
side only 30,000 men. An initial
probing force captured two suburbs but failed to bring the Russians out to battle. The Emperor
ordered a general assault with three corps, supported by strong artillery. The French and Poles had
made no further progress.
Around dawn on the next day Polish infantry successfully broke into the city, and in a few hours the
main French forces entered Smolensk. Barclay retained forces on the other side of the river
preventing a crossing until the night of August the 18th. The French suffered 4,000-12,000 casualties,
while the Russians lost 4,500-16,000 killed, wounded and missing.
After the battle of
Smolensk the Russian
army crossed Dnepr
River and kept marching
eastward. In the
beginning things were
not easy for the Russians
as the road went along
the northern bank of
Dnepr and was still
within the range of
French and Polish
artillery.
For acceleration of
movement Barclay de
Tolly has divided his
army into two columns.
The first column under General Tuchkov-I consisted of Baggavout's II Infantry Corps, Tuchkov's III
Infantry Corps, Tolstoy's IV Infantry Corps and Uvarov's I Cavalry Corps. The rear guard was under
General Korf. The second column consisted of General Lavrov's V Infantry Corps (Foot Guards &
Grenadiers), Dohturov's VI Infantry Corps, II and III Cavalry Corps and reserve artillery.
The French followed them. On 19th August Napoleon and de Tolly met each other at Loubino, a
village 20 km from Smolensk. Napoleon had 40,000 men (incl. Junot's corps), while Barclay de Tolly
30,000 men. The French called the battle of Valutina Gora (Valutina Hill) due to the fact that part of
Russian army was deployed on a hill near Valutina village. Actually the fighting began near Valutino
and then moved quickly towards Loubino. The battle raged for several hours.
The Emperor had the chance to trap the Russians but Junot (picture) so mishandled his
VIII Corps that the enemy was able to extricate themselves from the trap. After the
battle, Napoleon made remark that he likes when there are 3 enemy to 1 dead
Frenchman. According to Gelder however, Marshal Murat "had the corpses of the
French dead stripped. He wanted to make Napoleon believe all those he saw were
Russians." (Austin - "1812: The March on Moscow")
Casualties at Valutina Gora :
French: 7.500-10.000
Russian: 5.000-7.500
After the battle "Gudin's division were drawn up on top of their companions' and Russian corpses,
amidst half-broken trees, on ground ripped up by roundshot ... Gudin's battalions were no longer
more than platoons. All around was the smell of powder. The Emperor couldn't pass along their
front without having to avoid corpses, step over them or push them aside. He was lavish with
rewards. The 12th, 21st and 127th Line and the 7th Light received 87 decorations and promotions."
(Britten-Austin - "1812 The March on Moscow" p 214 )
Battle of Valutina Gora (Valutina Hill)
or Battle of Loubino.
~
Kutuzov assumes command of Russian armies.
"In the army there was great joy on his arrival."
"From Valutina Gora to Borodino affairs of rearguard were of daily occurence, but none of great
importance. It usually happened that 10,000 or 15,000 cavalry, supported by some 10,000 infantry, were
opposed to a similar force on some point, and kept each other in check. ...
On the 29th Kutuzov arrived, and received the
command from Barclay, who remained at the
head of the 1st Western Army." (- Clausewitz, p
38)
"In the army there was great joy on his arrival.
Up to this time everything, in the opinion of the
Russians, had gone very ill; any change,
therefore, was held to be for the better. The
reputation of Kutuzov, however, in the Russian
army was not very great; at least there were two
parties on the subject of his claims to
distinction. All however were agreed, that a
true Russian, a disciple of Suwarow, was better
than a foreigner, and much wanted at the moment." (- Clausewitz, p 80)
When Napoleon invaded Russia, General de Tolly chose to retreat rather than to risk a major battle
against much stronger and numerous enemy. His strategy however aroused grudges from many
generals and most of the soldiers. Therefore, when Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief and
arrived to the army, he was greeted with delight. Within two weeks Kutuzov decided to give major
battle on approaches to Moscow.
"Could they [Russians] have forseen the rapid melting away of the French army, it would have been
possible to have adopted from Smolensk the plan of quiting that direction, and choosing another road
into the interior, that for example of Kaluga and Tula, since it might have been argued, that the
superiority of the French being at an end, it was no longer in their power to detach a corps to Moscow,
and that with their one line of connection with their base, it would still less be possible for the to pass by
the Russian army on their way thither.
If we also reflect that at Borodino the French were only 130,000 to 120,000 we cannot doubt that another
direction of the Russian retreat, such as that of Kaluga, would have thrown Moscow out of the
operations. At the periods, however, of the successive retreats from Drissa on Witebsk, and thence on
Smolensk, no one entertained the idea that the French force would so soon dissolve away, the idea of
clinging to the Moscow line was quite natural in order to preserve that important place as long as
possible." (- Clausewitz, p 85)
Strategic situation on 27 August
Kutuzov with two armies (de Tolly's and Bagrations')
is pursued by Napoleon's mighty Grande Armee.
Wittgenstein's corps is attacked by Oudinot and St.Cyr.
~
Great battle. The bloodbath at Borodino.
"Russia is very poor in positions [for battles] ...
If a commander then wishes to fight ... as was Kutuzov's case,
it is evident that he must put up with what he can get."
"Russia is very poor in positions [for battles]. Where the great morasses prevail, the country is so
wooded that one has trouble to find room for a considerable number of troops. Where the forrests
are thinner, as between Smolensk and Moscow, the ground is level - without any decided mountain
ridges - without any deep hollows. The fields are without enclousers, therefore everywhere easy to
be passed; the villages of wood, and ill adapted for defence. ... If a commander then wishes to fight
without loss of time, as was Kutuzov's case, it is evident that he must put up with what he can get."
(- Clausewitz, p 87)
"It was thus that Colonel Toll could find no better position than
that of Borodino, which is however a deceptive one, for it
promises at first sight more than it performs ...
The consquence is, if the position be taken up parallel to the
stream, the army stands obliquely to its line of retreat, and
exposes its left flank to the enemy. This parallel position could
be the less adopted here because, at 1/2 mile from the great
road, a second road to Moscow issues from the village of Jelnia
(see map), and thus leads straight behind the rear of such a
position. ...
In this respect, therefore, the left flank was too much threatened
to allow of its being more exposed by means of a line of retreat
not perpendicular to the position." (- p Clausewitz, 87)
"The whole position too strongly indicated the left to the French as the object of operation to admit of
their forces being attracted to the right." (- Clausewitz, p 88)
"The works [redoubts and fleches], which had been thrown up, lay partly on the left wing, partly
before the centre, and one of them as an advanced post, a couple of thousand paces before the left
wing. These works were only ordered at the moment when the army arrived in position. They were
in a sandy soil, open behind, destitute of all external devices, and could therefore only be considered
as individual features in a scheme for increasing the defensive capabilities of the position.
None of them could hold out against a serious
assault, and in fact most of them were lost and
regained 2 or 3 times. It must, however, be said
of them that they contributed their share to the
substantial and hearty resistance of the
Russians; they formed for the left wing the only
local advantage which remained to the Russians
in that quarter." (- Clausewitz, p 88)
"Buonaparte with his united force of 130,000
men advances against the Russian position,
passes with the greater part of his troops over
the Kolotscha beyond the sphere of the Russian
fire, and determines, as the circumstances obviously indicate, to make his principal attack on the left
wing, which Poniatowski is directed to reach and turn. ... The advance of Poniatowski brought
General Tuchkov into play earlier than the Russians had calculated." (- Clausewitz, p 91)
"... on the 7th occured the battle [of Borodino], in which the Russians were about 120,000, the French
about 130,000. After a loss of some 30,000 on the Russian side, and 20,000 on the French, Kutusov,
early on the 8th, continued his retreat on Moscow." (- Clausewitz, p 38)
Article: Battle of Borodino 1812
~
Moscow.
"... the Russian army marched through Moscow ..."
"The Russians retired in the night of the
7th and, as we have said, in 4 contiguous
and parallel columns on one and the same
road. They made only a mile distance, to
behind Mozhaisk which sufficiently
proves that they were in a state or order
and preparation, which is not usual after
the loss of a battle.
The Author can also attest that there was
no symptom of that dissolution which has
been attributed to it by an otherwise very
important writer (the Marquis de
Chambray)." (- Clausewitz, p 100)
"Thenceforward the retreat to Moscow was continuous, but by very easy marches. Borodino is 15
miles from Moscow, and these were accomplished in 7 marches; for on the 14th the army passed
through the city. The rear guard was confided to General Miloradovich, and consisted of 10,000
infantry and about as many cavalry. General Uvarov with his corps formed part of the latter.
The French did not press it strongly. Murat, with a great mass of cavalry, formed the advanced
guard. The two parties touched on each other usually about the afternoon, marched towards each
other, skirmished and cannonaded for some hours, when the Russians retired a slight distance, and
both sides formed their camp. This march had the character of weariness and strategic disability on
both sides." (- Clausewitz, p 100)
"The direction
of Kutusov's
retreat from
Mozhaisk to
Moscow has
been made
matter of
censure. He
might, it has
been said, have
pursued the
road by Wereja
to Tula. On this
road, however,
he would not
have found a
morsel of
bread.
Everything which an army should have in its rear, every element of its life was on the Moscow Road.
...
We have here one or two general observations to make on the Russian retreat and French pursuit,
which may contribute to the better understanding of the result of the campaign. The Russians found
from Witebsk to Moscow in all the chief provincial towns magazines of flour, grits, biscuit, and
meat; in addition to these, enormous caravans arrived from the interior with provisions, shoes,
leather, and other necessaries. They had also at their command a mass of cariages, the teams of which
were subsisted without difficulty since corn and oats were on the ground, and the caravans of the
country are accustomed, even in time of peace, to pasture their draft cattle in the meadows. This put
the Russians in condition everywhere to encamp where it suited them in other respects; the chief
concern was water." (- Clausewitz, p 101)
"The cavalry of the rearguard alone (and this, indeed, was the greater number) was worse off,
because it could seldom unsaddle. The Author scarcely remembers to have seen through the whole
retreat a light cavalry regiment unsaddled; almost all the horses were galled." (- Clausewitz, p 101)
"The advancing army has but two resources for relief.
It now and then captures a magazine of the enemy, and is not obliged to keep together in large
masses in the same degree; can divide itself more, and live better on the inhabitants. In Russia these
resources failed; the first because the Russians generally set fire, not only to the magazines, but to the
towns and villages they abandoned; the second, by reason of the scantiness of population, and the
want of side roads." (- Clausewitz, p 103)
"The Author has strongly in his recollection the
suffering from want of water in this campaign. He
never endured such thirst elsewhere." (-
Clausewitz, p 104)
"On the 14th September, the Russian army
marched through Moscow, and the rearguard
received orders to follow on the same day, but
General Miloradovich was also entrusted to
conclude an agreement with the King of Naples
[Murat], by which some hours should be granted
to the Russian army for the complete evacuation
of the city, and ordered to threaten, in case of refusal, an obstinate defence at the gates and in the
streets." (- Clausewitz, p 104)
"Moscow had nearly the appearance of a desrted city.
Some 200 of the lowest class came to meet General Miloradovich, and to implore his protection. In
the streets some scattered groups were seen who contemplated our march with sorrowful
countenances. The street swere also so thronged with the cariages of fugitives that the General was
obliged to send forward two cavalry regiments to make room. ... We struck in passing through the
city, on the road to Riazan, and took a position some 1000 paces behind it. General Sebastiani had
promised that the head of his advanced guard should not enter the city sooner than 2 hours after our
departure. ...
We saw from this position how Moscow gradually emptied itself through the gates on either side by
an uninterrupted stream of the light wagons of the country, without the first several hours being
interrupted by the French. The Cossacks seemed rather to be yet in entire possesion of these portions
of the city, and the French advanced guard to occupy itself solely with the rearguard of the
Russians." (- Clausewitz, p 105)
"On this march we saw Moscow burning without
interruption, and although we were 7 miles distant,
the wind sometimes blew the ashes upon us." (-
Clausewitz, p 108)
"This leads us to the question of the origin of the fire.
... Rostopchin [governor of Moscow], whom the
Author had occassion often to meet in a small circle
some 8 days after the event, moved heaven and earth
to repudiate the idea of his being the inciendary of
Moscow, an idea which arose at that time." (- Clausewitz, p 109)
"He [governor of Moscow] possessed the manners and the polish of a man of the world, grafted on a
strong Russian stock. He was on terms of decided hostility with Kutusov, and loudly assailed him
for the impudent falsehood with which to the last moment he led the world to believe that he would
venture on a second battle for the salvation of Moscow. ... In any case it is one of the most
remarkable phenomena in history that an action which in public opinion had so vast influence on
the fate of Russia should stand out like the offspring of an illegitimate amour, without a father to
acknowledge it, and to all appearance should be destined to remain wrapt in eternal mystery.
That the conflagration was a great misfortune for the French is certainly not to be denied. It alienated
the Tzar's mind further from all idea of negotiation, and was a means for exalting the national spirit
- and these were its principal evils for the French. It is, however, an exaggeration to say, with most of
the French, that it was the main cause of their failure." (- Clausewitz, p 110)
Napoleon in front of Moscow
~
That old fox Kutuzov cheated me off
by his flank march. - Napoleon
Clausewitz] "was agreeably surprised to observe that at least that direction [of Russian retreat] was
not in the straight line towards Vladimir, but to the right towards Riazan. ... Even the younger
officers of the staff frequently discussed this idea so that if not throughly illustrated, it was at least
much talked over. We mention all this to show that the march on Kaluga, which has since made so
much noise in the world, and is become a sort of luminous point in the region of military
speculations, in its conception and discovery did not start suddenly from the head of commander or
adviser, like a Minerva from that of Jupiter. ... We now know enough to be sure that if Kutusov had
retired on Vladimir, Buonaparte could neither have followed him there, nor have wintered in
Moscow. In any case he must have retired, for he was in a strategical consumption, and required the
last strength of his weakened fram to drag himself back." (- Clausewitz, p 107)
"The flanking
position of
Kutusov had
also the
afvantage of
more easily
operating on
the enemy's
line of retreat,
and thus
contributed
something to
the result, only
it cannot at all
be considered
as the main
cause of that
result. ...
That Colonel Toll, before reaching Moscow, wished to bend off towards Kaluga was in fact, only
with the idea of not exposing Moscow to danger for, otherwise, the deflection was easier to execute
at Moscow than anywhere else. ...
The march succeeded so completely that the French lost us entirely out of their sight for several
days." (- Clausewitz, p 107)
"In the Russian army at this time a condition of grief and despondency which led men to consider an
early peace as the sole resource. Not that the army itself was without courage. Among the soldiers
there was rather a feeling of pride and superiority, ahich, justifiable or not, had still a powerful
influence, but there was little confidence in the general direction of affairs, the feeling of the
immense losses already incurred by the state seemed overwhelming, and any distinguished firmness
and energy on the part of the government appeared not to be expected. This made peace not only
expected, but desired. How Kutusov was inclined, no one ever rightly knew. He assumed, however,
the appearance of determined opposition to all negotiation." (- Clausewitz, p 111)
"General Barclay ... said near Woronowo early in October ... to the Author and some other officers
who presented themselves to him on their transference to some distant appointments, 'Thank your
God, gentlemen, that you are called away from hence; no good can come out of this history.'
We were of a different opinion, but then we were foreigners, and it was easier for us, as such, to look
at things without prejudice. How great soever was our symphaty, we were not like Russians
immediately involved in the agonies of a country of our own, wounded, suffering, and threatenedin
its very existence. Such feelings most influence the judgement. We trembled only at the thought of
peace, and saw, in the calamities of the moment, the means of salvation." (- Clausewitz, p 111)
"Immediately after the evacuation of Moscow, the General Miloradovich gave up the
command of the rearguard, which was transferred to General Raievski." (- Clausewitz,
p 113)
The army pitched camp in a
village of Tarutino near Kaluga,
where he received very
substantail reinforcements and had time to train
new recruits. Kutuzov decided to stay there and
wait as he said "till the French army will be
spoiled by itself". And it was the hard time for
the French army indeed. There was the lack of
food in Moscow, the main part of provisions was
carried from Smolensk by military transports.
It was impossible to stay in Moscow any longer,
Napoleon saw this and knew something must be
done. But what had he to do ? His plans that the Tzar would ask for peace failed. And time was
passing and every day the situation became worse. At last Napoleon decided to ask for peace by
himself. At first he wanted Caulaincourt, the former French envoy in St.Petesburg, to go on this
mission, but he refused knowing he would not be received in the Russian camp at all. Then
Napoleon ordered General Lauriston to go to the Russian Headquarters in Tarutino with his letter.
Clausewitz wrote; "As no proposals for peace came from Petersburg (and already a forthnight had
been wasted in inactivity) Buonaparte determined to make the first advance, and on the 4th October
sent Lauriston to Kutusov with a letter for the Tzar Alexander. Kutusov received the letter, but not
the bearer. Buonaparte suffered 10 days more to elapse, and then renewed the attempt, beginning at
the time to think on his retreat. Kutusov received Lauriston this time, which produced some specious
negotiations, by which Buonaparte was misled to postpone his retreat for some days longer. Exactly
on the day fixed by Buonaparte for departure, Kutusov attacked the advanced guard under Murat.
This body had taken up a position a mile from Tarutino, close in front of the Russians, nine miles
from Moscow ... "
"Buonaparte was not certain of maintaining
himself through the winter in Moscow, it became
necessary for him then to commence his retreat
before the winter set in, and the preservation or
the reverse of Moscow could have no immediate
influence on his plans.
His retreat was unavoidable, and his whole
campaign a failure, from the moment that the Tzar
Alexander refused him peace. Everything was
calculated on this peace, and Buonaparte
assuredly never for a moment deceived himself on
this point." (- Clausewitz, p 111)
Napoleon could not stay in the devastated city
during the winter; that is why he left Moscow. (The first snow fell 15 days after leaving Moscow.)
Before leaving however the Emperor left detailed orders for the destruction of the Kremlin.
There were many wounded and sick in the French army. They were now helped on to artillery
caissons, civilian carriages, and supply carts, burdening still further loads already already too heavy
for the poor horses of burden. French Captain Coignet wrote, "At three o'clock we left Moscow. It
was scarcely possible to make our way, for the road was blocked up with carriages and all the army
plunderers were there in great numbers. ... There was a line of carriages on the road twelve leagues
long. By the time I had reached our first halting place, I had had carriage enough. I had all our
provisions put on horses and burned up the carriage. After that we could pass everywhere."
Historians consider that, next to the
battle of Borodino and the
occupation of Moscow by the
French, the most important episode
of the war of 1812 was the
movement of the Russian army
from the Ryazan to the Kaluga
Road and to the Tarutino camp.
It was the so-called flank march
across the Krasnaya Pakhra River.
Kutuzov's new position was very
good. He was closer to region rich
in food and supplies and could
threaten the flank and
communication lines of Napoleon's
army.
Napoleon was brilliantly outmaneuvered by Kutuzov. That old fox Kutuzov cheated me off by his
flank march, Napoleon later admitted. The respite enabled the Russians to build up the muscle for a
future campaign. Kutuzov also sent energetic officers with fast moving detachments to join the
guerillas in their fight against the French occupants. They set Russia on fire.
Leo Tolstoy wrote: "During the month that the French troops were pillaging in Moscow and the
Russian troops were quietly encamped at Tarutino, a change had taken place in the relative strength
of the two armies- both in spirit and in number- as a result of which the superiority had passed to
the Russian side. Though the condition and numbers of the French army were unknown to the
Russians, as soon as that change occurred the need of attacking at once showed itself by countless
signs. These signs were:
- Lauriston's mission;
- the abundance of provisions at Tarutino;
- the inactivity and disorder of the French;
- the flow of recruits to our (Russian) regiments ...
- the long rest the Russian soldiers had enjoyed ...
- the news of easy successes gained by peasants and guerrilla troops over the French ...
There was a substantial change in the relative strength, and an advance had become inevitable."
"The
march of
Buonaparte on Kaluga was a very necessary beginning of his retreat, without the intermixture of the
notion of another road, Kutuzov, from Tarutino, had 3 marches less to Smolensk than Buonaparte
from Moscow; the latter, therefore, was compelled to begin, by endeavouring to overwhelm the
other, and gain the advance of him before he began his real retreat.
It would naturally have been more advantageouos to him if he could have manoeuvered Kutusov
back to Kaluga. He hoped to effect this by suddenly passing from the old road to the new, whereby
he menaced Kutusov's left flank.
As this however and the attempt at Malo-Yaroslavetz appeared failures, he made the best of it; to
leave some 20,000 on the field of a general action, in order to end by retiring after all." (- Clausewitz, p
115)
"In pursuance of instructions from the Tzar, Wittgenstein had to press Oudinot altogether away
from this district, to throw him back on Vilno, and then to leave it to the army of Steinheil to keep
him out of play. ... On November 20th he [Wittgenstein] learned that the marshals opposed to him
were making a movement towards the Beresina, which indicated the approach of the French main
army, respecting which nothing more was here known than that it had arrived in a very weakened
state at Smolensk." (- Clausewitz, p 118)
French infantry led by General Delzons at Malo-Yaroslavetz.
Picture by Avierianov, Russia.
~
French retreat: from Moscow to Viazma.
The Russians attacked the tail of the French army, Davout's corps,
from three sides. Eugene and Prince Poniatowski however turned back
to free Davout. Together they broke through the Russian lines and
continued their march towards Viazma.
Napoleon army began to retrace its steps along the road from Borodino to Moscow. The French were
burdened by wagons overloaded with loot and wounded and sick soldiers. They filed past the
battlefield at Borodino which was still litered with corpses and military equipment.
Kutuzov positioned himself such
that he remained a threat to
Napoleon. Napoleon was
preceded by Russian small light
force under Ozharovski.
Ozharovski raided ahead of the
French in an attempt to destroy
all of the supplies possible!
Miloradovich's and Platov's light
troops hounded the flanks and
rear of Napoleon's army.
"Circumstances had now so shaped themselves that the centre [Napoleon's main force] was deep in
Russia, while the right wing of the French was still on the frontier, and the left on the Dvina. The
two main reinforcements to Russia of regular troops, the Moldavian Army and that of Finland, had
their own natural direction against the wings; it was therefore natural, but not the less meritorious in
the Tzar, that he determined to revert to the first idea, but to carry it out on a larger scale." (-
Clausewitz, p 112)
"During the repose of five weeks at Moscow, the following events occured in the other theatres of
the war. In Riga, September 20th, General Steinheil had landed from Finland with two divisions,
together 12,000 strong. Strengthened by a part of the garrison, he took the offensive against the
Prussians on the 26th; but after an obstinate action with General York, which lasted 3 days, and
during which the siege artillery of the French at Ruhenthal was in great danger, he found himself
compelled to retire, after considerable loss, to Riga." (- Clausewitz, p 41)
"General Steinheil proceeded immediately to effect a junction with Wittgenstein, but finding that the
latter was on the point of assuming the offensive near Druja, he marched by the left bank of the
Dvina in order to attack Polotzk from the rear. ... On the 18th and 19th of October - thus the moment
when Buonaparte was commencing his retreat from Moscow - Wittgenstein delivered the second
battle of Polotzk, won it, stormed the town, and forced the enemy to further retreat, the 6th Corps
(Wrede) retiring by Glubockoie to cover Wilna ...
In the south, Chichagov, who on the 31st July had left Bucharest with the Army of Moldavia, 38,000
strong, had effected his junction on the 18th September with Tormasov in the neighbourhoof of
Lutzk; and both together formed a force of 65,000 men against Schwarzenberg and Reynier, who
were reduced to 40,000. ... General Hertel, with one hand from Mozyr, kept the Austrian force at
Pinsk employed, and with the other Dombrowski before Bobruisk." (- Clausewitz, p 42)
Napoleons
objective
was to lead
his army to
Smolensk
and the
campaign
was then to
be
recommenced in the following spring.
However, Kutusov's advance guard under Miloradovich (22,000 men) and Platov (3,000 Cossacks)
closely followed the French. This time Kutuzov was unable to hold back his troops in their anxiety to
catch up with the French.
Napoleon reached Viazma (Vyazma), about halfway between Smolensk and Mozhaisk, when the
enemy attacked. Miloradovich appeared before the city attempting to interpose himself between
Napoleon's army and the rear guard under Davout. The Russians let Poniatowskis Poles go but then
attacked Eugenes Italian and French troops. Many of Eugenes soldiers fled in disorder leaving
Davouts highly trained I Army Corps alone.
Miloradovich and Platov then attacked Davout from three sides. Eugene (12,000 men) and
Poniatowski (4,000 men) however turned back to free Davout (13,000 men).
After some fierce fighting the Frenchmen, Poles and Italians broke through the Russian lines and
continued their march towards Viazma. Miloradovich ordered his infantry and artillery to reposition
themselves parallel to the road. Davout, Poniatowski and Eugene found themselves under flanking
artillery fire. The French artillery was unable to respond effectively to the Russian heavy fire, and
panic broke out among Davout's infantry. Sir Robert Wilson writes: "Miloradovich renewed the
attack under protection of a superior and admirably served artillery."
Marshal Davout (picture), Eugene, and Prince Poniatowski (picture)
conferred, and they concluded that victory was not possible given the
disorganization in the their troops. The three corps had retreated into
Vyazma and joined Neys corps (6,000 men).
The Russians however again attacked and threw them out Viazma. In
the battle of Viazma (Vyazma), 25,000 Russians defeated 35,000
French, Poles and Italians. The French at the cost of 8,100 killed,
wounded and prisoners managed to break through. The Russians suffered only 2,100
casualties. Next day after battle the first snow fell.
~
Russians won on the northern and southern flank.
Abortive coup d'tat in Paris.
The majority of MacDonald's force facing the fortress of Riga, by the Baltic Sea, were
Prussians commanded by General Yorck. With the withdrawal of Napoleon from
Moscow and the French losses during retreat, the relationship between MacDonald
and Yorck began to change. Yorck signed the Convention of Tauroggen, which
neutralized the Prussian troops in the war between Napoleon and Tzar Alexander.
MacDonald fell back.
Steinheil's corps occupied Finland before was ordered to the fortress of Riga. On 23
September Steinheil's force departed Riga and marched south to join Wittgenstein.
Wittgenstein crossed the Dvina River and marched on Polotzk. Steinheil and
Wittgenstein then maneuvered on St.Cyr's forces in Polotzk.
At Polotzk 27,000 French and Bavarians were defeated by 32,000 Russians. St.Cyr
detached Wrede's Bavarians to Glubokoie and cover the road to Vilno. Wrede was
attacked by the Russians and St.Cyr was ordered to return with the French and also
resume command of the Bavarians.
Victor's II Corps joined St.Cyr's IX Corps on 28 October. Wittgenstein left Polotzk and
moved against Victor who wished to conceal the junction of II and IX Army Corps. On
1 November Victor and one of St.Cyr's divisions merged.
Wittgenstein attacked them at Czaszniki and then at Smoliany.
Witgenstein then established bridgehead at Smoliany and waited for the
arrival of Chichagov's army. Victor and St.Cyr completed their merger.
On the southern front Tzar Alexander had ordered Tormasov's army to divide into
two forces. The one under Sacken was to observe the Austrians and Saxons, the other
force was to move towards the Berezina River to block Napoleon. Schwarzenberg once
again advanced on Slonim, reoccupied Kobrin but then received orders to fall back in order to cover
Warsaw. Reynier formed his rear guard. Chichagov's army moved towards Lutzk.
Ps.
On November 6 Napoleon received news from France and learned of the abortive coup d'tat in
Paris attempted by Malet. on October 23, Malet planned to announce the death of Napoleon and to
establish a provisional government. Malet decided to proclaim his death via the use of forged
documentation, hoping the plausible declaration would be believable. The forces involved in the
coup were the Gendarmerie of Paris (which were dissolved thereafter and formed the 134th Line
Infantry Regiment) and the 10th Cohort of the National Guard. The death of Napoleon was believed
throughout Paris. Malet settled into the offices of the district general of the Place Vendme, which
offered the facilities necessary to play his part of commander.
Strategic situation between 20 October and the beginning of December.
While Napoleon's main army, in the center, is retreating from Viazma to Smolensk
on the northern flank MacDonald left the fortress of Riga and is quickly falling back.
Between MacDonald (in the north) and Napoleon (in the center) are St.Cyr and Victor.
They are hardly pressed by Wittgenstein.
Chichagov is closing in from the south.
.
.
.
~
.
.
Marshal Ney's finest hour.
Marshal Ney formed his tiny force into square and,
taking musket in his own hand, let them onwards.
Napoleon and his army arrived in Smolensk on November 9th and departed on 14th. On November
13 Victor moved back toward Czaszniki in order to strike Wittgenstein, thrown him back across the
Dvina River and away from Napoleon's line of retreat on the Berezina River. On November 15 St.Cyr
received from Napoleon an order to withdraw. Napoleon directed Victor's force on Borisov and to
form the rear guard of the Grand Army retreating from Moscow.
The Russians attacked Napoleon at Krasne and captured 2 standards, 6,000 prisoners and Davout's
marshal's baton. The French army reached Orsha with well-stocked magazines. Many stragglers
were fully equipped and returned to their battalions. Napoleon ordered the burning of all unecessary
wagons and coaches (incl. his own personal baggage).
Marshal Ney then formed the rear guard
while the Cossacks quickly closed on him. He
formed his troops into square and, taking
musket in his own hand, let them onwards.
By midnight he reached Dnepr River and
crossed it. On November 21 he reached Orsha
and Napoleon.
Ney's die-hards' arrival in Orsha raised the
morale of the army. For this action Ney was
given the nickname the bravest of the brave
by Napoleon.
Ney was more suited for rear-gaurd action than the methodical Davout. Ney's system was to fall
back as far and rapidly as possible, preferably after dark, to the strongest position available to his
rear. There he would rest his troops; if the enemy pursued recklessly, he ambushed them. After that
they usually followed warily, reconnoitering his position and preparing for a coordinated attack.
Thereupon, having squeezed out the last possible moment of delay, the marshal would disengage
under cover of aggressive skirmishing and slip away, to repeat his game.
The French governor of Minsk, Hagendorp, had retreated on Borisov. General Lambert occupied
Minsk on November 16. In Minsk were stored 2,000,000 rations, 40 days' supplies for 100,000 men,
and huge quantity of shoes, uniforms, and gun powder. Dombrovski who had heard of the capture
of Minsk, moved his force (5,000 men) to Berezino.
Hagendorp occupied a bridgehead in Borisov with a battalion of the 95th Line Infantry. Dombrovski
moved quickly along Berezina River towards Borisov. The French battalion was surpised by the
Russians and driven back across the bridge. The Poles counterattacked with cold steel. The battle of
Borisov cost Dombrovski 3,500 killed and wounded, and several guns. The Russians suffered 2,500
casualties.
Oudinot met with Dambrovski and received the news of the fall of Borisov. Chichagov directed his
advance guard under Pahlen (who had replaced Lambert) to follow Dombrovski's force. George
Nafziger writes: "A quick action resulted, and Pahlen found himself unable to deploy. Pahlen found
himself quickly bundled up and hustled in great disorder down the road. He fled back over the
bridge at Borisov." (Nafziger - "Napoleon's Invasion of Russia" p 297, publ. in 1998)
Chichagov and his staff had been dining in Borisov as Oudinot's II Army Corps arrived.
The Russian generals escaped but lost all correspondence and baggage.
Napoleon ordered Oudinot (picture) to recapture the bridgehead at Borisov or to locate
another crossing. Oudinot was unable to secure the western bank because of the
presence of Chichagov's troops in Borisov. He learned of two fords, one near Studianka
and the other near Borisov. Because the ford near Borisov was soon sealed off by the
Russians, Oudinot moved to Studianka.
Kutusov spent November 22nd reorganizing and resting his army. Only Platov's
Cossacks harrassed the enemy. Corbineau's light cavalry brigade arrived in Studianka and found the
Russians on the western bank. Due to warmewr weather the swamps along Berezina River had
begun to melt and would quickly become impassable for wheeled traffic.
~
"You met your Berezina !" [C'est la brzina !]
"... it was his [Napoleon's] reputation which chiefly saved him
... Wittgenstein and Chichagov were both afraid of him here
[at Beresina] as Kutusov had been afraid of him at Krasnoi ...
No one chose to be defeated by him.
Kutusov believed he could obtain his end without that risk"
Napoleon ordered General Eble's pontoneers and
engineers, French and Polish, to proceed to
Marshal Oudinot. The tiny village of Studianka
was demolished and its lumber used to build two
bridges. Eble's men threw themselves into the
freezing water, 5 feet deep and flowing with
chunks of ice, and began their labors.
The French deployed 44-gun battery on the eastern
bank and drove the Russians away. The first troops
across the ford was Corbineau's light cavalry
brigade.
Wittgenstein (picture) learned of the French bridges in Studianka and marched across
the poor country roads to catch up with Victor. However, instead of Marshal Victor, he
encountered General Partoneaux's (ext.link) 12th Infantry Division (4,000 fresh infantry
and 4 guns) and 400 Saxon cavalrymen, which had become lost to the east of Berezina
River. The French held their ground until morning, but were forced to surrender.
Napoleon was furious.
Wittgenstein resolved to let his advanced guard, now on the roads of Czereja and Kolopodniczi,
pursue the enemy closely, and to march with his main body on Czereja, where he remained in a
direction calculated to cover the Ula, and to lie in wait for Buonaparte behind that river should he
take this direction.
On the 22nd he heard of Chichagov's arrival at Borisov. He was required by this general to draw
near enough to that point for them to act together. General Wittgenstein marched hereupon towards
Eolopodniczi. Here he heard of the battle of Krasnoi, that Buonaparte had been in Orsha on the 19th,
and that Kutusov had halted for some days, and sent only an advanced guard of 20,000 men in
pursuit, which followed the French army at the distance of one day's march." (- Clausewitz, p 118)
"Had Wittgenstein on the 25th made a march direct from Kolopodniczi on Borisov, and on the 26th
attacked everything he found before him, he would not have found the gulf so deep as he
apprehended. He might have been beaten by Buonaparte but he would have hindered his passage
for a day, and perhaps for two. But this self-sacrifice for the general good, which sounds so well in
books, is nevertheless not to be reckoned on in the practice of the world, or only at least in a few
cases, where on sufficient authority, it takes the shape of an indispensable duty.
From General Diebitsch [or Dybicz, picture] we had expected a bold and self-forgetting
rush forward. How far he advocated such, and failed, we could not learn, but it was easy to
observe that unity did not prevail at headuarters [of Wittgenstein's army] at this crisis.
Wittgenstein acted as most men in his place would have acted, and not in a manner to be
absolutely condemned. ... As his advanced guards did not touch on the enemy on the 25th,
he saw plainly that Buonaparte had not turned to the right, and he therefore, on the 26th, made a
march towards the Borisov road to Kostritza, a place which is only 2 leagues from the road, and 2
miles from the point where the French contemplated their passage.
At Kostritza Wittgenstein learned that the French were taking measures to effect their passage at
Studianka. As Chichagov had occupied the country as far as Ziembin, the result of this attempt to
force a passage appeared very doubtful. Wittgenstein, however, determined on the 27th to move
forward on the road, and attack the enemy in their rear, while occupied by Chichagov in front." (-
Clausewitz, p 120)
"Never were circumstances more propitious towards reducing an army to capitulate in the field. The
Beresina fenced in, partly by morass, and partly by dense forest, affords means of passage, and of
afterwards continuing a march only at a few points. The enemy was only 30,000 strong, about as
many Russians were behind the river, as many more in front, and 10,000 more on the march to join
them from behind. In addition to this utter dissolution of order in the enemy's ranks, 40,000
disarmed stragg;ers, hunger, sickness, and exhaustion of moral and physical force.
Chance certainly somewhat favoured Buonaparte
in his discovery near Borisov of a place so
favourable for the passage as Studianka, but it
was his reputation which chiefly saved him, and
he traded in this instance on a capital amassed
long before.
Wittgenstein and Chichagov were both afraid of
him here, as Kutusov had been afraid of him at
Krasnoi - of him, his army, of his guard. No one
chose to be defeated by him. Kutusov believed
he could obtain his end without that risk,
Wittgenstein was reluctant to impair the glory he
had acquired, Chichagov to undergo a second
check.
Buonaparte was endowed with this moral
strength when he thus extricated himself from
one of the worst situations in which a general
ever found himself. This moral power, however,
was not all; the strength of his intellect, and the
military virtues of his army, which not even its
calamities could quite subdue, were destined here to show themselves once more in their full lustre."
(- Clausewitz, p 121)
Jakob Anton of the Wurttemberg infantry wrote, "When we came nearer the Beresina River, there
was a place where Napoleon ordered his pack horses to be unharnessed and where he ate. He
watched his army pass by in the most wretched condition. What he may have felt in his heart is
impossible to surmise. His outward appearance seemed indifferent and unconcerned over the
wretchedness of his soldiers; only ambition and lost honor may have made themselves felt in his
heart; and, although the French and Allies shouted into his ears many oaths and curses about his
own guilty person, he was still able to listen to them unmoved."
The Battle of Berezina took place November 26-29. Napoleon had 35,000 French, Swiss and Polish
troops and 35,000 stragglers. They faced 40,000 Russians. Additional 30,000 Russian troops were not
far from the battlefield. The French losses in the crossing operations were very heavy. Approx. 25,000
(out of 35,000) French troops and a further 15,000 (of 30,000) Russians became casualties. The French
Old Guard was down to 2,000 men and the Young Guard was reduced to 1,000 men. Approx. 25,000
(out of 35,000 stragglers) were massacred by Cossacks, died in the near freezing water, or were
crushed to death in the panic to cross the bridges. Since then "Brzina" has been used in French
language as a synonym of disaster. (ext.link) For example, You met your Berezina ! or It's a disaster !
[C'est la brzina ! ]
Bridges over Berezina River
French infantry crossing the icy Berezina River in winter 1812.
Russian horse gunners (in helmets) open fire on the French.
Battle of Berezina Crossings by Julian Falat.
~
The French army had ceased to exist.
"I have no army any more !" - Napoleon Bonaparte
" . . . with the exception of the capture of Buonaparte and
his principal lieutenants, the campaign has the most
complete result conceivable. Should the Russian army
be denied all merits for this ? That were gross injustice."
Napoleons departure from Moscow marked the beginning of one of the most grueling marches in
military history. The few remaining horses were exhausted and slowly starved. Many animals had to
be abandoned. Occasionally the French and Polish light cavalry glimpsed distant Cossacks but many
horses were too weak to give chase.
Napoleon had taken 175,000 horses with him into
Russia, and only few of them survived the
campaign. The Russians reported burning the
corpses of 123,382 horses as they cleaned up their
countryside of the debris of war. Nine out of ten
cavalrymen who survived walked much of the way
home; most of those who rode did so on tiny, but
tough, Russian and Polish ponies, their boots
scuffing the ground (picture).
Many regiments ceased to
exist. For example the 5th
Regiment of Cuirassiers had
958 men present for duty on
June 15th, 1812. On February
1st 1813 had only 19 ! The
French cavalry never
recovered from the massive loss of horses.
So heavy were the losses that one of Napoleon's most serious handicaps in the
1813 and 1814 campaigns was his inability to reconstitute his once-powerful cavalry.
"Of the 680,500 men that Napoleon had organized for his invasion of Russia, barely 93,000 remained.
The main army had suffered the harshest casualties and had dwindled from 450,000 to 25,000 men.
The flanking and rearguard forces under Schwarzenberg, Reynier, MacDonald, and Augereau had
returned with a total of 68,000 men, but many of these men had not ventured very far into Russia,
and those of Schwarzenberg, Reynier, and MacDonald had not been as heavily engages as the main
army. Records suggest that 370,000 French and allied soldiers died either from battle or other causes,
while 200,000 were taken prisoner by the Russians. Of those taken prisoner, nearly half died in
captivity. (...)
"Of the 1,800 cannon taken into
Russia, the Russians reported
capturing 929 of them, and only 250
were brought out. The remainder
were lost or thrown into swamps and
lakes so that they might not be
captured. Though the loss of cannons
was serious, the loss of horses was
more devastating to Napoleon.
France's arsenals and industrial
facilities would soon replace the lost
weaponry. Of the 66,345 men that had belonged to Davout's corps in June 1812, there remained only
2,281. The 50,000-man Imperial Guard had been reduced to 500 men under arms and a further 800
sick, of whom 200 would never return to arms. Similar casualties were suffered by the II, III, and IV
Corps ..." (Nafziger - "Napoleon's Invasion of Russia" )
Napoleon wrote: "I have no army any more! For many days I have been marching in the midst of a
mob of disbanded, disorganized men, who wander all over the countryside in search of food."
"Besides himself, his principal generals, and a couple of thousand officers, he brought away nothing
of the whole army worth mentioning." (- Clausewitz, p 122)
While the French, Italian and Polish troops
marched towards Vilno, Napoleon quit the army.
The 7th Company of Polish Guard Lancers and the
French Guard Horse Chasseurs formed
Napoleon's escort and accompanied the Emperor
through Lithuania. A squadron of Polish Guard
Lancers formed relays between Smorgoni and
Oshmiany.
Napoleon said to the guardsmen: "I count on you.
In case of certain danger I want you to kill me
rather than let me be captured." The Old Guard
Lancers responded: "We shall all be hacked to
pieces rather than permit anyone to approach you !" The rest of the regiment of lancers escorted
Emperor's money and baggage.
"Nominally, the Russians had failed in cutting off their enemy: Eugene, Ney, at Krasnoi, Buonaparte
at the Beresina; but nevertheless, they had cut off considerable masses. This holds still more true of
the campaign as a whole. The Russians seldom head the French; when they do so, they let them
through. The French are everywhere victorious - but look to the end of the account. The French army
had ceased to exist, and, with the exception of the capture of Buonaparte and his principal
lieutenant, the campaign has the most complete result conceivable. Should the Russian army be
denied all merits for this ? That were gross injustice.
Never was a pursuit conducted with such activity
and exertion. The Russian generals were certainly
often timid at moments when they should have
clutched the fugitives, but still the energy of the
pursuit was wonderful. We must consider the
scale of operations. In November and December,
in the ice and snow of Russia, after an ardous
campaign, either by side roads little beaten, or on
the main road utterly devastated, under great
difficulties of subsistence, the following an enemy
120 [German] miles in 50 days is perhaps without
example; and to exemplify in a word the entire
magnitude of the exertion, we have only to say
that the Russian army marched out of Tarutino 110,000 strong, and entered Vilno 40,000. The rest
had remained behind, dead, wounded, or exhausted.
This exertion did great honour to Kutusov.
When at Krasnoi he at last resolved to descend upon his adversary, whe he showed an intention of
blocking his roads to the Dnieper, with the half of his own army under Tormasov, and then, in the
moment of execution of the long expected blow, held in his strength, and suffered the dreaded
fugitive to escape with a moderate squeeze, then men believed they witnessed either the extreme of
weakness, or a dangerous indifference for the honour and success of the Russian arms. Such men,
however, in truth, reasoned rather in their chamber than on the field of battle of Krasnoi." (-
Clausewitz, p 122)
"Dressed in a Polish costume consisting of a green pelisse and a cap of marten fur,
Napoleon had so far traveled in his closed carriage." (- Henri Lachoque)
If Napoleon had not left the army during the retreat from Russia,
the Grand Army of 1813 would not have sprung from the earth.
Murat was given command of the army and ordered to bring it back to Poland.
Murat reached Vilno on December 9th. Unfortunately the administration learned of
the disaster and fled in terror of the Cossacks. Vilno was filled with supplies that
were looted and wasted by the undisciplined soldiers. Murat left Vilno on
December 10th and the Cossacks entered the city. Ney set fire to the remining
supplies.
On December 14th Murat had recrossed the Niemen River and on December 19th
his force arrived in Konigsberg. Murat learned of Prussian defection and caused him
to lose his nerve. He left his command to Eugene and fled to Naples (southern Italy).
Schwarzenberg's Austrians retired to Galicia, an Austrian province, Reynier's Saxons retired to
Glogau, MacDonald withdrew into Danzig. The Russian forces crossed the Vistula River in Poland in
January 1813.
.
French infantryman wearing tenue de route
in Russia in 1812. Picture by Knoetel.
-
"Sketches made by a German officer who survived the retreat
(from Russia in 1812) show one soldier draped in a lion-skin
rug. Grenadiers converted their bearskin caps into muffs."
- Colonel John Elting
~
Conclusions.
"Kutusov saw his army melting in his grasp, and the
difficulty he would have in bringing any
considerable portion of it to the frontier. He saw that
the result of the campaign must in any case be a
colosal one; he foresaw with much acuteness the
total destruction of his enemy: Tout cela se fondra sans
moi, were his words to those about him. Could an
accelerated catastrophe - or rather, ought it - have
such a value in his eyes as to make him put a portion
of his own remaining strength in hazard ? ...
Kutusov determined not to throw his whole strength
upon his adversary, but to follow him unceasingly
with great and small detachments, to harass and
exhaust him. This he deemed sufficient for his object. Most commanders in his place would so have
reasoned." (- Clausewitz, p 123)
"Buonaparte determined to conduct and terminate the war in Russia as he had so many others. To
begin with decisive battles, and to profit by their advantages; to gain others still more decisive, and
thus to go on playing double or quits till he broke the bank - this was his manner; and we must
admit that to this manner he owed the enormous success of his career, and that the attainment of
such success was scarcely conceivable in any other manner. ...
To beat the enemy, to shatter him, to gain the capital, to drive
the government into the last corner of the empire and then,
while the confusion was fresh, to dictate a peace - had been
hitherto the plan of operation in his wars." (- Clausewitz, p 144)
"In the case of Russia, he had against him the prodigious
extent of the empire, and the circumstance of its having two
capitals [Moscow and St.Petersbourg] at a great distance from
each other. ...
If Buonaparte was really obliged to calculate on ending the war in two campaigns, it then made a
great difference whether he conquered Moscow or not in the first. This capital once taken, he might
hope to undermine preparations for further resistance by imposing with the force which he had
remaining - to mislead public opinion - to set feeling at variance with duty.
If Moscow remained in the hands of the Russians, perhaps a resistance for the next campaign might
form itself on that basis to which the necessarily weakened force of Buonaparte would be unequal. In
short, with the conquest of Moscow, he thought himself over the ridge. This has always appeared to
us the natural view for a man like Buonaparte. The question arises, whether this plan was altogether
impracticable, and whether there was not another to be preferred to it ?
We are not of such opinion.
The Russian army might be beaten, scattered. Moscow might be conquered in one campaign, but we
are of opinion that one essential condition was wanting in Buonaparte's execution of the plan - this
was to remain formidable after the acquisition of Moscow. We believe that this was neglected by
Buonaparte only in consequence of his characteristic negligence in such matters. He reached Moscow
with 90,000 men; he should have reached it with 200,000. This would have been possible if he had
handled his army with more care and forbearance." (- Clausewitz, p 145)
"He would, perhaps, have lost 30,000 men fewer in action if he had not chosen on every occasion to
take the bull by the horns. ... Whether 200,000 men placed in the heart of the Russian empire would
have produced the requisite moral effect, and commanded a peace, is certainly still a question, but it
seems to us that it was allowable to reason a priori to that effect. ...
It is moreover to be considered as a great neglect on the part of Buonaparte to have made so little
preparation as he did for retreat. If Vilna, Minsk, Polotzk, Witebsk and Smolensk had been
strengthened with works and sufficient pallisades, and each garrisoned with from 5,000 to 6,000
men, the retreat would have been facilitated in more than one respect, especially in the matter of
subsistence. ... If we consider that the army would also have both reached and quitted Moscow in
greater force, we may conceive that the retreat would have lost its character of utter destruction.
What then was the other plan which has been put forward after the event,
as the more judicious or, as its advocates term it, the more methodical ?
According to this, Buonaparte should have halted on the Dnieper and Dvina, should at furthest have
concluded his campaign with the occupation of Smolensk, should then have established himslef in
the territory he had acquired, have secured his flanks, acquiring thereby a better base, have brought
the Poles under arms, increasing his offensive strength, and thus for the next campaign have secured
the advantage of a better start, and arrived in better wind at Moscow. This sounds well, if not closely
examined, and especially if we omit to compare it with the views entertained by Buonaparte in
adopting the other plan." (- Clausewitz, p 145)
"This implies a conclusion of the campaign without a victory over the Russian army, which was to
remain to a certain extent intact, and Moscow not threatened. The Russian military, weak at the
commencement, and certain to be nearly doubled in the progress of hostilities, would have had time
to complete its strength and then, in the course of the winter, to commence the offensive against the
enormously extended line of the French.
This was no part in Buonaparte's taste of play. Its worst feature was that a victory in the field, if he
could gain one, remained without positive effect; since, in the middle of winter, or even late autumn,
he could devise no further operation for his victorious troops, no object on which to direct them. He
could then do nothing more than parry without thrusting in return.
Then the details of execution !
How was he to dispose his army ?
In quarters ?
That fpor corps of moderate strength was only possible in the vicinity of large towns.
Encamp them ?
Impossible in winter.
Had he, however, concentrated his forces in single towns, the
intervening country was not his own, but belonged to the Cossacks.
The losses which the army would have suffered in the course of such a winter
could not probably have been replaced by arming the Poles. This armament, if
investigated, presented great difficulties. First were excluded from it the Polish
provinces in possession of Austria; next, those remaining in possession of Russia.
On Austria's account, also, it could not be conducted in the sense in which the
Poles could alone desire it; namely, the restoration of the old Polish kingdom.
This lamed the enthusiasm.
The main difficulty however that a country which has been pressed upon by
enormous military and foreign masses is not in a condition to make great military
exertions. Extraordinary efforts on the part of the citizens of a state have their limits; if they are called
for in one direction, they cannot be available in another. If the peasant be compelled to remain on the
road the entire day with his cattle, for the transport of the supplies of an army, if he has his house
full of soldiers, if the proprietor must give up his stores for the said's army subsistence, when the
first necessities are hourly pressing and barely provided for, voluntary offerings of money, money's
worth, and personal service are hardly to be looked for." (- Clausewitz, p 147)
"Concede we, nevertheless, the possibility that such a campaign
might have fulfilled its object, and prepared the way for a further
advance in the following season. Let us, however, remember what we
have to consider on the other side - that Buonaparte found the
Russians but half-prepared, that he could throw upon them an
enormous superiority of force, with a fair prospect of forcing a
victory, and giving to the execution of his undertaking the rapidity
necessary for a surprise, with all but the certainty of gaining Moscow
at one onset, with the possibility of having a peace in his pocket
within a quarter of a year.
Let us compare these views and reflections with the results of a so-
called methodical campaign; it will be very doubtful, all things
compared, whether Buonaparte's plan did not involve greater
probability of final success than the other, and in this case it was, in
fact, the methodical one, and the least audacious and hazardous of the two. However this may be, it
is easy to understand that a man like Buonaparte did not hesitate between them. ..." (- Clausewitz, p
148)
"The famous conqueror in question was so far from deficient in this quality that he would have
chosen the most audacious course from inclination, even if his genius had not suggested it to him as
the wisest. We repeat it. He owed everything to this boldness of determination, and his most
brilliant campaigns would have been exposed to the sam imputations as have attached to the one we
have described, if they had not succeeded." (- Clausewitz, p 148)
.
.
Sources and Links.
Recommended Reading
Karl von Clausewitz - "The Campaign of 1812 in Russia" excellent old book
Britten-Austin - "1812 The March on Moscow"
Nafziger - "Napoleon's Invasion of Russia" (website)
Walter - "The Diary of a Napoleonic Foot Soldier / Jakob Walter" publ. in 1991
.
.
Battle of Borodino 1812 : Bataille de la Moskova : Schlacht : Batalla
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Borodino_battle.htm[2012-05-21 12:44:24]
Battle of Borodino, 1812
La bataille de la Moskova
- Napoleon
"The approaches, the ditches and the redoubt itself had disappeared
under a mound of dead and dying, of an average depth of 6 to 8
men, heaped one upon the other." - Joseph Brandt, Vistula Legion
Prelude to Borodino -
Battle of Shevardino.
BORODINO. " The chessmen are set up ,
the game will begin tomorrow !"
- - - - - Napoleon's health and plans.
- - - - - "... never has there been a finer force
- - - - - than the French army on that day."
- - - - - Russian army.
- - - - - Map
"Soldiers ! This is the battle that
you have looked forward to so much !"
Northern flank: fight for Borodino village.
Center: Fight for Bagration Fleches.
- - - - - The first attack. A rumour quickly spread
- - - - - that Davout was killed, the news of which
- - - - - shocked the Emperor.
- - - - - "Bravo, bravo !"
- - - - - (The French 57th Regiment at work.)
- - - - - The artillery fir was growing more intense.
- - - - - The second attack. Ney complained
- - - - - bitterly about being made to
- - - - - 'take the bull by the horns.'
- - - - - "The battle was the most savage ...
- - - - - that I have witnessed."
- - - - - German and Polish cavalry
- - - - - versus Russian cavalry.
- - - - - "The [Russian grenadiers] assault
- - - - - was dreadful ..."
- - - - - Marshal Murat barely escaped
- - - - - Russian cuirassiers.
- - - - - "Kill these German dogs !"
- - - - - (Russian cuirassiers ran riot.)
- - - - - Bagration was mortally wounded.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Center: Fight for the Death Redoubt.
- - - - - The first and second French attack.
- - - - - "We dashed towards the redoubt and
- - - - - climbed through the embrasures ..."
- - - - - Seeing the redoubt seized Eugene
- - - - - cried "The battle is won !"
- - - - - Russian counter-attack.
- - - - - They carried the summit
- - - - - and recaptured the redoubt.
- - - - - Prinz Eugen's walk into hell.
Southern flank: fighting in the Utitza Wood.
- it is to you the glory is due! " - Napoleon
- - - - - The Poles captured the wood,
- - - - - took the strongly defended hillock,
- - - - - and then stormed the village.
- - - - - Russian counter-attack.
- - - - - The Westphalians.
Northern flank: Cossacks' raid.
What a bloody fighting ! What a cram !
"... [the French] cavalry spread out as a sea
while our squares floated like islands that
were washed by the copper and steel waves
of enemy cuirassiers ..."
- - - - - "... this majestic horde of [French] cavalry
- - - - - pressed home its attack ..."
- - - - - Saxon cuirassiers and Polish uhlans
- - - - - vs Russian Foot Guards and cuirassiers.
- - - - - French uirassiers and carabiniers
- - - - - vs Russian Foot Guards and cuirassiers.
"Let's go and get killed !"
The marshals asked Napoleon for the
Imperial Guard to make the breakthrough.
(Friant's die-hards.)
"... it seemed as if Napoleon decided
to eliminate us with his artillery."
"We are not staying here !"
(Allies under Russian artillery fire.)
The capture of the Death Redoubt.
The Redoubt was covered in smoke and
looked surreal as it was illuminated
by the "reddish aurora-borealis glow"
of its firing cannons.
- - - - - - - Charge of French cuirassiers.
- - - - - - - (Caulaincourt mortally wounded.)
- - - - - - - Charge of Saxon cuirassiers.
- - - - - - - Attack of French infantry.
.
.
.
.
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The Russian army fell back.
"Mountains of dead on both sides."
French and Russian casualties.
Aftermath.

The capture of the Death Redoubt (Raievski Redoubt) at Borodino.
Famous picture by Vereshchagin, Russia.
Prelude to Borodino - The Battle of Shevardino.
"It was a murderous affair. ... The assault began with
the almost customary gestures of impetous bravado ..."
A Palmer - "Napoleon in Russia"
Kutuzov's rear guard under Konovnitzin
(picture) and some cavalry, were followed by
Napoleon's advance guard. To secure
Konovnitzin's crossings across the Kolocha
River, the Russian command dispatched the
Lifeguard Jagers. Konovnitzin's cavalry forded
the river on the left side of Borodino village.
His artillery moved across the bridge by the
village.
In the afternoon Napoleon and Eugene arrived
to reconnoitre the Russian positions around the
Borodino village. After 2 PM Napoleon rode to
Marshal Davout. Eugene left the Italian Guard in reserve and directed the 13th and 14th Infantry
Divisions to deploy in the first line. Gerard's 3rd Infantry Division (from Davout's corps) supported them
from the south. The fighting was opened by several French battalions covered with numerous skirmishers
and Russian light troops (III Battalion of Lifeguard Jagers, Elisavetgrad Hussars, and three regiments of
Cossacks). The Russians held their positions by Borodino until late into the night.
Meanwhile, in the center and south of Eugene's force, the French light troops (6 companies of voltigeurs)
were pushing back Russian jagers and Cossacks. Both sides were deployed in skirmish lines. Soon the
French troops reported to Marshal Murat (commander of Napoleon's cavalry) that a single redoubt had
been observed near the village of Shevardino. Murat informed Napoleon about the Russian fieldwork.
General Yermolov, chief of staff of the First Western Army, wrote: "An otherwise useless redoubt [at
Shevardino] now had to be defended out of necessity, in order to give the troops time to occupy their
[second] position, since the enemy could try to impede and even to throw our entire army into
confusion."
The French sappers put up bridges across the Kolocha. Napoleon, without waiting for Marshal Davout's
corps to arrive, sent its 5th Infantry Division under Compans against the redoubt. Compans' infantry
division was followed by immense mass of cavalry (Nansouty's and Montbrun's cavalry corps).
While on the northern
flank Eugene struggled at
Borodino, in the center
Davout and Murat
attacked at Shevardino.
Meanwhile on the southern
flank Poniatowski's Poles
drove the Russians out of
Yelnia and then joined
Davout and Murat.
The battlefield was
partially covered by smoke
from burning villages.
Most of the fighting on the
French side was done by
Compans' 5th Infantry
Division of Marshal
Davout's superb I Army
Corps.
Compans was a seasoned
general. In 1805 he was
named chief-of-staff to
Lannes' V Corps, with
which he fought at
Austerlitz. Before the war with Prussia in 1806 he was made chief-of-staff of Soult's IV Corps. In 1808 or
1809 Compans became the chief-of-staff of Marshal Davout's Army of Germany. During the Russian
campaign in 1812 Compans commanded the 5th Division of Davout's I Army Corps. After Waterloo,
General Compans voted for death at the trial of Marshal Ney.
The Russians were under General Prince Andrey Gorchakov. "Gorcahkov had the brilliant begining of his
military career: he was a Colonel in the age of 19. He was a nephew of Suvorov, and was sent by Pavel I
to Konchanskoe village, where the Field-Marshal lived in exile, when the Emperor called Suvorov to
St.Petersburg. In the rank of General-Major Gorchakov took part in the well-known Italian campaign of
Suvorov. And there, in the battle at Tidone the General in the age of 20 got his baptism of fire." (Niloai
Mozhak - "Russian Generals of the Napoleonic Wars") Gorchakov also took part in the campaign in Eastern
Prussia in 1807.
Gorchakov's
force
consisted of
8,000
infantry,
4,000
cavalry and
194 guns. In
the first
line, behind
the redoubt,
stood the
27th
Infantry
Division. Its
8 battalions
were
formed in
columns,
with the
jagers
occupying
the woods
and
villages.
Behind the
infantry
stood the
2nd
Cuirassier
Division,
with its five
regiments
deployed in
squadron
columns.
These forces were supported with four dragoon regiments and a part of hussar regiment.
In the second phase of the battle, Bagration strengthened Prince Gorchakov with the elite 2nd Grenadier
Division (12 battalions) and 2nd Combined Grenadier Division (4 battalions).
The Shevardino Redoubt itself was defended by Russian 12th Position Company (Battery) of 12 heavy
pieces. Three cannons were deployed inside of the redoubt, while 9 other cannon, stood outside the
redoubt. The redoubt was shaped like a pentagon.
"The initial attack on Shevardino came from the south-west, where Polish cavalry encountered the
Cossacks near Yelnia. After a brief skirmish, the Cossacks retreated toward Utitza and Poniatowski
turned his forces northward to attack the left wing of the Russian positions at Shevardino.
Preceded by several voltigeur companies, the 16th Division (Krasinski) moved
over the ravine and through brushes, while the 18th Division and the cavalry
secured the road and protected the flank against any Cossack attack. Krasinski's
troops suffered from the Russian guns and the Russian jager skirmishers. The
Poles deployed 24 guns to bombard the enemy positions ... Colonel Emmanuel
charged with the Kievskii Dragoon Regiment, and was supported by two
squadrons of the Akhtyrskii Hussar Regiment. The charge briefly halted the
Polish advance but could not stop it."
(Mikaberidze - "The Battle of Borodino" pp 36-37)
The French then deployed two strong batteries and opened fire. The I and III
Battalion of 57th Line Infantry Regiment (one of the best French regiments,
nicknamed "The Terrible") and several companies of voltigeurs seized the village
of Doronino and wood adjacent to it. The French columns kept moving forward
but the Russian artillery forced them to take cover in the wood and buildings. The New Russia Dragoon
Regiment attacked the French skirmishers deployed in the open. The voltigeurs formed square and
repulsed the cavalry. Then the Russians were counterattacked by French cavalry and were thrown back.
Meanwhile Marshal Davout crossed the Kolocha River with four divisions, Gerard's 3rd Infantry, Friant's
2nd Infantry, Morand's 1st Infantry, and Girardin's Light Cavalry Division.
Six companies of voltigeurs in skirmish order "covering themselves as much as
possible, were ordered to keep a constant fire on the [Russian] artillery men at
the guns on the redoubt. ... A battalion [of line infantry] was placed in rear of the
knoll to support the voltigeurs." (- Gaspard Gourgaud)
Behind these voltigeurs moved Compans' 5th Infantry Division [25th, 57th, 61st,
and 111th Line Infantry Regiment]. Simultaneously, Morand's 1st Infantry
Division threatened the enemy right flank.
Despite canister fire and cavalry charge the French line infantry steadily
advanced towards the redoubt. General Compans then deployed 8 guns on the knoll, 200-250 m west of
the redoubt. (Earlier, the Russian Kiev Dragoons helped infantry and gunners in removing the horse guns
from the knoll.)
Poniatowski sent the 2nd (Polish) Infantry Regiment through the wood to flank the Russians. The Poles
fought with Russian jagers supported by the Tarnopol Infantry Regiment. "... the Tarnopol Reegiment
attacked in a column formation with music playing and soldiers singing. Right in front of my eyes, the
regiment made a bayonet charge. The combat was brief and their regimental commander was wounded
by a musket ball in the back of his head. He was carried out and the regiment wavered." ( - officer of 50th
Jager Regiment)
The pressure from the French and Polish troops was too
much for the enemy. The XII Position Company (Battery)
began to withdraw from the redoubt, and the 27th
Infantry Division began to waver. Half of Compans'
division closed in and charged the redoubt from one side,
and the other half from the other side.
The Russians wavered but they were far from being
completely broken. An officer of the 111th Line Infantry
Regiment wrote: "... we almost caught up with the
retreating Russian infantry, when it halted, turned back
and opened fire at us."
According to Gourgaud "Only separated by a couple of
dozen paces, the troops on either side of the wattle fences
were protected from each other up to chest level. Thus,
this sanguinary fusillade lasted three-quarters of an hour
..."
The noise on this part of the battlefield was such that no voices could be overheard.
General Compans brought in two last battalions. He took the II/57th and "having opened up the fences
on his right, made it advance in close column of divisions, covering 4 guns charged with canister that
moved behind it. He led this battalion against the extreme right of the Russian infantry flanking the
redoubt. When at 100 m from them, he unmasked his guns, which caused a dreadful havoc. Compans
profiting by the disorder which he observed in their ranks, charged with his battalion at the point of the
bayonet." ( - Gaspard Gourgaud)
At 7 pm the French fought their way into the redoubt and captured 5-7 cannons. (Barclay de Tolly
mentioned 3 pieces lost, and the commander of XII Position Battery claimed that only 2 cannons were
lost.)
Bagration supported Prince
Gorchakov's wavering troops
with the 2nd Grenadier Division
(12 battalions of grenadiers) and
the 2nd Combined Grenadier
Division (4 battalions of
combined grenadiers). The
battalions of combined
grenadiers were composed of
grenadier companies taken from the depot battalions. The combined grenadiers were not as good as the
grenadiers.
The first counterattack was made by 4 battalions of 2nd Grenadier Division. Although the Russians were
motivated by priests they were unable to break the French. In the second counterattack 2 grenadier
battalions moved against the redoubt. By this time the redoubt had been half destroyed by the artillery. It
was strewn with the corpses of infantrymen and even few horses !
The French held their ground but
Bagration was a hard, stubborn sod.
Three times the redoubt changed hands
and one French battalion (of 61st's Line
Regiment) was almost completely
annihilated inside the field work !
De Segur wrote: "Next day when the
emperor reviewed that regiment, he
inquired where was its III Battalion ?
In the redoubt [lying dead]' replied the
colonel.
But the affair did not stop there; a
neighbouring wood still swarmed with Russian skirmishers..."
There were many dead and wounded Russians and French all around the place. The blood was literally
flowing like a river. The fighting finally ceased for a while from confusion and exhaustion on both sides.
Especially the French 5th Division and Russian 27th Division suffered heavy casualties.
The Russian command saw 8 or 10 battalions of French infantry (25th and 111th Line Regiment), which
under cover of smoke and darkness, sought to move between the village of Shevardino and the redoubt.
The Russians counterattacked with two cuirassier regiments (Little Russia and
Gloukhov). One flank of the cuirassiers was covered with 2 squadrons of Kharkov
Dragoons and the other flank with 2 squadrons from Chernigov Dragoons.
The French 111th Line Infantry Regiment tried to form squares against the charging
cavalry. One battalion was destroyed while other battalions became disordered.
Louis Gardier of 111th wrote: "... Russian cuirassiers, who claimed to be our allies
and indeed looked like the Saxon cuirassiers, appeared. Assuming that they arrived
to charge the enemy, we allowed them to pass nearby. But they rallied behind us
and charged, killing anyone who came under their sabers." The cuirassiers killed 300
men and captured 3 guns. The disordered 111th Line Regiment was then shattered
by a friendly fire from a French battalion standing near the village.
General Friant's infantry division already stood north of Shevardino. Its 2 Spanish battalions
marched toward the village when Russian dragoons charged them. The Spaniards formed
squares and opened fire. The dragoons fell back. (The Spanish Rgiment Joseph Napolon
was an unit formed from Spanish prisoners of war, which served in the French Army from
1809 until 1813.) The remaining regiments of Friant's 2nd Infantry Division (15th Light, 33rd
Line, 48th Line, and artillery - all French units) were much less molested by the cavalry.
The Poles were finally halted by several jager battalions, 2 battalions of Tarnopol Infantry, 2 battalions of
Fanagoria Grenadiers, Ekaterinoslav Cuirassiers, and the famous Military Order Cuirassiers. The
cuirassiers attempted to capture Polish artillery but were thrown back by Polish cavalry. The cuirassiers
however routed French lancers from Nansouty's cavalry corps. Afterwards approx. 15 companies of
(Polish) voltigeurs pushed back 50th Jager Regiment. The Russians were in skirmish order and suffered
some casualties.
Around 10 pm Kutuzov was informed of fresh French
reinforcements reaching the battlefield and the Poles
flanking Gorchakov's position from the south. Kutuzov
recalled Gorchakov's troops and abandoned the
redoubt to the French infantry. "Naturally, the French
memoirs reveal claims to the contrary." (Mikaberidze -
"The battle of Borodino" p 44)
Night fell, but it did not end the battle. Bagration and
Prince Gorchakov received the order to withdraw their
troops. The withdrawal was made under the cover of a
cuirassier division and a single infantry battalion. The
Russian battalion raised their voices and beat their
drums as loudly as possible in an effort to exaggerate their numbers in the darkness, while the cuirassiers
advanced to meet the French. The engagement was fought in darkness, and in its confusion the Russians
managed to complete their withdrawal.
.
After the battle, by A Averianov.
-
Russian casualties: 6,000.
French casualties: 4,500.

Battle of Shevardino Redoubt 1812 - Part 2 (in Russian language)
(To watch Part 3 click here)
.
.
.
~
"The Chessmen Are Set Up,
the Game Will Begin Tomorrow !"
- Napoleon
After the Battle of Shevardino, the Russians found themselves on the next morning without a position for
their left flank, and were forced to bend it back and hastily entrench it where it chanced to be. Russian
General Bennigsen wrote: "I never described Borodino as a favourable position but Colonel Toll,
appointed (by Kutuzov) to the position of Quartermaster-General, selected it himself ... He was satisfied
by the mere fact that its front was protected by shallow rivulets that could be forded everywhere, and
ignored the fact that both flanks were exposed and not reinforced."
Karl von Clausewitz on the position at Borodino: "Russia is very poor in positions [for battles]. Where the
great morasses prevail, the country is so wooded that one has trouble to find room for a considerable
number of troops. Where the forrests are thinner, as between Smolensk and Moscow, the ground is level -
without any decided mountain ridges - without any deep hollows. The fields are without enclousers,
therefore everywhere easy to be passed; the villages of wood, and ill adapted for defence. ... If a
commander then wishes to fight without loss of time, as was Kutuzov's case, it is evident that he must put
up with what he can get." (Clausewitz - "The Campaign of 1812 in Russia" , p 87)
"It was thus that Colonel Toll could find no better position than that
of Borodino, which is however a deceptive one, for it promises at
first sight more than it performs ...
The consquence is, if the position be taken up parallel to the stream,
the army stands obliquely to its line of retreat, and exposes its left
flank to the enemy. This parallel position could be the less adopted
here because, at 1/2 mile from the great road, a second road to
Moscow issues from the village of Jelnia (see map), and thus leads
straight behind the rear of such a position. ...
In this respect, therefore, the left flank was too much threatened to
allow of its being more exposed by means of a line of retreat not
perpendicular to the position." (- Clausewitz, p 87)
"The whole position too strongly indicated the left to the French as
the object of operation to admit of their forces being attracted to the
right." (- Clausewitz, p 88)
"The fieldworks [redoubts and fleches], which had
been thrown up, lay partly on the left wing, partly
before the centre, and one of them as an advanced
post, a couple of thousand paces before the left wing.
These works were only ordered at the moment when
the army arrived in position. They were in a sandy
soil, open behind, destitute of all external devices,
and could therefore only be considered as individual
features in a scheme for increasing the defensive
capabilities of the position.
None of them could hold out against a serious
assault, and in fact most of them were lost and
regained 2 or 3 times. It must, however, be said of
them that they contributed their share to the substantial and hearty resistance of the Russians; they
formed for the left wing the only local advantage which remained to the Russians in that quarter." (-
Clausewitz, p 88)
"While there was no major confrontations on the 6th, the day was
not as peaceful as it is usually described in books, being full of
skirmishes along the entire line. That day, Fedor Glinka, sitting in
the bell tower near the village of Borodino, could see as the French
'bands [of tirailleurs] skirmished with our jagers for almost the
entire day since our troops did not allow them to get drinking
water from the Kolocha.'
At one moment a heated fight began between the tirailleurs of
Morand's division and the Russian jagers near Borodino. Hearing
the musket fire, Davout ordered General Dedem, commanding a
brigade in Friant's division, 'to ride flat out and stop the firing all
down the line.' Still occasional fire could be heard for the rest of
the day and Capt. Francois recalled hearing it as late as 11 pm. The
30th Line lost 67 killed that day ..." (- Alexander Mikaberidze)
.
.
Napoleon's health and plans.
Napoleon rejected Davout's plan to outflank
the Russian left wing. Instead he decided to
attack the enemy frontally.
In 1812 Napoleon put on weight, and he developed a paunch.
Those close to him noted that his eyes grew less piercing and he
spoke more slowly. He also took longer to make decisions.
Those used to his fits of fury were surprised to find him growing
more pensive. His enemies noted that his victories were no
longer as resounding as they had been.
Napoleon spent the previous day on horseback inspecting the
own troops, considering plans and giving commands to
generals. Caulaincourt's Itineraire records that the Emperor that
day rode three of his horses: Luzelberg, Emir and Courtois. At
dawn the Emperor mounted and rode to the front line where he
had a good view of the Russian positions. The Emperor reviewed the Russian positions and returned to
his staff. He listened to a suggestion from Davout to outflank the Russian left wing but said it should not
be done.
"Much has been said about Napoleon's plan. Some argued that it lacked the ingenuity of the younger
Napoleon, especially in light of his refusal to accept a more adventurous scheme touted by Marshal
Davout (picture). Given the shortness of the Russian line and manifest weakness of its left wing, Davout
proposed to launch his own corps - supported by that of Poniatowski - in a powerful encircling
movement through the Utitza woods, while Ney's corps pinned down the Russians at Semenovskoye. ...
But Napoleon was unusually cautious and told the Marshal:
No !
The movement is altogether too great !
It would lead me away from my objective
and make me lose too much time. ...
So what made him reject it ? Davout's idea called for detaching two entire corps (Davout's
I and Poniatowski's V) - some 40,000 men - and Napoleon was naturally reluctant to
commit half his infantry to this maneuvre, since it would have weakened his position. In
addition, the maneuvre would have been performed during the night, as Gourgaud
observed, it is well known how hazardous such marches are made through a wooded and unknown tract of country,
and almost without a guide. For example, one need only recall Russian troops wanderring off-road at night
during their retreat from Smolensk." (Mikaberidze- 'The battle of Moscow.' p 69)
.
.
"... never has there been a finer force
than the French army on that day."
Picture:
Napoleon's army
approaching the
site of the future
battle of Borodino.
Picture by Adam.
Lejeune wrote:
"The appearance
of all these crack
troops, beautiful
to behold in their impatience to go into action and secure a victory, made a most imposing spectacle."
Despite the devastating losses earlier in the war, French morale remained excellent. Indeed, the battle
looked like an easy victory for Napoleon and his Guard being present. Colonel Seruzier of French artillery
contemplated that "never has there been a finer force than the French army on that day, and despite all
the privations it had suffered since Vilna, its turnout on that day was as good as it ever was in Paris when
it paraded for the Emperor at the Tuileries." Napoleon's comment was: "This poor army is sadly depleted,
but what remains is good."
Napoleon ordered to place all the 16 howitzers of Ney's III and Junot's VIII Corps, on the flanks of the 40-
gun battery that is to bombard the fleches, fieldworks on Russian flank. He also ordered Sorbier to be
ready to advance with all the howitzers of the Guard Artillery against either one or other of the fleches.
On returning from a second inspection of the lines, Napoleon said "The chessmen are set up, the game
will begin tomorrow!" In the night he anxiously asked whether the Russians had not withdrawn, and was
told that the enemy`s campfires were still in the same place. Satisfied he went to sleep. Thousands of
smoking campfires could be seen everywhere.
Picture:
Napoleonic
artillery before the
battle of Borodino,
by Adam.
The strength of
Napoleon's army
at Borodino is estimated at 120.000-135.000 men and 584 guns. Russian researchers A. Vassiliev and A.
Popov gives Napoleon 132,000 men.
Napoleon's troops:
- 86.500 infantry in 203 battalions (426 men/btn.)
- 22.500 cavalry in 230 squadrons (98 men/sq.)
- 16.000 gunners and engineers, 500-550 guns
Infantry
Battalions
Cavalry
Regiments
French (70 %)
Poles
Westphalians
+ Italians
+ Wurttembergers
+ Hessians
+ Spaniards
+ Poruguese
+ Croats
144
24
16
5
French (55 %)
Poles
+ Bavarians
+ Wurttembergers
+ Italians
+ Saxons
+ Westphalians
+ Prussians
.
43
13
6
4
4
I ARMY CORPS - Davout
- - - 1st Infantry Division - Morand
- - - 2nd Infantry Division - Friant
- - - 3rd Infantry Division - Gerard
- - - 4th Infantry Division - Desaix
- - - 5th Infantry Division - Compans
- - - Light Cavalry Division - Girardin
RESERVE CAVALRY - MURAT
I CAVALRY CORPS - Nansouty
- - - 1st Light Cavalry Division - Bruyeres
- - - 1st Heavy Cavalry Division - St.Germaine
- - - 5th Heavy Cavalry Division - Valence
II CAVALRY CORPS - Montbrun
- - - 2nd Light Cavalry Division - Pajol
III ARMY CORPS - Ney
- - - 10th Infantry Division - Ledru
- - - 11th Infantry Division - Razout
- - - 25th Infantry Division - Marchand
- - - Light Cavalry Division - Beurmann
IV ARMY CORPS - Eugene
- - - 13th Infantry Division - Delzons
- - - 14th Infantry Division - Broussier
- - - Light Cavalry Division - Ornano
- - - Light Cavalry Division - Preysing-Moos
- - - Italian Royal Guard - Lecchi
V ARMY CORPS - Poniatowski
- - - 16th Infantry Division - Krasinski
- - - 18th Infantry Division - Kniaziewicz
- - - Light Cavalry Division - Kaminski
VII ARMY CORPS - Junot
- - - 23th Infantry Division - Tharreau
- - - 24th Infantry Division - Ochs
- - - Light Cavalry Division - Hammerstein
- - - 2nd Heavy Cavalry Division -
- - - 4th Heavy Cavalry Division - Defrance
III CAVALRY CORPS - Grouchy
- - - 3rd Light Cavalry Division - Chastel
- - - 6th Heavy Cavalry Division - Lahussaye
IV CAVALRY CORPS - Latour-Maubourg
- - - 4th Light Cavalry Division - Rozniecki
- - - 7th Heavy Cavalry Division - Lorge
.
.
.
IMPERIAL GUARD - Bessieres
- - - Old Guard Infantry Division - Curial
- - - Young Guard Infantry Division - Roguet
- - - Young Guard Infantry Division - Delaborde
- - - Vistula Legion
- - - Guard Heavy Cavalry Division
- - - Guard Light Cavalry Division
French Order of Battle
.
.
Russian Army.
The Russians were well supplied due
to the proximity of Moscow.
With the exception of some
light troops already involved
in skirmish combat, the
soldiers of both armies spent
the day cleaning their muskets
and uniforms, eating and
drinking. The Russians were
well supplied due to the
proximity of Moscow. They
had everything in abundance.
The Russian Guards, the
grenadiers and the cuirassiers
were well supplied with
everything. Some men were in
a reflective mood, while others
were singing.
Meanwhile The French,
German, Italian and Polish soldiers were suffering from lack of food. Some ate 'bread soup oiled with the
stump of a tallow candle.'
Jozef Brandt of the (Polish) elite Vistula Legion wrote: "We dined on grilled corn and horsemeat." Only
the French Imperial Guard was well suplied.
On the Russian side, took place a religious ceremony. "A church procession was coming up the hill from
Borodino. First along the dusty road came the infantry in ranks, bareheaded and with arms reversed.
From behind them came the sound of church singing. Soldiers and opolchenie ran bareheaded toward the
procession. .... The opolchenie, both those who had been in the village and those who had been at work on
the battery, threw down their spades and ran to meet the church procession. Following the battalion that
marched along the dusty road came priests in their vestments- one little old man in a hood with
attendants and singers. Behind them soldiers and officers bore a large, dark-faced icon with an embossed
metal cover. ... Behind, before, and on both sides, crowds of opolchenie with bared heads walked, ran, and
bowed to the ground.
At the summit of the hill they stopped with the icon; the men who had been holding it up by the linen
bands attached to it were relieved by others, the chanters relit their censers, and service began. The hot
rays of the sun beat down vertically and a fresh soft wind played with the hair of the bared heads and
with the ribbons decorating the icon. The singing did not sound loud under the open sky. An immense
crowd of bareheaded officers, soldiers, and opolchenie surrounded the icon. Behind the priest and a
chanter stood the notabilities on a spot reserved for them. ...
Someone, a very important personage judging by the haste with which way was made for him, was
approaching the icon. It was Kutuzov, who had been riding round the position and on his way back to
Tatarinovo had stopped where the service was being held. ...
With a long overcoat on his his exceedingly stout,
round-shouldered body, with uncovered white head
and puffy face showing the white ball of the eye he had
lost, Kutuzov walked with plunging, swaying gait into
the crowd and stopped behind the priest. He crossed
himself with an accustomed movement, bent till he
touched the ground with his hand, and bowed his
white head with a deep sigh. Behind Kutuzov was
Bennigsen and the suite. Despite the presence of the
commander in chief, who attracted the attention of all
the superior officers, the militiamen and soldiers
continued their prayers without looking at him.
When the service was over, Kutuzov stepped up to the icon, sank heavily to his knees, bowed to the
ground, and for a long time tried vainly to rise, but could not do so on account of his weakness and
weight. His white head twitched with the effort. At last he rose, kissed the icon as a child does with
naively pouting lips, and again bowed till he touched the ground with his hand. The other generals
followed his example, then the officers, and after them with excited faces, pressing on one another,
crowding, panting, and pushing, scrambled the soldiers and opolchenie." (Leo Tolstoy - "War and Peace"
Book X, Chapter 21)
Russian researchers A. Vassiliev and A. Popov estimate Russian army at 155,000 men (121,000 regulars
and 34,000 irregulars) and 600 guns. Other researchers gave Kutuzov 115.000 regulars, 9.500 Cossacks ,
30.500 militia and 600 guns.
FIRST WESTERN ARMY
- DE TOLLY
SECOND WESTERN ARMY
- BAGRATION
I Infantry Corps - Baggovout
IV Infantry Corps - Tolstoy
VI Infantry Corps - Kaptzevich
V Infantry Corps (Guards) - Lavrov
I Cavalry Corps - Uvarov
II Cavalry Corps - Korf
III Cavalry Corps - Kreutz
Cossack Corps - Platov
III Infantry Corps - Tuchkov
VII Infantry Corps - Raievski
VIII Infantry Corps - Borosdin
.
IV Cavalry Corps - Sievers
Cossack Corps - Karpov
Russian Order of Battle
Map of the Battle of Borodino, 1812.
After the battle of Shevardino, the patrols of French and Polish cavalry reached the Moscow (Moskva) River.
(See the Moscow River in the right upper corner of the map.)
The approaching battle of Borodino was thus named La Bataille de la Moskova by the French.
In reality the city of Moscow was still 110 km away.
.
.
.
"Soldiers !
This is the battle that you have looked forward to so much !"
At 6 AM, the French guns opened up, the Russians answered.
Napoleon was in the saddle by 3 am in the morning, and rode over to the Shevardino Redoubt. The
French, Polish, German and Italian troops were already moving up to their positions, cheering as they
passed their Emperor. It's the entusiasm of Austerlitz ! Napoleon observed to Rapp.
By half past 5, all the units were in their designated positions. The commanding officers of every unit
then read out a proclamation penned by Napoleon the night before Soldiers ! This is the battle that you have
looked forward to so much ! Now victory depends on you: we need it. ...
Surrounded by numerous
generals and staff officers
Napoleon set up his
observation point on the rise
at the back of the Shevardino
redoubt, from where he could
see the entire battlefield.
Flize wrote: "I moved a little
closer to the Emperor who'd
not ceased peering at the
battlefield through his
spyglass. He was wearing his
grey uniform and spoke little.
Sometimes a cannonball came
rolling towards his feet, but he
merely stepped aside, as we
did who were standing behind him."
The Imperial Guard was drawn up alongside and behind him. He was brought a folding camp chair,
which he turned back to front and sat astride, leaning his arms on its back. Behind him stood Berthier and
Bessieres, and behind them a swarm of aides-de-camp and duty officers. Before him he could see a
formidable sight." (Zamoyski - "Moscow 1812" pp 265-266)
The sun brightly lit up the enormous panorama which, rising like an amphitheater, extended before both
armies. In every direction were seen indefinite masses of infantry. The clatter of horses` hoofs was heard
everywhere. In the sea of men and animals groups of birches shined in the sunshine, with their green and
yellow foliage and white bark.
Kutuzov slept in Tatarinovo and then rode to a height
near the village of Gorki where he established his
observation point. Kutuzov was sitting on a folding chair
brought by a Cossack. He could not see the battlefield
from where he was, but his mere presence was enough.
Officer Mitarevski wrote: "It was as though some kind of
power emanated from the venerable commander,
inspiring all those around him."
"Before dawn on 7 September the bands on the right flank
began playing the reveillle to wake up the infantry, and it
was gradually picked up all along the line. They pleyed
the most rousing pieces. Music does a great deal to
prepare the spirit for battle. ... As soon as it was light, a short imperial proclamation was read out to each
battalion. Soon after, the cannon opened fire on the left flank ..." (Chlapowski, - p 116)
The first shots had not yet ceased to reverberate before others rang out and yet more were heard mingling
with and overtaking one another. "At 6 AM, the French guns opened up, the Russians answered, and as
nearly a thousand cannon spewed out their charges, to those present, even those who had been in battle
before, it seemed as though all hell had been let loose." (Zamoyski - "Moscow 1812" p 267)
The deep-throated boom of cannons rang out across the countryside. "The rounds were so frequent that
there were no intervals between them: they soon turned into one continuous roar like a thunderstorm,
and caused an artificial earthquake." (- Radozhitzky, an officer of Russian artillery)
Roman Soltyk, watching from a few paces behind Napoleon, has "never heard anything like it. At
moments the uproar was so terrible it was more like broadsides discharged from warships than a land
artillery engagement." The heavy, moist atmosphere imprisoned the smoke from the weapons, and it
hang in a fog close about the troops.
It was quickly discovered the 102 guns Napoleon had ordered formed on the 6th were too far away from
the Russians. The guns were limbered up and moved forward. The artillery fire quickly spread down the
line to the I and III Corps and the Russian Second Western Army. It was without doubt the heaviest
concentrated cannonade of the war so far. The gun smoke spread out over the whole space. The artillery
barrage signalled the attack of infantry. In the center part of Davout's infantry (5th Division) moved
against the fleches, on the northern flank part of Eugene's corps attacked Borodino.
Church in Borodino
French troops at Borodino.
~
Northern flank: fight for Borodino village.
The French drove the enemy out of the village
and pursued across the river. The Russians
furiously counterattacked and threw them back.
Borodino was a small village of several wooden
buildings and a white church. The village was
defended by the Lifeguard Jager Regiment (I, II,
III Battalion) and one battery (12 guns).
Early in the morning, even before the artillery
duel began, the Russian outposts had detected
the enemy moving against Borodino. This body
of troops belonged to Eugene's IV Army Corps.
A squadron of (German) light cavalry
dismounted and engaged in a skirmish with
jagers who had crossed the Kolocha River.
Eugene sent the rest of his cavalry to the east, near the villages of Loginovo and Bezzubovo, to protect his
flank. It was an open area although partially marshy.
The French and Italian infantry approached the vicinity of the village around 6 am. Eugene ordered
Delzon's 13th Infantry Division to attack Borodino. Several battalions attacked the village from the north,
while another group of battalions proceeded along the highway. The III/Lifeguard Jagers defended the
northern edge of Borodino (strengthened with barricades), while the I and II were formed in columns
behind the village and near the bridge. Not far from the bridge stood 2 guns of Guard Equipage Artillery.
Barclay de Tolly understood the danger the jagers were facing and sent Lowenstern with orders to have
them immediately withdrawn from the village and the bridge destroyed.
Meanwhile the leading battalion of the French 106th Line Infantry (I, II, III, IV Battalion) reached the
village. Yermolov wrote: "There was such widespread carelessnes on the outposts of this battalion
(III/Lifeguard Jagers defending the northern edge of village) that many lower ranks were asleep, having
taken off their uniforms." Sherbinin was furious, he wrote: "Oh yes, there was indeed a mist that day, not
in the air, but rather in the head of the drunken (Col.) Makarov, who passed out around 6 am and could
not order his battalion to arms."
Alexander Mikaberidze writes: "Official reports and other materials contain no criticism of the Lifeguard
Jagers, one of the elite units of the Russian Army, and Makarov, who was accused of such gross
ineptitude, was later awarded the Order of St.Vladimir [3rd Class] and given command of another elite
unit ... The whole affair was largely suppressed, but it did find voice in personal memoirs and letters of
participants."
Meanwhile two companies of Russian guardsmen made three bayonet counterattacks. The French threw
them back and forced the entire III/Lifeguard Jagers to fall back. The II/Lifeguard Jagers opened fire
before charging with bayonets. The French were strengthened with three more battalions and swiftly
drove the Russians back. The I/Lifeguard Jagers defended 12 guns before they were withdrawn from
their position. The French advanced with elan, despite the musketballs hissing and whistling everywhere.
Tolstoy's IV Infantry Corps stood north of Gorki, with its 8 battalions formed in two lines of closed
platoon columns. From each battalion tens of sharpshooters advanced about 200m and formed a skirnish
chain along the river. Kaptzevich's VI Infantry Corps stood south of Gorki, and close to the Great
Redoubt. It was also formed in two lines of closed platoon columns and with sharpshooters forming the
skirmish chain up in front.
Several French battalions moving along the highway reached Borodino and opened musket fire on the
Lifeguard Jagers, now crowded on the bridge. The Russians deployed 12 guns on the other bank to silence
the infantry. The French replied with deploying their own artillery and forcing the Russians gunners to
witdraw. In this situation the Russians managed to destroy only half of the bridge and fled.
The battalions of 106th Line Infantry pursued the enemy and
crossed the Kolocha by the mill bridge. It found itself in the
crossfire of Russian artillery and then was greeted by the 1st, 18th,
19th, and 40th Jager Regiment. According to Zhmodikov, it was
the 1st Jagers that was ordered to counterattack the French and
drive them back behind Kolocha River. The commander of this
regiment, went forward, together with both his battalion
commanders, Petrov and Sibirtsev, to observe the French and the
point of attack from behind a narrow and long mound not far
from the bridge.
Petrov wrote: "When the Lifeguard Jagers, having pulled together
upon signal, marched from the Kolocha River to the rear of the V Corps (Guard), Colonel Karpenko (of
1st Jagers) then deployed my I Battalion from column into line and brought up Mjr Sibirtsev's III Battalion
[formed] in column of attack at a distance of 15 paces from the rear rank of my battalion. The mound, or
more accurately, the narrow oblong ridge, projecting to the left from the road towards the confluence of
the Stonetz Brook [with Kolocha] lays with its top at the distance of a pistol shot from the right end of the
upper bridge and at [a distance of a] musket [shot] from the lower pontoon one, in front of which the
enemy troops stood, having just crossed [the river].
Col. Karpenko with my battalion ... having run up at
the mound, fired an aimed volley at the enemy with
the whole line while smoke from the volley was still
curling in the face of the enemy and their men, stricken
and bewildered by the volley of my battalion, were in
confusion, our jagers ... charged with the bayonet.
Since the Lifeguard Jagers, wanting to destroy the
bridges after them [i.e.after they had crossed the river],
had removed about 10 beams at the middle of the
upper bridge standing on piles, we pressed the French
to the gap and into the slimy river.
At the same time, our III Battalion ... being half-
wheeled to the right, rushed from behind of mine
[battalion] to the lower pontoon bridge, which was 40
paces from the upper one and, also after a volley by the
front company, charged with the bayonet, so we exterminated all enemy troops [which had crossed the
river] together with their general and officers and having marched to the left bank of the Kolocha River
into Borodino, drove the enemy from it by our united regiment."
The Russians captured General Plauzonne, whose epaulettes were torn off and sent back to General
Barclay de Tolly, the commander of the First Western Army. The Lifeguard Jagers were moved back to
the reserves were they joined Guard Infantry Division. The jagers suffered heavy casualties; 27 officers
and 674 other ranks (!) Then the 1st Jagers were ordered to abandon Borodino village, to go back across
the river and to destroy the bridges, and that was done under heavy enemey artillery and musket fire.
Eugene ordered to bring more artillery and formed a large battery to fire on the Russians.
~
Fight for Bagration Fleches.
Davout and Ney versus Bagration.
The positions of Bagration's Second Western Army
were protected by so-called Bagration Fleches.
There were three v-shaped field fortifications, and
the fourth earthwork was slightly to the north, by
Semonovskaia village. The village of
Semenovskaia being of totally wooden
construction it had been dismantled and burned
to provide a clear field of fire. Bagration lined up
24 guns at the fortifications. Nearby were 4 guns of
XXI Light Battery. Near the village of
Semenovskaya, and behind it, in reserve, stood
numerous guns. The artillery was not alone, there
were also:
- Neverovski's 27th Infantry Division,
- Vorontzov's 2nd Combined Grenadier Division,
- 2nd Grenadier Division,
- Duka's 2nd Cuirassier Division
Most of these troops fought just recently, at
Shevardino, against Davout and Poniatowski. In
each fleche was placed one battalion of combined
grenadiers, while the remaining battalions of these
grenadiers (minus 2 battalions detached south to the Utitza Wood) stood behind the fortifications, formed
in one line of battalion columns. Behind them stood Neverovski's 27th Infantry Division (8 battalions
formed in deep columns, each column only half-company wide). In reserve were held the 2nd Gremadier
and 2nd Cuirassier Division.
Bagration's positions were covered with thick skirmish line. In the brushes west of Semenovskaia village
were deployed 6th, 49th and 50th Jagers, while the 5th, 41st and 42 Jager Regiment took positions along
the tiny Kamenka Stream (near the fleches) and extended as far south as Utitza wood. In the Utitza Wood
were placed 20th and 21st Jagers and 2 battalions of combined grenadiers.
Napoleon concentrated 75,000 men against Bagration's army. The spearhead of this force was formed by
Davout's I Army Corps, and Ney's III Army Corps. They were supported by Marshal Murat's Reserve
Cavalry (I, II, and IV Cavalry Corps). To the south of this massive force was Poniatowski's small but
tough V Army Corps.
Davout was ordered to have: "Compans' [5th] Infantry Division arranged by brigades [brigade here
consisted of single regiment of 4-5 btns.] with 16 guns of the corps' reserve artillery and 14 guns [8 foot
and 6 horse] deployed ahead of it. Dessaix's [4th] Division should be deployed in similar fashion between
the captured [Shevardino] redoubt and the forest, with 14 guns arranged on its left flank. Friant's infantry
division should be formed by brigades on the same level as the redoubt."
Ney's corps of three divisions was arranged in similar way; each division was formed by brigades.
Murat's powerful reserve of cavalry was formed "in columns of each brigade."
.
The first French attack on the fleches.
A rumour quickly spread that Davout was killed,
the news of which shocked the Emperor.
About half an hour after the initial cannon shots had
been fired Davouts I Corps attacked the
southernmost of the Bagration Fleches. Compans'
5th Infantry Division was the first to attack. (The
same division did most of the fighting recently, at
Shevardino).
Its two regiments (5 btns of the Terrible 57th and
one btn. of 111th) attacked the southern fleche,
while two other regiments (25th and 61st) attacked
the jagers in the Utitza Wood. Compans kept back 2
btns. of 111th to defend his artillery.
The infantry columns disappeared amid the smoke
but their rapid musketry firing could still be heard.
They moved through the wood, their voltigeurs
brushed aside Russian skirmishers, and the entire
division pushed along the southern edge of the
wood. The trees gave some protection against artillery fire and musketry and the attackers got very close
to the earthworks.
The I and II Battalion of The Terrible 57th stormed the wood, while its III, IV and V turned left to
flank the fleche. The 57th Line Infantry Regiment was one of the best French units. Napoleon once said:
"The Terrible 57th which nothing can stop." These words were proudly added to their flag. The Directory
ordered such inscriptions removed, thereby proving once more that they knew nothing about soldiers.
The 57th was awarded with three battle honors.
The Russians held their ground and greeted the enemy with musket and canister fire. The gun smoke
spread out covering big part of the battlefield. General Compans fell wounded and General Teste
replaced him. MdE Davout's horse was hit and threw to the ground. The Iron Marshal was stunned. A
rumour quickly spread that Davout was killed, the news of which shocked the Emperor. "The execution
wrought by our [Russian] batteries was frightful and the enemy columns faded away perceptibly despite
the continual reinforcements which arrived." (- Lowenstern to Kutuzov)
.
"Bravo, bravo !"
The French 57th Regiment (Le Terrible) advanced steadily
and without firing a shot despite mounting casualties.
Shouts were heard through the firing, but for a while
it was impossible to tell what was being done there.
The Terrible 57th advanced steadily and without
firing a shot despite mounting casualties. The
Russians gunners fell back. Bagration was greatly
impressed with the French assault, he clapped his
hands and yelled 'Bravo, bravo !'
The 57th captured the westernmost earthwork. One
of the Frenchmen wrote: "A brave [Russian] officer of
that nation, seeing his men about to fall back, placed
himself across the entrance to the redoubt and did
everything he could to prevent them leaving it, but
was shot through the body. Our men rushing forward
with the bayonet, I ran towards this officer to protect
him if he was still alive, but he died shortly after."
The Russian infantry did not however obligingly sit
and wait and launched their own attack against the
enemy. General Vorontzov charged with one battalion
of combined grenadiers and General Neverovski with
several battalions of infantry. The 57th Regiment
couldn't hold the earthwork and was thrown back.
Compans' 5th Division, now under General Teste, was in disorder, scattered around in the wood, bushes
and folds of the ground. The wounded men staggered along or were lying with their heads thrown
awkwardly back and their shakos off. A canister shot shattered General Teste's right hand, and his
adjutant was mortally wounded. Major Yager was killed. Probably surprised by the steady volume of fire
that poured forth from the fleches, the French pulled back.
General Rapp arrived from the Imperial Headquarters. He moved Dessaix's 4th Division in the first line
and moved the worn out Compans' 5th Division into the second. Dessaix had only 8 battalions, as the
single battalion of Hessen-Darmstadt served as escort of parks of the I Army Corps, and was not available
to Dessaix. Two battalions of 85th Line were left behind to protect his artillery.
.
The artillery fire was growing more intense.
The booming cannonade
was growing more
intense over the whole
battlefield. Approx. 100
French cannons targeted
Bagration Fleches,
Raievski Redoubt and
the village of Borodino.
Approx. 40 more guns were deployed against Bagration Fleches. The number of artillery pieces rapidly
increased within next few hours.
The artillery fire cut furrows in the packed infantry battalions. Over fields the balls of smoke were
continually appearing and the sun's rays struck straight into Napoleon's face as, shading his eyes with his
hand, he looked through a field glass at the Bagration Fleches. He saw smoke and men, sometimes his
own and sometimes Russians.
Bagration asked General Tuchkov, who formally was not under his command, to send one of his two
infantry divisions. Tuchkov however disliked Bagration and ignored his first two requests. The third
request was answered and Tuchkov sent Bagration the excellent 3rd Division. Bagration also asked
Kutuzov for help and was promised the II Infantry Corps (Tolstoy's). "Yet it would take at least one hour
before it would arrive, thereby providing the French with time to prepare and launch another attack." ( -
Alexander Mikaberidze)
Kutuzov also ordered part of the Guards to move closer to Bagration's army.
Neither Kutuzov, Toll, nor Bennigsen [chief of staff] took the trouble of informing General Barclay de
Tolly [the Guards were part of his army]. Furious Barclay de Tolly rode to Kutuzov and "told him
something in a passionate manner ... Kutuzov tried to calm Barclay." Meanwhile the Guard infantry were
"standing with a true military bearing. Enemy cannonballs already began to devastate their ranks but they
remained steadfastly and silently with their muskets and quietly closed their ranks as soon as cannonballs
hit their victims."
.
The second French attack on the fleches.
Ney complained bitterly about being made
to 'take the bull by the horns.'
Now it was Ney's time to attack. His three divisions had formed themselves in battalion columns
deployed at the distance of a division [2 companies], ready to form squares against cavalry. At Borodino
Ney complained bitterly about being made to 'take the bull by the horns'. Marshal Ney was called Le
Rougeaud ("the ruddy") and le Brave des Braves ("the bravest of the brave"). He is known for epitomizing
the soldierly virtue of "leading from the front". Octave Levavasseur writes: "Nature had given Ney an
iron body, a soul of fire. His build was athletic.... His physiognomy was reminiscent of the Nordic type.
His voice resonant. He only had to give an order for you to feel brave. ... No matter how brave you were
or wished to appear, if this man was near you in the midst of a fight you had to confess him your master.
Even under grapeshot his laughter and pleasantries seemed to defy the death all around him. His
recognized superiority made everyone obey his orders." But Ney had also some shortcomings. Jomini
wrote: "Ney's best qualities ... diminished in the same proportion that the extent of his command
increased his responsibility."
Razout's 11th Division and Ledru's 10th Division (both from Ney's
corps) stormed the northern fleche. Razout also tried to enter the
Semonovskaia village but was quickly driven out by the grenadiers
and Sievers' hussars and dragoons. One of Razout regiments, the
18th Line nicknamed "The Brave", marched "its 4 battalions in line
one behind another and the leading battalions seized the [second,
rear] fleche ..."
The southern fleche was taken by the remainding 2 battalions of
Ledru's 10th Division (24th Light) and supported by 3 battalions of
Compans' 5th Division (survivors from the Terrible 57th). The
Russian artillery however halted their further advance. A few
minutes later disordered troops followed by groups of wounded men uttering cries came back from that
direction.
Marshal Ney wrote: "The 10th Division, driving back the Russian skirmishers and advance elements,
approached the left fleche with great valor. This fleche was then attacked by the infantry of Davout's
corps, and the 24th Light [Regiment] and 57th Line [Regiment] entered inside it, getting mixed up in the
process. The Russians, having recovered from the first blow, returned to reclaim the fleche but the 25th
Division [Marchand's] arrived in time to support the 10th Division and the enemy was repulsed." The
fighting troops disappeared as the others had done into the smoke of the battlefield. Some of Ney's troops
mixed up with Davout's troops and the overall chain of command became convoluted.
.
"The battle was the most savage ...
that I have witnessed." - Bagration
A single Russian battalion formed in a
dense column, approached the second
fleche just taken by the 18th Line Infantry
Regiment. Captain Bonnet writes: "I
deployed my battalion, and, without firing,
marched straight at the column. It
recoiled." The 18th pursued the enemy
until they got under artillery fire and fell
back to the fleche.
The Russian infantry encouraged by the success, followed the 18th and threw the enemy out of the
second [rear] fleche. The French abandoned the fortification [it was open in the rear and gave no
protection] and fled to the bushes near the first fleche. Then they were attacked by Russian cuirassiers
and scattered all over the field. By late morning the brave men of 18th rallied, but instead of its 4
battalions there was only one !
Vorontzov's 2nd Combined Grenadier Division admirably performed its duty of defending the flaches.
Vorontov led several counterattacks, was seriously wounded, and his entire division almost ceased to
exist. Vorontzov wrote: "An hour after the fighting began my division ceased to exist. Out of about
4,000 men, there was less than 300 at the evening roll-call and out of 18 staff officers only 3 survived,
and only 1 of them was not wounded ... If I were asked the following day where my division was, I would
have responed ... pointing my finger to our position and proudly declaring, 'Here it is."
Neverovski's valiant 27th Infantry Division supported the grenadiers as much as they could. They
exchanged blow for blow with Ney's and Davout's infantry and were battered by French artillery. "When
the remining troops [of 27th Division] were rallied, only 700 men gathered ..." (!)
Bagration ordered the second line of Raievski's Corps, total of 8 battalions, to march south and deploy
behind Vorontzov's 2nd Converged Grenadiers Division and support Neverovski's 27th Infantry Division.
The 2nd Grenadier Division already stood behind the village of Semonovskaia. It was one of the top
divisions of the Russian infantry with such known regiments like Moscow Grenadiers and Kiev
Grenadiers.
.
German and Polish cavalry vs Russian cavalry.
we saw a charge of Russian cuirassiers
coming at us like a tempest."
Two regiments, New Russia Dragoons
and Ahtirka Hussars (both from Sievers'
IV Cavalry Corps) having ridden in the
smoke past the infantry, captured 6-12
guns. Taking advantage of the chaos
caused by Sievers' cavalry, Vorontzov's
grenadiers re-established themselves in
the fleches.
The French counter-attacked with
Beurmann's Wurttemberg lighthorse (8
sq.) and French horse chasseurs (4 sq).
The chasseurs however were shattered
by canister fire and fell back. The
lighthorsemen threw back the Russian
dragoons and hussars and recaptured
the guns. Two of the three fleches
however remained in Russian hands.
From behind Davout's and Ney's infantry came the French and Polish light cavalry. Antoni Rozwadowski
of 8th Uhlans wrote: On that day (September 5th) the 6th Uhlans formed the first line, and we the 8th
Uhlans were formed in echelon when Russian dragoons attacked. According to Rozwadowski the soil
was dry and a huge, thick cloud of dust made his 8th invisible to the enemy. The Russians continued their
advance against the 6th before the 8th attacked the left flank of the dragoons. The Russians fled in
disorder.
After this action the 8th and 6th Uhlans moved to a new position behind a wood. There the regiments
were formed in column, one after another and only the brigades stood in echelon. Soon the uhlans noticed
Russian cavalry again charging against them. At a long distance the enemy looked similar to the dragoons
just recently defeated and the Poles rushed forward certain of victory. When both sides were closer the
uhlans realized that these dragoons were actually armored cuirassiers and the 6th fled toward the 8th.
The 8th became disordered and both regiments fled and broke the Prussian hussars who stood in the rear.
Only the next cavalry brigade who stood in echelon counter-attacked and threw the Russian heavy
cavalry back. (Rozwadowski - Memoir Biblioteka Zakladu Ossolinskich, rekopis 7994)
Duka's 2nd Cuirassier Division (formed in five regimental columns by squadron) began its second
advance. The heavies attacked Wurttemberg light cavalry and French artillery and infantry. The French
108th Line Infantry suffered the most from this cavalry charge. The Terrible 57th deployed in the
southern fleche. The edges of the wood and the bushes were thick with infantry. Some infantry were
formed in columns and squares, while many were in skirmish lines or in disordered groups.
The French artillery stood in open plain, protected by few battalions formed in
squares against cavalry. Girod de lAin was with Dessaix's 4th Division near the
wood when we saw a charge of Russian cuirassiers coming at us like a tempest.
They werent aiming exactly at us but at a battery of 30 of our guns. Although this
charge suffered from our fire as it passed us, it didnt slow them down, any more
than discharges of grapeshot from our battery, which they overthrew... But soon
they were thrown back by cavalry squadrons. The cuirassiers captured 6 guns
and attacked infantry squares. Some of the squares of Dessaix's 4th and Compans'
5th Divisions, stood on the edge of the wood and these were also fired upon by
Russian skirmishers (jagers).
.
.
"The [Russian grenadiers] assault was dreadful ..."
Bagration, dressed in his parade uniform, led the
elite 2nd Grenadier Division in a bayonet attack.
Bagration saw his infantry being thrown out the
fleches and quickly decided to counter-attack.
Bagration, dressed in his parade uniform, led the
2nd Grenadier Division in a bayonet attack.
Dmitrii Buturlin writes: "... [the Russian] entire
line of the left flank suddenly moved in a
bayonet attack. The assault was dreadful ..." An
eyewitness wrote: "It was a personal, private
struggle of a man against man, of a warrior
against warrior .."
NCO Tikhonov wrote: "The Frenchmen were
courageous, as they remained firm under artillery
fire ... and even made a stand against the cavalry, and no one could best them as skirmishers. But they
could not resist our bayonet."
Jean-Jacques Pelet was with Friant's 2nd Division and saw the Russian assault. He wrote: "As Bagration's
supporting troops arrived ... boldly advancing over the bodies of the fallen to retake the lost fleches. The
Russian columns ... were living bastions. As soon as they emerged into the open field, our canister
knocked them down, but these brave warriors let nothing bother them and continued to come at us as
before."
The grenadiers, supported by canister fire, seized two fleches. (Murat claimed that one fleche
was lost, while Rapp and Pelet mentioned two fleches were taken by the grenadiers.) The
2nd Division led by Friant (picture) then stormed into the fleches and amid savage fighting
and heavy losses captured them. Bagration again counter-attacked with 2nd Grenadier
Division and the remnants of 27th Division. Friant's infantry were thrown out of the fleches
but their officers re-formed them and brought them back to the fire. The French infantry ran
forward over the killed comrades and abandoned weapons, stumbling, tripping up and
shouting. Friant's men retook the fleches !
.
Murat barely escaped Russian cuirassiers.
The southern fleche was temporarily
abandoned by the survivors of the Terrible
57th. The flamboyantly dressed Marshal
Murat took one battalion from Marchand's
25th Division (Ney's III Corps) and rushed
against the southernmost fleche. Before
they reached their target however they
were charged by Duka's cuirassiers. Murat
was forced to run for life (picture).
The remainder of Marchand's weak
division (composed of Wurttemberg
infantry) and some Wurttemberg light cavalry advanced to save their fellows. In regimental history of the
Wurttemberg Chevauxlegere-Regiment Prinz Adam No1 is description of their fighting at Borodino. They
attacked the Russian infantry and artillery and captured 2 guns before being struck in the flank and back
by Russian cuirassiers. The Germans fled, or, as said more politely withdrew hastily. The Wurttemberg
horse battery had to run for life too, and had part of its crew cut up.

.
"Kill these German dogs !"
Russian cuirassiers ran riot.
A large group of German cavalrymen took refuge in one of the fleches. There was however
an opening in the back of the earthwork and a group of Russian cuirassiers rode in. Another
group of cuirassiers rushed against the German battalions deployed nearby. Here however
the musket shots repulsed the heavies. The chevauxlegeres took advantage of this situation
and brought back the previously lost guns. The Wurttemberg infantry however mistook the
white-clad Russian cuirassiers for the white-clad Saxon cuirassiers and withheld their fire.
The confusion was resolved when a Russian officer shouted his order "Kill these German
dogs !" The Wurttembergers immediately opened fire.
(The Wurttemberg line infantry wore dark blue coats, grey trousers on campaign, and
helmets. The light infantry wore dark-green coats and shakos. In many aspects the
Wurttemberg army followed the French model. But, unlike the other German troops, the
Wurttemberg infantry "did not shift from a 2-rank to a 3-rank line, the new regulations allowed the three-
rank line to be formed if required, but this appears to have been the exception rather than the norm."
(John Gill - "With Eagles to Glory")
While the few battalions of Wurttemberg infantry held their ground, their chevaulegeres fled
with the Russians hot on their heels. The French artillery fired canister at the pursuers.
Three regiments of Roznieckis uhlans
(picture) then took on the four regiments of
cuirassiers. Lance is not a very effective
weapon in a jammed fight, especially
against the armor. The fight was desperate
but short and no quarters were given. The
brave uhlans suffered badly and were
thrown back.
Duka's cuirassiers ran riot. They defeated the German and Polish light cavalry, pressed hard the
Wurttemberg infantry, and almost killed Marshal Murat. It seemed as disaster had befallen as the
Russians could congratulate themselves with raised sabers and loud cheers - if they had a moment to do
that. The time however was not handed to them. Serried ranks of armor-clad French cuirassiers, led by
Nansouty, rushed forward to rescue their comrades, the Poles. The heavies were joined by 100 volunteers
from the Polish 6th Uhlans and together they dashed at Duka's heavies. The Russian cuirassiers were
ovethrown and pursued until the positions of Bagration's infantry.
.
Bagration was mortally wounded.
"For a few minutes he (Bagration) made a valiant effort
to conceal his wound, in order to prevent panic ... "
The Russian cuirassiers, dragoons, and hussars left and exposed the infantry. The infantry however
unmasked a powerful battery. The French 85th and 108th Line (from Dessaix's 4th Division) fell back
towards the wood. General Rapp and Colonel Anchard (of 108th) were wounded. Behind the 4th Division
stood Compans' 5th Division. The Russians brought several guns closer to the wood and opened fire on
both divisions.
The superb 3rd Infantry Division under General Konovnitzin (picture, left) has
arrived. The division consisted of rather average regiments but as a whole it
was excellent. During the huge maneuvers in May 1812 the 3rd Division was
held up as a model for the entire Russian army. Konovnitzin and his division
distinguished themselves at Ostrovno, Smolensk and Valutina Gora. After
Smolensk Konovnitzin was appointed the commander of the rear-guard of the
Russian army and ensured the successful retreat to Borodino. (Konovnitzin enjoyed very
much smoking his pipe.)
The 3rd Infantry Division and the elite 1st Grenadier Division formed III Infantry Corps under General
Tuchkov (picture, right). The 1st Grenadier Division was assigned to deal with Poniatowski's Poles on
Ney's and Davout's southern flank.
The 3rd Infantry Division and 2nd Grenadier Division
then charged together. Shouting 'hurrah' and charging
with bayonets they overwhelmed the French and
seized the fleches. The French artillery fire however
wrought havoc. Canister shattered Tuchkov-IV's chest
killing him on the spot. Two or three of his infantry
battalions wavered. The 2nd Grenadier Division
however stubbornly held its ground but at heavy cost.
Under a mighty artillery fire it shrinked into a size of
single regiment !
The French cannonade was terrific. The French artillery
has always ranked very high. Majority of
improvements made in gunnery during the 17th, 18th
and 19th centruries, have originated with the French. The artillery enjoyed an unprecedented popularity
among young men in France seeking career in the army. The French infantry and cavalry complained that
the gunners gave themselves airs because the Emperor himself had been a gunner.
The main difference between the French and Allies artillery was not in the quality of gunners or guns but
in the fact that Napoleon used artillery offensively while for the Allies the main purpose of artillery was
to defend cavalry and infantry. Their batteries of reserve joined the battle, either one-by-one on the
request of local divisional commanders or were sent by the commander in chief if he felt that part of his
line was took weak or too hardly pressed. In contrast Napoleon's artillery prepared the way for the final
blow that would decide the battle.
Konovnitzin
was informed
that Bagration
was wounded.
Mikaberidze
writes: "The
greatest
casualty,
however, was
Prince
Bagration
himself. As the
attack developed a shell splinter struck
Bagration's left leg, smashing his shinbone.
For a few minutes he made a valiant effort to
conceal his wound, in order to prevent panic
or discouragement among his troops. Yet he
bled profusely and began to slip from his
saddle. His adjutants bore him away ... In the midst of the battle, Bagration was carried to the surgeons at
a nearby station." (Mikaberidze - 'The battle of Borodino' pp 116-117)
Konovnitzin was not sure what to do next. He finally decided to withdraw his infantry to
Semonovskoie village. The Russian headquarters were shocked by news of Bagration's
wound. General Kutuzov appointed Dohturov (picture) to lead Bagration's Second Western
Army. Dohturov reached the left flank before 11 am. Dohturov's troops began taking up a
new position south of the village.
.
.
~
.
.
Fight for the Death Redoubt.
"... [the redoubt], the hill and the valley surrounding it
were covered with enemy corpses for a distance
of several hundred paces." - Barclay de Tolly
North of
Bagration Fleches
stood the so-
called Raievski
Redoubt, also
called the Great
Redoubt or Death
Redoubt. Some
Russians even
called it the
"Schulman
Battery" for
majority of the
guns (2/3) placed
in the fieldwork
came from the
XXVI Heavy
Battery
commanded by
Ltn-Col.
Schulman.
Ltn. Bogdanov (of
pioneers) left us a
detailed description of the most known field fortification of the Napoleonic Wars:
"At 11 PM, I was ordered to ride to general Raievski. I found him at a battery built in consequence of an
order he had issued. The battery was completely finished, and artillery pieces were in their places; ...
The battery had 19 artillery pieces ... It was necessary, despite the lack of time, to add two epaulments of
ramparts and a moat on the flanks, and to cover the rear with double palisade with two passages with
palisaded gateways in them; ... the fortification ... was finished by half-past four in the morning."
"The number of guns initially set up inside the redoubt varies in sources. French scholar, Tranie, and
Russian, Larionov, estimated as many as 24, while Bogdanov, who helped construct the fortification,
referred to 19. Yermolov, Toll, and other Russian participants reported 18 guns, which is usually
acknowledged to be closer to the truth. Still, historians Gerua, Palmer, Thiers, Holzhausen, and others
argued there were 12 pieces in the redoubt, while Skugarevsky claimed as few as 8.
Raievski instructed his artillerymen to defend their guns to the last and ordered draught horses and
ammunition caissons to be sent away, in case there was a real threat of the enemy seizing the redoubt. He
remained on foot inside the fortification, since he was suffering from a wound sustained few days before
..." (Mikaberidze - "The battle of Borodino" p 122)
Raievski's VII Infantry Corps had been assigned to defend the Redoubt and the area to the south of it.
The corps consisted of two divisions; Vasilchikov's 12th and Paskevich's 26th. Raievski asked Barclay de
Tolly for reinforcements. The commander of the First Western Army sent him 18th, 19th, and 40th Jager
Regiment, which were transferred from the northern sector after the fight at Borodino died down. The
three jager regiments were placed behind the redoubt in six battalion columns and served as a reserve.
Raievski occupied the ravine of Semenovskaia Stream and the smal wood in front with skirmishers.
.
The first and second French attack.
"We dashed towards the redoubt and
climbed through the embrasures ..."
Seeing the redoubt seized Eugene
cried "The battle is won !"
Around 10 AM the French artillery opened fire and the infantry [Broussier's 14th Division] advanced
against the Redoubt. Broussier's battalions suffered from heavy artillery fire before they reached the wood
in front of the redoubt. The jagers made their further advance even more difficult "halting them [the
French] for over an hour ..." Broussier finally captured the wood but then decided to remain in the ravine.
The French reconnaissance in force was halted.
Between 10 and 11 am orders were sent to Morand's 1st Division, whose 6,000 infantrymen were at the
base of the mound on which was the redoubt, to take it by assault. The French artillery opened fire on the
redoubt and on the batteries deployed on its both sides. "... Morand's and Gerad's divisions, having
deployed in the ravine, suddenly appeared above it and prepared for attack ... " - General Paskevich
Morand formed his division as follow: in the lead marched the 30th Line Regiment deployed in line, 17th
Line Regiment and 17th Light Regiment followed in battalion columns. Despite heavy artillery fire the
French pressed forward. "... musket fire could not be heard at all since it was overpowered by the
defeaning cannonade." (- Mitarevski)
Captain Francois of 30th Line Infantry wrote: "A great number of Frenchmen fall into the wolfpits pell-
mell with Russians who're in them already. ... Nothing could stop us ... We hopped over the roundshots
as it bounced through the grass. Whole files and half-platoons fell, leaving great gaps. General Bonamy
who was at the head of the 30th, made us halt in a hail of canister shot in order to rally us, and we then
went forward at the pas de charge."
General Raievski: "... the smoke hid the French so completely that we could see nothing of their array or
ascertain what progress they were making. There was one of my orderly officers standing a little to the
left of me, and after another volley he cried out, 'Your Excellency, save yourself !' I turned around and 15
yards away I saw French grenadiers pouring into my redoubts with fixed bayonets." Raievski mounted
his horse and rode to his reserve.
Captain Francois: "We
dashed towards the
redoubt and climbed
through the
embrasures ... The
Russian gunners tried
to beat us back with
spikes and ramrods
and we found them
truly formidable
opponents as we
grappled with them
hand-to-hand."
General Yermolov: "Due to limited space inside the fortification, only a small number of infantry could be
deployed there at any one time and any troops outside the redoubt were mowed down by canister and
scattered." Yermolov saw crowds of [Russian] infantrymen, probably the jagers, running from the first
line.
The French 30th Line swept through and beyond the redoubt, chasing the Russian gunners and some
infantry. The rest of Morand's 1st Division were following the leading 30th Line Regiment. Seeing the
redoubt seized Eugene Beauharnais cried "The battle is won !" The French artillery in this sector, after
Morand's 1st Division seized the redoubt, ceased its fire in order to avoid killing its own troops.
.
Russian counter-attack.
The Russians "reached the hill
and then to a general hurrah
they carried the summit and
the fortification."
Kutuzov did not allow his chief-of-staff, General Yermolov (picture, right),
and the chief-of-artillery, General Kutaisov (picture, left), to leave him and the
army headquarters, although both of them were bursting to go to the front
line. Kutaisov however paid short visits to the artillery batteries and Kutuzov
made angry reproach that Kutaisov was never around when he was needed.
Kutuzov however let the burly Yermolov to visit the troops of the first line.
Kutaisov defied Kutuzov and followed Yermolov. Yermolov said to the young
Kutaisov: "You always rush where you are not suppose to be, do not you remember the Commander-in-
Chief's recent reprimand that no one could find you. I am going to the Second Army to act on the behalf
of the commander but what will you do there ?"
"After some time Kutaisov's horse came back and the blood-stained saddle led us to believ this brave
general had been killed." (- Yermolov) The old Kutuzov lamented "The army lost its artillery commander
in a battle where much depended on artillery". General Kutaisov spoke fluently in three languages and
studied artillery in France. During Napoleon's Invasion of Russia in 1812 he was the youngest general of
the main Russian army.
On his way to Bagration's troops Yermolov had to pass by the Redoubt. Approaching the fortification, he
found it covered with smoke and the Russian troops in this sector scattered. Yermolov ordered the
III/Ufa Infantry Regiment to follow him and then attack up the slope with bayonets. He then met the
18th, 19th and 40th Jager Regiment and directed them toward the fortification as well.
Barclay de Tolly was returning from Kutuzov after a heated discussion and noticed "a commotion around
the redoubt but, as Lowenstern recalled, due to smoke and dust, we would not see what was the cause of this
movement. Dispatched by de Tolly to investigate, Lowenstern was surprised to find it in the hands of the
French. He sent Ltn. Vardenburg to notify Barclay de Tolly, who dispatched 2 infantry battalions and the
Orenburgskii Dragoon Regiment to charge the French left flank, and ordered all artillery located in the
vicinity to concentrate its fire on the enemy column. Lowenstern, meantime, noticed a battalion of the Tomskii
Infantry Regiment to the right side of the hill, and acting on behalf of Barclay de Tolly, ordered the
battalion commander to follow him. ...
They made a bayonet charge and a
ferocious fight had begun. General
Yermolov, with his entire staff,
rushed to this point ..." (Mikaberidze -
"The battle of Borodino" pp 126-127)
While Lowenstern attacked from the
front, the 19th Jagers and 40th Jagers,
attacked the French from the left
flank. From the right flank charged
several battalions of Vasilchikov's
12th Division.
Only a handful of Frenchmen
resisted for few minutes before the redoubt was seized. General Wolzogen wrote: "Our troops reached the
hill and then to a general hurrah they carried the summit and the fortification." To inspire the defenders
of the redoubt Yermolov "... threw [a bunch of the medals of the Military Order] at a time and each time
throngs of our soldiers went after them." Morand's superb 1st Infantry Division, unsupported, rapidly fell
back. The brave Morand himself was wounded in the chin by canister. The French 30th Line Regiment
had lost 2/3 (!) of its strength and General Bonnamy was captured after receiving 13 wounds ! Bonnamy
was in "a frightfully battered state and reeling from side to side ... 'Doctor !' was Kutuzov's cry on seeing
him, and after exchanging a few words with the wounded man, he had him carried away." The French
general was captured by NCO Zolotov of the 18th Jager Regiment, who was promoted to lieutenant after
the battle.
The Siberian, Irkoutzk and Orenburg Dragoons led by Kreutz were on the heels of the fleeing enemy.
Kreutz also deployed VII Horse Battery but the French artillery destroyed this unit. Kreutz wrote: "Horses
and men were struck down, the ammunition boxes blown up and the guns wrecked."
.
Prinz Eugen's walk into hell.
"Actually, it was a walk into Hell. ...
we went straight for the enemy mass,
while the huge battery hurled its balls at us."
Eugene Beauharnais responded with sending Gerard's 3rd Division to the rescue of Morand's hard-
pressed 1st Division. The Russian dragoons attacked Gerard's division. Sergeant Bertrand wrote: "...
Russian dragoons charged from the redoubt shouting hurrah !" The French battalions formed themselves
in squares and repulsed the cavalry with musketry. Laugier writes: "after letting the Russian dragoons ...
advance, it [7th Light Infantry Regiment of Gerard's division] opened a well-nourished fire by files. ..."
Meanwhile Baggovout's II Infantry Corps was
marching from the quiet, extreme right,
northern flank to the left, southern flank.
Baggovout had two divisions, Prinz Eugen's
4th Division and Olsufiev-III's 17th Division.
Olsufiev's troops proceeded south to Utitza,
while Prinz Eugen's troops were diverted to
Raievski Redoubt.
(See map.)
Despite the thick smoke covering this sector of
the battlefield, Prinz Eugen was able to notice
the imposing front of Gerard's 3rd Infantry
Division and artillery being quickly deployed
on its flank. The 3rd Division was a powerful
force of 15 battalions. (Further 2 btns. served as
escort of artillery parks of the I Army Corps, and were not present in battle.)
Prinz Eugen deployed the Volhynia Infantry Regiment in line, followed by the Tobolsk Infantry Regiment
in columns on both flanks. In the second line were Kremechoug Infantry and Minsk Infantry Regiment,
both formed in battalion columns. Prinz Eugen's force (8 battalions) advanced toward the enemy. The
artillery fire was tremendous.
Prinz Eugen wrote: "Actually,
it was a walk into Hell. ... In
this order we went straight for
the enemy mass, while the
huge battery hurled its balls at
us." The Russians heavily
suffered from artillery fire, the
Prinz himself had 3 horses
shot from under him. The
French infantry however being
battered by very numerous
Russian batteries and then attacked by Prinz Eugen's infantry, fell back.
The French cavalry however easily halted the triumphant Russian infantry, forcing them to form squares.
The cavalry then charged several times but without success. Then the French (foot) skirmishers and
several horse guns attempted to flank the squares. Prinz Eugen responded with sending his own
skirmishers against that force. The situation was stabilized with the arrival of Kreutz's dragoons. It was a
stalemate on this part of the battlefield ; Prinz Eugen's 8 btns. versus Gerard's 15 btns., and Russian 60
guns versus French 32 pieces.
~
Southern flank: fighting in the Utitza Wood.
- it is to you the glory is due! "
- Napoleon after Borodino
Before the battle Davout proposed to
Napoleon an outflanking movement by
his I Corps (5 divisions) and Poniatowski's
V Corps (2 divisions) to roll up the
Russian line. The Emperor however
agreed only on the V Corps.
Thus early in the morning Poniatowski
began his advance to the new position.
However it was impossible for the Poles
to transport their artillery through the
marshy meadows and woods and they
had to backtrack to Yelnia, where they
turned eastward.
(See map).
"This march took longer than expected
and the Polish attack was delayed when
Davout's forces assaulted Bagration's
positions. Leading the way was the 18th
Division, followed by the reserve artillery
of 40 guns and the 18th Division. Sebastiani's cavalry was moving in squadron columns south of the road.
... As they approached Tuchkov's position, the Poles - 'superb men, with genuine martial attitude and
excellent horses' as one officer described them - engaged the Russian skirmishers near Utitza."
(Mikaberidze - "The battle of Borodino" )
Poniatowski had two infantry divisions, a single cavalry division, and some artillery. The light cavalry
was numerous and superb and included some of the best Polish regiments: 13th 'Silver' Hussars and the
5th Chasseurs. Officer Chlapowski of Old Guard Lancers writes: "I was most impressed by the
appearanace of Prince Sulkowski's cavalry division. They had a good soldierly appearance and their
horses were magnificent. ... the 5th Chasseurs, who were very fine and even better mounted than the 13th
'Silver' Hussars." The Polish artillery numbered only few guns, but the artillerymen were well-trained and
expertly led by French General Pelletier. The infantry was solid in every aspect.
The VIII (Westphalian) Army Corps followed Ney's and Davout's corps (see map above.) It
was led by General Andoche Junot. Junot gave Napoleon absolute loyalty and his bravery
earned Junot the nickname "the Tempest." By 1810 however he was becoming erratic, the
result of several head wounds ... and disloyal wife. For all his terrible angers he was just and
fair. Junot's campaigns in Spain, Russia and elsewhere were failure. In 1813 he was made
Governor of Illyria but his growing mental instability led to him be returned to France. He
committed suicide in Montbard in 1813.
Due to a difficult terrain Poniatowski's troops had to backtrack to Yelnia, before they
could turn eastward and attack the Russians. It created a large gap between
Poniatowski and Davout/Ney's force. Thus Ney repeated his order for Junot and the
Westphalians to close the gap and proceed south to assist Poniatowski.
The Russians greeted the young and ineexperienced Westphalians with artillery fire
from 24-36 guns. A Polish uhlan noticed that whenever a shell exploded dozens of
Westphalians threw themselves on the ground and covered their heads with hands.
"Not a whisper was heard" - he wrote. Planat de la Fay wrote that the Westphalians
were "from time to time hit by shells that threw shakos and bayonets into the air. With
every such explosion, these poor lads threw themselves to the ground but not all of
them managed to raise to their feet afterwards."
The Westphalians then entered the large and marshy Utitza Wood south of the Fleches. They attacked
Russian jagers (three regiments) and pushed them to the south. Junot - at least temporarily - secured
Davout's flank and linked up with Poniatowski.
The Russian forces in this sector consisted of Tuchkov's III Infantry Corps (Stroganov's 1st
Grenadier Division, and Konovnitzin's 3rd Infantry Division), several Cossack regiments
under Karpov, and some militia troops called Opolchenie. The Russians then were weakened
by the departure of Konovnitzin's superb 3rd Division, which had been sent to aid the
troops defending the Fleches. The top-quality 1st Grenadier Division was deployed behind
the village with its skirmishers up in front. Here stood the famous Pavlovsk Grenadiers, the
St.Petersburg Grenadiers, and the Life Grenadiers (also called Tzar's Own Grenadiers).
The Pavlovsk Grenadiers (picture) wore old-fashioned mitre-caps until the end of
Napoleonic Wars. In 1807 for their gallant fight at Friedland Tzar Alexander ordered that,
alone of the infantry, this regiment should henceforth retain its mitres "in the state in which
they left the battlefield as visible mark of its bravery and Our grace." J. S. Stanhope wrote:
"and the marks made by the musket balls in these caps are considered as so many
decorations, and , therefore are never repaired." At Kliastitzi the depot battalion of this
regiment, passed through a flaming bridge and captured all the buildings defended by the
Swiss infantry. In 1813 for their valor in combat the Pavkovsk Grenadiers and Life
Grenadiers were admitted to the Guard.
The poorly-trained and poorly-armed Russian militia was kept in reserve, on both sides of
the Old Smolensk-Moscow Road. The bearded Cossacks protected the extreme southern
flank. The Cossacks were commanded by Karpov. In front of the 1st Grenadier Division
was wooded area and it was defended by skirmish chain formed by Shahovski's two jager
regiments. On Utitza Mound stood a very strong battery.
.
The Poles captured the large wood,
took the strongly defended hillock,
and the then stormed and took the
village.
The battle on the southern flank began with a sharp firefight between the Polish and Russian skirmishers.
The skirmish was one on a truly grand scale, the Polish 16th Division had 2/3 of its strength fully in
skirmish order, while the Russians had entire jager battalions deployed in this order. Poniatowski wrote
that the terrain was "full of woods and thickets ... [and] ... the whole plain was strongly occupied by the
enemy."
The Polish skirmishers were followed by columns, they brushed off enemy
skirmishers and advanced against the artillery. The rapid advance of the Poles
forced the Russian artillery to withdraw. Colonel Richter of the Pavlovsk
Grenadiers rode to the front to see what was happening and was immediately
wounded.
The Poles pushed the enemy out of the wood and at 10:30 AM Poniatowski
moved his artillery forward. More than 20 guns were deployed on a small hill
and their fire was directed on Utitza village and the strong artillery the Russians
deployed around it.
Poniatowski's 16th Division then stormed and seized the village. The Russian
grenadiers counter-attacked and retook it. Poniatowski supported 16th Division
with several fresh battalions and pushed back the entire 1st Grenadier Division.
The grenadiers then deployed on a hillock, known as Utitza Mound (Kurgan).
The village was burning.
The Polish and Russian batteries engaged themselves in "a very lively" counter-battery fire. General
Karpov wrote: "Both sides maintained such a petrifieng fire that salvos of guns arranged in line resembled
battalion volleys of infantry, while the artillery thunder suppressed any other sounds."
Alexander Mikaberidze wrote: "The Poles finally launched an assault and in a bitter hand-to-hand
fighting, seized the Kurgan. The Russians managed to remove their guns from the hilltop and retreated
eastward to regroup. Poniatowski, standing on a hill, could now see the Russian forces, including the
Opolchenie troops extending further eastward, and the sight probably further convinced him of the
difficulty of his mission." Meantime General Tuchkov asked Kutuzov for reinforcements and they were
already on their way.
.
Russian counter-attack.
With General Tuchkov seriously wounded,
Baggovout assumed command of the troops.
Kutusov learned about Poniatowski's progress and ordered Baggovout's II Infantry Corps,
from the extreme northern flank, to march south and join Tuchkov's force. Baggovout came
from a Norwegian family. In 16th century his ancestors left their homeland to settle in
Sweden. And then in 17th century they settled in Estonia. During the Napoleonic Wars
Estonia was part of Russia. The overweight Baggovout was a calm man and brave general.
He was liked by the soldiers and respected by his peers.
Baggovout had two divisions, the 4th under Prinz Eugen, and the 17th under Olsufiev. Each division had
8 infantry battalions only, as their jager battalions were detached. On their way south however part of
Olsufiev's division was halted by Grouchy's dragoons and Prinz Eugen's division got involved in the
recapture of the redoubt. In this situation Baggovout directed only part of Olsufiev's force to Tuchkov. At
noon half of Prinz Eugen's 4th Division was freed from defending the Redoubt and sent south against
Poniatowski.
Baggovout's arrived with Olsufiev's battalions just as Tuchkov's grenadiers rallied and were about to
counter-attack. The Poles defended the mound with artillery and 6 infantry battalions. The remaining
Polish forces were deployed as follow: 3 battalions were engaged in skirmish battle with the jagers, 3
battalions occupied Utitza village, and 6 battalions were kept as reserve. The Polish cavalry stood on the
right flank facing masses of Cossacks south of the village.
The Russians attempted to seize the mound
with 14 battalions (8 grenadiers and 4
infantry), part of the militia, and 6 heavy
cannons. In this charge participated the
famous Pavlovsk Grenadiers (picture) and
the Life Grenadiers. Outnumbered and
outflanked the Poles fell back.
Baggovout wrote: "However, the enemy
battery, despite 2 of its caissons being
blown up by Shepotiev's actions, continued
its powerful fire against our batteries and
infantry columns."
The Polish skirmishers were also active.
General Tuchkov was on the top of the
mound when a Polish musketball pierced
his chest. With Tuchkov seriously wounded, Baggovout assumed command of the troops. Captain
Dessaix witnessed the fighting and reported that "Prince Poniatowski is not making any progress. The
Emperor is not very pleased with him."
Poniatowski explained that "... it became impossible for (his troops) to sustain their efforts against a force
infinitely superior. We were repulsed from the mound, but we managed to maintain positions in the
undergrowth. ... I had my batteries continue to strike the summit of the knoll where the enemy had 12
large-calibre pieces."
Polish artillery (picture), and two batteries of the excellent Guard
Artillery,
became engaged in a long, three hour duel with the Russian heavy
hitters.
Karpov's Cossacks did not challenge Poniatowski's cavalry
and the Polish horse advanced along the road.
.
"After a tenacious fight, we (Westphalians)
finally seized the wood." - von Lossberg
"The Russians were so consumed by the (Polish) attack
from the front, that they noticed our attack only after we
charged with yells."
While Poniatowski fought for the mound and the village with Russian elite grenadiers, Junot's
Westphalians engaged Russian jagers under Shahovski in Utitza Wood. Linsingen wrote that "our division
suffered from heavy fire from the woods on the right side." Also the Opolchenie (militia) was used against
Junot's infantry. At about 2 PM the Westphalians established contact with the Poles.
The Westphalian chasseurs-carabiniers were armed with rifles and Junot has sent them out to silence
enemy battery. Unfortunately, in the excitement of the moment, the green-clad chasseurs were taken for
Russians by other Westphalian units and became the victims of friendly fire. It created a great deal of
confusion in the wood.
Junot received order from Ney to press forward. Instead of attacking the enemy with his fresh troops,
Junot asked for assist from exhausted Compans's 5th Division. Thus the Frenchmen carried out the fight
for quite long time, before Junot made another attack at 4 PM. The Westphalians were lucky, as this time
the enemy artillery lacked ammunition and were distracted by the Poles. Conrady wrote: "The Russians
were so consumed by the (Polish) attack from the front, that they noticed our attack only after we
charged with yells." The Westphalians gained some ground before the Russian infantry counter-attacked.
Junot (picture) led several battalions and forced the enemy to abandon the area north of the
Old Road. Friedrich von Lossberg wrote: "After a tenacious fight, we finally seized the
wood." Baggovout abandoned the Utitza Mound and withdrew along the Old Road. This
way he avoided being cut off from the rest of the army by Junot.
Prince Poniatowski (picture) followed Baggovout forcing him to redeploy his
troops near the village of Psarevo. The Polish artillery led by French General Pelletier, and
the 12th Uhlans, inflicted heavy casualties on the Minsk and Kremenchug Infantry
regiments. This attack ended the fighting in this sector of the battlefield. Some of the
napoleonic troops (for example the Dutch Red Lancers of the Imperial Guard) spent the
night near or in the Utitza Wood. "The ground between the trees was so choked with
dead men and horses that the Red Lancers had to lift scores of corpses out of their way
before they could clear a space to make their bivouac." (Pawly - "The Red Lancers" pp 37-38)
.
The Utitza Mound.
The Utitza Mound (called: kurhan or kurgan) dominated the southern part of the battlefield.
The Russian grenadiers and artillery defended it against Polish infantry
and artillery, supported with two batteries of French Guard Artillery.
~
Northern flank: Cossacks' raid.
"... Platov and Uvarov bypassed the left flank of Napoleon's army
and launched a sudden attack in the Valuievo-Bezzubovo area.
The panic among the transport and troops of the left flank
temporarily distracted Napoleon from further attacks against
the Second Western Army for about 2 hours. ... During the time
thus won, Kutusoff rearranged his forces ..." - A Mikaberidze
The northern flank of Napoleon's army at Borodino was covered by few troops only, Ornano's light
cavalry division and Bavarian horsemen. One of the Bavarian officers wrote that his unit was dismounted
until noon and watched the raging battle from a distance.
Meantime the Cossack Corps of 5,500 men under Platov (picture), began advancing
along the flank of Russian army. Platov had several regiments of Cossacks, Bashkirs
and Tartars. The Simferopol Tatars were under Prince Kaya Bey.
Platov was surprised when he found that the flank of enemy's positions was weakly
protected. Platov dispatchedd the Prinz of Hesse-Philippstahl (who was with him as
a volunteer), to Kutuzov to acquaint him with the discovery. Platov also proposed to
cross the Kolocha River with Cossacks and some cavalry and fall on the exposed
flank of the French.
Karl von Clausewitz (picture) was at Borodino, the Prussian wrote: "The Prince of Hesse, who
was perhaps more taken with the idea than Platoff himself, but was a young officer without
experience, betook himself to Colonel Toll, and represented the case with so much liveliness
that at first it really had a winning appearance.
Colonel Toll was gained over, and rode directly to Kutusov, who was stationed near the
village of Gorki. ... At the same moment arrived an account that in the redoubt of the centre ...
the King of Naples [Marshal Murat] had been taken prisoner. The enthusiasm blazed up like lighted
straw; several voices proposed to make this known to all the troops; some calmer heads among the
general officers thought the fact so improbable as to require further confirmation. ... We now know that it
was General Bonami, and not the King, whom the French had left, wounded, in the redoubt. It was in this
enthusiasm, and the belief of a successful turn of affairs, that the proposal of the P. of Hesse was laid
before Kutusov by Colonel Toll ... Kutusov, who had been listening to all the reports and discussions like
one who did not exactly know whether he stood on his head or his heels, and only from time to time said
C'est bon, faites le ! replied also to this proposal C'est bon, prenez le ! The P. of Hesse had offered to guide
the corps through the ford to the point in question."
Kutuzov agreed to launch a raid and assigned half of Platov's Corps and the entire I
Cavalry Corps under Uvarov (more than 3,000 men). In contrast to Platov's jackass
cavalry, Uvarov (picture) had regular troops; Lifeguard Uhlans (4 sq.), Lifeguard
Dragoons (4 sq.), Lifeguard Hussars (4 sq.), Lifeguard Cossacks (3 + 1 sq.), Nizhinsk
Dragoons (4 sq.), Elisavetgrad Hussars (8 sq.) and the II Horse Battery (12 pieces) under
Peter Gring.
Uvarov's I Cavalry Corps forded the river near Maloie Selo. (Other sources mention Staroie Selo.)
Bavarian officer, Lieutenant Heilbronner, wrote: "... such steep banks [of Kolocha River] that it seemed
impossible to me that a cavalry could cross the river here. So I calmly watched the opposite bank that
suddenly became alive with enormous masses of enemy cavalry. Numerous horsemen appeared seeking a
ford. Suddenly, a long cavalry column approached [the river] and, descending into the ravine, it crossed
it. I quickly turned back to withdraw my company ... "
Uvarov's force reached the Voina River between 11 AM and noon.
The terrain there was not easy for cavalry movements, the banks of
the streams were steep and there were numerous marshy meadows.
Officer Radozhitzki stood near the village of Gorki and watched the cavalry movements. He wrote that he
was "thrilled to see our cavalry moved on the opposite riverbank in long lines of red and blue hussars
and uhlans and then charged the French cavalry, driving it beyond Borodino then it nade an attack on an
artillery battery and the Elisavetgrad Hussars seized 2 guns. But four French infantry regiments,
deployed in squares, moved against our cavalry, which attacked each of them but was forced to retreat
after being unable to break them."
The gray-clad Elisavetgrad Hussars were routed by the Bavarian cavalry, who were, in turn, charged by
the Lifeguard Uhlans. The Elisavetgrad Hussars (armed with lances) rallied and charged again routing
the Italians. The Bavarian 4th Chasseurs supported the Italian Chasseurs against the Cossacks. The
Italians however wavered and fled. The Bavarians became disordered after the fleeing Italians passed
through them. Bavarian horse battery under Captain Wiedemann was caught by the Elisavegrad Hussars
and Cossacks. Several squadrons of Italian cavalry rushed to the rescue of the gunners.
Uvarov was halted at Bezzubovo and along the Voina River by French infantry regiments, 84th and 92nd
Line, and the 1st Croatian Provisional Regiment. The infantry immediately formed themselves in squares
against cavalry. The Lifeguard Hussars attacked the 84th Line three times without artillery and success.
The Russian guns finally arrived and forced the French to withdraw behind the river. It allowed the
remainder of Uvarov's cavalry to drive back the Bavarian and Italian cavalry. Eugene Beauharnais took
shelter inside the square of the 84th Line. The Croats repulsed the cavalry with a volley. The musketry
and artillery fire thwarted two Russian crossing attempts over the dam.
Clausewitz rode with Uvarov: "The French cavalry retired immediately over a dam, which crosses the
brook at about 2000 paces from Borodino. The infantry however, was bold enough to remain and form
square with the dam in their rear. General Uvarov attacked. The Author suggested in vain that the
artillery should first open upon them; the Russian officers feared that they would then retire, and escape
capture.
The Lifeguard Hussars were therefore advanced, and ordered to charge; they made 3 ineffectual attacks;
the infantry (Italian troops) lost neither their composure nor their ranks, and returned a steady fire. The
Lifeguard Hussars retired, as usually happens in such cases ... General Uvarov then discontinued these
not very brilliant attempts, and caused the artillery to open; at the first discharge the enemy retired over
the defile. ...
General Platoff, with his 2000 Cossacks,
was a 1/4 of a league to the right of
Uvarov, and looking for a passage over the
marshy stream. ... the account soon spread
that Platoff had at length found a passage,
and with his Cossacks was in the wood on
that side. ... the troops immediately in our
front feared to be locked in the morass,
and made a side movement.
The Lifeguard Cossacks attached to
Uvarov's corps could stand it no longer -
like a rocket with its tail, they were over
the dam like lightning, and into the wood to join their brethren."
Uvarov unquestionably might have followed at this moment, but he had no desire to let himself be
squashed in the defile, if repulsed, or to have to make an excentrical retreat en debandade, as the Cossacks
are accustomed to do on occasion. ... Before long the Lifeguard Cossacks returned,and with a considerable
deficit in killed and wounded. ... At about 3 PM Uvarov received orders to retire, and take up his original
position."
.
Around noon Platov's Cossacks
found a passage near Loginovo
and then moved across the
Voina River ("War River")
further north than Uvarov.
Platov wrote that he acted
offensively "against the enemy
cavalry and infantry, which was
in the wood, and after
numerous attacks, we routed
the cavalry and captured up to
200 men." Several Italian
squadrons were routed by the
Cossacks.
Word the much feared Cossacks
were to the rear had spread
terror as far south as Napoleon's
headquarters in Shevardino
Redoubt. Napoleon's own tent
was removed and his Old
Guard was formed into squares.
The Emperor then travelled to
the Kolocha River and made
quick observation. He sent the infantry of the Vistula Legion and Grouchy's III Cavalry Corps into
Eugene's rear. The Young Guard had made ready to receive the enemy. These reinforcements allowed the
Italian and Bavarian cavalry to regain their composure. The French 6th Hussars and 8th Horse Chasseurs
made successful charges against the Cossacks. The infantry of the Italian Guard formed squares and
boldly advanced to meet the enemy.
The diversion however had paralyzed the French left from about noon to 3:00 p.m. Around 3 p.m. Uvarov
received Kutuzov's order to return to his initial position before the raid. Between 4 and 5 PM most of the
Cossacks fell back. Only few of the were left behind and they kept harrassing the enemy until night. The
old general probably expected more from Platov and Uvarov, as these two were the only top commanders
which were not submitted by Kutuzov to awards for Borodino. (According to Nikolai Muraviev, Platov
was drunk that day. According to Mikhailovski-Danilevski Platov was "in a drunken stupor ... which ...
made Kutuzov to tell me ... that this was the first time he had seen a full general dead drunk in the midst
of a battle.")
Alexander Mikaberidze concluded: "The panic among the transport and troops of the left flank
temporarily distracted Napoleon from further attacks against the Second Western Army for about 2
hours.... During the time thus won, Kutusov rearranged his forces and strengthened the center and the
left wing."
~
What a bloody fighting ! What a cram !
"... [the French] cavalry spread out as a sea
while our squares floated like islands that
were washed by the copper and steel waves
of enemy cuirassiers ..." - Fedor Glinka
As the fight for the Fleches and
the Redoubt raged, Napoleon
ordered Murat's powerful
reserve cavalry (Montbrun's,
Latour-Maubourg's and
Nansouty's cavalry corps) to
strike the enemy center. The
French were holding the
fleches (see map) and Friant's
2nd Division was about to
attack the village of
Semenovskaia. The survivors of
Compans's, Dessaix's, Ledru's
and Razout's divisions
occupied the Fleches and
wood.
The Russian 2nd Grenadier
Division occupied the
smoldering ruins of
Semenovskaia. They also formed two squares behind that village. The few survivors of the 2nd Combined
Grenadier Division helped to operate the artillery pieces.
South-east of the village stood Konovnitzin's 3rd Division. The 2nd Cuirassier Division was posted
behind Konovnitzin. In reserve were held: brigade of Foot Guards and brigade of the 1st Cuirassier
Division.
.
"... this majestic horde of cavalry
pressed home its attack ..." - Helldorf
Barclay de Tolly was not far from the Redoubt when General Miloradovich called for him. Then "...a
cloud of dust swept down on us [Russians] from the left like an avalanche and the closer it rolled the
more monstrous its dimensions appeared." The Russians were presented with the amazing sight of several
thousands of cavalrymen coming towards them. Helldorf wrote: "The yell of En avant ! rang in our ears
and the force of the onslaught of these mighty masses almost took our breadth away ... The French
cavalry emerged from the dust with a gleam of armour, a rattling of their scabbards and a flashing of the
sun on the metal of those helmets of theirs with the horsetail switches. Drunk with victory, this majestic
horde of cavalry pressed home its attack against our iron wall ..."
The Russian infantry
battalions formed squares
(picture) to create fortresses
out of which musket fire could
be poured to disrupt or halt
the cavalry charge. The square
was the classic formation to
resist cavalry as horses could
not be enticed to charge into
tightly formed troops bristling
with bayonets. In front of the
squares stood artillery. Faced
with the enormous force of cavalry massing but 1 km away, the infantry could do nothing but stay in
their squares and wait.
The French, German heavy cavalry and Polish uhlans advanced in regimental columns, half-squadron
wide. Pajol's light cavalry division protected French batteries deployed along the Kamenka Stream in
front of the Fleches.
.
Saxon cuirassiers and Polish uhlans
vs Russian Foot Guards and cuirassiers.
Latour-Maubourg's IV Cavalry Corps
was formed into two battle groups or
columns. The right group consisted of
Lorge's 7th Heavy Cavalry Division. In
the lead rode the Saxon cuirassiers,
followed by Westphalian cuirassiers, and
2 squadrons of Polish cuirassiers.
The left battle group or column, was
made up of Rozniecki's 4th Light Cavalry
Division (9 sq. of Polish uhlans). They
were good horsemen and eager to cross
their weapons with the hated Russians.
Picture: Saxon cuirassiers (foreground) and Polish uhlans (background). The Saxons led the right battle
group, or column, while the Poles formed the left group.
The Saxon Garde du Corps usually rode large black horses, officers rode golden bays. But in 1812 they
also used the smaller, though sturdy animals, either black or dark-brown, supplied by dealers as
Mecklenburgers. The Garde du Corps wore brass helmets and pale buff tunics. Officers wore gold
epaulettes. The Saxon cuirassiers (Garde du Corps and Zastrow) wore no body armor.
Despite canister fire from Russian horse battery the Saxons broke one square of infantry and pursued the
fleeing enemy. The Westphalian cuirassiers also attacked the infantry squares but without much effect.
Sievers' dragoons counterattacked to save the infantry but were thrown back by the Saxons. The Saxons
then went around the ruins of Semonovskaia village and attacked from the rear 6 squares of Foot Guards.
For an instant the onlookers had the impression that the Foot Guards had disappeared under the
countless whirling sabers and were cut to pieces. The guardsmen however opened galling musket fire at
close range. Panic-stricken horses, without riders, came neighing and circling the troops.
Meanwhile Rozniecki's uhlans had become involved in battle near the Redoubt.
The blue-clad uhlans attacked artillery and Prinz Eugen's 4th Infantry Division.
The Poles temporarily captured 8 guns.
General Borosdin-
II brought two
crack regiments of
Russian heavy
cavalry; His
Majesty
Cuirassiers (or
Tzar's Own) and
Her Majesty Cuirassiers, and threw them at the Saxons. The Astrahan Cuirassiers joined the fight. The
Ahtyrka Hussars charged with the utmost fierceness against the flank of the enemy. The clash was very
violent. For Fedor Glinka it was an unforgettable spectacle: What a bloody fighting! What a cram! (Kak
oni rezhutsia! Kakaya tesnota!). It was like a clash of armored knights with a frenzy of cutting and thrusting
and the fighters going mental. The most miserable however were those who fell under the hooves where
their bodies turned into unrecognized bloody pulp. The Saxons suffered in this "cram" for they have left
armor in Germany.
While the whole air was reeking with gun smoke, the earth was shaking from thousands of hooves, the
Russian 2nd Cuirassier Division drew their sabers, and strucked the Saxons, Poles and Westphalians from
the flank and rear. The Germans and Poles resisted the enemy for a few moments before being driven
back.
The Wurttemberg and Westphalian light cavalry was also involved in the cavalry battle and fought with
Kreutz's dragoons. Friedrich von Schubert wrote: "Someone who did not see it with his own eyes can have
no idea of what this disorder was like. One could no longer speak of general order or leadership. Each
regiment, as soon as it had been halfway regrouped by a new bugle call, immediately returned to the
attack. ... In the midst of it all there were the remains of our infantry division ..." General Kreutz was
wounded. After 10-20 minutes the exhausted cavalrymen fell back. A lull developed as the cavalry
withdrew.
.
French Cuirassiers and horse carabiniers
vs Russian Foot Guards and cuirassiers.
Montbrun's II Cavalry Corps consisted of three divisions:
- Wathier's heavy cavalry division (5th, 8th, 10th Cuirassier Regiment)
- Defrance's heavy cavalry division (1st and 2nd Horse Carabinier Regiment, 1st Cuirassiers)
- Pajol's light cavalry division (French, Polish and German light cavalry)
Behind Montbrun was Nansouty's I Cavalry Corps:
- St.Germaine's heavy cavalry division (2nd, 3rd, 9th Cuirassier Regiment)
- Valence's heavy cavalry division (6th, 11th, 12th Cuirassier Regiment)
- Bruyere's light cavalry division (French, Polish and German light cavalry)
The brigade of Russian Foot Guards was attacked three times by the cavalry and three times the enemy
was repulsed. Fedor Glinka wrote: "... enemy cavalry spread out as a sea while our squares floated like
islands that were washed by the copper and steel waves of enemy cuirassiers ... the Russian wind of lead
met and repulsed these iron men ..." The French cuirassiers and horse carabiniers were counter-attacked
by the 1st and 2nd Cuirassier Division.
Colonel Alexander Kutuzov wrote to General Lavrov: Soon, the enemy cavalry appeared to the right
from us and forced the I Battalion to leave its position in en echeque and line up with the columns of the
II and III Battalions. At the same time, Col. Hrapovitsky ordered columns to form squares against the
cavalry. The enemy cuirassiers made a vigorous attack but quickly paid a heavy price for their audacity.
All squares, acting with firmness, opened fire and delivered battalion volleys from the lateral faces. The
enemy's armour proved to be a weak defence against our fire and added no courage to them. The
cavalrymen quickly showed us their backs and fled in disorder. ... The French again resumed their
charges but were repulsed by the crossfire of these battalions.
The cavalry did not dare to harass our
battalions ever since and only observed
us from a distance. The French artillery,
however, inflicted horrible casualties on
us, but the approaching enemy skirmishers
were driven back on multiple occasions. "
Ivan F. Udom-I reported to Gen. Lavrov:
the Lifeguard Lithuanian Regiment
was sent to the Second Western Army of
General of Infantry Prince Bagration near
the village [of Semeyonovskoie] The enemy showered us with cannonballs and canister and attacked
with cavalry. My three battalions were arranged in squares awaiting cavalry and despite being
surrounded by a superior enemy, they met him gallantly, allowing him to approach to close range before
delivering a battalion volley, and, yelling 'Hurrah!'; they disordered and they drove the enemy, inflicting
heavy losses; our soldiers were so incensed that no prisoners were taken. We lost no wounded on that
occasion.
The enemy made a second attack on the regiment, but was met with equal courage and fled to the
right, while the height was occupied by the enemy skirmishers. To counter them, I dispatched the II
Battalion to drive the enemy back and capture the heights. Although this was accomplished with
considerable success, the enemy was reinforced with several columns in this direction and supported the
skirmishers, which made it impossible for my regiment to capture the heights. [Lt. Col. Schwartz]
charged with the I Battalion to the mentioned heights and, having sent out skirmishers, he captured it.
Both sides suffered heavy casualties ... My regiment had lost too many people by now and on the order of
General Vasilchikov the regiment retreated, fighting back, to the woods, where it dispatched
skirmishers for cover and then joined a battalion of the Lifeguard Izmailovsk Regiment. In this battle,
the regiment had 143 NCOs, 53 musicians, 1,543 privates, 1 non-combatant. The regiment lost up to 400
killed and about 443 wounded, with 130 missing in action. [!]
~
"Soldiers, about face!
Let's go and get killed !"
(General Friant at work).
Murat's cavalry withdrew and Friant brought forward his 2nd Infantry Division and was
about to attack the so-called 4th Fleche and the village of Semenovskaia. Friant formed his
troops as follow: 15th Light (5 btns) was in the first line, the 48th Line (5 btns) in the second
line, and the 33rd Line (5 btns) was held in reserve. The Spanish Joseph Napoleon Regiment
(2 btns) protected the artillery. Marshal Ney was "quietly standing on the parapet of one of
the fleches ..." Marshal Murat was not far from him. They both observed the movements of
Friant's division.
After the French, German and Polish cavalry pulled back, the Russians noticed that the French foot
skirmishers began appearing in great numbers. Behind the skirmishers advanced columns of infantry led
by General Friant. The village of Semonovskoie was almost captured by the French before 4 grenadier
battalions arrived and put on impressive resistance. After the first French attack was repulsed, Friant's
troops rallied and attacked again. Friant swept over the fieldwork and carried the smoking ruins of the
village as well.
Barclay de Tolly immediately moved Tolstoy's IV
Infantry Corps south, facing Friant in the captured
village. The Russians also withdrew their guns out
of harm's way and redeployed them on a new
position. The artillery fire took heavy toll on the
French. Friant barely escaped death when a canister
struck him in the chest. The brave general however
refused to leave the battlefield. Some of Friant's
battalions suffered so heavy casualties that they
wanted to withdraw. Murat approached the wavering troops with these words "Soldiers, about face! Let's
go and get killed !"
.
The little white buildings on the left - Borodino village
The masses in the center - Davout's and Ney's infantry
including Friant's division and Murat's reserve cavalry.
On the right - Poniatowski facing Russian grenadiers.
From the museum of the battle of Borodino.
~
The marshals asked Napoleon for the
Imperial Guard to make the breakthrough.
Friant's die-hards.
Friant's battalions were then formed in squares against Sievers' dragoons and hussars who
made several attempts to break them. Hammered by artillery and attacked by cavalry,
Friant's division barely held his position. Unable to make further advance, Friant asked for
reinforcements. Marshals Davout, Murat and Ney agreed with the general and also
requested fresh troops. Their appeals however fell on Napoleon's deaf ear.
Murat's chief-of-staff, Belliard, declared that "from their position near Semyenovskoye, the
French could see confused crowds of Russian soldiers and carriages retreating and only a
single effort was required to win the battle. Napoleon hesitated and ordered Belliard to have another
look. Belliard soon returned, reporting that the Russians were rallying and 'the opportunity was about to
escape ...' But Bessieres, whom Napoleon also had sent him to examine the Russian positions, argued that
the Russians, far from being in disorder, were in their second position, and seemed to be preparing for an
attack." (- Alexander Mikaberidze "The battle of Borodino" p 161)
The Young Guard, disappointed at Napoleon's failure to commit them,
edged forward on the pretext of correcting the alignment of their ranks.
The Emperor however saw them moving and brought it to a halt.
Napoleon was unsure of the overall situation. "He sat very still most of the time, showing little emotion,
even when listening to the reports of panting officers who, without dismounting, retailed news from the
front line. He would dismiss them without a word, and then go back to surveying the battlefield through
his telescope. He had a glass of punch at 10 am, but brusquely refused all offers of food. He seemed very
absorbed ..." (Zamoyski - "Moscow 1812" pp 271-272)
Instead of the Guard Infantry
Napoleon sent Sorbier's 60
pieces of Guard Artillery to
support Friant. The artillery
swiftly deployed and began an
enfilading fire on Tolstoy's IV
Infantry Corps maneuvering in
front of Friant and covering
the gap in Russian line.
The French cannons were fired continually, one after another, with a deafening roar, enveloping the
whole neighborhood in powder smoke. Russian artillery also fired on all cylinders. The plain was a
hideous charnel house, strewn with human remains, and corpses of horses, whose stiffened limbs reach
up towards the heavens. The acrid odor of expended gunpowder, mingled with the stench of smoldering
grass, combined to create a thirst among the soldiers. After 4 PM the gallant Friant was wounded again.
Although Friant's battalions became mixed up with other troops they still held their ground.
The Russian guardsmen and Tolstoy's infantrymen threw out chests and raised their chins.
They moved as if they were on parade ground, filling the gaps the cannonballs and
canister ripped in their ranks. Their suffering was incredible. Neither Marshals Murat and
Ney, nor General Friant had ever before seen such horrors or so many slain in such a small
area. After the battle their positions could still be seen, clearly marked by the dead whose
bodies were still arranged in formation.
After enduring so heavy artillery fire the Russian infantry finally decided to take shelter in the wood to
their rear. The French skirmishers followed them but fearing an ambush, they were reluctant to proceed
into the wood. Friant was left unsupported and his attempts to seize the wood were weak and
unsuccesful. The Russian Foot Guards was ordered to hold the wood "at any cost." Friant's division stayed
where they were, in the smoldering ruins of the village.
Stalemate: Friant infantry facing the Foot Guards and Tolstoy's die-hards.
~
"We are not staying here !
We are not staying here !"
"One more word and I will break your gob ..."
Eugene Beauharnais' preparations for another assault on the Redoubt were interrupted by Cossacks' raid
on his flank and rear. Eugene was forced to direct part of his forces (incl. the Italian Guard) against Platov
and Uvarov. The delay in attacking the Redoubt proved costly for the French.
The line of
Russian
artillery
was
extended
"as far as
eye could
see" and its
terrifying
fire
continued
until
evening.
The
grenades
exploded in the air and on the ground, cannonballs whistled through the air and then ricocheted,
shattering everything on their path.
The Westphalian infantry found themselves under heavy bombardement and were shouting "We are not
staying here ! We are not staying here !" [Wir bleiben nicht hier !] Soon there was not much infantry
standing around, the French, Polish and German foot soldiers took cover in the ravines, woods, and
folds of terrain. The elite Vistula Legion, and the infantry of Morand's and Gerard's divisions were
ordered to lie down on the ground while the officers "awaited death standing."
Murat's cavalry however stood in the open and protected the long line of French artillery. Benedikt Peter
from the Wurttemberg Jger-Regiment zu Pferd Knig No 4, wrote that Murats cavalry stood behind the
artillery. The French were under heavy cannonade from the Russian guns and looked like smashed
battleship of which only separate and broken parts are seen on the water.
Alexander Mikaberidze writes [the French cavalry] "... remained exposed to the Russian artillery for the
best part of 3 hours. Polish Colonel Malachowski [from Polish 14th Cuirassier Regiment] lamented that:
'our cavalry was exposed to the fire, without taking any precautions against it. ... a hail of cannon-balls
reaped men and horses from our lines. The gaps were filled in with new soldiers, who assumed places of
their fallen comrades.'
Griois was amazed at the sight of 'cannon-balls, bullets, shells and canister raining
down from every direction and creating large gaps in our [French] cavalry, which
remained exposed and motionless for several hours.' He could see that 'the plain was
covered with the wounded men making their way back to ambulances and of riderless
horses galloping around in disorder. I noticed a Wurttemberg (Westphalian ?)
cuirassier regiment, which was particularly hard hit with the enemy cannon-balls and
their helmets and cuirasses kept flying apart in shattered fragments.'
Combe complained that 'The enemy redoubt directed its main fire against the artillery
deployed on our right flank but some of its guns also targeted us. Cannon-balls hit us
and ricocheted through our ranks, as we stood at attention with our sabres raised to our epaulettes. We
remained in this terrible position for 6 hours.'
The [horse] carabiniers of the II Cavalry Corps bitterly complained at having to suffer these casualties. At
one moment, the exasperated Sergeant-Major Ravat shouted, 'Either we charge or we leave the field !' but
was quickly silenced by Captain du Barail's response: 'One more word and I will break your gob ..."
(Mikaberidze - "The battle of Borodino")
General Montbrun, the talented 42-year-old commander of II Cavalry Corps, was mortaly
wounded. Bios wrote: "I suddenly heard a dull thud. 'Someone has been wounded,' I
exclaimed. At the same instant General Montbrun rolled off his horse ..." The cannon-ball
passed through his body from side to side damaging his kidneys. Montbrun whispered
"Excellent shot," before losing conscience and being carried to the rear. (After the battle he
was buried near Bagration Fleches.)
~
"... it seemed as if Napoleon decided
to eliminate us with his artillery."
The Russians also suffered from the artillery fire. Some of their
infantry columns used depressions and ravines as shelter.
N.E.Mitarevski wrote that his gunners "couldn't see friendly
infantry, but when it was necessary, they appeared as if from out of
the ground." Several battalions of Foot Guards deployed from 3 to 2
ranks to lessen their casualties.
To General Barclay de Tolly "seemed as if Napoleon decided to eliminate us with his artillery." General
Paskevich wrote that his infantry division "lost half of its men under that dreadful artillery fire that whiped
out entire ranks but, as the French acknowledged themselves, we held ground with remarkable courage."
Raievski's VII Corps also suffered badly from the artillery and had to be replaced with Likhachev's 24th
Division (from Dohturov's VI Corps).
Many infantrymen sought shelter in a ravine in the rear and Barclay de Tolly sent an officer to rally them and
to take them out of that place. It was however a "Mission Impossible" as they refused to leave their safety. As
one participant of the battle wrote "there was nothing that could have animated these men." There were also
many wounded, Meshetich wrote "the ravines and brushwood were full of the moaning wounded ..." Kutuzov
noticed that many soldiers left the ranks under pretexts of helping the wounded or lack of ammunition.
However the generals, French and Russian alike, showed great coolness under fire. Marshal Ney, The Bravest
of the Brave, stood on the captured Fleche and directed his troops. Barclay de Tolly was unmoved by the
horrors around him. Seeing him, General Mikhail Miloradovich exclaimed: "Barclay wants to top me ! and
chose a place closer to the French artillery, where he demanded to be served lunch !" ( - Mikaberidze, p 176)
Map: artillery deployment in Borodino.
Note: some artillery batteries, having exhausted their ammunition,
either left their positions or were replaced with reserve artillery.
Note: some artillery batteries, having exhausted their ammunition, either left their positions or were replaced with reserve artillery.
Some guns were damaged and replaced with new pieces. However, if a battery halted its fire and wanted to withdraw due to heavy
casualties among its crew, it was supplied with infantrymen who had basic artillery training . Mikhail Petrov wrote after Borodino :
" The larger part of its men [ Gulevich's battery ] , halted its fire and wanted to withdraw to the right bank of the stream. Colonel
Karpenko dispatched me with 2 officers and 40 jagers [of 1st Jager Regiment], who were speciafically trained for such incidents at
the division quarters in Slonim before the war. I replenished the battery's crew with these men, which allowed it to continue firing.."
Many gunners in the Redoubt were killed and wounded and the men of the Ufa Infantry Regiment were used to man the cannons.
~
The Capture of the Redoubt.
The Redoubt was covered in smoke and looked surrealas
it was illuminated by the "reddish aurora-borealis glow"
of its firing cannons.
The Redoubt was covered in smoke and looked surreal as it was illuminated by the "reddish aurora-
borealis glow" of its firing cannons. Several of the 18 guns were already damaged and were replaced with
cannons drawn from nearby bateries. Many gunners were killed and wounded and infantrymen of Ufa
Regiment were used to man the cannons. The earth forming the Redoubt was blown back into the trench,
filling it in. (Charles-Pierre Griois: "... the parapets of the Redoubt had almost been razed to the ground
by our gunnery.") One can well imagine what it must have been like inside that redoubt as the defenders
prepared themselves against an attack that was imminent: desperation on the faces of some,
determination on others.
General Raievski left the redoubt some time ago and it
was Likhachev who was inside the fortification.
Likhachev had his own 24th Infantry Division (8
infantry + 4 jagers battalions) deployed behind the
redoubt. Prinz Eugen's 4th Division (8 infantry
battalions) was deployed south of Likhachev's forces.
The survivors from the 1st Combined Grenadier
Division and 26th Infantry Division formed the second
line. The II and III Cavalry Corps were also placed in
the second line.
At noon however half of 4th Division was sent south
against Poniatowski's Poles, and was replaced with
part of Tolstoy's IV Infantry Corps. In reserve were
deployed the creme de la creme of Russian infantry, the
Preobrazhensk Lifeguard and Semonovsk Lifeguard
regiments. Some sources however mention not two but three regiments of Foot Guards.
General Yermolov had established a special cordon behind the Redoubt to turn back gunners and
infantrymen who claimed they have to carry or even escort the wounded to the ambulances. General
Barclay de Tolly returned from the army headquarters and joined the Foot and Horse Guards.
Chlapowski of Guard Lancers wrote:
"The redoubt had been so ruined by
cannon fire that the Emperor rightly
judged cavalry capable of taking it. So
we watched the beautiful sight of our
cuirassier charge."
The massive cavalry charge was
launched at 3 PM. The cavalry was so
numerous that the squadrons extended
out to the left and right, threatening
not just the infantry deployed in and
around the Redoubt but also the
Russian line all the way to the
Semonovskaia. The onslaught must
have struck terror into the hearts of the
less experienced infantrymen and
gunners when they saw the charge.
The massive assault force was directed
between the Redoubt and the ruins of
Semonovskaia village. It was
spearheaded by Montbrun's II Cavalry
Corps (Wathier's and Defrande's
French cuirassiers and horse
carabiniers). In the second line were
Latour-Maubourg's Saxon, Westphalian
and Polish cuirassiers. The reserve was composed of Nanousty's I Cavalry Corps and Rozniecki's IV
Cavalry Corps.
North of the advancing mass of cavalry, Eugene's infantry was about to attack the Borodino village and
the Redoubt itself. Behind the infantry was Grouchy with dragoons and chasseurs. South of the cavalry,
in and around the Semonovskaia village, stood Friant's infantry division. Behind Friant was placed the
Vistula Legion (see map).
.

French cuirassiers and horse carabiniers from Montbrun's corps hit the enemy first.
They are followed by Latour-Maubourg's Saxon, Westphalian and Polish cuirassiers.
One can well imagine what it must have been like inside that redoubt as the defenders prepared themselves against
an attack that was imminent: desperation on the faces of some, determination on others. Blood everywhere.
.
.
Charge of French cuirassiers and carabiniers.
" ... some rode to the redoubt, and jumped over the ditch
and the destroyed parapet into the fortification."
The Russians however held their ground.
When Friant's division captured Semonovskaia village, Marshal Murat gained more space for moving and
deploying his massive reserve cavalry. After Montbrun was mortally wounded Napoleon replaced him
with General de Caulaincourt. Caulaincourt, with his eyes aflame with the ardor of battle, rode to the
front of the cuirassiers and shouted: "Follow me, weep not for him [Montbrun], but come and avenge his
death." In reply to Murat's order to enter that redoubt right through the Russian line, he said, "You shall
soon see me there, dead or alive." The trumpets sounded the charge, and putting himself at the head of
this iron-clad cavalry, he dashed forward.
On top of the
artillry constant
booming, the
Russians heard a
new sound. It
grew in intensity
until suddenly,
from the smoke, a
huge body of
armored cavalry
burst onto the plain. The cavalrymen pressed on with sabers drawn. They have galloped towards the
mighty line of Russian guns. The artillery opened a rolling fire and iron missiles bowled down the horses
and riders. Some infantrymen (most of them were skirmishers) fell back in great confusion but, according
to de Tolly, "were immediately rallied." The squares poured volley after volley into the charging
cuirassiers in rapid succession. Soon horses and men were mingled in disorganized confusion. At the last
second most of the cuirassiers broke off their charge, divided, and rode thunderously to each side of the
squares. The heavy cavalry made several attempts to break the "firing with every side at once" squares.
General Korf ordered his hussars and uhlans to counter-attack but they were attacked in turn by the 1st
Cuirassier Regiment.
Group of cuirassiers from the 5th and 8th Regiment rode to the redoubt, and jumped over the ditch and
the destroyed parapet into the fortification. Thus a redoubt with cannons was captured by cavalry, a feat
never repeated ! Colonel Griois watched the cavalry attack: "It would be difficult to convey our feelings as
watched this brilliant feat of arms, perhaps without equal in the military annals of nations ... cavalry
which we saw leaping over ditches and scrambling up ramparts under a hail of canister shot, and a roar
of joy resounded on all sides as they became masters of the redoubt."
Their triumph however was short-lived. The Russians still held their ground and after some vicious
fighting repelled the intruders. Caulaincourt was mortally wounded and was "carried away in a white
cuirassier cloak, stained deep red by his blood." His name appears on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris.
.
Charge of Saxon, Westphalian and Polish cavalry.
The Saxons and Russians were "gripped by a frenzy of
slaughter." The Poles captured several artillery pieces
and threatened Barclay de Tolly and his staff.
Latour-Maubourg's IV Cavalry Corps came charging, with the earth rumbling under the pounding
hooves. In the first line rode the Saxon Garde du Corps, followed by Saxon Zastrow Cuirassiers, and then
by the Polish cuirassiers. Approx. 100 paces behind them were two regiments of Westphalian cuirassiers.
To their right rode Rozniecki's 3rd, 11th and 16th Uhlan Regiment.
The Saxons, Westphalians and the Poles
first attacked Tolstoy's infantry. The
Russians were already formed in squares
and greeted the enemy with a hail of
bullets. The volley was delivered at 20-60
paces and devastated the front rank of the
Saxons, bringing them to a short halt
before they resumed their advance. The
cavalrymen charged in-between the
squares but found Kreutz's and Sievers'
dragoons and hussars deployed behind the
infantry. The Saxons and Westphalians then fell back. The Pernau Infantry Regiment fired at the
cuirassiers and then some men in the first rank threw their muskets as javelins at the backs of the
cavalrymen ! (Zhmodikov - "Tactics of the Russian Army in the Napoleonic Wars" Vol. II)
Rozniecki's uhlans also suffered from the musket fire. Group of uhlans
however caught some gunners, cut them down, and captured the
battery. The Russian giant, General Kostenetzki, seized a rammer and
attacked them. Inspired by his bravery the gunners rushed and saved
the cannons. The rampaging uhlans also threatened Barclay de Tolly
and his staff.
Part of the Saxons turned left and reached the Redoubt, they jumped
over the parapets while others fought through the two openings in the
rear. Soon the heavy cavalrymen and the Russian gunners were
"gripped by a frenzy of slaughter."
While struggling with the enemy, the gunners managed to remove 6
guns, 2 more pieces were abandoned at the northern opening, and 1
was thrown into the ditch behind the fortification. Barclay de Tolly
ordered the survivors of Likhachev's 24th Infantry Division to retake
the Redoubt but 2 squadrons of Polish cuirassiers drove them back.
Barclay de Tolly then called for the Chevaliers Garde (picture) and the
Garde du Corps. The two regiments were the flower of Russian heavy
cavalry. De Tolly wrote: "A cavalry melee, one of the fiercest ever to
have been fought, then ensued.
The enemy and our cavalry charged and drove back each other in turns,
regrouping under cover of artillery and attacking again." According to
the Russians, the Chevaliers Garde stood in squadron columns with
intervals; in the first line were I and IV Squadron, and in the second the
III and V. The Garde du Corps was deployed to the left of the
Chevaliers. Its four (I, III, IV, V) squadrons were formed in one line,
squadron by squadron with intervals.
When the trumpets crashed out with brazen voice the two outfits began
their magnificient advance. The fighting itself took place on a rye field
and the onrush on both sides was so terrific that some of the most
forward horses and men went down like poppies in a hurricane. The
two squadrons of Poles moved to the right in an attempt to protect the
flank of the Saxons against the Chevaliers.
The Saxon and Polish cuirassiers were utterly discomfited. They were
pursued until the positions of the French artillery and to make things
worse the fleeing Saxon Zastrow cuirassiers were mistakenly attacked by the French horse carabiniers.
The Saxons and the Poles were by now exhausted and decimated from the fighting with the Russian
gunners, infantry and cavalry. They abandoned the Redoubt and slowly fell back a short distance.
.
Attack of French infantry.
By 4:30 PM the French infantry
was in control of the Redoubt.
Broussier's 14th Infantry Division moved
on the western side of Borodino and
attempted to cross the Kolocha River and
threaten the rear of the Redoubt. Its
leading elements (35th Line Regiment)
however were held by Russian 1st Jager
Regiment. The jagers were later reinforced
with the Libava Infantry Regiment.
Gerard's and Morand's infantry divisions
also moved forward. They were directed
against the Redoubt from the north and
north-west where stood the Russian 7th
and 24th Infantry Division and some
cavalry. The Russian skirmishers who were in advanced position fled toward their own columns.
While the French infantry marched toward the redoubt with outstretched bayonets,
Grouchy's III Cavalry Corps followed them in supprot. Grouchy's horsemen raised clouds of
dust, which mingled with the smoke from the artillery. Grouchy crossed the river and
moved slightly to the right, toward the Russian artillery and infantry. Unfortunately Grouchy
was wounded by a splinter of a grenade and had to leave the troops. General Houssaye was
also wounded. The cavalry however broke through a square of the 19th Jager Regiment and
then captured several cannons. Russian cavalry counter-attacked and retook the guns.
General Korf ordered the Izoum Hussars and the Polish Uhlans (Poles in Russian service) to
attack the French. The two regiments were about to end their quick preparations and move
forward when they were strucked by French dragoons. The situation would quickly get
worse if not the timely arrival of the Pskov and Moscow Dragoons. According to Korf these
fresh forces threw back and pursued the enemy as far as the positions of the Italian infantry.
(Korfs raport: Gen. Adj. Baron Korf - Gen. Barklayu de Tolli in book Otechestvennaya Voina
1812 Goda. 1911, Volume XVIII, pages 37-39)
Gerard's 3rd Infantry Division of Davout'
corps stormed the Redoubt at bayonet
point. The French entered the fieldwork
and senior officer Del Fante threw himself
at General Likhachev. Del Fante
"disarmed him and snatched him from the
fury of the soldiers ..."
The captured Russian general was taken to
Eugene Beauharnais who had him escorted
to Napoleon. Gerard's three regiments (7th
Light, 12th Line, and 21st Line) pushed the
Russian line way back. By 4:30 PM the
French infantry was in control of the Redoubt.
"The Raievski Redoubt presented a gruesome sight. 'The redoubt and the area around it offered an aspect
which exceeded the worst horrors one could ever dream off,' according to an officer of the Vistula Legion,
which had come up in support of the attacking force. 'The approaches, the ditches and the earthwork
itself had disappeared under a mound of dead and dying, of an average depth of 6 to 8 men, heaped one
upon the other." (Zamoyski - "Moscow 1812" p 281)
Dumonceau wrote: "Passing behind the Grand Redoubt we saw its broad interior sloping sharply down
towards us, all encumbered with corpses and dead horses jumbled up with overturned cannon, cuirasses,
helmets and all sorts of scattered wreckage in an indescribable confusion and disorder."
"The approaches, the ditches and the earthwork itself had disappeared
under a mound of dead and dying, of an average depth of 6 to 8 men,
heaped one upon the other."
~
The Russian army fell back.
Kutusov ordered his troops to move about 1,000 paces to the rear
and assume a new position. Napoleon and his marshals were
amazed at the stubborness of the Russians.
A large cavalry battle ensued around the
Redoubt. Squadrons of French, German, Polish
and Italian cavalry intermingled with the
squadrons of Korf's II and III Cavalry Corps and
Sievers' IV Cavalry Corps. Dust rose obscuring
all vision. Groups of cuirassiers, dragoons,
uhlans, and colorful hussars pulled into and out
of the melee to reorganize and charge back into
the fray. All control of the fighting passed from
the hands of the officers into the small battle
groups.
The gigantic cavalry melee was the last major
fighting in this battle. After that the fighting was
limited to artillery duel and skirmishing.
General de Tolly was on horseback, unmoved by
all confusion among the hundreds of retreating
and well-nigh worn out soldiers. He sent officer to Kutusov to inform him of the dramatic situation on
the battlefield. De Tolly asked the officer to be sure to get any orders in writing, fearing Kutusov might
otherwise give instructions he would later deny having issued, in an effort to blame de Tolly for any
failure that might result. Kutusov ordered de Tolly to move the army about 1,000 paces to the rear and
assume a new position. The jagers however still held the Kolocha River, east of Borodino. Kutuzov
congratulated his troops with a victory and ordered to prepare for another battle.
Kutusov sent a report to Tsar Alexander. After my earlier report that the enemy attacked with
considerable forces the left flank of my army on 24 August [5 September], the day of 25 August [6
September] passed without any significant incidents. However, yesterday [7 September], taking
advantage of a morning fog, at dawn around 4 a.m., the enemy directed all his forces against the left flank
of our army. A general battle ensued and continued under the nightfall. The losses are enormous on both
sides. The enemy casualties, judging from his resolute attacks on our fortified positions, must have
exceeded our losses. The troops of Your Imperial Majesty fought with incredible gallantry. The batteries
changed hands repeatedly but the battle ended with the enemy failing to gain even a single step of the
ground in spite of his numerical superiority . Sadly, Prince Bagration was wounded by a bullet to his
left leg. It is already late at night and I cannot determine the exact losses on our side. (- Kutuzov to Tsar
Alexander, 27 August [8 September] 1812, from Borodino)
Napoleon decided to survey the
battlefield and rode calmly to the
Fleches first and then visited
Semenovskoie village where Friant's
division fought.
The Russian gunners (picture)
directed their fire on him and the
French staff officers persuaded the
Emperor to leave.
Napoleon ordered Sorbier to deploy
60 guns of the Guard Artillery "so as
to crush the Russians by a flank fire."
The infantry of Young Guard was to
follow Sorbier's guns and "secure the
battlefield" but without engaging the
enemy. The Emperor retained some 20,000-30.000 fresh troops (Imperial Guard, the Vistula Legion and I
Cavalry Corps) but the remaining forces were exhausted physically and mentally.
It was getting dark.
.
De Tolly, seeing the French had abandoned the
Redoubt, sent several battalions and a battery, to
reoccupy the fortification. Zamoyski writes: "Although
the Russian front line had been withdrawn that
evening some 2 km back from its positions in the
morning, the French did not follow it, and as soon as
night fell Cossacks, singly or in groups, ranged over the
battlefield in search of booty ...
The French did not post forward pickets or fortify their
line, as, having beaten and pushed back the Russians,
they felt no need to do so. They just camped where they
were. For obvious reasons, nobody bedded down in the
charnel house of the Raievski Redoubt, and this permitted a small party of Russian troops to 'reoccupy it
briefly." (Zamoyski - "Moscow 1812" p 285)
De Tolly (picture) also ordered the construction of a new redoubt near Gorki and Kutuzov
confirmed these arrangements. The jagers and artisans constructed a small floating bridge in
order "to facilitate the crossing to the village of Borodino as everyone eagerly awaited the
order to attack.
The Russian rank-and-file certainly did not feel vanquished. They were spared the sight of
the carnage on the battlefield, vividly recorded in the memoirs of French, German, Polish
and Italians soldiers who stayed on the field. The Cossacks advance posts harrassed the enemy and there
was "an alert, close to the Emperor's tent. The Old Guard was actually obliged to run to arms; a
circumstance which, after a victory, seemed insulting." (- Baron de Segur)
Kutuzov had no more than 20.000 men ready to continue the battle. In this situation the old general
decided to retreat. He explained his action to the Tzar as necessary for regrouping and reforming his
troops after such intense, day long battle. After midnight the baggages, ammunition wagons and artillery
had slowly moved down the road to Mozhaisk. They were followed by the exhausted infantry. Some
cavalry and Cossacks however stayed behind, ready to fend off any pursuit. In the morning only Platov's
Cossacks remained on the field of battle.
~
"Mountains of dead on both sides."
"Never did (a battlefield) present so horrible an appearance.
Everything concurred to make it so; a gloomy sky, a cold rain,
a violent wind, houses burnt to ashes, ... soldiers roaming
in all directions amidst the dead ..." - Baron de Segur
The French spent the day after the battle tending wounded and resting. Napoleon was in a state of
extreme depression. He could no longer speak or dictate his orders, which forced him to scribble down all
his instructions. The Emperor and his marshals were amazed at the stubborness of the Russians and
feared the prospect of meeting them again. On Septemner 8th Murat began pursuit but soon was stopped
by the Russian light cavalry near Mozhaisk.
Borodino was a bloody meat grinder, devoid of the subtle strokes so common in Napoleon's earlier
victories in Italy, at Austerlitz, Jena and Friedland. Neither Napoleon nor any of his generals had ever
before seen such horrors or so many slain in such a small area. The battlefield was covered with blood,
with horses and men lying singly or in heaps.
Eugene Labaume inspected the battlefield and saw "mounds of wounded, and the little spaces where
there weren't any were covered with debris of arms, lances, helmets or cuirasses, or by cannonballs as
numerous as hailstones after a violent storm." Antoine van Dedem recalled "Mountains of dead on both
sides ..." Surgeon Roos wrote that "The numbers of wounded turning up were enormous." (Britten-Austin -
"1812 The March on Moscow" p 283)
Not only the men
suffered, Francois
Dumonceau wrote
that "One could
see some [horses]
which,
disembowelled,
nevertheless, kept
standing, their
heads hung low, drenching the soil with their blood, or, hobbing painfully in search of some pasture,
dragged beneath them shreds of harness, sagging intestines or a fractured member, or else, lying flat on
their sides, lifted their heads from time to time to gaze on their gaping wounds."
There were probably 75,000-90,000 killed and wounded.
Kutuzov's losses: 45.000-50.000 killed and wounded, including 23 generals.
Napoleon's losses: 30.000-40.000 killed and wounded, including 36 generals.
- David Chandler: "The French had lost
an estimated 33,000 casualties; the Russians
all of 44,000. It had been a desperate day,
and the result was inconclusive." (Chandler
- "Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" p 67)
- French Inspector of Reviews Deniee,
totting up the losses, finds among the
casualties no fewer than 14 generals of
division, 33 generals of brigade, 37 colonels
and 86 ADCs.
- "Next year the peasants would have to
bury a total of 58,521 corpses and the
carcasses of 35,478 horses." (Britten-Austin -
"1812 The March on Moscow" p 383)
- The official roll-calls of de Tolly's and
Bagration's armies show that the Russians suffered 38,572 killed and wounded. Losses suffered by the
militia, the Cossacks, and the officers were not included in the count.
- Alexander Mikaberidze: "The precise number of casualties is hard to establish and estimates vary
between sources ... Besides the problem of sources, there is an issue of contrasting viewpoints of the battle
- the French (and English) participants and then scholars considered the battles of Shevardino and
Borodino as separate actions, while the Russians believed, and still do, that they constitute parts of one
major engagement. Thus, Russian studies often refer to Borodino as a 2-day battle fought on 24-26
August (5-7 September).
This is an important distinction, since the French data on casualties usually includes only those
suffered on 7 September, while the Russians combined losses sustained in the actions of 5 and 7
September." (Mikaberidze - "The battle of Borodino" p 208)
Huge monument on the Borodino battlefield.
~
Aftermath.
Kutuzov resolved to sacrifice Moscow in order to save his army.
Napoleon reached Moscow but Tzar Alexander refused to negotiate
a truce.
Picture: Napoleon in front
of Moscow.
During the next weeks
Kutuzov needed to get
Napoleon off his tail, and
he could only do that by
distracting him with
something else. "In the
only brilliant decision he
made during the whole
campaign, Kutuzov
resolved to sacrifice
Moscow in order to save
his army. 'Napoleon is
like a torrent which we
are still too weak to stem'
he explained to Toll.
'Moscow is the sponge
which will suck him in.'
He therefore fell back on
Moscow." (Zamoyski -
"Moscow 1812" p 289)
According to several sources the Polish 10th Hussar Regiment was the first Napoleonic unit to enter
Mocow in 1812. They were followed by Prussian uhlans, Wurttemberg chasseurs and Pajol's French
hussars and chasseurs. The French entered Moscow in good marching order but the city itself was
deserted and there was hardly anyone in the streets. The gates and shops were all closed. Moscow was in
Napoleon's hands but Tzar Alexander refused to negotiate a truce.
After several weeks Napoleon left Moscow and began a long retreat. Napoleons departure from Moscow
marked the beginning of one of the most grueling marches in military history. The horses were exhausted
and slowly starved. More and more animals had to be abandoned. Each day additional mounts collapsed
in the mud and snow, some rising to stumble or be dragged after the troops. Occasionally the French and
Polish light cavalry glimpsed distant Cossacks but many horses were too weak to give chase.
Of the 680,500 men that Napoleon had organized for his invasion of Russia in 1812, barely 93,000
remained. Napoleon had taken 176,850 horses with him, and barely any of them survived the campaign.
Of the 1,800 cannon taken, the Russians reported capturing 929 of them, and only 250 were brought out.
During the winter retreat from Russia thousands of soldiers died of exhaustion and cold. Napoleon
suffered his first of this scale defeat and the old general Kutuzov was the first general before whom
Napoleon was fleeing. Russia had withstood Napoleon's best punch and returned to him a deathblow in
the next years crowned with marching into Paris and occupation of France.

Battle of Borodino from the epic film
"War and Peace" by Sergey Bondarchuk.
This film took 7 years to produce and cost over US $ 100 million. If inflation is taken into account , a film
of this magnitude would cost US$ 700 million today, making it one of the most expensive films ever made.
According to the Guinness Book of Records, the Battle of Borodino scenes included 120,000 soldiers (!) ,
making it one of the largest battle scenes ever filmed.
In 1969 this film won "Academy Award - Best Foreign Language Film"
and , in the United States , the "Golden Globe - Best Foreign Film."
Sources and Links.
Photos by korfilm and Moscow Times
Britten-Austin - "1812: The March on Moscow"
Zamoyski - "Moscow 1812"
Kukiel - "1812"
von Clausewitz - "1812"
Tolstoy - "War and Peace"
Mikaberidze - "The Battle of Borodino: Napoleon against Kutusov."
Chlapowski - "Memoirs of a Polish Lancer" Translated by Tim Simmons
Napier - "History of the War in the Peninsula 1807-1814" Vol I-V
Picture of Russian rear guard in 1812, by Chagadayev.
Picture of French skirmishers in combat by G Rava.
Pictures of the battle of Shevardino by V Shevchenko.
Nafziger - "Napoleon's Invasion of Russia, 1812" ( >> )
Kutuzov's plans and tactics at Borodino, 1812
Panorama of Battle of Borodino (115 m x 15 m)
Battle of Dresden 1813 : Schlacht : Bataille
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/BATTLE_OF_DRESDEN.htm[2012-05-21 12:44:40]
Campaign in Germany in 1813
and the
Battle of Dresden 26-27 August 1813
"When an army of 120,000 men, in the presence of 180,000 enemies
deploys from a bridge-head, then surrounds the enemy on both wings
and seriously damages both, when it compels a whole division to
lay down its arms in the open field, when it brings in immediately
from the battlefield 13,000 prisoners, 15 standards, and 26 guns,
that is a quite undeniable victory." Caemmerer - "Die Befreuingskrieg"
Introduction: Campaign in Germany in 1813.
Napoleon's victories in 1813. >
Napoleon agrees to armistice. >
(In exile he admitted that it was one
of the worst decisions of his life.)
Allies' masterful plan >
(or "a pack of hounds bringing down a stag.")
The war resumes, on to Dresden ! >
The city of Dresden and the battle field.
+ Map
French army and order of battle
Allies army and order of battle.
.
.
.
.
Day One. + Map
The battle begins. >
Three-hour lull in battle. >
Napoleon arrives with reinforcements. >
The battle restarts at 3 PM. >
Fighting along the Elbe River. >
Battle for the Grand Garden. >
Fighting in the center. >
On the flank. >
Cavalry battle. >
Before the storm. >
The Young Guard. >
In the night after the battle. >
Plans and errors. >
Day Two. + Map
The Prussians and Russians were
driven back by the Young Guard. >
"Their muskets, however, would not go off in the rain,
and and they were ridden down by the French cavalry." >
In the center the battle was
limited to an artillery duel. >
Victor. >
Allies' retreat in the evening. >
French pursuit on the next day. >
Aftermath and casualties.
"Wagons carried the corpses, which were thrown
into the graves made by teams of peasants."
Battle of Dresden 1813, by Bovinet Edme.
I n t r o d u c t i o n : the Campaign in Germany in 1 8 1 3 .
The average casualties suffered by the French army during
the Invasion of Russian (1812) were 2,000-3,000 men / day.
In 1813 in Germany were 25,000 men/week (S.Bowden) or 3,570/day
"... the French forces in the Peninsula lost 100 men per day " (D.Gates)
In the American Civil War 1861-1865 were 400 per day for the Union.
After the disaster in 1812 in Russia Napoleon could not believe himself invincible.
His enemies were suggesting that since his good genius had failed him once, it might
again. The Russian victory was a huge blow to Napoleon's ambitions of European
dominance. Seeing an opportunity in Napoleon's historic defeat, some Prussian troops
re-entered the war. Public demonstrations in Berlin and elsewhere against the French
persuaded the king of Prussia, Frederick William, to change sides.
With amazing speed, Napoleon concentrated fresh forces and attempted to reorganize
the wreck that was emerging from Russia. He quickly built up his forces in the east
from 50,000 to 150,000 and eventually to 450,000 (although only 250,000 were under
his direct command). The Confederation of the Rhine furnished Napoleon with
thousands of soldiers, with Saxony and Bavaria as principal contributors. In addition,
to the south Murat's Kingdom of Naples and Eugene's Kingdom of Italy had a
combined total of 100,000 men under arms. In Spain an additional 150.000-175,000
French troops were being pushed back by Spanish, Portuguese and British forces
numbering around 150,000-190.000 men. The French were also mercilessly harrassed
by the Spanish guerillas.
Napoleon's retreat from Russia in 1812
Kutuzov's pursuit of the enemy in winter 1812/1813.
Napoleon's new army of 1813.
.
Napoleon's victories in 1813: Lutzen and Bautzen.
Ltzen could well have become a second Austerlitz.
After Bautzen the Allies asked for armistice.
Napoleon, having his army at hand, defeated the Prussians and Russians at Lutzen (2
May) and Bautzen (20-21 May).
At Lutzen Napoleon had organized the march of Bertrand's corps in such a way that
he could strike Allies' left flank, while MacDonald's corps could strike the Allies' right
in order to encircle the enemy. Ney would be fixing the Allies in front. Ltzen could
well have become a second Austerlitz. Napoleon concentrated powerful artillery and
unleashed a devastating barrage towards allied center. Then he led the Young Guard
into a massive assault breaking the enemy lines. Unfortunately the young French
infantrymen, who had been marching AND fighting all day long, were too exhausted
and could not follow through. And the lack of cavalry meant there would be no
pursuit. This allowed Wittgenstein and Blucher to retreat in good order.
During the battle of Ltzen, Prussian General von Scharnhorst was wounded. Then
an infection set in and he died as a result. Scharnhorst was one of the brightest Allied
generals and well known organizer and reformer of the Prussian army.
The operational manoeuvres at Bautzen came even closer to encircling and
annihilating the Russo-Prussian army, when the Emperor ordered Ney to attack
Allies' flank and rear with three corps. Faulty exqecution by Ney left the line of retreat
open. Following Bautzen, Napoleon agreed to a seven-week truce with the Coalition,
requested by the Allies on 2 June.
Russians and Prussians at Lutzen 1813, by Oleg Parkhaiev
.
Napoleon agreed to an armistice.
In exile he admitted that it was one
of the worst decisions of his life.
In a surprise move, Napoleon agreed to an armistice from 4 June through 20 July, later
extended to 10 August. During this time both sides attempted to recover from heavy
losses since April. What were the causes that led to the armistice ? Napoleon has
indicated several:
- lack of cavalry
- to win back Austria (and possibly to divide Russia and Prussia)
- there were many sick soldiers in hospitals who needed time to recover
Allies:
- to get Austria and Sweden on their side
- after two defeats they needed time to recover,
to resupply, and to reorganize their armies
- the almost incessant fighting weakened the
discipline of the troops
- there were many sick soldiers in hospitals
- they were also hoping to receive weapons,
ammunition, uniforms etc. from Great Britain
Klemens Metternich (Austrian diplomat) attended a personal meeting with Napoleon.
At this meeting Metternich stated that Austria was free of "engagements" and
Napoleon sought to obtain a full commitment to his cause by Austria. Metternich
wrote: "Our conference consisted of the oddest mixture of heterogeneous subjects,
characterized now by extreme friendliness, now by the most violent outbursts of
fury". Napoleon occasionally raged or threatened but Metternich remained calm.
At one stage Napoleon let his hat, which he was holding under his arm, drop to the
floor. Although an Emperor had dropped his hat Metternich did not stoop to pick it
up. (According to Metternich, Napoleon threw it into a corner of the room in a rage.)
Napoleon made various offers for Austria's neutrality, but Metternich declined all
bargaining, and Napoleon's oft repeated threat, "We shall meet in Vienna", was his
ominous farewell to Metternich.
The political proposals made by Austria were that Poland (Grand Duchy of Warsaw)
and part of Germany (Confederation of the Rhine) should be abolished, and the
Illirian Provinces should be restored to Austria, and that Prussia should be replaced
in a position as good as that which she had in 1805. Napoleon couldn't accept these
terms and even Wellington's victory at Vittoria, while it encouraged the Allies, could
not break down his obstinacy.
Metternich had asked Schwarzenberg whether a prolongation of the armistice would
be of advantage to the Allies, and if so, how long a prolongation would be required.
Schwarzenberg had replied that in 20 days the army would be increased by 75,000
men and that, if the armistice was prolonged until then, that would be sufficient. It
was one of the reasons the armistice was extended to 10 August. During the armistice
Allied negotiations finally brought Austria out in open opposition to Napoleon and
Austria declared war on France.
In exile Napoleon admitted that agreeing to armistice in 1813 was one of the worst
decisions of his life.
The anti-French coalition was born during the armistice. Britain signed treaties with
Russia and Prussia and pledged strong financial support and trades subsidies. Allies
had the time to recover from the shock of two defeats. Sweden and Austria joined the
Allies.
Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich (1773-1859)
Metternich was one of the best diplomats of his day.
When Napoleon suffered his catastrophic reverse in Russia in 1812,
Metternich extracted Austria from this alliance, reverted to neutrality,
and soon maneuvered his country into the position of arbiter of Europe.
.
Allies' masterful plan (or "a pack of hounds bringing down a stag.")
Allies' plan advocated avoiding direct engagement with Napoleon.
Consequently the Allies planned to defeat his marshals separately,
and thus weaken his army.
Lutzen and Bautzen were the last opportunities for Napoleon to defeat the Allies in
one battle.
After the armistice they operated in three large armies:
- Army of the North under Bernadotte
- Army of Silesia under Blucher
- Army of Bohemia under Schwarzenberg
which were more difficult to engage and destroy in one battle.
Allies' new plan (called the Trachenberg Plan) advocated avoiding direct engagement
with Napoleon. This resulted from fear of the Emperor's legendary prowess in battle.
The plan was the work of the Austrian chief of staff, Radetzky. Consequently the
Allies planned to engage and defeat his marshals separately, and thus weaken his
army. It was decided upon after a series of defeats and near disasters by the Coalition
at Napoleon's hands at the battles of Lutzen and Bautzen.
"Though the Trachenberg Plan and its operational implementation were well
considered, allied operation plans were not exclusively dictated by military
considerations. The deployment of three separate armies, for instance, not only served
the military purpose of a concentric advance, it also satisfied national interests: the
Army of North protected Berlin, the Army of Silesia shielded Russian communications
with Poland; the Army of Bohemia guarded the approaches to Prague and Vienna."
(Claus Telp - "The evolution of operational art, 1740-1813: from Frederick the Great to
Napoleon")
The Trachenberg Plan had exasperated the emperor.
His young troops marched and countermarched across Germany, exhausting their
meager resources. The emperor was so busy reacting to Allies maneubvers that he
had no time to implement his own strategy. He looked like a tiger "surrounded by
hunters, he was half bewildered, and unable to make up his mind to do more than
make short dashes, first on one part, then on another, of the circle that was steadily
closing in on him." (- F L Petre)
Graf Radetzky, author of the Trachenberg Plan.
From 1809 to 1812, as chief of the staff, Radetzky was active in
the reorganization of the Austrian army and its tactical system.
He was however unable to carry out the reforms he desired owing
to the strong opposition of the Treasury, he resigned the post.
In 1811 he was a member of the Military Administrative Depart.
and proposed that the chief-of-staffs role should be prioritised,
taking charge of all staff officers and the various branches, each
of which was directed by its own head of department.
.
The war resumes, on to Dresden !
Rapid marches were the order of the day,
and skirmishes were of almost continuous
occurrence.
The strategic situation after armistice was as follow: Bernadotte's Army of the North
(100,000 Russians, Prussians, and Swedes) stood near Berlin, Blucher's Army of Silesia
(100,000 Russians and Prussians) was in the east, in Silesia. Meanwhile the main
Russian army moved into Bohemia and joined the Austrian army where they formed
the powerful Army of Bohemia (250,000 men). The Russian army called the Army of
Poland (50,000 men) was moving west from the Grand Duchy of Warsaw.
Napoleon was in Gorlitz and planned to seize the initiative.
He sent 75,000 men under Marshal Oudiont to the north to attack the hesitant
Bernadotte and take Berlin, and Marshal Macdonald's 100,000 men against the
aggressive Blucher. Napoleon planned to concentrate the remaining 125,000 men in
the south, as he expected the Army of Bohemia to cross the mountains, enter Saxony,
and move on Dresden and Leipzig.
Baron de Marbot, writes: "... the Emperor ... on hearing that the combined army of the
allies, some 200,000 strong, commanded by Prince Schwartzenberg, had just emerged
on the 22nd from the mountains of Bohemia and was heading for Saxony, Napoleon,
taking his Guard as well as the cavalry of Latour-Maubourg and several divisions of
infantry hastened by forced marches to Dresden, where Marshal Saint-Cyr had shut
himself in with the troops he had hurriedly withdrawn from the camp at Pirna. On
leaving Silesia the Emperor told Marshal Ney to follow him." Rapid marches were the
order of the day, and skirmishes were of almost continuous occurrence.
The Russian army.
Strategic situation on 26 August and movements since the armistice.
The Allies had hoped to capture Dresden, Napoleon's base of operations and supply depot.
The city and the field of battle.
In Dresden the French and Westphalian soldiers had barricades erected
on various major streets and redoubts outside the suburbs. The bridges
were raised every night and all the boats on the river were locked up.
The gates to the suburbs were blocked up.
Dresden, where the Emperor stayed, was the pivot for his army.
Dresden lies in a broad, open valley, astride of the Elbe River. In that times Dresden
was one of the largest (30,000 inhabitants) and wealthiest cities in Europe. It was the
capital and residence for the Kings of Saxony who for centuries furnished the city
with extraordinary cultural and artistic splendor.
The Old City was enclosed by the wall but the suburbs had already extended beyond
it. The walls of the Old City had by 1813 been partially dismantled. The New City, on
the other hand, was in a better condition for defence. Several fresh forts had been
built and several other fortifications were still incomplete and the Pirna Ditch was not
properly excavated.
The Redoubts I, II, III were out of sight of one another and incapable of mutual
support. Approx. 300 paces in front of Redbout IV there was a large building, in
which the Allies could take cover. This building was not destroyed and it was a
serious mistake made by the French engineers. Napoleon ordered that the Pirna Gate
be reinforced by a ditch filled with water, the seven gates to the suburbs and all the
gates in the garden walls blocked up.
The French and Westphalian soldiers had barricades erected on various major streets
and 13 redoubts of various size and strength outside the suburbs. Five redoubts stood
on the left and eight on the right bank of the Elbe River. Each redoubt had 1 gun and
an unit of infantry. All trees around the redoubts were cut down.
The bridges were raised every night and all the boats on the river were locked up.
The Grand Garden stretched for some 2,000 paces on a level ground. It was on the
flank of any advance against the city. For this reason it can be considered as the key
to Dresden.
The country between Grand Garden and the river was only slightly undulating. The
large wood near Blasewitz was on the edge of the battlefield and thus of little tactical
importance. Within 1,000 paces of the southern suburb the ground begins to rise to
the line of hills.
PS.
Dresden was both an important garrison as well as a centre of military industry
during the Second World War. The controversial Allied (Anglo-American) bombing of
Dresden, plus 40 years in the Soviet bloc state of East Germany, changed the face of
the city. Dresden has undergone significant reconstruction in recent years . In 2005, Dresden was host to the
largest Neo-Nazi demonstration (8,000 participants !) in the post-war history of Germany mourning what
they call the "Allied bomb-holocaust". (ext.link)
Map of Dresden and fortifications in 1813.
French army at Dresden in August 1813.
French order of battle (ordre de bataille)
The commander of the French army at Dresden was Napoleon. Marshal
Louis Alexandre Berthier (1753-1815) was his chief of staff. Berthier
directed the Staff, which had several distinct sections and departments,
each dealing with a well defined area of responsibility, such as troop
movements and intelligence, personnel and records, and legal affairs,
plus special staffs for each arm of service. Berthier' s incredible accuracy
combined with his mastery of detail made him the ideal chief of staff to
commander like Napoleon. He was arguably the best chief of staff in
Europe in that times.
After the disastrous campaign in Russia the quality and the quantity of Freench cavalry was low. There were too many young
soldiers, hastily trained, and hardly 10-20 % of the officers were classed as capable. Retired officers had been recalled, many
old NCOs had been promoted lieutenants. Nearly 80 % of the new cavalrymen had never ridden a horse.
The young infantrymen were no better. Camille Rousset gives the following as a common type of report on inspection: "Some
of the men are of rather weak appearance. The battalion had no idea of manouveruring; but 9/10 of the men can manage and
load their muskets passably." Only the Old Guard was made of veterans, with some of them being survivors of the disastrous
retreat from Russia in 1812. Their faces evoked the grim business of war.
The French artillery however was excellent and its numerous pieces left the young cavalrymen and infantrymen feeling a great
deal of excitement and confidence. The were also united in the belief that under the immediate eye of their Emperor they were
invincible. Officer Jean Barres, writes, "Our young conscripts behaved very well (at the battle of Lutzen); not one left the ranks;
on the contrary, some that we had left behind, sick, came to take their places. One of our buglers, a boy of 16, was of the
number. He had a thigh carried away by a ball and died at the rear of the company. These poor children, when they were
wounded but still able to walk, used to come to me to ask to leave the company to get their wounds dressed;... My company
was disorganized; it had lost half its sergeants and corporals ... (but) we were confident in the genius of the Emperor ... And
this presumption, which nothing could overturn, reassured us as to the issue of this war." (Barres - "Memoirs of a French
napoleonic officer ..." )
Marmont's VI Army Corps was one of the best corps at Dresden. Jean Barres writes, "On the 10th August the army corps was
united in a wide plain and reviewed by its commander, Marshal the Duc de Ragusa, who, in full uniform, cloak, and hat in the
style of (King) Henri IV, with his marshal's truncheon in his hand, passed before the front line of each corps. After this review
there were some large maneuvres and a general march past. The army corps, composed of three divisions [Compans, Bonnet,
Friederich] was remarkably fine and full of enthusiasm."
ABBREVIATIONS:
Col. = Colonel
btns. = battalions
sq. = squadrons
INFANTRY of IMPERIAL GUARD
MdE Ney "The Bravest of the Brave" (picture)
and the giant MdE Mortier "The Mortar"
CAVALRY of IMPERIAL GUARD
GdD Nansouty (1768-1815)
A good, level headed and tactically sound commander.
He was a man of tradition, education and exactitude.
"His disposition was mordant ... " (- John Elting, p 162)
I Young Guard Corps - MdE Mortier
- - 1st Young Guard Infantry Division - GdD Dumoustier [12 btns. and 24 guns]
- - 2nd Young Guard Infantry Division - GdD Barrois . . . [12 btns. and 24 guns]
II Young Guard Corps - MdE Ney
- - 3rd Young Guard Infantry Division - GdD Decouz . . . [12 btns. and 24 guns]
- - 4th Young Guard Infantry Division - GdD Roguet . . . .[12 btns. and 24 guns]
Old Guard
- - Old Guard Infantry Division - GdD Friant . . . . . . . . . [10 btns. and 8 guns]
Guard Cavalry Corps - GdD Nansouty
- - 1st Guard Cavalry Division - [18 sq. and 6 guns] 1.
- - 2nd Guard Cavalry Division - [10 sq. and 6 guns] 2.
- - 3rd Guard Cavalry Division - [22 sq. and 12 guns] 3.
.
.
.
.
NOTES.
1. GdD Ornano (squadrons: 10 Red Lancers, 5 Berg Lancers, 2 Young Guard)
2. GdD Lefebvre-Desnouettes (squadrons: 10 Young Guard)
3. GdD Walther (squadrons: 18 Old Guard, 4 Young Guard)
FIRST LINE
MdE St. Cyr "The Owl"
RESERVE CAVALRY
"The icy intelectual ... He was never the man to seize a flag and rally a broken
line.
(Instead, he might threaten to turn his artillery on a wavering regiment if it
let the
enemy pass!) ... His leadership was cerebral - cautious calculations, then a
thrust to
the enemy's vitals." (- Elting, pp 148-149)
MdE Murat "The First Saber of Europe"
"Order Murat to attack and destroy 4,000 or 5,000 men in such or such a
direction,
it was done in a flash. But left to himself he was an imbecile, without
judgement."
- Napoleon. Napoleon also complained that he needed women like he needed
food.
XIV Army Corps _ MdE St.Cyr [21,000 men]
- - 43rd Infantry Division - GdD Claparede . [13 btns. and 16 guns]
- - 44th Infantry Division - GdD Berthezene .[12 btns. and 16 guns]
- - 45th Infantry Division - GdD Razout . . . . [12 btns. and 8 guns]
- - 10th Light Cavalry Division - GdD Pajol . [12 sq.] 1.
- - Artillery Reserve
Other troops:
- - Infantry Division - GdD Teste . . . . . . . . . [12 btns. and 8 guns]
- - Garrison of Dresden - GdD Durosnel . . . . [8 btns.] 2.
In the night arrived:
MdE Victor
II Army Corps - MdE Victor [25,000 men]
- - 4th Infantry Division - GdD Dubreton
- - 5th Infantry Division - GdD Dufour
- - 6th Infantry Division - GdD Vial
- - Cavalry Reserve
MdE Marmont
VI Army Corps - MdE Marmont [27,00 men]
- - 20th Infantry Division - GdD Compans
- - 21st Infantry Division - GdD Lagrande
- - 22nd Infantry Division - GdD Frederichs
- - Cavalry Reserve
I Cavalry Corps - GdD Latour-Maubourg
- - 3rd Light Cavalry Division - GdD Chastel . . . . .[13 sq.] 3.
- - 1st Heavy Cavalry Division - GdD Bordesoulle . [22 sq.] 4.
- - 3rd Heavy Cavalry Division - GdD Doumerc . . [19 sq.] 5.
- - Horse Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[35 guns] 6.
V Cavalry Corps - GdD L'Heritier
- - 9th Light Cavalry Division - GdB Klicki . . . . . . [4 sq.] 7.
- - 5th Dragoon Division - GdB Collaert . . . . . . . . .[7 sq.]
- - 6th Dragoon Division - GdB Lamotte . . . . . . . . .[5 sq.]
- - Horse Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[6 guns]
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
NOTES.
1. 4 squadrons of French, 4 squadrons of Polish Vistula Uhlans, and 4 Italian squadrons
2. 4 battalions of Young Guard, 3 Westphalian, and 1 Saxon
3. 13 squadrons of French chasseurs
4. 14 squadrons of French cuirassier and 8 squadrons of Saxon heavy cavalry
5. 6 squadrons of French cuirassier, 9 squadrons of French dragoons, and 4 squadrons of Italian dragoons
6. 24 French, 5 Saxon, and 6 Westphalian guns
7. all 4 were French chasseurs
~
Allies army at Dresden in August 1813.
Allies order of battle (ordre de bataille)
Three Allied monarchs were present at Dresden: Tzar
Alexander I of Russia, Kaiser Francis of Austria, and King
Frederick William III of Prussia. The most influential of the
three was Tzar Alexander.
The commander in chief of the allied armies was Austrian
Field Marshal Schwarzenberg. He had a great political tact
and was able to command a multinational army with 3
monarchs present in his headquarters. "As the commander
of a great alliance he faced major problems, but managed to
maintain the common cause through bad times as well as good." (- David
Chandler)
Schwarzenberg writes, "It is really inhuman what I must tolerate and bear,
surrounded as I am by fools, eccentric projectors, intriguers, asses,
babblers, and niggling critics. Vermin in countless number gnaw at me and torment me to the very marrow of my bones."
The Russians at Dresden were under the command of GoI Barclay de Tolly.
His Chief-of-Staff was GL Ivan Sabaneiev, Chief-of-Artillery GL Yahvill,
and the Chief-of-Engineers was GM Sievers.
.

Commander-in-Chief: Schwarzenberg (Austrian)

Chief-of-Staff: Radetzky (Austrian)
L E F T
(Austrians)
Schwarzenberg (Eisenhower of XIX Century :-)
R I G H T
(Russians and Prussians)
Wittgenstein "The Savior of St.Petersburg"
III Corps - Giulay
- - - 1st Light Division - Crenneville . . . . . . [5 btns, 10 sq, 6 guns] 1.
- - - 1st Infantry Division - Weissenwolf . . . .[14 btns and 18 guns]
- - - 2nd Infantry Division - A. Liechtenstein [12 btns and 18 guns]
IV Corps - Klenau
- - - 3rd Light Division - Mesko . . . . . . . . . .[3 btns, 10 sq, 6 guns] 2.
Reserve Corps - Hessen Homburg
- - - 1st Light Division - Liechtenstein . . . . . . [4 btns, 12 sq, 14 guns] 3.
- - - 1st Infantry Division - Colloredo . . . . . . .[12 btns and 18 guns]
- - - 2nd Infantry Division - Civalarth . . . . . . [12 btns and 18 guns]
- - - Reserve Division - Bianchi . . . . . . . . . . . [12 btns and 18 guns]
- - - Grenadier Division - Chasteler . . . . . . . .[8 btns and 12 guns]
- - - Cavalry Division - Schneller . . . . . . . . . .[16 sq.] 4.
- - - Cuirassier Division - Nostitz . . . . . . . . . .[16 sq.] 5.
Reserve Artillery - Anton v.Reisner or Riese [36 guns] 6.
.
.
.
- - - Advance Guard Division - Roth . . [12 btns and 12 guns] 7.
I (Russian) Corps - Prince Gorchakov
- - - 5th Infantry Division - Mesentzov [10 btns and 14 guns] 8.
II (Prussian) Corps - von Kleist
- - - 9th Brigade - Klux . . . . . . . . . . . . [10 btns, 4 sq, 8 guns] 9.
- - - 10th Brigade - Pirch . . . . . . . . . . . [10 btns, - sq, 8 guns] 10.
- - - 11th Brigade - Ziethen . . . . . . . . . [10 btns, 4 sq, 8 guns] 11.
- - - 12th Brigade - Prinz v.Preussen . . [10 btns, 4 sq, 8 guns] 12.
- - - Reserve Cavalry - Roeder . . . . . . .[28 sq, 16 guns] 13.
- - - Reserve Artillery - Mjr. Lehmann .[64 guns] 14.
Reinforcements:
Barclay de Tolly
(Russian) Grenadiers Corps - GL Raievski
- - - 1st Grenadier Division - Choglokov
.
.
.
.
(Russian) Guard Infantry Corps - GL Yermolov
- - - 2nd Guard Infantry Division - Udom
(Russian) Guard Cavalry Corps - GL Prince Galitzin
- - - 1st 'Guard' Cuirassier Division
- - - 2nd Cuirassier Division
- - - 3rd Cuirassier Division
- - - Guard Light Cavalry Division
(Prussian) Royal Guard
- - - Cavalry Brigade
NOTES.
Austrians:
1. 5 Grenzer battalions, 10 chevaulegere squadrons, and 6 light 3pdrs cannons
2. 3 Grenzer battalions, 10 hussar squadrons, and 6 light 3pdrs cannons
3. 1 Grenzer and 3 jager battalions, 12 chevaulegere squadrons, and 14 guns
4. 8 chevaulegere and 8 hussar squadrons
5. 16 cuirassier squadrons
6. 18 heavy 12pdrs and 18 medium 6pdrs
Russians & Prussians:
7. 10 jager and 2 infantry battalions, 12 medium guns
8. 2 jager and 8 infantry battalions, 12 medium and 12 heavy guns
9. 6 infantry and 4 Landwehr battalions, 8 guns, 2 coys Schutzen, 4 dragoon squadrons
10. 6 infantry and 4 Landwehr battalions, 8 guns
11. 6 infantry and 4 Landwehr battalions, 8 guns, 2 coys Schutzen, 4 hussar squadrons
12. 6 infantry and 4 Landwehr battalions, 8 guns, 4 Landwehr squadrons
13. 12 cuirassier, 4 uhlan, 2 hussar, 6 national and 4 Landwehr squadrons, 16 guns
14. 16 12pdr cannons, 40 6pdr cannons, 8 howitzers

Map of Battle of Dresden 1813. Day One.
Day One.
Allies received news of Napoleon's arrival, and they
again changed their minds and ordered withdrawal.
It was too late however, their troops were already
engaged along the entire front line.
Schwarzenberg planned to attack Dresden on 26 August, but he was plagued by hesitation.
The French three divisions under Sty.Cyr had not stood out on the plain before the city, as
anticipated. The French took cover behind the redoubts and city-wall.
Tzar Alexander and General Jomini advocated a withdrawal to a strong position near
Dippoldiswalde and menace Napoleon's line of communications. The King of Prussia
however argued for an attack on Dresden. The battle was to begin at 3 AM in early
morning.
Meanwhile the Allies received news of Napoleon's arrival to Dresden they again changed
their minds and ordered withdrawal. It was too late however, their troops were already
engaged along the entire front line. Had the Allies acted quicker they would have
overwhelmed the French but they were slow to act. The fresh French forces were reported
advancing on Dresden.
Open fields intervened on both sides, unobstructed by trees, except the wood on allies right
flank, and the few trees along the roads behind which skirmishers took positions. In very
early morning the Allies and French pickets exchanged their first shots.
.
The battle begins.
The early attacks spread the greatest alarm
among the inhabitants "on account of alleged
ill-treatment of Russian and Prussian prisoners."
"The first of the allies to attack were the Prussians advancing from the south against the
nearest part of the Grosser Garten (Grand Garden). The French had evacuated Strehlen at 4
AM, an hour before Ziethen, supported by Pirch, moved from it against the Grosser
Garten. The Prussians made but slow progress, and it was only as Roth, with the Russian
advanced guard, came to their assistance, by attacking the north-eastern corner of the
garden, that they were able to push slowly forward." (Petre - "Napoleon's last campaign in
Germany" p 200, publ. 1977)
At 7:30 AM Russians under Roth and Mesentzev have attacked between the Grand Garden
and the Elbe River. The French artillery (on the right bank) however inflicted on Mesentzev
heavy casualties and forced him to fall back.
Meanwhile the Prussians already fighting for 2-3 hours had only mastered half of the
Grand Garden. Roth's Russians and the Prussians pushed together and took the palace in
its centre. Then the Russians deployed a strong battery near the WindMill. They were
however unable to make further progress due to the stubborness of the French defenders.
The early attacks spread the greatest alarm among the inhabitants "on account of alleged
ill-treatment of Russian and Prussian prisoners."
At 6 AM the Austrian Grenzer battalions attacked sheep pens, customs house, and the
powder mill. After two hours fight the Grenzers found themselves completely mixed on
the field.
At 9 AM [Austrian] Beaulieu Infantry Regiment and two foot batteries moved forward to
take Friedrichstadt, but had to retire after fired off all their ammunition.
Prussian infantry in 1812-13
.
Three hour lull in battle.
Operations up to noon were confined to an artillery duel
and after that only the skirmishers exchanged shots.
At 11 AM a pause came to the fighting. Eight companies of Grenzers then moved against
Redoubt IV in skirmish order. Several officers were killed and wounded, with a number of
the rank and file. The advance against the redoubt failed due to artillery fire. The Austrians
however captured the large building in front of the redoubt, while the French artillery
failed to set it on fire.
No further attempts were made by the Allies before the general lull in the battle, which
began about noon. Operations up to noon were confined to an artillery duel. The situation
was this; the Russians and Prussians held more than half of the Grand Garden. In the
centre no progress was made against the three redoubts (III, IV, V). On the extreme left,
Meszko's division had met with little opposition and had succeeded in getting as far as the
Elbe River.
The Tzar of Russia and the King of Prussia stood, about 11 AM on a hill in company with
Generals Jomini and Moreau, and their staff. (The Swiss general, Jomini, had been Ney's
chief of staff before deserting to the Russians just before the end of the armistice.) They saw
the stream of French troops hurrying to Dresden and discussed what to do next.
Wittgenstein
At Dresden he commanded the right flank of allied army.
His troops (Kleist's Prussians and Gorchakov's Russians)
attacked the Grand Garden and the Redoubts I and I I .
Wittgenstein was nicknamed the Savior of St.Petersburg" for
his victory at Polotsk in 1812 over General St.Cyr. The same
St.Cyr he is facing now at Dresden.
In 1813 Napoleon defeated him at Lutzen and Bautzen and
Wittgenstein handed over the command to Barclay de Tolly
.
Napoleon arrives with reinforcements.
The soldiers began to say "There is Napoleon.
Things will soon be very different."
Leaving Stolpem in his carriage at 5 AM, the Emperor had mounted his horse as soon as he
came in sight of Dresden from the hills above. He stopped near the city to watch the
advance of Mesentzev's and Roth's Russians and to direct more cannons on them. Then he
galloped into Dresden, paid a visit to the King of Saxony and hurried off to inspect the
fortifications.
Napoleon appeared in the city between 9 and 10 AM. As he passed, the infantry of St.Cyr's
corps (three infantry divisions) and the city garrison greeted him with mounting
enthusiasm. Everyone made an effort to get close enough to see HIM, for many young
soldiers, it was their first sight of the commander in chief since the last battle. The soldiers
began to say "There is Napoleon. Things will soon be very different." The people no longer
talked about abandoning their homes and escaping across the Elbe River.
The Emperor approved the dispositions made by St. Cyr. They met each other between 11
and 12 AM, on the French left. Napoleon then rode along the defences towards the right.
He toured the French lines to survey the Russian, Prussian and Austrian positions. The
Emperor was unhappy with the fact that the large building in front of Redoubt IV was
captured by the Allies. He ordered St.Cyr to retake it. The battalion sent for the purpose
suceeded for a moment, but was driven out again.
Napoleon then took his position at near the stone bridge, watching the arrival of his troops
and directing them to their posts in the line. Infantry division under Teste arrived first, and
was sent to Friedrichstadt. All the redoubts were reinforced with artillery. For example
Redoubt IV was equipped with a 12pdr battery. The battle-hardened veterans of the Old
Guard were chaffing at their inaction and longing for the time when they might come to
close quarters with the enemy. Seeing this Napoleon sent small detachments of the Old
Guard (25 men each) to defend the street barricades.
At 2 PM arrived Marshal Murat with the powerful I Cavalry Corps under Latour-
Maubourg. Napoleon directed him on the French right where stood Teste's infantry and
Pajol's cavalry divisions. Murat took command over Teste, Pajol (46 squadrons), and
Latour-Maubourg (78 squadrons).
After 3 PM came Marshals Mortier and Ney with the I and II Infantry Corps of Young
Guard. Mortier was sent to the the Pirna suburb on the left, while Ney took position behind
the Redoubt IV in the center.
The four or five regiments of Old Guard infantry were distributed as follow: one or two
remained in the city as the last reserve, one was sent to Pirna suburb on the left, one in the
centre, and one to Freiberg suburb on the right.
The Old Guard and the Young Guard were physically exhausted after long marches in the
last 72 hours. Napoleon kept the roads for his artillery and the heavy ammunition wagons
while the infantry and cavalry marched alongside of them, on a broad front across the
country.
Napoleon arriving at Dresden between 9 and 10 AM.
As he passed, the French infantrymen and the inhabitants of Dresden
greeted him with mounting enthusiasm. The people no longer talked
about abandoning their homes and escaping across the Elbe River.
.
The battle restarts at 3 PM.
The Austrians attacked in the center and captured Redoubt III.
Their attacks on Redoubts IV and V were less successful.
At 3 P.M. the three prearanged signal guns were fired. The grand roar followed from the
guns of both armies. Pillars of milky smoke drifted in clouds over the fields. After a gun
discharged and recoiled, the crew grabbed hold of the wheels, and pushed it back to its
previous spot. It was hard work; the guns and the ammunition were heavy. As a spectacle,
the fire from the several kilometers of batteries, stretching from one flank to anorther, was
appalling; but practically the fire was too high, and most of the damage was done behind
the first line.
Once the shells began to burst in all directions in the suburb the citizens became very
alarmed and rushed for safety in the cellars. Many houses were in flames.
Napoleon was informed that the Allies appeared to be preparing for a general attack.
He mounted his charger, left the city, and rode to the front.
The artillery fire was followed immediately by the advance of numerous Austrian columns
in the center. Some Austrian and Russian guns were pushed forward with them. As some
of the columns advanced against the Moszczynski Garden and Redoubt III, they found
their movement facilitated by a ditch. They were then decimated by the French artillery
positioned in the redoubt and on either side of it. The whitecoats (the Austrians wore
white uniforms) wavered and then halted.
Then out of a sudden the redoubt was silent. The supply of ammunition had given out.
Seizing their opportunity, the whitecoats dashed forward, mounting the parapet of the
redoubt and engaging in a bayonet fight with the French, who were nearly all killed or
wounded before the remains at last retreated and sought shelter in the garden behind. The
Austrians followed them and nearly got possession of the little garden.
The French reserves furiously counterattacked. Several hundred whitecoats, "hemmed in
against the walls by the French reserves, were compelled to surrender. So desperate was
the fighting in this part that it is said that in Redoubt III alone 180 French and 344 Austrian
dead were found in the evening, after its recapture." (Loraine Petre - "Napoleon's Last
Campaign in Germany 1813")
Allies's artillery fire wrought such havoc on the defenders of Redoubt IV that 96 of its
garrison were either killed or wounded. As the whitecoats rushed forward from the large
building in front of the redoubt, the French reserves left the city and drove them back to
their starting point.
The two attacks from the tiny Kohlers Garden on Redoubt V likewise failed before the fire
of the French.
Beyond Weisseritz River General Bianchi was met by fire from the French batteries
deployed in front of Friedrichstadt and by flanking fire from Redoubt V. Meszko's
(Austrian) Light Division reached the Elbe but then fell back to avoid being cut off by
French, Polish and Italian cavalry.
Austrian infantry at Dresden.
Then out of a sudden the redoubt was silent. The supply of ammunition had given out.
Seizing their opportunity, the whitecoats dashed forward, mounting the parapet of the
redoubt and engaging in a bayonet fight with the French.
Austrian jagers captured French redoubt.
.
Fighting along the Elbe River.
The attacking Russian infantry suffered from
30 French guns situated on the right bank.
One battery of Old Guard Horse Artillery
almost annihilated the leading jager unit.
At 4 PM Wittgenstein began his advance on Allies extreme right flank. Wittgenstein
commanded Gorchakov's Russians and Kleist's Prussians. The Russians got little beyond
the Wind Mill and pushed close to Redoubt II. They suffered however from 30 French guns
situated on the right bank and those in the Redoubt I. GM Mezentzov's 5th Infantry
Division (7,350 men and 24 guns) was then thrown back by a horse battery of Old Guard
and the infantry of Young Guard. The battery was deployed near the redoubt and almost
annihilated the leading jager unit.
Kleist's Prussians advanced against the Moszczynski Garden, situated near the center of
French positions, but gave way before the artillery and musket fire. The French 44th
Infantry Division broke out from the suburb compelling Kleist to rapidly fall back.
Wittgenstein then counterattacked with 6 battalions (he led them personally) but the Young
Guard inflicted heavy casualties on them. The greencoats were pursued until Striesen.
Artillery duel set the village afire.
French gunner by Keith Rocco, USA.
Russian infantry suffered from 30 French guns
situated on the right bank of Elbe, near the city.
.
Battle for the Grand Garden.
The Russians and Prussians passed through Grand Garden
and stormed Redoubt #2. Then the sound of military music
came out of the city. The cheerful Young Guard was coming.
The French counterattacked and recaptured half of the garden.
The beautiful Grand Garden was an oblong area and covered about 1,5 km and has been
established in 1676. Ways and avenues were styled in symmetric muster. For pictures of
the garden click here (ext. links)
The Grand Garden was defended by one infantry division from Marshal St.Cyr's XIV Army
Corps. This division (43rd) was under the brave General Michel Claparede. He
distinguished himself at Hohenlinden (1800), took part in the failed expedition to Santo
Domingo, fought at Austerlitz (1805), Jena (1806) and Ostroleka (1807), and was promoted
to general of division in 1808. Claparede distinguished himself in 1809 at Aspern-Essling
and Wagram , and in 1812 the Borodino where he commanded the Polish elite unit, the
Vistula Legion. His name is engraved on the Arc de Triomphe.
Claparede's 43rd Infantry Division had 13 infantry battalions and two artillery batteries of
8 guns each.
These troops were deployed as follow:
- six battalions stood behind the garden, not far from Redoubt II. They formed Claparede's
reserve.
- seven battalions were in the garden itself. They were formed in narrow columns and
occupied strategic points (ways, avenues, intersections, and the palace) and were ready to
counterattack. They also sent out their skirmishers to the edge of the garden. These men
took cover behind bushes and trees.
General Kleist's Prussian 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th Brigade, and Reserve Cavalry advanced
against the Grand Garden. Two Prussian heavy batteries and one howitzer battery were
pushed forward a few hundred paces. The Prussian infantry advanced in good formation,
drums beating, skirmishers extended. The daylight sparkled on metal. Instinct told their
leading echelons that the quicker they moved towards the enemy, the less time the French
would have to fire. With the support of artillery three Prussian infantry brigades (total of
30 battalions) stormed the garden and even reached Redoubt II.
In about the same time the Austrians began their own assault, on the other flank, against
Redoubt III.
As the Prussian attack rolled forward the sound of military music came out of the city
suburbs. It was a division of the Young Guard (12 battalions). The French cannons boomed.
Seeing some of the Prussians falling back, the young soldiers ran, trampling the dead and
wounded. The French attacked Pirch's Brigade and threw it back with heavy losses. The
percentage of losses in killed and wounded in the spearheading French units, taken as a
whole, was not extraordinary for the Napoleonic battle.
At 4 PM Roth's Russian Advance Guard attacked the Grand Garden. Roth had 20th, 21st,
24th, 25th, and 26th Jagers, and the Selenguinsk Infantry Regiment. The spearheading unit
was the 24th Jagers. Roth's force (7,450 men) passed through the Grand Garden and at 5
PM stormed Redoubt II.
The Young Guard led by Marshal Mortier (Dumoustier's and Barrois' divisions, total of 24
battalions) moved out of the Pirna Suburb and counterattacked. Two battalions of Old
Guard followed them. Roth was violently pushed back and the French recaptured half of
the garden. Despite having superiority in numbers (60 vs 40 battalions) the Allies were
unable to capture the garden, not to mention the redoubt.
The Grand Garden was on the flank of ANY advance against the city.
For this reason it can be considered as the key to Dresden battlefield.
.
Fighting in the center.
Austrian howitzers caused a lot of damage and the
suburbs were in danger of bursting into flames.
At 4 PM 72 Austrian guns opened intense fire. Their target were Redoubts III, IV, and V,
and the city walls. Two French batteries couldn't take it, limbered up and withdrew.
Especially Austrian howitzers caused a lot of damage and the suburbs were in danger of
bursting into flames.
Liechtenstein's 1st Light Division (4,600 men and 12 horse guns) and Colloredo's 1st
Infantry Division (13,800 men and 6 guns) advanced forward. Although the 1st Light
Division was numerically weak it consisted of fine troops: three jager and one Grenzer
battalions, Vincent and Emperor's Chevauxlegeres, and two horse batteries. These light
troops were greeted by French 27th Light Infantry with musket volleys.
"... the two battalions [1st and 2nd Jagers] moved through a hail of canister and musketry
fire, leapt into the ditch, climbed over the palisades and into the breastworls, where they
captured 6 cannons about 5 PM. By 5 PM, a heavy musketry battle had begun from the
barricades to the city spitting fire into the advancing allies. The French had been obliged to
evacuate Redoubt #3, after firing off all their cartridges and withdrew behind the
Machzinsky Gardens and encountered an 8 foot high wall. The passage through the wall
was defended by a ditch and palisade.
The French stood in this strong position and fired volley after volley, into the advancing
Austrians. The Austrians fell back, regrouped and advanced again to storm the wall. A
position battery was placed 200 paces from the palisade and began firing. The jagers
pushed into the French position, but were pushed out before too long." (- George Nafziger)
The Austrians were unable to gain more ground and were repulsed by the Grenadiers of
Old Guard and the Fusiliers of the Middle Guard.
Austrian generals and staff officers.
Picture by Giuseppe Rava, Italy
.
On the flank.
Austrian howitzer shell landed in the redoubt
and chased out the French infantry.
At 4 PM arrived Weissenwolf's [Austrian] 2nd Infantry Division and its artillery pounded
Redoubt V. Austrian infantrymen, massed behind the artillery, could tell from the
movement of the couriers that the moment was about to arrive when they would begin
marching toward the French positions.
First, the Austrian Grenzers were ordered to charge the Redoubt IV, which they did, and
drove the French for some distance. Two Austrian heavy batteries were moved forward.
Soon all the French gunners in the redoubt were killed and wounded.
A howitzer shell landed in the redoubt and chased out the French infantry. The Austrians
enetered the fieldwork before a single company of 2nd Chasseurs of Old Guard stromed
into the redoubt and drove them out.
Emperor's (Kaiser) Infantry Regiment of Weissenwolf's division, stormed Lobtau inflicting
heavy losses on the French. The whitecoats also occupied the hill by the customs house.
Austrian (Hungarian) infantry in 1813.
.
Cavalry battle.
The French and Polish cavalry, with a shout
as though pandemonium had broken loose,
sprang forward to the charge.
The French deployed 35 guns before Friedrichstadt. Behind them stood Murat's powerful
cavalry and two divisions of the Young Guard. These forces were joined by Teste's 23rd
Infantry Division, Razout's 45th Infantry Division, and Pajol's 10th Light Cavalry Division.
Encouraged by such show of force the French 21st Line Infantry attempted to dislodge
Emperor's (Kaiser) Infantry from Lobtau.
There was a sharp artillery duel for about 10-20 minutes, when the French and Polish
cavalry, with a shout as though pandemonium had broken loose on that part of the line,
sprang forward to the charge. Murat's cavalry passed Lobtau and struck the enemy with
full force.
It seems necessary to emphasize the fact that Murat carried but a portion of his cavalry
with him (some heavy cavalry and Pajol's 10th Light Cavalry Division. The cavalry
formation was led by 4 squadrons of the famous Vistula Uhlans. The Poles routed 2
squadrons of Palatinal Hussars, but during pursuit were counterattacked by Kienmayer
Hussars (6 squadrons) and driven back. Kienmayer Hussars were then counterattacked by
Italian and French squadrons.
The rest of Murat's cavalry hit Meszko's 3rd Light Division and Weissenwolf's Infantry
Division. Some French cavalrymen reached the line of Austrian cannons when they were
charged by enemy's cavalry, and a fight began, which lasted only a short time. While the
infantry delivered musket volleys O'Reilly Chevauxlegeres charged and drove some French
cavalry back. Meanwhile the Saxon heavy cavalry unoppossed by any cavalry created
havoc, they cut to pieces one battalion of the Manfredini Infantry Regiment, and then went
after the gunners.
Saxon heavy cavalry.
The heavy Saxons cut to pieces one battalion
of the Manfredini Infantry Regiment,and then
went after the Austrian gunners.
.
Before the storm.
"All (French) were laughing and cheery,
as if about to get some fete ... "
The suburbs were full of French infantry, ready to counterattack at a moment's notice.
"Amongst these troops the bursting shells produced only a feeling of exhilaration and
eagerness. They were to fight under the immediate command of a leader whom they still
believed to be invincible. ... "Aster tells a curious story of a (French) battery which received
orders to be ready to move into the fighting line. The men were dust-stained and untidy
after their long march. The moment they heard of the order, each man began to get out of
his haversack his parade uniform, which it was thought suitable to don on such an
occasion. Comical scenes ensued as men, in the act of changing their trousers, had to skip
off as they might to avoid a shell about to burst. All were laughing and cheery, as if about
to get some fete. Such was the spirit of Napoleon's soldiers." (- Loraine Petre)
Napoleon issued orders for the general advance and left his headquarters to watch their
execution. Between 7 and 8 PM he returned to the king's palace, satisfied that everything
was going as he wished.
Officer of French artillery
"Amongst these (French) troops the bursting Allies shells
produced only a feeling of exhilaration and eagerness..."
Such was the spirit of Napoleon's soldiers."
.
The Young Guard drove the enemy back.
Their assault was halted by falling darkness.
Napoleon was ready to attack. He had more than 6 infantry divisions (total 76 battalions)
available for this purpose.
Three divisions against the Russians and Prussians on the flank:
- - - - I Line: MdE Mortier with 1st and 2nd Young Guard Division - total 24 battalions
- - - - II Line: Claparede's 43rd Divisions (from St.Cyr's XIV Corps) - total 12 battalions
- - - - Reserve: part of Old Guard - 2 battalions
Three divisions against the Austrians in the centre
- - - - I Line: MdE Ney with 3rd and 4th Young Guard Division - total 24 battalions
- - - - II Line: Berthezene's 44th Division (from St.Cyr's XIV Corps) - total 12 battalions
- - - - Reserve: part of Old Guard - 2 battalions
At that moment when the the Young Guard was leaving the suburb an ammunition wagon
blew up and the artillery horses dashed wildly among the French infantry. It delayed the
attack for several minutes.
Between 7 and 8 PM the Russians were driven back on the Wind Mill hill, which was taken
by a bayonet charge, then into the Blasewitz Wood and Striesen where they took several
houses. Hundreds of allied prisoners were captured. Wittgenstein personally rode over to
Barclay de Tolly to ask for reinforcements. The French assault there was halted only by
falling darkness at about 9 PM.
Mortier then moved to the right and hit the Prussians in Grand Garden. The Prussians
were quickly driven back to the palace in the center of the garden. "Here the fight swayed
backwards and forwards till, at 8 PM, the Prussians still holding the palace, were separated
from their antagonists only by the width of the central cross avenue. At that hour the
turmoil of the struggle gave place to a still more ghastly silence, broken only by the groans
of the wounded." (- Loraine Petre)
In the center the Redoubt III was counterattacked shortly after the Austrians were in
possession of it. Large column of the Young Guard came out of the Moszczynski Garden
and struck the whitecoats in the flank. The first counterattack on the redoubt (III) failed,
though 50 men got in through a gate in the gorge of the work, which, being closed behind
them, left the little party isolated in the midst of about 500 Austrians.
"Refusing the enemy's calls to surrender, the gallant band held firm against tenfold
numbers. As no officer was with them the drum-major took command, brandishing his
baton, with which he promptly felled the Austrian leader.
Help was at hand, and this little band of heroes held their ground till what remained of
them was rescued by a fresh irruption, through the pallisading, of their comrades, now
reinforced by two regiments led by Berthezene. The redoubt was now recaptured, and
some 400 Austrian prisoners were taken in it." (- Loraine Petre)
Ney formed his Young Guard in two columns, one marched from the Paper Mill on
Kohlers Garden, while the second column succeeded in capturing the large building in
front of the Redoubt IV. Ney then attacked between Bianchi's and Colloredo's divisions.
The Austrians now fell back in the center, with many of their troops moving towards the
village of Plauen. One battalion of Hessen-Homburg Infantry Regiment was surrounded
and taken prisoner. Other troops broke and fell back and only few bravely stood to the
guns, which were in front; but these could not repel the irresistible onrush of the French.
Giulay's corps was saved from destruction by falling darkness.
Schwarzenberg ordered the elite Austrian grenadiers to intervene. The brave warriors held
on despite heavy casualties. The fighting now became severe at this part of the field. War
ever devours the bravest and best, and here perished, unhappily and without glory, some
of the choicest men in the Austrian service.
Young Guard in 1813.
The first French counterattack on the redoubt (III) failed, though 50 men got in through a gate
in the gorge of the work, which, being closed behind them, left the little party isolated in the
midst of about 500 Austrians. "Refusing the enemy's calls to surrender, the gallant band held firm
... As no officer was with them the drum-major took command, brandishing his baton,
with which he promptly felled the Austrian leader.
Help was at hand, and this little band of heroes held their ground till what remained of them was
rescued by a fresh irruption, through the pallisading, of their comrades ... The redoubt was now
recaptured, and some 400 Austrian prisoners were taken in it."
.
In the night after the battle.
"The rain fell in torrents all day. The road was covered with troops,
likewise on their way to Dresden. The guns, which were loudly audible
in that direction, the continual passing of aides and orderlies, the
excitement to be remarked on all faces, foretold important events."
- Jean Barres' line battalion arriving at Dresden
The French were jubilant over their success which they had gained against superior
numbers. They had regained all they had lost earlier in the day and they were amply
supplied with food and drink in the midst of the resources of the large city. While their
casualties so far were 2,000 killed and wounded, the Allies losses were much heavier. They
suffered 4,000 killed and wounded while 2,000 were taken prisoner.
Before 10 PM there were brought to Napoleon at the king's palace 700 Austrian prisoners,
most of whom had been captured in or near Redoubt III. The Emperor distributed crosses
to the battalion of Young Guard escorting them.
During the night there was a constant stream of reinforcements (Victor's II Army Corps,
Marmont's VI Army Corps, and Lefebvre-Desnouettes' Guard Cavalry Division) pouring
into the Old City over the bridges across the Elbe. Victor's troops were moved against
Lobtau, facing the Austrians. Marmont's troops marched to Dippoldiswalde in the center.
St.Cyr's troops were placed in Grand Garden. The rest of the night was consumed in
waiting for other troops to arrive.
According to Loraine Petre however, Lobtau was occupied by neither party during the
night.
The Austrians held Cotta, Nauslitz, Gorbitz, Wolfnitz and Rossthal. The Russians held
Blasewitz.
Towards midnight a torrential rain poured on the battlefield and the city and continued for
the rest of the night and during the whole of the next day. Jean Barres of Marmont's corps
writes, "In bivouac, 2 leagues before coming to Dresden. The rain fell in torrents all day.
The road was covered with troops, likewise on their way to Dresden. The guns, which were
loudly audible in that direction, the continual passing of aides and orderlies, the
excitement to be remarked on all faces, foretold important events." In the morning Barres
moved into Dresden and realized that the roads were so encumbered with infantry,
cavalry, and artillery, that at noon his battalion was in the streets without being able to
debouch on to the plain.
The feelings in the allied camps was one of general despondency, as they had gained no
ground as the result of the day's fighting. They were short on food and drink, owing to the
confusion prevailing amongst the supply columns. All confidence had disappeared; and
they were filled with the dread of Napoleon's presence. At the council of war there were
again lengthy discussions, which ended in a decision to continue the battle.
Exhausted Napoleon on the battlefield.
.
Plans and errors.
"... the Allies had one trump card to play,
their cavalry advantage, but they played it
in an appalling manner." - George Nafziger
French errors:
- their engineers failed to destroy the large building in front of the Redoubt IV.
It became the launchpad for Austrians attacks against that fortification and the center of
French positions.
French plans for the next day:
- attack on both flanks, left and right, driving the enemy off their best roads to Bohemia
(today Czech Rep.) on to the wretched roads through the mountains. Allies' mighty center
was almost ignored by the Emperor.
- to capture the village of Plauen on Allies left. Once they were in possession of Plauen,
the Austrians would be cut off, by the gorge of the Weisseritz, from the powerful Russian
reserves in the centre
Allies' errors:
- Schwarzenberg missed an opportunity for capturing Dresden
before Napoleon's arrival with strong reinforcements
- their right was too weak (Kleist and Gorchakov)
- their left was too strong for a mere observation corps,
and not strong enough to fight a serious battle. (Their 25,000 faced 35,000 French)
- although in the centre they amassed 100,000 men on the hills, and on a strong position,
against 40,000 French behind walls and redoubts, they made little use of this force.
On the next day due to heavy rain the ground became muddy. It prevented the Allies from
counterattacking in the center because if the counterattack failed, they would lose all
their artillery, as ,it was virtually impossible to get the cannons up the hills again.
Allies' plans for the next day:
- to hold to the hills in the center and wait for reinforcements
- not to be cut from the good roads (in case of defeat :-)
Map of the Battle of Dresden, 1813. Day 2.
Allies' right flank was driven back by the Young Guard led by Ney and Mortier .
Their left was shattered by Victor's infantry and cut to pieces by Murat's cavalry.
" One thing must be said in favour of the Allies's treatment of their l e f t wing ,
namely,that they had good reason to believe Klenau would have joined it early
in the morning, nearly doubling its strength. They had not reckoned on that
commander's slowness , due doubtless to the terrible meteorogical conditions,
a n d had been content to accept his assurance that he would be up in time. "
- L Petre "Napoleon's last campaign in Germany" publ. 1977
Day Two.
Though Schwarzenberg was on the strategic offensive
the first day of battle, his hesitation allowed
the initiative to pass over to Napoleon.
In the morning the rain was still descending in torrents, a depressing outlook for all
the combatants.
On the Allies side the roads were covered with troops, and above all with forage
carts, ammunition wagons, and various supply vehicles. Schwarzenberg's army was
joined by the powerful Russian and Prussian reserves. Men and horses were
bivouacked in the villages, the wagons of the artillery and the heaps of stores and
equipment choked them; there was such a muddle that one hardly knew where one
was.
The Reserves consisted of elite troops, Russian Grenadier Corps under the brave
Raievski (the "Hero of Borodino"), Guard Infantry Corps, Guard Cavalry Corps under
Prince Gollitzin, and the small Prussian Royal Guard. With these troops were 90
Russian guns of GM Hune's Army Reserve Artillery. Tzar's brother, Grand Duke
Constantine, was the commander of the Reserves, but we are not sure if he was
present on that day. The Reserves however deployed far in the rear and their
participation in the battle was minimal. (NOTE: The leading elements of the Reserves
arrived already on the previous day.)
Napoleon was in a bell tower and studied Allies' positions.
He sent orders Murat's cavalry and Victor's II Army Corps to attack the Austrians,
while the Young Guard led by Mortier and Ney was to attack the Russians and
Prussians. The reserve was formed by Friant's Old Guard, and Nansouty's Guard
Cavalry. Napoleon hoped to destroy the entire Allies army before Klenau's corps
would arrive. At 6 AM Napoleon rode to a post just behind Redoubt IV "where a
great bonfire was lighted for him and a tent pitched. Here he remained till 10 OM ... "
(At 11 AM he rode to Seidnitz.)
The first sign of activity on the French side came from artillery.
Due to wet ground the gunners had problems with moving their cannons, howitzers,
and ammunition wagons. For this reason Napoleon had "doubled up the teams of
horses, using animals from the headquarters wagons, which remained safely in
Dresden." (- Baron de Marbot)
At 7 AM the French cannons opened fire and their skirmishers advanced against the
enemy.
Napoleon and his escort.
At 6 AM the Emperor rode to a post just behind Redoubt IV
"where a great bonfire was lighted for him and a tent pitched.
(Redoubt IV was in the very center of the French positions)
.
On the French left flank:
The Prussians and Russians were
driven back by the Young Guard.
At 6 AM four divisions of the Young Guard led by Ney and Mortier had taken their
positions.
Behind them was Nansouty's Guard Cavalry. At 7:30 AM Mortier Ney, and Nansouty
began their advance along the entire front. Boyer de Rebeval's 4th and 5th Tirailleurs
moved along the Elbe River. The reminder swung over Striesen and moved to the
right to strike Roth's advance guard and the Prussians.
Between 7 and 8 AM Roguet's Young Guard Division had taken Blasowitz with easy
and was proceeding to clear the large wood. Roth's advance guard fell back to the
position extending from Seidnitz to the Elbe where they made a stubborn resistance.
Roth has repuled several French attacks before Wittgenstein ordered him to retire so
as to join the right of the allied position.
Several battalions of the Young Guard got near to Leubnitz defended by the
Prussians and Russians but were swept with canister by 2 guns at the church and
then charged with the bayonet by two Prussian battalions. A second attack on
Leubnitz failed before it reached the village.
The Emperor jus arrived on the scene and was furious, and ordered a third assault. It
was to be supported with a horse battery. The Young Guard got into the north-east
corner of the village, whence they were promptly ejected again. Napoleon was
disappointed with the failure to capture Leubnitz and started his return journey to
Redoubt IV.
Meanwhile allied cavalry counterattacked. The Prussian 1st Silesian Hussars hit the
8th Voltigeurs of the Young Guard and drove them back. The Russian Grodno
Hussars and Loubny Hussars attacked the 5th Voltigeurs already formed in square.
The square was broken and 310 Frenchmen were killed, wounded and taken prisoner.
The Young Guard felt vulnerable against the cavalry as many muskets were useless in
the rain.
St.Cyr advanced out of Strehlen with three columns. This attack threw back the two
Prussian and two Russian battalions defending the village. Two French moved even
deeper into Allies positions, and broke several Russian jager battalions. The French
however were halted by Prussian two horse batteries and two squadrons of the 1st
Silesian Hussars.
The Russian and Prussian cavalry were driven off by artillery fire and the Young
Guard resumed its advance. They took the villages of Klein-Dobritz and Gross-
Dobritz and pushed towards Prohlis. Approx. 30 guns supported the advance,
Nansouty's Guard Cavalry moved between Dobritz and Leuben. The Grodno Hussars
again attacked the Young Guard and broke one square. The Russians drove the enemy
back. Soon however the guns of Young Guard caused them precipitately to surrender
the field.
Unfortunately the cautious Nansouty made no attempt to attack the Russian and
Prussian infantry as apparently he might have done, seeing that the infantry were
unable to fire their muskets in the rain. The only excuse for him is that the Allies had
available 60 squadrons against his 30.
N C O of carabinier company of Russian 13th Jager Regiment.
N a p o l e o n ordered to attack the village of Reick, strongly protected on two sides by
the Landgraben River and an embankment 12 feet high. Meeting the Russian infantry
in front on the embankment, and charged in the flank by Russian and Prussian cavalry
the French were driven off with heavy loss. The attack was renewed with reinforcements
but the Russian infantry would not yield till a French grenade fired part of the village.
In the smoke the defenders failed to see that the French had surrounded them and when
they attempted to flee they found themselves cut off.
Then they sold their lives as dearly as they could in a fierce bayonet fight.
.
On the French right flank:
"Their muskets, however, would not go off in the rain,
and and they were ridden down by the French cavalry."
After 9 AM a huge formation of napoleonic cavalry moved against the Austrians on
Allies' left: Meszko's 3rd Light Division, Weissenwolf's 2nd Infantry Division, and
Liechtenstein's 4th Infantry Division. Marshal Murat commanded the cavalry. He was
wearing his extravagant uniform and was well seen across the battlefield. Georges
Blond writes: "Murat was wearing a blue, Polish-style tunic, with a gilded belt from
which was slung a light sabre with a straight blade, violet breeches with a gold stripe,
yellowe leather boots ..." Murat's escort was formed of squadron of Saxon cuirassiers.
Murat formed his cavalry in the following formation:
- in the first line, near the river: GdD Chastel's 3rd Light Cavalry Division
- - - - [13 chasseur squadrons, 12 horse guns]
- in the first line, near Cotta: GdD Doumerc's 3rd Heavy Cavalry Division
- - - - [6 French cuirassier, 9 French dragoons, and 4 Italian dragoon squadrons]
- in the second line: GdD Bordesoulle's 1st Heavy Cavalry Division
- - - - [14 French cuirassier and 8 Saxon cuirassier squadrons]
Due to mud the cavalry advanced at a fast walk.
As soon as the Austrian gunners saw the cavalry through the fog they cannonaded it.
Five squadrons of Saxon heavies struck 2 squadrons of Austrian hussars and drove
them back. Mass of French cuirassiers (Bordesoulle's 1st Heavy Cavalry Division)
advanced against Meszko's 3rd Light Division. Meszko chose to fight instead of
withdrawing, due to the fact that its neighbours were still engaged. But after seeing
the mass of iron-clads and numerous horse guns Meszko changed his mind. He
formed his infantry in squares and began moving back. The cavalry followed them
and then charged. Meszko was captured by the French 23rd Dragoon Regiment.
Officer Hoditz attempted to rescue Meszko and was taken prisoner himself. Meszko's
troops were without the leader and no one knew where to go and what to do now.
The field in front of the Austrian 4th Infantry
Division (Liechtenstein's) was covered with
Bordesoulle's cuirassiers. The most forward of
them attacked the corners of two battalion-size
squares as the volley thundered out. The walls
of the squares disappeared in smoke. Some of
the cuirassiers arched from their mounts and
landed on the ground. The cavalry was repulsed
but then the French brought up horse battery
and fired canister at close range. W.Colloredo
Infantry Regiment was destroyed, with
hundreds being killed, wounded and taken
prisoner. Only few survived.
The Saxon cuirassiers broke two Austrian
squares, capturing them entirely! The French
cuirassiers moved against Austrian battalion-
squares standing near the Pennrich Height. One
battalion surrendered without resistance. The
Vacquant Infantry Regiment was attacked by
French and Saxon Cuirassiers and after a short
but fierce fight capitulated. Two companies of Austrian infantry kept falling back,
with their muskets useless during rain. The French dragoons followed them, loaded
their firearms under their capes and fired into the enemy ranks. The infantry
surrendered to the dragoons.
Murat then rallied his breathless men, and the wounded were taken to the rear. His
cavalry although very successful was in disorder. The pause gave the Austrians a
chance to disengage from the enemy.
At 3 PM Pajol's 10th Light Cavalry Division, with the th Lancers (Vistula Uhlans) in
the lead, passed by Gorbitz and followed the retiring enemy. Chastel's 3rd Light
Cavalry Division moved past Pennrich. Berkheim's light cavalry attacked one
Austrian square from all sides forcing it to surrender. Erzherzog Rainier Infantry
Regiment lost 190 killed and wounded, and 900 prisoners. Lusignan and Beaulieu
Infantry Regiments suffered similar fates, they were trapped and forced to surrender.
The French also captured 16 guns and General Seezenny. Austrian heavy battery was
also captured. The few squadrons of Hungarian hussars made several desperate
charges but without much success.
Battle in the rain: French cavalry vs Austrian infantry, by Naudet.
"About noon the Austrians from Wolfnitz, and those now driven out of Ober Gorbitz,
were in considerable disorder in the open space between the latter village and Neu
Nimptsch. Victor's cavalry was preparing to charge them, so they formed themselves
into 4 squares as far as possible.
Their muskets, however, would not go off in the rain, and
and they were ridden down by the French cavalry." -Petre
.
In the center the battle was limited to an artillery duel."
"Marmont's troops, all along the line from Redoubt III
to the Weisseritz River, had been heavily fired on since
early morning by a long line of Austrian guns, extending
almost continuously along the heights ... " - Petre
Allied troops in the center woke up at 4 AM and took their assigned positions. They
faced Marmont's VI Army Corps. Marshal St.Cyr's XIV Army Corps was quickly
recovering from the previous day's hard fighting was moved to the Grand Garden.
The French artillery in the center opened heavy fire forcing some Prussian troops to
fall back.
Then a "French ammunition caisson, with a team of 4 horses, was set on fire by the
well directed fire of the Russian artillery. The caisson contained grenades, which
exploded one at the time, killing 2 horses of its team. Both remaining horses shied;
they bolted and ran back to the city with the burning caisson behind them. The
advancing battalions backed out of the way of the bolting horses, and at the gate
great disorder ensued. At the same moment, again several grenades exploded, killing
a third horse of the team, in such a way that all three dead horses came free of the
caisson. From the gate, muskets were fired at the unlucky fourth animal surviving
this all, still pulling the burning volcano behind him. The animal, now wounded,
again turned and pulled the caisson into the meadows close to the Elb river, not able
to pull it any further. Few minutes later the whole caisson exploded into the air ..."
(Anekdote in Militair-Wochenblatt 1816)
Napoleon ordered to deploy 32 heavy guns near Rachnitz and cannonaded
Colloredo's and Chasteler's divisions. The village of Plauen had been set afire by
French howitzer shells. Austrian battery then was silenced by French horse battery.
The fighting on this part of the battlefield was limited to long range artillery fire. The
cannon balls shattered the houses and ricocheted in the streets, the thatched roofs
took fire and fell in; the conflagration burst out in several points at once. Many houses
were scarcely habitable, their ceilings were smashed in and the furniture broken.
Napoleon ordered one of his batteries to fire on a group of Allies horsemen standing
by Racknitz. The first shot fired fatally wounded General Moreau (see picture below),
just in front of the Tzar. French infantry officer, Jean Barres, writes "... we learned of
the death of General Moreau, who was killed in the ranks of the Russian army. It was
a punishment from heaven." (Barres - "Memoirs of a French napoleonic officer ..." page
174)
The cannonball tore through Moreau's thigh, passed thorugh his horse, and shattered
the other leg also. (His legs were soon amputated by the Tzar's surgeon, Wylie. He
died a week later and his body was embalmed and taken to St.Petersburg.) The
propaganda would report that Napoleon had personally the gun that killed his
revolutionary rival for power in France.
Death of Moreau, by August Couder.
The cannonball tore through his thigh, passed thorugh his horse,
and shattered the other leg also. (His legs were soon amputated
by the Tzar's surgeon, Wylie.
General Jean M Moreau (1763 - 1813)
Moreau helped Napoleon to power , but later
became a rival and was banished to the USA.
He returned to Europe and joined Bernadotte
and the Tzar. Moreau wished to see Napoleon
defeated and a republican government installed
.
Victor.
Marshal Victor wisely chose to advance through the intervals
between the stronly defended villages , and then , through a
turning maneuver, to strike the flanks and rear of the garrissons.
Once Murat's cavalry moved forward and sufficient terrain for deployment became
available, Marshal Victor's II Army Corps bursted forward. Victor wisely chose to
advance through the intervals between the stronly defended villages, and then,
through a turning maneuver, to strike the flanks and rear of the garrissons.
In the lead marched Estko's brigade: 26th Light and 93rd Line Regiment formed in
columns and screened with skirmishers. (Syxtus Estko was a Polish general in French
service.) The fog limited visibility to 100 paces. Austrian Weissenwolf's 2nd Infantry
Division (12,600 men in 14 battalions, and 18 foot guns) was deployed near Lobtau.
They strongly occupied the villages to their front, with infantry behind the loopholed
walls, and the streets barricaded. Unfortunately the rain wetted the powder and
prevented the use of many muskets.
The French then moved against the village of Nauslitz. With only few troops
attacking frontally, they moved around both flanks and captured it. General
Czollich's was horrified, he took his brigade and counterattacked. The French advance
here was halted but the village was still in French hands.
The French then attacked and captured the villages of Rossthal and Wolfnitz, the
same way as they did at Nauslitz. The last Austrians were chased from Lobtau. One
Austrian battalion (1,000 men) retook Rossthal and captured 20 prisoners, but it was
too late and too little.
Before 2 PM Gorbitz was also taken by the French. Estko's brigade was shortly
stopped by a long garden wall defended by the whitecoats. The French then
outflanked the enemy and took the wall, with the Horrenhous being set on fire. The
Austrians fled in disorder.
The village of Dolzschen was also taken by the French. "For some time they
(Austrians) managed to keep the French off, but about 2 PM a shell (grenade) fired
Dolzschen, and the village was rushed in the consequent confusion. Some of the
defenders, pursued by the French fire, got away by the path or the road, and
attempted to scale the opposite heights, which are in many places sheer precipices.
Those who got so far narrowly escaped drowning in the swollen Weisseritz. ...
Numerous (Austrian) prisoners were taken in Dolzschen." - Petre
While Murat rallied his cuirassiers and dragoons, Teste's 23rd Division chased the
Austrian infantry out of Pennrich. With the Austrian infantry being driven back so far,
the French artillery was pushed forward and deployed near Rossthal.
Marshal Victor occupied Dolzschen with Dubreton's 4th Division, and Rossthal and
Gorbitz with Vial's 6th Division. Dufour's 5th Division stood to the northwest of
Rossthal and Gorbitz. While Victor had his headquarters established in Gorbitz,
Murat's were in Wolfnitz.
Captain of French 94th Line Infantry Regiment.
A f t e r routing the Austrians, the French infantry broke into the wine cellars
in the village of Dolzschen and indulged in what some calls a "Bacchus-feast".
They rammed the wine barrels with the musket butts, shattering the barrels.
Wine flowed profusely onto the floor and was soon knee deep. The young lads
made a wild party out of their good fortune.
.
Allies retreat.
Napoleon thought that the Allies intended to resume the battle
on the next day. He informed Ney that "everything leads to the
belief there will be a great battle tomorrow, and that the enemy
is numerous."
At 4 PM Napoleon, wet to the skin, with the famous cocked hat reduced to pulp by
the rain and hanging limply about his ears and down his neck, rode through the
suburbs to the palace. Behind him marched quietly 1000 Austrian prisoners. Later on
12,000 more came in, including three generals and many officers. Captured allied
standards were borne by the Old Guard Grenadiers.
The crushed Austrians on the left flank could not be reinforced because of the
intervening Weisseritz ravine. Some battalions perished, while others rushed to the
rear. Some of the Russian and Prussian troops on the right were in disorder. The
reserves however were in excellent shape. The King of Prussia advocated renewing
the battle next day but Jomini, Schwarzenberg and others were for retreat.
Schwarzenberg stated that the troops lacked ammunition and bread.
At 4 PM the Austrian chief of staff (Toll) and his Russian counterpart (Toll) produced
a draft order to the following effect:
- the Russians and Prussians to march to Teplitz in Bohemia
- the Austrians march to Brux in Bohemia
At 5 PM Schwarzenberg issued an order to retreat.
The roads were covered with mud and the troops moved slowly. Schwarzenberg had
a very powerful reserve, almost 60 squadrons of cuirassiers and guardsmen, but for
some unknown reason he choose not to use it against the French Young Guard and
the Guard Cavalry.
At 6 PM the French occupied the Russian, Prussian and Austrian morning positions.
Napoleon thought that the Allies intended to resume the battle on the next day.
Napoleon informed Ney that "everything leads to the belief there will be a great battle
tomorrow, and that the enemy is numerous." Marmont however believed he heard
the sounds of withdrawal.
Before 7 PM the retiring Austrians from the crushed left wing encountered the lead
elements of Klenau's Corps.
At 8 PM the Emperor was still making preparations for a renewal of the battle, even
to prescribing he garrisons of the redoubts. Petre stated that "precisely when he came
to the conclusion that the Allies would not renew the battle, and had begun their
retreat, is not quite clear." Apparently he was not quite sure at daybreak on the 28th,
when he returned to his old position near Redoubt IV."
Napoleon by Wojciech Kossak.
At 4 PM Napoleon, wet to the skin, with the famous cocked hat reduced to pulp
by the rain and hanging limply about his ears and down his neck, rode through
the suburbs to the palace. Behind him quietly marched 1000 Austrian prisoners.
.
French pursuit on the next day.
"Napoleon accompanied the French columns which were
pursuing the vanquished enemy as far as Pirna ..." -
Baron de Marbot
In the morning the rain had ceased, but for some time a thick mist obscured the view.
Detailed instructions were received by Allies generals from Schwarzenberg as to the
order of march.
At 9 AM the last allied troops had dissapeared from the hills. The Russian and
Prussian Guard, the Russian I Infantry Corps (Gorchakov's) and the Prussian II Corps
(Kleist's) were moving south from Dresden to Teplitz. The Allies moved along the
muddy roads and through narrow valleys whose slopes were wooded. This difficult
way, rendered doubly by heavy rain, was so blocked by wagons and carts as to
render it very difficut to push ahead the artillery. There was no proper field for
cavalry operations.
"As Prince Schwartzenberg, the commander of the enemy troops defeated at Dresden,
had given Teplice as the rallying point for the remains of his defeated armies, the
Austrians retreated through the valley of Dippoldiswalde, the Russians and the
Prussians on the Telnitz road and the remnants of Klenau's corps via Freiberg.
Napoleon accompanied the French columns which were pursuing the vanquished
enemy as far as Pirna, but just before he arrived in that town, he was taken by a
sudden indisposition, due perhaps to the fact that he had spent five days constantly
on horseback, exposed to incessant rain." (- Baron de Marbot)
During the pursuit the artillery and the numerous prisoners were a hindrance to the
French. The condition of many horses was as bad as possible, they were exhausted
and starving for food. Not infrequently a large part of the marching column would
halt in the narrow road due to mud and it required the utmost exertions of officers to
keep the troops in motion.
As Schwarzenberg's army was on the retreat from Dresden, Napoleon was notified of
the advance of a large body in the direction of Teplitz. Despite rather weak pursuit
the Allies suffered further losses. The Prussian Guard reported losing 10 men per
company. Now and then the Russian rear guard made of elite troops put up stiff
resistance. French infantry officer, Jean Barres, writes, "We bivuacked on the farther
side of the great forrest and near the small town of Dippoldwalde in the valley of
Plauen. In general the Austrians made no resistance, but the Russians were obstinate
than ever. The battle of Dresden had destroyed the Austrian army but had done very
little to damage the other allies (Russians and Prussians)."
~
They had seen the teams of peasants, escorted by soldiers,
digging huge graves. Wagons carried the corpses, which
were thrown into the graves made by teams of peasants.
The troops of both armies suffered dreadfully. Some of the
wounded had had their wounds dressed in those ambulances
that happened to be close to the battlefield. They had seen
the teams of peasants, escorted by soldiers, digging huge
graves. Wagons carried the corpses, which were thrown into
the graves.
The Austrians, Russians and Prussians had lost 15,000-40,000 (depending on sources)
killed, wounded and prisoners. The French casualties were 7,500-10,000 killed and
wounded. Murat wrote to Napoleon in his usual manner: "Your cavalry has made
15,000 prisoners and taken 12 cannons and 12 flags, one general-lieutenant, two
generals, and a great number of senior officers and other grades are in our hands."
This is what Loraine Petre has to say on the number of prisoners taken at Dresden
"With regard to prisoners, the author found the following returns in the Paris records
(1) one showing 1,407 prisoners received at headquarters up to midnight on the 26th,
and 4,209 more up to 7 PM on the 27th.
(2) Prisoners in Dresden on the 29th August, 12,535.
These two returns give rise to a suspicion that the numbers taken at Dresden may
have been exaggerated. But there is a later return showing the total number received
up to the 8th October at 23,518 (over 15,000 Austrians). The greater part of these must
have been taken at Dresden, for there were few other large captures of prisoners by
the French."
Why the battle was lost for Schwarzenberg ?
Allies line was an enveloping semicircle, 7-8 km in development, and communication
from flank to flank even by courier was difficult. "... the Allies had one trump card to
play, their cavalry advantage, but they played it in an appalling manner. ... Heavy
rains may have made the ground unsuitable for the use of cavalry, but then it doesn't
seem to have bothered the French. ... as the day was marked by heavy rain and, as
musketry was largely unavailable, the battle became one of cold steel (bayonets and
sabers) and artillery.
It was a day when cavalry could close on infantry, a day when the infantry could not
fire back to defend itself, but had to depend only on those tiny bayonets to keep
charging eastern hordes at bay. Certainly if there was a battle in which cavalry would
have the moral ascendency over the infantry, it had to be this battle." (Nafziger -
"Napoleon's Dresden Campaign" p 195)
Sources and Links.
Nafziger - "Napoleon's Dresden Campaign" (website)
Petre - "Napoleon's last campaign in Germany" publ. 1977
Macdonald - "Recollections of Marshal Macdonald"
Bowden - Napoleon's Grande Armee of 1813"
Barres - "Memoirs of a French napoleonic officer ..."
The Department of History at the US Military Academy (atlases)
Battle of Hagelberg : Hagelsberg 1813 : Befreiungskriege : Schlacht : Bataille
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Hagelberg_battle.htm[2012-05-21 12:44:45]
Battle of Hagelberg, 27th August 1813
The Cossacks and the Prussian Landwehr inflicted 6,000 casualties
on the French . Their own losses were 1,500 killed and wounded .
Introduction - - Troops - - Map - - Battle - - Casualties
Battle of Hagelberg 1813: Landwehr versus French
Introduction.
The Prussians received news that a French division
was in camps near Hagelberg. The Cossacks were
immediately sent, and the Prussians followed them.
Prussia suffered much more than other German regions under
French rule following the defeat at Jena in 1806-07. "The hatred of
France and all things French was more developed in political
discourse there than elsewhere in Germany. The patriotic-national
mobilization for the War of Liberation in 1813 extended beyond the
small elite of the educated strata." (- Karen Hagemann, Wales)
The war in 1813 was called by the Prussians, the War of Liberation.
Public demonstrations in Prussia against the French persuaded the
king of Prussia, Frederick William, to change sides. Austria declared
war on France in August. The combined allied armies were nearly
half million strong and were commanded by Bernadotte, Blucher,
Barclay de Tolly, Bennigsen, and Schwarzenberg. The Saxon
Campaign in 1813 is one of the greatest Napoleonic Campaigns. It
includes such battles like Ltzen, Bautzen, Hanau, Dresden, and the
Battle of the Nations.
The strategic situation in the beginning of 1813 was rather
complicated. In the end of August 1813 Bernadotte's allied Army of
the North remained idle, only the advance guards and wing
detachments moved south, against the French. Hirschfeld's
detachment made of Pussian landwehr covered the right flank of the
army. While Marshal Oudinot's (French) army moved towards
Gross-Beeren, Girard's infantry division sought to join him. The
Prussians seeking information on Girard sent out patrols and
Hirschfeld's force to engage the French. Hirschfeld received news
that Girard's division was in camps near Lubnitz and Hagelberg.
After allowing his troops some rest, the general followed the night of
25th with the whole force. At Gozlow, Hirschfeld learned that
Girard's detachment had turned southeast and marched toward
Belzig and Hagelberg to cover Marshal Oudinot's retreat.
"Hirschfeld now made great use of interior lines to execute a brilliant
maneuver on the 26th. First he marched west from Gozlow to Ziesar.
From there the Prussians turned southeast toward Gorzke. The night
his troops camped in the region between Gorzke and Ziesar, west of
Girard's position at Lubnitz. Before sunrise on the 27th Hirschfeld
assembled his troops in the vicinity of Gorzke and began the march
east of Benken in two columns. Reports convinced Hirschfeld that
Girard's attention remained fixed on Belzig.
Unknown to Hirschfeld, Chernyshov had led five Cossack regiments
west from Belzig and harassed the French throughout the previous
day. At Benken, Hirschfeld's corps stood just northwest of Girard's
position at Lubnitz. To prevent him from reaching Oudinot,
Hirschfeld decided to attack the French position ... " (Leggiere -
"Napoleon and Berlin" pp 181-182)
Germany in 2009
~
The troops.
8,000 French under General de Division Girard
vs
12,000 Allies under General-Major von Hirschfeld
French
8,000-9,000
Prussians & Russians
9,000-12,000
525 cavalrymen
5 squadrons of French cavalry
-
1.000 cavalrymen
12 squadrons of Prussian cavalry
5 regiments of Cossacks
14-24 guns 10-12 guns
8.000 infantrymen
8 French battalions
2 Saxon battalions
1 Westphalian battalion
1 Croatian battalion
10.350 infantrymen
4 reserve infantry battalion
13 landwehr battalions
-
.
The Prussians.
The Prussian Landwehr had been disdainfully portrayed
by Napoleon as scoundrels, but they passed their baptism
by fire at Hagelberg.
The Prussians were commanded by General-Major Karl Friedrich
von Hirschfeld.
He had the following regiments at Hagelberg:
- 3rd Kurmark Landwehr Infantry (4 battalions)
- 4th Kurmark Landwehr Infantry (3 battalions)
- 6th Kurmark Landwehr Infantry (4 battalions)
- 7th Kurmark Landwehr Infantry (1 battalion)
- Elbe Infantry (1 battalion)
- 1st Reserve Infantry
- 3rd Kurmark Landwehr Cavalry (4 squadrons)
- 5th Kurmark Landwehr Cavalry (4 squadrons)
- 6th Kurmark Landwehr Cavalry (4 squadrons)
Although the Landwehr in 1813 was second rate troop, they were
highly motivated. The Prussian Landwehr was based on the model
of that of Austria of 1809. Loraine Petre writes, "As the impoverished
state of Prussian finances precluded much assistance from the State,
the expense of equipment had to fall on the men themselves, or their
villages. ... At first, the front rank was often armed with pikes or
scythes, and it was only as French muskets were taken from the
battlefields that the men were armed with yet another pattern of
firearm. There was a great dearth of officers, as most of the half-pay
officers still fit for service were required for the reserve battalions.
All sorts of officials, many of them very unsuitable as military
officers, joined, and it was only later on that men of some experience
were got from the 'volunteer-jagers, etc. Naturally, the landwehr, as
a whole, was at first of no great military value, though their initial
worth was in some corps (Yorck's and Bulow's especially) enhanced
by long marches and still more by early successes." (Petre - "Napoleon
at War" p 114)
.
The Russians.
The Russians were commanded by one
of the best Cossack leaders, Chernyshev.
The Prussians were supported by several Russian units. There were
10 light guns and five regiments of the bearded Cossacks. On paper
the strength of single regiment was more than 500 men. In the field
hovewer there were only 300-450 men in the ranks. Each regiment
had 5 sotnia (hundred), and each sotnia had muskets for 11 Cossacks
trained as marksmen. All rank-and-file carried 8-foot long lance
(longer than the lance of the Polish uhlans and the French lancers).
Some were also armed with curved sabers and 1-8 (!) pistols. Some
carried carbines or muskets or other firearms. The Cossacks were
irregulars and feared the most the artillery and musketry. The
Cossacks at Hagelberg were commanded by one of the best Cossack
leaders, Chernyshev.
- Vlasov-III's Cossack Regiment
- Rebreiev's Cossack Regiment
- Pantelev's Cossack Regiment
- Grekhov-XVIII's Cossack Regiment
- Sisoiev's Cossack Regiment
- XXVI Light Battery (10 guns)
.
The French.
Although Girard's infantry were young men
they have already experienced combat.
The French were commanded by Gnral de Division Jean-Baptiste
Girard (1775-1815).
In 1813 the French army was made of young recruits (the battle-
hardened veterans perished in Russia few months earlier). The new
units were thrown together quickly and their men had not had the
necessary time to form the interpersonal bonds within their
companies that gave them the morale strength necessary to wage
war successfully. Despite these problems, the army's morale was
generally high. Many of the young troops who stayed in the ranks,
were filled with boundless confidence in Napoleon whom they loved
with unflagging devotion.
Although Girard's infantrymen were young recruits they have
already experienced combat. The artillery was superb, the cavalry
however was poorly trained. All Girard's troops were regulars, vast
majority were Frenchmen. Girard had the following units at
Hagelberg:
- III Battalion of 24th Light Infantry Regiment
- III Battalion of 26th Light Infantry Regiment
- III Battalion of 18th Line Infantry Regiment "The Brave"
- III Battalion of 19th Line Infantry Regiment
- III Battalion of 56th Line Infantry Regiment
- III Battalion of 72nd Line Infantry Regiment
- III,VI Battalion of 134th Line Infantry Regiment
- Croatian battalion
- Westphalian battalion
- two Saxon battalions
- 13th Hussar Regiment (3 squadrons)
- de marche cuirassiers (1 squadron)
- de marche light cavalry (1 squadron)
- Artillery
Map of Battle of Hagelberg (Hagelsberg), 1813
The Battle of Hagelberg (Hagelsberg).
"The battle of Hagelberg is unusual, not in that the French were
defeated,
but that the defeat was at the hands of a force consisting largely of
Prussian landwehr that had only recently abandoned its pikes for
muskets."
- George Nafziger
Hirschfeld issued the following order: "The combined cavalry, except
for von Bornstadt's squadron, shall march to the left under the
command of Oberst (Colonel) von Bismark. The Fusilier Battalion of
the 1st Reserve Regiment shall lead, followed by two musketeer
battalions of the regiment. ... They shall be followed by the 11
cavalry squadrons, then the 10 guns of Kpt. Chamborand (Russian
26th Light Battery) ... The march shall be made in the greatest quiet
and tranquility. Any noise or unauthorized discharge of weapons
will be punished by 6 weeks arrest. ... The artillery shall remain in
formation and move according to the terrain. ..."
At 1 AM the 6th Kurmark Landwehr Cavalry (3 squadrons)
encountered the French cavalry encampment near Lbnitz. They
surged forward, the tunes of the trumpets rent the air, quickly
followed by two other cavalry regiments. The French brought
infantry and guns to the right side of the village. As the Landwehr
cavalry began to advance toward the French, they were raken by
artillery fire. The French advance guard was not about to yield
without a fight.
The 5th and 6th Kurmark Landwehr attacked driving back the
French infantry and scattering the French cavalry. The debris of the
French advance guard fled back on the main body of Girard's forces
behind Lbnitz. The Prussian cavalry followed them and had
completely disbanded itself in the process. One Landwehr battalion
moved through the streets of the burning village pursuing the
enemy. Two French battalions took cover behind a wall and opened
fire on the cavalry. The casualties however were very light.
The Prussian reserve infantry followed the Landwehr cavalry and
infantry.
The French main force was by now formed in a battle array and
waiting for the enemy. French artillery opened fire and one of their
howitzer shells struck the II/7th Kurmark Landwehr. The battalion
halted and refused to advance, two other battalions followed its
example. Only after the French battery withdrew the Prussians
continued deploying their troops. Major von Langen took the 1st
Reserve and 4th Kurmark Landwehr and entered the Belzig Wood in
order to turn the French flank. To avoid being outflanked the French
fell back and deployed on the hill near Hagelberg.
While Cossacks led by Alexandr Ivanovich Chernishev advanced
against Girard's flank, the seven Prussian battalions moved between
the Belzig and the Birken Woods. The French opened fire but
without much effect, they were driven off from the hill and pushed
into Klein-Glien. At 3 pm the Prussians placed the bulk of their
Landwehr on the edge of the woods while the main French force
stood west of Klein-Glien.
French line infantry in 1813.
" I must say that the [French] young soldiers show
courage and good-will."- General L a m b a r d i e r e
.
The Cossacks defeated cavalry
and captured two cannons.
Aleksandr Benkendorf galloped with a Cossack regiment (four more
regiments will arrive later) in front of the whole French position,
from the far right to the far left wing. Musketry accompanied the
Cossacks and they were received by grapeshot. Nevertheless, the
Cossack regiment (300-400 men) defeated squadron of cuirassiers
and some light infantry, in full view of the artillery. Then they
captured 2 cannons and several wagons which they took with them.
ps.
Benkendorf was a general and diplomat , and his sister
was a socialite and political force famous at Paris and
London.
.
Landwehr battalion fled
"carrying the other battalions back with them."
The Prussian Landwehr attacked several times. The first line of the
attackers consisted of battalion of the 3rd Landwehr and battalion of
the 1st Reserve Infantry. They passed through the skirmish chain
and deployed into line to exchange fire. The French line held their
ground and opened rapid musket fire. After 3 minutes of musketry
the Landwehr battalion had enough and fled "carrying the other
battalions back with them."
To modern man, long accustomed to repeating and automatic
firearms, one, 2 or even 3 rounds per minute is nothing to write
home about. However, once one comes to grips with the idea of 600
men, packed into front of about 200 paces, able to fire anywhere
from 1000 to 3000 rounds per minute, then the image alters
drastically, even in the eyes of a modern soldier.
.
Hirschfeld's general advance
and the capture of Hagelberg.
Two Prussian battalions captured Hagelberg before being driven
back by canister fire. The French battery on the Wind Mill swept the
battlefield in front of them. The battery was supported by the 13th
Hussars.Then a Landwehr battalion came out of the Belzig Wood
and attacked Hagelberg from the flank. The Cossacks have engaged
the hussars. Meanwhile a group of French soldiers in the Grutzdorf
Wood was surrounded.
Hirschfeld ordered a general advance by the right wing, storming the
Hagelberg hill. Two French battalions counterattacked and colided
with three Landwehr battalions and three squadrons. The French fell
back with the Landwehr hot on their heels. Girard's line was broken.
The Landwehr surrounded one French battalion in the garden. The
French with 2 guns surrendered. Another French battalion and small
troop of cavalry still kept fighting in the streets. The 3rd Kurmark
Landwehr advanced into a plowed field surrounded with a stone
wall, which stood next to the village. The French exchanged volleys
with them and withdrew into the village.
Hagelberg (left) and the Belzig Wood (right).
Source: Landesumweltamt Branbenburg
@ mluv.brandenburg.de
.
Girard's division fell back.
The Prussians were masters of the center. In the Belzig Wood their
three battalions pushed the French skirmishers aside and then one
battalion moved against the east side of Hagelberg. The French
abandoned the village.
Meanwhile the single Cossack regiment was joined by freshly arrived
four regiments of the bearded warriors. In this situation Girard's
division fell back on Klein-Glien and abandoned the Hagelberg hill.
The Cossacks drove the French hussars off. Two French battalions
were retreating when 500 Cossacks, 300 Prussian riflemen and
several Russian guns struck at them. Approx. 1,030 Frenchmen
surrendered. Landwehr cavalry followed the retreating enemy.
"Combat lasted for 5 hours and culminated with Hirschfeld's order
for a general attack on Hagelberg. ... Girard was seriously wounded
during this fighting ... Under the cover of darkness the French
withdrew in two columns, one west to Magdeburg, the other south
to Wittenberg. Cossacks pursued, but Hirschfeld led the majority of
his brigade to camp in Lubnitz." (Leggiere - "Napoleon and Berlin" p
182)
The roads were filled with fleeing soldiers, and here and there were
piled up baggage wagons, and abandoned weapons.
~
Casualties.
Plotho gives the Prussian casualties at 1,012 (234 killed and 778
wounded). Nafziger provides 238 killed, 859 wounded, and 662
missing. Total 1,759 casualties. Michael Leggiere claims that
Hirschfeld's losses "totaled 73 officers and 1,722 men."
The French losses were much heavier; the Prussians claim to have
taken 7 guns and 5,000 prisoners. Girard also lost the entire baggage
of his division. Sauzey stated that Girard's division had only 3,500
men when returned to Wittenberg. It gives 4,500-5,000 casualties.
According to Michael Leggiere, Girard suffered 3,000 killed and
wounded and 3,000 prisoners.
Nafziger writes: "The battle of Hagelberg is unusual, not in that the
French were defeated, but that the defeat was at the hands of a force
consisting largely of Prussian landwehr that had only recently
abandoned its pikes for muskets. This suggests that the Landwehr
was hardly what one would call veterans.
Theoretically Girard was leading first line troops. It is true that they
were mostly recent conscripts, yet it was conscripts that had defeated
allies at Lutzen and Bautzen. It was also new French conscripts
facing Prussian landwehr which had little difference in its overall
training." (Nafziger - "Napoleon's Dresden Campaign" p 136)
Landwehr infantryman with
captured French cuirass .
By Gomez Segura
Battle of Hagelberg 1813 memorial. Source: de.wikipedia.org
"Die Schlacht bei Hagelberg ereignete sich in der Folge der
Schlacht bei Grobeeren und im Vorfeld der Vlkerschlacht
bei Leipzig whrend der Befreiunskriege."
" Die Schlacht von Hagelberg wurde zum Symbol fr den
Widerstand gegen das napoleonische Herrschaftssystem in
Deutschland." - www.brandenburg.de/land
Sources and Links.
Recommended Reading
Photos: de.wikipedia.org (Lienhard Schulz)
Nafziger - "Napoleon's Dresden Campaign."
Bogdanovich - "Istoriya voiny 1813 Goda"
Beitzke - "Geschichte der Deutschen Freiheitskriege in den Jahren 1813 und 1814"
Quistorp - "Nord Armee"
Plotho - "Der Krieg" vol. II
Pictures of Prussian reserve infantry by Steven Palatka.
'Zapiski Benkendorfa' (Memoires du comte Alexandre Benkendorf)
[This is a reprint of two fragments, published for the first time in a hundred years,
about little known facts of the military campaigns of 1812-1814.
His division liberated several cities of the Netherlands in 1813.]
Vom Koalitionskrieg gegen Frankreich zu den Befreiungskriegen.
Cossacks !
Battle of Dennewitz 1813: Ney : Blow : Bataille : Schlacht
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Battle_of_Dennewitz.htm[2012-05-21 12:44:50]
Battle of Dennewitz 6-7 September 1813
The victory at Dennewitz inspired the greatest enthusiasm in Prussia,
and rendered Blow's popularity almost equal to that of old Blcher.
"After the defeat Marshal Ney submitted his resignation
asking to be a single grenadier rather than marshal . "
- George Nafziger
Marmont claims that N a p o l e o n received the news of Ney's defeat
"with all the coolness he could have brought to a discussion of events
in China." :-)
Introduction.
Map: French attempt to recapture Berlin
Allies troops and commanders.
Order of Battle
French troops and commanders.
Order of Battle
.
.
.
.
.
Battle of Dennewitz. Phase One.
Landwehr cavalry broke several Italian battalions. >
"The Prussians were savagely handed ..." >
New arrivals (Bulow's corps). >
Morand's counterattack. Prussian brigade fell back. >
"Marshal Ney is supposed to have sent him
to Napoleon after 'ripping off his epaulets." >
Heavy fighting in the center. >
Map.
Phase Two.
Bloody fight for Gohlsdorf. >
The Swedes arrive. >
The Prussians captured Gohlsdorf. >
Ney attempted the last desperate attack. >
Prussian victory. >
Bernadotte's pursuit was leisurely. >
Battle of Dennewitz, 1813.
Introduction.
"In late August 1813, Napoleon decided
to order a general offensive to take Berlin
the Prussian capital, with the overall goal
of knocking the Prussians out of the war."
- wikipedia.org 2006
Napoleon believed that the fall of Berlin would be a morale-breaking
moment for the Prussians. The emperor also wanted to control the
plain between the Elbe and Oder (Odra) Rivers and their fortresses.
It would protect Napoleon's northern flank. Then he could drive to
the Vistula River and relieve the numerous garrisons stationed in
Poland. It would augment his army with a large number of veterans.
From Poland he could also threaten Russians' lines of
communication.
This is difficult however to believe that the loss of Berlin would have
knocked the Prussians out of the Coalition. For the King of Prussia
there would not be another Tilsit, there had to be a war to the death.
"The result either had to be the end of Napoleon's domination of
Central Europe or the end of Hohenzollern Prussia." ( - Michael
Leggiere)
On 2 September 1813 Napoleon ordered Marshal Ney to take
command of the Army of Berlin and put it into "rapid" movement.
Ney had to take Berlin. The marshal gathered the followning units:
IV, VII, XII Army Corps, and the III Cavalry Corps near Wittenberg.
This force was joined by a Polish Division under Dabrowski.
Additionally Ney received approx. 6,000 replacements for the losses
suffered in recent engagements.
Instead of rapidly moving against the Prussians and Russians the
marshal choose to spend entire day on reviewing his troops. Ney
had decided to move his entire army down a single road. While this
allowed him to maintain communications with his entire army, the
single road stacked his army for miles. On 6 September Ney's three
corps were separated by a distance of 2 hours. Consequently his
army arrived and was deployed in a piecemeal fashion. Bertrand's IV
Army Corps led the advance and met the Prussian Tauentzien's light
troops before the village of Dennewitz. Bertrand pushed back part of
Tauentzien's (Prussian) IV Corps who linked up with Bulow's
(Prussian) III Corps and few Russian and Swedish units.
Marshal Michel Ney.
Napoleon ordered Ney to take command of the (French) Army of Berlin
and put it into "rapid" movement. Ney had to take the capital of Prussia.
Unfortunately instead of rapidly moving against the Allies, Ney choose
to spend the day on reviewing his troops.
French attempt to re-capture Berlin.
"August 1813 had been a whirlwind of action. So much so that the guns
of August had not stopped firing until after the battle of Dennewitz."
- George Nafziger, military historian
Allies troops and commanders. Order of Battle.
Although the troops at Dennewitz were under the overall
command of Bernadotte, they were actually led by Blow.
The Prussian infantry that joined the Allies against France in 1813
was of mixed quality. The regular infantry wase well trained, well
clothed and well armed. They were brave soldiers. The reserve
infantry was formed from various troops, and might have each
battalion in different uniform, and several types of muskets. Most of
them however performed in combat quite well. There were also
volunteer units, they armed and uniformed themselves. The
volunteers were enthusiastic but lacked training and physical
toughness. The Landwehr infantry was a national levy of all men
betweem 17 and 40 capable of bearing weapons. They lacked
weapons and uniforms.
Bulow had several excellent troops in his disposal; the 1st Life
Hussars (nicknamed the "Death's Head Hussars"), the Queen's Own
Dragoons, the East Prussian Infantry, and the jagers. The artillery, I
would say, was of average quality. There were many Landwehr
(militia) regiments from Neumark, Kurmark and Silesia. The best of
the few Russian troops were the heavy battery, and the Izoum
Hussars. (The Izoum Hussars fighting with Frennch horse
carabiniers are on Keith Rocco's picture of the battle of Borodino.)
Ranks:
FM - Feldmarschall (Field Marshal)
GdK - Generall der Kavallerie (General of Cavalry)
GdI - Generall der Infanterie (General of Infantry)
FzM - Feldzeugmeister - rank in the Austrian army only
FL- Feldmarschall-Leutenant - rank in the Austrian army only
GL - Generalleutnant (General Lieutenant)
GM - Generallmajor (General Major)
Commander: GL Friedrich Wilhelm von Bulow.
In the summer of 1813 Blow distinguished himself at Grossbeeren
It was a victory over French Marshal Oudinot, which was attributed
entirely to his leadership . In 1815 Bulow and his corps headed the
decisive flank attack upon Napoleon's army at Waterloo(Plancenoit)
Troops present in the morning :
IV Army Corps: GL Tauentzien
Infantry
- - - - - - 3rd Reserve Infantry Regiment [3 battalions]
- - - - - - 1st Silesian Landwehr Infantry Regiment [3 battalions]
- - - - - - 1st Kurmark Landwehr Infantry Regiment [2 battalions]
- - - - - - 2nd Kurmark Landwehr Infantry Regiment [3 battalions]
- - - - - - 5th Kurmark Landwehr Infantry Regiment [3 battalions]
Cavalry
- - - - - - 2nd Neumark Landwehr Cavalry Regiment [2 squadrons]
- - - - - - 3rd East Prussian Landwehr Cavavalry Regiment [4 squadrons]
- - - - - - 3rd Pomeranian Landwehr Cavalry Regiment [4 squadrons]
- - - - - - Russian Illovaiski-III Cossack Regiment
Artillery
- - - - - - VI Horse Battery [4 guns]
- - - - - - XI Horse Battery [4 guns]
- - - - - - XXX Foot Battery [4 guns]
- - - - - - XXVII Foot Battery [8 guns]
- - - - - - XVII Foot Battery [8 heavy 6pdrs guns]
Troops arriving at noon:
III ARMY CORPS: GL Bulow
3rd Brigade: GM Hessen-Homburg
- - - - - - II/East Prussian Grenadiers [1 battalion]
- - - - - - 3rd East Prussian Infantry Regiment [3 battalions]
- - - - - - 4th Reserve Infantry Regiment [3 battalions]
- - - - - - 3rd East Prussian Landwehr Infantry Regiment [4 battalions]
- - - - - - + 1st Leib Hussar Regiment 'Death's Head' [4 squadrons]
- - - - - - V Foot Battery [8 guns]
4th Brigade: GM Thmen
- - - - - - East Prussian Jagers [1/2 battalion]
- - - - - - 4th East Prussian Infantry Regiment [4 battalions]
- - - - - - Elbe Infantry Regiment [2 battalions]
- - - - - - Brandenbourg Dragoon Regiment [3 squadrons]
- - - - - - VI Foot Battery [8 guns]
- - - - - - XII Foot Battery [8 12pdrs guns]
- - - - - - Russian VII Foot Battery [12 heavy guns]
6th Brigade: Oberst von Krafft
- - - - - - Colberg Infantry Regiment [3 battalions]
- - - - - - 1st Neumark Landwehr Infantry Regiment [3 battalions]
- - - - - - West Prussian Dragoon Regiment [2 squadrons]
- - - - - - 1st Pomeranian Landwehr Cavalry Regiment [4 squadrons]
- - - - - - XVI Foot Battery [8 guns]
- - - - - - Russian XXI Foot Battery [6 12pdrs guns]
Reserve Cavalry: GM von Oppen
1st Cavalry Brigade: von Treskow
- - - - - - Queen's Own Dragoon Regiment [4 squadrons]
- - - - - - 2nd West Prussian Dragoon Regiment [4 squadrons]
2nd Cavalry Brigade: von Sydow
- - - - - - 2nd Kurmark Landwehr Cavalry Regiment [3 squadrons]
- - - - - - 4th Kurmark Landwehr Cavalry Regiment [3 squadrons]
- - - - - - Pomeranian Landwehr Cavalry Regiment [3 squadrons]
Horse Artillery
- - - - - - V Horse Battery [8 guns]
- - - - - - VI Horse Battery [4 guns]
Troops arriving at 4 PM
5th Brigade: GM von Borstell
- - - - - - 1st Pommeranian Infantry Regiment [4 battalions]
- - - - - - 2nd Reserve Infantry Regiment [3 battalions]
- - - - - - Pommeranian Hussar Regiment [4 squadrons]
- - - - - - 2nd Kurmark Landwehr Cavalry Regiment [4 squadrons]
- - - - - - X Foot Battery [8 guns]
- - - - - - Swedish Morner Hussars [6 squadrons]
- - - - - - Swedish Horse Battery [6 guns]
Troops arriving at 6 PM
- - - - - - Russian 44th Jager Regiment [2 battalions]
- - - - - - Russian Izoum Hussar Regiment [3 squadrons]
- - - - - - Russian Converged Hussar Regiment [3 squadrons]
.
Prussian 11th Infantry Regiment.
Picture by Steven Palatka.
"Fighting not far from Berlin certainly provided a patriotic
setting to test the resolve of the raw Prussian soldiers and
the reliability of the Landwehr."
~
French troops and commanders. Order of Battle
Commander: Marshal Michel Ney. "The bravest of the brave."
Marshal Ney's army consisted of four large units: IV, VII and XII
Army Corps, and III Cavalry Corps. They were led by seasoned
generals: Bertrand, Reynier, Arrighi and Marshal Oudinot. The
commander of Wurttemberger troops, General Franquemnont, had
been highly critical of the French and in particular of having to serve
under French corps commander. The morale of the troops was high,
and the French, Italian, Polish and German soldiers encouraged each
other with promises of reuniting in Berlin. The Saxons boasted that
their attack on Berlin would leave no stone standing !
The best of Ney's troops were: the French artillery (both, horse and
foot), the Polish, Saxon and Wurttemberg infantry divisions, and the
Polish uhlans. The French infantrymen and cavalrymen were young
soldiers, but their officers and NCOs were battle hardened veterans.
Ranks:
MdE - Marchal d'Empire
GdD - Gnral de Division
GdB - Gnral de Brigade
Col. - Colonel
Mjr. - Major
CdB. - Chef de Bataillon
CdE. - Chef de Escadron
Marshal Michel Ney.
One of the most popular napoleonic marshals, nicknamed The Bravest of the Brave.
Tall , broad shouldered, ruddy-faced , "he thought death in battle man's natural lot
and had a pronounced fondness for a 4-letter word meaning 'to copulate'." - J Elting
Ney distinguished himself around Ulm (1805) and Jena (1806) but in 1807 he began
operations against Napoleon's orders. In Spain in 1808-1811 he was bull-headed and
relieved from his command by Massena. In 1812 he performed well , if not always
wisely. The title Prince de la Moskova won at Borodino, where he led his corps against
Russian fortifications defended by numerous cannons. Ney's g r e a t e s t hour came
during the epic retreat from Russia. In 1813 his fumblings at Bautzen ruined one of
Napoleon's best-planned battles.
Bertrand
Bertrand was a talented military engineer.
He was hard-working and efficient officer.
It was Bertrand who in 1 8 0 9 directed the
building of the bridges by which the army
crossed the D a n u b e River at Wagram.
In 1813 Bertrand was appointed commander
of IV Army Corps.
IV Army Corps: GdD Bertrand
Chief-of-staff: GdB Delort
Cavalry Brigade - GdB Jett
- - - - - - Wurttemberg 1st Chevauleger
Regiment
- - - - - - Wurttemberg 3rd Chevauleger
Regiment
12th Infantry Division - GdD Morand
- - - - - - French 8th Light Infnantry
Regiment [2 btns.]
- - - - - - French 13th Line Infantry
Regiment [5 btns.]
- - - - - - French 23rd Line Infantry
Regiment [4 btns.]
- - - - - - French I/2nd Foot Battery [8 guns]
- - - - - - French III/2nd Foot Battery [8
guns]
15th Infantry Division - GdD Fontanelli
- - - - - - Italian 1st Line Infantry Regiment
[2 btns.]
- - - - - - Italian 4th Line Infantry Regiment
[3 btns.]
- - - - - - Italian 1st Light Infantry Regiment
[3 btns.]
[2 btns.]
- - - - - - Italian Milan Guard [1 btn.]
[3 btns.]
- - - - - - Italian I/1st Foot Battery Regiment
[8 guns]
- - - - - - Italian XIII/1st Foot Battery [8
Reynier
He was of Swiss origin, a devout
Protestant
of legendary honesty. But Reynier was
also
a difficult individual and holding some
of
the marshals in contempt. He was a
deadly
duelist as well. Although Reynier was a
brave
man he lacked the ability to inspire his
troops.
VII Army Corps: GdD Reynier
Chief-of-staff: GdB Gressot
Cavalry Brigade - GdB Lindenau
- - - - - - Saxon Hussar Regiment [8 sq]
- - - - - - Saxon Prinz Clemens
Chevauxleger [5]
24th Infantry Division - GdD Lecoq
- - - - - - Saxon Guard Grenadiers [1
btn.]
- - - - - - Saxon 1st Light Infantry [2
btns.]
- - - - - - Saxon Maximilian Line
Infantry [1 btn.]
- - - - - - Saxon Rechten Line Infantry [1
btn.]
- - - - - - Saxon Converged Grenadiers
[1 btn.]
- - - - - - Saxon Friedrich August Line
Inf [2 btns]
- - - - - - Saxon Rechten Line Infantry [2
btns.]
- - - - - - Saxon 1st Foot Battery [6 guns]
- - - - - - Saxon 2nd Foot Battery [6
guns]
25th Infantry Division - GdD von Sahr
- - - - - - Saxon Converged Grenadiers
[1 btn.]
- - - - - - Saxon 2nd Light Infantry [2
btns.]
- - - - - - Saxon King's Line Infantry [1
guns]
- - - - - - Polish 2nd Infantry Regiment [2
btns.]
- - - - - - Polish 4th Infantry Regiment [2
btns.]
- - - - - - Polish 2nd Uhlan Regiment
- - - - - - Polish 4th Chasseurs-a-Cheval
Regiment
38th Infantry Division - GdD Franquemont
- - - - - - Wurttemberg 9th Light Infantry
Reg. [1 btn.]
- - - - - - Wurttemberg 10th Light Infantry
Reg. [1 btn]
- - - - - - Wurttemberg 7th Line Infantry
Reg. [2 btns.]
- - - - - - Wurttemberg 1st Line Infantry
Reg. [2 btns.]
- - - - - - Wurttemberg 2nd Line Infantry
Reg. [1 btn.]
Reg. [2 btns.]
Reg. [2 btns.]
- - - - - - Wurttemberg 1st Foot Battery [6
guns]
Reserve Artillery
- - - - - - French VIII/4th Horse Artillery [6
guns]
- - - - - - French XXIV/2nd Foot Artillery [8
guns]
- - - - - - French XXVI/2nd Foot Artillery [8
guns]
- - - - - - French XXV/4th Foot Artillery [8
guns]
btn.]
- - - - - - Saxon Niesem. Line Infantry [1
btn.]
- - - - - - Saxon Low Line Infantry [2
btns.]
- - - - - - Saxon Anton Line Infantry [2
btns.]
- - - - - - Saxon 3rd Foot Battery [6
guns]
- - - - - - Saxon 4th Foot Battery [6
guns]
32nd Infantry Division - GdD Durutte
- - - - - - French 35th Light Infantry [2
btns.]
- - - - - - French 132nd Line Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - French 36th Light Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - French 131st Line Infantry [3
btns.]
- - - - - - French 133rd Line Infantry [2
btns.]
- - - - - - Wurzburg Line Infantry [2
btns.]
- - - - - - French XII/1st Foot Battery [8
guns]
- - - - - - French XIII/8th Foot Battery [8
guns]
Reserve Artillery
- - - - - - Saxon 1st Horse Battery [6
guns]
- - - - - - Saxon 2nd Horse Battery [6
guns]
- - - - - - Saxon 1st (12pdrs) Foot Battery
[6 guns]
.
Oudinot.
He was a daring leaeder who could inspire
his men
with his own fighting ardor. When his horse
balked
during a review, he ran his sword through his
neck.
Oudinot also commanded the Guard Infantry.
He seemed to atrackt bullets,taking 34
wounds in all!
As an independent commander however
Oudinot was
a liability and never learned how to use his
cavalry,
artillery, and engineers.
XII Army Corps: MdE Oudinot
Chief-of-staff: GdD Lejeune
Cavalry Division/Brigade ? - GdD Beaumont
- - - - - - Westphalian Chev.-Lancier Regiment
[4 sq.]
- - - - - - Hessian Chevauxlegere Regiment [4
sq.]
- - - - - - Bavarian Chevaulegere Regiment [3
sq.]
13th Infantry Division - GdD Pacthod
- - - - - - French 1st Light Infantry Regiment
[1 btn.]
- - - - - - French 7th Line Infantry Regiment [2
btns.]
- - - - - - French 42nd Line Infantry Regiment
Arrighi de Casanova.
He was a brave cavalry leader. At
Salahieh
Arrighi received blow to the head. At
Acre
he was hit by a ball that passed
through his
neck. At Wertingen he received
several cuts
to the head. In 1806 Arrighi
commanded
the Guard Dragoon Regiment, and in
1809
the 3rd Cuirassier Division.
.
III Cavalry Corps: GdD Arrighi
Chief-of-staff: GdB Salel
5th Light Cavalry Division - GdD
Lorge
- - - - - - French 5th Chasseur
Regiment [2]
Regiment [2]
Regiment [2]
- - - - - - French 22nd Chasseur
Regiment [2]
Regiment [1]
[1 btn.]
- - - - - - French 67th Line Infantry Regiment
[2 btns.]
- - - - - - French 101st Line Infantry Regiment
[2 btns.]
- - - - - - French IV/4th Foot Artillery [8 guns]
- - - - - - French XX/4th Foot Artillery [8
guns]
14th Infantry Division - GdD Guilleminot
- - - - - - French 18th Light Infantry Regiment
[1 btn.]
- - - - - - French 7th Line Infantry Regiment [2
btns.]
[3 btns.]
- - - - - - French 52nd Line Infantry Regiment
[2 btns.]
[3 btns.]
- - - - - - Illirian Infantry [1 btn.]
- - - - - - French II/4th Foot Artillery [8 guns]
- - - - - - French I/8th Foot Artillery [8 guns]
29th Infantry Division - GdD Raglovich
- - - - - - Bavarian 1st Jager Regiment [1 btn.]
- - - - - - Bavarian 3rd Infantry Regiment [1
btn.]
- - - - - - Bavarian 4th Infantry Regiment [1
btn.]
btn.]
btn.]
- - - - - - Bavarian 2nd Jager Regiment [1 btn.]
btn.]
btn.]
btn.]
btn.]
- - - - - - Bavarian 1st Foot Battery [8 guns]
- - - - - - Bavarian 2nd Foot Battery [8 guns]
Reserve Artillery
- - - - - - French III/5th Horse Artillery [6
guns]
- - - - - - French I/4th Foot Artillery [8 guns]
- - - - - - French XVIII/4th Foot Artillery [8
guns]
- - - - - - French 21st Chasseur
Regiment [1]
6th Light Cavalry Division - GdD
Fournier
Regiment [1]
- - - - - - French 31st Chasseur
Regiment [1]
- - - - - - French 2nd Hussar Regiment
[2]
- - - - - - French 1st Hussar Regiment
[1]
- - - - - - French 4th Hussar Regiment
[1]
- - - - - - French 12th Hussar
Regiment [1]
4th Heavy Cavalry Division - GdD
Defrance
- - - - - - French 27th Dragoon
Regiment [2]
Regiment [1]
Regiment [1]
Regiment [1]
Regiment [1]
Regiment [1]
Reserve Artillery:
- - - - - - French I/5th Horse Artillery
- - - - - - French V/5th Horse
Artillery
- - - - - - French II/1st Horse Artillery
.
.
.
.
.
.

Saxon infantry
The Saxons boasted that their attack on
Berlin would leave no stone standing !
~
Battle of Dennewitz. Phase One.
" . . . now show what Prussian bravery is all about.
It is only fair that you fight in the first line since it
means that your own capital and your Fatherland
are at stake."
- Crown Prince of Sweden, Bernadotte, to Gen. Bulow
The terrain around Dennewitz was relatively flat, with few
low knolls, some rolling fields and meadows, and few
woods. Only two prominent hills commanded the sandy
plain. The Dennewitz windmill hill offered an unobstruckted
view of the area. A small marshy stream divided the
battlefield into northern and southern parts. Infantry could
only cross it with difficulty. The villages were well built but
lacked strong enclousers and provided little cover. There
was a wooden bridge in Dennewitz and a stone (narrow)
bridge at Rohrbeck. Although topography played a role, the
arrival of fresh troops became the deciding factor.
General Bulow climbed a church steeple and watched Bertrand's IV Corps
advance on the highway toward Juterborg. Then he ordered his corps to
march north, where hills commanded the area. Bulow deployed his heavy
Russian and Prussian 12pdrs on the hills, before the front, while the 6pdrs
remained with the infantry. Orderlies dispensed food, along with the
news of Blucher's victory at Katzbach.
Marshal Ney formed the battle line before 10 AM.
After 11 AM news arrived that Crown Prince of Sweden, Bernadotte,
planned to lead the rest of his army to support Bulow and Tauentzien. As
at the battle of Gross Beeren, the bombastic Crown Prince of Sweden,
Bernadotte, spoke of assisting the Prussians but promised nothing.
(Bernadotte to Bulow: "...now show what Prussian bravery is all about. It
is only fair that you fight in the first line since it means that your own
capital and your Fatherland are at stake. ... say to Bulow that I will come
and support him.")
The head of Tauentzien's corps just reached the wood north of Dennewitz
when Bertrand's artillery opened fire. The Prussians saw several French
infantry columns deployed in wide intervals north of Dennewitz. Behind
the infantry stood French cavalry.
.
Landwehr cavalry broke
several Italian battalions.
The battle began on the French right flank (Prussians' left). The Italian
battery fired the first shots. The Prussians guns responded immediately.
During the exchange of artillery fire three Prussian horse guns were
seriously damaged, and several gunners were killed and wounded.
To gain time for the deployment of Bulow's corps, Tauentzien ordered 9
squadrons of Landwehr cavalry to attack the flank of Fontanelli's Italian
division. Fontanelli's division was a strong one, it consisted of 14 infantry
battalions (including one of the Milan Guard) and 16 guns. The Landwehr
broke some of the Italian battalions. Approx. 10 squadrons of French
chasseurs from Lorge's division counterattacked but could not stop the
Prussians. The French and the Italians fled, some directly through the
infantry. The flight of cavalry triggered the flight of Bertrand's baggage.
Morand's French infantry (8th Light, 13th and 23rd Line) however
repulsed the Landwehr without any problems.
With the Landwehr gone Fontanelli pulled his division back, and closer to
Dennewitz.
Most of Lorge's chasseurs returned and were rallied behind the dragoons.
Landwehr cavalry in 1813, by Knotel.
The Landwehr was formed in 1813. Each man was expected to uniform himself.
If he was unable, the district would supply his gear. The state would provide
weapons and ammunition.The Landwehr cavalry was considered light cavalry.
In combat they often used the wide, single-rank formation, attacking the flank
and rear of the enemy. Like Cossacks the Landwehr cavalry generally avoided
the shock delivered by bodies in close order.
.
"The Prussians were savagely handed
and fell back with heavy casualties."
- George Nafziger
The Prussians sent out skirmishers of
the 5th Kurmark Landwehr. With their
ammunition expended the skirmishers
fell back, and in the process disordered
some troops behind them. The Italian
and French infantry advanced but
were met by musket volleys from a
Landwehr battalion. The attackers
brought forward 4 guns and fired
canister, inflicting 105 casualties on the
Landwehr.
Tauentzien's left wing withdrew
behind a small wood. On Tauentzien's
right wing the Italians attacked 3rd
Reserve Infantry, then brought several guns and drove the Prussians back.
The III/3rd Reserve Infantry suffered further casualties when one
squadron of 2nd Polish Uhlans led by Biernacki charged the skirmishers
and the battalion proper. "The Prussians were savagely handed and fell
back with heavy casualties. The I/3rd Reserve Regiment and II/2nd
Neumark Landwehr, were sent forward from the corps reserve with a
detachment of cavalry. Despite this reinforcement, Tauentzien's right wing
was forced back and had to reorganize itself. The Poles claimed to have
broken three squares in this action." (George Nafziger - "Napoleon's Dresden
Campaign" p 257)
The Prussians sent forward part of their cavalry (9 squadrons) under von
Dizielski, a Pole in Pruyssian service. They struck the French 10th
Chasseurs in the flank and crushed it. They also captured an Italian
battery before being forced to flee by volleys of the French 13th Light
Infantry. The French 13th Chasseurs then charged and routed 1st and 7th
Kurmark Landwehr Cavalry.
Polish uhlans, picture by Job.
In 1813 and 1814 the Poles formed Napoleon's best light cavalry.
They were excellent horsemen. Poland had large studs of horses
T h e horses were obtained in Europe from the well-paid Jewish
dealers . The Poles were also the best lancers in Europe. There
was however no heavy cavalry in Poland in that time.
.
New arrivals
(Bulow's corps).
The Italians in the wood found thesmelves heavily engaged with the
Prussian skirmishers. Wurttemberg battalion attacked and was driven
back by the Prussians. So far only Tauentzien's force was engaged.
About noon the leading echelon (Thumen's 4th Brigade and Death's Head
Hussars) of Bulow's Corps arrived. Thumen deployed his artillery near
Nieder-Gorsdorf and opened fire. Then came Krafft's 6th Brigade and
Hessen-Homburg's 3rd Brigade. The Reserve Cavalry under von Oppen
arrived too. In the three brigades (3rd, 4th and 6th) Bulow had 1 grenadier
and 12 infantry battalions, and 10 reserve and 7 Landwehr battalions.
Marshal Ney sent Marshal Oudinot's XII Army Corps (French, Bavarian,
Westphalian and Hessian troops) an order to join him. The XII Army
Corps was considered made of veterans as they had fought at both Lutzen
and Bautzen. Oudinot himself was probably the weakest link. Although
he was brave and fearless to a fault Napoleon was not impressed with his
skills as an independent commander. While in exile on St. Helena the
emperor once commented that although Oudinot was "a decent fellow, he
was not very bright."
Prussian general, Borstell, observed the dust clouds that announced
Oudinot's arrival. The marshal however moved without eagerness, with
Pacthod's and Guilleminot's divisions in the lead. GdD Reynier's VII
Army Corps (French and Saxon troops) also received an order and were
on the road.
Prussian reserve infantry, by Steven Palatka.
They had little training and they lacked everything; uniforms, weapons.
Some even wore foreign uniforms (British) However their morale in 1813
was high and they performed quite well. The reserve infantry regiments
became line infantry regiments in 1814.
.
Morand's counterattack.
Prussian brigade fell back.
Several Italian and Wurttemberg battalions advanced against the
Prussians in the wood and drove them back. They also attacked the II/5th
Reserve Infantry from the flank and routed it. GdD Morand sent 8th Light
and 13th Line against the enemy in Nieder-Gorsdorf. The French closed to
within 30 paces from another battalion of that regiment and exchanged
volleys.
Then Thumen's brigade intervened. This formation consisted of three
regiments; the 4th East Prussian Infantry, the Elbe Infantry, and the 5th
Reserve Infantry. There were also few small units of cavalry and artillery.
Thumen forced Morand's men to fall back in disorder. Morand however
responded with his own counterattack supported by his artillery.
The Prussians took heavy casualties and fell back. Three battalions of 3rd
East Prussia Infantry (from Hessen-Homburg's 3rd Brigade) and two of
5th Reserve Infantry pulled back to the right of Nieder-Gorsdorf where
they were covered by 12 Russian and 12 Prussian heavy guns.
General Morand
Battle hardened general. He was wounded in 1805 at Austerlitz,
wounded in 1806 at Jena, wounded in 1807 at Eylau, in 1812 at
Borodino his jaw was smashed , etc . Morand distinguished himself
in 1809 at Landshut,Eckmuhl,and Wagram, and in 1813 at Lutzen
and Bautzen. Morand is most known from the fact that he was one
of divisional commanders in Davout's famous corps(Morand,Friant
Dessaix,Compans).At Waterloo Morand and Friant commanded the
Old and Middle Guard.
(He married a daughter of Polish aristocrat, with Davout present.)
.
"Ney is supposed to have sent him
to Napoleon after 'ripping off his epaulets."
- George Nafziger
The 2nd Polish Uhlans and a handful of French chasseurs threw
themselves against the Prussian infantry, cavalry and artillery. They rode
furiously through the skirmish line, then attacked five or six battalions
formed in squares. (The Prussian infantry used closed columns instead of
squares against cavalry. When enemy's cavalry approached the outer files
filled the gaps between the troops. Such compact formaion was formed
quickly, the troopers in 1st rank outstretched their bayonets while those in
2nd rank fired. The men in 3rd rank loaded the muskets and passed to the
2nd rank.)
Despite volleys at close range and casualties the Poles and Frenchmen
pressed forward, passed between the battalions and engaged Tauentzien's
cavalry. Then the 1st Life Hussars (the famous Death's Head Hussars)
arrived. Being heavily outnumbered the Polish and French cavalry
attempted to disengage. They passed in front of Krafft's brigade, received
musket volleys and canister, and after losing 102 men reached the French
and Italian positions. On the way back the Poles managed to overrun
Prussian munition column near Wolmsdorf. The Landwehr infantry fired
on the uhlans but instead they inflicted casualties on their own gunners.
Marshal Ney immediately ordered the Westphalian cavalry to support the
Poles, but its commander did not move. "Ney is supposed to have sent
him to Napoleon after 'ripping off his epaulets." (- George Nafziger)
Meanwhile the French cavalry attacked Prussian batteries killing number
of men and horses. French skirmishers opened fire on a battalion of
Landwehr causing it to waver. The French artillery dismounted 4 Prussian
guns.
Prussian Death's Head Hussars
counterattacking Polish uhlans.
Westphalian chevauxlegere, by Knoetel.
Marshal Ney ordered the Westphalians to support the
outnumbered Poles, but its commander did not move.
Shako of the 1st Life Hussars.
They did wear the "T o t e n k o p f" on their shakos.
This badge was also used by the famous Nazi unit
Das Reich SS Panzer Division during World War 2.
.
Heavy fighting in the center.
One square formed by Wurttemberg
infantry lost 531, only 70 escaped !
General Defrance's dragoons arrived and took positions behind a low hill
in the center of Ney's battle line. They were concealed from the view of
the Prussian gunners. The artillery fire was heavy and the village of
Nieder-Gohrsdorf was burning. Thumen counterattacked with 5
battalions and a small force of cavalry. The Italians and Wurttembergs
were driven back. Two Wurttemberg battalions formed in squares were
broken by canister fire and suffered horrible casualties. One square lost
531, only 70 escaped ! Morand's division was left with open flank and
began to pull back.
Part of Durutte's division attacked Prussian center pushing Clausewitz
with three battalions back. A company of Prussian schutzen (riflemen)
opened fire on the French columns. While the French infantry entered the
village, Defrance's dragoons assaulted the withdrawing Prussians.
Clausewitz fell back and joined Thumen's men. Thumen's and Heseen-
Homburg's brigade being under strong pressure became mixed.
Defrance's division however was too weak to make the breakthrough on
its own, it numbered only eight squadrons.
Prussian infantry at Dennewitz. Picture by Edmund Rabe.
Map of the battle of Dennewitz.
Fight for Gohlsdorf
Battle of Dennewitz . Phase Two .
Ney attacked the Prussian center again .
With an intimidating tumult, the drums beat
pas de charge and the shout Vive l'Empereur !
rose from hundreds of French throats.
The shattered Wurttembergs withdrew to Rohlbeck, followed by
Tauentzien's and Kleist's troops. About 3:30 PM Tauentzien's
artillery had expended its ammunition. Russian VII Heavy Battery
arrived and deployed 900 paces from Rohrbeck. Two Prussian
battalions with skirmishers in their lead advanced against the enemy.
Tauentzien's Cossacks and Landwehr cavalry appeared near
Rohlbeck as well.
.
Bloody fight for Gohlsdorf.
The Saxons were masters of the main street,
while the Prussians occupied the cemetery.
On the other flank Borstell's 5th Brigade attacked Gohlsdorf and
Saxon positions. Borstell had artillery and skirmishers in the front,
followed by battalions formed in columns. His cavalry moved on the
right flank of the brigade. Michael Leggeire writes, "The Prussian
battalions slowly approached Golsdorf as steady fire from the
Golsdorf windmill hill depleted their ranks. Prussian skirmishers
reached the gardens and perimeter of the village, where a standing
combat ensued until their columns penetrated the small village."
Borstell's first assault was repulsed by the Saxons. But then the
fusiliers (light infantry) of 3rd East Prussian captured the gardens on
and entered Gohlsdorf.
Saxon grenadiers counterattacked, the Prussians regouped and came
back. The Saxons defended the walls of the cemetery and individual
headstones until the Prussians eventually gained the upper hand.
(The I/1st Neumark Landwehr lost 234 killed and wounded at the
cemetery !) Now the Saxons were masters of the main street, while
the Prussians occupied the cemetery. Meanwhile Saxon artillery
drove back von Oppen's Reserve Cavalry. To put more pressure on
Ney's flank Bulow sent order to Hessen-Homburg's 3rd Brigade to
support Borstell.
Saxon infantry
The infantry was reliable, well uniformed and supplied.
(Seven years earlier, during the Jena Campaign in 1806,
Saxony and Prussia were allies.)
.
The Swedes arrive.
"The appearance of the troops, collectively, was good;
individually, they had not the air, the gait . . . and their
appearance, after seeing the Russians and the Prussians,
was unprepossessing." - Sir Charles Stewart
The Swedes and a single Russian battery soon arrived and placed
themselves on Borstell's left. The Swedish troops came from the
Crown Prince's army. Nafziger gives only two Swedish units at
Dennewitz, a hussar regiment and horse battery. Christer Edling
however mentions several Swedish cavalry units: Royal Majesty's
Life Guard, Life Cuirassiers, Light Dragoons of Smaaland, King's
Hussars, and the Hussar Regiment of Skane.
English General Sir Charles Stewart described the Swedish troops:
"The appearance of the [Swedish] troops, collectively, was good;
individually, they had not the air, the gait, or dress of disciplined
soldiers: neither the old troops or new levies were steady under
arms: their clothes were ill made: and their appearance, after seeing
the Russians and the Prussians, was unprepossessing.
However, I must do them justice to admit, that their performance in
the field exceeded my anticipations. Their guards and artillery were
composed of the choice of their men, and throughout, the
composition of the Swedish soldierly was respectable. ... I saw four
cavalry regiments ... The Swedish horse is not a good animal, having
a very short neck, and an immense thick cart hind-quarter: he may
endure fatigue, but in point of appearance and movement he is a
sorry exhibition."
Swedish hussar in 1 8 1 4 .
Kongens Lif Garde till Hst
.
The Prussians captured Gohlsdorf.
The village and its surroundings were covered
with thousands of dead and wounded soldiers .
The reinforced Prussians assaulted Gohlsdorf and took 350
prisoners. Oudinot's artillery opened fire on Gohlsdorf and drove the
enemy back. Borstel's brought 8 battalions formed in two lines with
cavalry covering both flanks. This force attacked the village, suffered
heavy casualties from the Saxon artillery and fell back pursued by
Saxon 6 battalions.
Marshal Oudinot sent several battalions of Guilleminot's 14th
Infantry Division into Gohlsdorf. The bulk of Guilleminot's force
consisted of 7th, 52nd, 137th, and 156th Line Infantry. They were not
the best and not the worst troops. The French immediately became
target for the Prussian, Russian and Swedish cannons and howitzers.
The Prussian infantry then attempted to capture a Saxon battery. This
however failed when the gunners fired canister at 60 paces.
Decimated and shattered, the attackers fled in great disorder.
Another Prussian battalion however was more successful and they
captured Saxon color.
Finally Gohlsdorf was in Prussian hands. The small village and its
surroundings were covered with thousands of dead and wounded
infantrymen (1268 Prussians, 1500 Saxons, and few hundreds of
French). Several damaged and unlimbered guns and numerous
ammunition wagons remained on the hill near Gohlsdorf. The entire
Saxon line wavered until Defrance's dragoons charged and stabilized
the situation. Seeing this the much relieved Marshal Ney ordered
Marshal Oudiont's XIII Army Corps to disengage and assume a
position in the rear and center.
Prussians vs French at Wartenburg 1813, by Knotel.
by Prussian grenadiers and musketeers. (Some sources mention only
combat situations ) . The fusiliers were light infantry and were more
flexible in this aspect.
.
Ney attempted the last desperate attack.
The columns of French infantry strode forward at
a brisk pace. The French appeared on the verge of
a victory and Ney needed only to administer the
coup de grace. Unfortunately he had no reserves !
Ney attacked the Prussian center again, this time with a stronger
force of infantry. With an intimidating tumult, the drums beat pas de
charge and the shout Vive l'Empereur ! rose from hundreds of French
throats. The columns of infantry strode forward at a brisk pace. In
the meantime the Prussian gunners opened a rapid fire, to inflict as
much damage on the enemy as possible but also to heighten the
psychological effect of this approaching masses. The French
quickened their pace through the fields so as to be exposed to the
cannon fire as briefly as possible.
Several battalions of Durrutte's and Morand's divisions, and part of
Oudinot's XII Corps struck the center and forced the Prussians to
abandon Wolmsdorf and Nieder-Gohlsdorf. The French appeared on
the verge of a victory and Ney needed only to administer the coup
de grace. Unfortunately he had no reserve ! Having joined in the
fighting personally he was unaware of the overall tactical situation
on the battlefield. Ney withdrew Oudiont from the action and
moved his corps to Rohlbeck.
At 4:30 PM Ney attempted the last desperate attack in the center.
Fontanelli's Italians and Morand's Frenchmen formed in battalion
columns advanced behind a thick chain of skirmishers until they
were 80 paces from the Prussian infantry formed in line. The
musketry was tremendous. The Prussian Death's Head Hussars (2
squadrons) and some Landwehr cavalry charged and routed French
chasseurs. After this cavalry action Fontanelli's and Morand's
infantry fell back.
Ney
Marshal Ney
Having joined in the fighting personally
the brave Ney was unaware of the overall
tactical situation on the battlefield.
.
Prussian victory.
The Saxons began withdrawal and colided with
Oudinot's troops. Ney's center became engulfed
in chaos.
The artilley bombardement was felt keenly by the infantry and
cavalry on both sides. The Saxons began withdrawal, sporadically
turning on their pursuers. Ney rode to that sector of the battlefield
and tried to rally the men. The Saxons then colided with Oudinot's
battalions and carried them as well. The French center became
engulfed in chaos and two Prussian battalions easily captured
Dennewitz.
The fleeing Ney's infantry rolled through Rohlbeck seeking
protection behind the stream. The Wurttemburgers covered the
retreat until flames engulfed the village. Thumen's brigade continued
forward and attempted to take Rohlbeck. Russian heavy guns set the
village ablaze and the Prussian Landwehr infantry and schutzen
(riflemen) entered Rohrbeck. The Landwehr cavalry rode through
the village and struck French cavalry. The French broke and fled
abandoning the battlefield.
The Russian 44th Jagers and two hussar regiments arrived on the
battlefield and immediately moved to the vicinity of Wolmsdorf. The
Russian Izoum Hussars and the Prussian Pomeranian Hussars
routed French cavalry and captured 3 guns. On the extreme flank
von Oppen's Reserve Cavalry captured large quantity of baggage.
The confusion on the roads was tremendous, and wagons, guns, and
abandoned rquipment formed obstacles for the retiring infantry.
Prussian cavalry followed the enemy and took many prisoners. Most
of the infantry however was exhausted and took no part in the
pursuit. The long march on the previous day, the restless morning,
and the battle under parching sun had fatigued them. The falling
darkness meant that orders could not be effectively communicated to
the disorganized troops.
Bulow pursuing the French at Dennewitz.
.
Bernadotte's pursuit was leisurely.
Oudinot informed Berthier about 6,000 French deserters
who threw away their muskets in order to run faster.
Bernadotte's pursuit was leisurely and reached Zerbst on 15th
September. Then he began coordinating his movements with
Blucher's army. "Bernadotte was criticised by his German allies for
this apparent apathy in committing his army and especially his
Swedes. This dented Bernadotte's military reputation and resulted in
bad German publicity for the Northern Army in the Wars of
Liberation." (- Bjrn Bergrus)
Bernadotte wrote his own account of this battle in one of his
bulletins. According to Crown Prince, once Bulow had engaged the
enemy, "70 Russian and Swedish battalions, 10,000 cavalry, and 150
guns advanced in attack columns ... The enemy beat a retreat; the
cavalry charged with a boldness resembling fury and carried
disorder into his columns, which retreated in great haste."
After Bernadotte's account was also published in Berlin newspapers,
Bulow exploded, "When reading the newspapers I became
thoroughly disgusted by Bernadotte's shameful bulletins. ... His
bulletins contain almost nothing but lies ..." (Bulow had many
reasons to hate the Crown Prince. As much as the Prussian claimed
to be the victor at Gross Beeren, it was Bernadotte who received the
coveted Grand Cross of the Iron Cross - the most prestigious
decoration of the Prussian army. The Tzar awarded Bernadotte the
Grand Cross of the Order of St.George, and the Austrians with their
Grand Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa !)
Ney's shattered and decimated army reached Torgau on 7th
September "after making a 40 km march without halting." Ney wrote
that when the XII Corps ran into a few Cossacks; the troops gave into
such a panic-stricken terror that it was very difficult to rally them.
He also informed Berthier about 6,000 deserters who threw away
their muskets in order to run faster. Oudinot's XII Army Corps was
disbanded and its French troops distributed to the other corps.
Raglowich's Bavarians were sent to Dresden.
On the Allies side Bernadotte wasted time and opportunity. Lorraine
Petre writes, We see Bernadotte, after Bulows victory at Dennewitz,
hanging about without making any serious attempt to reap the fruits
of his success by crossing the Elbe; building bridges and removing
them as soon as the enemy appeared. (Petre Last Campaign p
295)
Bernadotte
"I remarked to Colonel Pozzo di Borgio that a
great contradiction exists between Bernadotte's
wish to protect the Swedes, and the enduring
wish to protect the French ..."
- Thornton to Castlereagh
~
The victory at Dennewitz inspired the greatest enthusiasm in
Prussia.
Bavaria withdrew from the war as a result of the failure of the Berlin
campaign. Other German states were now wavering in their support
of
Napoleon.
Ney and Oudinot had a falling out after the battle, both requesting
the Emperor relieve them. Napoleon gave Oudinot the command
over the Young Guard. Like Marshal MacDonald only few days
earlier, Ney begged for Napoleon's personal intervention to prevent
the army from dissolving. He stated that only the emperor's presence
could inspire the troops and renew their courage. General Bertrand
added that if the emperor merely reviewed the troops, the resulting
boost in morale would double the fighting value of the army.
Bulow (III and IV Corps) probably lost 7,000-10,000 men at
Dennewitz.
Ney's losses amounted to 21,500 (8,000 dead and wounded, and
13,500 prisoners) 53 guns, and 412 supply wagons. Large quantities
of material and small arms were left on the battlefield and used to
fill the shortages in the Prussian Landwehr." (- Leggiere p 209)
George Nafziger writes: "It is difficult to say why Dennewitz turned
out as it did. The principal problem on the French side of the battle
was lack of a clear, overall plan of battle. Ney is often accused of
getting too closely involved in the battle and losing the overall vision
of what was happening. On the other hand, Oudinot is also accused
of sour grapes at having his command given to another after his
defeat at Gross-Beeren."
The victory at Dennewitz crowned a long succession of Prussian
victories over the French (Gross Beeren, Hagelberg, Kulm,
Dennewitz, Katzbach) that inspired the greatest enthusiasm in
Prussia. Bavaria withdrew from the war as a result of the failure of
the Berlin campaign. Other German states were now wavering in
their support of Napoleon. Bavarian General Raglovich wrote his
king that the French troops can no longer execute any large offensive.
General Fraquemont reported the King of Wurttemberg that "the
French generals and officers are weary of wars, and the soldiers can
only be animated by the presence of Napoleon himself."
Despite the long list of Allies victories over the French marshals, the
emperor still loomed in the distance. If any of the powerful Allied
armies imprudently moved forward, it could fell prey to Napoleon.
From his central position he waited for such an opportunity.
Bulow memorial at Dennewitz
PS.
"The battlefield at Dennewitz is well preserved and looks much as it
did in 1813. With the exception of Niedergotsdorf, which has
expanded somewhat, the other three villages have experienced little
growth. The district government in Juteborg is working to preserve
the battlefield as a historic park. Numerous monuments, a battlefield
walking tour, and a museum in Dennewitz dedicated to the battle
make a trip to the battlefield worthwhile. By train the trip from
Berlin takes almost 2 hours, and visitors can stay at the Wirtshaus
zum Grafen Bulow, a cozy inn with comfortable beds, modern
bathrooms, and an interesting menu that features such dishes as
'General Bulow's Siegeechmaus' [Victorey Feast] and 'Napoleon's
Henkersmahlzeit' [Last Meal Before Execution]"(Leggiere - "Napoleon
and Berlin" p 341)
By the way, Dennewitz is situated near Torgau,
where during the WW2 U.S. Army forces coming
from the west met with the Soviet troops coming from the east. On
the ruins of the bridge over the Elbe at Torgau, Lieutenant Bill
Robertson and Sergeant Nikolai Andreyev shook their hands. It
symbolized the Allies' hard-fought victory over the fearsome Nazi
Germany.
Sources and Links.
Nafziger - "Napoleon's Dresden Campaign" (website)
Blond - "La Grande Armee"
Bogdanovich - "Istoriia Voiny 1813 Goda"
Lukasiewicz - "Armia ksiecia Jzefa 1813"
Sporschil - "Die Grosse Chronik"
Esposito, Nafziger - "Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars"
Plotho - "Der Krieg in Deutschland und Frankreich in den Jahren 1813 und 1814"
Battle of Leipzig 1813 : Battle of Nations : Napoleon : Schlacht : Bataille
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Leipzig_battle.htm[2012-05-21 12:45:04]
Battle of Leipzig - October 1813
"Battle of the Nations"
.
"... a spectacle such as has not been seen for 1 000 of years."
- General von Gneissenau
"The decisive hour has now arrived for France.
This evening we must either win or all die !"
- General Maison
.
Concentration of troops around Leipzig
"All the armies of Europe had met together
on the ground around Leipzig." - J. Barres
- - - Napoleon's plans >
- - - Allies' plans >
- - - Armies >
- - - Map >
Allies' offensive in the south.
"One should not believe but they
[Allies] are really attacking me."
- Napoleon
- - - Allies attacks on the village of Wachau >
- - - Allies attacks on the village of Liebertwolkwitz >
- - - Allies attacks along the Pleisse River >
- - - Napoleon and Alexander >
Napoleon strikes back.
"We seem to have reached the crisis;
now all depends on fighting hard."
- Napoleon
- - - French infantry retook Wachau and Liebertwolkwitz >
- - - French 100 guns on Gallows Hill >
- - - Grand cavalry charge of 10,000 horsemen. >
- - - Polish uhlans vs Russian cuirassiers and hussars >
- - - Young Guard in action >
- - - Macdonald >
- - - "The battle is won." - Napoleon >
Allies halt Napoleon's offensive
The Allies sent forward everything
they could mass against Napoleon
including their best troops.
- - - Allies cavalry's counterattacks >
- - - Austrian cuirassiers vs Old Guard Dragoons and Poles >
- - - Russian and Austrian grenadiers enter the battle. >
- - - The Prussians and the Russian Foot Guards
- - - recaptured Gulden Gossa and the University Wood >
- - - Austrian grenadiers and the Hungarians
- - - recaptured Markkleeberg and the sheep-farm >
- - - "The wounded groan and the church bells ring." >
The Battle of Leipzig Monument.
This collosal monument is Germany's largest.
It has a 91-metre-high observation platform.
Allies' offensive in the north: Battle of Mockern
"Go towards Leipzig and attack the enemy
[Napoleon] where you encounter him." -
Prussian General Blucher
- - - "... the bitterest fight I have ever seen in my life" >
- - - Blucher vs Marmont (Round 1) >
- - - Blucher vs Marmont (Round 2) >
- - - Great cavalry charge gave Blucher victory >
- - - Ney and Marmont fell back >
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Leipzig is the most fascinating napoleonic battle for us. We love the dynamics of this conflict, the
immense masses of troops, and the drama. The political consequences of the Battle of the Nations
decided the fate of Napoleonic France, freedom of Prussia, a sad future for Poland, and politicallt
shaped Europe for years to come. There are many other reasons making the battle quite unique.
Leipzig was the largest conflict until World War One:
1. Leipzig (1813) - 400.000-560.000 Combatants
2. Sedan (1870) - 310.000-33.000
3. Gravelotte (1870) - 290.000-310.000
4. Vienna (1683) - 250.000-290.000
5. Gaugamela (331 BC) - 230.000-270.000
Leipzig was the largest battle of the Napoleonic Wars:
1. Leipzig (1813) - 400.000-560.000 Combatants
2. Dresden (1813) - 300.000-350.000
3. Wagram (1809) - 300.000-320.000
4. Borodino (1812) - 250.000-260.000
Three emperors and three kings participated in this epic conflict:
- Emperor of France, Napoleon
- Emperor of Russia, Alexander I (Tzar Aleksandr I Pavlovich)
- Emperor of Austria, Francis II (Kaiser Franz II)
- King of Prussia, Frederick William III (Knig Friedrich Wilhelm III)
- King of Saxony and Joahim Murat King of Naples
- Crown Prince of Sweden, Jean-Baptiste-Jules Bernadotte
Soldiers of more than 20 nationalities were present on the battlefield.
- 160.000 Frenchmen
- 150.000 Russians
- 115.000 Austrians
- 75.000 Prussians
- 20.000 Swedes
- 10.000 Poles
- 9.000 Italians
- 6.000 Saxons
- 5.000 Badens
- 3.500 Wirtembergians
- 2.500 Hessians
- 2.000 Westphalians
and Finns, Danes, Spaniards, Portugueses, few Greeks, Brits,
Belgians, Dutch, Kalmuks, Tartars and Bashkirs.
The battle also includes:
The largest cavalry charge until War World One
The largest battery of the Napoleonic Wars.
Concentration of troops around Leipzig.
"All the armies of Europe had met together
on the ground around Leipzig." - J. Barres
In 1813, Saxony, a country in the very center of Europe, became the battleground for the World
Powers: France, Austria and Russia, and their allies, Prussia, Poland, Saxony, Sweden and several
German states. Napoleon concentrated his armies around Leipzig and then moved against Blucher's
(60,000-70,000 men) and Bernadotte's (70,000-80,000 men) armies. He hoped to defeat them before
Schwarzenberg's (180,000 men) and Bennigsen's armies would join them. The Emperor forced rapid
marches, on empty stomachs, pushing his troops to their limit. The young soldiers were not able to
move as fast as Napoleon needed them to march. As a result the enemy was able to avoid a general
battle and began rapid withdrawal. During this retreat the Napoleonic forces, caught up with
enemy's rear guard, cut some troops of Sacken's corps to pieces and captured large portion of
Blucher's baggage trains.
Strategic situation on October 2nd 1813.
Napoleon concentrated his army around Leipzig and then moved north
against Blucher's and Bernadotte's armies. He hoped to defeat them
before Schwarzenberg's and Bennigsen's armies would join them.
Strategic situation on October 9th 1813.
Napoleon's maneuvers against the lines of communications
had not caused Blucher to call retreat, which was in disobedience
to the orders given him by the timid Bernadotte.
When Blucher's army was licking its wounds, Napoleon planned to turn his armies about, march
southward and crush the massive army led by Schwarzenberg, before Blucher would join him.
Meanwhile Schwarzenberg put a tremendous pressure on the tiny corps led by Poniatowski.
Although the Poles received support from the French (Murat's cavalry, Lauriston's corps, and Victor's
corps) they were unable to hold their positions at Penig and Borna for long. Meanwhile Blucher
ordered his army to move southward against Napoleon's base of operations at Leipzig.
Baron de Marbot of French light cavalry wrote: "The city of Leipzig is one of the most commercial
and richest in Germany. It stands in the middle of a great plain which extends from the Elbe to the
Harz mountains, to Thuringia and to Bohemia. Its situation has made it almost always the principal
theatre for the wars which have bloodied Germany. The small stream of the Elster, almost
insignificant enough to be called a brook, flows from south to north through a shallow valley amid
marshy meadows. ... The Pleisse, a still smaller stream than the Elster, flows about a league and a half
from it, and joins it under the walls of Leipzig, while north of the town the Partha flows into it.
Leipzig ... was surrounded by an old wall having four large and three small gates. The road to
Lutzen, by Lindenau, formed the only communication open to the rear of the French army."
On 15th October, it was Friday, Napoleon set out to inspect the battlefield. The Emperor rode to
Probstheida, Galgenberg Hill near Liebertwolkwitz, Holzhausen, and then west to Dolitz to confer
with Prince Poniatowski. He then rode back to Holzhausen where he spoke to the commander of the
Saxon Leib-Grenadier Battalion. In Zuckelhausen Napoleon found Marshal Augereau. Having
completed his tour, the Emperor dictated his orders for the following day's operations to his chief-of-
staff Marshal Berthier.
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Napoleon's plans.
Napoleon's longing for a decisive battle caused him
to accept an inferior position. Though outnumbered,
he planned to take the offensive.
Napoleon had established his observation point on the roof of the immense Meusdorf mansion. His
headquarters were in the mansion itself and messengers came and went nonstop, taking down
dispatches from Napoleon's or Berthier's, his chief-of-staff, dictation. Berthier was Emperor's
indispensable chief of staff. He was a very seasoned campaigner and had served in the American
Revolution and then in numerous campaigns in Europe. His desk was covered with papers and
maps.
Though outnumbered, Napoleon planned to take the offensive between the Pleisse and the Parthe
rivers. The position at Leipzig offered several advantages. The rivers that converged there split the
surrounding terrain into many separate sectors. The important bridges on Pleisse and Elster River
were defended by infantry, sappers and few guns. Holding Leipzig and its bridges, Napoleon could
shift troops from one sector to another far more rapidly than could the Allies.
The French main position was south of Leipzig, between the villages of Wachau and
Liebertwolkwitz. Wachau was defended by Marshal Victor's infantry, while Liebertwolkwitz was
occupied by General Lauriston's forces. The western flank of the main position - along the Pleisse -
was defended by the "intrepid Poniatowski" and Marshal Augereau. The eastern flank was defended
by MacDonald's infantry and Sebastiani's cavalry.
The secondary French position was north of Leipzig, between Mockern and Wiederitzsch. It was
defended by Marshal Ney, Marshal Marmont, General Souham and General Arrighi.
Artillery reserve and parks, ambulances and baggages stood near Leipzig. The Old Guard, the Young
Guard (under Marshals Mortier and Oudinot), and the powerful Reserve Cavalry (under Marshal
Murat) were kept in reserve.
Napoleon Bonaparte
Holding Leipzig and its bridges,
Napoleon could shift troops from
one sector to another far more rapidly
than could the Allies.
About midnight one of Napoleon's staff members cried out that a rocket (ext.link) was discharged
from the Allies' camp, and had ascended into the air, followed by even more projectile from behind
Magdeborn and Stormthal. Napoleon and his staff were watching the rockets from the roof of the
Meusdorf mansion. (Gleig - "The Leipsic Campaign" page 211)
From here they could view the breathtaking panorama of a "hundred thousand campfires" fanning
out in a monstrous circle. Then somewwhere north of Leipzig, answering signals went up. Obviously
Blucher's Prussian troops had signaled its presence. Napoleon retired to his chamber and lay down.
He was very tired and urgently needed sleep while it was still possible.
.
Allies' plans.
Schwarzenberg's plan had the unusual virtue
of being so bad that everyone protested.
A substantial staff supported the allied commanders. The staff however was not a smooth running
and efficient organization. It was fraught with incompetence and petty rivalries where factions fought
each other. Its work was as much military as it was toadying to the vanities of the monarchs. Many
were hardly competing for favor with the Tsar of Russia. The greatest influence on the military
planning in 1813 had generals Volkonski (Russian), Toll (Russian), Knesebeck (Prussian) and
Scharnhorst (Prussian).
The overall command however was at the hands of Austrian Karl Phillip Frst zu Schwarzenberg.
Schwarzenberg had served as a politician as well as a general. He served as an ambassador in Russia
and France. As general however he did not win the confidence of either the Tsar of Russia or the
King of Prussia. This 42-year-old commander had little faith in himself when facing Napoleon.
(Maude - "The Leipzig Campaign, 1813" page 253)
Schwarzenberg's chief of staff was Radetzky, an extremely energetic man and liked by all. He was
born in Trebnice (now in Czech Republic). His efforts to modernize the Austrian army were partially
frustrated by a lack of funds. His plans of fighting Napoleon's commanders instead of Napoleon
himself in previous months had worked miracles.
Commander-in-Chief Schwarzenberg
Schwarzenberg's original plan called for
a main attack astride the Pleisse River.
Schwarzenberg's original plan called for a secondary attack on the bridge between Leipzig and
Lindenau, and a main attack astride the Pleisse River. According to his plan Blucher and Gyulai
would attack Lindenau, while Merveldt, Hessen-Homburg and the Prussian Guard would advance
between the Pleisse and the Elster, the rest of the troops along the Pleisse's eastern bank.
Schwarzenberg's plan had the unusual virtue of being so bad that everyone protested. Tsar
Alexander, "surprised beyond measure at this unanimity among his generals", intervened, forcing
Schwarzenberg to develop a new plan that was largely designed to let everyone do as they pleased.
Blucher's axis of advance was shifted northward to the Halle road, the Russian and Prussian guards
and the Russian heavy cavalry would be amassed at Rotha in general reserve. The Austrian
grenadiers and cuirassiers would advance between the rivers. (Esposito & Elting - "Military History
and Atlas of the Napoleonic wars.")
Tsar of Russia, Alexander I
"Of the allied sovereigns, the Tsar
generally succeeded in taking
the most influential position."
- Loraine Petre
The Russian monarch admonished Schwarzenberg, who plan he thought poor. Tsar Alexander said:
"Well, Marshal, since you insist, you will do what you like with the Austrian army, but as for the
Russian troops of Grand Duke Constantine and Barclay de Tolly they will go to the right of the
Pleisse River where they ought to be and nowhere else !"
The course of events proved Tzar Alexander and not Schwarzenberg was right. The action he had
ordered Blucher to take met with great success north of Leipzig and the actions of Russian guard was
decisive in halting the French all-out attack on Gulden Gossa. On the other hand, the actions of
Austrians along Pleisse River, ended in failure.
King of Prussia.
Frederick William III,
During the discussion in Allies headquarters
he avoided expressing an opinion
as if the affair didn't concern him.
There was a close friendship between the King of Prussia and the Tsar of Russia.
.
Armies.
"When day broke, we could see nothing
but the sky and soldiers."
Autumn wind blew over the rolling fields and pastures. The sky had a grey hue. The torrential rains
in previous weeks made it difficult for the troops to march. Hundreds lost their shoes in the seas of
mud, and their feet were mud caked and cold. The troops kept coming from every direction. The
roads and meadows were crowded with marching infantry and cavalry, rolling artillery and
ammunition wagons. Accompanying the thousands of soldiers and officers, and hundreds of
generals, were grooms, drivers, campfollowers and servants.
The artillery took the main roads. The ammunition wagons and carriages bounced and rattled along,
their horses plodding on as unwillingly as ever, accompanied by the steady squelching of countless
hooves, and the wheezing of the wheels. The infantry and cavalry marched across the fields
trampling the grass and weeds. Many troops took the secondary roads or marched on both sides of
the highways. (In Germany trees adorned the roadsides.) Soldiers shouted profanisties whenever
messengers on fast mounts hurried with orders and splashed them with mud. Here and there rode
generals in little carts.
The daughter of the vicar of Seifertshaim writes: "The view from the church tower showed us that the
entire area towards Leipzig was covered with soldiers. The roads as far as we could see were black
with marching troops, guns, ammunition wagons, pouring in endless streams towards the battlefield.
An Austrian officer warned us that we should prepare to flee at all costs. ... The danger seemed to
come closer by the minute."
"The view from the church tower showed us that the entire area
was covered with soldiers. The roads as far as we could see
were black with troops."
Night was coming and all the villages had become crowded with soldiers in a variety of uniforms.
Each house and barn accommodated dozens of men. Many slept in the gardens and on the streets.
The knapsack and saddle had to serve as pillows. The horses sunk their muzzles in the streams and
ponds and gulped. In all directions blazed camprires, with blue-grey columns of smoke wafting into
the dark autumn sky. The glare of the campfires was quite striking according to G.R.Gleig. (Gleig -
"The Leipsic Campaign" page 210)
A French sergeant-major of Maison's division writes: "When day broke, we could see nothing but the
sky and soldiers."
Authors disagree on the actual strentgh of the French and Allies armies.
- German historian Quistrop gives Allies 193.920 men and French 187.110 men.
- French author, Vaudoncourt, gives Allies 349.000 and French 156.800 men.
- American author, Bowden, gave Allies 361.100 and Napoleon 219.100 men.
After making our own calculation we agreed on the following numbers:
Napoleon had 150.000-175.000 men in the front line. If counted with
artillery parks, detached troops, men in hospitals it would be 200.000 men
French Order of Battle [1] . [2]
French
Polish ->
Italian
Saxon ->
Baden
Wirtembergian
Hessian
Westphalian
The French infantry and cavalry of 1813 were made of very young men, brave and enthusiastic but
hastily trained and lacking physical stamina. They were led by battle-hardened veteran NCOs,
officers and generals. The French artillery and engineers were - as usual - excellent.
Commander-in-Chief: Emperor Napoleon
Chief-of-Staff: Marshal Berthier
southern front - Marshal Murat
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Army Corps - Marshal Victor
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - V Army Corps - General Lauriston
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - VIII Army Corps (Polish) - Prince Poniatowski
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IX Army Corps - Marshal Augereau
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - XI Army Corps - Marshal MacDonald
- - - - - - - - - - - - - Reserve Cavalry - Marshal Murat
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Cavalry Corps - General Latour-Maubourg
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Cavalry Corps - General Sebastiani
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IV Cavalry Corps (Polish) - General Sokolnicki
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - V Cavalry Corps - General Pajol
northern front - Marshal Ney
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III Army Corps - General Souham
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - VI Army Corps - Marshal Marmont
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III Cavalry Corps - General Arrighi
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Other Troops
Imperial Guard
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Corps of Young Guard Infantry - Marshal Oudinot
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Corps of Young Guard Infantry - Marshal Mortier
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Old Guard Infantry
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Cavalry - General Nansouty
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Artillery - General Dulauloy
Other Troops
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IV Army Corps - General Bertrand
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - VII Army Corps - General Raynier
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Leipzig Garrison
The total strength of the Allied armies was between 300.000 and 350,000 men.
However Bennigsen's and Bernadotte's armies were not present on the 1st day.
Allies Order of Battle [1] . [2]
Russians (215 battalions and 234 squadrons) ->
Austrians (115 battalions and 127 squadrons) ->
Prussians (110 battalions and 122 squadrons) ->
Swedes (24 battalions and 21 squadrons)
For the Russians this campaign was a continuation of the patriotic war that had begun the previous
year. The were however exhausted after the long winter campaign in 1812 and their ranks were
thinned, especially in the infantry. The Prussians burned to avenge the years of French occupation
and were fighting to free their homeland. For them it was a War of Liberation. The Austrians were
professional.
Tzar of Russia Alexander I - Kaiser of Austria Francis II
King of Prussia Frederick William III
Commander-in-Chief: Schwarzenberg
southern front
Army of Bohemia: Commander - Schwarzenberg, Chief-of-Staff - Radetzky
- - - - - - - - "First Line" (East of Pleisse River): Commander - Barclay de Tolly, Chief-of-Staff - Toll
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Center - Wittgenstein
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Corps (Prussian) - Kleist
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Infantry Corps (Russian) - Gorchakov
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Infantry Corps (Russian) - Prinz Eugen
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Cavalry Corps (Russian) - Pahlen
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Right Flank
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IV Corps (Austrian) - Klenau
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Cossacks Corps (Russian)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Left Flank
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Corps (Austrian) - Merveldt
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III Corps (Austrian) - Giulay
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Reserves - Hessen Homburg
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Grenadiers Corps (Austrian)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Cuirassiers Corps (Austrian) - Nostitz
- - - - - - - - "Reserves": Commander - Grand Duke Constantine
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Foot and Horse Guards (Prussian)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Artillery Reserve (Russian) - Suhozanet
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Miloradovich
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Grenadiers Corps (Russian) - Raievski
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Infantry Corps (Russian) - Yermolov
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - Prince Golitzin
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Cuirassiers Corps (Russian)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Cavalry (Russian)
northern front (against Ney and Marmont)
Army of Silesia: Blucher
Army of the North: Bernadotte
eastern front
Army of Poland: Bennigsen

Map of the Battle of Leipzig
.
~

Allies' offensive in the south.
"One should not believe but they
[Allies] are really attacking me."
- Napoleon
Already in early morning, at 4 am, Russian General Wittgenstein, from his headquarters south of
Gulden Gossa, sent officers with orders to his troops. At 6 am it was still dark and rainy when the
Allies' army arose. The tumult and unrest was rapidly increasing. At 6 am, on the French side,
Latour-Maubourg's powerful cavalry corps marched from the north towards the front line. ( Sporschil
- "Die Grosse Chronik. Geschichte des Krieges ..." page 789 )
The dark marching columns of French cavalry stretched out over several kilometers.
At 8 am a wind came to life, and partially cleared the fog. Rays of daylight pierced the grey fuzz of
clouds and the first shots were exchanged near Wachau. It was the signal given by the Allies and
immediately afterward the artillery on both sides opened fire. The boom of the artillery and the sharp
crack of skirmishers' muskets brought the rest of the troops hastily to their feet. Baron de Marbot
writes: "On the 16th of October at 8 o'clock in the morning, the allied batteries gave the signal for the
attack. A lively cannonade was directed at our lines and the allied army marched towards us from
every point."
Allies generals swung onto their horses. The drums and trumpets signaled the time to begin the
advance north in a huge semicircle.
.
Allies' attacks on Wachau.
Areas had to be taken street by street
and building by building.
The villages of Wachau and Liebertwolkwitz and the Gallows Hill (Galgenberg) were very important
to Napoleon. They were defended with strong force and formed the backbone of Napoleon's
defences. Wachau lay in a hollow and from the village westward shimmered a brook, which
intersected a grassy meadow. Wachau itself was made of brick buildings, broad streets and small
gardens. The key to Wachau was the Hearth Wood and the church. In the small wood where the
half-bare trees were crowned with black-caps of abandoned birds' nests, the earth was carpeted with
leaves.
Marshal Victor's II Army Corps was ordered to hold the village at all costs. Victor, Duc de Bellune,
had three infantry divisions; Dubreton's 4th (12 battalions, 16 guns), Dufour's 5th (8 battalions, 8
guns), and Vial's 6th (12 battalions, 16 guns). The best unit in Victor's corps was the 18th Line
Regiment, nicknamed "The Brave". These valiant warriors were part of Vial's division. Both flanks of
Victor's infantry were protected with strong cavalry and artillery. The French infantry occupied the
edge of the village, the sunken road in front of it, and the Hearth Wood. Strong reserves stood
behind Wachau.
Marshal Victor
During the Revolutionary Wars he
worked his way up to the rank of general.
Victor had an explosive temper and love of wine.
Had the weather been clear, from bird's eye view the fields would have appeared to be covered with
troops and dotted with guns and wagons. But the rolling terrain and the fog obscured the full picture
from the ground level. General Wittgenstein could see only a few French batteries and battalions, and
assumed that Wachau was only weakly defended. He therefore ordered Prinz Eugen to drive the
French out of the village.
Russian II Infantry Corps (3rd and 4th Infantry Division) under Prinz Eugen passed by Gulden Gossa
and continued north against Wachau. Eugen formed his 3rd Division in two lines of battalions.
Behind the 3rd stood the 4th Division also formed in two lines. According to the Prussian
"Militairwochenblatt" from 1837, pages 151-152, Eugen had 5200 men, but according to Eugen
himself, 10000. This corps earlier fought at Dresden with 9472 men and then at Kulm and had
suffered even heavier casualties. Thus at Leipzig - in our opinion - had a count of approx. 5000 men.
Prinz Eugen von Wrttemberg
A German duke notable for
his extreme bravery.
The Prussian 9th Brigade under General-Major von Klx was in reserve behind Eugen's infantry and
also was formed in two lines. Klux had a lot of infantry (5,800 men) but only 8 guns. The Prussians
were eager to cross their bayonets with the enemy.
General Pahlen's Cavalry Corps was to the right of Prinz Eugen's infantry. It comprised of three
hussar, one uhlan and four Cossack regiments. In 1813 the first ranks in Russian hussar regiments
were additionally armed with lances. There were also two horse batteries. Of these forces, however,
one hussar (Loubny Regiment) and two cossacks regiments were detached. Pahlen was a seasoned
general, a man with a tight thin-lipped mouth and a whip in his hand.
As already mentioned the first musket shot in this battle were heard from the direction of Hearth
Wood near Wachau. It was before 8 am. The French who had begun their preparations for a breakfast
had to give up on that. The rattling of skirmishers' muskets continued when before 9 am a general
artillery cannonade began. (According to Marbot's memoirs Vol. II, Chapter XXXVIII, it happened at 8
am.) The Allies' artillery opened fire and the French weren't slow to return the salute. Pillars of milky
smoke drifted in clouds over the fields. After a cannon discharged and recoiled, the crew grabbed
hold of the wheels, and pushed it back to its previous spot. It was hard work; the guns and the
ammunition were heavy.
Prinz Eugen formed an advance guard, 3 battalions led by Reibnitz (detached from Pyshnitzki's 4th
Division). While the Prussians added their 2 battalions drawn from Klux's 9th Brigade. When Eugen
arrived in front of Wachau he deployed 48 guns and directed Reibnitz to capture the village. Russian
and Prussian artillery opened fire on the French in and around Wachau.
The 5 battalions (3 Russian and 2 Prussian) marched against Wachau when all of a sudden a few
shots were fired at the leading Russian battalion, and instantly followed by general fusiliade. The
Russians opened their own fire and drove the French skirmishers out of a little grove (sunken road)
in front of the village. The greencoats got into the gardens and on the outskirts of Wachau. (Gleig -
"The Leipsic Campaign" p 213)
Two other Russian battalions of Reibnitz's force were halted by fire from the Hearth Wood. A
column of French infantry from Victor's corps marched through the village and attacked the Russians
who were entangled in a firefight in front of the wood. The greencoats held their ground for a while
before falling back. They carried wounded Reibnitz of the battlefield on the run. One Russian
battalion lost 30 % and the other 25 % of its strength.
Two Prussian battalions were behind Reibnitz and now they moved forward and were drawn into
the fight. The Russians responded with cheer; "The Prussians are coming !" The Prussians blasted
their way towards the village's center. (However, Prinz Eugen's ADC, Molostov, claimed that the
Russians took Wachau without the support from the Prussians.)
Russian jagers (light infantry) in combat.
Picture by V. Shevchenko, Russia.
But the French were not push-overs. Areas had to be taken street by street and building by building.
The two Prussian battalions were thrown out of the village. Seeing this Klux ordered a fresh force to
attack Wachau. He sent one battalion of 6th Reserve Inf. Regiment, retook the edge of the village and
then ran straight through Wachau. Victor's infantry counterattacked with outstretched bayonets,
overthrowing the enemy everywhere. Slapping their saddles with fury, Prussian and Russian
generals could barely contain their frustration.
In the third attempt, Klux sent forward 2 battalions with their drummers beating the pace. The
Silesian Schutzen (marksmen) also advanced forward and opened a well-aimed fire. Wounded
Frenchmen littered the ground and the Prussians entered Wachau again. Several French battalions
moved to the northwest of Wachau and appeared aiming at the southern part of the village. Fearing
being cut off, the Prussians began their withdrawal from Wachau. The French pursued them. Klux's
battery opened fire and forced the French back to the village.
Because Helfreich's Russian 14th Infantry Division became engaged against Poniatowski it created a
gap between him and Allies advancing against the village of Wachau. Kleist directed Schwichow
with 4 battalions (2 infantry and 2 Landwehr) from the 12th Brigade to close the gap. Behind
Helfreich and Schwichow stood two Russian cuirassier regiments under Levashov (from Duka's 3rd
Cuirassier Division) and one hussar regiment commanded by Davidov.
The French cannonaded the 12th Brigade and Schwichow's detachment. Because Schwichow's
battalions were caught in open field their casualties mounted with every minute. The cannonballs
that landed sent heavy clods of earth flying all around. Some cannonballs raked the troops and
horrible groans were heard. One battalion lost 30 men within a short time. ( Sporschil - "Die Grosse
Chronik" , page 767)
A body of cavalry was coming and orders to form squares were issued by Schwichow. Soon the
rolling terrain was covered with the French horsemen. The most forward of them attacked the
corners of the squares as the volley thundered out. The walls of the squares disappeared in smoke.
Some of the horsemen arched from their mounts and landed on the ground. Levashov (8 squadrons
of cuirassiers) and Davidov (4 squadrons of hussars) spurred forward and hit the enemy from the
flank. Davidov fought with a great bravery.
The French cavalry fell back. Then the French artillery battered Schwichow again and the cavalry
returned. Raising a cheer they pressed forward with ardor, only to receive volleys at close range. The
cuirassiers and hussars counterattacked and threw them back again.
Now Schwichow's 4 battalions were able to resume their march on Wachau. It was around 11 am
when Schwichow finally attempted to take the village. One of his battalions under Graf Monts, and 2
battalions from Helfreich's division entered Wachau at bayonet point. But when they arrived at the
northern part of the village, canister shattered their ranks. They fled and hid in the houses and
gardens. Those who stood southwest of Wachau, in open field, suffered badly, especially the 10th
Silesian Landwehr. Then the French infantry attacked and Schwichow had enough. He withdrew to
Crostewitz on the Pleisse River. The French were halted by a battery deployed on Klux's left flank.
The result of attacks on Wachau was such that the French held the village while the Allies kept the
small wood. Some sources give only one Prussian battalion in the Hearth Wood, while others claim
that there were 2 Prussian and 1 Russian battalion.
Wachau after battle
.
Allies' attacks on Liebertwolkwitz.
The Austrians run over the barricades
and down the streets, with their drummers
beating a ragged advance.
Liebertwolkwitz was one of the largest villages on the battlefield and dominated the surrounding
area. It was defended by V Army Corps (13.200 men) commanded by Lauriston, a male beauty. John
Elting writes about Jacques Alexandre Bernard Law, marquis de Lauriston: "born in India of a Scots
refugee family, a polished gentleman and the artillery expert among Napoleon's aides-de-camp..."
Lauriston had three infantry divisions; Maison's, Rochambeau's and Albert's. The best regiment was
probably the 152nd Line, nickanmed Diables Rouges (Red Devils). Lauriston's artillery was deployed
on both sides of the village.
Against Lauriston marched Mesenzov's Russian 5th Division (5.000 men) of Gorchakov's I Infantry
Corps, and Pirch's Prussian 10th Brigade (4.550 men). Graf Klenau's Austrian IV Corps (24.500 men)
and Ziethen's Prussian 11th Brigade (5.360 men) moved against Lauriston and Macdonald (18.000
men). Mesenzov left the safety of University Wood and marched on Liebertwolkwitz. The French
artillery opened fire and forced him back. Mesenzov then was placed between University Wood and
Gulden Gossa. In Gulden Gossa were 3 battalions of 10th Brigade and a Russian battery. The rest of
the Prussian brigade stood behind that village.
The first to storm Liebertwolkwitz were the Austrians. In the first line was Archduke Charles
Regiment (1.805 men), in the second were 4 battalions and in reserve was cavalry. The south-east part
of Liebertwolkwitz was defended by Maison's 16th Division (3.700 men). Maison detached 1 battalion
to defend the cemetery.
The French levelled their muskets over the garden walls and furniture barricades and fired. Despite
hail of bullets the white-coats entered the village, run over the barricades and down the streets, with
their drummers beating a ragged advance. By the church stood group of French infantry, they lifted
their muskets and fired. The attackers halted. Yet more whitecoats were coming and penetrating the
other streets. After a prolonged street fighting the French were pushed out of Liebertwolkwitz.
The casualties on both sides were heavy, with Austrian GM Mohr and GM Splenyi being wounded.
The victors began to dismantle the barricades built by the French. Digby-Smith writes: "Despite stiff
resistance, Mohr succeeded in taking most of the village, the Austrians pushing as far as the church
in a fierce house-to-house fight amidst the burn-out ruins. This success was short-lived, hovewer.
French reinforcements from Charpentier's 36th Division (the 14th Legere) were poured in and the
Austrians were ejected. It was eleven o'clock."
Liebertwolkwitz after battle. The church (right) is where
defending Austrians were massacred by the French infantry.
.
Fighting along the Pleisse River.
"The French [and Polish] resistance here had been desperate;
their bodies lay thickly in the rubble of the houses
in the roads and among the barricades of the bridge."
Marshal Augereau's French and Poniatowski's Polish troops defended the line along Pleisse River.
The river was murky and swollen from previous weeks of rainfall. Men and horses could cross it
only in several places. There were several villages along the river; Connewitz, Dolitz, Markkleeberg,
Crobern and Crostewitz. To the northeast of Markkleeberg was a low ridge called Cellar Height
(Kellerberg).
In the morning, at 7 am, Poniatowski was seen mounted on a black horse and escorted by a squadron
of Polish cuirassiers. Poniatowski's VIII Army Corps comprised of 26th and 27th Infantry Division,
artillery, and light cavalry. These troops were deployed as follow: the infantry was stretched along
the right bank of Pleisse and occupied Mark-kleeberg and its surroundings. The reserve artillery
under Colonel Redel was positioned on the Cellar Height. The light cavalry (so-called Krakus
Regiment nicknamed by Napoleon "My Pygmy Cavalry") covered the gap between Poniatowski's
VIII Army Corps and Kellermann's IV Cavalry Corps. Approx. 780 "pygmies" were deployed in two
lines, with 10-15 paces intervals between the riders. Several hundred paces separated the first line
from the second. (Lukasiewicz - "Armia Ksiecia Jozefa 1813")
Unfortunately already before the battle several infantry battalions were detached from Poniatowski
to the north of Leipzig. Poniatowski however had 2 battalions of the crack Vistula Legion under
Malczewski. Malchewski's legion would fight to the last men.
Marshal Augereau (1st Duc de Castiglione) was famous for his bravery. In the battle of Eylau he was
indisposed by a fever and unable to mount his horse. He called his servants, ordered them to place
him on horseback, and bind him fast to the saddle and was soon engaged in the fight. He was
wounded in the arm, and compelled to fall back. At Leipzig Augereau had two weak infantry
divisions; Garrambouville's with 6 provisinal and 1 infantry battalion, and Semele's with 6 line
infantry battalions. The artillery was under General Joseph Pellegrin de Millon. Semele's division and
Millon's artillery would join the Poles in the fighting for Markkleeberg. The rest of Augereau's corps
would defend the villages of Dolitz and Lossnig on Pleisse River.
Marshal Augereau.
His bravery, great as it was, was eclipsed
by his shameless avarice. The contrast between
splendor of his lifestyle and the vulgarity of his manners
was bordering on the ludicrous.
Augereau and Poniatowski were attacked by Merveldt's powerful Austrian II Corps, part of Prinz
von Preussen's Prussian brigade from Kleist's II Corps, and Helfreich's Russian infantry division
from Gorchakov's I Infantry Corps. The Austrian elite Grenadier Division and (Hungarian) Infantry
Division arrived later.
General Kleist
Friedrich Graf von Nollendorf Kleist
a 51 year-old man, was a talented
although conservative general.
Mark-kleeberg was an important point in Napoleon's defenses. Poniatowski saddled his mount early
in the morning and after hearing the crackle of musketry rode south. Kleist's Prussian troops
marched from Crostewitz to Mark-Kleeberg and along the Pleisse River.
One Austrian battalion took possesion of the unoccupied manor house. They also repaired the school
bridge and took position in the school. Marshal Augereau ordered one brigade of the 51st Division to
retake the school.
The French advanced with sappers in their lead who used heavy axes to smash through the school's
door. The Austrians were thrown out of the building and back over the river. The French and some
Poles attempted to attack the manor but the gate-house formed an excellent defensive position. The
casualties mounted and Poniatowski seeing that there was no serious threat from this quarter
withdrew the assaulting troops.
The first wave of attackers on Mark-kleeberg from the south was made of 3 Prussian battalions led by
Lbel. They were part of von Preussen's 12th Brigade. Von Preussen had also Silesian Uhlan
Regiment, however 2 of its 4 squadrons were detached into another part of the battlefield. Lobel was
supported by a position battery. The heavy guns wheeled into positions assigned them and opened
fire, causing damage not only to the enemy but also to the buildings and garden walls.
On Lobel's flank was Helfreich's Russian 14th Infantry Division. Helfreich had 12 guns deployed in
front and 12 heavy guns on the right flank. Additionally two batteries came from the Prussian
artillery reserve. Allies batteries were guarded by a squadron of landwehr cavalry. The guns
cannonaded the Polish and French artillery deployed on the Cellar Height (12 Polish and 12 French
pieces) and the infantry in front and behind the village.
Ltn. Krukowski from the Polish 12th Infantry Regiment asked his commander to allow the entire
battalion to step back 15 paces, on a reverse slope so they could avoid casualties from Russian
artillery. His commander however ridiculed him in front of the battalion saying: "I won't do that, not
even an inch, but if you fear then go, even to Leipzig itself !"
Helfreich's division was formed in two lines of battalions with skirmishers covering the entire front.
The greencoats marched briskly forward until the Polish Krakus Regiment (Napoleon's "Pygmy
Cavalry") charged forcing the skirmishers to flee. The infantry battalions formed themselves in
squares and their advance was stalled. The Krakus being unable to break the squares withdrew and
Helfreich redeployed his battalions from squares into columns. He resumed his march towards
Markkleeberg.
Lbel's force pushed back the enemy but was halted by ravine and well-directed musket fire of
Polish infantry. Helfreich's 14th Division (8-12 battalions) soon arrived and hit the Poles at their flank.
The Polish infantry (6-8 battalions) fell back and Lbel (3 battalions) entered Markkleeberg. The
Prussians and Russians swarmed the streets and soon captured the entire village.
Fight for Markkleeberg.
Poniatowski halted his retiring infantry and said words of encouragement. He then deployed 6
battalions into a thick skirmish line. Helfreich also deployed part of his infantry into skirmish chain
but his further advance was stalled. The fighting settled down to musket fire and long-range artillery
bombardement. Kleist and his staff watched the raging battle through their field glasses.
Thinking that the bussiness with Poniatowski and Augereau will be over soon, Helfreich turned east
and marched away from Markkleeberg, across the meadows and fields towards Wachau in the
center of the battlefield. Now they found themselves in front of Polish and French artillery stationed
on Cellar Height. This flanking fire made their advance very difficult. To make things worse for the
Russians, Semele (of Augereau's corps) sent forward a thick line of skirmishers who completely
stopped Helfreich.
Then Helfreich was attacked by Polish 1st Chasseurs and suffered heavy casualties. (This is described
below) The Russian cavalry intervened and Helfreich resumed his march. However after short and
failed attack on Wachau he withdrew to Crostewitz.
Poniatowski recaptured Mark-kleeberg before 2 Prussian battalions counter-attacked and retook it.
The French and Poles were driven back but not defeated and Kleist called urgently for support. He
sent his ADC to Crostewitz where Schwichow's 4 battalions found their safety after failed attack on
Wachau. They had to immediately march out and advance at a fast pace towards Markkleeberg.
Kleist continued his attacks but without much success. One one occassion Poniatowski placed half
squadron behind a churchyard, and when the Prussian skirmishers appeared, the cavalrymen were
on their flank in the blink of an eye. The skirmishers were taken prisoner. One another occassion
Prince Poniatowski counterattacked with 3 French and 2 Polish battalions and retaking the village.
Kleist's superiors, Wittgenstein and Barclay de Tolly had their troops already assigned to certain
tasks and were about to enter their own combat near Wachau and Liebertwolkwitz. So the aid was to
come from the Austrians. The Austrians, or rather Hungarians under Bianchi, were brought in and
deployed in front of Mark-kleeberg. The fresh and large force had no great difficulties in retaking the
village.
Prince Poniatowski
Though the ranks of Poniatowski's infantry were thinned, their determination was strong. As they
passed through the gardens and into an open field, they let forth a savage yell and furiously pressed
forward. Allies guns cut bloody swaths through their formation - but the attackers kept on, and
retook the village at bayonet point.
The Austrians responded with directing their grenadiers against the Poles. It was the Grenadier
Division led by Feldmarschall-Leutenant Nikolaus von Weissenwolf, the flower of the Austrian
infantry. They swiftly moved into the woods by Pleisse River and attacked from the flank and rear
forcing the Poles to abandon the village. But here and there some Polish die-hards still kept it
fighting, reloading their weapons or swinging their weapons like clubs before being overcome by the
more numerous enemy. Poniatowski's Poles and Augereau's Frenchmen were also attacked along the
Pleisse River.
Austrian (Hungarian) infantry is coming. Part of diorama
of the Battle of Leipzig 1813. Courtesy of Wolfgang Meyer, Germany.
Four strong Austrian infantry regiments moved against Connewitz and Dolitz on the Pleisse River:
- 44th Bellegarde Regiment of Lederer's Division
- 24th Strauch Regiment of Lederer's Division
- 56th W. Colloredo Regiment of Liechtenstein's Division
- 20th Kaunitz Regiment of Liechtenstein's Division
All four units were part of Merveldt's II Corps.
French battery covered the approach to Connewitz and the houses were occupied by skirmishers of
Lefol's Division. The Austrians could only advance on a narrow front and their attack was repulsed.
The terrain was so difficult that they were unable to bring their own artillery. The Austrians pulled
back and kept the French only under long range musket fire.
The Austrians moved against Dolitz. The manor house was defended by a small Polish garrison. The
bridges however were intact. Two companies of 24th Strauch Regiment threw the defenders out and
back over the river. The Poles rallied and counter-attacked, they retook the gatehouse at bayonet
point. The Austrians attempted to recover the gatehouse but their Colonel Reisenfels was mortally
wounded and they fell back. Digby-Smith writes: "The combat was so hot that the Regiment Strauch
was soon out of ammunition, and was replaced by three companies of Regiment Kaunitz 20th ..."
Austrian General Bubna described the scene: "The French [and Polish] resistance here had been
desperate; their bodies lay thickly in the rubble of the houses in the roads and among the barricades
of the bridge. ... Many, many of our comrades had shed their blood here. The wood was full of our
dead and on the bank of the Pleisse there were thick rows of our men who had died in a musket fire
at 12 paces."
Fighting along the Pleisse River. Diorama of Leipzig 1813.
Courtesy of Udo Sixel, Germany.
The commander of the Austrian troops fighting along the Pleisse, Merveldt, was extremely short-
sighted and mistook some of the enemy troops over the Pleisse for Prussians. He ordered a bridge to
be thrown over the river and rode over it with few ADCs. His horse was soon killed and Merveldt
was captured by the Polish Guard Grenadiers (of Curial's 2nd Old Guard Division). The Poles and
Frenchmen found a copy of the Allied plan in his pocket and delivered it to Napoleon.
At 3 PM the Austrians brought their artillery up to the manor and the mill on the east bank was afire.
The Poles had to abandon the burning building. Justice Kurth writes: "The retreating Poles set fire to
several farms and houses in the area with bundles of blazing straw."
Polish Guard Grenadiers
captured General Merveldt
commander of Austrian II Corps.
.
Napoleon and Alexander.
The troops greeted Napoleon with a yell
that must have been heard for miles around.
Napoleon looked restless.
Shortly after 9 am uproars arose on the French side as a coach escorted by squadrons of cavalry
arrived. Its passage through the army was greeted with cheers and clouds of shakos hurled into the
air. The tumult made the cavalry horses difficult to manage with the cavalrymen standing in their
stirrups, and waving their sabers. Between 9 am and 11 am the Young Guard arrived. They greeted
Napoleon with a yell that must have been heard for miles around.
The coach halted and Napoleon, a man in mid 40's, stepped out. He walked over to the rise where
stood a table with a map and a group of generals in uniforms gliottering with orders and stars. The
weather was turning windy, so the map had been nailed to the table. By the table stood Marshal
Murat, a festively dressed commander of French cavalry and today the commander of troops south
of Leipzig. He wore blood-red breeches and a Polish style coat. Murat's headgear was covered with
feathers and plumes. Murat and the generals greeted Napoleon.
The Emperor said: "I am here and ready for everything" and then bent over the map in silence while
the generals looked on, their hats under their arms. Messengers were arriving, dropping their reins,
springing off their horses and handing reports to Napoleon. He read them and quickly wrote orders.
He looked restless, and was constantly reaching for his snuffbox.
His longing for a decisive battle caused him to accept an inferior position. For months the Allies had
avoided Napoleon; they attacked only his marshals and generals. Now from the north the armies of
Blucher, Langeron and Bernadotte were coming, from the west Giulay's and Merveldt's corps, from
the east Bennigsen's army, and from the south Schwarzenberg's massive army. Napoleon could see
many Allies columns arriving and deploying in their assigned positions. It was already one hour
since the enemy was in motion. Their staff officers galloped fine horses between the various troops.
On the Allies side, a large group of riders was coming from the south. It was Tsar Alexander on a
white horse with his distinguished personage of Russian, Austrian, and Prussian generals, staff
officers and adjutants. The Tsar wore an immaculate uniform of the Preobrazhensk Lifeguard
Infantry Regiment.
As the Tsar proceeded along his route, tasseled regimental Colors of the Russian and Prussian
Guards were lowered in submission before him. The Tsar saluted them with his hat as hundreds of
fists slapped the hardwood stocks of their muskets in presenting arms. The elite troops stood like
Spartans, deadly silent, their faces up, jaws tight.
Alexander stopped on the rise south of Gulden Gossa in the so-called Old Redoubt. General
Miloradovich greeted the monarch and said in French: "L'ennemi salute l'arrivee de Votre Majeste."
(The enemy salute your arrival Your Majesty). His well-timed joke brought smiles to the face of
Alexander as well as dozens of generals and staff-officers.
Alexander studied the battlefield for a while. Russian General Barclay de Tolly, was showing the
positions of the Allies army on map and many eyes followed his finger.
The Prussians and Russians were not too happy with the commander-in-chief, Austrian General
Schwarzenberg. Schwarzenberg by placing the numerous Austrian troops on the left of the almost
impassable Pleisse River with a couple of small bridges, virtually left the battle to be maintained by
the Russians and Prussians alone. The big gaps between individual brigades and divisions created
situation where they could not give much support to each other. The Prussians and Russians thought
that if they follow Schwarzenberg's plans too closely it would cost them the battle.
One of the Prussian officers remarked about Schwarzenberg's dispositions "When one commands in
this way, it would be better to take a nap." Thus the Tsar ordered the Russian and Prussian Guards to
march from Magdeborn towards Gulden Gossa, and the Russian grenadiers towards Auenhain
Sheep-Farm. Adjutants carrying orders galloped away instantly. The Tsar also sent an urgent request
to Schwarzenberg himself, to bring Austrian grenadiers and cuirassiers over the Pleisse River.
Allied monarchs in the battle of Leipzig, picture by Schuch
King of Prussia (on white horse) and Tsar of Russia (on chestnut).
~
Napoleon strikes back.
"We seem to have reached the crisis;
now all depends on fighting hard."
- Napoleon
Napoleon realized that although the Allies had seized the initiative, their piecemeal advance offered an
ideal target for a counterattack. The Emperor ordered the following:
1 - French infantry (Victor and Lauriston) recaptures the villages
and push the Allies out on the open fields, exposing them to artillery fire.
2 - French artillery (Drouot) pound the Allies, inflicting heavy casualties.
3 - French cavalry (Murat) charge and overthrow the weakened and shaken enemy.
4 - The Imperial Guard deliver coup de grce, blow of mercy.
Napoleon stood on the road behind Wachau. The Emperor formed his troops in three large formations; one
behind Wachau, one behind Liebertwolkwitz, and the third between the two.
The first battle group, the one standing behind Wachau was formed as follow: in the first line was Victor's
three infantry divisions. They were followed by Oudinot's two divisions of Young Guard. Behind Oudinot
were Berkheim's lancers and chasseurs.
The battle group standing behind Liebertwolkwitz was formed as follow: Maison's 16th Infantry Division
was drawn from Liebertwolkwitz and deployed behind the artillery on Gallows Height. Maison's division
was formed in two lines of battalions. Milhaud's dragoon division deployed behind Maison. The rest of
Pajol's V Cavalry Corps (l'Heritier's dragoons and Pire's chasseurs and hussars) stood behind Mortier's II
Infantry Corps of Young Guard.
The central battle group was made of Latour-Maubourg's four cavalry divisions (Berkheim's division was
detached, placed behind Oudinot's Young Guard). In reserve was kept the elite Guard Cavalry Division.
These men boasted that they would storm hell itself if Napoleon gave the order and their manners
commanded great respect. The shadows cast by their tall fur caps darkened the scars that disfigured their
faces. Unhappy were the parents whose sons' lot was to meet them in battle !
The mass of horses snorted, tossed their heads and trampled the grass. Some impatient cavalrymen stood
in their stirrups and gazed toward the front. But they saw only the sea of infantry in front of them and the
distant puffs of smoke.
The Russian and Prussian commanders watching from a hill south of Gulden Gossa, noted how mutually
isolated their advancing columns were. Accordingly, they shifted the Russian guards, grenadiers and
cuirassiers to Gulden-Gossa, and urged Schwarzenberg to send the Austrian grenadiers and cuirassiers to
support them.
Schwarzenberg at this time observed the movements of French troops from the church tower at Gautsch
(far left flank, behind the Pleisse) and finally recognized the grevious danger in which the Russians and
Prussians found themselves. He sent orders to the Austrian grenadiers and cuirassiers to march to cross
the Pleisse as soon as possible. Then he mounted a horse and galloped toward Gulden Gossa to join the
imperiled monarchs. (Sporchil - "Die Grosse Chronik" page 788)
.
The French infantry retook Wachau and Liebertwolkwitz.
"These people (Allies) understand nothing
of the value of time." - Napoleon
Marshal Victor's three infantry divisions moved forward, with Dubreton's 4th Division in the lead, while
the other two divisions on the flank and slightly to the rear, as if in echelon. Approx. 15,000 men armed
with muskets and bayonets and formed in 30 columns, followed by Oudinot's Young Guard (12,000 men
formed in 24 columns) created a never-to-be-forgotten monumental scene.
The voltigeurs (short guys, light infantrymen) raced ahead of their columns and formed skirmish chain.
Puffs of smoke appeared along their line as they exchanged musket fire with Allies skirmishers.
The last Prussian and Russian infantrymen fled from Wachau and the sunken road. Victor's infantry
passed over maimed Allies soldiers and draft horses lying on their flanks, entrails spilled. No quarter was
given to any Prussian or Russian they could lay iron upon.
Auenhain farm was captured after the first attack made by Dubreton's 4th Infantry Division. Then they
moved further south. Vial's and Dufour's divisions followed them.
French line infantry 1813-15, picture by L.F. Funcken.
.
General Drouot "The Monk"
and his 100 guns on Gallows Hill.
"The death came from the Gallows Hill."
In the beginning of the battle there were only few squadrons of cavalry and few batteries of artillery on
Gallows Height. But the situation was about to change. The Gallows Hill was a slightly heightened area,
hard and open field. The natural strength of the high ground was augmented by clear fields of fire, and
good roads in the rear for the movement of supplies and troops. The artillery fire was a recursor to the
main attack against a selected point of the enemies line, in order to batter a breach into which the main
infantry and cavalry attack could plunge into. For these reasons Napoleon was about to organize a
massive battery on Gallows Height. Its main purpose was to make a breakthrough in Allies line. If
properly handled the artillery eclipsed all other arms for sheer destructive capacity. The positioning of
artillery was of the utmost importance.
Between 9:30 and 10:30 am the mist was rapidly lifting. On Gallows Height stood French batteries under
the command of General Drouot. Antoine Count Drouot was arguably one of the very best artillery general
in Europe. Not only as a gunner he was to admire. Napoleon wrote: "His morals, his integrity, his lack of
affectation, would have brought him honor in the greatest days of the Roman Republic." Drouot was a
very religious person and always carried the bible, even in battles. For this he was nicknamed The Monk
or The Sage of the Army.
General Drouot
Drouot was one of the best gunners in Europe.
He always carried the bible, even in battles.
There were more guns and ammunition wagons coming and joining Drouot. Their massive wheels
crushed the grass and old weeds. In the air were the cracks of drivers' whips and their tantrums as the
laboring horse teams were pounding their way ahead. The guns were wheelend into place quickly and
then disconnected from their 2-wheeled limbers to which the horses were harnessed for transportation.
They deployed in multipaced intervals stretching from Wachau to Liebertwolkwitz. The limbers with
draft horses were taken 50 paces to the rear. Additional ammunition was carried by hand from 4-wheel
wagons that parked 50-100 paces behind the limbers. Further back was another row of ammunition
wagons.
Napoleon joined Drouot and after a short inspection of the battlefield, the Emperor turned to the general,
and said, "Put together a bouquet for me." (Bleibtreu - "Die Volkerschlacht bei Leipzig.")
Drouot instantly rode away towards his Grand Battery that comprised of 100 guns; 24 from Victor's corps,
32 from Lauriston's corps, 12 from Latour-Maubourg's cavalry corps, and 32 from the Guard Artillery
(3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th Foot Battery of Old Guard). Drouot signaled sharply with his saber, making his
movements so abrupt that his greatcoat balooned and spread out in the air behind him.
The Grand Battery.
Allies also were strengthening their artillery in the center. Their 24 12pdrs that General Suhozanet had sent
from the Russian Artillery Reserve, joined the 24 12pdrs of Prinz Eugen already deployed. Additionally
arrived 12 pdrs (Russian) and 16 6pdrs (Prussian) pieces. Thus the Allies concentrated only 76 guns but of
heavier caliber.
Immense quantities of smoke rose, obscuring all vision. The gun crews became indistinguishable through
the smoke and if not for the wind they would have been too blinded to see their neighbours in line. The
loading and firing, the danger, the fear and the excitement, sent adrenaline levels surging. Low bass
discharges shook the air and the Gallows Height resembled a thundering volcano with smoke covering
the top where people could hardly breath.
Cannonballs tore into the earth, or bounced and rolled on the ground breaking the legs of men and horses.
The vast majority of roundshots shot high over the heads of the troops, or hit the gaps between the
columns. Those, which hit their targets, left an indelible impressionb and unforgettable damage. Wheels of
wagons were crushed sending splinters into the air. Draft-horses bled profusely in the grass, their legs
jerking in the throes of death.
Drouot's artillery dismounted 24 Allies pieces (17 Russians and 6 Prussians) while the remaining guns
hastily fell back and onto the road to Gulden-Gossa. Those gunners who had no riding place on the
cannons or limbers were fleeing on foot, while some fled on draft horses. Only few remained and manned
the guns. Then a Russian ammunition wagon was hit by a French grenade and blew up making a
tremendous noise. Bloody shreds of the bodies of the Russians flew in all directions. The commander of
Prinz Eugen's artillery reported about the dramatic situation with his guns, and immediately galloped
away, leaving everything behind.
"Sacre tonnerre !" shouted the French gunners. The casualties in Drouot's Grand Battery were mainly
among the draft horses. The gun crews and cannons suffered relatively little damage. The French cavalry
and part of infantry stood under Allies' artillery fire, as the French would say: "d'attendre la mort debout !"
Some infantrymen took cover in the villages and sunken roads.
Seeing Napoleon near the Grand Battery, Drouot advised respectfully; "Your Majesty must withdraw
himself from this area of the hostile cannonande !" (Bleibtreu - "Die Volkerschlacht bei Leipzig" p 53) But
Napoleon was immovable. He held his field glass, watching the Allies and knowing that fire of this sort
couldn't be withstood by any troops in the world.
Once the Russian artillery was gone Eugen's II Infantry Corps (3rd & 4th Division) became the only target
for Drouot's gunners. Digby-Smith writes: "The situation of the Russians on Klux's right, in the open fields
... was much worse. Lacking any cover at all, they suffered very heavy losses from artillery fire.
Shahovskoi ... reported to Prinz Eugen that his men were being destroyed. The prince rode slowly along
the line. At each battalion, his question 'How many men have you lost ?' would be answered with a silent
gesture to the lines of dead lying where they had fallen. ... [Prinz Eugen] did nothing to alleviate the
situation ... It was Borodino all over again (where Prinz Eugen had commanded the 4th Infantry Division);
the Russian commanders had learned nothing and continued to squander their men to absolutely no avail
..." (Digby-Smith, - p 86)
A Russian officer was greatly impressed with the insane bravery of the prince, he wrote: "We saw him
[Prinz Eugen] ... blind and deaf to the dangers, death and terrors around him, with his slim pale face
framed by his dark brown locks riding like an angel of death through the ranks." Then a French
cannonball went through the prince's horse and thrown the rider to the ground. (When after battle Prinz
Eugen handed his casualty list to Barclay de Tolly, the latter at first refused to believe what he read. Eugen
retorted: "If Your Excellency refuses to acknowledge the deeds of those still left alive, then perhaps a look
at the dead on the battlefield where we fought will convince you !")
The horse under Prinz Eugen was killed and he landed on the ground.
Soon his adjutant was killed as well a Prussian hussar who had been
sent to him with a message.
For a while the Russians held on. Prinz Eugen shouted to his officers: "No one who can stand on his feet is
to leave the position !" The hits were so demolishing that the shakos and muskets landed far away from
those hit by solid iron balls. The infantry ducked whenever a missile passed overhead.
The 3rd Division have suffered horrible casualties and was finally withdrawn behind the Auenhain sheep-
farm. The 4th Division also got under fire and fell back either on Crobern or Gulden Gossa. Pahlen's
cavalry and Cossacks also got their share of projectiles and were obliged to withdraw.
With the Russians falling back Klux's Prussian 9th Brigade again formed the front line. Some of the
Prussians (7th Silesian Landwehr) stood on the sunken road south of Wachau, in contrast to the Russians
who were in the open and took the lion's share of casualties from artillery fire. Prussian 2 battalions were
still in the Hearth Wood. But when Victor's infantry moved forward, Klux quickly fell back on Gulden-
Gossa.
The fire from the Grand Battery was terrific, the fields were covered with smoke and the earth literally
vibrated. The glass in the windows even as far as Leipzig rattled without pause. (Sporschil - "Die Grosse
Chronik" p 788)
Prinz Eugen formed a small rear guard to cover the retreat of Prussians and Russians. It comprised of half
of Pyshnitzki's 4th Division (6 battalions) and small part of Shahovski's 3rd Division (2 battalions). Their
main objective was to slow down, or even halt for a while, Victor's infantry. Soon half of the rear guard
was out of combat and the casualties could have been heavier if not the Prussian Silesian Schutzens'
(riflemen or marksmen).
The Silesians took cover on a sunken road. The French gathered in the alder copse, near Wachau, and then
attacked the marksmen. But before the French got closer than 200 paces the Silesians suddenly stood up
and fired. The attackers fled to their former position.
Silesian Schutze
They wore green uniforms and were armed with
rifles (with front and back sight) and muskets.
The horse artillery of Pahlen's cavalry corps suffered badly and the gunners hurriedly unharnessed the
wounded and dead draft horses, then limbered up the guns and rode away. They spared neither the
whips nor the horses., which soon had heaving flanks and sweat-blotched loins. Pahlen's Cossacks headed
rearwards and were soon followed by the hussars.
Mesenzov's Russian 5th Infantry Division (of Gorchakov's I Corps) and part of Pirch's Prussian brigade
took cover in the University Wood. In front of Gulden Gossa 12 Russian 6pdrs were deployed. The village
itself was defended by 3 battalions drawn from Pirch's brigade. They anxiously looked to the north.
Tsar Alexander was shocked and sent an adjutant to Schwarzenberg asking for Austrian Reserves. "For
God's sake, in the name of the Tsar, I ask you to step down from your plan, and send us the Austrian
Reserves !" But Schwarzenberg wasted precious minutes by sending pedantic orders to various troops.
Drouot swept the fields in front of him clean of all living. The situation was ripe for a massive attack,
breaking the enemy's line and winning the battle. The cannons were firing on all cylinders until Murat's
10,000 cavalrymen began to advance. Then they fell silent as the advancing masses obscured the line of
fire. Once the cavalry passed Napoleon ordered Drouot to take part of his Grand Battery and push it
forward. Marbot writes: "General Drout with 60 cannons aided the attack." The crews manhandled the
pieces back to hook them on to their limbers. The ammunition wagons set off with their wheels digging
great gouges into the meadow. The guns rolled forward, with their chains and buckets swinging.
They got within a deadly canister range and began deploying. Drouot turned to his officers and with a
broad smile on his face said; "They (Allies) shall get to know us".
Mesenzov's infantry division was retreating to the east of Gulden Gossa. The French sent several battaries
after them, and sprayed them with canister driving the Russians to a near panic.
.
The grand charge of Murat's 10,000 cavalrymen.
Murat and his brave cavalry arrived
at a short distance from where Alies monarchs stood.
The emperors, kings and princes were in danger.
After 2 pm Napoleon issued orders to the cavalry to get ready. Hundreds of horses stood abreast,
impatiently kicking the ground, the wind tousling their tails. The moment of charge was so close. The
exploding shells frightened the horses. Before the grand cavalry charge began, General Pajol sent his
adjutant towards Gulden Gossa "Please have a look at the valley before Gulden Gossa." The adjutant
returned, reporting "Not good ... these horses are sinking to their breasts." Pajol informed Murat and the
two talked for a while. Then Murat galloped away in order to consult with Latour-Maubourg. In this
moment a Russian grenade exploded under Pajol's horse, throwing him into the air. His left arm and hips
were damaged. "My poor Pajol ! The attack is off to a good start before it even begins !" cried Murat.
(Bleibreu - "Die Volkerschlacht bei Leipzig" p 76)
Seeing their commander (Pajol) seriously wounded and carried away, the V Cavalry Corps refused to
charge. The "Spanish dragoons" (French veterans from Spain) stood motionless, with the excuse that they
had not received any new orders from Murat. This had bad consequences for Murat's attack. The "Spanish
dragoons" knew the terrain from their recent participation in a cavalry battle. They were also the most
seasoned cavalrymen in 1813 in the French cavalry.
Also the Guard Cavalry Division under Walther didn't participate in the charge. Napoleon held them back.
Latour-Maubourg's cavalry corps was originally massed near the Meusdorf mansion. Then they moved
into a new position behind Wachau, on the shoulder of the Gallows Height, and east of the windmill.
Latour-Maubourg had been hit by a cannonball; his leg was soon amputated.
The flamboyant Marshal Murat
Fun loving and very brave man.
Murat was also "woman-crazy; (and)
Napoleon complained that he needed them
like he needed food." According to David Chandler
"Murat was one of the most colorful figures of his time."
Meanwhile Murat left Napoleon and climbed into the saddle. He galloped holding the reins in his right
hand, while his left hung down loosely. He rode across the battlefield like a thunderbolt. Murat arrived in
front of the cavalry as they loudly cheered him. Murat had drawn his saber, stood up in his stirrups and
swung his saber left, then right and leaned forward crying, "Charge ! Vive l'Empereur !" It was between
2;30 and 3 pm.
After the blare of trumpets the cavalrymen firmly gripped their reins, dug their spurs into the sides of their
horses and began the monumental advance. Approx. 10.000 horsemen in 80 squadrons (plus there were 16
squadrons of Poles to the right, and Pajol's 40 squadrons in the second line) slowly passed between
Wachau and the artillery on Gallows Height. While crossing the higher ground they took a short look
down the slope further south where everything was hazy from smoke and the enemy seemed the size of
ants.
Marshal Murat habitually led in the very forefront of the charge.
According to van Roos, Murat was "Herculean in strength, excessively gallant,
admirably cool in the midst of danger ..." But when "left to himself he was an imbecile,
without judgement." (according to Napoleon)
The mass of French, Italian and Saxon cavalry set off at a trot across the battlefield and then gradually sped
up. The front ranks boiled forward, hooves drummed up chunks of soil. According to G.R.Gleig, Murat
formed all his cavalry "into one line of continuous columns of regiments ... either because he desired to
make a great show, or that he held in contempt the weak force which he presumed to face him, he
neglected to arrange any reserve." (Gleig - "The Leipsic Campaign" p 217)
Other sources described Murat's formation as follow: in the front Bordesoulle's 1st Heavy Cavalry
Division (with 2nd, 3rd and 6th Cuirassier Regiment as its spearhead), behind was Doumerc's 3rd Heavy
Cavalry Division (the squadrons were very weak), then Corbineau's 2nd Light Cavalry Division, next
Chastel's 3rd Light Cavalry Division. Berkheim's 1st Light Cavalry Division was detached and stood
behind Oudinot's Young Guard. It is not clear if Pajol's V Cavalry Corps participated in this charge or not.
About half of the sources say he did. Every regiment was formed in a column.
Drouot's Grand Bettery ceased its fire as the cavalry was passing them. The gunners cheered the cavalry
and waved with their ramrods and shakos.
The French, Italians and Saxons rode in serried ranks kicking up dirt clouds in their wakes. The earth
groaned and bent. Allies guns sprayed them with canister tearing through flesh and ricocheting off the
iron breatplates of the cuirassiers. Some riders were thrown out of the saddles; others capsized together
with horses, beast and man falling to the ground. The rest with sabers poised had to jump their horses
over the fallen animals and men.
Allies gunners hurriedly took refuge under the guns, limbers and wagons while others fled to the squares
that stood nearby. But the gunners of the Russian Guard Position Battery (12 heavy guns) stood by their
guns and fired to the very end. This battery fell into cuirassiers' hands.
The French pushed their horses past the guns and continued on. Prussian and Russian skirmishers fled the
Murat's sabers like mice fleeing a scourge of cats. Only few stopped to fire at their pursuers, but they
dared not pause long for fear of the sabers.
Soon two Saxon regiments and some regiments from Doumerc's division turned to the left and broke
away from Murat's cavalry and attacked Allies' batteries. The heavy Saxons were coming for the kill.
On Murat's path was Prinz Eugen's Russian II Infantry Corps. His battalions were weak and when they
formed squares they were so small that there was almost no place for senior officers and for the wounded
inside them. Prinz Eugen mounted his horse and hurriedly left his troops. He galloped to the rear, to ask
General Duka for support from his cuirassiers (Gudovich's brigade).
Meanwhile Eugen's tiny squares were ready and waiting. Their drummers stopped beating. Then the
walls of muskets snapped down and hundreds of muskets rattled. Smoke covered the squares. (Russian
infantry formed two types of hollow squares against cavalry: battalion square, and regeimental square on
6 ranks.) The French milled about in confusion, men and horses dropping. Then some of the cuirassiers
trotted away to find another square. Some fell back, but seeing more cavalry coming they attached
themselves to them. The French pressed on led by example. It is impossible too highly to admire the
devotion and the absence of all sense of danger, on the part of the French officers. But the Russians held
fast and only one square was broken, the II Battalion of Kremenchoug Regiment. Approx. 60 men were
taken prisoner. (Bleibtreu gives 61 men.)
When the cavalry passed, Eugen's infantry was ordered to retreat. During their march south they fired at
the backs of the French cavalry. They reached Gulden Gossa and hurried to pass through, since the first
French skirmishers from Lauriston's corps had already penetrated it, and could cut them off from the rest
of the army.
Meanwhile the Saxon cuirassiers and cuirassiers from Doumerc's division headed towards the University
Wood and Stormthal. There stood artillery and Pahlen's hussars, uhlans and Cossacks. Seeing the heavy
cavalry coming, the Cossacks split and scattered like a fistful of sand thrown into the air. The hussars and
uhlans were also pushed back and dispersed. Then the Saxons and some French captured 24 (26 ?) Allies
guns deployed north of Stormthal. Only few Saxons were hit and bled out their lives into their homeland's
soil.
Raievski had two grenadier divisions; Pisarev's 1st (12 battalions) and Choglokov's 2nd (12 battalions). He
also had 24 medium and 12 heavy guns. Pisarev's 1st Grenadier Division was moved forward and
deployed south of Auenhain sheep-farm. Levashov's two cuirassier regiments were deployed on on
Pisarev's flanks.
Jolting up and down in the saddles, the French cuirassiers and dragoons arrived. They attacked with fury
and dispersed the Russian cuirassiers. The grenadiers however held their ground, they delivered a volley
at close range. A number of horses hit by the musketballs stumbled and fell. Unhorsed men stood up and
angrily shook their swords in fury at those human walls. Only the bravest dared to penetrate between the
squares or move closer for a pistol shot. French guns were able to fire canister at the grenadiers who stood
"like a boulder in the middle of the indignant mass." (Mikhailovski-Danilevski - "Denkwurdigkeiten aus dem
Feldzuge vom Jahre 1813" pages 239-240)
French cuirassiers (left) attack Russian infantry (rigth)
formed in squares. Picture by Chagadayev, Russia.
A ball shattered Raievski's shoulder. He removed it from his body and showed the bloody ball to others.
It was his second wound, he had his head already bandaged after being wounded some time earlier.
Raievski was a man of upright bravery and in Russia was nicknamed the "Hero of Borodino". In 1812 at
Saltanovka Raievski took his two sons to participate in the combat against Davout. The younger, Nikolai,
was only 11 years old. (Mozhak - "The Russian Campaign of 1812" page 17)
General Raievski, the Hero of Borodino
The presence of this man guaranteed troubles for the French.
He was wounded twice and had a bandage around his bleeding head
but it made no impression neither on him nor on his elite grenadiers.
Murat left the stubborn grenadiers and continued his advance south, deeper into enemy's positions. The
French cavalry (9th, 11th, and 12 th Cuirassiers and 8th Hussars) arrived at a short distance from where
Alies monarchs stood. Napoleon watched the cavalry advance and said to his staff officers, "Well, fortune
is going to favor us again." Dozens of faces smiled back at him. The Emperor then departed for the north
of Leipzig, where he met Marshal Ney, who was about to fight with the Prussian troops led by the old
man, General Blucher.
The commander-in-chief, Schwarzenberg, was very anxious about the safety of the Tsar of Russia and
King of Prussia and asked them to leave. The Tsar refused. (Sporschil - "Die Grosse Chronik" page 792)
Seeing now the French cuirassiers clearly, the Tsar ordered two horse batteries of Russian Guard (total 24
12pdrs) to move forward. A foot battery (12 6pdrs) nearest to the monarchs was ordered to open fire. The
Tsar ordered his personal escort, the Lifeguard Cossacks, to stand as escort to these guns. The fire of the 36
guns was enough to cool down even the bravest cuirassiers.

Video game Total War: "Battle of Leipzig 1813" (cool music by a German rock band)
French cuirassiers versus Prussian and Russian infantry
.
Polish uhlans vs Russian cuirassiers and hussars.
"They (Poles) made up for its lack of numbers
with equestrian skill and aggressive nature."
- George Nafziger
Napoleon wrote: "The King of Naples (Murat) placed himself at the head of the cuirassiers and marched
on the enemy's cavalry to the left of Wachau, while the Polish horse and the dragoons of the Guard
charged to the right."
Actually during Napoleon's offensive in the center, there were simultaneously fought two cavalry battles
on both flanks. On the eastern flank fought Sebastani's II Cavalry Corps with Prussian cuirassiers (with no
armor) and Austrian light cavalry. On the western flank, Sokolnicki's (Polish) IV Cavalry Corps faced
Austrian Cuirassier Corps led by Nostitz and Russian cuirassier brigade. Officially the IV Cavalry Corps
was under the famous cavalry commander Kellermann, but this general was not doing well on that day.
Thus the Poles were led by one of their own, Michal Sokolnicki (1760-1816). He was a loyal soldier to
Napoleon, fought to the end, and was even in Paris in 1814, when Napoleon gave his farewell to his
beloved Old Guard.
General Sokolnicki.
Though his character left much to be desired
he was a daring and quite talented general.
Sokolnicki had four regiments: 1st Chasseurs armed with lances (only
20 % had carbines), and the 3rd, 6th and 8th Uhlans. The Poles waited
impatiently for charge, with their horses trampling the grass and
tossing their heads. All four units were led by excellent colonels and
senior officers. Many uhlans removed the protective covers from the
lance-pennons "to greet the upcoming battle." Sokolnicki deployed his
troops as follow: the 1st Chasseurs stood in the first line on its west
flank, and the 3rd Uhlans on the east flank. The 3rd Uhlans
distinguished itself with checkered red and white pennons. Its colonel
had married Poniatowski's ex-lover, creating a sensation in Poland.
Between the two regiments deployed two horse batteries.
In the second line on the west flank stood the 6th Uhlan Regiment,
while the 8th Uhlans occupied the east flank. The Poles were homeless
since Russian armies had invaded their motherland. Thus they were
determined to wipe out as much of the enemy as possible. "They
(Poles) made up for its lack of numbers with equestrian skill and
aggressive nature." (- George Nafziger)
.
Firstly, Sokolnicki directed the 1st Chasseurs against Helfreich's division and two Prussian batteries. Its I
Squadron rushed against the Prussian battery, while the II, III, and IV Squadron attacked Russian
infantry. The gunners hurriedly retreated but the infantry held their ground. The chassseurs came down
and broke one infantry square that stood the closest to the battery.
Napoleon's light cavalry versus Allied artillery, infantry
and heavy cavalry (cuirassiers) at Leipzig, 1813.
The 1st Chasseurs (see picture above) captured 600 prisoners and attempted to reform but were hit from
the rear and flank by two Russian cuirassier regiments led by Levashov. The chasseurs were forced to
abandon their prisoners, fired few shots and dispersed themselves. The prisoners were freed at once, and
run to their lines for safety. The cuirassiers pursued the Poles shortly before being attacked by Polish 3rd
Uhlans. The uhlans spurred forward and the whole front rank swung their lances' points down into the
charge. They strucked the iron-clad cuirassiers "in both flanks" and immediately threw them back. The
lances were drawn back and thrust forward into unprotected arms, necks and faces of the cuirassiers. The
cuirassiers gave ground and fled toward the Russian Loubny Hussar Regiment (armed with lances).
The hussars, thundering with cheers, rode straight at the 3rd Uhlans who were stretched in pursuit after
the cuirassiers. Seeing the 3rd Uhlans in trouble, Sokolnicki ordered the 6th Uhlans to the rescue. Seeing
the 6th coming, the 3rd turned around and without forming any organized body and without any orders
from their officers, threw themselves against the hussars. The confusion was riotous; riders without shakos
and helmets, whinnying horses, screaming men, raised sabers and lances, cracking pistols. The lance
penetrated deep into the body, then it was quickly withdrawn, jerking the opponent off balance,
unhorsing him. This melee took a few minutes before both sides disengaged.
After a short lull, Levashov sent forward
one of his cuirassier regiments against the
3rd Uhlans. Hooves thudded heavily. One
company of Polish foot grenadiers, that was
sent before in support for the 1st Chasseurs,
now fired upon the cuirassiers. The
Russians saw the isolated tiny troop and
surrounded it. The cuts and thrusts split
grenadiers' skulls and pierced their bodies.
The bayonets screeched across the armor.
Nobody was taken prisoner, and nobody
asked for mercy. The grenadiers were killed
to the last man.
The 3rd, 6th and 8th Uhlans moved
forward. As they were advancing, they
lowered their lances in one movement and struck the cuirassiers. The clash was immense, throwing some
of the horses off balance. The uhlans avenged their comrades, the grenadiers, by routing the mass of
armored cuirassiers. Again the hussars came to their rescue and the Poles were on back foot.
Sokolnicki reformed the uhlans and brough them back. The fight developed into big groups milling
around, charging and countercharging. The horses were sweating and their ribs heaving while their
masters cut, slashed and thrust. From time to time wounded collapsed on their mounts, and then slid onto
the ground.
Napoleon watched Sokolnicki's cavalry and sent his Old Guard Dragoons to support the hard-fighting
Poles. Riding in front of the stalwarts was General Letort. He cried to the Poles "En avant les brave
Polonaise !" (Forward brave Poles !) The Russians were thrown back and there was a pause afterwards as
both sides reformed their ranks.
Meanwhile more cavalry were arriving. On the Allies' side it was the Lifeguard Cossack Regiment and on
the Polish side the Krakus Regiment (Napoleon's "My Pygmy Cavalry"). The Krakus dashed like
whirlwinds on their ponies, and caught the Lifeguard Cossacks while deploying into a battle formation.
The Russians fled with the pygmies hot on their heels. The Prussian Neumark Dragoons and Silesian
Uhlans appeared nearby and the Poles fell back, behind the French infantry. Only a few groups of Polish
and Russian die-hards fought here and there.
.
The Young Guard in action.
"... drive away these guys [Russians and Prussians]
with a kick in the rear ..."
- Oudinot to Young Guard
Lauriston's V Corps and Victor's II Corps recaptured both villages, Liebertwolkwitz and Wachau. Now the
Young Guard strirred by the rhytmic beating of its drums, passed them and moved against Allies' lines.
Their entry into the battle signaled the impending of Napoleon's major attack. Lauriston and Victor
followed them.
The Young Guard began their advance with the alacrity of brave men advancing to assured victory. Their
snarling officers marched with drawn sabers and the steady tramp of marching feet filled the air. The
Young Guard cheered their Emperor as they marched past him. The drummers, tediously beating the
rhythm of the march, broke into flurries when they realized He was so close.
Marshal Nicolas-Charles Oudinot led the I Infantry Corps of the Young Guard. It comprised of two
divisions; Pacthod's 1st (12 battalions, 24 guns), and Decouz's 3rd (12 battalions, 24 guns). Oudinot turned
to his generals and said: "Take your division Decouz, and that of Pacthod and drive away these guys with
a kick in the rear, so that they then will only flee."
Marshal Oudinot
He was celebrated as THE most wounded marshal,
(27 wounds) a soldier's marshal who led by example
from the front rank, like a Roman centurion.
The big-man Marshal douard-Adolphe-Casimir-Joseph Mortier led the II Infantry Corps of the Young
Guard. It comprised of two divisions; Barrois' 2nd (12 battalions, 24 guns) and Roguet's 4th (12 battalions
and 24 guns). Mortier was the tallest of the marshals and his mother reputedly was English.
Marshal Mortier
He was a cheerful and unassuming man.
In battle he set an example of unbreakable courage.
He was a very big man. (Mortier is French for 'mortar')
Napoleon and his staff watched their advance. Oudinot's troops passed by Wachau and in frontal assault
captured Auenhain sheep-farm. Mortier's troops drove into University Wood sweeping all before them.
Victor's II Corps advanced "with great impettuosity" with Dubreton's division in its lead. They marched on
Gulden Gossa defended by 3 Prussian btns. and Russian battery. The attackers drove the garrison back
into the center of the village before a fresh Prussian btn. counter-attacked and recaptured the lost ground.
The French brought their artillery and began "a tremendous barrage" against the village and its defenders.
Young Guard and Napoleon in 1813.
.
Marshal Macdonald
on the extreme eastern flank.
On the eastern flank Macdonald's XI Army Corps made of Italians, Germans and French initially pushed
the Austrians back. But about 4 pm Klenau aggressively counter-attacked and regained some of the lost
terrain. The battle here settled down to an artillery duel. Macdonald's four divisions led by generals
Ledru, Charpentier, Marchand and Gerard attacked again but without much success.
.
"The battle is won" - Napoleon
The Emperor also expressed his wish that
the churchbells in Leipzig would sound for victory.
Before 3 pm several French batteries deployed near Auenhain sheep-farm and fired upon the village of
Crobern. The cannonballs hit the houses and barns and even splashed in the Pleisse River. The Polish 3rd
Uhlans (4 squadrons) and part of the Old Guard Dragoons (2 squadrons) led by Letort advanced towards
the village. They were followed by several French infantry battalions.
Schwarzenberg happened to be nearby, and seeing the Poles and French, he galloped for safety to the
nearest square formed by Merveldt's Austrian infantry. The narrow streets of Crobern were filled with
wounded and injured and those who had abandoned their regiments and batteries under the excuse of
lack of ammunition. Seeing the Poles and French coming the Prussians (von Preussen's brigade) and
Russians (Helfreich's 14th Division) panicked and some fled in horror, splashing through the river.
With the capture of Crobern, Merveldt's Austrian troops on the left bank of Pleisse were separated from
Barclay de Tolly's Prussians and Russians on the right side of the river. When Napoleon was informed
about the Poles in Crobern at about the same time Murat's cuirassiers were near the height where the
Allies monarchs stood. Napoleon immediately dispatched a messenger to the King of Saxony, to inform
him that the battle is won. (Bleibtreu - "Die Volkerschlacht bei Leipzig" p 83)
Then he had reached for his snuffbox and expressed his wish that the church bells in Leipzig would sound
for victory. He turned to his chief-of-staff, Berthier, with another idea, "Wait, send a courier to Paris with
the message of victory !" ("Halt, nach Paris schicken mit der Siegesbotchaft !" in Bleibtreu - "Die
Volkerschlacht bei Leipzig" p 83)
At 3 pm the spearhead of the Austrian Cuirassier Corps led by General Nostitz appeared before Crobern.
From time to time the Austrian officers twisted in their saddles to see if their men kept order. Nostitz
brought six regiments of fine, armored cavalry. The Allies will retake Crobern and push the Poles and
French back.
~
Allies halt Napoleon's offensive.
The Allies sent forward everything
they could mass against Napoleon
including their best troops.
Seeing the developments, Schwarzenberg standing on the heights south of Gulden Gossa became
very troubled. The Allies realizing the importance of Gulden-Gossa and Auenhain (sheep-farm)
positions sent forward everything they could mass against them. Several Russian elite troops received
instructions to advance forward and deploy south of Gulden-Gossa. These were reserve troops of
Grand Duke Constantine:
Raievski's III Grenadiers Corps
Yermolov's V Foot Guard Corps
Prince Golitzin's Guard & Cuirassier Corps
At 4 pm, when the Russian Guards and grenadiers moved against Gulden Gossa, the Austrian
reserves marched against Auenhain. These troops were:
Grenadier Corps (led by Hessen-Homburg)
Cuirassier Corps (led by Nostitz)
A formidable artillery force, formed of 80 Russian guns, fired in support of the infantry.
Schwarzenberg, seconding Merveldt's attack, sent part of Bianchi's division between the Gosel stream
and the Pleisse, below Crostewitz. This movement, supported by Kleist, would take Oudinot and
Victor in the rear.
.
Allies cavalry's counterattacks.
"(Russian) Guard cavalry which, encountering the (French) squadrons
... in the state of confusion which always follows an all-out charge,
repelled them in their turn ...." - Baron de Marbot, France
To halt the advance of Murat's cavalry General Barclay de Tolly called for the Russian Guard Cavalry
Division commanded by General-Lieutenant Shevitz. (Sporschil - "Die Grosse Chronik" page 788). This
elite formation comprised of several regiments: Lifeguard Dragoons, Lifeguard Uhlans, Lifeguard
Hussars, and Lifeguard Cossacks. The Cossacks however were detached to guard the monarchs and
two horse batteries south of Gulden Gossa..
The Lifeguard Dragoons and Lifeguard Uhlans moved to the low land west of Gulden Gossa. They
rode on fine horses in well aligned ranks, with the dragoons clad in green and the uhlans in dark
blue wearing Polish-style uniforms. On their flank marched the Lifeguard Hussars.

Lifeguard Dragoon and Lifeguard Uhlan.
As soon as Shevitz's division crossed the ponds, moved north and began deploying into battle
formation, Murat's cuirassiers struck them with full force. The Lifeguard Dragoons were caught
during maneuvering, broke and pursued. They fled toward the Lifeguard Uhlans in the second line.
To avoid the collision and disorder, the uhlans (Grand Duke Constantine's favorite unit) turned back
and began a hurried retreat. It was a savage chase. The pursuing cuirassiers hewed down those of the
guardsmen they overtook. The swampy banks of the brook stopped the moving mass of cavalry.
Here they got entangled in a short melee with a frenzy of slashing, cutting and thrusting at random.
Some guardsmen lay prone on the damp grass if pools of blood, others spurred their mounts and
rode over the brook. Because the young cuirassiers were unskillful riders as comparing to the
guardsmen, and mounted on heavier horses, they pulled back.
At that moment the Lifeguard Hussars struck the cuirassiers. (These hussars were a popular
destination for those blue-blooded sons of the first families in the Russian Empire who weren't tall
enough for admittance into the Chevaliers Garde.) The hussars threw themselves against whole
clusters of the enemy, oblivious to danger. But their reckless bravery was in vain. Blades clanged
against the armor with a ringing metallic clatter. The sabers hissed down on heads, necks, and faces
with such speed that it was difficult to catch a glimpse of the whirling blades. The commander of the
hussars, Davidov, fought in the front rank and fell under long French sabers. A horse collapsed on
him like a felled oak. The brave Shevitz, also fell under French sabers. The hussars were defeated and
fled.
French cuirassier.
Musee l'Armee in Paris.
George Nafziger writes: "General Shevich ... leading the dragoons, hussars and uhlans of the Russian
Guard Light Cavalry Division to the attack. Before they could form for the attack, the French struck
and crushed them, killing Shevich and Davidov of the Guard Hussars in the process." (Nafziger -
"Napoleon at Leipzig" p 124)
The Lifeguard Uhlans halted their retreat, reformed its ranks and returned north of the ponds into the
gaudy confusion. The guardsmen were brave men, no doubt about it, but their regiments were
fighting without much coordination and their commanders were gone with no time.
Murat's grand cavalry charge created a great deal of confusion and chaos in Allies' headquarters.
Prince Volkonski, Barclay de Tolly's chief of staff, and General Trubetzki, Tsar's ADC, issued several
orders and counterorders creating a mess.
The Lifeguard Cossacks (led by Orlov-Denisov) then attacked the French and Saxons from the front
while the Prussian Neumark Dragoons and Silesian Cuirassiers struck from the eastern flank.
Schwarzenberg, the commander-in-chief and a cavalryman by trade, joined the charge. The
LIfeguard Cossacks with Schwarzenberg and Orlov-Denisov at their head, passed the brook near
Gulden Gossa and fell upon the French milling nearby. The French artillery fired canister at them,
but it flew over their heads.
Murat's cavalry was also hit with a terrible canister fire (from Russian batteries). Meanwhile Pahlen
collected his hussars, uhlans and Cossacks, and sent them against Murat's flank. General Ziethen
called for the Prussian Neumark Dragoons; "Dragoons, on the cuirassiers !" The Prussians struck the
enemy with the cry "Es lebe der Konig !" (Long live the King !) Behind these dragoons rode Prussian
Silesian Cuirassiers.
From another flank charged Gudovich with the Military Order Cuirassiers and Little Russia
Cuirassiers. It was a heavy push but the marshy ground somehow hindered their movements. The
French although in some disorder after the long charge and attacks on infantry, held their ground
and suffered substantial casualties (especially the 9th and 11th Cuirassiers). The 8th Hussars
vigorously supported their comrades. The 12th Cuirassiers was disordered earlier and didn't fight
much.
The Lifeguard Cossacks recaptured 24 of the 26 guns, which had been lost to the Saxons and French.
Suhozanet ordered to bring these recaptured guns and set them in action against the enemy.
(Mikhailovski-Danilevski - "Denkwurdigkeiten aus dem Feldzuge vom Jahre 1813" pages243-44)
Seeing Murat in trouble, Napoleon sent forward several squadrons of Honor Guard (young soldiers)
and few squadrons of his personal escort (veterans). Murat's cuirassiers, dragoons, chasseurs and
hussars were in trouble. Finally it all was too much for Murat's men, they were pushed back
everywhere and pursued until the positions of Drouot's batteries. Drouot had ordered his guns
loaded with canister. His gunners watched the cavalry battle until Bordesoulle's and Doumerc's
cuirassiers began falling back. The gunners of Old Guard allowed the fleeing cuirassiers to pass
between their cannons before they opened fire. At 3;30 pm, Murat's last horsemen disappeared
behind Drouot's Grand Battery. The pursuers were halted by canister fire and counter-attack made
by 2 squadrons of the Old Guard Dragoons led by Letort. Seeing him Drouot remarked, "Ah, Letort is
moving again, nobody has more Holy Fire than he !" Now the Allies cavalrymen were cut down and
stabbed with efficiency that only veterans can acquire. Allies cavalry fell back in disorder.
The Tsar and the Kaiser of Austria personally thanked Orlov-Denisov for his timely charge. After the
battle Orlov-Denisov was awarded with one of the highest Austrian orders.
Marbot explained why this happened: "This treatment resulted in the enemy centre yielding and it
was about to give way when the Tzar of Russia who had witnessed the disaster, rapidly advanced
the numerous cavalry of his Guard which, encountering the squadrons of Latour-Maubourg in the
state of confusion which always follows an all-out charge, repelled them in their turn and took back
24 of the guns which they had just captured. It was during this charge that General Latour-
Maubourg had his leg carried away by a cannon-ball."
Austrian cuirassiers vs Old Guard Dragoons and Poles.
A massive cavalry battle.
While in the center Murat's cavalry was routed and thrown back by the Russians and Prussians, on
the flank, by the Pleisse River, Polish and French cavalry fought a desperate battle with the Austrian
cuirassiers.
The Austrian Cuirassier Corps led by Nostitz crossed Pleisse River by Gautzsch and advanced
toward Auenhain sheep-farm. General Johann-Nepomuk von Nostitz brought 6 regiments:
Sommariva Cuirassier Regiment (6-2=4 squadrons. The 2 sq. served as escort to the Kaiser of
Austria)
Erzherzog Franz Cuirassier Regiment (4 squadrons)
Kronprinz Ferdinand Cuirassier Regiment (4 squadrons)
Hohenzollern Cuirassier Regiment (6 squadrons)
Herzog Albert Cuirassier Regiment (4 squadrons)
Lothringen Cuirassier Regiment (4 squadrons)
Austrian cuirassiers are coming. Diorama of Battle of Leipzig 1813.
The first to arrive was the Albert Cuirassiers (Moravians). Its two squadrons were ordered to go
against the Poles (3rd Uhlans) while two other squadrons found themselves in front of French
artillery deployed between Crobern and Auenhain. The Poles charged without waiting as they
mistook the cuirassiers for dragoons since the greatcoats hid their breastplates. The lance points slid
on the armor leaving the enemy unharmed. The surprised Poles fell back and rallied.
Soon four squadrons of Albert Cuirassiers attacked them. The Poles had learned the true identity of
the enemy and also charged. The 3rd Uhlans (4 squadrons) got support from part of the Old Guard
Dragoon Regiment (2 squadrons) while the Albert Cuirassiers were joined by Lothringen Cuirassiers
(2 squadrons). Each side wanted to outflank the other. It created a circling movement with only few
casualties taken. Finally the armored Austrians on fresher horses pushed back the Poles and Old
Guard.
Eagle-bearer of Old Guard Dragoons.
Picture by Loucien Rousselot, France.
The 3rd Uhlans and Old Guard Dragoons rallied and attacked again. Now they threw themselves
against Levashov and his two regiments; Starodub Cuirassiers and Novgorod Cuirassiers. The Albert
Cuirassiers and Lothringen Cuirassiers joined the fight. There were 22 squadrons in the melee (4
Polish and 2 Old Guard vs 8 Russian and 8 Austrian).
A frenzied but brief thrusting and cutting developed. The raiders were twisting and turning in their
saddles, stabbing and hacking; steel met steel with a shriek. Sabers sliced across faces, their bloody,
mutilating blows baring tooth and bone in sinister slobbering snarls. General Letort and Colonel
Oborski threw themselves repeatedly against the enemy as if their lives had lost all value. (The brave
Letort would live 2 more years, until the Waterloo Campaign, when the Prussians would kill him.)
But again, the Allies cavalry got the upper hand and the Poles and Old Guard fled with the enemy
hot on their heels.
The Polish 2st Chasseurs saw the pursuit and spurred forward to rescued their brothers-in-arms.
They hit the four regiments of cuirassiers in the flank and dispersed them. (Attack against enemy's
flank is the most efficient andthe most dangerous in cavalry combat.)
Meanwhile another Austrian regiment arrived with their white coats billowing in the wind
(according to one author). They attacked the pursuing chasseurs from the flank and rear and routed
them with easy.
It took several minutes for the Old Guard Dragoons, 3rd Uhlans and 1st Chasseurs to rally after
another defeat. Then they threw themselves (again !) against the armored enemy. This time it was the
Erzherzog Cuirassier Regiment and 2 squadrons of Kronprinz Cuirassiers. It was a fight of six
armored squadrons versus six squadrons of medium and light cavalry. Although the Old Dragoons'
style of dress conveyed importance, the cuirassiers mistakenly assumed that their opponents's lack of
armor would make this an easy victory. However the dragoons fought exceedingly well and several
cuirassiers immediately plunged to the earth. The melee was short, a thing typical for the cavalry
combat. After few moments of circling and chasing, slashing and thrusting, both sides disengaged.
After a short rest the two squadrons of Old Guard Dragoons led by Letort charged again. They struck
4 squadrons of the Albert Cuirassiers, broke them, and hotly pursued. Thrusts in the kidneys of
fleeing Austrian cuirassiers were especially effective since they wore only breastplates. Letort felt
triumphant.
Louis-Michel Letort
He was a brave commander
with a tactical awareness.
Nostitz halted by the road and watched the enemy pursuing one of his regiments and then rallying
after successful charge. Nostitz dispatched his adjutant with orders to two regiments. The Lothringen
Cuirassiers received the orders, drew sabers and spurred forward. They struck the Old Guard
frontally while part of the other regiment struck their flank. Despite being heavily outnumbered (3 to
1) the Old Guard held their ground and both sides disengaged.
Old Guard Dragoons, by Rousellot.
There was a friction between the Saxon cuirassiers and the Old Guard Dragoons.
Digby-Smith, UK, writes: "At about midday the Saxon cuirassiers brigade .... was transferred
from east of Wachau to the west, from where they witnessed (with no small pleasure) the defeat
of Letort's Dragoons of the Guard. This friction between the allies had been generated by the
sustained brutality and licentiousness of the French regiment towards the unfortunate local
Saxon population, and there had been several fights between the regiments in bivouac."
(Digby-Smith - "1813: Leipzig" page 91)
Nostitz ordered the Albert Cuirassiers (4 squadrons) to attack the victorious but exhausted Old
Guard frontally. This was too much for the dragoons and they fled towards Wachau.
Austrian cuirassiers in Leipzig 1813.
Courtesy of Udo Sixel, Germany.
After the departure of the Old Guard and with the Polish cavalry pushed back, Nostitz focused
solely on the French infantry. He personally led forward the Erzherzog Cuirassiers and the
Kronprinz Cuirassiers. Behind them advanced the Albert Cuirassiers and the Lothringen Cuirassiers.
Their object was Decouz's 3rd Division of Young Guard deployed northwest and west of Auenhain.
The Austrians trotted against Decouz's right flank, where stood the 9th, 10th and 12th Voltigeur
Regiment of Young Guard. They formed themselves in squares against cavalry.
The Young Guard leveled their muskets and waited for the enemy to arrive. The white-clad
Austrians appeared well spread out in several lines. They passed the low ground, then rode over a
small rise, and gradually sped up across the pastures. The voltigeurs fired, and the smoke obscured
their squares. The first cuirassiers fell on the ground, a couple of dozen of horses were killed and
wounded.
A bullet hit Nostitz himself.
But the cuirassiers kept coming and when the infantry emptied their muskets they pressed on and
the 10th Voltigeurs was broken. (The after-battle reports of casualties among officers suggest that it
was the 10th who was broken as mentioned by the Austrian sources. The 10th had lost two times as
many officers as the 9th, and seven times as many as the 12th.)
General Berckheim watched the Austrian attack on the Young Guard. He took his 1st Light Cavalry
Division made of French, Polish and Italian light cavalry, and counterattacked. At the same time, the
Austrian Sommariva Cuirassiers, crossed the Pleisse River and advanced against the enemy.
The French artillery peppered the cuirassiers with canister. The Austrian force split into two groups,
one group (2 squadrons) attacked Poniatowski's infantry, while the other group (also 2 squadrons
strong) attacked Berckheim's cavalry.
The Polish 15th Infantry Regiment mistook the white-clad Austrian cuirassiers for the friendly white-
clad Saxon cuirassiers and held its fire. Only at the very last moment Colonel Rybinski recognized the
mistake and yelled "Fire !" Voley fired at very close range resulted heavier casualties and the
attackers and their horses littered the ground. Some passed the square at full speed, heading against
the squares in the second line. But there stood Poniatowski's best foot troop - the crack Vistula
Legion. The Fistula deliberately allowed the cuirassiers come closer and only then delivered a
murderous volley.
The two other squadrons of Sommariva Cuirassiers, despite being outnumbered more than 4 to 1,
struck Berkheim's light cavalry division at the flank. It was a brief melee; Berkheim himself was
struck in the head and lost his headwear. The French lancers broke and fled towards the village of
Dosen, giving their horses full rein with the cuirassiers on their heels.
At 3 pm Napoleon sent orders to the Saxon Zastrow Cuirassiers and Garde du Corps to support
Berkheim. In that moment the Saxons stood east of Wachau. When they passed Wachau and the
Young Guard they were joined by part of the Polish 8th Uhlans (2 squadrons). The trumpeters
sounded; Lessing drew his sword and pointed towards the Austrians. The Zastrow were in the first
line, with the elite Garde du Corps in the second.
A Saxon officer recalled the event as follow: "When we [Saxon cuirassiers] reached Berckheim, his
men were mixed up with the enemy in individual squadrons, so that there were Austrian units to the
north of the French lancers. We Saxons had only just come up when Berckheim rallied his men to
face the ever-increasing enemy pressure. But they could not stand even though Berckheim -
bareheaded, as his hat had been knocked off - threw himself into the thick of the melee. He was also
swept back in the flood of fugitives ...
Despite this chaos, we stood fast and hacked away at the Austrians. Shortly before they charged us,
the Austrians had shouted to us to come over to them; we ignored them. However, we were
overpowered and broken. The chase now went on at speed, friend and foe all mixed up together,
racing over the plain."
Cavalry battle: the white-clad Austrian cuirassiers vs Polish and French cavalry.
Diorama of Leipzig 1813. Courtesy of Udo Sixel, Germany.
Berckheim rallied his French lancers behind Sokolnicki's Polish uhlans. Then together with the
Saxons they charged and routed the Sommariva Cuirassiers. Decouz's Young Guard heard the
thudding of hooves, now even louder than before. They stared anxiously in the distance and through
smoke and soon saw groups of riders coming at full speed. They were the fleeing white-clad
Austrians and pursuing them the white-clad Saxons. Behind them were French lancers and Polish
uhlans. The Young Guard recognized the characteristic Polish top-square headwears but mistook the
Saxons for Austrians.
They fired at close range at both !
The Zastrow Cuirassiers lost half of its men, the heaviest casuatliest ever suffered by this regiment.
After the action they formed themselves instead of on four on two squadrons. (But despite the
casualties the brave Saxons took many Austrian prisoners.)
Pisarev's 1st Grenadier Division received an order to abandon its position south of Auenhain and
march towards Gulden Gossa where the French infantry (Maison's division) pressed hard against
that village. Nostitz's six cuirassir regiments filled the gap after Pisarev's departure.
Helfreich's 14th Division after its failed march on Wachau fell back on Crostewitz, where also
Schwichow's battalions took cover.
On the extreme eastern flank of Napoleon's army, Sebastiani's French II Cavalry Corps (2 horse
carabinier, 4 cuirassier, 3 lancer, 7 chasseur, and 3 hussar regiments) fought well until Platov's
Cossacks arrived. Cossacks' appearance on the flank caused Sebastiani to pull back. Matvei Ivanovich
Platov slowly followed the enemy.
.
Russian and Austrian grenadiers enter the battle.
Raievski had ordered to counterattack
- not firing a single shot the Russian grenadiers
drove the French infantry back with their bayonets.
Victor's infantry appeared in front of Raievski's grenadiers (who few moments earlier repulsed the
French cuirassiers). The French young soldiers halted and fired as rapidly as they could, hoping to
avoid hand to hand combat. Seeing the enemy wavering, Raievski had ordered to counterattack. Not
firing a single shot the grenadiers drove the French back with their bayonets. (Sporschil and few
others described the attack as "... ohne einen Schuss zu thun.")
Marshal Victor's troops fell back towards Wachau and Auenhain sheep-farm. But when the
grenadiers attepted to capture the sheep-farm Dubreton's 4th Division repulsed them with musket
fire (all the walls were loopholed.)
Hungarian Division under Bianchi, and Austrian Grenadiers led by Weissenwolf, crossed the Pleisse
River by Gauschwitz and Duben and marched to Crobern. Weissenwolf's grenadiers, already formed
in battalion masses, had to replace Choglokov's 2nd Grenadier Division, which was now ordered to
withdraw southeast, between Gulden Gossa and Stormthal. With Choglokov marching away and the
Austrian being still on their way Raievski stretched Pisarev's 1st Grenadier Division in one line of
battalions to cover as much of the gap as possible.
The passing of these marching columns (Choglokov's grenadiers going southeast, while
Weissenwolf's grenadiers marching northeast) went without serious difficulties. Once Choglokov
reached his destination, on his left flank deployed two cuirassier regiments under Gudovich (from
Duka's 3rd Cuirassier Division).
.
The Prussians and Russian Foot Guards
recaptured Gulden Gossa and the University Wood.
"The decisive hour has now arrived for France.
This evening we must either win or all die !"
- General Maison to his young soldiers
It was getting darker but the guns continued the barrage, although somehow without the previous
intensity. Maison's 16th Division (Lauriston's V Corps) reached the potato and cabbage fields in front
of Gulden Gossa. Behind Maison, Rochambeau's division was deployed, followed by Albert's
division. Then several battalions from Maison's division stormed into the village where shells and
musketballs rattled along the rooftops. At the same time few other battalions attacked the University
Wood. They advanced formed in columns and Allies artillery hit them and put into some disorder.
When they finally came closer general musket fire sprayed from the houses.
Maison and his officers urged their infantry forward. They bursted into the houses and barns. Some
tried also to break through the roofs and backyards. The Prussians and Russians were evrywhere and
the battalions commingled, then broke into darting back and forth through the smoke-filled village
mobs. There was also some friendly fire due to falling darkness. Three Prussian battalions were
pushed to the southern part of the village. A sharp fire across the stream held Maison's infantrymen
back.
One battalion from the 2nd East Prussian Infantry Regiment arrived and entered Gulden Gossa. They
were loudly greeted by the men of the 3 battalions who held the southern part of the village.
Together they crossed the stream and uprooted the French from the houses and gardens at the
northern part of Gulden Gossa. Seeing their comrades fleeing, Albert's division attacked with cold
steel - whoever was caught, was bayoneted. The French retook the northern part but the Allies held
the southern part of Gulden Gossa.
On the Allies' side the honor of being the spearhead of a new attack was given to the Russian
Lifeguard Jagers (2 battalions). In the distance, to the left of the guardsmen, deployed the II Battalion
from the Prussian 7th Reserve Infantry Regiment led by Major Schutter, and to the right the Fusilier
Battelion from the 2nd West Prussian Infantry Regiment commanded by Major Hund. Behind these
troops 4 battalions of Russian Foot Guard and 4 battalions of Russian grenadiers marched.
The Lifeguard Jagers entered Gulden Gossa with the stuttering and brave General Bistrom taking up
the front. They entered the streets, clambered over the wounded and killed which carpeted the
ground, their drummers loudly beating the pace. The French rapidly fell back. The Russians and
Prussians continued their pursuit out of the village and across the fields and didn't cease until they
noticed Murat's cuirassiers moving south.
Seeing the advance of French cuirassiers and dragoons, all the wounded on the fields crawled into
the safety of bushes and tall weeds, and pressed themselves into every fold in the ground. Behind
the cavalry rolled Drouot's artillery, followed by Lauriston's three infantry divisions. The French
152nd Line Regiment entered Gulden Gossa. The streets were black with soldiers who charged in
large groups, with almost everyone firing. The Prussians and Russians took cover behind bushes,
trees and fences and fired through the smoke toward French infantry swarming across the stream.
Parts of Maison's, Albert's and Rochambeau's divisions were engaged in the struggle. North of
Gulden Gossa, on the rise, were deployed French batteries. General Udom brought 4 battalions of
Russian Foot Guard into the village. Yermolov, the commander of Russian Foot Guard was present at
Gulden Gossa and directing the Russo-Prussian troops. Pahlen's horse battery fired upon the enemy
from the flank, and these gunners had no problem with finding their target. Pahlen's cavalry
advanced against Murat, who marched south, causing him to direct part of his cavalry to his left.
Behind Pahlen's cavalry, Kretov's fresh 2nd Cuirassier Division deployed in two lines. Here and there
small melees and individual duels were fought between Pahlen's and Murat's cavalrymen..
Taking advantage of the situation (Murat was distracted by Pahlen) 3 Prussian battalions led by von
Jagow, and 12 (small) battalions led by Mesenzov's, entered the University Wood. These troops were
supported by 4 battalions from Choglokov's 2nd Grenadier Division. Several battalions from
Maison's division resisted the assault, it was a tree-to-tree fight in falling darkness. Finally the French
prevailed and retook the wood.
Then Raievski, "the Monument of 1812" and "the Hero of Borodino", rode to the Foot Guards. The
bandage that covered his head wound was blood stained. He shouted to the guardsmen, "I will lead
you !" and they responded with thunderous cheers. Raievski took four regiments (Pavlovsk,
Grenadiers, Jagers, and Finnish) and stormed the University Wood. They were followed by von
Jagow's 3 Prussian battalions and 2 battalions of Russian grenadiers. In the lead of this strong force
marched the Lifeguard Jagers, followed by the Lifeguard Grenadiers. The French hurriedly fell back
towards Liebertwolkwitz. There were quite heavy casulaties on both sides with Generals Maison and
Raievski being among the wounded.
The Tsar turned to General Suhozanet, the commander of Russian Reserve Artillery, and asked, "Is
your reserve artillery still far away ?" Suhozanet replied, "It will arrive in 2 minutes, Your Majesty".
The Tsar mounted his horse and rode with the King of Prussia a bit further back, making space for
the artillery. Earlier on Suhozanet had already ordered his guns brought forward because he had
observed that Napoleon, not without reason, concentrated his troops in the center.
It was 4 pm when Suhozanet's batteries arrived, one after the other and wheeled into assigned
positions. Their draft horses were harnessed in twos. The drivers rode the left hand horse of each
two. They brought their whips down on the horses' backs, trying to reach their destination very
quickly. Then they unlimbered and the gunners raced forward with sponges and rammers.
Suhozanet scanned the battlefield with his telescope. Then he sliced the air with his saber, and the
massive battery opened a terrific cannonade coverering the fields in thick smoke. The noise shattered
their eardrums and robbed them of hearing. General Miloradovich, the commander of Russian foot
reserves (Foot Guards and Grenadiers), remarked, "This cannonade is louder than that at Borodino."
(Mikhailovski-Danilevski - "Denkwurdigkeiten aus dem Feldzuge vom Jahre 1813" page 243)
Various sources give the numbers of guns for Suhozanet between 72 and 112. The Guard Position
Battery was sent earlier to support Prinz Eugen's infantry and was captured by the French. So
Suhozanet had the excellent Arakcheyev's Position Battery, two Guard Horse Batteries - that were
deployed near Gulden Gossa, and three foot batteries. There was one more foot battery deployed
near the place where the monarchs stood. This gives Suhozanet 84 guns. However, it is possible that
part of Yermolov's Foot Guard's artillery was here too. Thus Suhozanet could have had 96-108 guns.
While Drouot's and Suhozanet's grand batteries thundered, the church bells in Leipzig, and also in
towns and villages occupied by the French, opened their own tones. (Sporschil - "Die Grosse Chronik"
page 794) Following the wishes of Napoleon they announced the French victory and continued
ringing the whole evening and night.
The decimated Russian 3rd Division (Shahovski's) moved to the rear to give a clear field of fire for
the artillery. The 4th Division (Pyshnitzki's) and Prussian 12th Brigade (Klux's) were already behind
Auenhain. Gudovich's two cuirassier regiments were deployed behind Suhozanet's batteries. Behind
them stood deep columns of Russian and Prussian foot guards. They looked like dark islands covered
with iron. The Russian 1st Cuirassier Division (four regiments) and Prussian Guard Cavalry (two
regiments) were the last reserve.
Suhozanet's batteries showered the most advanced French batteries with canister at a distance of 350
paces. It forced the French gunners to withdraw several hundred paces.
The Russian guns were still thundering when the blood-curdling French infantry yells drew closer to
Gulden Gossa. It was the Young Guard and Maison's 16th Division attempting to take the village.
Maison had said to his soldiers: "The decisive hour has now arrived for France. This evening we must
either win or all die !" The young soldiers suffered badly from artillery fire but held their ground
until two regiments of Russian 2nd Guard Division and two grenadier regiments came and
dislodged them. The situation worsened for the French after 12 Russian horse guns opened fast fire
on their flank. Behind the guns was Pahlen's cavalry corps (uhlans, hussars and Cossacks). Russian
2nd Cuirassier was deployed in front of Stormthal.
About 5 pm the French again attacked Gulden-Gossa. Maison's 16th Division fought particularly
well. They crossed bayonets with Russian guardsmen and were decimated by the artillery. Several
battalions of Prussian infantry and Russian grenadiers attacked them. The fighting was ferocious,
Maison was almost captured and barely escaped, and Raievski was wounded again. Maison's soldiers
were pushed back and the Allies' elite troops pursued them half way to Liebertwolkwitz. After being
decimated by powerful artillery and bayoneted by enemy's guardsmen Maison's die-hards kept
fighting on the next day.
Voltigeur of French line infantry, in 1812.
Musee de l'Armee, France.
.
Fight in the University Wood.
In the University Wood the Allies counter-attacked several times and halted Mortier's Young Guard
but were unable to push him back. Mortier had two divisions, Barrois' and Roguet's made of 20
tirailleur and 4 flanquer battalions. There were also several battalions from Lauriston's corps.
The French battalions moved against the enemy, with their flags and fanions snapping in the wind.
After some hard fighting Mortier gained even more ground until at 4 pm Russian 2nd Grenadier
Division entered the Wood and joyfully picked up the fight at close quarters with the French. The
long fighting settled down to an artillery bombardement and skirmishers sniping at each other.
.
Austrian grenadiers and the Hungarians
recaptured Markkleeberg and the sheep-farm.
"... the Austrian grenadiers broke into the sheep-farm,
cut down or captured the garrison and recovered a colour
which had been taken from the Russians."
- Graf Weissenwolf
Thousands of pairs of shoes and bare feet were marching with loud thumps. General Bianchi brought
his Hungarian Infantry Division, except the Davidovich Regiment that was detached further north,
near Connewitz. (Sporschil described them as "the beautiful Hungarian regiments" die schoenen
ungarischen Regimenter...) Bianchi was a seasoned commander but at Dresden his troops were mauled
by the French.
The Hungarians passed through Crobern, went along the Pleisse and deployed in front of
Markkleeberg. In the first line stood 6 battalions under Generals Beck and Quallenburg, while to their
right were other 4 battalions under General Haugwitz. The Hungarians also brought their batteries
with ammunition wagons.
Two squadrons of the Hohenzollern Cuirassiers were deployed on Bianchi's right flank, and ywo
other squadrons were deployed on the left flank. In the reserve stood the five remaining cuirassier
regiments from Nostitz's corps. Each regiment was formed in a regimental column by squadrons.
The Hungarians passing through Crobern.
Then the Simbischen Regiment (the only non-Hungarians in Bianchi's division) and half of Esterhazy
Regiment took their positions in Crobern. Nearby stood one battery. The Davidovich Regiment and
another half of Esterhazy Regiment took position in Connewitz. They were supported with one
battery.
General Haugwitz appeared northwest of Auenhain with the Hessen-Homburg Regiment. They
formed themselves in an assault column, attacked the flank of Young Guard and captured a French
battery. The Young Guard counterattacked but the Austrians beat off their assault.
The Hiller Regiment (2 battalions) and one battery moved towards Markkleeberg. They were
supported with the Colloredo Regiment (2 battalions). The Esterhazy Regiment (1 battalion) served as
a reserve. Poniatowski continued his fight for the village. Shots echoed from the streets as the Poles
and Beck's Hungarians shot at each other. The Hungarians were fresh troops and more numerous,
they captured the village and moved towards Dosen, where they captured two fine French batteries.
Austrian (Hungarian) infantry in battle. Courtesy of Wolfgang Meyer.
General Beck slowly fell back and reformed his victorious infantry. He also occupied the outskirts of
Markkleeberg and moved the Esterhazy Regiment (1 battalion) from the reserve into the first line.
The Esterhazy Regiment then stormed the village of Dolitz.
The Austrian Grenadier Division under Graf Weissenwolf arrived in columns and went into Crobern,
which at that moment was garrisoned by 3 battalion of Hungarians. One of these battalions (of
Simbschen Regiment) marched out of Crobern with the intention of capturing the sheep-farm. At the
same time two grenadier battalions were added to the garrison of Crobern.
The large battalion of Simbschen Regiment was met by two much smaller French battalions from
Dubreton's 4th Division. Both sides fired volleys and the Austrians fled. Seeing this defeat Graf
Weissenwolf sent forward 4 grenadier battalions. The leading battalion shook out their third-rankers
into a skirmish chain and briskly advanced. They got under fire from French artillery positioned
behind the sheep-farm and halted. Officers rushed along the ranks and after a few words of
encouragement the grenadiers renewed their advance straight against the battery. The boldness of
the attackers took its toll on the gunners. They fled and the Austrian grenadiers captured the battery
accompanied by loud cheers.
Columns of Austrian (Hungarian) infantry.
Courtesy of Wolfgang Meyer.
Graf Weissenwolf issued orders to bring his own battery. The gunners dashed forwards, unlimbered
their pieces and opened fire on Marshal Victor's infantry (Dubreton's division) and Marshal
Augereau's (Semele's division) infantry. Semele's young soldiers began wavering under the
cannonade and Poniatowski sent them two batteries and two Polish battalions. These infantrymen
were entirely deployed in skirmish chain. The Austrian skirmish line also thickened substantially.
Semele's infantry joined the Polish skirmishers.
One of Polish horse batteries was commanded by Masson, a French officer. Masson's fire was so
accurate that one Austrian battalion was forced to fall back. Sokolnicki detached one of his cavalry
regiments (1st Chasseurs) to guard this battery. The Hungarians attempted to capture Masson's guns
but the chasseurs forced them back. Then the Austrian artillery fired at Masson's battery, causing
very heavy casualties. Out of Masson's battery only 1 officer, 1 sergeant, and a few gunners survived !
The survivors hurriedly limbered up trying to save the guns, but during the hasty retreat several
horses got entangled in harnesses and fell down. Masson's gunners didn't want the enemy to claim
any trophy and spiked 4 of their 6 guns and pushed them into a nearby stream. (Lukasiewicz - "Armia
Ksiecia Jozefa 1813" page 286)
The French and Austrians again rested their eyes on the sheep-farm. Its houses, barn and high
wooden fence rose out of the pastures. The Austrians who occupied the sheep pen and barn,
observed the movements of the French. Soon several battalions of the Young Guard and Marshal
Victor's corps were seen advancing quickly and paying little attention to the Austrian fire. The
whitecoats were thrown out of the farm at bayonet point. Now the French took their positions in the
farm.
The famous Austrian (Hungarian) grenadiers.
Picture by Dmitrii Zgonnik of Ukraine.
Two battalions of Austrian infantry were sent to recapture Auenhain; one grenadier battalion
attacked the farm frontally while one battalion of Simbschen Regiment retook the area to the east of
the farm. In the reserve was kept one grenadier battalion.
Graf Weissenwolf recorded the action as follow: "I had the first battalions which came through
Crobern advance [against Auenhain] at the charge. At about 5 PM Oberst (Colonel) Dressery with the
1st Battalion of Simschen, supported by my [grenadier] battalions Call, Fischer, and Portner, made a
second charge on Auenhain. ... Dressery overthrew the French infantry behind the farm and drove
them back over the meadows but a counter-attack by their cavalry forced him to form square quickly
and to retire. Meanwhile, the Austrian grenadiers broke into the sheep-farm, cut down or captured
the garrison and recovered a colour which had been taken from the Russians. They held the
buildings through the night despite the fact that a French shell exploded an ammunition wagon
inside the courtyard and killed many of the garrison, which now consisted of the grenadier battalions
Fischer and Portner ..."
French infantry defending the Auenhain sheep-farm.
All the wall were loopholed and the gates barricaded.
By the end of the day the farm was partially destroyed.
The battle along Pleisse River ended in Allies victory. The Auenhain sheep-farm was occupied by
Austrian grenadier battalion, Markkleeberg was garrisoned with several battalions of Bianchi's
Hungarians and few battalions of Helfreich's Russians. The remaining battalions of Helfreich's
division were in Crostewitz and Crobern. In the two villages were also several battalions of von
Preussen's Prussian 12th Brigade, and 4 Austrian battalions (2 Hungarian and 2 grenadiers).
On the French side Marshal Victor (three divisions) withdrew north of the sheep farm. Behind him
stood Marshal Oudinot's Young Guard (two divisions).
.
"The wounded groan and the church bells ring."
"All the villages in which the day's fighting had taken place
were in flames, and they were surrounded by a sea of a campfires."
- Digby Smith
The gunners searched the smoke and found no enemy approaching. By 6 pm the last guns on both
sides were silent. (Lukasiewicz - "Armia Ksiecia Jozefa 1813") The fight for the day was over and
exhausted Napoleon rode away on his horse called Taurus. The Emperor passed a group of officers
from the Young Guard who saluted him.
In a hollow of a dried-up pond north of the Meusdorf mansion, tents for him were erected. Nearby
the Old Guard, infantry and cavalry, camped. Here the Austrian commander of II Army Corps,
General Merveldt, who had been captured by the Poles, was brought.
Latour-Mauborg's I Cavalry Corps and Pajol's V Cavalry Corps settled down between Wachau and
Liebertwolkwitz. But then Latour-Maubourg was ordered to move to the rear, near Napoleon's tents.
They camped together with the Guard Cavalry. Sokolnicki's IV Cavalry Corps was ordered to send
pickets, who would cover the front between Markkleeberg and Wachau for the entire night.
(Lukasiewicz - "Armia Ksiecia Jozefa 1813")
Napoleon spent a wakeful night with messenger after messenger arriving with reports from the
corps commanders. (Maude - "The Leipzig Campaign 1813" page 259)
The commander of Polish corps, Prince Poniatowski, reported to Napoleon: "My VIII Corps ... have
lost a third of their men and many officers. All ammunition stocks have been used up. ... the cartridge
pouches and the ammunition wagons are empty. ... we have not enough to maintain combat for 1
hour."
Murat's cavalry had many horses lost, especially the cuirassiers. Latour-Maubourg's I Cavalry Corps
had 1000 men killed and wounded out of 6000. Colonel Rolland of 2nd Cuirassier Regiment and
Colonel Habert of 9th Cuirassier Regiment were wounded. Colonel Gualdi of the Italian dragoons
was wounded, and Colonel Berger of the Saxon Zastrow Cuirassiers was wounded too. Sokolnicki's
IV Cavalry Corps lost 750 men out of 2000. The 3rd and 6th Uhlans lost more than 50 %, the 8th
Uhlans lost 200 men, the 1st Chasseurs lost 120 men, including as many as 6 of its 11 captains. But
Pajol's V Cavalry Corps, who refused to charge, suffered only laughingly low casualties: 113 men.
The French infantry also sustained heavy casualties. Maison was wounded and three horses were
killed under him. The 26th Light Infantry Regiment of Dubreton's division (Marshal Victor's corps)
lost 26 officers. General Ferriere from Dubreton's division found his grave on the battlefield. The
colonel of 19th Line Infantry Regiment was wounded. Two colonels from Albert's division were
wounded; Pignet from 141st and Genevay from 139th. From Maison's division; Colonel Raynaud of
152nd. From Rochambeau's division; colonel Derier of 150th. The 135th Line Infantry Regiment had
lost 21 officers and the 155th had lost 23 officers. Dufour's division had General Estko wounded,
while Vial's division had General Bronikowski wounded. He carried his arm in a sling. Marshal
Victor's II Army Corps suffered 3000 casualties out of 15000; Lauriston's V Army Corps had
approximately the same losses. Poniatowski's VIII Army Corps lost 2000 out of 5000 infantrymen.
Drouot's artillery suffered 162 casualties, while itself inflicted enormous casualties on the enemy.
Despite Allies success with halting the French offensive,
Napoleon enjoyed substantial territorial gains. He pushed
the Allies all the way from Wachau to Gulden Gossa and from
Liebertwolkwitz to University Wood. Furthermore, Allies' losses
were heavier than French. Napoleon however failed to break enemy's
line and win the battle. It was his last chance and from now on
he will be on defensive.
The whole battlefield was littered with weapons and military equoipment: muskets, sabers, drums,
crossbelts, cartridge boxes, shakos, helmets, lances, dead and wounded horses. Friend and foe lay
dead or wounded, side by side. Most of the wounded beyond hope had already been stripped of
shoes and clothes. Tens of men carried wounded comrades on greatcoats, or cradled them in their
arms, with their heads dangling. Many wounded cried for water, others that some passer by would
either carry them wehere their wound might be dressed, or put them out permanently of pain.
The Allies also suffered heavy losses. Radetzki, the chief-of-staff of Allies army had 3 horses shot
under him. Raievski was wounded twice. Prinz Eugen was wounded too. The Russian Kremechug
Infantry Regiment lost 2/3 killed, wounded and prisoners. The 20th and 21st Jager Regiment, as well
two battalions of Prussian 6th Reserve Infantry Regiment dissolved. One battalion of 7th Silesian
Landwehr Regiment of 800 men had only 160 "unscratched." Shahovski's 3rd Infantry Division
diminished from 2400 to 1100 men. Klux's brigade lost 2697 according to Klux himself. His artillery
was almost destroyed. The II Battalion of 6th Reserve Infantry Regiment and the 7th Silesian
Landwehr Regiment, suffered very heavy losses. Von Preussen's 12th Brigade had suffered casualties
between 2865 and 3324. Pirch's brigade lost 1097 men. The Prussian Neumark Dragoons lost 52, while
the Austrian Sommariva Cuirassiers had suffered 310 casualties. The rest of Nostitz's Cuirassier
Corps, five regiments, suffered 1190 casualties.
During the night the Allies settled themselves into positions, so as to be able to renew the fighting
the next day. The Austrian infantry were near Connewitz, Klein-Zschocher, Dolitz castle, Gautsch
and the bridge by Connewitz. Austrian grenadiers were at Mark-kleeberg and cuirassiers near
Auenhain sheep-farm. Kleist's Prussians were by Crobern and Crostewitz. The Russians moved their
2nd Grenadier and 3rd Cuirassier Division behind the Prussians. Gorchakov's infantry occupied
University Wood and area south of Liebertwolkwitz. Pahlen's cavalry was in front of Stormthal.
Behind Pahlen was Kretov's Cuirassier Division. Between Gulden Gossa and the sheep-farm stood
the Russian Guard Cavalry Division. The Prussian Foot Guard Brigade had moved earlier south of
the sheep-farm. Platov's Cossacks were in Klein-Posna. South of Gulden Gossa were the powerful
Russian reserves and Prussian Royal Guard. The Russian 1st (Guard) Cuirassier Division and the
Prussian Guard Cavalry unsaddle their horses in the dark.
Far in the rear, in the palace in Magdeborn, slept the Tzar. The village of Magdeborn was garrisoned
by 8 battalions of Russian Foot Guard. King of Prussia was in Borna, Kaiser of Austria in remote
Pegau, Schwarzenberg in Rotha. Russian General Barclay de Tolly however was in the middle of
bivouacs on the height behind Gulden Gossa.
"All the villages in which the day's fighting had taken place were in flames, and they were
surrounded by a sea of a campfires. ... There were so many wounded that no-one bothered about the
dead. Seventy to eighty Russians were buried in a mass grave ... " (Digby-Smith, pages 115-116)
Everywhere thousands of campfires blazed up and the exhausted men huddled closely around them.
On the dark horizon a long artillery supply train was creeping along the main highway. Dark heavy
clouds appeared, heralding rain.
And the bells in Leipzig had been ringing all along.
In the morning Wachau was burning.

Allies' offensive in the north: Battle of Mockern
Allies' offensive in the north.
"Go towards Leipzig and attack the enemy,
where you encounter him."
- Blucher to Langeron
Blcher's forces were organized into two large groups:
- Langeron's Russian army (corps)
- von Yorck's Prussian I Corps
The total strength of these troops was 20.000-30.000 infantry, 8.000-10.000 cavalry, 2.500 Cossacks and
270-310 guns. They were closing from the north and north-east on Mckern and Wiederitzsch.
Blcher ordered Langeron "Go towards Leipzig and attack the enemy, where you encounter him."
What had happened at Mckern was this.
Day before the battle the French arrived at Mckern and Schnefeld. Ney and Marmont met each
other and established their headquarter in the palace in Schnefeld.
Ney's troops:
- Souham's III Army Corps (only one division)
- Marmont's VI Army Corps
- Arrighi's III Cavalry Corps
- Dabrowski's Polish division.
Marmont's corps was one of the best in the army in 1813. Jean Barres writes, "On the 10th August the
army corps was united in a wide plain and reviewed by its commander, Marshal the Duc de Ragusa,
who, in full uniform, cloak, and hat in the style of (King) Henri IV, with his marshal's truncheon in
his hand, passed before the front line of each corps. After this review there were some large
maneuvres and a general march past. The army corps, composed of three divisions [Compans,
Bonnet, Friederich] was remarkably fine and full of enthusiasm."
The troops camped all over the area, as far as eye could see the fields contained thousands of men,
horses and hundreds of vehicles. In the night thousands of campfires carpeted the fields and
meadows. Ney was not sure where Blcher is and he neglected to probe the Allies movements with
his cavalry except the direction towards Podelwitz, on the right flank. Once his troops met the enemy
Marshal Ney ordered a slow withdrawal and abandoning the redoubts by Lindenthal.
General Blucher 1742-1819
.
Langeron "believed Napoleon himself was attacking him".
"... the Russians were soon involved in a hefty fight with the Poles.
It was the bitterest fight I have ever seen in my life ..."
- Prussian Mjr Ernst Moritz Arndt
Blcher's main force was commanded by Russian General Langeron. Alexandre Andrault de
Langeron was born in 1763 in Paris but in 1789 proceeded to Russia. Langeron enjoyed literature and
crossword puzzles, but there was something about him that annoyed Blucher to no end. Maybe it
was the subtle smile that never left his typically southern French face that triggered the old warrior's
nervous system.
Langeron's army attacked the twin villages of Gross-Wiederitzsch and Klein-Wiederitzsch in the
very center of the French positions. These points were defended by Dabrowski's Polish division, 4
btns. and two cavalry regiments. Jan-Henryk Dabrowski was a general and national hero, his name is
mentioned in Polish anthem.
Disregarding the massive advantage of the Allies, Dabrowski's 2nd and 4th Infantry Regiment
marched out of Wiederitzsch and assaulted one of Langeron's divisions. Langeron immediately sent
word to Blcher exaggerating Dabrowski's strength. In his memoirs the Russian general wrote that he
had "believed Napoleon himself was attacking him". The Polish 4th Regiment was a tough unit, in
Spain its 300 men held Fuengirola against 2.500 British and Spanish infantry supported by a British
squadron "and finished the affair by chasing the landing force into the sea and bagging the British
general and 5 guns."
Langeron pressed forward but it was a nervy situation and his artillery by mistake fired on Prussian
battery. Langeron's infantry led by officers with drawn sabers entered Klein-Wiederitzsch but the
Poles fought back with a grim determination. The 4th Regiment, outnumbered three to one, contested
every inch of the ground that the Russians advanced. The attackers however pushed them out of the
village. Five Russian cavalry regiments (Emmanuel's 3 dragoon and Witt's 2 Cossack) routed one
Polish cavalry regiment, captured horse battery and took 500 prisoners. The remaining Polish
regiment and some French cavalry counterattacked and drove the Russians across the Rietchke
Stream. Dabrowski then rallied his 4 btns. and threw the Russians out of Wiederitzsch.
The fields between the two villages were heavy trafficked with attacking, fleeing and counter-
attacking infantry. Langeron saw with his fieldglass some French troops marching from Duben to
Leipzig. (these were 4.235 men of Delmas' 9th Division). Before Langeron reacted, Delmas and some
cavalry struck the rear and flank of the Russians. This bold action was a great relief for the hard
pressed Poles. Langeron awoke from the shock and sent Korf's cavalry corps and Olsufiev's infantry
corps against Delmas.
Delmas and Dabrowski went on attack; Delmas stormed a small wood occupied by Russian 9th
Division and took it, while Dabrowski entered Gross-Wiederitzsch at bayonet point and recaptured
the village.
Dabrowski's 4 btns. marched out of Wiederitzsch, attacked Rudsevich's 6 btns., and threw them into
confusion. The Russians reeled back to their positions near stream. In the fighting they lost
commander of Staroskol Infantry Regiment (killed), GM Schenschin, Mjr. Yussofovich and many
others. French batteries opened fire on them and inflicted more casualties.
GL Olsufiev and GM Udom decided to recapture the Birkenholz wood occupied by Delmas' infantry.
There was Russian 9th Division against French 9th Division. Or 8 Russian against 12 French btns. The
French 145th Line Infantry Regiment boldly marched out of the wood but was smashed by the
Russians, lost many killed and wounded and its regimental eagle. The Russians pursued them and
captured the wood. Following this failure GdD Delmas withdrew his division towards Plosen.
Delmas' infantry was closely followed by GL Korff's dragoons and Cossacks. They monitored
Delmas' movements for a while and then the Cossacks attacked and took "500 prisoners, 100 wagons
and 6 guns."
Langeron rode to the Schusselburg Infantry Regiment (2 btns.), spoke few words to the soldiers and
personally led them against the Poles. GL Rudsevich with regiment of horse jagers (2 sq.) marched
nearby as a protection against any attack from Polish or French cavalry. Behind these troops marched
a massive force of 16 btns. and rolled more than 80 guns. The decimated and exhausted Dabrowski's 4
btns. counter-attacked. This time however they were badly beaten back and pursued.
Nearby stood a small detachment of French infantry and this troop was broken by Russian artillery
and pursued by infantry. Klein-Wiederitzsch was captured and Langeron informed Blucher about his
success.
Prussian Mjr Ernst Moritz Arndt writes: "Dombrowski's Polish division had occupied a village and
the Russians were soon involved in a hefty fight with the Poles. It was the bitterest fight I have ever
seen in my life and one could soon see the deep hatred that existed between the Russians and the
Poles.
The Russian infantry advanced with great courage and determination but the individual soldiers did
not understand how to operate on their own in the gardens, streets and farmyards of the village.
Thus the Poles, who included many veterans who had just returned from Spain, were able to hold on
to the village for a long time despite being in a considerable minority."
General Langeron.
.
Blucher versus Marmont (Round 1).
The French loopholed the garden walls,
every street and house were defended
and 2 guns were placed on a tower.
Ney had the overall command over the northern front and his largest force was Marmont's VI Army
Corps. This unit consisted of three divisions: Compans' 20th, Lagrange's 21st and Friedrichs' 22nd.
Each division had 14 battalions of line, light, provisional and naval infantry. They were supported by
a small cavalry force, brigade of Wirtembergian chevaulgeres under GM von Normann. Marmont
wrote about his troops: "The regiments from the naval corps are advanced in their drill; their attitude
is exceptional. The provisional regiments are, in my estimation, worthless ... their battalion drill is
marginal at best."
Marmont's artillery however was excellent.
Marshal Marmont,
Duke of Ragusa.
Von Yorck's force marched straight at Marmont's corps. "After the exchange of a few artillery rounds,
the French abandoned Lindenau and the woods, withdrawing to the heights between Lindenthal and
Wahren, where they had raised a number of earthworks. A short, vigorous cannonade caused the
French to abandon this position. The French then fell back to a position between Eutritzsch and
Mockern, such that Mockern covered the rear of their left wing." (Nafziger - "Napoleon at Leipzig" p
153)
Yorck's Prussian I Corps moved against Mckern and his cavalry and light infantry fought shortly
with the French troops in front of the village. The next day Russian dragoons led by GM Emmanuel,
Italian serving in the Russian army, brushed away the Wirtembergian chevaulegeres and French light
cavalry. With the cavalry screen gone Blcher was able to view the French positions, or at least part
of it. The French strongly occupied Mckern with the 2nd Marine Regiment. (The were also called
Regiments d'Infanterie de Marine or naval infantry). To the west of this village and along the river were
swampy meadows and woods, not suited for artillery.
Mckern was a big village with walled gardens, big manor house surrounded with gardens, palace
and a tower. Along Elster River ran a 4 m high dike. The infantrymen and marine infantry loopholed
the walls of the houses and hid behind garden walls. Their muskets and ammunition were ready.
Every house was defended and 2 guns were placed on a tower.
The manor house was also strongly defended. Behind village stood columns of French infantry ready
to counter-attack. Marshal Marmont showed great skills in preparing his defensive positions and the
enemy will pay dearly for every inch of ground.
The Prussian infantry led by Mjr Klux executed the first attack on Mckern. His advance was covered
by 8 6pdr cannons and screened by skirmishers armed with rifles and muskets. Behind them
marched a fusilier btn. of 2nd East Prussian Infantry Regiment. As a reserve served the elite Leib-
Grenadier Battalion and four companies of jagers. The total strength of Klux's battle-group was
approx. 1.200 men.
The French in buildings and gardens opened fire and the advancing Prussians moved to the left and
right. Some of the jagers moved along the river, while others took cover behind trees and bushes.
When part of village was captured by the Prussians a group of French infantry crossed over a
wooden bridge and counter-attacked. The French on the other bank of the river shot the Prussians in
the flank. The French recaptured large portion of the village.
Klux ordered his troops to counter-attack but they were unable to move forward. In this situation
Klux withdrew the Leib-Grenadier Battalion from the village. Column of French infantry entered
Mockern and threw the Prussians out of village. The Prussian casualties were heavy, including 6
battalion commanders ! Especially the French artillery did much harm to the attackers.
For the second attack on Mockern was selected the Prussian 2nd Brigade. About 3 pm they stormed
the village from two directions, frontally and from the left. They entered the village, drove the French
marine infantry back and captured half of Mockern. The French batteries fired canister at 300 paces
while a single btn. of 4th Marine Regiment counter-attacked.
Prussian fuslier btn. was thrown back but the pursuing marines were counterattacked and driven
back by musketier btn. of 1st East Prussian Infantry Regiment. This and another musketier btn.
attempeted to capture the French battery of heavy 12pdrs. They did take 2 guns but were swept away
by counter-attack made by 3 French btns. So far only part of Mockern was still in Prussian hands.
Mockern after battle.
A group of French infantry swam the Elster River and began firing, the Prussians were taken in
crossfire and fled. Meanwhile on the French side, about 1 pm, adjutant arrived with orders, Napoleon
wanted the III Army Corps (Souham's) to leave Marmont and march south of Leipzig where was the
main French army.
When Yorck's troops began assault on Mckern, Blucher noticed a gap between Yorck attacking
Mockern and Langeron storming Wiederitzsch. He ordered Lanskoi's Hussar Division of
Vasilchikov's Cavalry Corps to move into the gap. Lanskoi was famous for his bravery and his
regiments were one of the best of Russian regular light cavalry.
About 2 pm the Prussians brought 8 guns and began firing on 20 French guns deployed before
Mockern. Strangely enough vast majority of the French cannonballs went over the heads of the
Prussian gunners. I guess the Prussian fire was not much better because they kept strengthening their
artillery.

Prussian Leib Regiment (right) vs French infantry (left).
Battle of Mockern 1813. Picture by Knotel.
.
Blucher vs Marmont (Round 2).
The French artillery inflicted horrific casualties
on the brave Prussians.
The preparations for the third Prussian attack on Mockern were under way. There were 37 guns
deployed and already firing on all cylinders. The assault force consisted of 7th Brigade, in first line
were 3 Landwehr btns. and another 3 Landwehr btns. were in the second line. In the rear was the
Silesian Grenadier Battalion, all strong men, well trained and eager to use their bayonets.
General von Yorck
But before the Prussian hit Mockern, Marmont counter-attacked with several btns. of Marine infantry
of GdD Lagrange's 21st Division. In the same time 80 French guns with their ammunition wagons
advanced forward making a considerable noise. Behind artillery marched Friederichs' 22nd Division,
while the 20th Division served as reserve. Marmont also strengthened the garrison of Mckern.
Yorck saw Marmont's movements and decided to take the initiative into his own hands. He directed
the 2nd Brigade and 16 heavy guns on Mockern and French left flank. Behind this force marched the
1st Brigade. The 7th and 8th Brigade were ordered to advance against the French right. The French
artillery doubled its fire.
Fusilier battalion attacked one of the French batteries but without success. A single musketier
battalion attacked the same battery and failed too, losing all their officers and 75 % other ranks (!)
Another musketier battalion seeing the carnage looked for cover. Once in safety, they began firing at
the gunners. It didn't take long before 12 guns were without their crews. The guns were withdrawn
and the musketiers advanced into the vacated position. They however didn't enjoy their victory for
long, the French infantry came and after a heavy musketry threw the musketiers back. The other
battalions of the 2nd Brigade didn't do much better, some entered Mockern but all suffered heavy
casualties. The 2nd Brigade was saved from destruction by 1st Brigade from the reserve.
Marmont took the poorly trained 20th and 25th Provional Regiment and charged against Prussian 1st
Brigade. The attack failed so the superb 1st Marine Infantry and 32nd Light Infantry advanced
against that brigade. The marines fought for each building and garden and enjoyed some success.
The Prussians managed to hold only on few houses. GM Steinmetz, commander of the 1st Brigade,
was wounded. The advance of the 7th and 8th Brigade was stalled by heavy musket fire. Now both
sides received few moments of rest and the wounded streamed to the rear. There was only artillery
duel all along the line and Mckern was already burning.
The Prussian Brandenburg hussars attacked the French outside of Mockern but without success.
Steinmetz took 3 btns. (1 Landwehr, 1 infantry, and 1 grenadier) and moved south. In the first line
advanced Landwehr btn. that attacked the French on a small hill and in the village. Despite musket
fire the Prussians drove the defenders back. Another battle group of 5 btns. (4 Landwehr and 1
grenadier) marched against the hill.
Marmont seeing the new push on his line ordered to direct the fire of 50 guns on the two battle
groups. For the Prussians came crisis in battle. Cannonballs and canister struck the Prussians at their
flank and inflicted heavy casualties. The French artillerymen were again the greatest killers.
Landwehr battalion was attacked by Wirtembergian cavalry but they managed to repulse the
attackers. Meanwhile the 7th and 8th Brigade were attacked by the French marine infantry.
Prussian infantry in Mockern.
.
Phenomenal cavalry charge gave Blucher victory.
The Prussian cavalry broke the French infantry and cavalry,
captured numerous guns, took hundreds of prisoners
and cut to pieces the brave marine infantry.
It was now or never situation for the Prussians and von Yorck counter-attacked with battalion of the
elite Leib Regiment, 2 sq. of Brandenburg hussars and 1 sq. of horse volunteer-jagers who until now
stood in a hollow ground and were unseen to the French. Behind them advanced the Brandenburg
Uhlan Regiment. Once they came closer to the French infantry the 308 Brandenburg hussars "wheeled
out" and charged.
The French formed two squares and fired. The salvo made little impression on the hussars, they
broke and pursued the infantry. The French ran towards own artillery and thus masking their fire. In
effect the entire battery was captured by the hussars. Regiment of Wirtembergian cavalry struck the
Prussians on the left flank but was immediately charged by 2 sq. of Prussian uhlans (342 men). The
uhlans and hussars broke two regiments of Wirtembergians and captured 9 guns. During pursuit
they met battalion of the 1st Marine Infantry Regiment and cut it to pieces. The uhlans continued
their brilliant charge and broke several other squares. It was a phenomenal charge and a total disaster
for Marshal Marmont.
Jurgass sent forward the 1st West Prussian Dragoon Regiment, Lithuanian Dragoon Regiment and
several regiments of Landwehr cavalry. Total of 2.000-3.000 of cavalry flooded the French positions.
The dragoons attacked French cavalry, broke them and pursued towards Gohlis. They also captured 4
guns and took prisoners. Another group of cavalry, dragoons and Landwehr, attacked battalion
deployed in line and broke it by attacking one flank.
Battalions of the 1st and 3rd Marine Infantry Regiment formed squares and attempted to halt the
Prussians. But the Mecklenburg hussars took them from the rear while from the front attacked
Prussian infantry. The marines broke in the instant, lost a flag and 700 prisoners. The 2nd Leib
Hussar Regiment took 2 French flags and 2 guns, and the Landwehr and national cavalry also
captured several guns.
The 7th and 8th Brigade continued their advance behind the victorious cavalry, but there was little or
no resistance from Marmont's troops. Even the brave marine infantry continued their retreat. They
however didn't run in panick but withdrew slowly. About 5 m the 7th Brigade and some cavalry
attacked and pushed back Compans' 20th Division. The advance of Prussian 8th Brigade was halted
only by artillery fire.
Charge of Prussian dragoons. Picture by Becker.
.
Ney and Marmont fell back.
Although the French and Poles were defeated,
they suffered 7.000 casualties, while the
Prussians and Russians lost 9.000 men.
Marmont's mauled troops were in full retreat towards Gohlis and Eutritzsch. Any resistance of the
marine infantry was broken by Prussian artillery. The Prussian crews moved their guns forward and
at 600 paces pounded the enemy. Additionally a Prussian shell exploded near French battery and
three caissons were detonated into the air. The explosion was tremendous.
The entire army would fall apart if not the brave action of General Joubert and his 7 btns. (3 marine
and 4 provisional). These lads counter-attacked and stabilized the situation for a while. Marmont
wrote: "I do not know any praise too great for these deserving troops, so brave and devoted, even
though they had a lot of casualties they still fought with great courage ..."
Darkness was about to fall when Marmont's troops reached Eutritzsch and Gohlis. Behind were left
only isolated pockets of defenders. A single French column and some artillery were still in the wood
south of Mockern. They came out of the hiding and boldly attacked. The Prussians received them
with canister and the French fell back. Blcher ordered St. Priest's Russian corps to attack Marmont
right wing but it was too late. In the night Marmont rallied his troops and moved behind the Parthe
River.
Blcher slept in Wiederitzsch. He was proud of his troops, they captured 2 eagles, 2 flags, more than
50 guns, 2.000 prisoners. Blcher sent officer to the Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Armies,
Schwarzenberg, to inform him about victory over Ney and Marmont. Also Bernadotte was informed.
Battle of Mckern was a bloody affair fought on a limited area. It was like a scisor fight in a telephone
booth. Yorck's I Corps (21.000 men and 104 guns) defeated Marmont's VI Corps (20.000 men and 54
guns). Marmont, Compans and Friedrichs were wounded. Although the French and Poles were
defeated, they suffered 7.000 casualties, while the victorious Prussians and Russians lost 9.000 men.
The reasons for such difference in casualties were: quality of French artillery, relatively flat terrain
allowing the cannons to inflict the heaviest possible casualties, and the fact that the French infantry
used Mockern's houses and walls as a cover.
Neither Blcher, Langeron nor Ney and Marmont shined as great tacticians although Marmont
showed skill in defending the village with infantry. Von Yorck was arguably the best of the four
commanders, he was determined enough to dislodge the French from a strong position and used his
cavalry in a very effective way. The bravery of the French marine infantry and Polish division
counted little as they were too few to make any significant impact.
Napoleon was in Schonefeld when Marshal Marmont reported his defeat. Napoleon pondered
whether to withdraw or to attempt one more attack. He apparently did not know that Bennigsen's
army had moved from Dresden. Late on 16th October, for undetermined reasons, he sent captured
Austrian General Merveldt to the Emperor of Austria with proposals for an armistice. This was a
psychological mistake; the discouraged Allies concluded that Napoleon was admitting defeat, and so
hardened their hearts. (Esposito & Elting - "A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic wars.")
Rating of napoleonic troops fighting against Blucher
(Source: Bowden - "Napoleon's Grande Armee of 1813")
Elites - French marine infantry and horse artillery, Polish infantry
Crack Troops - French and Polish foot artillery
Veterans - minority of the French infantry
Conscripts - majority of the French infantry
Militia - all French provisional infantry
Day Two, Three and Four.
.
Sources and Links.
Bialkowski - "Pamietniki starego zolnierza 1806-1814" published by Gebethners & Wolff, Warszawa 1903
Bleibtreu - "Die Volkerschlacht bei Leipzig" Published in Leipzig 1907
Bowden - "Armies of 1813"
Bowden- "Napoleon's Grande Armee of 1813"
Brett-James - "Napoleon Against Europe" London 1970.
Digby Smith - "1813: Leipzig - Napoleon and the Battle of the Nations"
Gleig - "The Leipsic Campaign" publ. by Longman, Brown, Green & Longmans, in London 1852
Lukasiewicz - "Armia Ksiecia Jozefa 1813" Warszawa, published by MON (Ministry of Defence), 1986
Maude - "The Leipzig Campaign 1813" London 1908. Swan Sonneschein & Co., LIM. New York: The Macmillan Co.
Mikhailovski-Danilevskii - "Denkwurdigkeiten aus dem Feldzuge vom Jahre 1813" publ. in 1837
"Militairwochenblatt" publ. in 1837
Nadzieja - "Lipsk 1813"
Nafziger - "Napoleon at Leipzig" (website)
Pachonski - "General Jan Henryk Dabrowski 1755-1818" Warszawa 1981
Pelet - "Principales Operations"
Plotho - "Relation de la bataille de Leipzig"
Sporschil - "Die Grosse Chronik. Geschichte des Krieges des Verbundeten Europa's gegen
Napoleon Bonaparte in den Jahren 1813, 1814, und 1815." Braunschweig 1844
Diorama of battle of Leipzig by Stndige Ausstellung kulturhistorischer Zinnfiguren
Grand diorama of Leipzig by Udo Sixel, Germany.
Grand diorama of Leipzig (Crobern) by Wolfgang Meyer, Germany.
Picture of Austrian staff by Giuseppe Rava > of Italy
Picture of Battle of Mockern by Keith Rocco > of USA
Picture of Hungarian Grenadiers by Dmitrii Zgonnik of Ukraine.
Battle of Nations 1813 - Part 1,2,3 (wargaming on Shane's House of War blog)
Campaign of France 1814 : Napoleon versus Europe
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/CAMPAIGN_of_FRANCE_1814_Napoleonic_Wars.htm[2012-05-21 12:45:17]
Campaign of France 1814
"With a few thousand men, most of whom were inexperienced conscripts,
one saw him (Napoleon) face the armies of Europe." - Baron de Marbot
"To find a parallel we have to go back to Frederick the Great
in his struggle against almost all the rest of Europe."
- Loraine Petre, London 1914
Campaign of France.
Allies and their armies.
The Balance Seekers >
The Hawks >
Allies' plans >
Troops and commanders >
Allies' order of battle >
Napoleon and the French army.
Rebuilding the army >
The marshals >
Deployment of troops >
Lower Rhine (North)
Prusso-Russian invasion of Holland >
Prusso-British invasion of Belgium >
The Russians crossed the Lower Rhine >
Middle Rhine (Center)
The warmongers cross the Middle Rhine >
Blucher/Gneisenau tandem versus Marmont >
The hunt for Marmont >
Blucher's first blow missed Marmont >
Blucher and Austrian trickery >
The Prussians and Russians press on >
Comments >
Upper Rhine (South)
"The Austrians paddled away
as fast as they could." >
Allies enter Switzerland and advance into France >
The French fortress of Huningue >
French resistance in Alsace. >
Schwarzenberg press the panick button. >
The Tzar enters France >
Cossacks ! >
"Ah, my task is formidable ..." >
Comments >
Marshal Ney, "The Bravest of the Brave"
fails to defend central France
"I will plant my war standard on Napoleon's throne"
- General Forward Blucher >
The Old Guard defend the Master Point of France >
"The Emperor is now cooked well-done ..." >
Comments >
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Napoleon arrives and assumes the offensive.
Napoleon's victory Brienne >
Blucher's withdrawal >
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Map of the Campaign of France in 1814.
Deployment of troops on the primary theater of war.
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Campaign of France, 1814.
"The Emperor's greatest antagonists are forced to admit
that he excelled himself in the winter campaign
which he conducted in the first three months of 1814."
- Marbot
The effects of
Napoleon's defeat
at Leipzig in
October 1813 were
momentous. It had
smashed his
stranglehold on
Europe for good,
liberated Germany
and catapulted
Prussia into the ranks of the Continent's leading powers. Saxony was temporarily governed
by Russian General Prince Repnin.
On November 1 in the morning, the Old Guard was drawn up at Frankfurt and the Emperor
was cheered lustily. This was the last Vive l'Empereur ! ever heard in Germany.
The next campaign, the Campaign of France in 1814, has been greatly admired, and has been
held up as the greatest effort of Napoleon's genius. If, on the one hand, we think this opinion
places it too high, on the other, it is certainly a great example of what his genius could do in
circumstances which, since the defeat at Leipzig, had become so desperate that no other
general of the time would have even attempted to make head against them. "To find a parallel
we have to go back to Frederick the Great in his struggle against almost all the rest of
Europe." (Loraine Petre, London 1914)
Baron de Marbot writes, "No previous general had ever shown such talent, or achieved so
much with such feeble resources. With a few thousand men, most of whom were
inexperienced conscripts, one saw him face the armies of Europe, turning up everywhere with
these troops, which he led from one point to another with marvellous rapidity. ... he hurried
from the Austrians to the Russians, and from the Russians to the Prussians, ... sometimes
beaten by them, but much more often the victor. He hoped, for a time, that he might drive the
foreigners, disheartened by frequent defeats, from French soil and back across the Rhine. All
that was required was a new effort by the nation; but there was general war-weariness..."
Napoleon Bonaparte
"To replenish the treasury, to create an army, to awe the turbulent
and then stand up single-handed against Europe in arms - these
were the tasks before him. He set the first example of self-sacrifice,
by giving into the public treasury 6,000,000 francs taken from his
private vaults in the Tuileries... " (Headley - "The Imperial Guard
of Napoleon")
Although Napoleon's defeat at Leipzig ended French hegemony in Europe, the Allies did not
belive the war was over. They agreed to continue military operations to destroy Napoleon's
army before it reached the Rhine River. "This plan achieved only partial success. Wrede
managed to block Napoleon's line of retreat, but the emperor smashed through the Austro-
Bavarian army at Hanau ... Napoleon commented that although he had made Wrede a count,
he had failed to make him a general." (Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon" pp 12-13)
The exhausted French troops reached Frankfurt on 1 November, crossed the Rhine River, and
established positions on the right bank, facing Mainz and Strasbourg, respectively.
Frederick Maycock writes, "At the beginning of November the inhabitants of Mainz, long
unused to the horrible realities of war, were appalled by the miserable state of the (French)
troops, some 70,000 strong, who for 2 days defiled continuously across the bridges over the
Rhine. The town was filled to overflowing with thousands of sick, amongst whom typhus and
dysentery wrought such havoc that for several weeks the death-rate reached the alarming
proportion of over 400 a day." (Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814")
The Allies reached Frankfurt in the beginning of November.
Metternich wrote Schwarzenberg, "I desire that the Kaiser (Emperor of Austria) arrive (in
Frankfurt) before the Tzar of Russia". Frankfurt was the city where 21 years earlier the Kaiser
had been crowned Holy Roman Emperor.
Schwarzenberg however could do nothing, and the Tzar paraded into Frankfurt at the head
of his Guards. Frederick Maycock writes, "Meanwhile the Tzar had made a triumphant entry
into Frankfurt on the 5th November and established his headquarters in the town, while
Blucher's advanced troops pushed forward towards the Rhine." (Maycock - "The invasion of
France, 1814" p 23)
The Kaiser of Austria entered the city the following day. The king of Prussia arrived in
Frankfurt on 13 November. Numerous German princes, generals, ministers and courtiers also
made their way to Frankfurt.
~
The Allies in 1814.
"There is much diplomatic activity."
- Prussian General Gneisenau
The Allies were not sure what to do next and there was much talking going on. Prussian
general, Gneisenau, writes, "There is much diplomatic activity that is sometimes repugnant
and absurd. The Austrian and Russian diplomats, their numbers is legion, are very active. To
them are joined the Rheinbund princes." Sir Robert Wilson was unhappy with this situation,
"Courts, galas, parades, banquets, etc., have succeeded the iron age."
The old Blucher writes, "... in Frankfurt is now an entire army of monarchs and princes, and
this assembly makes a mess of everything, and will no longer conduct the war with energy,
and I fear that we will dream away everything."
The Allies, after some deliberations, decided for continuing the campaign. The reason was
however not indifference to the suffering of the Allies soldiers nor bloodthirsty revenge as
some suggested, but the belief that by exploiting Napoleon's weakness the war would end
sooner with less loss than if they allowed the master of war to recover.
The Balance Seekers.
"I will tell you, peace must be concluded."
- Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich
They were mostly Austrians and some Germans. Their leading figure was Austrian foreign
minister and chancellor, Klemens von Metternich. Metternich thought about maintaining
Napoleonic France to hold in check the ambitious Prussians and Russians. The question was
not how the campaign should be continued but whether the war should be continued at all.
They opposed the overthrow of Napoleon out of fear that the succeeding ruler of France
might be a Russian puppet. The political balance in Europe was important for the members of
this group. Some also feared that a Jacobin government could seize power in France.
The Prussian chancellor, Hardenberg, did not embrace the idea of invading France as he
feared Russian hegemony. Hardenberg's master, the King of Prussia, also wanted peace. The
King endeavored to conserve the Prussian army, which he would need for leverage at the
peace table. He had participated in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793 against France. "These
operations firmly impressed on him the idea that despite the appearance of weakness, France
could prove unexpectedly formidable." (- Michael Leggiere)
The Tzar however managed to convince the King to Russian ideas.
The Austrian Minister of State/Minister of Foreign Affairs, Metternich, intended that the
Austrian army should take as little part as possible in the struggle, and that the great
proportion of the losses should be borne by the Prussians and Russians. "For his purpose the
cautious Schwarzenberg was an ideal commander, as he was not in the least likely to run any
necessary risk or jeopardise the safety of his army." (Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814")
The commander-in-chief of Allied armies (Austrian general Schwarzenberg), shared
Metternich's moderate attitude toward Napoleon and France. In the beginning of January he
wrote, "The moment has come when the emperor must become king of France." In his opinion
taking Paris would not necessarily end the war and could prove to be just as much of a
disaster for the Allies as Moscow had been for Napoleon in 1812.
Schwarzenberg however, remained skeptical of the likelihood of negotiations with the
emperor.
Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich
He was a very talented and self-assured Austrian politician.
When Napoleon suffered his catastrophic defeat i n Russia ,
Metternich extracted Austria from this alliance , reverted t o
neutrality, and soon joined the R u s s i a n s and Prussians.
In the subsequent war, he was chiefly anxious to ensure that
the balance of power did not swing too far in any direction ,
and that it would strengthen neither Napoleon nor the Tzar.
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The Hawks.
"No more peace with Napoleon!
He or I, I or He: we cannot
longer reign together!"
- Tzar Alexander of Russia
The driving and decisive force in this campaign were the Russian and Prussian armies. Both
monarchs were in a close relationship and the King of Prussia very often supported the Tsar.
The townpeople of Troyes even described the King as Tsar's aide-de-camp.
The Tzar, and the two leading Prussian generals, Blucher and Gneisenau, insisted on
immediate pursuing the French troops and decisive campaign against Paris. For them any
peace terms would be dictated in Paris and they were anxious to stomp their boots on French
soil. Blucher was disposed to make a severe retaliation upon Paris for the calamities that
Prussia had suffered from France. Tsar Alexander looked for revenge for Napoleon taking
Moscow in 1812. The tzar said, "I shall not make peace as long as Napoleon is on the throne."
Tzar's advisor, Heinrich von Stein, branded the French Emperor "the enemy of the human
race."
Many Russian generals yearned for peace. There were several reasons for this; they were war
weary after campaigning much longer than the Austrians and Prussians, and they thought
Russia has no interest west of Rhine. They understood however that their master, the Tzar,
was consumed by the idea of invading France. And there was the Crown Prince of Sweden,
Bernadotte, who warned against the dangers of invading France and popular resistance. He
did not hide his interest in the future of the French government.
Lord Castlereagh (ext.link) undertook to try to persuade the Tsar of the necessity for
reopening negotiations but all his arguments failed to produce any effect on Alexander.
Tzar Alexander I of Russia (1777-1825)
Napoleon thought him a " shifty Byzantine " ,
to Castlereagh he had " grand qualities " but
adds that he was "suspicious and undecided".
In foreign policy he gained notable successes.
Under Alexander's long rule Russia acquired
Finland , Lithuania , and part of P o l a n d .
.
Allies' plans before the campaign.
"... the Austrians considered combat as a means
to be employed in the last extreme, and sought to
obtain geographic objectives through maneuver;
the Prussians ... searched for battle to destroy
the organized forces of the enemy."
- Lefebvre de Behaine
The Allies were still undecided upon a general course of action. Many generals and diplomats
remembered the misfortunes earlier coalition forces suffered by invading France.
Prussian chief of staff, General Gneissenau, had the following plans:
- the Allies should form 4 armies, three of them would cross the upper, middle
and lower Rhine, and one move into Holland (it would deny Napoleon the
resources of this country)
- to threaten as many French fortresses as possible to force the enemy to have
concern for all. Should Napoleon form a strong field army the poorly defended
100-150 fortresses would fall; conversely, should he defend them, fewer troops
would be available for the field army facing the Allies army.
Without fortresses Napoleon won't be able to dominate the country and collect his new
recruits and taxes. And ammunition, food, muskets, sabers, cannons, and horses cost a lot of
money.
Gneisenau dismissed as unlikely the intended cooperation between the Austrians invading
southern France and the British-Portuguese army coming from the west. They were
considered as secondary theaters of war.
Gneisenau's plans enjoyed the war council's support; only some Austrians suggested reducing
the size of the army on the middle Rhine to increase the forces moving through Switzerland.
Surprisingly, the King of Prussia opposed Gneisenau saying, "He is a mischevious, meddling
being who requires constant surveillance ..." The King, after his misfortunes public (French
occupation of his country 1806-1812) and private (his wife died), prefered peace to any war.
Gneissenau's supporters however enticed the Tzar with flattery, calling him the king of kings
and the Supreme Chief of the Coalition. "Gneisenau resorted to blatant flattery to entice [Tsar]
Alexander.
'Instead of being satisfied with chasing the enemy from the borders of your empire' he
explained to the tsar, 'Your Imperial Majesty saved Europe by carrying the war into the heart
of Germany. You can rescue Europe once more ... you are the soul of the union of all people
who were oppressed or menaced by France. Your Majesty can still save Europe if you hasten
the movement of the army assembled on the Rhine ..." ( - Michael Leggiere)
And the Tzar needed the Prussian hawks against the Austrians.
Gneisenau and his supporters pressed for an immediate invasion of France and expressed
opposition to any negotiations with Napoleon, maintaining that the Emperor "could only be
defeated through war, war, and more war."
Chief of staff of the Austrian army, General Radetzky, had two plans.
- one suggested that all three Allies armies should take winter quarters along
the Rhine, from Switzerland to Holland. The troops required rest, they lacked
uniforms, food, and ammunition. Revitalizing on the march in winter and in
enemy's territory did not appear feasible.
- the second plan called for two armies taking winter quarters, one army
invading Holland, and a small Austrian force moving into Italy.
On November 8th, Radetzky called for one of the Allies armies moving up to Switzerland and
invading southern France. Blucher then would invade Holland. By advancing through
Switzerland the Austrains could impose a pro-Austrian government on the Swiss and link up
with Austrian troops in northern Italy. And there was another reason, the weakest point of
the French frontier alwayz had been along the Swiss border.
Radetzky suggested postponing the Rhine passage until 1 January to reorganize the armies
and replenish ammunition and food supplies. He feared a prolonged delay of the invasion
and did not want to give Napoleon time to convert 100,000 demoralized troops into 300,000
men strong army.
The Kaiser of Austria wanted to move into winter quarters, rest the troops, and begin a
spring campaign with the slow but systematic siege of enemy's fortresses. The Austrians
believed Napoleon would make peace after the loss of his frontier provinces.
Klaus von Clausewitz, very influential Prussian military theorists, rejected the idea
regarding the dispersion of Allies troops. He thought that after Allies victory at
Leipzig they should immediately cross the Rhine in one mass, defeat Napoleon
again and/or take Paris, and end the war.
He argued that the Allies should have rested on the Rhine for only few days
before crossing the river in mid-November !
Radetzky thought that the advance of such huge army on a single axis was dangerous. There
were numerous obstacles on the way; the Vosges Mountains, Moselle and Meuse Rivers, and
two or three rows of fortresses, including the massive fortress of Mainz.
Radetzky's grand wheeling movement.
The weakest point of the French frontier alwayz had been along the neutral Swiss border.
The Austrian generals believed it would be easier to descend on the Plateau of Langres
and master the lowlands of France from that point. "Without striking a blow the enemy
would be forced to abandon all those river lines, which would be enveloped, in order to
take positions further rearwards , where he would have to confront the Allies as t h e y
descended from their higher position ... " (- August Janson, German military historian )
According to G.Roloff they "still lived in the theories of the 18th century and sought the
decision not so much in battle and the defeat of the enemy's forces as in maneuver and
the occupation of a so-called master point. To them, such a master point was the Plateau
of Langres in France . " This plan however served the political ends of Austrian p o licy
that neither desired to annihilate Napoleon nor to achieve costly victories in battles.
.
Allies' troops and commanders in 1814.
"Not even at the commencement of the Revolution
had France been beset by such formidable circle
of foes ..." - Frederick Maycock, p 25
The Allies armies needed reinforcements, especially the Russians and Prussians. While the
Russians fought the longest (1812, 1813, 1814), the Russians and Prussians fought the hardest.
The total casualties of Allied armies at Leipzig were 50.000-55.000 killed, wounded and
captured.
- Prussians' losses were 15.500 or 20 % of their forces
- Russians' losses were 20.000 or 13 % of their forces
- Austrians' losses 7.500 or 7 % of their forces
- Swedes' losses 400 men or 2 % of their forces
The troops needed food, supplies, and rest. Many Allies soldiers were sick, they contracted
typhus after moving into billets recently occupied and infected by enemy's troops. Dysentery
also spread. The Prussian I Army Corps alone had to leave 5,500 men in hospitals when the
invasion of France commenced.
The Allies imposed on the German princes (perviously allied with Napoleon) a contribution
of 44 millions of francs to be paid in 2 years and used for the maintenance of Russian,
Austrian, Prussian, Swedish, and Hanoverian troops. In addition the German princes had to
mobilize their armies and supply the Allies with 145,000 line troops and 145,000 Landwehr. It
was not easy for Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and other German states, to meet Allies
expectations. They lost their best troops during Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812.
Convoys with supplies and equipment and replacements from Prussia, Russia, and Austria
arrived before the end of 1813.
The Allied armies were under the commander of Schwarzenberg. Michael Leggiere writes,
"Although not on par with Napoleon, Wellington, or the Blucher/Gneisenau tandem,
Schwarzenberg's understanding of strategy and operations surpassed the active French
marshals as well as most of his contemporaries among Austria's allies. ... Placing Austrian
national interests above those o the Coalition remains the understandable yet inexcusable
fault of the Allied commander in chief."
Schwarzenberg (1771-1820)
"Although not on par with Napoleon (Bonaparte)
Wellington, or the Blucher / Gneisenau tandem ,
Schwarzenberg's understanding of strategy and
operations surpassed the active French marshals"
- Michael Leggiere
Age of Allies monarchs and commanders, from the oldest to the youngest:
72 years old - Blcher (Prussian commander-in-chief)
54 years old - Gneisenau (Prussian chief-of-staff)
53 years old - Barclay de Tolly (Russian commander-in-chief)
48 yeras old - Radetzky (Austrian chief-of-staff)
46 years old - Francis II, Kaiser of Austria
45 years old - Wellington (commander of British-Portuguese army)
44 years old - Frederick William III, King of Prussia
43 yeras old - Schwarzenberg (Austrian commander-in-chief)
37 years old - Alexander I, Tzar of Russia
Though Blucher was the oldest one, he had lost none of his energy and but little of his
youthful vigour, while the way in which he endured the hardships of the campaign was truly
marvelous. Napoleon was 45 years old, Marshal Marmont 40, Davout 44, Marshal MacDonald
49, and Marshal Victor 50 years old. Prince Poniatowski was killed at Leipzig, October 1813,
in the age of 50.
.
Allies' order of battle, 1814.
"We were indeed superior to the enemy in numbers"
- Mikhailovski-Danilevski, Tzar's secretary
This is difficult to estimate with any degree of accuracy the exact number of troops with
which the Allies commenced their invasion of France in 1814.
Commander in chief of Allied armies - Schwarzenberg
The Tzar prefered Archduke Charles ( Austria )
who defeated Napoleon at Aspern-Essling 1809
but Metternich insisted on Schwarzenberg. This
choice caused controversy because Metternich
disregarded several senior Austrian commanders.
"Army of the North" under Brnadotte - 82,000 men
Swedish 'Corps' - 31,000 men and 62 guns
Corps under Walmoden - 5,000 men and 24 guns
III Army Corps (Prussian) under Bulow - 30,000 men and 96 guns
Army Corps (Russian) under Wintzingerode - 16,000 men and 60 guns
"British Auxiliary Corps" in Netherlands - 9,000 men
"Army of Silesia" under Blucher - 105,000 men
I Army Corps (Prussian) under von Yorck - 21,000 men and 82 guns
II Army Corps (Prussian) under Kleist - 16,000 men and 72 guns
Army Corps (Russian) under Sacken - 25,000 men and 94 guns
Sacken's force consisted of Shcherbatov's VI Infantry Corps,
Lieven-III's XI Infantry Corps, Vasilchikov's Ccavalry Corps,
and one Cossack corps
Army Corps (Russian) under Langeron - 43,000 men and 136 guns
Langeron's force consisted of St.Priest's VIII Infantry Corps,
Olsufiev's IX Infantry Corps, Kaptzevich's X Infantry Corps,
Korff's Cavalry Corps, and one Cossack corps
"Army of Bohemia" ("The Grand Army") under Schwarzenberg - 150,000 men
Advance Guards - 11,300 men and 40 guns
1st Light Divison (Austrian) under Bubna - 6,500 men and 24 guns
2nd Light Divison (Austrian) under Liechtenstein - 4,800 men and 16 guns
I Army Corps (Austrian) under Colloredo - 15,500 men and 64 guns
II Army Corps (Austrian) under Alois Liechtenstein - 12,700 men and 64 guns
III Army Corps (Austrian) under Gyulay - 14,500 men and 56 guns
IV Army Corps (German) Crown Prince of Wurttemberg - 14,000 men 24 guns
Because the IV Army Corps (Austrian) under Klenau resumed the siege of Dresden
the VII 'German' Corps became the new IV Army Corps in Schwarzenberg's army
V Army Corps (German-Austrian) under Wrede - 43,000 men and 172 guns
Approx. 34,000 Bavarians with 124 guns, and Frimont's 9,000 Austrians with 48 guns
VI Army Corps (Russian) under Wittgenstein - 21,000 men and 56 guns
Wittgenstein's corps consisted of two weak Russian infantry corps, I and II,
and Pahlen (Russian) cavalry corps. All three corps fought very hard at Leipzig.
Reserve Corps (Austrian) under Prince Friedrich - 18,000 men and 100 guns
Here was the flower of the Austrian armies, two grenadier and two cuirassier divisions.
"Reserves" under Grand Duke Constantine [Tzar's brother] - 40,000 men
III 'Grenadier' Infantry Corps (Russian) - 11,500 men and 90 guns
V 'Guard' Infantry Corps (Russian) - 13,000 men and 36 guns
'Guard and Cuirassier' Cavalry Corps (Russian) - 8,500 men and 16 guns
Prussian Guards - 7,000 men and 16 guns
In February and March of 1814, reserve troops (66,000 men) reached France:
II 'German' Corps - 6,000 men
IV 'German' Corps - 20,000 men
V 'German' Corps - 25,000 men
VIII 'German' Corps - 15,000 men
In February and March, Allies reinforcements (33,000 men) reached Netherlands:
Thuringian-Anhlat 'Brigade' - 12,000 men
Saxon two 'Columns' - 12,000 men
III 'German' Corps - 9,000 men
In Pyrenees:
British-Portuguese Army under Wellington - 75,000 men
Spanish Army under Prince of Angola - 60,000 men
Wellington's and Spanish reserves - 50,000 men
In Germany: 'German' Landwehr - 100,000 men
In Prussia: Reserve Corps (Prussian) - 20,000 men
In Saxony: 'Polish Army' (Russian) under Bennigsen - 35,000 men
In Austria: Reserve Corps (Austrian) under Duke Ferdinand - 20,000 men
In Poland and Lithuania: Reserve Army (Russian) under Lobanov-Rostovski - 60,000
Other troops:
IV Army Corps (Prussian) - 40,000 men
Siege of Glogau (Russians and Prussians) - 15,000 men
Total: 960,000 regulars and Landwehr
(of this force "only" 320,000 invaded France)
PS.
The Russian troops were pretty much disbursed among the Allies forces. Mikhailovski-
Danilevski writes, "While the tzar confined his troops to the care of foreign commanders. He
freely exercised a general influence over both military and diplomatic affairs and thus was in
continual verbal and written communication with the leading commanders as well with the
ministers of the courts." There were 205,000 Russian troops under the command of Barclay de
Tolly. General Alexei Arakcheyev was responsible for maintaining the regiments and artillery
at full capacity. Volkonski was the chief of general staff of the Russian forces.
The Russian supply system proved inferior to that of the Austrian army and superior to the
Prussian system. Ammunition arrived from Russian depots in orderly manner,
notwithstanding the difficulties posed by the tremendous distance.
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Napoleon and the French army in 1814.
" Napoleon is in the most awful situation
. . . I a m most eager to see how his genius
will extract himself."-Friedrich v.Muffling
Approx. 75,000 French troops crossed the
mighty Rhine River on November 3 and
entered France. Napoleon passed thousands
of stragglers, wagons, draft horses, and
troops of organized soldiers (of the 75,000
only 40,000 carried weapons) and entered
Mainz. He then dispersed the available
troops to form a cordon along the left bank. General Griois of Guard Artillery, writes, "The
Rhine, which we were going to put between ourselves and the enemy, seemed to us an
impassable obstacle; and while we deplored what we were abandoning and what we had
already lost, France, such as it still remained, appeared to us beautiful and large enough,
under a leader like Napoleon, to soothe many sorrows."
Napoleon reached Paris on 9 November.
The government-controlled media blamed the distater in 1812 in Russia on the winter, and
the massive defeat in 1813 in Germany on the treachery of France's allies (Prussia and
Saxony). Many Frenchmen however believed that Napoleon squandered an opportunity to
make peace in July 1813, just few months before the battle of Leizpg.
The Emperor faced growing opposition in Paris, the countryside generally remained loyal (but
not enthusiastic). Frederick Maycock writes, "The Emperor's warlike policy met with no
opposition from the Senate, but in the Chamber of Deputies, in spite of the fact that the
President had been appointed by the Emperor ... a very different spirit prevailed. The session
was opened by Napoleon with great pomp, and he delivered a stirring speech ... and
concluded by calling on the deputies to shrink from no sacrifices necessary to ensure the safet
of their native land. His oratory however produced very little effect, and it was obvious that a
large proportion of the deputies desired peace on almost any terms and were bitterly opposed
to the continuation of the struggle." ( Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814")
On 14 November, Napoleon orchestrated a spectacle to recapture the hearts of the Parisians.
The Guard Cavalry paraded with the Autro-Bavarian standards captured in the battle of
Hanau.
On 20 November Napoleon took residence in Tuileries for the next 2 months. Because of the
fragile situation in Paris it was impossible for Napoleon to quit this city immediately. Baron
de Marbot writes, "Sadly, loyalty to the Emperor was so much diminished in the Senate and
the legislative body, that there were leading members of these assemblies, such as Tallyrand,
... and others, who through secret emissaries informed the allied sovereigns of the
dissatisfaction among the upper-class Parisians with Napoleon, and invited them to come
and attack the capital."
The Allies had a network of informants and paid spies and knew of Napoleon domestic crisis.
General Gneisenau writes, "According to our reports, confusion and discontent rule the
French interior."
On 7 January 1814, Napoleon received the shocking news describing the retreat of Marshal
marmont and Marshal Victor from the frontier provinces. Victor crossed the Vosges
Mountains and united with Milhaud's cavalry corps. The emperor also dispatched Marshal
Ney from Paris.
Ney reached Nancy on the 9th.
Napoleon's sister Caroline, and brother-in-law Marshal Murat defected to the Allies on 11
January. Napoleon had hoped Murat's 25,000 Neapolitan troops would unite with Eugene's
50,000 men. Instead the Neapolitans joined the Austrians.
"On January 25 1814, Napoleon climbed into his carriage at 3 AM in the courtyard of the
Tuileries, to travel to the front in Lorraine. Over most of France snow was falling. In their
cottages, the peasants huddled over the fire. Looks were gloomy and words few and bitter.
Virtually everywhere there were supporters of peace at any price." ( Georges Blond - "La
.
Rebuilding the French army.
"I needed 2 months, if I had them,
they [ Allies ] never would have
crossed the Rhine." - Napoleon
The vast plains of Russia had swalled up the Grand Army: the mighty battles of 1813 had
destroyed another Grand Army, and in the end of that year new decrees were issued calling
for more troops. Napoleon had 100,000 troops (75,000 exhausted veterans and 25,000 in
fortresses) along the Rhine. They formed a cordon protecting the eastern provinces of France.
Napoleon intended to form a very strong reserve behind the cordon. The Emperor needed
time to accomplish it.
There were 100,000 men under Marshal Soult and Suchet in southern France facing
Wellington's 125,000 British, Spanish and Portuguese troops. "Soult's army also received a
large number of recruits during Jnauary, but this was more than balanced by the strong drafts
of veterans he was ordered to send to the Emperor." (Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814" p
235)
In Italy 50,000 French troops under Eugene faced 75,000 Austrians under Bellegarde.
Napoleon desperately needed time to rebuild his army, "I needed 2 months, if I had them,
they [Allies] never would have crossed the Rhine." The new recruits however could not be
combat-ready before March. Approx. 280,000 recruits filled the lists in compliance with the
first two decrees in October. But the desertion was very high and only 100,000 reached their
regiments in December. Most of them received no military training in depots. The decree in
November called for 178,000 unmarried and married men but only 30,000 had joined their
regiments by 31 January and 35,000 were en route. With the fall of Holland and Belgium into
Allies hands, desertions of these nationals accelerated.
The Imperial Guard increased to 27,500 men (17,500 infantry, 5,000 cavalry, 5,000 artillery and
engineers). Marshal Mortier, a giant man, took command of this powerful formation.
Napoleon intended to increase the Guard to 85,000 men !
Another source of manpower was the National Guard. The following regiments of line
infantry were formed in 1813 from the cohorts of National Guard: 135th, 136th, 137th, 138th,
139th, 140th, 141st, 142nd , 143rd, 144th, 145th, 146th, 147th, 148th, 149th, 150th, 151st, 152nd ,
153rd, 154th, 155th, and 156th.
Napoleon planned to field 380,000 men by 15 January. The Emperor proved how much could
be achieved in circumstances so desperate that no other general of the time would have even
attempted to make head against them.
The time was very short however and there was shortage of everything. The veterans'
desperately needed new uniforms. The recruits wore civilian clothes under their greatcoats.
The cavalry lacked sabers and pistols, the infantry needed muskets. The 5th Light Infantry
Regiment had 545 men and only 150 muskets. The 153rd Line Infantry Regiment had 1,088
men and 142 muskets. There were 6,000 horses for 9,500 cavalrymen. Several regiments
received horses that under normal conditions would have been considered undersized. "The
government eventually decreed spade labor to prohibit ploughing and force peasants to
surrender their horses." (- Michael Leggiere)
Another problem was typhus (fever and red spots over arms, back and chest, progressing to
delirium, gangrenous sores, and the stink of rotting flesh.) According to Joseph M. Conlon in
1812, more French soldiers died of typhus than were killed by the enemy. In November and
December of 1813 typhus claimed thousands of soldiers (15,000 in IV Corps alone !) and
civilians.
The numerous campaigns made the military service unpopular. It became necessary to hunt
up the refractaires with mobile columns, and the generals reported that they were afraid to use
their young sldiers for this purpose. Houssaye writes, "Numbers of men took to the woods to
avoid the conscription, and they were there pursued by mobile columns, while bailiffs took
possession of their parents' houses, and in some districts none but women and childrewn
worked in the fields.
Meanwhile the Minister of the Interior published official instructions in the newspapers to the
effect that women and children could advantageously take the place of men in the field work,
and that spade labour should be employed instead of ploughing, which had become
impossible owing to the shortages of horses." (Houssaye - "Napoleon and the campaign of 1814"
pp 2-3)
Arresting those who attempted
to avoid conscription. Picture
by T. de Thulstrup.
.
The French marshals in 1814.
"In part because of his political insecurity,
Napoleon did not want to see a new star rise
on the merits of battlefield exploits."
"Napoleon's constant criticism sapped zeal from his generals, increased their despondency,
and made them loathe to show any initiative. Aside from the emperor's frustrating use of
misinformation to overestimate his own forces and underestimate those of the enemy, the
psychological impact of his rants is immeasurable. Napoleon's admonishments drip with his
own utter frustration of being bound like Prometheus (ext.link) to the rock of Paris. ...
Most of the marshals who remained active in 1813 and 1814 were good divisional
commanders and tacticians, but nothing more. Their ineffectiveness cannot be attributed t the
simple explanation they had reputations to lose rather than gain. Napoleon assumed the
subordinateds whom he entrusted with independent command had gained sufficient
knowledge for this awesome responsibility though experience. On many occasions, but
particularly in 1813 and 1814, they proved him wrong. In the empire's hour of need
Napoleon's commanders demostrated they had little understanding of his strategic and
operationbal principles of war.
In order for the French empire to survive, Napoleon's generals needed the education,
training, and skills to wage war on par with the great captain himself and remain one step
ahead of France's enemies. In part because of his political insecurity, Napoleon did not want
to see a new star rise on the merits of battlefield exploits. ... He placed his faith in them, still
believeing he could direct the war from Paris. Time and again their failures proved they had
not been properly prepared for their tasks. Even a military genius like Napoleon could not
direct the operations of multiple armies in multiple theaters from his throne." (Leggiere - "The
Fall of Napoleon")
Napoleon and his marshals, picture by Meissonier
The Campaign of France provides testimony of one of the most fundamental principles of war:
unity of command. Had the four marshals (Ney, Victor, Marmont, and MacDonald) coordinated
their operations they could have stopped the Allies at Moselle for several days. It would give
the emperor the time he needed to rebuild his army.
.
Strength and deployment
of the French troops.
Napoleon's plans.
Napoleon divided the eastern border into three sectors commanded by three marshals;
MacDonald, Marmont and Victor.
- On the lower Rhine, between Koblenz and Zwolle, MacDonald had 18,000 men
(The bulk of V Army Corps and III Cavalry Corps between Duisburg and Cologne,
and the bulk of XI Army Corps and II Cavalry Corps between Wesel and Zwolle).
In Holland and Belgium, 20,000 men in fortresses and 15,000 men in the field.
- On the middle Rhine were Marmont's 20,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry and 66 guns.
They formed the IV and VI Army Corps and the powerful I Cavalry Corps. Bulk of
these forces stationed in Mayence (Mainz) and surrounding area. Additionally there were
25,000 men in hospitals. Marmont informed Napoleon that the Austrians had moved their
artillery to Mannheim and that workers had been summoned for bridge building.
- On the upper Rhine between Strasbourg and Basel, and the border with Switzerland,
stood Victor with 12,000 men and 25 guns. These men formed the II Army Corps and
V Cavalry Corps. The II Corps stationed near Strasburg while the V Cavalry Corps stood
further south. Approximately 10,000 National Guards arrived by 1 January to occupy the
frontier fortresses. Many of them had never fired a musket.
- Behind the cordon were 15,000 men of the reserves: 1st and 2nd Old Guard Division,
1st and 2nd Young Guard Division, the Guard Cavalry, and the superb Guard Artillery.
The three marshals (MacDonald, Marmont, Victor) thought about preserving their troops
for the emperor ' s future use . They rapidly fell back to avoid annihilation of their forces.
Napoleon however expected his marshals to hold the enemy's army as close to the border
as possible. Abandoning any territory meant fewer conscripts for his new army (loss of
manpower) and less money (smaller tax revenues) to arm the new troops and wage the war.
There were also garrisons occupying the numerous fortresses in the Old and New France and
along the frontier. Unfortunately many of them fell into a lamentable state of disrepair (France
was accustomed to wage offensive campaigns in distant countries and neglected their
fortresses.) There were several reasons why it was important to defend them in 1814:
they were save place to organize and train the new coscripts
they offered a symbol of hope and resistance to pro-French inhabitants
collaborators would think twice before aiding the enemy for fear of retribution
in case of defeat in battle and retreat, the Allies would find themselves forced to mask
the fortresses with a force large enough to contain the garrison and guard their lines of
communication. The Allies would feel the bite of strategic consumption caused by rear-
area security measures.
the fortresses were very useful in the political posturing that would take place during
the eventual peace negotiations.
The Emperor saw little threat from the south (upper Rhine and Switzerland) and believed the
enemy would continue their offensive either across the middle Rhine or through Low
Countries and invade Holland. Michael Leggiere writes, "... Allied movements all along the
entire right bank of the Rhine kept the French puzzled. On 10 November, Marmont reported
the movement of the 'Bavarian Army' to the upper Rhine. ... French patrols observed Russian
and Prussian troops along the lower and middle Rhine, and apparently the Austrians moved
further upriver. ... These reports, provided by both civilian and military sources, affirmed the
emperor's belief that the Allies planned to mask the middle and upper Rhine to operate
against Holland and Belgium."
Between 16 and 24 November Napoleon received evidence from Marmont and Victor
regarding the march of massive Allies army up the Rhine. The rumors in Frankfurt were that
the Russians, preceded by thousands of Cossacks, will march on Basel in Switzerland. The
bridge in Basel was very important as it couldn't be substituted since in winter the Rhine will
have drift ice and it will be impossible to assemble a pontoon bridge.
Meanwhile Napoleon issued a decree to raise 280,000 recruits.
The conscript were often without food or accommodation, and it was useless to complain to
the overworked officers of the depot, who lost their heads among the crowds of recruits
waiting to be organised and lacking every necessary.
French line voltigeur
~
Military operations on the Lower Rhine (North)
Bulow versus Marshal MacDonald.
This theater of war on the lower Rhine (German: Niederrhein) encompasseed Holland and
Belgium. The landscape of Holland was (and in places still is) dotted with windmills, which
have become a symbol of this country. The main cities are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht,
and The Hague. Holland was divided by into parts by three large rivers (Rhine, Meuse, and
Waal). This ongoing struggle to master the water played an important role in the
development of Holland as a maritime and economic power.
Belgium is home for two main linguistic groups, the Flemings and the French-speakers, plus
a small group of German-speakers. The coastal plain consisted mainly of sand dunes. Further
inland lies a smooth, slowly rising landscape with fertile valleys. The thickly forested hills
and plateaus of the Ardennes are rugged and rocky. From the 16th century many battles
between European powers were fought in the area of Belgium, causing it to be dubbed "the
cockpit of Europe".
The Prussians hoped Britain's "desire to create a bulwark in the Netherlands against France
could be intertwined with Prussian interests. ... For defensive purposes - as well as an
ominous portent for future offensives - the Prussians concurred that Holland and Belgium
offered the opportunity to flank French defenses along the Rhine and launch a rapid strike
against Paris." ( Michael Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon")
.
Prusso-Russian invasion of Holland.
"... Bulow has made a glorious campaign in Holland
- a campaign which will live forever in the annals of
military history." - General Gneisenau
Crown Prince of Sweden with his Army of the North advanced toward Hanover to confront
Davout's corps locked in the city of Hamburg. His main concern however were not Allies
operations in Germany, Holland and Frnce but the issue between Sweden and Denmark over
the fate of Norway. British envoys in Frankfurt however demanded an Allied offensive in
Holland. The Prussians were also interested in this project and their King granted Bulow the
latitude to pursue the diplomatic arrangements with the British and the exiled Dutch
authorities and William Frederick, the Prince of Orange, in London. Prince of Orange asked
Great Britain for support. The British promised to provide 25,000 muskets and send 5,000
troops under General Graham to Holland.
The Austrians feared that the aggressive Prussians sought to expand their political influence
by gaining the support of liberated Dutch and Belgians. Schwarzenberg did not issue orders
for invasion of Holland, but the British needed Prussian troops in Low Countries.
Micahel Leggiere writes, "London needed Prussian manpower to execute the invasion and
liberation of the Low Countries, particularly because previous British expeditions to Holland
had not faired well. Although the British wanted the French out of Holland, they refused to
weaken Wellington to do so."
In early November Holland revolted against French rule. In mid November General Dirk van
Hogendorp proclaimed Holland free and Prince of Orange the highest political authoprity in
the country. (During the invasion of Russia in 1812, Napoleon appointed Hogendorp as the
governor of Vilnius. It surprised and greatly dissapointed Polish patriots loyal to Napoleon.
They considered Vilnius as Polish city.)
The Allies responded to the new developments in Holland with sending
Beckendorff (or Benkendorf, Benckedorf) with 3,500 men (incl. 1,500 Cossacks) to
the Netherlands. Count Alexander von Beckendorff (see picture) was a general
and diplomat, and his sister was a socialite and political force famous at Paris
and London. Beckendorff's left was secured by Narishkin's three regiments of
Cossacks, and his right by Balabin-II's five regiments of Cossacks. News that
Cossacks had crossed the frontier sparked the revolt in Amsterdam.
Bulow's Prussian corps and Wintzingerode's Russian corps, who after occupying Hanover
and Westphalia, had advanced on Munster and Dusseldorf. Bulow was then ordered to
dispatch Borstell's brigade to besiege Wesel (defended by French and Italian soldiers) on the
German bank of Rhine. Bulow's main body was about to follow Borstell.
Bulow formed his advance guard of 3,000 men (4 battalions, 2 dragoon regiments, and 12
guns) and placed under von Oppen. Prior to crossing the border, Bulow learned that
Benckendorff's Cossacks had entered Amsterdam. He immediately dispatched two regiments
of cavalry to assure the Prussians a presence in that important city. Bulow arrived in Utrecht
and established communication with Benckendorff. Then he sent von Oppen's advance guard
in flying columns that advanced in several directions.
British General Taylor arrived at Scheveningen with 20,000 muskets for the Dutch troops.
There were however no Dutch authorities to receive the weapons and no empty buildings
could be found to store them. Thus the Prussians put their hands on the muskets and armed
their Westphalian Landwehr.
Although Bulow was greeted as liberator of Holland, he became annoyed with the Dutch for
failing to field troops. He hoped that they would be able to occupy the captured fortresses,
thus sparing the Prussians from dispersing their forces. The British were also dissapointed.
John Stanhope writes, "the (Dutch) people are as dull and motionless as their canals. ... with
the exception of some cries of Orange boven, some orange ribbons that begin to fade, and
some triumphal arches that savor too strongly of French Prefecture and old drilling to
Napoleon's victories, no travelers would know there was such a thing as war, much less that
their independence was at stake."
Meanwhile the Dutch authorities had notified Bulow that their troops would be placed under
British command. The warlike Bulow was dissapointed. He urged the Dutch to adopt
aggressive Prussian conscription methods and confiscate the wealth of any Dutchman who
shirked his military responsibility.
General Friedrich von Blow.
Throughout his life Blow was devoted to music,and
his musical ability brought him to the notice of King.
He did not , however , neglect his military studies .
In 1813, Bulow fought against Oudinot in defence of
Berlin, and defeated Marshal Ney at Dennewitz.
I n 1814 Bulow invaded Netherlands and received a
hero's welcome in Holland.
Colomb's flying column raided the region east of Antwerp from 14 to 20 December. They
sparked riots, dispersed conscripts, and terrified French authorities.
British General Graham landed on the island of Tholen with 9,000 (7,000 ?) soldiers. Bulow
established communication with Graham, but the British postponed joint operations by
insisting that they needed rest.
Bulow also kept communication with the Russian corps under Wintzingerode, but this
general delayed his movements. Wintzingerode also recalled three Cossack regiments from
Benckendorff's force. Bulow coomplained to Bernadotte, but Bernadotte's own duplicity and
misleading letters complicated matters. For example the Crown Prince of Sweden assured
Wintzingerode that the situation in Holland did not require Russians' presence.
Lack of support from Graham and Wintzingerode, and insufficient manpower, restricted
Bulow's Prussians from invading Belgium. But the damage was already done, the French civil
and military administration in Netherlands was in the state of panic. Leefebvre de Behaine
writes, "What he (Colomb's flying column) did not know was the indescribable panic his
passage caused, the strategic and political consequences were infinitely more serious than
those of the Neuss Affair. Generals and prefects lost their heads. ... On the 19th the prefect of
the Meuse Inferieure complained that he had not received any couriers from Paris for 10 days,
the road to Brussles had been cut. The military units in Belgium were devastated by the
desertion of Belgians, Dutch, and Germans."
The French cordon along Rhine began to collapse and Marshal MacDoald was in bad mood.
He wrote, "It is absolutely necessary that the emperor knows the truth, it is worth hearing.
There is a great deal of discouragement, everyone is tired of war, the continuous marches and
movements."
The news of Allies invasion of Holland reached Paris. "The rumor that the barrier of the
Rhine had been forced reverberated in Paris and at the court of Napoleon, and a simple
operation, magnified by the imagination of newsmongers, was transformed into the actual
passage of an army of 60,000 men. Napoleon himself exaggerated the danger ..." (Beauchamp -
"Histoire des campagnes" 1:56)
Leggiere writes, "Despite the clear indications that Schwarzenberg's massive army was
preparing to drive across the upper Rhine, the emperor allocated more forces in the opposite
direction in the hopes of holding Belgium and retaking Holland." Napoleon named General
Decean commander-in-chief of French forces in Belgium. He also sent orders to organize the
National Guard at Antwerp and strengthen several fortresses. The emperor hoped that the
3rd Young Guard Division, and 2nd and 3rd Guard Cavalry Division will help to retake
Breda and stabilize the situation in Netherlands. Then Napoleon recalled Decean and
appointed the young General Maison as commander of French forces in Belgium. On 17
December the elite 1st Old Guard Division and 1st Guard Cavalry Division were moved
toward Namur. Unfortunately the orders from Paris remained behind events. (It took one
week for orders to travel between Paris and the frontier.)
The cordon system was considered weak and Napoleon knew that more than any other
commander in the world. However he needed to shelter the departmental administration that
fed his war machine, guaranteed the steady flow of revenue, and provided the resources to
create his new army. Once the new army was under arms Napoleon would happily abandon
the cordon system.
On 19 December, French General Roguet with 7,000 men and 30 guns marched from
Antwerp. He drove back Benckendorf's flying column and besieged Breda (10,000 inhabitants)
and its garrison (1,600 men, mostly Benckendorf's Russians). The French artillery pounded
Breda until they exhausted their ammunition.
Prince Gagarin's flying column, however, drove one of the French posts and entered Breda
with a transport of 18 heavy guns and 500 Dutch soldiers. The reinforcements however did
not discourage the French and Bulow directed one of his brigades under Krafft to break the
stalemate. Krafft reached Breda but the French managed to hold their position until another
Allied forced arrived, the British marched through Zevenbergen. Outnumbered and outguned
Roguet and Lefebvre-Desnouettes decided to raise the siege and fall back on Antwerp.
Krafft's Prussians pursued the enemy on the 24 December, catching the French rear guard
between Dorst and Ulvenhout. "The Prussian 1st Leib Hussar Regiment routed the French
Guard Chasseurs and took several prisoners. Heavy fog forced the Prussians to end the
pursuit but enabled the French to reach Antwerp." (Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon" p 184)
.
Prusso-British invasion of Belgium.
"Castlereagh informed Hardenberg that Prussia
would earn London's full gratitude if Bulow's
troops captured Antwerp." - Michael Leggiere
Great Britain insisted on Allies to capture the huge arsenal and the port in Antwerp. And
Prussian General Gneisenau strongly advised that "After the conquest of Holland, Belgium
must also be turned." For the Prussian army Holand and Belgium offered the opportunity to
flank French defenses along the Rhine. Now and in the future conflicts.
It was however very difficult for Bulow to capture Antwerp and invade Belgium on his own.
Wintzingerode and Bernadotte either were too slow or refused to cooperate with him.
Wintzingerode for example, recalled Benckendorff's flying column from Breda, and turned
down Bulow's request for Chernishev's Cossacks. Wintzingerode was expected in Dusseldorf
on 6 January with 7,500 infantry and 5,000 cavalry. When the Russian reached Dusseldorf he
refused to cross the Rhine maintaining that drift ice and MacDonald threatened his
communications across the river.
Bulow's own force was too small to invade Belgium. He already had to dispatch several
detachments to occupy the numerous forts in Holland, and guard his communications and
observe MacDonald. (Borstel's strong detachment was in Wesel.) Frustrated Bulow writes,
"Only by great deeds and timely British assistance was the outcome (at Breda) not the
complete opposite. ... I have a very good understanding with the British Gen. Graham ... he
agrees with all that I wish.
On the other hand, Wintzingerode belongs to those who quite literally do not care for the
general cause; whether I would bring him over the Rhine with good will is another question."
The only option left to Bulow was the small British corps under Graham. (the British besieged
Bergen-op-Zoom).
There were other things that frustrated the Prussian. He wrote, "Tauentzien and Yorck are
now Generals of Infantry, and Kleist and I are not ? Now, without authorization, I have seized
Holland from the enemy. ... For this I have received the Red Eagle First Class ?" Bulow spoke
of resigning before he was surprised by the Tzar. Alexander issued order to Wintzingerode to
cross the Rhine immediately.
The French were nervous because of the drift ice on the rivers, it could crush their pontoon
bridges. Maison's force of 15,000 men stood in Antwerp. In Brussels stood the 1st Tirailleur
Division (Young Guard) of General Barrois. MacDonald's field army consisted of:
- V Infantry Corps (7,500 men)
- XI Infantry Corps (11,000 men)
- II Cavalry Corps (2,250 men)
- III Cavalry Corps under Arrighi
The bulk of his force (7,500-10,000 men) stood near Nijmegen, while the rest were spread
along the Rhine. There were also garrisons, some were small and some strong (for example
6,000 men in Wesel). MacDonald wrote the French army headquarters that "in a few days
there will be an invasion of Belgium; the Allies maneuver by their wings and distract us in
the center. ... The barriers of the Rhine and Moselle are breeched ... " MacDonald then
suggested the following:
- withdrawal of his army to France
- rally the garrisons of the frontier fortresses
- strengthening his force by collecting all conscripts
The same suggestions were made by Marshals Marmont and Victor. Napoleon estimated
Allies' strength in Holland at no more than 15,000 men.
MacDonald feared that Bulow's Prussians would reach Namur ahead of him and sever his
line of retreat to France. Soon Exelmans' cavalry reported 10,000 Allied troops marching
toward Liege. It was a false information but it alarmed MacDonald.
Marshal MacDonald
Maison thought Bulow has 10,000 men in Beda and assumed that the Prussians will push
south toward Liege and Namur to sever MacDonald's line of retreat. He assumed that Bulow
won't attack him in Antverp for fear of exposing his rear to the coming from the Rhine
MacDonald's troops.
One of Maison's detachments attacked Bulow's advance guard (700 men) and pursued it
almost to Breda ! The French discovered several bridges the enemy has thrown across the
Waal River. Maison dispatched several patrols to observe the Prussians and the British. He
was a seasoned commander and distinguished himself in the battle of Leipzig. ("Battle of the
Nations"). Maison however felt chained to Antwerp by Napoleon's orders and forced to
dismiss any notion of attack against Bulow's flank if the Prussian dared to move between
Maison and MacDonald.
Bulow met Graham, a veteran of the Peninsular War, on 8 January.
"The fact that the senior Graham waived his rank and declared his readiness to subordinate
himself to the Prussian general in deference to the greater numebr of troops under Bulow's
command certainly promoted good relations." (- Michael Leggiere)
Bulow assembled 18,000 men (4th, 5th and 10th Infantry Brigades, Reserve Cavalry) around
Breda. The 3rd Brigade was still in Gorinchem. Graham offered half of his corps. Bulow sent
several squadrons of Prussian light cavalry across the Belgian frontier to determine the French
positions and movements.
Bulow's forces left Breda on 10th January but due to poor maps he spent the rest of the day
redirecting the troops. Brigade of Young Guard (from Roguet's division) made several
counterattacks before withdrawing in good order. The numerous Prussians followed them
and the skirmishing continued. The French skirmishers contested every step of the retreat and
uneven land divided by hedges screened them from Prussian cavalry and artillery. The Young
Guard lost 600 killed and wounded, and approx. 200 prisoners. The Prussians' losses were
almost 500 killed and wounded, including General Borstell.
One of Bulow's brigades and two British battalions brushed off a French detachment in front
of Antwerp and moved within 1000 paces of the city. Allies artillery then pounded the enemy
in the port.
In the next two days the French made several counter-attacks. Approx. 200 French dragoons
penetrated the Prussian picket line "and reached the enemy camp before the Prussians could
react. The French troopers inflicted several casualties on the unsuspecting Prussians. As
quickly as they appeared the French melted into the darkness, but Maiosn's sortie achieved its
purpose. Acknowledging the vulneranility of his brigades, Bulow postponed further
operations. ... Bulow decided to maintain the gains of the 13th as forward posts and withdraw
his main body to Breda, where it remained until the end of January." (- Michael Leggiere)

MacDonald's weak army defended the northern front and was spread along
the lower Rhine River. The Allies broke his left flank with Bulow's Prussians
and his right flank by crossing the Rhine with Wintzingerode's and St. Preist's
Russians at Dusseldorf and Coblentz.
(Bulow's and Wintzingerode's corps were part of Bernadotte's "Army of the North",
while St. Priest's small corps was part of Blucher's "Army of Silesia" in the center.)
To Be Continued ...
.
The Russians crossed the Lower Rhine.
The Prussians and the British lacked sufficient power
to drive the French from Belgium until the Russians
crossed the Rhine River and changed the situation.
On 12th or 13th January, Wintzingerode authorized Chernishev's flying column (4 battalions,
12 guns, and small cavalry force) to cross the Rhine. The Prussians and the British lacked
sufficient power to drive the French from Belgium until the Russians crossed the Rhine and
changed the situation.
Thus the Rhine was breached and within the next day or two the French garrisons left Bonn
and Koln. Their field troops left the left bank of Rhine and were instructed by Marshal
MacDonald to fall back on Liege. During the retreat the German, Dutch and Belgian
conscripts deserted in hundreds. The French local authorities withdrew from the Netherlands
in great haste.
On the 16th MacDonald's headquarters were in Maastricht. Then he joined his rear guard
while the bulk of his force moved to Namur. MacDonald's flight south-west and then south
worried Maison, he felt abandoned and left without support. MacDonald ignored his protests.
The marshal reached Namur on the 20th.
Meanwhile Wintzingerode was in no hurry to pursue to French and support Bulow. Although
he already has sent Chernishev's flying column across the Rhine, Wintzingerode wasted
several days before putting the bulk of his force on the road to France.
The British were completely focused on Antwerp and almost hypnotized by the French fleet
anchored in its harbor. Bulow's Prussians were resting in Breda. The Prusso-British force
began its march south on 30 January. Heavy guns were removed from several Dutch forts for
use against Antwerp.
Isolated Maison decided to evacuate Brussels, abandon Belgium, and withdraw to France. He
left behind only several detachments in various fortresses, including Antwerp.
Graham's British 1st and 2nd Division took Merxem "after a lively firefight" and got very
close to Antwerp. The Prussians overwhelmed the French at Deurne and also approached
Antwerp. The Prusso-British artillery bombarded Antwerp on the 3rd, 4th and 5th but
achieved only very modest results.
Bulow received order to leave Antwerp and march through Brussels to Laon in France.
Ferdinand Wintzingerode (1761-1818).
He served in French , Austrian , and Russian armies .
During Napoleon ' s Invasion of Russia in 1812 he led
the first Russian partisan group near Smolensk . The
French captured him in Moscow and sent to France as
prisoner. The Russians however captured the convoy
of prisoners and set him free.
I n 1813 Wintingerode commanded a strong Russian
corps and distinguished himself inthe battle of Leipzig
~
Military operations on the Middle Rhine (Center)
Blucher versus Marshal Marmont.
"In two days our army will cross the Rhine River
in order to wish the French a Happy New Year"
- Gneisenau
The Middle Rhine (German: Mittelrhein) Valley stretches between Koblenz and Mannheim. The
regions thriving economy has always invited fortification, from the ancient Roman forts to the
great towers and castles of the Middle Ages. Forty castles and fortresses, stretched along a mere 65
km of the middle Rhine, constitute one of the most outstanding features of the World Heritage
Site. Such a concentration of castles within such a small area is to be found nowhere else in the
world!
The other river of importance is Moselle (German: Mosel). It is a left tributary of the Rhine, joining
it at Koblenz. The Moselle valley was a defensive area, with powerful fortresses like Metz and
Thionville. In January 1814 the French army headquarters were placed in Metz.
Blucher was eager and ready to attack Marmont. He writes, "We have no shortages and our men
are in the best spirit. As long as we do not make a dumb mistake everything is expected to go well.
I have 50,000 Russians with me; they show me a confidence that is unequaled and have named me
the 'German Suvarov'. The bravery of our troops is extraordinary and our Landwehr is in no way
inferior to our veteran troops. For all of his suffering the king will be completely compensated
since he will receive his entire monarchy back and still more.
The noble Tzar Alexander is a friend of uncommon form."
.
The warmongers cross the Middle Rhine.
"As long as the Rhine has been called the Rhine
no army of 80,000 men has crossed it so easily ..."
- Blucher
.
Picture:
Blucher's
Prussians
enter
France in
January
1814. By
Wilhelm
Campehausen.
Blucher and Gneisenau issued orders for the Army of Silesia to cross the Rhine on 1 January:
- at Mannheim: Army Corps (Russian) under Sacken. It included Shcherbatov's VI Infantry Corps,
Lieven-III's XI Infantry Corps, Vasilchikov's Cavalry Corps, and one Cossack corps
- at Kaub: I Army Corps (Prussian) under von Yorck.
The Army Corps (Russian) under Langeron would follow Yorck.
The forces immediately under Langeron included Olsufiev's
IX Infantry Corps, Korff's Cavalry Corps, and one Cossack corps
- at Koblenz: St.Priest's VIII Infantry Corps from Langeron's force
- for the siege of Mainz: Kaptzevich's X Infantry Corps from Langeron's force
The advance guards of each army corps would cross the river in boats. Pontoon bridges would be
constructed to enable the main force to follow. Heavy artillery would destroy French fortifications.
Flying columns would disorganize French communication and supply lines.
The bearded Cossacks swarmed the left bank of Rhine spreading the news that Blucher is coming.
It was not an easy thing to cross the Rhine in the beginning of January. Blocks of drift ice rode the
current like battering rams. The night was clear and cold and frost chilled the troops. Before
midnight one of Yorck's brigades assembled on the riverbank. Yorck's men found several boats and
Langeron's pontoons also arrived. Several heavy cannons were brought forward by the Prussians.
Approx. 200 fusiliers (Prussian light infantry) paddled across the river and after 15 minutes greeted
the left bank with a loud Hurrah ! Although the 60 French infantrymen posted on the left bank
were surprised , they confronted the Prussians. After short firefight however the French fell back.
Boats continued to ferry Prussian infantry across the Rhine so by 8 AM Yorck had 6 battalions on
the left bank. Langeron's Russians completed the 120 yards long pontoon bridge by 9 AM. They
finished the second part of the bridge - another 120 yards - by 4 PM.
Sacken's advance guard (6 jager battalions) crossed the Rhine near Neckar in boats. The French
redoubt opened fire but failed to prevent the Russians from landing. Muffling writes, "Sacken's
men sprang into the trench and mounted the breastworks on each other's shoulders." After three
failed attacks they stormed the redoubt again, captured 7 guns and 300 men. The rest of the French
garrison was killed after a vicious bayonet fight. The King of Prussia observed the combat and
thanked the Russians. Austrian engineers attached to Sacken sttarted constructing the pontoon
bridge.
Michael Leggiere writes, "Downstream the Rhine at Koblenz, St.Priest's Russians caught the French
in the midst of rotating their posts. ... To expedite the passage and confuse the French, the four
regiments of ... Pillar's 17th Division would cross the river downstream of Koblenz ...
Around 9 PM, 82 boats were in place, and St.Priest commenced his operation. Concealed by fog,
Pillar's engineers hastily constructed a footbridge between the right bank and the Niederwerth
island in the middle of the Rhine. From the island, 500 men supported by Cossacks crossed in
boats to the opposite bank. Word soon reached Koblenz of the presence of Cossacks on the left
bank.
With only 350 men and 4 guns at his immediate disposal, Durutte sent a patrol north of the city to
confirm the rumor; he took a position with the reminder of his men outside Koblenz. He received a
very unnerving report: the officer charged with the reconnaissance claimed the amount of noise
made by the Russians on the banks of the Rhine signaled the presence of a large force. ... According
to Langeron's journal, St.Priest's entire operation to take Koblenz cost the Russians only 165
casualties. Langeron claims the Russians took 500 prisoners, 12 guns, and a convoy of flour,
clothing, and hospital supplies."
Map:
campaign on the middle Rhine River in early 1814.
Marshal Marmont was in the process of moving south with part of his force to support Marshal Victor when Blucher's right
wing under Langeron (French emigree !) and left wing under Sacken (Blucher's favorite Russian general) crossed the Rhine
River. Napoleon send reinforcements to Marmont but some of the men were without uniforms and muskets. Most of them
were hastily trained.
Numbers
on map:
1. - In one of the principal squares of Coblentz, the Prefect had erected a monument recording the French occupation of
Moscow and bearing the following inscription: "To the great Napoleon, in honour of the immortal campaign of 1812." The
Russian governor left the monument intact, but added beneath the inscription: "Seen and approved by the Russian
commander of Coblentz - 1813"
2. - The King of Prussia who observed the crossing and the combat near Mannheim, thank the Russian soldiers.
It was a bold move from Blucher and Gneisenau to have their army cross a large river in several
separate forces and with the French-occupied fortress (Mainz) in their midst. The point of passge
did not allow any mutual support on the day of the crossing. If Marmont attempted to stop the
crossing at one of the points, Blucher would be in serious trouble. The Prussian tanden
(Blucher/Gneisenau) accepted the separation of their forces as an inherent danger, but believed the
element of surprise would counter this risk. They were right, they crossed the river without
meeting any noteworthy resistance.
"From the left bank of the Rhine to
the Tuileries, no one in France
expected the Silesian Army to cross
the Rhine where and when it did.
But why ?
Was Blucher's theatrics and
propaganda so convincing that
Napoleon actually believed the old
Prussian would hibernate in
Frankfurt while Schwarzenberg
launched a winter offensive across
the upper Rhine ? Apparently so,
but the emperor should have known better - perhaps the wish was the father of the thought.
'That I moved my quarters to Frankfurt has saved the lives of many people since the French did not
expect our crossing,' wrote Blucher to Hardenberg, 'they could have made endless difficulties for
me if they had been ready.' Moreover, although Victor fell apart, it was Blucher's surprise and
rapid advance against Marmont that provided the coup de grace for the cordon system and the
defense of the Rhine frontier. Marmont was in the process of moving south to support Victor when
Blucher's army crossed the Rhine." ( - Michael Leggiere )
.
Blucher/Gneisenau tandem versus Marmont.
Napoleon thought that the danger was on both flanks
on the lower Rhine in Holland and upper Rhine in Switzerland.
He did not want Marmont to be distracted by Blucher's actions
on the middle Rhine and urged the marshal to march south and
support Victor. "Clearly the master of war had been duped."
- Michael Leggiere
Blucher and Gneisenau wanted to accomplish at least two things:
- to prevent Marmont from concentrating his troops
This could be accomplished with flying columns and Cossacks disrupting the French
communications, and Yorck's army corps marching rapidly on Bingen and Kreuznach. It was
important to keep the roads free of baggage.
- to sever Marmon't line of retreat by pincer movement by Yorck and Sacken
Napoleon did not realize the threat from Blucher/Gneisenau. On the 1st, 2nd and 3rd January he
urged Marmont to march south and support Marshal Victor in Alsace. Napoleon did not want
Marmont to be distracted by the fear that Blucher/Gneisenau's Army of Silesia will cross the river.
Michael Leggiere writes, "Clearly the master of war had been duped." Marmont decided that he
could not march south and support Victor. Instead he moved his headquarters, west and away
from the Rhine. Victor begged Marmont not to abandon him.
Marshal Marmont sent d'Audenarde's 1st Brigade (from Doumerc's Cavalry Corps) toward
Mannheim. The two dragoon regiments (500 men each) cut through the small detachment of 100
Cossacks and then threw back another detachment of 300 Allies cavalry. Audenarde continued east
until he met Karpov's 2,000 Cossacks. The 1,000 dragoons had little time to deploy before Karpov's
bearded warriors charged. The French lost 225 killed, wounded and prisoners, and fell back to
Mutterstadt.
Ricard decided to march with his 3,000 infantry and few guns from Kreuznach to Koblenz. He
intended to rescue Durutte's division and "to act together according to circumstances." Marshal
Marmont was unhappy with Ricard's decision, the marshal wanted him to concentrate his division
and move west, away from the river. Ricard soon learned that the Allies crossed the Rhine in Kaub
and his division would be cut off from Mainz and Marmont. Ricard decided to fall back after all.
Luckily he was joined by Durutte's division at Kirchberg and together they moved on Trier.
Marshal Marmont (1774-1852)
He was defeated by Wellington at Salamanca
and by Blucher at Mockern (Leipzig) in 1813.
.
The hunt for Marmont.
"If Marmont halts for one day we will make him
a may-pole and have him dance a round-dance."
- F.K. Muffling, Prussian officer
The Prussians captured Marmont's courier and the letter that revealed the marshal's intention to
fall back to the Saar River. Karpov's 2,000 Cossacks rode southwest to find Marmont's main force.
St.Priest's (Russian) corps crossed the Rhine in Koblenz and marched down the river. A small
detachment of 250 Russians (200 jagers, 25 Cossacks, and 1 gun) ran into a French detachment
coming from Bonn. The French were under Jacquinot (from Sebastiani's V Cavalry Corps) and
immediately attacked the enemy. The Russians lost their gun and suffered 50 % casualties !
Sacken's Russians using fog to surprise the enemy, drove small French detachments from Bad
Durkheim and Alzey. It severed Marmont's communications with Morand's V Army (Infantry)
Corps locked in the massive fortress of Mainz.
Blucher halted Yorck's (Prussian) corps for one day, his men needed rest, and the roads were icy.
Meanwhile Kaptzevich's Russians crossed the Rhine and besieged Mainz. Langeron dispatched an
advance guard (six jager and one cossack regiment, 6 guns) on the road to Bingen. Bingen was
surrounded by a wall and a moat. It was defended by 800 men and 2 guns. There were also 200
sick soldiers in hospital. After one hour of fighting the French abandoned Bingen and withdrew
toward Mainz. General Olsufiev was ujnured.
Marmont marched on Kaiserslautern, where he arrived on the 4th December.
Sacken's Russians and Yorck's Prussianss followed him closely.
Blucher's headquarters were established at Kreuznach.
Blucher and Gneisenau planned to attack Marmont with Sacken, while Yorck would would try to
reach the crossings on Saar River. Marmont's options were limited, either he speed up his
withdrawal or he will be cut off from Saar (and the Metz fortress).
Marmont was still in Kaiserslautern on the 5th and Blucher hoped to catch up with him. Ricard's
and Durutte's infantry divisions also escaped Allies and joined Marmont in Kaiserslautern. The
French marshal however realized that Blucher intended to fix his front with the Russians, whereas
the Prussians reached the crossings on the Saar before him. Marmont continued the retreat despite
the exhaustion of his young soldiers. He left two cuirassier regiments as rearguard, and marched
another 23 miles. On the morning of the 6th they finally reached Saar. Yorck's advance guard was
20 miles northeast of Saarbrucken. The 1st Honor Guard Regiment attacked them and the
Prussians fell back.
Marshal Marmont besides escaping encirclement by Langeron from the north,
and Sacken from the south, reached Kaiserslautern before Blucher (General Forward)
could arrive. Morand's corps, and one regiment of Honor Guard were left in Mainz.
.
Blucher's first blow missed Marmont.
Marmont wanted to deceive Blucher into
believeing he would defend the river.
During his retreat from the Rhine to the Saar Marmont lost only 1,500 men. His biggest problem
however were the deserters. Marmont writes, "All of the soldiers who are not from old France have
deserting the flag... All of the Dutchmen who enlisted have now left. The 11th Hussar Regiment,
composed mainly of Dutchmen, dissolved instantly, and because the deserters were taking their
horses with them, I was forced to put on foot those who were left and to give the horses to the
most trusted soldiers."
Marmont issed order to destroy Saarbrucken's bridge and firmly moor all the barges on the Saar
(French: Sarre) to the left bank. Marmont collected all troops (12,000 men and 36 guns) available to
defend the river. Blucher thought Marmont has more than 15,000 men. The French were very tired
and Marmont gave them one day rest. Meanwhile Marmont's force was strengthened by more than
3,000 men sent from Metz. Marmont wanted to deceive Blucher into believeing he would defend
the river. The Saar was flooded from melted snow, it made difficult for Allies to construct any new
bridges.
Blucher received report that Marmont still occupied Kaiserslautern. Michael Leggiere writes,
"According to the locals, Marmont retreated southwest to Homburg on the road to Saarbrucken.
This extremely important report, which did not reach Blucher's headquarters until the night of the
6th, would have changed the field marshal's plans had it been forwarded in a timely manner. What
did arrive at Silesian Army Headquarters was the report of a staff officer who conducted
recoinnaissance south of Kaiserslautern, where the inhabitant informed him that the French still
occupied the town. He forwarded this report without personally verifying the intelligence. As a
result, the operation against Kaiserslautern continued. Thus, Blucher's first blow in the campaign of
1814 missed and Marmont escaped." The pursuit to cut the French from the Saar failed.
Blucher decided to drive across Saar and reach Metz before Marmont. Yorck's cavalry
reconnoitered both downstream and upstream, but could not locate a suitable crossing point. The
few fords were defended by fieldworks and guns.
Meanwhile one of Yorck's small detachments reached Trier, held by few French troops.
After one day of skirmishing the French evacuated Trier's magazines to Grevenmachern. Trier's
deputation met the Prussians and requested mercy for the city. It was granted and the city
surrendered. The old bridge had been left undamaged and the Prussians led their cavalry right
through the city and across the Moselle River. The French withdrew to Luxemburg.
PS.
In February 1945 the US 3rd Army broke across the Saar River at two points. General
George S. Patton's troops tore at the fortified hills into which the Germans had been
chased east of the Saar River.
.
Blucher and Austrian trickery.
"Thus Napoleon and Blucher could maul each other,
with the vast majority of Austrian troops far from
the field of battle. The end result - dead Prussians,
Russians, and French - would certainly strengthen
Metternich's peace party." - Michael Leggiere
Blucher received letter from Schwarzenberg, the Austrian commander-in-chief. This letter
"contained the seed that later sprouted Prussian accusations that the Austrians purposefully bled
dry the Silesian Army for the sake of post-war leverage at the peace table." (- Michael Leggiere)
Schwarzenberg explained that he won't be strong enough to reach the Langres Plateau and march
on Paris. He had stripped his main force too much by pursuing secondary objectives.
Schwarzenberg also suggested that Blucher's Army of Silesia should move south on Nancy so the
two armies get closer, just in case of any French offensive.
"In this way Schwarzenberg baited Blucher.
Possessing an army three times the size of Blucher's, Schwarzenberg would use his own numerous
corps to secure his flanks and pursue Austrian interests such as supporting Bubna's operations in
southern France. He planned to push his weak center to Langres, while Blucher moved up in
support. Schwarzenberg would accept battle only if he could execute his movements in unison
with those ot the Silesian Army. Thus, he requested that Blucher turn south to Nancy ... In this way
the two armies could act concentratically, as at Leipzig.
Should Napoleon arrive at Langres with a large army, then it would be Blucher whose head would
be on the chopping block. With the Army of Bohemia dispersed and Blucher's army reduced by
strategic consumption, this supposed French army would enjoy numerical superiority according to
Schwarzenberg's own estimates. Thus Napoleon and Blucher could maul each other, with the vast
majority of Austrian troops far from the field of battle. The end result - dead Prussians, Russians,
and French - would certainly strengthen Metternich's peace party.
On the other hand, if Blucher could not change the axis of his march to make this cooperation
possible, Schwarzenberg would be compelled to orient the Bohemian Army further south. This
would force Napoleon either to divide his main force into two wings ... or lead the French army
against Blucher. In the first case, the French amperor would not be in a position to reinforce either
wing, exploit any advantage, or replenish battlefield losses.
The second case would place Napoleon and an unsupported Blucher in a position to trash each
other." (- Michael Leggiere)
Blucher however preferred to drive with his Prussians and Russians deeper into France, rather than
unite with the slowly moving and dispersed Austrians. The Prussian tandem (Blucher/Gneisenau)
targeted the French army as their main objective.
.
The Prussians and Russians press on.
"Should the Silesian Army (under Blucher) reach Paris first,
I will have the bridges of Austerlitz and Jena destroyed,
including Napoleon's victory monument." - Gneisenau
The cold returned and the waters receded, now the Allies could utilize the river's many fords.
Sacken's Cossacks led by Karpov crossed the Saar immediately and the Prussians light troops were
about to follow them. Blucher ordered Yorck's cavalry and one battery of horse artillery to cross the
river on 10 January, and together with Cossacks, block Marmont's retreat to Metz. The marshal
decided to evacuate the line of the Saar on the 9th and fall back on Metz fortress. His rearguard
was formed by 10th Hussar Regiment.
Michael Leggiere writes, "Rather than defend the river or attack one of Blucher's corps as it
crossed, Marmont chose to retreat. A pitched battle with the Silesian Army never crossed his mind
- as well it should not have, consideting the mission the marshal believed he had to complete and
the numerical inferiority of his forces. Delivering his cadres to the haven of Metz remained
Marmont's priority ... Marmont would have served his master far better if he had contested the
Saar and waged a war of attrition west of the Moselle rather than uncovering the border of old
France. Napoleon's absence from the front and the time required for communicatiuons between the
master and his lieutenants severely impeded the defense of the frontiers. How much territory
would the marshals surrender before the emperor finally left Paris to take personal command of
the army ?"
French mines partially destroyed the stone bridge in Saarbrucken. Thus the Prussian engineers
constructed two bridges, a footbridge for infantry and a trestle bridge for artillery. Yorck's troops
began crossing on the 10th.
Marmont was on his way to Metz, with his troops marching in good order.
The marshal's force included:
- Ricard's 1st Infantry Division
- Lagrange's 3rd Infantry Division
- Durutte's 32nd Infantry Division
- Doumerc's I Cavalry Corps
- Reserve Artillery
.
Comments.
"Blucher, and still more Gneisenau ... drive on Paris
with such truly childish rage that they trample
underfoot all principles of war ..." - Schwarzenberg
Blucher failed to catch up with Marmont for the following reasons:
- Marmont's epic march on 5 January The French young soldiers covered 45 miles in 24 hours in
winter, with artillery, baggage train, and on icy roads. Despite demoralising desertions by the
German and Dutch recruits, the French kept order, marched fast, ate little, and fought often.
- several days of rest were granted by Blucher to Yorck's (Prussian) army corps
- poor performance of Prussian and Russian light cavalry. Although they were much more
numerous than their opponents' their use was inadequate. The numerous Allied light troops also
failed to maintain steady contact with the enemy. For example Scheibler's flying column followed
Milhaud's force only for short time and then lost contact with the enemy altogether ! The Allies
should have been more diligent in reconnoitering Marmont's lines at Kaiserslautern and detecting
his withdrawal. Considering Blucher's army operated in German regions of the French Empire, the
Prussian cavalry should have been more efficient in gathering intelligence. The landwehr cavalry
was poor in reconnaissance duty.
Unfortunately Marmont's speedy retreat triggered a panic among the French civil officials that
caused imperial authority to collapse, thus robbing Napoleon of manpower, revenue, and material.
"The least disturbing rumor prompts them (civilian authorities) to flee, which spreads alarm
throughout the land." (- Armand Caulaincourt)
To Schwarzenberg, Blucher's headlong advance must have seemed rash to the verge of madness,
and indeed the Austrian commander had some grounds for his strictures. "The Army of Silesia was
now divided into three portions, the leading corps, under Blucher (Sacken's Russians(, being
between the Aube and the Marne; the next corps, under Yorck, was on the Moselle, and the third
still on the march from the Rhine. In fact, before many days had passed, the impetous leader of the
army of Silesia was only saved from what might have been serious disaster by one of those trivial
accidents which so often exercise a vital influence on the fortunes of a campaign." (- Frederick
Maycock)
Blucher's Army of Silesia was now divided into three isolated forces. Sacken was in Nancy.
Yorck's corps was stretched across a long front and charged with operations against fortresses.
Langeron's Russians were far behind Sacken and Yorck, still on the march from the Rhine.
If Marmont and Victor united their forces they could kick the Old Forward between the legs.
To the slow and timid Schwarzenberg, Blucher's headlong advance must have seemed rash
to the verge of madness . If Napoleon was there Blucher would pay dearly for his mistake .
~
Military operations on the Upper Rhine (South)
Schwarzenberg versus Marshal Victor.
The theater of war on the upper Rhine in 1814 encompassed Switzerland, Vosges Mountains
and Alsace. The Upper Rhine (German: Oberrhein) is the part of the Rhine that flows
northbound after Basel, to Strasbourg. The largest cities: Strasbourg, Basel, and Freiburg.
The Vosges Mountains extend along the west side of the Rhine valley in a north-north-east
direction. The rounded summits of the Higher Vosges are called ballons in French or
"balloons". On the eastern slope vineyards reach to a height of 400 m (1300 ft.) The green
meadows provided pasture for herds of cattle, with views of the Rhine valley, and the distant
snow-covered Swiss mountains.
Alsace is located on Rhine left bank. Alsatians played an active role in the French Revolution.
In 1789, after receiving news of the Storming of the Bastille in Paris a crowd of people
stormed the Strasbourg city hall, forcing the city administrators to flee and putting
symbolically an end to the feudal system in Alsace.At the same time, some Alsatians were
sympathetic to the invading Austrian and Prussian armies who sought to crush the nascent
revolutionary republic. Although Alsace has been a German language speaking region, today
(2009) Alsatians speak French, the official language of the country they have been a part of for
most of the past three centuries.
.
The "Austrians paddled away
as fast as they could."
"In the days just prior to the invasion, Allied commanders attempted to induce the
commandants of Huningue, Neuf-Brisach, and its outworks on the right bank of the Rhine,
Ft. Mortier, to surrender. ... Failing to bribe the French commandants with gold, commissions
in the Coalition armies, and even Austrian decorations, a detachment of 500 to 600 men from
Gyulay's III (Austrian) Corps crossed the Rhine on the night of 17018 December to attempt a
coup de main at Neuf-Brisach. Although a dense fog allowed the Austrians to surprise the
French forward posts, they wasting time pillaging the suburb of Geiswasser. After having lost
the element of surprise, the Austrians did not wait to be attacked and recrossed the Rhine
with their loot of linen, calves, and goats. ..." ( Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon")
.
Allies enter Switzerland and advance into France.
"Austrian trickery" over neutral Switzerland upsets the Tzar.
After some negotiations the Swiss agreed to witdraw their troops from the Rhine and
relinquish the city of Basel to the Allies. Most of the Army of Bohemia moved into
Switzerland, while Schwarzenberg established his headquarters in Freiburg. Suddenly the
Austrians were everywhere in Switzerland making the surprised Tzar quite upset. Alexander
said to Metternich, "you have grieved me in a way that you can never repair."
Few days earlier the Tzar promised to respect Swiss neutrality and the Austrians expressed
their support for Alexander's plan. Both, Russia and Austria, however wanted influence over
the Swiss, and now the tricky Austrians (Metternich !) outmaneuvered the Tzar.
Wittgenstein's Russian corps did not follow the Austrians into Switzerland, instead
Schwarzenberg ordered Wittgenstein to observe Rhine from Manheim to Strasbourg.
"Soldiers !
We enter Swiss territory as freinds and liberators.
Your conduct must be appropriate for this role."
- Schwarzenberg
.
The French fortress of Huningue.
Schwarzenberg issued orders to his army for
the crossing of Rhine and advance into France.
On 17-18 December the Austrians attempted to surprise the French battery "on the isle of
Cordononniers that faced Huningue by crossing the Rhine in barges. Another Vauban fortress,
Huningue stood on on the left bank of the Rhine, one mile downstream of Basel. ... The
detachment guarding the isle belonged to the 675-man National Guard Legion of the Lower
Rhine. Described by a contemporary as 'superb and animated by the best spirit,' the
guardsmen charged the Austrians before they could clamber out of their boats. After
sustaining several casualties, the Austrians paddled away as fast as they could." ( Leggiere -
"The Fall of Napoleon")
The Emperor appointed his ADC, General Pierre Franois Dejean, as the commander of
Huningue. Between 1802 and 1810 Dejean was the Minister of Administration of War. He was
still on the way while the enemy besieged the fortress.
On 20 December Schwarzenberg issued orders to his army for the crossing of Rhine and
advance into France.
From the Huningue fortress' walls, the French observed masses of Austrian and Bavarian
troops. The Bavarians were under General Wrede. Wrede assigned the task of storming
Huningue on the left bank to Bavarian division under Becker. (In two days however only half
of Becker's division would be left to continue the siege.) Six Wurzburger battalions operated
against the fortress on the right bank. Wrede surveyed the fortifications of Huningue twice
and was convinced that the fortress was virtually unassailable. To Wrede's great
disappointment the French commander, Colonel Chancel, rejected a demand to surrender
Huningue. Chancel ordered his 3,000 men to get ready for a fight, then he ordered to raze the
trees and fences and to burn houses that were too close to the walls of the fortress.
Huningue (or Hningen)
It was fortified by Vauban and a bridge was built across the Rhine.
The city of Basel was well within range of French heavy artillery.
.
French resistance in Alsace.
"All I can do is delay their movement for a few days
and lock myself in Strasbourg." - Marshal Victor
While one of Wrede's Bavarian divisions under Becker besieged Huningue, another division
under Rechberg moved against Belfort. The 500 men of Civic Guard (without infantry
muskets), and the depots of the 63rd Line Infantry and 14th Chasseurs (without horses)
provided the fortress' garrison. The French commander however refused to surrender.
Delamotte's Bavarian division had more luck, they captured small magazines at Lausanne
and Blamont with 23 guns and ammunition. Behind the Bavarians marched Frimont's two
Austrian division. Frimont crossed the bridge in Basel on the 24th, and proceded north to
Mulhouse and Colmar.
A flying column under Scheibler was detached from Frimont's force and speedily moved
through Mulhouse to Colmar. It consisted of two Cossack regiments (780 men) and some
Bavarians and Austrians (250 men). They have captured a convoy of 12 ammunition wagons,
arrested the local French authorities in Colmar, and demanded provisions. Scheibler learned
that Milhaud's cavalry would reach the city so he abandoned it and forwarded this
information to Wrede.
In the night part of Milhaud's cavalry force (Montelegier's dragoon brigade) entered Colmar.
Milhaud himself arrived soon. The dragoons discovered a company of French light infantry
which remained hidden during Scheibler's raid.
The French dragoons cornered the elusive and annoying
Cossacks near St. Croix, and put them to the sword.
Montelegier's 2nd Brigade (2nd, 6th, 11th Dragoon Regiment) left Colmar and near St.Croix
met Scheibler's flying column. The Cossacks, Bavarians and Austrians threw back the 2nd and
6th Dragoons. The 11th Dragoons however countercharged and overwhelmed the enemy. The
Allies rallied. But when Collaert's 1st Brigade appeared on Scheibler's line of retreat, the
Bavarians and Austrians began their withdrawal. The Cossacks attempted to flee but were
cornered by the dragoons and many were cut down. The Bavarians and Austrians lost order
and fled with the dragoons hot on their heels. To Schleiber's horror the inhabitants of St.Croix
barricaded the streets and opened fire. The Allies had to force their way through the town.
They lost 210 killed while the French dragoons suffered only 80 killed. Scheibler received 3
saber cuts but somehow managed to escape.
Milhaud learned from his patrols and from civilians that approx. 100,000 Allies troops crossed
the Rhine at Basel. And that his victory at St.Croix did not prevent the Allies from "creeping
closer to Colmar." Milhaud was joined by General Dejean who was en route to the fortress of
Huningue. Dejean was unable to go any furter and remained with Milhaud.
Why Colmar was important for the French ?
Because it controlled several roads through the Vosges Mountains, covered the highway to
Strasbourg, and was in the center of Alsace with pro-French population. By holding this the
French could encourage and support the insurrection against the Allies. The Alsatians even
pledged to pay for their muskets. Milhaud sent report to Marshal Victor. Victor expressed
concerned that he would soon be placed in a critical situation. He wrote, "All I can do is delay
their movement for a few days and lock myself in Strasbourg." Victor also failed in supporting
the inhabitants of Colmar. The Alsatian peasants could have built palisades and trenches,
guard the passes through the Vosges, etc.
The marshal however sent Forestier's 3,000 infantry with 20 guns, and Jamin's small force, to
Milhaud. The three, Milhaud, Forestier, and Jamin, were to hold the Bavarians and Austrians.
To calm down the marshal a little bit, Napoleon informed him that the Young Guard would
occupy the passes of the Vosges Mountains. The 1st Old Guard Division and the 1st Guard
Cavalry Division received orders to procede to Langres Plateau (for Austrians the "Master
Point of France").
.
Schwarzenberg press the panick button.
The commander-in-chief thought that
Napoleon himself was coming to get him.
At Schwarzenberg's headquarters the loss of Colmar, and the defeat at St. Croix (described
above) took on tragic proportions. The commander in chief thought that Milhaud's dragoons
were the advance guard of the French army led by Napoleon himself. Was Napoleon ready to
cross the Rhine in Strasbourg and attack his flank and rear ?!
Schwarzenberg was also shocked that the inhabitants of St.Croix took to arms. (The people of
Alsace feared the return of the archaic feudal regime of the German princes, and prefered
Napoleon.) It made him very worried about his communication and supply lines. To make
things worse, the fortresses of Huningue and Belfort refused to surrender.
The good news were that Bubna's (Austrian) Light Division reached Geneva and the French
garrison of 1,500 men surrendered. It opened to the Austrians the passes of Italy. (I bet it
made Metternich happy.)
To make things even more confusing for Schwarzenberg, Allies cavalry patrols provided
contradictory details that exaggerated the strength of Victor's army. To improve the situation
Schwarzenberg issued order for the organization of six flying columns and more cavalry
patrols:
- the first flying column would move (again) on Colmar toward Strasbourg.
- the second flying column was to move toward Nancy
- the third column would send detachments toward Langres
- the fourth column would go between the Saone and Loire rivers
- the fifth column would go on Besancon
- the sixth column under Seslavin was to run across southern France to Wellington's
headquarters and deliver the Allied operations plan. But nothing came of this idea because
Wittgenstein used Seslavin's force for linking up with Blucher's army.
Schwarzenberg ordered the IV Army Corps under Crown Prince of Wurttemberg (14,000
Wurttembergers with 24 guns) to march rapidly to Freiburg and then cross the Rhine and
support Wrede (34,000 Bavarians with 124 guns, and Frimont's 9,000 Austrians with 48 guns).
Why Schwarzenberg did not order Wittgenstein's Russians to cross the Rhine, I don't know.
Victor was too weak and could not prevent them from crossing the river. Wittgenstein would
have eased the pressure that Schwarzenberg now anticipated. The only answer is that the
Allies commander-in-chief thought Napoleon with a massive army must be somewhere
between Strasbourg and Metz.
Michael Leggiere writes, "A desperate Schwarzenberg appeared ready to sacrifice all of
Metternich's meticulous work by summoning Blucher, Gneisenau, and the rest of the war-
mongering Prussians across the Rhine. ... Blucher did not have to be asked twice to cross the
Rhine." :-)
Schwarzenberg's Army of Bohemia marched through Basel and then began to spread out from Mulhouse and Belfort to
Geneve and Bern. In Bern was the I Army Corps (Austrian) under Colloredo. In Neuchatel was II Army Corps
(Austrian) under Alois Liechtenstein. In Biel was III Army Corps (Austrian) under Gyulay. In Glovelier was the elite
(Austrian) Grenadier Division under Bianchi. In Porrentruy was (Austrian) Infantry Division under Crenneville.On the
road to Mulhausen and Colmar were Frimont's two (Austrian) infantry divisions. The Rhine was about to be crossed
by the Wuerttembergers under Crown Prince. Wrede's Bavarians and Wurzburgers besieged Belfort and Huningue, and
took Blamont. Bubna's (Austrian) Light Division reached Geneva on the 30th. Tzar's forces were about to join
Schwarzenberg's army. Alexander himself was already in Schwarzenberg's headquarters in Freiburg. The Russian and
Prussian reserves (Guards, Grenadiers, Cuirassiers) under Grand Duke Constantine were on their way to the Rhine.
.
The Tzar enters France.
"... we crossed the Rhein River in Basel
and loud Hurah! announced that we were
finally in France" - Mikhailovski-Danilevski
The Tzar joined Schwarzenberg in Freiburg and then followed the Austrians to Basel. The
Russian monarch had in his immediate disposal only the Reserves under Grand Duke
Constantine. They were the flower of Russian Imperial army.
Mikhailovski-Danilevski writes, "On January 1st we crossed the Rhein River in Basel and loud
"Hurah !" announced that we were finally in France, the goal of our march, where, in the
heart of Napoleons power, we were going to give him coup de grace. ...
Our quarters in France were very dissatisfying; we found that the French are less educated
than Germans, so our officers, taught by their tutors that France was El Dorado, were
unpleasantly surprised to see poverty, untidiness, ignorance and low spirits in villages and
towns. French, since Revolution, have experienced so many sufferings ... However skillful
were maneuvers of the enemy, our numbers suppressed him ... " (Mikhailovski-Danilevski -
"Memoires 1814-1815")
Platov's Cossacks crossed the Rhine at Basel on 1 January. Then they passed the IV Army
Corps and crossed into Lorraine. Platov headed toward Epinal.
Schwarzenberg ordered Wittgenstein's (Russian) force to cross the Rhine.
"At 2:00 AM on 2 January, the Russian offenssive finally began with a two-pronged landing
attempt on the isle of Ft.Vauban. Six jager companies clambered into 24 boats downstream of
Sollingen with the objective of reaching the northeast side of the island. A smaller detachment
of two jager companies set sail in canoes upstream of Sollingen in the hope of disembarking
on the southern tip of the island. Until that hour, the night had been clear and quiet, yet fog
quickly blanketed the river after the noon set. Slightly disoriented by the fog, the boatmen lost
control of their craft in the Rhine's swift current. As the boats separated, the Russian soldiers
could feel the vessels gain speed. Some managed to muscle their way back to the right bank
by way of frantic rowing, but the current slammed others onto the left bank; none of the boats
reached the isle of Ft.Vauban.
On the left bank, the jager engaged the French posts guarding this stretch of the Rhine.
Alerted by the crackle of musketry, Ft.Vauban's garrison took up arms and formed a line of
skirmishers along a jetty.
French small-arms fire turned a second Russian attempt to reach the isle by boat. Despite this
setback, the engineers of the Austrian 10th Pontoon Company started work on the bridge. To
protect the engineers, Eugene directed some infantry and 2 guns to a sand bar. The artillery
forced the French to withdraw from the jetty and allowed the Russians to make a third
attempt to reach the island. ... Sometime after 10:00 AM, the Russians entered Ft.Vauban,
whose defenders fled across the Rhine to Drusenheim, after losing 18 men.
One hour later, Russian troops reached the left bank and occupied Ft.d'Alsace; the entire
operation cost Eugene 40 casualties. Around 1:00 in the afternoon, the Austrian engineers
completed the bridge to the island. Two Cossack regiments crossed, forded the Red Rhine,
and struck the roads to Lauterbourg, Hagueanu, and Strasbourg. Pysnitzky's 4th (Infantry)
Division followed the Cossacks, occupying the bridgehead and forwarding an advance guard
to Roeschwoog to cut the road from Lauterbourg to Strasbourg." (- Leggiere, pp 272-273)
In two days Schwarzenberg ordered to turn over the investment of Strasbourg to Badenese
troops and march west.
Russian and Austrian troops enter France in Jan 1814.
Tsar Alexander in green uniform and on white horse,
followed by Colonel of Lifeguard Cossacks in red coat.
.
Cossacks in France .
The Cossacks made the rear-area security
and communication incresingly problematic
for the French.
The Cossacks spread terror and began pillaging the frontier already in the first days of the
campaign. The rear-area security and communication became incresingly problematic for the
French. On the 7th approx. 200 Cossacks entered Rambervillers and seized the mayor of the
town until the townspeople complied with their demands. To stop the Cossacks General
Grouchy moved Briche's 3rd Dragoon Division (1,600 men) to Rambervillers. The cavalry was
enthusiastically received by the townspeople while the startled Cossacks fled. Jamin's 1st
Division was on the road from Nancy to Rambervillers.
On the 17th the Cossacks entered Vaucouleurs. "After the men of the 1st Division, 4th
Dragoon Division, and 4th Honor Guard Regiment dispersed to find food for their aching
stomachs, Milhaud and his officers settled down for lunch at an inn situated near the levy.
After looking forward to a moment of quiet, the French officers suddenly sprang to their feet
with sinking hearts. Outside the inn they could hear the savage cries of the Cossacks. ... The
Russians inflicted numerous casualties before departing with several prisoners." (- Leggiere, p
452)
The Cossacks captured the prefect of the Vosges Department, Mr de Flegny,
forced him to strip naked and then looted his possessions.
Platov's Cossacks terrorized the population around Epinal. Pire's cavalry attacked one of
Cossacks detachments but the enemy fled as best they could.
Another group of Cossacks captured an officer carrying a letter to Marshal Victor.
On the 8th the Cossacks intercepted Victor's letter to General Meunier (commander of the 1st
Voltigeur Division of Young Guard). On the 12th the Cossacks intercepted letter from the
French headquarters to Marshal Victor.
The bearded warriors held many crossroads and nothing moved without attracting their
attention. General Briche complained about the Cossacks preventing his cavalry patroils from
obtaining reliable intelligence.
Cossacks and Bashkirs attack Napoleon and his staff near Brienne.
Cossacks attacking the Honor Guard.
Picture by Detaille (France).
.
"Ah, my task is formidale ... "
- Schwarzenberg to his wife
Learning about Wittgenstein's crossing, Marshal Victor sent an urgent dispatch to Marshal
Marmont (who defended the middle Rhine) to unite their forces. He also asked Napoleon to
support him with 30,000 men. Then on 2 January word reached Victor that Blucher's Army fo
Silesia had crossed the Rhine further downstream and severed his communications with
Marmont. Victor's universe was shattered.
In contrast with the marshal, General Milhaud thought about fighting. In Colmar stood
Milhaud's force of 3,000 cavalry (majority were dragoons) and 1,500 infantry. Schwarzenberg
ordered Wrede to gather his Bavarians and move against Milhaud. The Wuerttemburgers and
some of the Austrian troops were getting ready to support Wrede. Marshal Victor however
chose to evacuate Colmar and instructed Milhaud to fall back and unite with him. On the 5th
the marshal issued order for the II Infantry Corps and V Cavalry Corps to evacuate Alsace.
Schwarzenberg assigned the best and most powerful of the Austrian corps, the Reserve Corps
under Hessen-Homburg, to the siege of Besancon. Hessen-Homburg was to be supported by
the II Army Corps under Liechtensiten and the 2nd Light Division. Michael Leggiere writes
that Schwarzenberg's decisions "illustrates his senseless prudence." (- Leggiere, p 269)
The (Austrian) Division under Bianchi relieved the Bavarians at Belfort. And once
Wittgenstein's Russians crossed the Rhine, the Bavarians under Wrede and the
Wurttemberguers moved north through Colmar. The Austrian detachment under Simbschen
occupied the St.Bernard Pass, opening the road to Italy. The (Austrian) I Army Corps under
Colloredo spent another day "enjoying the scenery around Montbeliard." The (Austrian) 1st
Light Division under Bubna was turned around and sent toward Dijon. Schwarzenberg also
ordered the construction of solid bridgeheads, just in case he has to retreat across the Rhine :-)
.
Comments.
Schwarzenberg's decisions
"illustrates his senseless prudence."
- Marshal Victor failed to support the Alsatians. The Alsatian peasants could have built
palisades and trenches, guard the passes through the Vosges, etc.
- Victor failed to defend the Vosges Mountains. Armand Caulaincourt writes, "Twenty
Cossacks have seized each of the passes of the Vosges; Victor has not even fired a musket."
He suggested that the emperor replace Marshal Victor with General Dejean "who has zeal."
The passes were very important, Napoleon writes, "... it is important to defend the passes of
the Vosges, it is the best defense that we have. If you cannot attack the enemy, you must at
least stop and delay his march." Napoleon needed time but just how much time and at what
cost remained the questions that clouded Victor's judgement ?
- Napoleon misled Victor by inflating the number of reinforcements. Victor believed that if
he received 12,000 men he would be able to make tactical counter-strikes and maintain his
position.
- Orders and instructions from Paris to Victor's headquarters almost always arrived too late.
Napoleon finally appointed Marshal Ney as the commander of troops in Lorraine. Although
Victor repeatedly called for Napoleon to take the command in the field or at least to appoint a
commander in chief, he intimated his refusal to serve under Ney.
- Wrede, the general whom Napoleon routed at Hanau in 1813, acted too timidly. He would
only emerge from the Vosges Mountains with one division.
- Wittgenstein's exhausted Russian advanced in snail pace
- Marches and counter-marches, realignment of troops, were inherent parts of orders issued
by Schwarzenberg. They rendered lip-service to a speedy offensive but took measures that
contradicted the best principles of napoleonic war.
- Schwarzenberg's left wing advancing south (into southern France, northern Italy) was far
too strong. There were no French regular troops in the field to oppose them. Garrisons, raw
recruits, and National Guard were not serious threat to the powerful Austrian army.
Schwarzenberg's rigth wing was also too strong. Schwarzenberg's center however was weak
and unable to smash the dispersed enemy and march straight on Paris. To do so the
commander in chief requested support from Blucher's much smaller army !
- Schwarzenberg assigned a massive force to the siege of Besancon. It included the best
Prussian, Russian, and Austrian troops (Guards, grenadiers, heavy cavalry, etc.) But at the
same time this force was without heavy, siege artillery. It doesn't make much sense.
- the idea of linking up with Wellington is bizarre. What was he thinking ? Sunbathing with
Wellington on the French riviera while Blucher and the French emperor exchanged blows in
front of Paris ?
Schwarzenberg's strategy and leadership however corresponded to the goals of Austrian
politics.
Speedy offensive on all fronts led to a draconian peace dictated in Paris by the Tzar and the
Prussian tandem Blucher/Gneisenau. As a result France would be too weak, while Russia
(and Prussia!) would gain more than Austria and shape future of Europe according to their
interests.
~
Marshal Ney fails to defend central France.
"Ney, who never appeared to be committed to the 1814 campaign,
continued his record of impotence in situations that required him
to exercise independent command." - Michael Leggiere
After the cordon along the Rhine River had fallen, Napoleon placed the defense of central
France in the hands of Marshal Ney, nicknamed "The Bravest of the Brave." Ney first
informed the emperor that he had not received his salary in 5 months and asked Napoleon to
pay his expenses. But the emperor offered no response.
Ney was a battle-hardened commander, an extremely brave leader on the battlefield. He won
fame in 1807 in the battle of Friedland. In 1812 he led his corps against Russian fortified center
at Borodino. Ney complained bitterly about being made to "take the bull by the horns."
During the retreat from Moscow, Ney commanded the rearguard. After being cut off from the
main army, Ney managed to rejoin it, which delighted Napoleon. For this action Ney was
given the nickname the bravest of the brave by the emperor. Ney fought at Berezina and
helped hold the vital bridge at Kovno, where legend has it that Ney was the last man to cross
the bridge and exit Russia. Ney's exploits at Waterloo are very well known. Regardless of his
exploits on battlefield, his conduct as an independent commander in 1813 and 1814 was poor.
His intellect was not of a sufficiently high order to enable him to penetrate his opponent's
designs or forecast his probably movements, hence as strategist he was feeble and uncertain
and quite out of his depth in command of an independent force.
Marshal Michel Ney (1769 - 1815)
Ney was one of the most popular Napoleonic marshals.
He was known as Le Rougeaud or "Ruddy" by his men
and nicknamed "The bravest of the brave" by Napoleon.
He was described as being a very brave man
but also touchy, quarrelsome and thoroughly
insubordinate to any commander but Napoleon himself.
Napoleon expected Ney to concentrate Victor's and Marmont's armies, exploit his central
position around Metz and along the Moselle River, and use interior lines to stop the Allies.
Blucher planned to march on Metz with 50,000 of his veterans and hit the weak enemy very
hard. (He thought that in Metz assembled more than 40,000 raw conscripts.) Blucher and
Gneisenau wanted to establish a huge depot for their Prusso-Russian army in Metz. If Ney
managed to concentrate strong force, Blucher would maneuver until Wrede's Bavarians or
Wittgenstein's Russians arrived. The Old Forward still had no clue that Schwarzenberg sent
the two southwest instead of northwest.
In the worst scenario, for example if Napoleon arrived, Blucher could use his numerous
cavalry to exctricate himself from a bad situation and cover his speedy retreat.
Metternich (Austrian minister of foreign affairs) hoped to stop Blucher by urging the King of
Prussia to issue orders for the Prusso-Russian army to stop at Metz, this ploy failed.
On 11 January Prussian patrols reached Moselle River and then rode close to Metz. On 12
January Marmont's troops reached the suburbs of Metz. Marmont's fate was now in Victor's
hands (Victor had to hold Nancy and the upper Moselle.) MacDonald was near Mezieres.
The French detachment in Epinal defended the town only for few hours before leaving it to
the Bavarians, Wurttembergers, and Cossacks. Then the Wurttembergers left for Langres, the
Cossacks bands moved between Meuse and Moselle, and the Bavarians occupied Epinal and
its surroundings. Ney reached conclusion that in this situation any lingering in Nancy would
be useless. Under the cover of Meunier's 1st Voltigeur Division (Young Guard) Ney's troops
evacuated Nancy. Soon Victor's troops reached the city before leaving it in the night. The
withdrawal made a negative impression on the townspeople and "caused general dejection"
according to Caulaincourt.
To Ney's surprise the Allies neither followed him nor attempted to take Nancy. The enemy
was moving in a snail pace, and only a small Allies detachment reached the city on the 14th.
The enemy entered the capital of Lorraine without firing a shot. Ney left Nancy "without
removing or destroying the harnessing gear in the remount depots, the cartridge magazines,
and tobacco store valued at 6 million francs; Dejean had suggested distributing several
pounds to each soldier and giving the rest to the population rather than leave it to the enemy.
More important, Ney neglected to destroy the bridges at Frouard and Bouxieres just north of
Nancy." (Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon" p 368)
General Lanskoi with four regiments of Russian hussars found the two bridges intact and
crossed the Moselle.
On 14 Jnauary Marshal Augereau arrived at Lyon, to plan the defense of France's second city.
On the 16th patrols from Bubna's (Austrian) Light Division proceeded all the way to the walls
of Lyon. Soon a sharp skirmishing erupted between Bubna's and Augereau's posts.
.
"I will plant my war standard
on Napoleon's throne" - Blucher
After Marshal Victor left Nancy, Marshal Marmont decided to depart Metz (the city was
evacuated but not the fortress). Marmont took Doumerc's I Cavalry Corps, Decouz's 2nd
Voltigeur Division (Young Guard), and Lagrange's infantry division and left the city on 16
January. Yorck's Reserve Cavalry led by Jurgass could not cross the Moselle on the 16th to
pursue Marmont but instead had to ride to Pont-a-Mousson, which caused a delay. Marmont
withdrawal forced other French troops to abandon the line of Moselle.
The emperor raged over the wimpiness of Marmont and Victor and the abandonment of the
Moselle without a fight. Marshal Berthier, Napoleon's chief-of-staff, writes, "His Majesty
orders you not to quit the Moselle unless you are defeated. ... Above all he is very troubled to
see that you evacuated Nancy because of the arrival of enemy's cavalry without awaiting the
infantry." Berthier wrote Marmont, "... nothing is more ridiculous than the way this marshal
(Victor) is evacuating the countryside ..."
On the 16th Napoleon authorized Caulaincourt to seek an armistice.
Blucher was ecstatic, he writes, "The iron is hot, in a few months there must be peace ..."
His only frustration was Schwarzenberg's refusal to allow Wrede's Bavarians to cooperate
with the Army of Silesia. "On 17 January, Blucher and Sacken entered Nancy with their
respective staffs. The intimidated mayor, city magiustrates, and some of the inhabitants
solemnly greeted the leadership of the Silesian Army at the gates. ... At city hall, the mayor
uttered what Muffling describes as 'forced phrases' in which 'his fear of Napoleon was
unmistakenable ... on the other hand, our respectable Cossacks were very imposing, with their
long, well-pointed pencils under their arm, indicating their skill in writing history." (Leggiere -
"The Fall of Napoleon")
Blucher informed the Tzar about his acomplishments and
ordered his speech in Nancy translated into French and
circulated in the thousands.
The Prussians however failed to intimidate the garrisons of Luxemborg, Thionville and Metz.
The garrison of Thionville (6,000 men under Hugo) launched sorties on the 17th and 22nd.
(On the 22nd approx. 500 Frenchmen battled for six hours with two battalions of Landwehr.)
The garrison of Metz (12,000 men under Durutte) launched several sorties. General Yorck
wrote Blucher, "I cannot refrain from expressing that the garrison of Metz in particular
appears to be very dangerous to our communications." The garrison of Saarlouis also resisted
the enemy.
Based on Bulow's success against the Dutch forts, Field Marshal Blucher expected Yorck to
succeed. Blucher and Gneisenau however wanted the fortresses invested by few troops only
and still have Yorck's Prussians and Sacken's Russians available for a decisive battle as soon
as possible. The fortresses would be taken by Langeron's Russians who formed Blucher's
second line.
For almost one week Yorck's I Army Corps was unable to capture any of the fortresses.
Muffling, no friend of Yorck, wrote, "General Yorck made a journey from one fortress to the
other but was only committed to leaving his calling card before all and continued his tour."
Yorck left the fortresses to Langeron but his further advance was delayed by the flooding of
Moselle, Saar, and Meuse. As a result he missed the battles of Brienne and La Rothiere.
.
The Old Guard defend the Langres
Plateau, the Master Point of France.
"... we will count on the protection
of the heavens." - Schwarzenberg
The emperor originally directed the Old Guard to Belgium before ordering them south to
Langres Plateau. The veterans crossed the Ardennes Mountains, and then the western
Lorraine, and on the 10th they started arriving at Langres. The first to enter the town was the
elite 1st Guard Cavalry Division (3,000 men) under General Leveque. The population greeted
the veterans with joy. Next came the flower of the French infantry, the 1st Old Guard Infantry
Division (4,800 men) under General Friant. They were followed by the superb Guard Artillery
(60 guns). Marshal Mortier arrived on the 12th.
The Old Guard was exhausted after marching non stop for 15 days.
They have just been utterly exhausted mentally and physically, and a dissease was spreading
among the troops. Due to shortage of ammunition Mortier ordered the manufacture of 60,000
cartridges from the powder and lead that he purchased at his own expense. (Imagine Marshal
Ney doing this. Instead the Bravest of the Brave asked Napoleon to pay his salary and
expenses.)
The presence of the Old Guard indicated to Schwarzenberg that the emperor himself would
soon arrive at Langres.
Marshal Mortier (1768-1835)
Marshal Mortier was a giant man of friendly character
son of a wealthy French merchant and English mother.
As a modest and honest man he surpassed all marshals
in 1814.For his battlefield exploits he was awarded with
the command of the Old Guard.
On the 12th a small detachment of Old Guard found 5,000 Austrian infantry, artillery and
light cavalry on the highway to Vesoul. The Austrians easily routed the enemy and pursued
them with 300 men and 4 guns. Marshal Mortier dispatched 200-300 foot grenadiers and
chasseurs to take care of the pursuers.
The French advanced in the night in complete silence.
Austrian patrols hailed them with Wer da !
Receiving no reply the Austrians fired scattered shots and fled as fast as they could. The
veterans followed them until reaching Chatenay-Vaudin where they met more Austrian
troops. Colonel Adam divided his force into three troops and reserve. Two troops marched
calmly and confidently against the superior enemy, while a third troop blocked the Austrians'
line of retreat. Then they charged with fury overthrowing everything on their path. Every
Austrian was killed except the commander and 27 men, all of whom surrendered.
Mortier sent several cavalry patrols in various directions. Their agressive actions surprised
and intimidated the enemy. Austrian General Giulay had no clear idea of the size of Mortier's
force and decided to stop his advance on Langres and wait for reinforcements. Meanwhile
Mortier learned from his cavalry patrols of enemy's strength and location. The marshal
realized the Allies were moving on his center and both flanks.
Mortier decided to evacuate Langres on the 17th. The marshal complained that after the Old
Guard left the townpeople of Langres voluntarily opened the gates to the Allies.
The fresh Wuerttembergers decided to pursue the Old Guard.
They attacked the rearguard of Mortier's force at Choignes. They captured all the houses on
the left bank of the Marne, crossed the bridge, and took the rest of the small town. Mortier
dispatched only one battalion of grenadiers to deal with them. The veterans fixed bayonets
and charged at the Wurttembergers. The jagers broke and fled toward the river with the
grenadiers hot on their heels. The grenadiers suffered only 5 wounded while the corpses of
the jagers littered the streets and the bridge.
After this combat the Wuerttembergers' advance guard kept a respectful distance from
Mortier. They spent a horrible night bivouacked in the open field on ground so drenched that
the men sunk into mud up to their shins.
Ney's impotence convinced Mortier to continue his retreat and save Napoleon's best troops.
The Austrians, Bavarians and Wurttembergers attacked Mortier at Bar-sur-Aube. Each side
lost 1,000 killed and wounded. But when the Allies waited for reinforcements and then tried
to outflank Mortier, the marshal fell back.
Schwarzenberg entered Langres on the 18th, he has achieved his strategic goal.
Langres, the Master Point of France, was in his hands. Schwarzenberg intended to halt bulk of
his army and Metternich had absolutely no objections to this project. The Tzar however was
furious and absolutely determined to carry on the campaign alone, if necessary. The King of
Prussia refused to abandon his Russian ally to whom he owed so much, though in his heart he
was somewhat inclined to agree with the clever Austrian minister.
Exhausted veteran of Old Guard,
picture by Keith Rocco.
.
"The Emperor Napoleon is now cooked
well-done and can no longer resist."
- Blucher
On 18 January Marshal Marmont arrived in Verdun on the Meuse River.
The Russian and Prussian cavalry raced to catch up with the French.
On the 19th five regiments of Cossacks led by Platov crossed the Meuse. Sacken's infantry
reached the river on the 21st. Despite the emperor's anger, Marshal Victor moved to abandon
the Meuse leaving Marmont's force exposed on the flank. Victor's decision to abandon the
Meuse River angered Napoleon, Bertier, and Marmont. Victor also neglected to destroy the
bridges ! Marmont writes, "It is deplorable that we neglected to destroy the bridges at
Vaucouleurs because with surveillance and slight means we could have held the enemy at
this line for 7 to 8 days."
Blucher received news from the north that Wintzingerode's Russians are pursuing
MacDonald's army and started their march to Liege. In the south Schwarzenberg's army
reached the Langres Plateau. It appeared that all the pieces were falling into place. Blucher
was delighted.
Napoleon was fed up with his marshals and decided to leave Paris and join the field army. On
January 25 he climbed into his carriage to travel to the front. Blucher writes, "The Emperor
Napoleon is now cooked well-done and can no longer resist."
.
Comments.
Blame for the inability of the three marshals
to unite and coordinate their operations falls
on Napoleon.
Napoleon's ADC, General Dejean, warned the emperor over the conducts of the three
marshals. He wrote, "It is of the greatest urgency that a single person has the command here,
because the marshals can not nor will not cooperate." Victor's behavior bordered on
insubordination.
The raw French troops had suffered considerably in moral from the continual retreat.
If Marmont and Victor united their forces on Moselle, they could kick the Old Forward
between the legs. Blucher had two corps in the first line, Yorck's and Sacken's. Yorck's corps
was stretched across a front of 70 miles and charged with operations against several French
fortresses. Yorck had neither siege artillery to break any of the forts nor bridging equipment
to cross the river immediately and pursue the enemy.
Sacken's corps was in and around Nancy. His hard marching infantry and artillery needed
rest. Only his cavalry were active. Langeron's Russians were far behind Sacken and Yorck,
still on the march from the Rhine. Platov's Cossacks were excellent raiders but not a serious
force on the battlefield.
If Blucher's advanced and isolated troops (Sacken's Russians) were routed by the marshals, it
would force the Prussian leader to slow down his advance, regroup, and wait for
reinforcements. It would also made a great impression on the slow and timid Schwarzenberg,
who looked for any excuse to halt his army in Langres.
If Schwarzenberg decided to continue his offensive instead of halting in Langres, the result
would have been the destruction of Ney, Marmont and Victor. The Austrian commander in
chief intentionally wasted the opportunity to end the war in January. Perhaps realizing the
basic fact that the chances of outmaneuvering Napoleon never favored an opposing
commander, he hope Metternich would end the war at the peace table. It infuriated the Tzar
who openly charged Schwarzenberg with sabotaging the war effort.
PS.
Blucher's Russians and Prussians covered 190 miles in 25 days (7.5 miles/day).
Schwarzenberg's Austrians and Bavarians marched 125 miles in 28 days (4.5 m/day)
Allies' marches were not too impressive due to winter blizzards, ice, and sieges.
The poorly clothed and hungry French troops managed to march (8 miles/day) .
The Old Guard covered 200 miles in 15 days (13.5 miles/day).
The desertions however became serious problem for the French. (The Allies treated kindly the
deserters. Muffling writes, "All deserters who came to us were dismissed with passes to their
homes ...")
~
The arrival of the Emperor revived the
drooping spirits of the young soldiers.
Napoleon had appointed his wife, Marie Louise, as regent and had left Paris to place himself
at the head of the French army. From the beginning of this campaign Napoleon had "put on
his Italian boots" and disconcerted the Allies by the rapidity of his maneuvers. He was able to
race from one Aliies' army to the other and confront them successively.
"It was during the Tzar Alexander's stay at Langres that Napoleon quitted Paris for the army.
He had put off his departure from day to day, waiting for the arrival of troops from Spain,
and for the results of his exertions in the formation and equipment of armies: but receiving
daily reports of the rapid advance of the Allies into the heart of France, it was impossible for
him to remain longer in Paris, and he therefore resolved to open the campaign, though his
preparations for war were not yer completed. ...
On leaving the capital he gave orders, for the first time since he had mounted the throne, that
prayers should be read in all the churches for the success of his arms." (Mikhailovskii-
Danilevskii - "History of the campaign in France, in the year of 1814")
The emperor arrived to Chalons to the cries of the townpeople Vive l'Empereur ! The army
was overjoyed, the trumpets sounded, the drums beat, and the regimental colours were
unfurled. The young French soldiers were greatly discouraged by the retreat and the weather,
but the arrival of the Emperor revived their drooping spirits. The frost had broken and they
struggled painfully forward along the country roads, knee-deep in mud. The artillery would
never have got through the woods at all, had not the peasants brought in their farm horses
and even harnessed themselves to the guns.
Napoleon had only some 60,000 men available for field operations:
- between Vitry and St.Dizier Marshal Victor's 15,000 men
- east of Chalons Marshal Marmont's 12,500 men
- at Chalons Marshal Ney's 15,000 men
- at Troyes Marshal Mortier's Old Guard 17,500 men
MacDonald's force (10,000 men) was not available for immediate operations and took no part
in Napoleon's first offensive movement. MacDonald was engaged with Yorck's Prussians in
the valley of the Marne.
"Napoleon spent the night o the 25th in receiving reports from his generals ... and though he
had only some 65,000 men available, including Mortier's detachment toward Troyes, he
wisely determined to strike at once, before his opponents became aware of his proximity. ...
By moving to his left to gain touch with the Army of Bohemia, Blucher had exposed his main
line of communications through Verdun and Mannheim, and he would have been well
advised to halt on the right bank of the Meuse until he could have concentrated his whole
force, instead of pushing forward with only part of it. The point of junction for the two armies
(Blucher's and Schwarzenberg's) had been fixed too far westward, and Schwarzenberg's
detour to teh left, to avoid the Vosges (Mountains) and turn the Meuse and the Moselle had
taken him far too the south.
On the morning of the 26th, Napoleon marched with some 35,000 men from Chalons to Vitry,
continuing his advance next morning, and after a brush with some Cossacks, covering the
front of the Army of Silesia, drove the weak Russian detachment from St.Dizier. He now
learned that Blucher, with a slightly smaller force, was moving through Brienne to the Aube,
and determined to fall upon him before he could effect his junction with the leading corps of
Schwarzenberg's army." (Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814")
Part of Blucher's army still lay quite unconscious of the proximity of their opponents. There
was a small combat at St.Dizier but the Old Forward had looked upon this affair as an
unimportant cavalry combat. It was only the fortunate capture of French despatch
enlightened him as to the presence of Napoleon.
Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii gives more details, "Napoleon remained only 12 hours in Chalons.
From that town he went on to Vitry, and the day following to St.Dizier, where he attacked the
detachment of General Lanskoi, who had been left there by Blucher to keep up his
communications ... with the advanced troops of von York. By this movement Napoleon cut off
the corps of the Prussian Field Marshal from that of York, who was in the country around
Metz, observing the fortresses on the Meuse. ...
On reading Lanskoi's report of his having been driven out of St.Dizier by superior numbers ...
Blucher took this attack for an ordinary reconnaissance, and, of course, paid no attention to it.
... About mid-day, a prisoner was brought in to him from the advanced posts. This was
Colonel Bernard ... From this officer he received detailed information of the ultimate projects
of Napoleon, who, by cross roads and forced marches was now advancing straight on Brienne
through Montierander. All doubt was now at an end."
Blucher had only 25,000 men at Trannes (south of Brienne and La Rothiere) and lost touch
with the reminder of this army, consequently, Schwarzenberg determined to join him with
part of his mighty army and the Russian Guards. Soon the Allies had 100,000 men at Trannes.
Napoleon took up position south of Brienne and was within easy communication with
MacDonald's force coming from the north and reaching Chalons and Mortier's troops situated
near Troyes. The emperor awaited Marmont's force.

The emperor finally left P a r i s to place himself at the head of the field army.
He had "put on his Italian boots" and disconcerted the Allies by the rapidity
of his maneuvers. The emperor immediately placed himself between Sacken
and Yorck, cutting Blucher's army in half !
The warlike Sacken was isolated and Yorck was unable to join him because
Marmont blocked his road. To rescue the Old Forward's army from a disaster
the timid Schwarzenberg moved his army from Langres toward La Rothiere.
.
Napoleon's victory at Brienne.
The Emperor was unfortunate in just missing
the capture of Blucher and the chief-of-staff
of the Prussian army, General Gneisenau.
Blucher posted Olsufiev's (Russian) IX Infantry Corps (two divisions) at Brienne. Pahlen's
(Russian) Cavalry Corps was to deploy to the north-east. When Grouchy debouched from the
Bois d'Ajou Wood he found himself opposed to Pahlen's cavalry. It was not until 3 PM that he
felt himself strong enough to attack. Pahlen fell back through Brienne to take position south of
the town.
Grouchy successfully attacked Pahlen's rear guard and followed the Russians. Pahlen then
halted his force and counterattacked, the French were beaten off with the loss of 3 cannons.
Olsufiev's infantry corps was still at Brienne.
Both, Napoleon and Blucher, were compelled to bring their troops into action piecemeal; the
former because, if he was to gain the tactical result he hoped for, he was bound to begin early,
before Blucher could slip away.
Sacken arrived with part of his infantry and deployed across the road from Brienne to Bar-
sur-Aube.. Napoleon arrived on the battlefield and immediately issued an order to the
artillery to pound the Russians. Under the cover of the artillery fire Marshal Victor deployed,
with Duhesme's infantry division debouching from the wood. Duhesme's infantry stormed
Brienne, was driven out, and stormed again. The Russians threw them back the second time
and also succeeded in capturing 2 guns.
Marshal Ney arrived with two divisions of the Young Guard. He then led 6 battalions against
Brienne, attacking the town by the Mezieres Road, while Duhesme renewed his attack from
the wood.
Pahlen's cavalry charged Duhesme in left flank. Duhesme's division lost 8 guns and was
driven in confusion on the Young Guard. "Napoleon certainly made a grave tactical mistake
in keeping all his cavalry on the right, whilst Blucher's was all on the opposing wing. There
was all on the opposing wing. There was thus no cavalry to protect Duhesme's left as he
advanced on Brienne. The French attack wwas completely driven back by the success of the
Russian cavalry which Blucher used with great wisdom and just at the psychological
moment." (Petre - "Napoleon at bay, 1814" p 24)
Darkness fell and the fighting stopped. Blucher thinking the combat is over for the day,
retired to the chateau near Brienne. He was almost caught by the French who entered the
chateau by an unguarded road. Victor's infantry then stormed Brienne itself and drove the
Russians almost completely from it.
Blucher ordered Sacken to retake Brienne, while Olsufiev stormed the chateau. By midnight
Sacken finally captured most of the town. Olsufiev however failed in taking the chateau. "The
day had cost each side about 3000 men. On the French side Admiral Baste was killed, and
Decouz mortally wounded. ... Blucher now ordered a silent retreat from Brienne on
Bassancourt, covered by the cavalry. This was unmolested by the French who only reentered
Brienne at 4 AM." (Petre - "Napoleon at bay, 1814" p 23)
The Emperor was unfortunate in just missing the capture of Blucher and the chief-of-staff of
the Prussian army, General Gneisenau. Petre writes, "It is almost impossible to estimate the
influence on the whole campaign which would have been exercised by the capture of these
two generals, representing as they did almost the whole of the energy and determination on
the side of the Allies."
Battle of Brienne, 1814
.
Blucher's withdrawal.
.
On the morning of the 30th Blucher fell back on La Rothiere, and then on Trannes Heights. He
appeared to intend holding fast. His positions were unaltered on the next day. On the 31st the
Allies decided to attack Napoleon and the command was delegated to Blucher, perhaps
largely with the idea of placating him. The Old Forward was to be allowed to "try a battle."
~
Sources and Links.
Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon" (excellent book)
Lefebvre - "Napoleon from Tilsit to Waterloo"
Heath - "La Rothiere 1814"
Petre - "Napoleon at Bay, 1814" publ. in 1977
Houssaye - "1814"
Houssaye - "Napoleon and the campaign of 1814" publ. 1914
Mikhailovski-Danilevski - "History of the Campaign in France"
The Department of History at the US Military Academy.
Conlon - "The Historical Impact of Epidemic Thyphus"
Battle of Paris. End of the war of 1814.
Battle of La Rothire : Schlacht : Bataille : Napoleon's Campaign of France
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/La_Rothiere_battle.htm[2012-05-21 12:45:29]
Battle of La Rothiere, February 1814.
Napoleon's first defeat on the French soil.
Unwilling to risk battle in such disadvantage,
Napoleon intended to withdraw, however
Blcher forced him to deploy and fight.
.
- - - - - Napoleon's victory Brienne.
- - - - - The Emperor was unfortunate in
- - - - - just missing the capture of Blucher
- - - - - Blucher's withdrawal
.
.
Battle of La Rothiere
- - - - - Troops, commanders, plans.
- - - - - Map of battle
- - - - - A word came that the Allies are coming
- - - - - The battle began with a cannonade
- - - - - "Russian infantry advanced
- - - - - with magnificent steadiness."
- - - - - French and Russian cavalry charges
- - - - - Street fighting: French vs Russians
- - - - - The Bavarians and Wurttembergers
- - - - - attacked Napoleon's left flank
- - - - - Austrians on Napoleon's right flank
.
.
.
.
.
Allied army at La Rothiere (France) in February 1814.
- - - - - Young Guard led by Marshal Ney
- - - - - attempted to retake the village
- - - - - Blucher created confusion
- - - - - La Rothire was yielded to the Russians
- - - - - Marshal Marmont fell back
- - - - - Napoleon's army began withdrawal
- - - - - Aftermath and casualties.
- - - - - Pursuit.
The arrival of the Emperor revived the
drooping spirits of the young soldiers.
Previous article: Campaign of France 1814 (+ 8 maps)
Napoleon had
appointed his wife,
Marie Louise, as regent
and had left Paris to
place himself at the
head of the French
army. From the
beginning of this
campaign Napoleon
had "put on his Italian
boots" and disconcerted the Allies by the rapidity of his maneuvers. He was able to race from one
Aliies' army to the other and confront them successively.
"It was during the Tzar Alexander's stay at Langres that Napoleon quitted Paris for the army. He
had put off his departure from day to day, waiting for the arrival of troops from Spain, and for the
results of his exertions in the formation and equipment of armies: but receiving daily reports of
the rapid advance of the Allies into the heart of France, it was impossible for him to remain longer
in Paris, and he therefore resolved to open the campaign, though his preparations for war were
not yer completed. ...
On leaving the capital he gave orders, for the first time since he had mounted the throne, that
prayers should be read in all the churches for the success of his arms." (Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii -
"History of the campaign in France, in the year of 1814")
The emperor arrived to Chalons to the cries of the townpeople Vive l'Empereur
! The army was overjoyed, the trumpets sounded, the drums beat, and the
regimental colours were unfurled. The young French soldiers were greatly
discouraged by the retreat and the weather, but the arrival of the Emperor
revived their drooping spirits. The frost had broken and they struggled
painfully forward along the country roads, knee-deep in mud. The artillery
would never have got through the woods at all, had not the peasants brought
in their farm horses and even harnessed themselves to the guns.
Napoleon had only some 60,000 men available for field operations:
- between Vitry and St.Dizier Marshal Victor's 15,000 men
- east of Chalons Marshal Marmont's 12,500 men
- at Chalons Marshal Ney's 15,000 men
- at Troyes Marshal Mortier's Old Guard 17,500 men
MacDonald's force (10,000 men) was not available for immediate operations and took no part in
Napoleon's first offensive movement. MacDonald was engaged with Yorck's Prussians in the
valley of the Marne.
"Napoleon spent the night o the 25th in receiving reports from his generals ... and though he had
only some 65,000 men available, including Mortier's detachment toward Troyes, he wisely
determined to strike at once, before his opponents became aware of his proximity. ...
By moving to his left to gain touch with the Army of Bohemia, Blucher had exposed his main line
of communications through Verdun and Mannheim, and he would have been well advised to halt
on the right bank of the Meuse until he could have concentrated his whole force, instead of
pushing forward with only part of it. The point of junction for the two armies (Blucher's and
Schwarzenberg's) had been fixed too far westward, and Schwarzenberg's detour to teh left, to
avoid the Vosges (Mountains) and turn the Meuse and the Moselle had taken him far too the
south.
On the morning of the 26th, Napoleon marched with some 35,000 men from Chalons to Vitry,
continuing his advance next morning, and after a brush with some Cossacks, covering the front of
the Army of Silesia, drove the weak Russian detachment from St.Dizier. He now learned that
Blucher, with a slightly smaller force, was moving through Brienne to the Aube, and determined
to fall upon him before he could effect his junction with the leading corps of Schwarzenberg's
army." (Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814")
Part of Blucher's army
still lay quite
unconscious of the
proximity of their
opponents. There was a
small combat at St.Dizier
but the Old Forward
had looked upon this affair as an
unimportant cavalry combat. It was
only the fortunate capture of French
despatch enlightened him as to the presence of Napoleon.
Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii gives more details, "Napoleon remained only 12 hours in Chalons. From
that town he went on to Vitry, and the day following to St.Dizier, where he attacked the
detachment of General Lanskoi, who had been left there by Blucher to keep up his
communications ... with the advanced troops of von York. By this movement Napoleon cut off the
corps of the Prussian Field Marshal from that of York, who was in the country around Metz,
observing the fortresses on the Meuse. ...
On reading Lanskoi's report of his having been driven out of St.Dizier by superior numbers ...
Blucher took this attack for an ordinary reconnaissance, and, of course, paid no attention to it. ...
About mid-day, a prisoner was brought in to him from the advanced posts. This was Colonel
Bernard ... From this officer he received detailed information of the ultimate projects of Napoleon,
who, by cross roads and forced marches was now advancing straight on Brienne through
Montierander. All doubt was now at an end."
Blucher had only 25,000 men at Trannes (south of Brienne and La Rothiere) and lost touch with
the reminder of this army, consequently, Schwarzenberg determined to join him with part of his
mighty army and the Russian Guards. Soon the Allies had 100,000 men at Trannes.
Napoleon took up position south of Brienne and was within easy communication with
MacDonald's force coming from the north and reaching Chalons and Mortier's troops situated
near Troyes. The emperor awaited Marmont's force.

The emperor finally left P a r i s to place himself at the head of the field army.
He had "put on his Italian boots" and disconcerted the Allies by the rapidity
of his maneuvers. The emperor immediately placed himself between Sacken
and Yorck, cutting Blucher's army in half !
The warlike Sacken was isolated and Yorck was unable to join him because
Marmont blocked his road. To rescue the Old Forward's army from a disaster
the timid Schwarzenberg moved his army from Langres toward La Rothiere.
.
Napoleon's victory at Brienne.
The Emperor was unfortunate in just missing
the capture of Blucher and the chief-of-staff
of the Prussian army, General Gneisenau.
Blucher posted
Olsufiev's (Russian)
IX Infantry Corps
(two divisions) at
Brienne. Pahlen's
(Russian) Cavalry
Corps was to deploy
to the north-east.
When Grouchy
debouched from the
Bois d'Ajou Wood
he found himself
opposed to Pahlen's cavalry. It was not until 3 PM that he felt himself strong enough to attack.
Pahlen fell back through Brienne to take position south of the town.
Grouchy successfully attacked Pahlen's rear guard and followed the Russians. Pahlen then halted
his force and counterattacked, the French were beaten off with the loss of 3 cannons. Olsufiev's
infantry corps was still at Brienne.
Both, Napoleon and Blucher, were compelled to bring their troops into action piecemeal; the
former because, if he was to gain the tactical result he hoped for, he was bound to begin early,
before Blucher could slip away.
Sacken arrived with part of his infantry and deployed across the road from Brienne to Bar-sur-
Aube.. Napoleon arrived on the battlefield and immediately issued an order to the artillery to
pound the Russians. Under the cover of the artillery fire Marshal Victor deployed, with
Duhesme's infantry division debouching from the wood. Duhesme's infantry stormed Brienne,
was driven out, and stormed again. The Russians threw them back the second time and also
succeeded in capturing 2 guns.
Marshal Ney arrived with two divisions of the Young Guard. He then led 6 battalions against
Brienne, attacking the town by the Mezieres Road, while Duhesme renewed his attack from the
wood.
Pahlen's cavalry charged Duhesme in left flank. Duhesme's division lost 8
guns and was driven in confusion on the Young Guard. "Napoleon certainly
made a grave tactical mistake in keeping all his cavalry on the right, whilst
Blucher's was all on the opposing wing. There was all on the opposing wing.
There was thus no cavalry to protect Duhesme's left as he advanced on
Brienne. The French attack was completely driven back by the success of the
Russian cavalry which Blucher used with great wisdom and just at the
psychological moment." (Petre - "Napoleon at bay, 1814" p 24)
Darkness fell and the fighting stopped. Blucher thinking the combat is over
for the day, retired to the chateau near Brienne. He was almost caught by the
French who entered the chateau by an unguarded road. Victor's infantry then
stormed Brienne itself and drove the Russians almost completely from it.
Blucher ordered Sacken to retake Brienne, while Olsufiev stormed the chateau. By midnight
Sacken finally captured most of the town. Olsufiev however failed in taking the chateau. "The day
had cost each side about 3000 men. On the French side Admiral Baste was killed, and Decouz
mortally wounded. ... Blucher now ordered a silent retreat from Brienne on Bassancourt, covered
by the cavalry. This was unmolested by the French who only reentered Brienne at 4 AM." (Petre -
"Napoleon at bay, 1814" p 23)
The Emperor was unfortunate in just
missing the capture of Blucher and the
chief-of-staff of the Prussian army,
General Gneisenau. Petre writes, "It is
almost impossible to estimate the
influence on the whole campaign which
would have been exercised by the capture
of these two generals, representing as they
did almost the whole of the energy and
determination on the side of the Allies."
.
Blucher's withdrawal.
.
On the morning of the 30th Blucher fell back on La Rothiere, and then on Trannes Heights. He
appeared to intend holding fast. His positions were unaltered on the next day. On the 31st the
Allies decided to attack Napoleon and the command was delegated to Blucher, perhaps largely
with the idea of placating him. The Old Forward was to be allowed to "try a battle."
~
Battle of La Rothiere, February 1, 1814.
Napoleon's first defeat on the French soil.
Unwilling to risk battle in such disadvantage,
Napoleon intended to withdraw, however
Blcher forced him to deploy and fight.
.
"The day was gloomy in the
extreme and dense showers of
snow periodically swept over the
field, entirely blotting out every
feature of the landscape, while
partly on account of the inclement
weather and partly on account of
the confusion inseparable from
divided command, the Allies did
not advance to the attack until after
1 o'clock." (Maycock - "The invasion
of France, 1814" p 58 )
While in field headquarters Napoleon was not neglecting the study of the enemy's plans and
whereabouts. From the news brought in by his cavalry patrols he came to the conclusion that a
large force was preparing to set out from the Trannes Heights for Brienne and La Rothiere. On the
flanks and in the rear of the French army Cossacks were seen. It was difficult to protect the
communication lines, now that Chernishev, Karpov and the whole batch of devils were turned
loose by the Russians.
The roads around La Rothiere were ordinary country roads, horribly bad on account of thaw, and
much cut up by the passage of artillery. The infantrymen were blue with cold, were foot-sore, and
exhausted by the forced marches. The weather was anything but favourable to rapid movement.
.
Troops, commanders and plans.
Inside a radius of f e w kilometers 100,000 soldiers
were concentrated. Blcher was joined by the Tsar
of Russia, King of Prussia and Schwarzenberg.
Inside a radius of few kilometers approx. 100,000 soldiers were
concentrated. There were even more Allies troops kept some distance
from the battlefield. They formed the reserves. "In order to distinguish
the (Allies) troops, which belonged to six different sovereigns, and
who, for the first time, here fought united, it was ordered that all, from
the general to the private soldier, should wear a white band on the left
arm." (- Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii)
Blcher stood on the Trannes Heights and studied the battlefield. Soon
he was joined by the Tsar of Russia, King of Prussia, Schwarzenberg,
and Barclay de Tolly. Before the battle began the sovereigns placed the
command of all troops under Blucher.
Petre gives the following numbers for the Allies:
Sacken and Olsufiev - 27,000 Russians
Giulay - 12,000 Austrians
Barclay de Tolly - 34,000 Russians
Prince of Wurttemberg - 14,000 Wurttembergers
Wrede - 26,000 Bavarians and Austrians
(Wrede suggested to Blucher some delay in the frontal attack,
in order to give him time to attack Napoleon's left flank.)
Total: 113,000 (However, of Barclay de Tolly's force only 6,000 actually came into action.)
And for the French:
Gerard - 8,300 men
Victor - 17,300 men
Marmont - 8,200 men
Ney - 11,300 men
Total: 45,100
Napoleon had spread his army along a line of some 7 miles (11.2 km), from Dienville to
Morvilliers.
The position was far too long for his strength.

NAPOLEON
45,000 men
132 guns

BLUCHER
52,000 men ("107,000")
338 guns
30,000 infantry
13,500 cavalry
1,500 artillerymen
French >>
order of battle
36,000 infantry
12,000 cavalry
4,000 artillerymen
Allies >>
order of battle
From the Trannes Heights there was a very extensive view of the surrounding country.
"This circumstance gave occasion to a great deal of discussion about the approaching battle, with
reference especially to the most advantageous way of attacking the enemy. Prince Schwarzenberg,
and the chief of his staff, Count Radetzky, kept to their original plan in conformity to which orders
had already been sent to the commanders of corps to attack the enemy in front, and to General
Wrede to turn the right wing.
General Toll, in the presence of the Tzar Alexander, objected: 'that the position itself pointed out
the necessity of making the principal attack on the left wing of the French, so as to cut off their
passage at Lesmont, the only point on which they could retreat. To gain this object,' he continued,
'the corps of the Hereditary Prince of Wirtemburg , and the (Russian) grenadier corps, with the
2nd and 3rd division of cuirassiers, should be directed against Napoleon's left wing, - to
endeavour, jointly with the corps of Wrede to press back the enemy on the Aube River and seize
the passage at Lesmont. The corps of the Guards, should be left in reserve, behind the centre ..." (-
Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii)
The Allies thought their situation was excellent.
In the event of Napoleon's victory, the emperor could not take advantage of it for several reasons:
the Allies still had strong reserves that could intervene at any time
the Allies could retreat beyond Bar-sur-Aube, on the direct line of their communication
the Allies could cover their retreat with numerous cavalry and harrass the enemy with
Cossacks
The Allies were also surprised at Napoleon's inactivity in the last 2 days.
Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii writes, "We may be allowed to conclude that Napoleon had been
meditating some plan, which he did not carry into execution. It has been asserted that his inactivity
was caused by false intelligence of Schwarzenberg's army being on the march to Auxerre, and that
he spent these 2 days at Brienne with the intention of waiting the completion of this movement, in
order to fall separately upon one or other of the allied armies."
As far as the Allies were concerned the emperor was trapped. He "was hemmed in against the
Aube River, with only one line of retreat over the bridge at Lesmont, in rear of his right flank." (-
Frederick Maycock)
The emperor had only one line of retreat (through Lesmont, beyond Brienne and his right flank)
and he was heavily outnumbered. "Napoleon has been much blamed by Clausewitz for fighting as
he did, but the Prussian critic had not, when he wrote, seen Napoleon's orders, which show
clearly that he did not intend fighting at all. ... About noon, in consequence of reports from Victor
and Grouchy, he again went out to reconnoitre, and was soon convinced that a general attack of
the Allies was about to fall upon him, that it was too late to retreat, and that he must fight a battle
even in his disadvantegeous position." (Petre - "Napoleon at bay, 1814" p 31)
The Allies were curious to see "this once despotic sovereign of the battlefield (Napoleon), in whose
presence but few generals ventured to maneuvre, striving only to ward off his blows, now that he
was cornered and "modestly waiting to see what the Allies would do." Napoleon, with his weak
force, could do little more than hold the villages on his extended front with infantry, and fill the
spaces with cavalry and artillery.
Map of battle of La Rothiere.
"The French position was probably too
extensive for the force available."
The Allies were curious to see "this once despotic sovereign of the battlefield (Napoleon),
in whose presence but few generals ventured to maneuvre, striving only to ward off his blows,
now that he was cornered and "modestly waiting to see what the Allies would do."
.
A word came that the Allies are coming.
The emperor was informed that large numbers of
enemy troops had been seen to the south and east
At 9 AM on 1 February Napoleon arrived at La Rothiere after a quiet
night. The streets of the villages and the fields were carpeted with
soldiers and horses. The previous day some fences had been torn
down, doors and windows burned and some stables had already been
conveyed to the bivouacs. Hygienic conditions must have been
frightful. Nothing was stirring in the camp.
The snow had melted, transforming the manure covered streets into
sewers. The men on the fields left behind few blackened remains of
few campfires. Those lucky enough to have slept in the coziness of the
overcrowded houses or barns abandoined this comfort as they
gathered with the rest of their comrades on the open fields.
Shivering from the cold and with weary, heavy lidded eyes they
brushed the dirt off their greatcoats, took their weapons from stacks
and assembled in rallying points. The cavalrymen were saddling their
mounts, and the artilley train drivers were dragging their horses by
their bridles and limbering up the guns.
Then it began snow again.
The weather made the roads almost impassable and tree limbs sagged laden with the wet snow.
The French troops struggled to move into their assigned positions. Marshal Ney marched his
Young Guard a mile southeast of Brienne, between La Rotheier and Petit-Mesnil. General
Nansouty deployed his Guard Cavalry on two lines.
At noon a word came from
Grouchy's cavalry that the Allies
were marching in three large
columns on La Rothiere from
Eclance, Soulaines and Trannes.
The villagers reported masses of
enemy troops in the region.
Napoleon mounted his horse and
rode out to see for himself. The visibility was poor due to falling snow.
The roads were waterlogged and then frozen and again waterlogged - it made a hell for the
artillery. Many guns and wagons became immobilised. Russian General Nikitin ordered each gun
to be served by two teams of horses. It moved half of his artillery forward but the other half was
left behind and without horses.
Hilaire writes, "Around one o'clock in the afternoon, the enemy columns appeared before our
posts, in the plain of La Rothire and the wood of Beaulieu."
Giulay's Austrians advanced on both banks of the Aube River against the village of Dienville on
Napoleon's right flank. Sacken's Russians moved against Napoleon's center and the strongly
occupied village of La Rothiere. The Wurttembergers and Bavarians marched against Napoleon's
left flank.
.
The battle began with a cannonade.
"The gunsmoke mixed up with snowflakes"
"The Russian artillery commander had the greatest difficulty in bringing forward his guns, which
sank to their axle-trees in the rain-sodden fields; eventually he was forced to double-horse half his
batteries while he temporarily left the remainder in position on the high ground south of Trannes."
(Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814" p 58)
Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii gives more details, "As the deep ground was likely to impede the
progress of the artillery, Nikitin, who commanded that arm in Sacken's corps, requested
permission to advance with only half of the number of his guns, 36, and to leave the remaining 36
on the heights of Trannes, where, in the event of the failure of the attack, they would be useful for
defence. He added, that he would answer for success, if he were allowed to take as many men and
horses from the guns left in position, as he required. This proposal was reported to Field Marshal
Blucher, who at once assented to it."
The battle began at once with a cannonade.
As far as one could judge through the blinding snow the Russian cannons seemed to be firing at a
high elevation. Nikitin's gunners then deployed their pieces only a short distance away from the
French advance posts and again opened fire.
The French artillery positioned on both sides of La Rothiere
opened up. The deep-throated boom of cannons rang out
across the countryside. The first shots had not yet ceased to
reverberate before others rang out and yet more were heard
mingling with and overtaking one another. (Mikhailovskii-
Danilevskii writes that the French centre "was defended by a
battery of 28 guns")
"The snow now fell so thick that objects were no longer
discernible at the shortest distance, and the firing again
ceased for a few minutes. In a short time, however, it began to freeze, and men and horses were
sent for the 36 guns left at Trannes, which they quickly brought up." (- Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii)
For 30 minutes the cannonade continued with one unceasing roar and the thick gun smoke mixed
up with snowflakes. The artillery projectiles began flying like hail stones. The air shuddered with a
massive roar, and the houses and barns trembled. The concussions scrambled the senses of the
gunners and infantrymen nearby.
.
"Russian infantry advanced
with magnificent steadiness."
The action began with Russian attack on La Rothiere held by Duhesme's weak division (2,700
men).
It was a small and not very defensible village. On both sides of La Rothiere stood the French
artillery, in front was chain of skirmishers. Duhesme, smoke-begrimed, rode from point to point,
encouraging the men and keeping close watch on the movements of the enemy.
The artillery continued to pound away at the French, while Russian infantry, strirred by the
rhytmic beating of its drums, prepared to attack. The rough-hewn Russians, with their motley
armament of Russian, British and captured French muskets, greeted Sacken and Blucher with
rousing cheer.
Philippe-Guillaume Duhesme
Duhesme was "an old Jacobin fire-eater ..."
(Barbero - "The Battle" p 244)
He was an expert of light infantry combat.
At Waterloo he was wounded on the head
a n d could only remain in the saddle b y
being held there by the brave soldiers o f
the Young Guard.
Frederick William Maycock writes, "As soon as the snow cleared off, Sacken's infantry advanced
with magnificent steadiness against the French centre round La Rotheire, some of the regiments
even being played into action by their bands. The attack was pushed so fiercely that the leading
battalions reached the church of La Rotheire, where a desperate struggle ensued. Blinding showers
of snow again fell at intervalks, and the men were often unable to see to fire, but they nevertheless
plied their bayonets with unremitting vigour." The fervor carried the Russians through the first
onslaught that surged through the French advance posts.
The first to be in action were 4 jger battalions (11th and 36th Jger Regiments) formed in columns
and led by Diedrich. On they pressed, driving the French skirmishers back. When the Russian
columns came closer to the village they got under musket fire from the houses and barns. The
Russians struggled to deploy under such fire.
The jagers were followed by line infantry.
Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii writes, "Heedless of the heavy fire of the enemy, the infantry neither
halted nor wavered for an instant. Without firing a single shot our regiments advanced in perfect
order, and that of the Dnieper, which led the Prince's column, was headed by the regimental
singers. ... The attacks we have described were, in the beginning, visible to the Tzar, but as they
went on, the troops were soon hidden from his view by a dense cloud of smoke, from the centre of
which was heard only the roar of artillery."
Fabian Sacken (von der Osten-Sacken)
General Sacken was " bold , resolute, and energetic ,
he invariably carried out his orders to the letter, and
and was one of the hardest fighting generals in the
Allied army . He was absolutely loyal to Blucher , to
whom he was greatly attached , and throughout the
campaign proved himself a thoroughly capable and
reliable corps commander. " - Frederick Maycock
.
.
French and Russian cavalry charges.
The Russian dragoons captured 2 4 pieces
of the splendid Old Guard Horse Artillery
General Nansouty, who commanded Napoleon's Guard Cavalry, hoped to surprise the Russians
(Nikitin's two batteries and Dietrich's jagers.) Nikitin noticed the French cavalry moving toward
his batteries. The jgers formed squares behind Nikitin's artillery. When the advancing cavalry
came within 500 paces the guns fired canister, and the gunners run to the safety of the squares.
The Guard Cavalry circled around the squares but were unable to penetrate them. The squares
fired one or two volleys and the French rode back to their own lines.
Nansouty's first attack failed and there were more Russian columns of infantry coming. Nansouty
saw his chance. This time he took not one but three cavalry divisions (2 of Old Guard and 1 of
Young Guard). In reserve he left only one cavalry division of the Young Guard.
The whole ranks of cavalry swayed forward, with the first rank letting out a cheer Vive l'Empereur
! that ignited waves of cries among the rest. The wind rushed through their greatcoats, puffing
them high above their shoulders, like the wings of giant birds of prey.
Seeing the mass of cavalry moving against him, Sacken called GL Vasilchikov for
help. Vasilchikov dispatched Lanskoi's hussar division. The hussars however were
crushed and pursued by the French. Nansouty then attacked Sacken's infantry and
artillery. The situation was very difficult for the Russians until Panchulitzev's
dragoons arrived. The dragoons sprang forward with outstretched sabers, while the
fleeing hussars halted and joined the fresh force. Together they attacked the Guard
Cavalry from the front and flank.
The Guard Cavalry, struggling with the infantry and artillery, and attacked by cavalry, gave way
and fled north of La Rothiere. They left behind 24 guns of Old Guard in Russian hands.
The Russian dragoons
must have impressed
the French writers
because they inflated
their numbers from
1,500 to 6,000 men (for
example in "Journal
Historique de Cavalry
Legere du Corps de
Cavalerie pendant La
Campagne de France en 1814".)
Further advance of the Russians was halted by Milhaud's dragoon division. The French advanced
"in column of squadrons" and threw the Russians back. The situation in cavalry combat changed
so quickly that when Vasilchikov informed Blucher about his success it was too late to take
advantage of it. The captured 24 guns of Old Guard stayed in Vasilchikov's hands as a trophy.
"Had Sacken at once advanced, he would probably carried La Rothiere, broken the French centre,
and hemmed their right against the Aube River. But Blucher had not seen this cavalry affair on
account of the snow, and when he heard of it the opportunity was lost." (Petre - "Napoleon at bay,
1814" p 33)
.
.
Street fighting in La Rothiere: French vs Russians.
The Russian infantry was formed in two large columns in
such a way that they could repulse cavalry attack. They
entered La Rothiere, captured the church and the center of
La Rothiere. The French however held the northern side of
the village.
Although the aggressive actions of Nansouty's Guard Cavalry failed, they
made Sacken to slow down. He formed the infantry of VI and IX Corps in
two large columns in such a way that they could repulse cavalry attack. Only
then they advanced forward and readied their bayonets when noticed that
snow wetted their powder and made many muskets useless.
Duhesme's men still occupied La Rothiere and watched the Russians through
the curtain of snow. The Russian infantry had begun the advance like a
clenched fist. Suddenly, a brisk fusillade bursts. The crackling intensifies, then
suddenly is replaced by an immense clamor which mixes with the sound of
the drums beating the charge. The action takes shape; the night will not fall
without the two parties coming to blows.
So far almost 250 Russians and Frenchmen were killed and wounded.
Duhesme ordered his infantry to fix bayonets and charge. They trampled down all the unfortunate
wretches on the way. The infantry clambered over the fallen and drove the enemy's skirmishers
from the village.
The rout of the skirmishers made no impression on the Russian line infantry. Disregarding
canister and musket fire they have entered La Rothiere. Then soldiers on both sides used bayonets,
fists and stones. The hardest battling was for the church and the main street. Killed and wounded
were sprawling in the snow. The Russians captured the church and took over the center of La
Rothiere but the French held the northern side of the village. The French fired on the Russians as
they took up positions behind buildings, trees, walls and in the gardens.
During the fight Sacken's infantry captured 8 guns.
.
.
The Bavarians and Wurttembergers
attacked Napoleon's weak left flank.
Stockmeyer commanded the (Wurttemberg) Advance Guard Brigade and his infantry pushed back
the French advanced posts. In the beginning the Germans enjoyed notable but short-lived success.
Four squadrons of Herzhog Louis Chevaulegers were brought forward, the French cavalry
however withdrew before attack. It left French 2 battalions without any support. When the
Wurttembergers rushed against them, the infantry broke and fled. Approx. 130 were captured and
taken into captivity.
Wurttemberg chevaulegers advanced toward La Giberie and the height nearby, and drove the
French from there. Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii writes, "The possession of this village was of
advantage to us, inasmuch as it served as a connecting link in the chain of operations of the whole
line, that is, between the centre, commanded by Scaken and Count Wrede's left wing."
To the north of Stockmayer's troops were deployed Wrede's
Bavarians and Frimont's Austrians. Marshal Victor directed part of
Forestier's Brigade (46th and 93rd Line) against Stockmayer. Forestier
charged overthrowing everything on his way.
At 4 pm the Wurttembergers were streaming back. The situation
became difficult for the Germans and Crown Prince asked Blcher
and Toll for immediate support. He also urged Wrede to attack
Chaumesnil. (Later on the loss of that village greatly alarmed
Napoleon.)
.
.
Austrians on Napoleon's right flank .
Giulay's actions made little
impression on the French.
Blucher called for 14,200 men of Giulay's (Austrian) III Corps to support Sacken's hard-fighting
troops. Giulay took the village of Unienville and deployed part of his artillery. Napoleon directed
two brigades to hold Dienville and bridge at all cost.
Giulay then moved Chollich's Brigade toward Dienville. Pfluger's Brigade was near
the river and Grimmer's Brigade was to link up with Sacken's Russians. The
Austrian infantry was supported by part of Archduke Ferdinand Hussar Regiment
and 18 guns of the reserve (6 heavy and 12 light pieces). Giulay's infantry on the left
bank did, indeed, for a short moment, get possession of the bridge but was promptly
driven back.
Giulay's actions however made very little impression on the French. The French
infantry pitched the bullets into the Austrians so rapidly they couldn't stand the
racket and fell back. Giulay ordered to cannonade the village of Dienville but it
brought very little results. To justify his complete failure Giulay wrote report that he
had to fight against Napoleon's Old Guard. Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii writes, "The
French then began to retire to Brienne, and Giulay, at midnight, after a sixth assault,
carried Denville, which the enemy did not yield till La Rothiere was finally in our
possession."
.
.
The Young Guard led by Ney
attempted to retake the village.
Napoleon made a personal tour of the field and had exposed himself recklessly in order to
animate his wavering young troops. The old Blucher, as usual, had revelled in the thick of the
fighting.
The emperor ordered Marshal Ney's Young Guard to recapture La Rothiere.
Galloping on to the left, where the reserve troops were readying, Ney rode along
the line of his troops, then swung his horse toward the enemy and shouted "I will
lead you !" The Russians were stubborn, the Young Guard must use bayonets.
The darkness was falling when three columns of 2nd Tirailleur Division fell upon
Sacken's infantry. Majority of the Russians fled and only few fired their muskets.
Sacken's reserve who stood behind the village counterattacked but the French
brought 4 guns near the church and halted the Russians.
P.P.H. Heath writes, "The French (column) advancing up a narrow street and as
yet not knocked about by the ebb and flow of battle, found themselves at the entrance to the
village square besides the church. Across the 30 yards of open space was a column, or more
accurately, a mass of Russian infantry pouring out onto the cobbles. The Russians, seeing the
enemy appear, directed a badly aimed volley and refused to advance further. The two bodies of
men now faced each other, hurling musket balls and insults at each other, but neither showed the
slightest enthusiasm to charge home, despite the best efforts of their officers."
The confusion was riotous and some buildings were burning. Meanwhile two other columns of
Young Guard entered the village and it seemed that the Russians lost La Rothiere. There was even
a group of French cavalry who swept through the streets. The horsemen almost captured General
Sacken !
.
.
The Old Forward created confusion.
Blcher created confusion, and the Russian grenadiers
engulfed in voluminous greatcoats halted not knowing
what to do and which order to follow.
After 4 pm Blcher sent his trusted chief-of-staff, General Gneisenau, to Sacken. La Rothiere was
considered as the most important point in Napoleon's line and Blcher in 'soldierly way' urged
Sacken to capture it. Sacken was with his hard fighting men in the village and saw the situation
himself. The Russian told Gneiseanu that Blucher's orders are impossible to execute and asked for
support from the Reserves standing on the Trannes Heights. The same urgent question asked
Crown Prince of Wurttemberg, his troops also struggled against the French near La Giberie.
Blucher ordered part of the Reserves to support first the Wurttembergers.
The Reserves began their march. Barclay de Tolly however wanted to keep at least
the 2nd Grenadier Division and ordered it to go back to Trannes Heights. De Tolly
tought they are more needed for Sacken than for the Germans. Commander of the
2nd Grenadier Division - General Paskevich - protested as de Tolly's order was not
signed by Blcher. The confused Russian grenadiers engulfed in voluminous
greatcoats halted not knowing what to do and which order to follow.
Meanwhile Colbert's Guard Cavalry Division attacked Sacken's infantry.
Olsufiev's IX Corps was hit hard and Sacken again sent a messenger to Blcher urgently asking
for support. Now Blcher realized how difficult situation was not only with the Germans on the
flank but also at La Rothiere itself. The Old Forward ordered the Russian Reserves back.
.
.
La Rothire was yielded to the Russians.
Russian grenadiers charged into the village
and drove the Young Guard at bayonet point.
Blucher directed Russian 2nd Grenadier Division toward the burning village. Behind the
grenadiers marched Austrian Grimmer's brigade. The Astrakhan Grenadier Regiment and Little
Russia Grenadier Regiment charged into the village and drove the Young Guard at bayonet point.
The Young Guard broke and fled and was only rallied in the northern part of the village "by
officers beating men back into the ranks." They were able to hold on few buildings so the fight for
the village was inconclusive.
Hilaire described the struggle for La Rotheiere, "The carnage became dreadful; General Decouz, an
officer of known worth, commanding the 2nd Division of the Young Guard, was dangerously
wounded. General Baste, who just recently commanded the seamen of the Guard, fell dead, after
prodigious acts of valor. The battle was prolonged into the night. Finally, after the most obstinate
resistance by both sides, the village of La Rothire was yielded to the Russians.
.
.
Marshal Marmont fell back.
The Allies renewed their attacks on Napoleon's flank.
Poor visibility prevented them from greater success.
Wrede's Bavarians renewed their attacks against Napoleon's left flank. Marmont's
weak corps attempted to cover the front between Chaumesnil and Morvilliers. With
the passage of troops, the frozen ground turned to mud that clung to the wheels of
the artillery and train. One of French horse batteries was caught in the flank and
was overrun by 2 squadrons of (Austrian) Schwarzenberg Uhlan Regiment.
While Hardegg's infantry division deployed before Morvilliers and La Motte's
Bavarians were on their flank, Rechburg carried Beauvoir Farm defended by Joubert's Brigade.
Behind Hardegg's division marched Splenyi's division and these forces were too much for one
French brigade. Marmont ordered Joubert to withdraw his infantry to Ajou Wood. The French
were closely followed by Wrede's Austrians and Bavarians.
At 4 pm arrived an officer from Crown Prince of Wurttemberg asking Wrede - in very strong
words - for support. Wrede accordingly ordered to attack the village of Chaumesnil and the
Austrian Grenzers spearheaded the attack. Although the village was defended by 2 battalions the
French fell back without a fight. Wrede garrisoned the village with Frimont's infantry and then
deployed two batteries.
When Napoleon learned about the capture of Chaumesnil he ordered to retake the village. Guyot's
2nd Old Guard Cavalry Division, Meunier's 1st Voltigeur Division and additional 16 guns
marched against the Bavarians.
At 7 pm near Chaumesnil, Wrede's two Austrian batteries exchanged fire with 16 French guns.
The French artillery pieces were protected by Doumerc's cavalry and Lagrange's infantry formed
in squares. Wrede ordered up two Bavarian and one Austrian regiment of light cavalry. They
charged, captured the French guns and routed Doumerc's cavalry which attempted to intervene.
Poor visibility prevented the Bavarian and Austrian cavalry further pursuit.
.
.
Napoleon's army began withdrawal.
The Allies renewed their attacks on Napoleon's flank.
Poor visibility prevented them from greater success.
Napoleon was in trouble; while the Russians
stubbornly held the center, Wrede captured
Chaumesnil and attacked his flank. (One year
later, at Waterloo, Napoleon will face similar
situation. Wellington was stubbornly holding
his ground against Napoleon's center, while
Blucher attacked Napoleon's flank.)
Crown Prince was strengthened with Adam's cavalry division and his encouraged troops
launched an attack on Petit Mesnil. The French put up a short fight, but lost heavily and
abandoned the village. Bavarian cavalry charged the exposed flank of Marmont's infantry. The
French fell back again. Napoleon ordered Grouchy's cavalry and Ney's Young Guard to delay the
advance of the German troops. Meanwhile the rest of Napoleon's army began withdrawal.
About 8 pm the Young Guard abandoned La Rothiere. Few die hards however barricaded
themselves in the northern houses and held them against all Russians efforts. This fight went on
for a while before they also abandoned the village.
Drouot of artillery received order to burn La Rothiere to the ground.
Meunier's 1st Voltigeur Division retired for the night on Brienne. Splenyi's Austrian division
moved to the eastern edge of Ajou Wood and Marmont's infantry retired to the western edge of
wood. Vasilchikov's hussars and dragoons had advanced north, from La Rothiere toward Brienne.
At 9 pm the snow was again falling hard. In this situation the fire from Druout's artillery made
little impression on the Russians. It was almost dark (only the surroundings of La Rothiere were
lighted by the burning houses) when the Bavarian and Wurttemberg cavalry repeatedly charged
each other by mistake.
"Expecting every moment to hear the shouts of the pursuing horsemen, the Emperor spent a most
anxious time in the chateau of Brienne, but as there was no sign of the enemy, the weary fugitives
went onto bivouac round the town, and towards morning he snatched a few hours' rest." (Maycock
- "The invasion of France, 1814" p 63)
.
.
Aftermath and casualties. Pursuit.
"What will they say at Paris
after this victory ?" - Tzar
Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii writes, "All the villages occupied by the French in the beginning of the
battle, had fallen into our hands. The darkness of a gloomy January night did not allow us to take
advantage of the victory, and our advanced posts were thrown out as it were gropingly, but so
near to the enemy as not to lose sight of them. Some of the officers of the French general staff lost
their way in the dark, and, wandering within our lines, were made prisoners."
At 10 PM in the evening, Marshal Berthier (Napoleon's chief-of-staff), crossing the French lines to
visit the pickets, found the two armies so close to one another, that several times he took the
sentinels of Allies for those of the French.
The countryside was covered with snow, pierced here and there by the dead, the wounded, and
debris of every kind; in all directions the snow was soiled by wide stains of blood, turned yellow
by the trampling of men and horses. The spots where the cavalry charges had taken place, and the
bayonet attacks, and the battery emplacements were covered with dead men and dead horses. In
short, no matter where one looked one saw nothing but corpses, and beheld men dragging
themselves over the ground; one heard nothing but heartrending cries.
Napoleon had 6,000 casualties but his loss in artillery was heavy, 54-83 guns were
left in enemy's hands. During the retreat on the next day 5000 French conscripts
had thrown away their weapons and returned to their homes. According to British
historian David Chandler "Each side lost an estimated 6,000 men" (Chandler -
"Dictionary of the Napoleonic wars" p 239)
"... Napoleon lost some 6,000 men, including 2,000 prisoners, and 50 to 60 guns. The
Allies lost about the same number of men. The brunt was borne by Sacken who lost
about 4,000. The Allies had undoubtedly gained a notable victory ..." (Petre - "Napoleon at bay,
1814" p 37)
The Tzar was delighted and sent Blucher a message that he had crowned all his former victories
by this glorious triumph. The Allied commanders (with the exception of Gneisenau) were entirely
carried away by their enthusiasm and, instead of organising a vigorous pursuit, wasted the day
following the battle in feasting and mutual congratulations.
The victory might well have been decisive of the whole campaign "but for the orders which
crippled Blucher, by leaving him without full control of the numerous reserves which might have
been brought up from Trannes ..." (- Loraine Petre)
"... the Tzar returned from Bar-sur-Aube to the field of battle,, and going up to Sacken's corps,
which was standing in column, thanked the officers and men, and then said to the General, 'You
have not only vanquished foreign enemies, but domestic too. (In 1806-1807 during the campaign
in Eastern Prussia, Sacken commanded a division. General Bennigsen unfairly accused Sacken of
failings during the campaign. It resulted in military court and Sacken being out of army for several
years.)
The order was now given for the troops to pursue the enemy. The Tzar and the King of Prussia
kept up with the advancing columns. The Hereditary Prince of Wurttemberg and General Wrede
were not long in driving the enemy out of the town and chateau of Brienne." (- Mikhailovskii-
Danilevskii)
"What will they say at Paris after this victory ?" -
observed the Tzar, as he was leaving the battlefield. Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii writes that
Napoleon's supporters could not, as formerly, pretend to ascribe the Allies victory to a
concurrence of unexpected circumstances; as, for example, the rising of the waters of the Danube,
on the day of Aspern (1809), the rigour of the elements in Russia (1812), or the treason of the
Saxons at Leipzig (1813).
The French troops were not destroyed but the Old Forward won the battle. The battle of La
Rothiere showed that though the French lacked the numbers to turn the tide, they still had the
ability to make the Allies pay in blood for every foot of ground they gained.
"The French fought splendidly at La Rothiere, especially Rottembourg's (Young Guard) 5000 men
in the evening. ... The (Russian) artillery was the best the Allies had ..." (- Loraine Petre, London)
PS.
Napoleon spent the night of the 1st/2nd in the Chateau of Brienne,
so familiar to him as a student, now seen by him for the last time.
Bonaparte's snowball fight at Brienne, by Boules de Neige
"The climax of Bonaparte's career at Brienne was in 1784, when he directed a
snowball fight between two evenly divided branches of the school with such
effect that one boy had his skull cracked and the rest were laid u p for weeks
from their wounds." ( John Bangs - "Mr Bonaparte of Corsica")
.
.
Sources and Links.
Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon" (excellent book)
Lefebvre - "Napoleon from Tilsit to Waterloo"
Heath - "La Rothiere 1814"
Houssaye - "1814"
The Department of History at the US Military Academy.
Conlon - "The Historical Impact of Epidemic Thyphus"
Previous article: Campaign of France 1814. Napoleon versus Europe
Next article: Battle of Paris. End of the war of 1814.
Battle of Craonne 1814 : Napoleon's Victory : Schlacht : Bataille
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Battle_of_Craonne.htm[2012-05-21 12:45:40]
Battle of Craonne, March 1814
"Like Waterloo, Craonne might have proved the last day of Napoleon's career,
if during the time he was straining every effort to annihilate the Russians
on the plateau, by bringing all his troops into action, Generals Wintzingerode,
Kleist and Langeron had charged the French rear as had been ordered."
- Russian author Mihailovski-Danilevski
Craonne is " ... one of the most desperately contested battles
in which Napoleon had ever taken part ... the casualties
among the Guard had been unusually heavy"
- British author Frederick William Orby Maycock
"Napoleon's correspondence agrees with the Moniteur
in describing the battle of Craonne as a great victory"
- French author Henri Houssaye
Movements of Troops Before the Battle.
Battle of Craonne. Introduction.
- - - - - Why Craonne ?
- - - - - The Battlefield.
- - - - - Napoleon's Plan.
Strength of Both Armies.
Quality of Troops.
Allies (Russian) Order of Battle.
Prelude. The Day Before the Battle.
The Young Guard captured Craonne
and attacked the Heurtebise Farm.
7 March. Deployment of Russian Troops.
The First Attacks of French Infantry.
Marshal Ney's columns of Young Guard succeeded in
reaching the plateau, but were driven off, and
reformed a short distance down the slope.
French Cavalry in Action.
The dragoons captured 12 guns. The Russian infantry
however counterattacked and recaptured the pieces.
Amid the cheers of the French army,
72 guns opened fire on the Russians.
Map of battle.
Blucher sent orders to the Russians to retire.
French aggressive pursuit.
"The French [cavalry] charged with such fury that
it seemed that nothing could withstand their onlaught,
but when the smoke cleared away, the hostile [infantry]
squares were still unshaken."
Darkness put an end to the fighting.
Casualties. The victors and the defeated.
Battle of Craonne 1814, picture by Theodore Jung.
Napoleon (on white horse) is joing his fighting troops.
He is followed by generals and senior staff officers.
Movements of troops before the battle.
"If this move on the part of the French had disconcerted Blucher,
Napoleon, on the other hand, found his plans upset by the Allies'
advance on Craonne." - Houssaye
Blcher had recovered from his setbacks more quickly than Napoleon had hoped, and so the
Emperor switched his offensive from the Schwarzenberg's huge but slow Army of Bohemia
(The Grand Army) back to the smaller but more aggressive Blucher's Army of Silesia. All the
roads around Craonne were covered with French troops, and that Napoleon was with them.
General Gebhard Leberecht von Blcher's force consisted of von York's and
Kleist's Prussians and Langeron's and Sacken's Russians. Only part of this force
was concentrated and ready for immediate action against the French.
Furthermore, nearby stood Wintzingerode's Russian corps while Bulow's
Prussian corps stood near Laon. Blucher intended to defend the passage of the
Aisne river. He expected however Napoleon to cross the river near Missy and
therefore not occupied Berry-au-Bac with stronger force. The bridge at Berry-
au-Bac was guarded with only few infantry and guns and several regiments of Cossacks.
On 5 March Napoleon learnt from cavalry patrol that the bridge could be captured without
difficulty. The Emperor immediately altered his plans, and the corps commanders were
ordered to stop the construction of the bridges and to march at once to Berry-au-Bac, where
the whole army would cross.
General "Nansouty, with
the Polish (Old Guard)
Lancers and the 2nd
Guard Cavalry Division,
was ordered to seize the
crossing; the Cossack
vedettes posted on the
left bank retired across
the bridge at a gallop,
with the Poles close on
their heels.
The attack was so sudden
and so fierce that the
enemy had no time to
man their defences; both cavalry and infantry fled through the village, leaving their 2 guns
and 200 prisoners in the hands of the French.
Prince Gagarine was captured by an old sergeant of (Old Guard) Dragoons, a veteran of
Egypt and Italy with 23 years' service, who was decorated by the Emperor on the following
day. The passage was now open; Ney's corps crossed first, followed by Old Guard (infantry)
under Friant, and took post between Berry-au-Bac and Corbeny, with Nansouty's (Guard)
Cavalry in advance. The other troops followed, and they were not all across until the 7th."
(Houssaye - "Napoleon and the campaign of 1814" pp 142-143)
After crossing the Aisne at Berry-au-Bac, the French army was about to fight facing Paris.
In the evening of 5th March Blucher learnt that Napoleon had captured the bridge. The
Prussian general decided to try to surprise Napoleon by an attack on his left flank. With this
in mind he directed the bulk of his army on Craonne. Only Langeron's infantry under
Rudsevich remained at Soissons.
"On the 6th Blucher himself
started for Craonne, but before
he arrived there he found that
his plan could not be carried
out. Wintzingerode had been
lacking in energy, and had not
succeeded in occupying in
force the forest of Corbeny, or
the village of Craonne (...) and
Napoleon, hearing of the
enemy's movement, had
occupied the village with 2
battalions of the Young Guard, while on the right Ney had driven back the advanced Russian
troops. If this move on the part of the French had disconcerted Blucher, Napoleon, on the
other hand, found his plans upset by the Allies' advance on Craonne." (Houssaye - "Napoleon
and the campaign of 1814" pp 143-144)
.
French army crossing of the Marne River on March 2.
(Napoleon is in the center of the picture.)
.
.
.
Battles of 1814.
Please notice how close to Paris the battles were fought.
On our website you can find articles about Craonne (here)
La Rothiere (here) and Paris (here)
.
.
.
Battle of Craonne 6-7th March 1814.
Introduction.
The Battle of Craonne was fought on March 7, 1814, and resulted in a French victory under
Napoleon I against Russians under General Vorontzov. Napoleon's aim was to pin the Allies
and then launch Ney and Nansouty in a flanking moves. Unfortunately for the French, the
coordination was not well timed and the Allies managed to extricate themselves from a
difficult situation.
By the way, in 1917 after the disastrous offensive of General Nivelle against the Germans near
Craonne part of the French army mutined. This brought about severe reprimands by General
Ptain. He went about this with the punishment of the leaders of the mutiny, condemning 500
to death.
Battle of Craonne, March 6-7, 1814.
In the left lower corner is the Old Guard infantry. They wear tall bearskins.
In the left upper corner Old Guard (Polish) lancers. On the right French infantry.
~
Why Craonne ?
In our opinion the battle of Craonne is one of the most interesting battles fought by Napoleon.
It was the bloodiest battle of the Campaign of France in 1814.
The battlefield is rather unusual. The fighting took place on a narrow "neck" of a plateau.
Unusually big part of the French army was composed of the units of Imperial Guard.
~
The battlefield.
It was a strong defensive position.
Between the rivers of Aisne and Ailette is a long plateau. At its eastern end there is a salient
known as the small plateau of Craonne. This small plateau is joined to the main plateau by a
neck which is only 150 paces wide, on which stands the farm of Hurtebise. The north and
south sides of the plateau are steep, falling on the north towards Ailette, and on the north
towards the valley of Foulon, the head of which is so precipitous that it is known as the Trou
d'Enfer. Both sides of the plateau were partially wooded. It was a strong defensive position.
~
Napoleon's plan.
In the evening Napoleon prepared his attack for the
following day. The emperor had maps, but
according to his customs he wished to supplement
them with local information. "The postmaster of
Berry-au-Bac said that M. de Bussy, the Mayor of
Beaurieux, who had formerly served as an officer,
was the very man for the purpose; Napoleon who
had a marvellous memory for names, remembered
that he had had, in the artillery regiment of La fere,
a comrade of the name of De Bussy; a cavalry escort
was sent to Mayor of Beaurieux, and he arrived in
the middle of the night. After a friendly greeting
Napoleon explained to him his plan of attack." (Houssaye - "Napoleon and the campaign of 1814"
p 146)
The Emperor intended to make an artillery demonstration against Heurtebise in order to
make the Russians think that he was preparing a frontal attack. During this bombardement
Ney's troops were to climb the slopes of the plateau behind Heurtebise and fall upon the
enemy's left flank, while Nansouty's cavalry were to climb the plateau from the southward
and make a vigorous demonstration against the enemy's right. De Bussy pointed out that the
route laid down for Ney's column was too much to the eastward, and that the proper
direction of his attack was through the village of Ailles. The Emperor agreed with him and
sent orders to Ney. De Bussy was reinstated in the army and was directed to guide
Nansouty's cavalry on the left flank.
~
Strength of both armies.
.
Blucher decided to occupy the narrow Craonne Plateau with Vorontzov's force supported by
strong artillery. The remainder of his army would be available to make a flanking movement
to take the French in the rear. Vorontzov had 16,000 infantrymen, 2,400 cavalrymen, some
Cossacks, 1,600 gunners and few hundred train drivers. His artillery numbered 96 guns. Force
designed for the flanking maneuver consisted of Sacken's three divisions of 12,000 men and
mass of 10,000 cavalry with 60 horse guns taken from Wintzingerode's, Langeron's and von
York's corps. In the last stages of the battle Sacken sent Vorontzov 4.000 cavalry. Russian
author Mikhailovski-Danilevski writes "In Count Vorontzov's corps there were 13,000, in
Count Stroganov's detachment 5,000, and in the reserve under Sacken 9,000 men".
French wikipedia (fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataille_de_Craonne, on 12 December 2011) gives
37.000 Frenchmen and 85.000 Russians. French author Houssaye gives Napoleon 30.000 men
and Vorontzov 50.000 men. British military historian Digby-Smith gives 33.000 Frenchmen
and 24.000 Russians (Digby Smith - "Napoleonic Wars Data Book") Another British author
Maycock gives 30.000 Frenchmen and 20.000 Russians.
In my opinion at Craonne Napoleon had approximately 35.000 men.
Vorontzov's force on the plateau numbered almost 30.000 men.
35.000 Frenchmen, Poles and
Italians
30.000 Russians
French Army:
1st Old Guard Infantry Division - Friant [3.800 men]
2nd Old Guard Infantry Division - Christiani [3.800 men]
1st Old Guard Cavalry Division - Colbert [4.200 men]
1st Young Guard Infantry Division - Meunier [1.000 men]
2nd Young Guard Infantry Division - Curial [1.000 men]
7th Young Guard Infantry Division - Boyer de Rebeval [3.800 men]
8th Young Guard Infantry Division - Charpentier [3.600 men]
9th Young Guard Infantry Division - Poret de Morvan [4.800 men]
1st Young Guard Cavalry Division - Laferiere [1.250 men]
Infantry Division - Ricard [?.??? men]
21st Infantry Division - Lagrange [?.??? men]
"Spanish Infantry Brigade" - Boyer [1.900 men]
6th Heavy Cavalry Division - Roussel [2.200 men]
1st Light Cavalry Division - Doumerc [?.??? men]
Reserve Cavalry Division - Exelmans [1.350 men]
There were also gunners, train drivers, engineers and staff officers.
Some sources mention also Polish Brigade - Pac [450 men]
Allied Corps:
16,000 infantrymen
2,400 cavalrymen
Cossacks
1,600 gunners
+ 4.000 Sacken's cavalry (joined Vorontzov's force in the last stage of the battle)
There were also train drivers, engineers and staff officers
~
Quality of troops.
.
In 1814 no other armies in Europe were as much exhausted as the French and Russian.
In 1812 the two giants suffered unimaginable losses and they still kept fighting in 1813 !
In 1814 the French line and light infantry found itself in heavily reduced
size. The casualties suffered by French infantry during the Invasion of
Russia in 1812 were horrible. Of the 680,500 men that Napoleon had
organized for his invasion of Russia, barely 93,000 remained ! It required a
heart of stone to look on those gallant men, mangled, frozen and torn, and
heaped in thousands over the fields and roads. Many regiments ceased to
exist. In 1814 a handful of heroes faced all of Europe to whom they
themselves had taught the art of fighting over the past decade. The physical stamina of the
young conscripts, and consequently the quality of their battalions, left much to be desired;
they could not march like the veterans, fell easy prey to sickness, and the standard of their
training was low.
The ability of infantry battalions to manoeuvre was poor, and many recruits could not even
load their muskets. When the reinforcements drafts marched to the front, carts had to follow
them to pick up the footsore and the exhausted. In combat however they were very brave. For
example they fought like lions at Fere Champenoise. Large squares formed by them
withstood several charges made by cuirassiers, lancers, dragoons, and the Guards. They held
their ground even after being decimated by musket fire at close range, followed by more
cavalry attacks on every side.
Probably the best French infantry unit Craonne was the so-called Spanish Brigade
under General Boyer. (Part of Marshal Ney's force.) It consisted 1900 men from
2nd Light, and 24th and 122nd Line Infantry Regiment who served in Spain
against the Spanish, British and Portugese troops. In 1814 they familiarized
themselves with "new" enemy: Russians and Prussians. At Craonne they will fight
hard, pressing against the Russian northern flank and trying to capture the village
of Ailles and reach the edge of the plateau. Their adversaries in this struggle will
be the short Russian jagers (light infantrymen) and powerful artillery.
The situation in French cavalry in 1814 was very difficult. Every soldier who could
stick on the back of a horse was mounted - some on nags resembling the "four
horses of the Apocalypse." The French cavalry never recovered from the massive loss of
horses in 1812. It is estimated that 175.000 excellent horses of cavalry and artillery were lost in
Russia ! So heavy were the horse losses that one of Napoleon's most serious handicaps in the
1813 and 1814 campaigns was his inability to reconstitute his once-powerful cavalry.
The French artillery in 1814 was in better
shape than the infantry and cavalry.
Artillery was Napoleon's favorite arm. The
infantry and cavalry complained that the
gunners gave themselves airs because the
Emperor himself had been a gunner. British
military historian Paddy Griffith wrote
"French gunners dominated Europe's
battlefields in the 19th Century because of
their aggressive tactics imaginative leaders
and their raw courage." In 1814 however
the French artillery suffered from lack of
strong horses. Furthermore, there were
quite many raw recruits among them. Houssaye writes: "but the gunners were untrained, and
suffered heavily from the fire of the better-served Russian guns." (Houssaye - "Napoleon and
the campaign of 1814" p 150)
The few veterans were concentrated in the Old Guard.
This formation consisted of some legendary regiments:
Horse Grenadier Regiment nicknamed "The Gods" - all men wearing black fur caps and mounted on big, black
horses. They were the bravest veterans selected from all the cuirassier and horse carabinier regiments. They were
arguably the best heavy cavalry outfit in Europe. They never lost a single cavalry combat. The only bad thing about
them was their low number.
1st Foot Grenadier Regiment, the old of the old, so to speak. In 1815 almost 30 % of the I Battalion of were veterans
of 20-25 campaigns (!), one third was awarded for bravery. They averaged 35-years of age. The battle-hardened
grenadiers wore tall black bearskin, with a brass plate representing in relief a crowned eagle holding thunderbolts in its
talons. The cartridge box was decorated by a large eagle.
Mr Hayden saw in 1814 : "More dreadful-looking
fellows I had never seen. They had the look of
thoroughbread, veteran, disciplined banditti."
Chateaubriand described them in 1814; "I do not
believe that human faces have ever worn such
threatening expressions. These Grenadiers covered with
scars, these conquerors of Europe ..."
Polish Lancers of Old Guard. They never lost a
single cavalry combat. Napoleon once said "These
people only know how to fight ! You are worthy of my
Old Guard I proclaim you my bravest cavalry !" The
men were the best veterans selected from Polish lancers
regiments and were arguably the best lancers in the
world. They were limitlessly confident in Emperor's
genius. Officer Zaluski wrote "We could have been
asked to conquer the moon, and we'd have responded
with Forward, march !"
Old Guard Artillery. The French artillery was considered as being the best in Europe. The Old Guard Artillery was
the best part of the artillery ! St. Hilaire wrote "The foot gunner [of the Old Guard] was a large and lanky fellow; he
had the slightly arched back found in all men who devote themselves to operations of force. His character was as
severe as his uniform; he spoke little, and his meditative air, although he was only private, made one soon guess that
he belonged to an erudite arm, to a corps special to Napoleon, more or less justified in his preferences, placed before all
the others, without exception even those of his engineers. ... His step was a little heavy, and on this standpoint he was
far from resembling his brother in arms, the horse gunner." In 1811 - 1813 they were commanded by Jean Sorbier ,
nicknamed "The Old Thunderer". At Leizpig and Hanau the grand battery was under General Drouot, "The Monk
Soldier". For Gen. Drouot praying and fighting appeared to be his idea of the whole duty of man. Drouot always
carried a Bible with him and had become a living legend to the gunners.
.
On the Russian side the best were the artillery and hussars. The Russian artillery was
very numerous and many pieces were of heavy caliber. In general the French and
Austrian artillery was considered superior. In 1814 however the Russian foot artillery
was considered to be the best of Allies' foot artillery. Lorraine Petre writes, "The
(Russian) artillery was the best the Allies had ..." (Petre - "Napoleon at bay, 1814" publ.
in London 1977) Their service at La Rothiere was admirable. And they put on a
splendid display at Craonne. Vorontzov writes, "With respect to the artillery I had only
to look on with admiration, and rejoice in the destruction which it wrought among the
enemy." At Craonne, the French admitted that the crusty Russian gunners served their
guns better than it did their own gunners. Houssaye writes "but the gunners were
untrained, and suffered heavily from the fire of the better-served Russian guns."
(Houssaye - "Napoleon and the campaign of 1814"
p 150)
The flamboyant, hard drinking and dashing hussars enjoyed a great popularity in Russia. In no other branch of the
army, were so many volunteers and footloose lads. Many came from families with a long military tradition and were
excellent swordsmen and horsemen who were familiar with horses since they were kids. Hussars gaiety around a
bottle of wine, or vodka, and their rolling swagger were well known. Opening the bottle of wine with a saber cut and
drinking from womans shoe were ones of their many customs. In every hussar regiment existed camaraderie and pride
of belonging to a special group within the army. The Russian hussars were excellent horsemen and fighters admired by
many Allies generals.
In 1814 Russia had 12 hussar regiments. In our opinion the best were the Grodno Hussars,
and then the Loubny and Pavlograd Hussars. At Craonne the Pavlograd covered themselves
in glory. They had gone into action 900 strong, made numerous charges and countercharges
against cavalry, infantry and artillery, and left the field with only 400 men ! The chef of the
regiment was General Chaplitz a Pole in Russian service. Their commander was Prince
Zhevahov (or by Georgian name Dzhavahishvili, he came from Georgian princeses.) In this
regiment served Russians, Lithuanians, Poles and Ukrainians. During the disastrous
Austerlitz Campaign in 1805 the Pavlograd Hussars were one of very few Allies' regiments
that performed well. They were part of the hard fighting Bagration's Rear Guard and won
fame for delaying French advance. At Enns, disregarding the canister fire they burned a
bridge. (Duffy - "Austerlitz 1805" 1977, p 56) In 1805 at Hollabrunn they fought until were cut
off from the main body of Bagrations' corps. Spiridon Zhevahov led his squadron against the encircling forces and the
rest of the regiment followed them. For Hollabrunn/Shngrabben they were allowed to carry two standards in every
squadron as a special honor. The Pavlograd Hussars also fought in Durrenstein and Austerlitz, where while trying to
cover the withdrawal of defeated infantry, they put on a desperate fight against French cuirassiers. According to
Kutuzov's "Sbornik dokumentov" they lost 243 men at Austerlitz alone ! In 1807 the Pavlograd Hussars were again part
of the hard fighting rear guard under Bagration.
NOTE: To match the numerous regiments of Polish lancers serving for Napoleon, in 1812 lance was introduced in
Russian hussar regiments. In November 1812 all carbines were taken away, only pistols were left. The flankers however
kept their musketoons. Thus in 1814 the Russian hussars were de facto
lancers.
The infantry was composed of few veterans and many raw conscripts. In 1812
Russia suffered horrible losses, especially in the infantry. Most of the veterans
perished. Generally the Russian infantry was known for their bayonet attacks. Sir
Robert Wilson wrote: "... in the charge of their close columns, their determined
bearing of the bayonet, and their order for close action, they are equaled only by the
British." The Russians however were very poor marksmen. Due to shortages of
ammunition some troops were trained to fire with clay bullets. Polish General
Kosciuszko writes, "The Russian infantry withstand fire fearlessly, but their own fire
is badly directed ..."
The Russian soldier was very obedient. Napoleon used to say "If the Frenchmen had
the firmness and the docility of the Russians the world not be great enough for me."
The Russian NCOs were professional and brave. They were the backbone of Russian
infantry.
The officers however were especially ill qualified and were
considered one of the worst in Europe. Grand Duke
Constantine used to say "An officer must never use his
common sense or intelligence. Sir Robert Wilson wrote
"They [officers] usually spent their time drinking,
gambling or sleeping."
In general the Russian soldier enjoyed great stamina and
endurance. "The whole appearance of a Russian army
denotes hardihood and bravery, inured to any privations .
They subsist well on black bread: few cattle are seen
following the army. Their commissaries have little to do; and the great burden of managing
the commissariat, which is so irksome to a British commander on service, seems perfectly
light to a Russian chief." (-General Sir Charles Stewart)
~
.
At Craonne Napoleon's force consisted of:
Old Guard under Marshal Mortier
I Young Guard Corps under Marshal ney
II Young Guard Corps under Marshal Victor
VI Army Corps undr Marshal Marmont
As mentioned above the Old Guard Corps was commanded by Marshal
Mortier. Mortier ('mortar' in French) was heavily built and with 6,6" he was
the tallest of all marshals. Mortier received better-than average education at
the English Collage of Douai (his mother was English).
douard Adolphe Casimir Joseph Mortier was born on 13 February 1768. He
entered the army as a lieutenant in 1791. and served in the French
Revolutionary Wars in 1792 and 1793 on the north-eastern frontier and in the
Netherlands. Mortier distinguished himself in 1799 in the Second Battle of Zurich. During the
Austerlitz Campaign in 1805 Mortier over-extended his line of march on the north shore of
the Danube and failed to heed Napoleon's advice to protect his north flank. In 1807 he served
in the Friedland campaign, in the siege of Stralsund, and in the siege of Kolberg. In 1808,
Napoleon created him duke of Treviso. Mortier remained in Spain for two campaigns,
winning at Ocaa in 1809. In 1812, 1813 and 1814 he commanded the infantry of the Imperial
Guard, and rendered brilliant services in command of rearguards and covering detachments.
Every combat in which he took part bore testimony
to his extraordinary bodily strength and bravery.
Corps - Marshal Mortier
[4 sq.] = 4 squadrons
[2 btns.] = 2 battalions
Guards Troops Attached
.
Guard Infantry
- Marshal Mortier
1st Old Guard Infantry Division
- General Louis Friant [3.800 men]
Brigade
- - - 1st Old Guard Grenadier Regiment [2 btns]
- - - 2nd Old Guard Grenadier Regiment [2 btns]
Brigade
- - - 1st Old Guard Chasseur Regiment [2 btns]
- - - 2nd Old Guard Chasseur Regiment [2 btns]
2nd Old Guard Infantry Division
- General Christiani [3.800 men]
Brigade
- - - Old Guard* Fusilier-Grenadier Regiment [2 btns]
- - - Old Guard* Fusilier-Chasseuer Regiment [2 btns]
Brigade
- - - Guard Flanquer-Grenadier Regiment [2 btns]
- - - Guard Flanquer-Chasseuer Regiment [2 btns]
- - - Guard Velites of Turin (Italians) [1 btn]
- - - Guard Velites of Florence (Italians) [1 btn]
9th Young Guard Infantry Division
- General de Morvan [4.800 men]
Brigade
- - - 15th Young Guard Voltigeur Regiment
Brigade
- - - 3rd Young Guard Tirailleur Regiment
- - - 4th Young Guard Tirailleur Regiment
Brigade
NOTES:
* - in 1814 the Fusilier-Grenadiers and Fusilier-Chasseurs
were ranked as Old Guard. In previous years however
they were Middle Guard. .
Guard Cavalry
- General Nansouty
1st Old Guard Cavalry Division
- General Colbert [4.200 men]
Brigade
- - - Old Guard Horse Grenadier Regiment [4 sq]
- - - Old Guard Dragoon Regiment [4 sq]
- - - Old Guard Horse Chasseur Regiment [4 sq]
Brigade
- - - 1st Old Guard Lancer Regiment (Polish) [8 sq.]**
- - - 2nd Middle Guard Lancer Regiment (Dutch) [4 sq]***
1st Young Guard Cavalry Division
- General Laferiere [1.250 men]
Brigade
- - - Young Guard Horse Grenadiers [2 sq.]
- - - Young Guard Horse Chasseurs [4 sq.]
- - - Young Guard Dragoons [2 sq.]
Brigade
- - - 1st Guard Eclaireur Regiment [4 sq]
- - - 2nd Guard Eclaireur Regiment [4 sq]
- - - 3rd Honor Guard Regiment [4 sq]
NOTES:
** - this regiment actually consisted of:
4 squadrons of Old Guard and 4 of Young Guard
(or 4 Old Guard, 2 Middle, and 2 Young Guard)
*** - they were the Red Lancers
Cavalry Corps
- General Grouchy
6th Heavy Cavalry Division
- Roussel [2.200 men]
Brigade
- - - 5th Dragoon Regiment
Brigade
- - - 21st Dragoon Regiment
Reserve Cavalry Division
- Exelmans [1.350 men]
Brigade
- - - 1st Provisional Hussar Regiment
- - - 2nd Prov. Horse Chasseur Regiment
Brigade
- - - 3rd Provisional Lancer Regiment
- - - 4th Prov. Horse Carabinier Regiment
- - - Jerome Bonaparte Hussar Regiment .
.
.
~
The I Young Guard Corps was commanded by Marshal Ney.
Michel Ney was born on 10 January 1769 as the second son of Pierre Ney, a
master barrel-cooper and veteran of the Seven Years' War. He enlisted in the
hussar regiment in 1787. Ney served in the Army of the North from 179294,
and saw action at Valmy, Neerwinden, and other engagements. In June 1794
he was wounded at the Siege of Mainz. Ney was promoted to gnral 1796,
and commanded cavalry on the German Fronts. In 1797 during melee with
Austrian cavalry at Neuwied/Giesen, Ney was thrown from his horse and
made a prisoner of war. On 8 May he was exchanged for an Austrian general.
Following the capture of Mannheim, Ney was promoted to gneral de division in 1799. Later
in 1799, he commanded cavalry in the armies of Switzerland and the Danube. At Winterthur,
Ney was wounded in the thigh and wrist. After Neys recovery he fought at Hohenlinden in
1800. From 1802, Ney commanded French troops in Switzerland and performed diplomatic
duties.
In 1805 Ney invaded the Tyrol. In 1806 he fought at Jena and then occupied Erfurt. In 1807
Ney fought at Eylau and Friedland. In 1808 he was sent to Spain and won a number of minor
actions. In 1809 he routed a British-Portuguese force under Sir Robert Wilson at Baos. In 1810
Ney joined Marshal Massna in the invasion of Portugal, where he took Ciudad Rodrigo from
the Spanish and Almeida from the British and Portuguese, defeated the British on the River
Ca, and fought at Buaco. During the retreat from Torres Vedras, Ney worsted Wellington's
forces in a series of lauded rearguard actions (Pombal, Redinha, Casal Novo, Foz d'Aronce)
with which he delayed the pursuing enemy forces enough to allow the main French force to
retreat unmolested. He was ultimately removed from command for insubordination.
In 1812 Ney took part in the Invasion of Russia and fought at Smolensk, Borodino and other
engagements. During the retreat from Russia, he commanded the rear-guard and was known
as "the last Frenchman on Russian soil". After being cut off from the main army, Ney
managed to rejoin it, which delighted Napoleon. For this action Ney was given the nickname
"the bravest of the brave" by the Emperor himself. In 1813 campaign Ney fought at
Weissenfels, Ltzen, Bautzen, and Leipzig.
At Dennewitz Prussian General Bulow crushed Ney.
I Young Guard Corps - Marshal Ney
Young Guard Troops Attached
1st Young Guard Infantry Division
- General Meunier [1.000 men]
Brigade
- - - 1st Young Guard Voltigeur Regiment
- - - 2nd Young Guard Voltigeur Regiment
Brigade
- - - 3rd Young Guard Voltigeur Regiment
2nd Young Guard Infantry Division
- General Curial [1.000 men]
Brigade
Brigade
"Spanish Brigade" [1.900 men]
- - - 2nd Light Infantry Regiment
- - - 24th Line Infantry Regiment
- - - 122nd Line Infantry Regiment
.
.
~
The II Young Guard Corps was commanded by Marshal Victor. Claude Victor-
Perrin was born on 7 December 1764. In 1781 he entered the army as a private
soldier. Victor distinguished himself in several engagements (incl. Toulon) and
rose to the rank of general. He afterwards served in the Italian campaign of
17961799 and fought at Mondov, Rovereto and Mantua. After commanding for
some time the forces in Vende, Victor was again employed in Italy, where he
did good service against the papal troops, and took an important part in the
battle of Marengo. In 1802 he was governor of the colony of Louisiana for a short time. In 1807
Victor fought at Friedland. In 1808 Victor was sent to Spain, where he took a prominent part in
the Peninsular War (against Blake at Espinosa, and the British-Portuguese and Spanish armies
at Talavera, Barrosa and Cdiz). During the Invasion of Russia in 1812 Victor commanded an
army corps. Here his most important service was in protecting the retreating army at the
crossing of the Berezina River.
II Young Guard Corps - Marshal Victor
Young Guard Troops Attached
- General Boyer de Rebeval [3.800 men]
Brigade
- - - 1st Young Guard Tirailleur Regiment
- - - 2nd Young Guard Tirailleur Regiment
Brigade
- - - 3rd Young Guard Tirailleur Regiment
- General Charpentier [3.600 men]
Brigade
Brigade
~
The VI Army Corps was commanded by Marshal Marmont. Auguste Frdric
Louis Viesse de Marmont was born on 20 July 1774 as the son of an ex-officer.
His father took him to Dijon to learn mathematics prior to entering the artillery,
and there he made the acquaintance of Napoleon Bonaparte. Marmont
accompanied him to Italy and Egypt, winning distinction and promotion to
general. In 1799 he returned to Europe with Napoleon; and organized the
artillery for the expedition to Italy. At Marengo he commanded the artillery
with great effect. In 1801 he became inspector-general of artillery.
During the Austerlitz Campaign in 1805 he commanded an army corps, with which he did
good service at Ulm. He was then directed to take possession of Dalmatia. In 1809 he defeated
an Austrian corps at Graz. Marmont arrived in time to fight at Wagram. In the subsequent
pursuit of of the Austrian army, Marmont got his corps into a difficult spot and was bailed
out only by the arrival of Napoleon.
In 1810 Marmont was summoned to succeed Marshal Massna in the command of the French
army in Spain. His relief of the fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo in 1811 in spite of the presence of
the British army was a great feat, and in the manoeuvring which preceded the battle of
Salamanca he had the best of it. But Wellington more than retrieved his position in the battle,
and inflicted a heavy defeat on Marmont. Marmont was gravely wounded and retired to
France to recover. In 1813 Napoleon gave him the command of a corps, which he led at the
battles of Ltzen, Bautzen and Dresden. At Leipzig Marmont and Ney defeneded the
northern flank at Mockern and were routed by Blucher's Prussians and Russians.
VI Army Corps - Marshal Marmont
Infantry Cavalry
Infantry Division
- General Ricard
Brigade
- - - 2nd Light Infantry Regiment [1 btn]
- - - 4th Light Infantry Regiment [1 btn]
Brigade
- - - 22nd Line Infantry Regiment [1 btn]
- - - 40th Line Infantry Regiment [1 btn]
Brigade
- - - 142nd Line Infantry Regiment [1 btn]
- General Lagrange
Brigade
- - - 1st Line Infantry Regiment [1 btn]
- - - 121st Line Infantry Regiment [1 btn]
Brigade
- - - 2nd Marine Infantry Regiment
- - - 3rd Marine Infantry Regiment
- - - 4th Marine Infantry Regiment
1st Light Cavalry Division
- General Doumerc
Brigade
- - - 2nd Horse Chasseur Regiment
- - - 3rd Horse Chasseur Regiment
- - - 4th Horse Chasseur Regiment
Brigade
Brigade
- - - 2nd Lancer Regiment
- - - 1st Honor Guard Regiment
~
Allies (Russian) Order of Battle.
Vorontzov covered himself with glory in 1812 at Borodino. His 2nd
Combined Grenadier Division admirably performed its duty of defending
the field works called Bagration Fleches. They were mercilessly battered by
powerful French artillery and repeatedly attacked by Davout's infantry and
Murat's heavy cavalry. Vorontov led several counterattacks, was seriously
wounded, and his entire division almost ceased to exist. Vorontzov wrote:
"An hour after the fighting began my division ceased to exist. Out of about
4,000 men, there was less than 300 at the evening roll-call and out of 18 staff
officers only 3 survived, and only 1 of them was not wounded ... If I were asked the following
day where my division was, I would have responed ... pointing my finger to our position and
proudly declaring, 'Here it is."
Allies mission at Craonne perfectly suited Vorontzov.
Allies (Russians)
Infantry Cavalry
Brigade
- - - 6th Jager Regiment
Brigade
- - - Smolensk Infantry Regiment
- - - Narva Infantry Regiment
Brigade
- - - Alexopol Infantry Regiment
- - - New Ingermanland Infantry Regiment
14th Infantry Division - Harpe
Brigade
- - - Tula Infantry Regiment
- - - Navazhinsk Infantry Regiment
Grenadier Brigade
- - - grenadier companies drawn from
- - - 9th, 15th and 18th Infantry Division
16th Infantry Division - Shcheltuhin
Brigade
- - - Penza Infantry Regiment
- - - Saratov Infantry Regiment
21st Infantry Division - Laptiev
Jager Brigade
- - - 2nd Jager Regiment
Brigade
- - - Lithuanian Infantry Regiment
- - - Nevski Infantry Regiment
Brigade
- - - Podolsk Infantry Regiment
- - - Petrovsk Infantry Regiment
24th Infantry Division - Vuich
Brigade
Brigade
- - - Hirvan Infantry Regiment
- - - Butyrsk Infantry Regiment
"Brigade" - Benckendorf
Brigade
- - - Pavlograd Hussar Regiment
- - - Cossack Regiment
.
Cavalry Corps - Vasilchikov
[This corps was send by General Sacken
to support Vorontzov's force]
3rd Dragoon Division - Ushakov
Brigade
- - - Smolensk Dragoon Regiment
- - - Kurland Dragoon Regiment
Brigade
- - - Tver Dragoon Regiment
- - - Kinburn Dragoon Regiment
2nd Hussar Division - Lanskoi
Brigade
- - - White Russia Hussar Regiment
- - - Ahtirka Hussar Regiment
Brigade
- - - Alexandria Hussar Regiment
- - - Marioupol Hussar Regiment
~
Prelude. The Day Before the Battle.
The Young Guard captured Craonne
and attacked the Heurtebise Farm.
.
At 4 PM on Sunday, 6th March, two French infantry
divisions approached Craonne which was occupied by
Krassovski's understrength 13th and 14th Jager
Regiment. Russian doctrine called for the jagers formed
in skirmish order occupying the outer buildings and
gardens. Inside the town in the streets stood individual
companies, they if necessary supported the most
threatened parts of the skirmish line. Behind the village
stood reserve; one or several battalions formed in
column(s). Church and cemetary were defended either
by grenadier or carabinier companies.
One French division marched on the town and the
wood to the left. The other French division advanced
on Bouconville with the intention of cutting off the
retreat of the Russian advance guard at Heurtbise
Farm.
Craonne and its surrounding gardens were attacked by at least 2 battalions of Young Guard.
After several attacks and counterattacks the Russians were driven from the town. The
stubborn 13rd Jagers led by Colonel Velizarov lost 416 killed and wounded !
Then one of the battalions of Young Guard had advanced on to the open plateau, where it
had been charged by Pavlograd Hussars and driven back again into the town.
The 1st Young Guard Division spearheaded the French advance on the plateau. It was under
the command of Meunier. General Benoit Meunier Saint-Clair was a seasoned soldier. In 1808
he was colonel 2nd Light Regiment, in 1809 colonel of 31st Light Regiment, and general in
1813. Now Meunier together with Marshal Ney nicknamed "The Bravest of the Brave" led the
attack in person. The Young Guard had captured the abbey of Vauclerc in the valley of the
Ailette and had followed the retreating Russians as far as the farm of Heurtebise.
Heurtebise Farm stood
on the narrow "neck"
of the plateau. The
slopes of the plateau
were partially
wooded. This advance
position was defended
mostly by Russian
jagers (light infantry).
Short distance behind
the farm stood 2
squadrons of
Pavlograd Hussars.
The hussars wore dark
green jackets and
breeches, their
dolmans were turquois. They formed a link between the defenders of the farm and
Vorontzov's main force standing 1,200 yards behind the farm.
After taking Craonne the Young Guard kept moving forward and captured Heurtebise Farm.
Vorontzov's infantry counterattacked and retook the farm. The French however recaptured it
before being thrown out of this place again. The French counterattacked the third time and
took the farm. At 7 o'clock Ney decided to evacuate it.
Mikhailovski-Davilevski gave his view of these events. He wrote that the French Guard
infantry who at first had been driven out of the wood near Heurtbise, again became masters
of it. Vorontzov took the 14th Jagers and four infantry regiments, and charging the enemy
with the bayonet, cleared the wood. Vorontzov then posted his advanced line for the night in
the wood near Heurtubise and led his troops to a position on the plateau.
This day Napoleon's headquarters were between Berry-au-Bac and Corbeny. Nearby were
the bivouacs of the 1st and 2nd Guard Cavalry Divisions, Roussel's cavalry division, Friant's
Old Guard Infantry Division, and Boyer de Rebeval's and Curial's Guard Infantry Divisions.
Marmont's VI Army Corps was still far away.
View of the "neck" of Craonne Plateau.
~
Monday, March 7th 1814.
Deployment of Russian Troops.
There had been a hard frost during the night, and the ground was slippery; the artillery
horses could not keep their feet. At 8 AM in the morning Napoleon rode up to the frontline in
order to examine the Russian positions.
The farm of Heurtebise and nearby wood formed the Russian
advanced position. It was occupied by their rear guard: 800
jagers (light infantry, see picture right -->) with 2 squadrons of
Pavlograd Hussars in support. The rear guard was under the
command of General-Major Krassovski. The farm controlled the
narrow "neck" of the plateau. It was however impossible to
defend it for very long because of the wooded area being so
close to the farm. The wood made great cover for any attacking
force and the Russians had not enough light infantry to defend
it.
Approx. 1200 m behind the farm, on the plateau, stood
Vorontzov with the bulk of his force. Both flanks of this position
were protected by steep slopes, partially wooded.
In front of the position three batteries (36 guns) under Colonel
Vinspar were so placed that the enemy could not attack
otherwise than under their fire. One horse battery (12 guns) took
up a position in front of the left flank, from whence they could
play on the flank of the advancing enemy. Four more guns were
placed still farther to the left and a half-battery (6 pieces) was
trained on the valley of the Ailette. On the rigth flank stood one
and half battery (12 + 6 pieces). In reserve, between the second
and third lines of infantry, were placed 20 guns.
Vorontzov's infantry was formed up behind artillery in three lines of battalion columns. The
first line numbered 14 battalions, the second 7 battalions, and the third 9 battalions. The
second and third line were drawn up 500 and 1000 m respectively in rear of the first line. On
the right of the first line stood Pavlograd Hussars, with four regiments of Cossacks.
Against a frontal attack, the position was almost impregnable, but the right flank was weak,
as Vorontzov had not sufficient infantry to hold it with an adequate force. "On his left, the
village of Ailles itself, and the steep slopes above it, were held by a strong force of light
troops, while on the opposite flank the spur jutting out towards Vassogne was occupied by a
few squadrons and battalions, covered by a swarm of skirmishers." (Maycock - "The invasion of
France, 1814" p 126)
Some 3 km in rear of the third line stood Sacken's 4000 cavalry and the remainder of his force.
They formed the reserve. Blucher left Sacken in command, and hurried off to hasten
Wintzingerode's march. Vorontzov's orders were to hold his ground at Craonne to the last so
as to gain time for the development of Wintzinegore's flank attack.
~
First Attacks of French Infantry.
Marshal Ney's columns of Young Guard succeeded in
reaching the plateau, but were driven off, and
.
The French artillery did not reach the plateau till
between 9 and 10 AM. Napoleon ordered fire to be
opened at once; the Russian batteries replied
immediately. However very little damage was done on
either side, for the distance of 2500 m was beyond the
effective range of the guns.
Hearing the sound of the artillery, Marshal Ney moved forward with his
Young Guard infantry formed in columns. On the right flank Boyer's "Spanish
Brigade" marched on Ailles, and on the left Meunier's division, supported by
Curial's division. The French infantry moved under the cover of woods to the
foot of the slopes, and commenced the steep ascent. The French advance was
screened by numerous skirmishers. The Russians opened a hot fire of
musketry and artillery.
"Ney, meanwhile, pushing his attack with the greatest vigour, had driven his
opponents from Ailles and his skirmishers gradually drove the Russian light
troops up the steep slope above the village." (- Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814" p 128)
Then Ney's infantry succeeded in reaching the plateau, before being driven back by artillery
fire and charged at the point of the bayonet by the 2nd and 19th Jagers. Ney's columns
The village of Ailles was located near the northern edge of Craonne Plateau
and Russians' extreme left wing. If the village was taken by Ney then the
main Russian line on the plateau could be rolled up by the French.
See this map, Ailles is in the left upper corner.
As soon as Marshal Victor arrived with Boyer de Rebeval's Young Guard Infantry Division,
Napoleon ordered him to march round the northern slopes beyond the farm of Hurtebise, and
to prolong the left of Ney's troops, who had already attempted a second assault. "As soon as
Napoleon perceived that Ney's skirmishers had gained the crest of the plateau on the Russian
left, he ordered Victor to renew his attack along the Route des Dames, and the French infantry
pressed forward with such ardour that they captured one of the Russian batteries.
"Their succes was only momentary, however, for Vorontzov launched a fierce
counterstroke and a couple of Russian regiments, dashing forward with irresistible
gallantry, recaptured the guns and drove back their opponents at the point of
bayonet." ( Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814" p 129) Actually the counterattack
was made by battalion of 19th Jagers and the Hivran Infantry Regiment.
"The Russian garrison of the farm were in danger of being cut off, and retired to the main
plateau, after having set fire to the buildings. The thick smoke from the burning barns
allowed Boyer de Rebeval's division to deploy without much loss, and to reach the edge of
the plateau. The neck being now clear, Napoleon ordered forward 4 batteries which took post
on Boyer's left. The artillery opened fire, but the gunners were untrained, and suffered heavily
from the fire of the better-served Russian guns." (Houssaye - "Napoleon and the campaign of
1814" p 150)
Mikhailovski-Danilevski claims that Vorontzov ordered Krassovski's jagers to retire from the
Heurtebise wood to the main position, and the artillery to be in readiness. To strengthen the
left wing, and prevent it from being turned, he ordered thither the 2nd Jagers, one battalion of
which descended into the ravine. Two squadrons of Pavlograd Hussars were likewise sent
from the right flank to the left, in order to cover the guns in battery which were much in
advance of the position. Noticing the French infantry massing near the northern slope,
Vorontzov drew back his left wing.
Vorontzov now waited, for the enemy, who quickly occupied the wood at Heurtbise, and on
coming out of it, advanced to the plateau in close columns of infantry and cavalry with
artillery.
During the
advance Marshal
Victor was
wounded in the
thigh and the
command
devolved on Boyer
de Rebeval. His infantrymen found themselves in the open and under heavy artillery fire. The
young conscripts were shaken. They did not dare either to advance or to retire. A retirement
to the shelter of the wood would have involved a risk of panic. "The young soldiers behaved
better than might have been expected, but they lost terribly; the 14th Light Infantry Regiment
lost 30 officers out of 33, and the regiment was mown down like a field of corn." (Houssaye -
"Napoleon and the campaign of 1814"
p 151)
~
French Cavalry in Action.
The dragoons captured 12 guns. The Russian infantry
however counterattacked and recaptured the pieces.
Then came Sparre's dragoon brigade of
dragoons whom Grouchy sent forward as
soon as they arrived. The dragoons came
from behind the corner of the Marion
Wood and charged the Russian guns on
the flank; the gunners were sabered and 12
pieces captured. The victory was however
short lived.
Two Russian infantry regiments
counterattacked with the bayonet and
drove them back on the battery which they had just captured and were forced to abandon the
guns. Grouchy was then wounded. The dragoons remained inactive under the Russian canister fire
until two infantry regiments attacked them. The dragoons fled and carried back with them Boyer's
infantrymen. "The panick spread to Ney's young soldiers, and they broke and fled, in spite of the
exhortations of the marshal, who used the flat of his sword freely in his efforts to stem the rout."
Meanwhile at the extreme right of the Russian line, the 1st and 2nd Guard
Cavalry Divisions were climbing the slopes, moving in single file along steep
paths, and progress was slow. As soon as Nansouty formed up Colbert and
Exelmans' cavalry divisions, they charged and overthrew the Cossacks and
Pavlograd Hussars.
Then they charged the "2 Russian battalions, who were driven back almost to
Paissy; men and horses were mingled in an inextricable disorder and would
have been driven into a precipitous ravine had not one of the reserve batteries
suddenly opened fire and checked the advance of the French." (Houssaye -
Then the Russian artillery and cavalry drove back Nansouty's cavalry. The "... 6 battalions of
infantry, who had endeavoured to scale the precipitous slope above the village, had been beaten
back with heavy loss." (- Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814" p 128)
Nansouty's cavalry of the Imperial Guard
~
Amid the cheers of the French army,
72 guns opened fire on the Russians.
La Ferriere's Guard Cavalry Division, Charpentier's Guard Infantry Division, and the reserve
artillery arrived at 1 pm. At the same time Napoleon himself arrived in the line of the battle.
La Ferriere's men crossed the neck of Hurtebise at a gallop and threw themselves against the
centre of the Russian line. The greencoats however held their ground and the attackers were
driven back.
Charpentier's men came in line with Boyer's shattered battalions, which were reforming in
front of the Marion Wood. The French by now had formed line across the plateau parallel to
the Russians, who had their right threatened by Nansouty's cavalry, and their left by Boyer's
Spanish veterans who were attacking the village of Ailles and the edge of plateau overlooking
it.
Amid the cheers of the army, 72
guns of the Guard and reserve
artillery passed through the
intervals between brigades; and
came quickly into action in front of
the infantry and opened heavy fire
on the Russians.
"The Russians now stood in urgent
need of a diversion on the part of
Wintzingerode's troops. If the
Russian cavalry had arrived they
would have been reported by the
Polish Lancers who were in
observation on the Laon Road,
and they would have been
opposed by Roussel's 2nd Brigade,
in occupation of Corbeny, and by
Arrighi's (cavalry) division and Marmont and Mortier's corps, which were by this time
between Berry-au-Bac and Craonne." (Houssaye - "Napoleon and the campaign of 1814" p 152)
At 3 PM arrived Christiani's and Poret de Morvan's guard infantry divisions.
~
Map of battle of Craonne, 1814.
Napoleon soon will be joined by Christiani's 2nd Old Guard Infantry Division,
Poret de Morvan's 9th Young Guard Infantry Division and few units of cavalry.
On Allies side will arrive Sacken's cavalry (Vasilchikov's Cavalry Corps).
Blucher sent orders to the Russians to retire.
.
Blucher decided to concrentrate his army at Laon and sent orders
to Sacken to retire. This order reached Sacken (see picture -->) at
1:30 PM, and he sent it on to Vorontzov at Craonne. Vorontzov
replied Sacken that, "as he had already held out for 5 hours, he felt
confident of being able to stand his ground till nightfall, and this
would involve less loss than a retreat across the open plateau
without the aid of cavalry. Sacken sent him peremptory orders to retire and
added that he would send forward his 4000 cavalry to cover the movement." (Houssaye -
This is what Mikhailovski-Danilevski has to say about it. "Count Vorontzov had already
received two orders from Sacken to retire, if the enemy should press upon him with
overpowering forces; but he did not stir, being in hourly expectation that Wintzingerode
would fall upon Napoleon's rear. Besides, he resolved still to hold out, not merely because he
confidently relied on the bravery of his troops, but being exposed to such severe attacks,
while he had only one regiment of regular cavalry, it was easier for him to repulse them
where he was, than during a retreat. At length Sacken sent a third order, commanding him to
retire without loss of time, as by a change of plan the whole army, his corps included, had
been ordered to Laon. He promised, at the same time, to send cavalry to the Count's aid."
At 2 PM Count Vorontzov having made his regiments form in squares, ordered the retreat of
the infantry to begin in ordinary time, and by alternate squares, and the artillery to follow. All
the dismounted cannon, 22 in number, with the gun-carriages, were carried off to the rear, as
well as the wounded whom it was possible to remove. Vorontzov often rode up to the
squares, and allowing the French to come within 50 paces, give the word of command to fire.
His coolness inspired both officers and men with the confidence so necessary in critical
moments.
Russian infantry in combat
~
French aggressive pursuit.
"The French [cavalry] charged with such fury that it seemed that nothing
could withstand their onlaught, but when the smoke cleared away,
the hostile [infantry] squares were still unshaken."
- Frederick William Maycock
The Russian retreat is described in more detail by Frederick William Maycock. He writes:
"As soon as Napoleon saw the Russians
preparing to move off, he hurried
forward his guns and launched
Nanousty's cavalry against the hostile
squares.
The French charged with such fury that
it seemed that nothing could withstand
their onlaught, but when the smoke
cleared away, the hostile squares were
still unshaken, while the few Russian
squadrons charged gallantly to cover
their comrades' retreat."
Vorontzov, in spite of the deadly fire of
the French artillery and repeated charges of Guard Cavalry, commenced his retreat in
admirable order. The infantry moved without a hurry and formed in squares, carrying off
their dismounted guns and some of their wounded. The casualties however were very heavy,
especially in the line infantry. The most damage was done not by the French infantry and
cavalry, but by the artillery of the Imperial Guard.
The Hirvan Infantry
Regiment found
itself isolated and
surrounded by the
French cavalry.
Their cartridges
being exhausted, the
men, with drums
beating, forced their
way three times with the cold iron, through the (French) dragoons who were striving to cut
them off. The infantrymen brought with them not only their wounded colonel, but also the
wounded and dead officers !
Vorontzov fell back to the high ground in front of Cerny, a 1.5 mile from its first position. At
this position Vorontzov put 24 guns in line and for some time kept the French in check.
Then the French cavalry overpowered the few Russian
squadrons and threatened Vorontzov's flank. In that
moment General-Lieutenant Sacken arrived with
Vasilchikov's cavalry (Ushakov's dragoons and Lanskoi's
hussars) and joined Vorontzov.
Mikhailovski-Danilevskii writes: "At this moment
Vasilchikov came up with Lanskoi's Hussar Division and
Ushakov's Dragoon Division. Their appearance in the action was the
more necessary, that the field was becoming wider, and allowed the
enemy's cavalry to turn our flanks. Vasilchikov, Lanskoi, and Ushakov,
by continually renewed attacks, gave aid to the infantry, several of the
cavalry regiments charging 8 times."
(By the way, few weeks earlier Vasilchikov's cavalry's performance at La
Rothiere was admirable. The dragoons captured 24 pieces of the Old
Guard Horse Artillery. In 1814 after Allies' defeat at Montmirail Vasilchikov's hussars and
dragoons covered their retreat and counter-attacked "with the greatest impetuosity."
On the French side distinguished himeslf Colonel Testot-Ferry of 1st Guard Eclaireurs. He
was made a baron by Napoleon on the field of battle. (Testot-Ferry was taken prisoner two
weeks later at Arcis-sur-Aube but succeeded in escaping and rejoined his regiment at Sens.)
Thanks to the countercharges made by Vasilchikov's hussars, the Russian infantry and
artillery was able to continue the retirement in good order, but they tried in vain to make a
fresh stand at Cerny.
"In the meantime, Sacken
had ordered General
Nikitin to draw out the
whole artillery, and after
allowing the troops to
pass, to open his fire. ... In
the first line of the battery
were placed 36 light, and
in the second, at the
distance of 60 paces, 28
heavy guns, opposite to
the intervals in the first
line. When everything
was ready, Sacken
ordered the regiments, as
they marched past the
guns, to remain on the
flanks of the batteries. As soon as they came in line with the artillery, the cannonade opened;
the first line firing by alternate guns with roundshot and grape (canister), the second firing in
like manner with roundshot and grenades.
The carnage among the French was now horrible, yet they continued to advance in close
columns along the narrow ridge. The thicker they pressed on, the greater was the havoc; till at
length the slaughter was such that their advance was impeded by vast heaps of the dead and
dying. ... The cannonade lasted not more than 20 minutes, the enemy having at length desisted
from his attacks: this was about 5 PM in the afternoon. Vorontzov now sent a part of his corps
to Chevregny, and the rest to Laon, where the whole Army of Silesia had been ordered to
concentrate." (Mikhailovski-Danilevskii - "History of the Campaign in France")
Vorontzov drew off his heroic infantry and artillery and retired unmolested, covered by
Sacken's cavalry. The French were too exhausted to follow them vigorously. So ended one of
the most desperately contested battles in which Napoleon had ever taken part. The Emperor
spent the night in Braye, where Blucher had spent the night before.
Artillery of Napoleon's Old Guard
- the big punisher.
~
Darkness put an end to the fighting.
Casualties. The victors and the defeated.
Soon darkness put an end to the fighting.
Various authors however disagree on the results of the battle and on casualties.
According to Houssaye, neither guns nor prisoners were captured and
"one quarter of the men engaged were killed or wounded; the Russians
lost 5000, the French 5400 men, and among the wounded were Victor,
Grouchy, and 7 other generals. Napoleon's correspondence agrees with the
Moniteur in describing the battle of Craonne as a great victory, in which
the French defeated the whole Russian army, capturing guns and
prisoners, and placing many men hors de combat, with a loss of only 800.
The majority of French historians, among others Thiers, say that Napoleon with 30.000 men
captured a formidable position defended by an army of 50.000.
The Russian and German historians, on the other hand, give a very different account, and
describe the battle as merely a rear-guard action, in which Vorontzov with 15.000 held at bay
twice that number of the enemy, and only abandoned his position on Blucher's express orders.
They describe March 7 as being a most glorious day for the Russian arms and the battle as
being a 'notable victory.' To describe the battle as a notable victory is ludicrous." (Houssaye -
So who won at Craonne ? Aaccording to French authors won Napoleon. Houssaye writes:
"When Vorontzov received the order to retreat he had lost very little ground. For this reason
the Russian general thought himself justified in claiming that he retired because he was
ordered to and not because the French forced him to do so. When we remember the different
events of the battle, however, there is no doubt that Vorontzov would anyhow have been
forced to retreat."
Russian author Mikhailovski-Danilevski has different opinion. He
writes : "He (Vorontzov) left in the hands of the French neither
prisoners nor guns, neither gun-carriage nor ammunition wagon:
the enemy's only trophies were the dead bodies of our countrymen.
Like Waterloo, Craonne might have proved the last day of
Napoleon's career, if during the time he was straining every effort
to annihilate the Russians on the plateau, by bringing all his troops
into action, Generals Wintzingerode, Kleist and Langeron had
charged the French rear as had been ordered. Success would have
been certain, especially if Blucher, instead of disseminating his forces, had marched to that
point with all his corps, and had reached the ground in proper time.
This was not done, yet nevertheless, the troops appointed to withstand Napoleon, gloriously
discharged their duty. Their valour and zeal, however, were not fully appreciated; for it was
not thought fit at the time, to publish the real causes of the failure of the circuitous movement
on the enemy's flank and rear, the battle of Craonne, so far being painted in its true colors,
was represented merely as an ordinary, though obstinate affair of the rear guard." ...
"The French acknowledged the loss of 8,000 men killed and wounded. In the number of the
latter were 8 generals, among whom were Grouchy and Marshal Victor. Our loss amounted to
6,000. The Marioupol Hussar Regiment, in the course of 3 hours, lost 22 officers. Most of the
generals were wounded, and 2 of them died of their wounds; the latter were Lanskoi and
Ushakov who were reckoned among the most distinguished leaders of our cavalry. ... Lanskoi
would not consent to the amputation of his leg, which had been shot through with a bullet ...
Ushakov, on being mortally wounded, called out to his regiment [Courland Dragoons]: "Halt,
Courlanders !" and breathed his last. While speaking of those who laid down their lives at
Craonne, can we pass unnoticed the young and accomplished Count Stroganov who was
struck by a cannonball." (Mikhailovski-Danilevskii)
British author Frederick William Orby Maycock admires the Russians and
thinks that Blucher was close to defeating Napoleon. He writes: "So ended
one of the most desperately contested battles in which Napoleon had ever
taken part; the Russians were forced from their formidable position, but the
victory was a barren one, for they left not a man nor a gun behind them and
the French were much too shaken to pursue. ...
Out of 20,000 men actually under fire, the Russians lost 5,000, while the
French brought just over 30,000 men into the field of battle, and lost 8,000; such an appaling
butcher's bill speaks volumes for the reckless courage with which both sides had fought.
Though the action was described in the [French] bulletins as a decisive victory, Napoleon was
in reality greatly chagrined by the useless slaughter, more especially as the casualties among
the Guard had been unusually heavy, and it was impossible to replace the losses among his
veteran troops.
Vorontzov had fought the action with remarkable skill and determination, while the
steadiness and dogged courage of his heroic infantry had been beyond all praise. Blucher had
been within an ace of inflicting a crushing defeat on his great opponent, for had not the
turning movement miscarried, principally owing to Wintzingerode's incapacity, coupled with
faulty staff work ..."
Commemoration de la Bataille de Craonne, 7 Mars 1814
Ce Monument a ete erige par le Comite de Tourisme
ET LUNION DES ST. DE LAISNE et inaugure le 30 Juin 1974
Par M. Michel Poniatowski, Ministre d'Etat, Ministre de L'Interieur

View of the Plateau of Craonne.
.
Sources and Links.
Houssaye - "Napoleon and the campaign of 1814" publ. in 1914 in London
Digby Smith - "Napoleonic Wars Data Book"
Plotho - "Der Krieg in Deutschland und Frankreich in den Jahren 1813 und 1814, Teil 3"
Mffling - "Zur Kriegsgeschichte der Jahre 1813 und 1814"
Battle of Paris 1814 : Bataille : Schlacht
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Paris_1814.htm[2012-05-21 12:45:48]
Battle of Paris, 1814.
No hostile army had
reached Paris for 400 Years.
Military operations.
Allies troops in France.
Napoleon's hope and Allies' greatest fear.
Allies march on Paris.
"It's a beautiful chess move !" >
"Bury my heart at Fere Champenoise" >
Napoleon unable to reach Paris. >
Barbarians at the gates. >
Battle of Paris, 30-31 March.
The city, the defenders, and the fortifications. >
Deployment of French troops. >
"To arms ! To arms!" >
The first attacks. >
Map. >
The battle rages on. >
Fight for Montmartre Heights. >
Capitulation. "Joseph is an ass..." >
Allies enter the city.
The Parisians. >
The Cossacks. >
The French Royalists and the English. >
Napoleon's abdication.
Meeting in London.
"When the eagle was silent,
the parrots began to jabber."
.
.
.
.
Langeron's Russian infantry storming Montmartre Heights.
Battle of Paris 1814. Picture by Oleg Parkhaiev, Russia.
Military operations.
From the beginning of this campaign Napoleon had
"put on his Italian boots" and disconcerted the Allies
by the rapidity of his maneuvers.
From the beginning of this campaign Napoleon had "put on his Italian boots" and
disconcerted the Allies by the rapidity of his maneuvers. Blucher was badly
beaten at Champaubert, Montmirail, Chateau-Thierry and Vauchamps. Loraine
Petre writes, "In the 4 days' fighting at Champaubert, Montmirail, Chateau-
Thierry, and Vauchamps, Blucher's army of about 56,000 men had lost over
16,000 ... Napoleon's loss had been only about 4,000." (Petre - "Napoleon at bay,
1814" p 71, publ. in London 1977)
The younger but slower Schwarzenberg was caught at Montereau and defeated.
The King of Prussia and Emperor of Austria had been quickly demoralized by
the defeats and talked about general retreat but the Tsar was more determined
than ever. He imposed his will on Schwarzenberg and the wavering monarchs.
Allies' armies were again advancing against Napoleon. Napoleon defeated the
Russians at Craonne but his casualties were very heavy. At Laon he was unable
to dislodge the Prussians and Russians. The French had taken Reims, but they
had lost Soissons. The surrender of Soissons compromised Napoleon's strategic
plan. To contain Blucher's army, Napoleon left Marmont. He had to hold the
Aisne River and to fight a deleying action. The Emperor then immediately
marched against Schwarzenberg.
Napoleon's approach sent the Allied headquarters into mental convulsions.
Schwarzenberg reportedly issued 3 contradictory orders on the 16th alone. Then
he ordered his army to face Macdonald. Confused and frightened Schwarzenberg
collapsed with an attack of gout before ordering a general retreat.
Napoleon's approach sent the Allied headquarters into mental convulsions.
Schwarzenberg reportedly issued 3 contradictory orders on the 16th alone.
Then he ordered his army to face Macdonald. Confused and frightened the
generalissimo collapsed with an attack of gout before ordering a general retreat.
~
Allies troops in France.
From the beginning of this campaign Napoleon had
"put on his Italian boots" and disconcerted the Allies
by the rapidity of his maneuvers.
The Allies made
preparations to
ensure a flow of
provisions and
supplies, and
Great Britain
continued to
provide their
amies with
generous
subsidies. But
war is war and
quite often the
soldiers went
hungry. Disease
and hunger as well as bullets claimed the lives of thousands of Russian, Austrian
and Prussian soldiers.
Heinrich Steffens of the Prussian army writes, "A sack of potatoes, which we
could roast in haste by a bivouac fire, was considered a great treasure. I and my
friends for long together had nothing else than some slices of bacon, but a frying-
pan; we feasted delicately and thankfully that day, yet sparingly, having prudent
care for the future hour of need. Often as we thus formed a circle round the fire,
toasting our bacon, V.Raumer and I used to recur to times of home and comfort,
and think how shocked our wives would be were they to see how we then fared
...
In March, when Napoleon was in our rear and all communication was nearly cut
off, our want became greater, and was felt severely amongst the men; the
discipline began at the same time to fail; there was plunder everywhere; houses
were sacked, and the inhabitants fled; plundering and scenes of violence were not
always exercised only on the enemy.
I remember once resting for the night as a village which had been deserted ... Our
party, servants and all, consisted of about 14 or 15 men. As we sat around the
hearth in the large kitchen, by a bright fire, the pot with water and salt all ready
for the turkey to boil all night, that we might enjoy a rich breakfast in the
morning, a huge party of Russians burst violently in: we tried to persuade them
to desist from molesting us, but, though they saw that we were Prussian officers,
they attacked us fiercely.
We were discreet enough not to meet them with our drawn swords, and I had
long observed that my arm was too weak to make any impression on a Russian
shoulder; I struck those who came upon me, therefore, crossways on the face. We
succeeded in driving them away; but we were assailed on several other
occassions, and if the war had lasted much longer it was too plainly to be seen
how such outrages would have increased. ...
Some of the chateaux, with the ruined remains of elegance and luxury, were a
sad spectacle. We took possession of one where the care to render everything
useless was very striking, even the feather-beds had been cut open, and the
rooms were filled with down and feathers: we entered another jus as Gen.Brune's
Russians were breaking into the wine-cellars; instead of tapping the large wine-
butts, they staved them in, and the soldiers actually waded through a sea of wine
to drink it as it flowed from the casks." (Steffens - "Adventures on the road to Paris
during the campaign of 1813-14")
Shortage of food and shelter led to the decline of order and discipline in the
ranks.
Lefebvre de Behaine writes, "Officers and soldiers (of Bavarian Corps) demanded
to pillage, but Wrede limited himself to authorizing exorbitant requisitions and
made his men respect the honor and the lives of the inhabitants, at least under his
eyes ebcause in the countryside the Germans gave a lesson in their bestial
passions ... The unfortunate surrounding villages were the theater of
indescribable scenes: everything was stolen, befouled, smashed; all females: the
elderly women, barely nubile girls or some at an even more tender age, suffered
outrages of violance that brought about the death of several."
"The Cossacks also took 15 of the leading men of the town (Montmirail), stripped
them naked and gave them 50 lashes with the knout. There then followed the
scenes of violence, outrage, and loot which invariably accompanied the
occupation of a town by the invaders.
At Sens the pillage lasted for 9 days, from February 11 to 20, and during the
whole of this time the town was in possession of a raging mob who broke into all
the houses and churches, bent on loot and outrage. A supreme touch of irony
was added by the Hereditary Prince of Wurtemberg, a well-known dandy, who
as he left this town of Sens, where he had presided over the pillaging, as a last act
requisitioned 24 pairs of white gloves."
The local traditions say that the Prussians committed more atrocities than the
Cossacks and Cossacks more than Wurttembergers and Bavarians. The civilians
used to say that war is an unpleasant thing, "especially when 50,000 Cossacks
and Bashkirs take part in it."
The British in southern France, and the Austrians behaved far better than the
others.
Allies' infantry officer drinking beer.
" ... everything was stolen, befouled, smashed;
. . . . . the elderly women, barely nubile girls
or some at an even more tender age , suffered
outrages of violance ..." - Lefebvre de Behaine
~
Napoleon's hope and Allies' greatest fear.
France did not rise in mass against the invaders
as did the Spaniards in 1809-14, or the Russian
people against the French in 1812.
Napoleon's hope and, conversely, the Allies' greatest fear was that an invasion
would spark a popular uprising. Napoleon writes, "The devastation of the
Cossacks will arm the enhabitants and double our forces. ... If the nation supports
me, the enemy will march to his loss. If fortune betrays me, my part is over, I
cannot maintain the throne."
The Allies had to prevent a popular insurrection from erupting in the French
countryside. Most of them maintained strict discipline in their units to prevent
Napoleon from exploiting the issue of "badly misbehaving foreign troops". The
Allies were ready to fight for the "hearts and minds" of French people.
From the commander in chief of the Allied armies, Schwarzenberg, declaration:
"Victory has led the Allies to your frontier; they will cross it.
We do not make war on France, but we reject the yoke that your government
forced upon our countries, which have the same right to independence and
happiness as yours. Magistrates, proprietors, farmers, remain at easy:
the maintenance of public law and order, the respect for private property,
and the most severe discipline will mark the passage of the Allied armies."
Some Allies however announced that they don't really care for the French.
Gneisenau writes that "we (Prussians) must repay the visits of the French to our
cities with visits to theirs. If this does not happen, revenge and triumph are
incomplete."
On 3 January the French government issued a proclamation:
Our territory is threatened ! It is in great danger !
Your homes may soon fall prey to devastation, pillage,
to the fires already set on French territory. You know
the fiercesness of these irregular, unruly Cossacks.
Left on their own without any means to subsist, they
will commit all kinds of depredations. ...
You have regular troops to defend you; several cohorts of
National Guard also will share the glory; but after having
furnished your contingent for both of these arms, your own
interest demands that you arm as well, that you rise up."
France did not rise in mass against the invaders as did the Spaniards in 1809-
1814, or the Russian people against the French in 1812. Baron de Marbot explains
why, "There are those who have expressed surprise that France did not rise in
mass, as in 1792, to repel the invader, or did not follow the Spanish in forming, in
each province, a centre of national defence. The reason is that the enthusiasm
which had improvised the armies of 1792 had been exhausted by 25 years of war,
and the Emperor's over-use of conscription, so that in most of the departments
there remained only old men and children."
Many people thought it monstrous that the Emperor, after losing two huge
armies in successive disasters (Invasion of Russia and Leipzig Campaign) ,
should presume to form another. Georges Lefebvre writes, "In the course of a few
months, Napoleon became downright unpopular. The nation wanted peace, and
was rapidly coming to the conclusion that its master did not want to give it. With
a running commentary from the royalists, the allied proclamation was having its
effect.
There was no thought of preferring the Bourbons to Napoleon, for they
symbolised the Ancien Rgime; but the French were weary and discouraged, and
the began to offer passive resistance- the only right he had left them. The
malcontents, who had been growing in number since 1812, were now beyond
computation. People stopped paying taxes; requisition orders were not obeyed.
The population looked on the invasion and took no action, at any rate, as long as
the allies managed to hold their troops in check; and in the south the English
were quite well received, for they could be relied upon to pay their way."
The disasters of the Berezina Crossing (1812) and of Leipzig (1813), and the
march of the Allied armies towards the frontiers, had awakened France from her
dreams of glory in the same way that the massacres of the Terror and the
disorders of the Directory had scattered her visions of liberty. "After 25 years of
revolution and war France longed for rest ..." (Houssaye - "Napoleon and the
campaign of 1814")
"After 25 years of revolution and war
France longed for rest." - Houssaye
~
Allies march on Paris.
The Russians and Prussians marched on the Paris Road and
made "the air resound with their trumpets and war songs."
Blucher was disposed to make a severe retaliation upon Paris
for the calamities that Prussia had suffered from France.
Meanwhile Napoleon's own minister Talleyrand sent a secret letter to the Allies
describing how the popular sentiment in Paris was running strongly against Napoleon
and that the city would joyfully open its gates to the Russians, Prussians and
Austrians as soon as they showed themselves on the horizon. (Talleyrand was a
prototype of the witty, cynical diplomat. His corruption was undeniable, and his
pliability enabled him to hold power under the ancien rgime, the Revolution,
Napoleon, the Restoration, and the July Monarchy.)
On March 20th, Tsar Alexander rode to Arcis-sur-Aube where, it was said, Napoleon
was going to try his last chance. He took position on a hill and watched the battle
raging in front of his eyes. Due to Schwarzenberg's half-measures the Allies' army was
unable to win despite heavily outnumbering the French.
On the 23rd the Allies captured a despatch from Napoleon's Minister if Police (Savary)
to the Emperor. The minister informed that the treaury, magazines, and arsenals were
empty, and that the populace was clamouring for peace.
Schwarzenberg still could not make up his mind to advance on Paris.
The Tzar and few others however realized that Paris, not Napoleon, should now be
objective. He sent for Barclay de Tolly, Toll and Diebitsch. Loraine Petre writes,
"Barclay's opinion was taken first; he was all for following Napoleon. Diebitsch, really
in favour of Paris, but not liking to run counter to his chief [Barclay], proposed sending
40,000 or 50,000 men to Paris and following Napoleon with the rest. Toll, having no
ties to Barclay, said plainly that he would like to send only 10,000 cavalry against
Napoleon to mask the movement of the rest of the united armies on Paris.
That fitted in precisely with Tzar's views, which he had hitherto kept to himself. To
Diebitsch's remark that the march on Paris implied a restoration of the Bourbons, the
Tzar replied shortly, 'There is no question of the Bourbons; it is a question of
overturning Napoleon."
"I shall not make peace as long
as Napoleon is on the throne."
- Tzar Alexander
.
"It's a Beautiful Chess Move !"
- Napoleon on Allies' maneuver.
Tsar Alexander rode out to meet the King of Prussia and Schwarzenberg. He came
upon them on the road, dismounted, had a map spread out on the ground, and
explained the course of the action he favored. The King, as usual, agred with the Tzar,
and Schwarzenberg had no option but to accept the proposal.
Allies' army would discontinue the pursuit of Napoleon and march on
Paris by the most direct road. Only Wintzingerode (see picture) with
7,500-10,000 cavalry and 8 horse batteries would follow the emperor
and use every effort to mislead Napoleon and make him believe that the
Allied army was still following him. On Wintzingerode's right flank
would advance a large body of Cossacks.
Tsar's stratagem was successful.
Having dispersed the Wintzingerode' cavalry (the Allies lost at least 1500 men and 9
guns) Napoleon was astonished to learn from intercepted dispatches that it was not
the advance guard of the main army, as he had imagined, but a divisionary
detachment sent to keep him amused while the Russians and Prussians swooped
down upon Paris. Napoleon was impressed: "It's a beautiful chess move ! ... I should
never have thought a general of the coalition was capable of it." The Allied armies
were nearing Paris and the roads were full of refugees.
.
Bury my heart at Fere Champenoise.
The gallant stand of French infantry
surrounded on all sides by the enemy.
Pacthod called upon his young troops
to fight to the last.
At daybreak on the 25th March, the Allied army broke up from its
bivouacs round Vitry and commenced its march on Paris. Large portion
of the Allied cavalry (Russian heavies and Guards) were under Prince
Gollitizn. The weather was dry and the roads had improved
considerably, while the men were in the highest spirits.
Marshal Marmont's patrols encountered the mass of the Allied cavalry
and fell back. Marshal Mortier's cavalry was already engaged with Blucher's cavalry
but managed extricate themselves. Marmont and Mortier with 20,000 men and 80 guns
fell back towards Fere Champenoise. They were agressively pursued by Allies' cavalry.
The French infantry was retiring in squares with admirable steadiness but the cavalry
was routed by Allies cavalry. A rainstorm rendered the majority of their muskets
useless and the infantry poured through Fere Champenoise in confusion. The French
cuirassiers and dragoons temporarily checked the pursuit and Marmont seized the
opportunity to reform his men beyond the village.
Meanwhile a French infantry division under Pacthod, escorting a large convoy of guns
and supplies, had fallen in with Blucher's cavalry. Pacthod formed his infantry into
squares and had offered a gallant resistance. He eventually abandoned the convoy
and retreated across the fields with 16 guns. Then he fell in with the remainder of
Allied cavalry and called upon his troops to resist to the last.
Pacthod's and Amey's infantry divisions were made of infantry, artillery and the
second-rate National Guard. They had been escorting a convoy of 180 vehicles.
Approx. 5,500 Allied cavalry with horse battery caught up with them and attacked.
Pacthod abandoned the convoy but the enemy continued to attack.
The French withstood several charges and canister fire and kept advancing toward
Fere Champenoise. The Allies managed to get ahead of the marching squares, but then
one of the squares formed itself into a column and broke out. The French had to repeat
the process again further down the road. They finally met the Russian Guard cavalry
with the Tsar at their head.
Due to casualties the French had consolidated into 4 squares and managed a further 5
km for the loss of only one of their four squares. When they were finally surrounded,
some rushed for the protection of the marshes and some surrendered to the Russians.
According to Henry Houssaye, the Russians then became enraged at the enemy for
shooting at Tsar's messengers. Houssaye wrote that Tsar's Guard Cavalry rushed upon
the infantry and were sabering them down until Tsar Alexander intervened and with
some difficulties stopped the slaughter. Mihailovski-Danilevski mentions only the
final charge, breaking the last squares and taking prisoners. The Chevaliers Garde
Regiment was awarded with St. George trumpets for their exploits.
The gallant stand of Pacthod's division enabled Marmont to draw off almost
unmolested, but "nevertheless over 7,000 prisoners, 80 guns, 2000 wagons of
ammunition and an enormous convoy of stores fell into the hands of the Allies, at a
cost of under 2500 casualties." (Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814" p 180 )
Marshal Marmont had now only 12,500 men and 40 guns and was followed
relentlessly by Pahlen's cavalry.
The marshal retreated through Nangis towards Paris.
Battle of Fere Champenoise 1814. Picture by Oleg Parkhaiev, Russia.
Russian guard cuirassiers (right) vs French infantry squares (left).
Battle of Fere Champenoise 1814.
.
Napoleon unable to reach Paris.
On the 28th Napoleon received an urgent call for his presence in Paris, which the
Russians, Prussians, and Austrians were approaching. The Emperor had only a small
escort to go ahead and heard that the enemy was already in Meaux. He hurried at
lightning speed and reached Troyes that night. The Old Guard marched 43 miles that
day ! At Sens the Emperor heard that the Allies were before Paris.
He had reached a small post house, only 12 miles from Paris, and was awaiting a
change of horses, when Belliard arrived with cavalry. The general told Napoleon of
the convention about to be signed, under which Marshal Marmont was to evacuate the
capital.
Loraine Petre writes, "Still Napoleon insisted on making for Paris, and he actually gone
a mile or two on the road when he found himself in view of the Allies' campfires
barring the road." The Emperor halted and Flathaut was sent off to urge Marmont to
hold out. He also dispatched Caulaincourt to Paris with full powers to conclude peace,
in the vain hope that negotiations might still be possible.
The Old Guard marched 43 miles on the 29th !
.
Barbarians at the gates.
"On the 27th, the advanced guard of the Army of Silesia had driven a small French
force from Meaux and thrown some temporary bridges across the Marne, while the
next day the leading columns of the Allies commenced to cross to the right bank. The
Tzar took the opportunity of reviewing Sacken's corps, and personally thanked them
for the gallantry they had displayed since the commencement of the campaign. The
compliment was fully deserved, for of the 20,000 who had crossed the Rhine 3 months
previously, only some 6,000 remained with the colors.
The Tzar also issued the most stringent orders against pillage, and forbade the
requisition of supplies, except through the local authorities, who were to be promptly
settled with, and his humane instructions were, on the whole, faithfully carried out." (
Maycock - "The invasion of France, 1814" pp 183-184)
"The Allied armies of Silesia and Bohemia united at Meaux on 28 March and planned
their culminating advance on Paris. With only the weak forces of Mortier and
Marmont facing them - perhaps 23,000 men in all - and the defenses of the French
capital in a very incomplete state, the 107,000 Allies made predictable progress toward
their objective from the eastern and northern sides." (Chandler - "Dictionary of the
Napoleonic Wars" p 286)
Blucher, the Old Forward
Blucher's appearance at the head of his army
must have been curious; for refusing to wear
goggles to protect his eyes, he had annexed
a lady's green hat, which gave the necessary
shade.
The allied armies reached Paris, with some Russians shouting "Paris ! Paris !", breaking
their ranks and pressing forward to see the glorious city. The Allies brought 90,000-
100,000 troops (60,000 of them were Russians).
Although the overall command of the Allies armies had Schwarzenberg, the command
in the battle of Paris was given to Russian General Mikhail Bogdanovich Barclay de
Tolly. In 1809 he won a reputation by a daring march over the frozen Gulf of Bothnia,
which allowed him to surprise the Swedish forces and seize Ume.
During Napoleon's Invasion of Russia in 1812 Barclay assumed the command of the
the largest of the Russian armies facing Napoleon. He proposed the now famous tactic
of drawing the French deep into one's own territory. Barclay commanded the right
flank at Borodino (the bloodiest napoleonic battle) with great valor and presence of
mind.
After Field Marshal Kutuzov's death, he once again became commander-in-chief of the
Russian forces. Barclay took part in the invasion of France in 1814 and commanded the
taking of Paris, receiving the baton of a field marshal in reward.
Russian army advancing.
~
Battle of Paris, 30-31 March.
"Whether it be in the palaces or on the ruins,
Europe will sleep tonight at Paris." - Tzar
No hostile army had reached Paris for 400 years. The Enlish newspapers advocated the
burning of the city. Emperor Alexander however was dominated by one idea;
Napoleon had entered Moscow two years ago and now Alexander wished to enter
Paris riding at the head of his Imperial Guard. He was not filled with the dreams of
blood and fire which haunted the Prussians.
Prussian General Blucher was disposed to make a severe retaliation upon Paris for the
calamities that Prussia had suffered from the armies of France. Blowing up the
Parisian Bridge of Jena was said to be one of his contemplated acts. The discipline of
the troops was relaxed and looting began with Allies and French soldiers with torches
carrying off furniture to their bivouacs.
The Tzar spent the night at the Chateau of Bondy. The next day he met with General
Schwarzenberg, the commander-in-chief of allied forces in France, and with General
Barclay de Tolly, commanding the siege of Paris. Barclay had 60,000 Russians, 30,000
Prussians, and 10,000 Austrians and Wurttembergers.
Allies in front of Paris, 1814. Picture by Bogdan Villevalde, Russia
.
The city, the defenders,
and the fortifications.
Paris was the capital of France, one of the most populous and wealthiest nations in the
World, and the leading political, military and cultural power. The French language
was spoken in all European courts. Paris was a city of great wealth and also of great
poverty. Carriages raced through narrow streets preceded by mastiffs to clear the
rabble. There were smart shops selling beautiful dresses, but also many beggars
thankful for a sou. Street-lamps, suspended on ropes, which at dusk were lowered, lit
and raised again; they were called lanterns. The overall impression of the city was
created by its theaters, gardens, museums, Ecole Militaire, Champ-de-Mars,
monuments, churches, broad avenues and grand palaces.
Officer of French infantry, Jean-Baptiste Barres, writes, "And so I was in Paris, of
which I had dreamed for so many years ! It would be impossible to describe the
pleasure I felt when I entered the capital of France, that great and superb city, the
home of the fine arts, good manners, and good taste: all that I saw in those first
moments struck me with admiration and astonishment. During the few days that I
remained there I found it hard to define my feelings and fully to realize the
impressions made upon me by the sight of so many monuments, so many
masterpieces, and the immense activity that absorbed me. I was often in a sort of
stupor, as though dazed."
General Gneisenau of Prussian staff, writes, "In France, everything is centralized in the
capital, public opinion, literature, government, and resources. What is eminent in
France through birth, riches, quality, and talent dwells in the capital, and is not spread
throughout the land. Conquering the French capital, we will paralyze the nerve center
of the government and dictate the peace."
The situation in Paris in 1814 however was not to Napoleon's liking. Marbot writes,
"Sadly, loyalty to the Emperor was so much diminished in the Senate and the
legislative body, that there were leading members of these assemblies, such as
Tallyrand, the Duc de Dalberg, Laisn and others, who through secret emissaries
informed the allied sovereigns of the dissatisfaction among the upper-class Parisians
with Napoleon, and invited them to come and attack the capital."
Chaos reigned in the city and the wildest rumours were afloat. The Jacobins gave out
that the Allies intended to burn Paris and banish the inhabitants. They urged the
Parisians to resist to the last.
On March 28th the Empress (Napoleon's wife) left for Rambouillet with her son, the
ministers and the Council of State and the Queen Catherine of Westphalia.
On 24th January Napoleon wore the uniform of
the commander in chief of the National Guard,
and received the officers of the Paris garrison.
"It was his last night in Paris."
Little had been done towards fortyfying Paris. It is easy to understand that, though
Napoleon had talked of making the capital a strong point, it was with reluctance that
he viewed operations which would tend to make the people think that he, the
conqueror of Europe, had to look to earthworks for the defence of his capital. The
Emperor had ordered the Montmartre Height to be fortified but Generals Clark and
Hulin had neglected to do this.
It is only on March 29 that King Joseph and Minister Clark decided to gather 84
cannons on the heights of Belleville and Montmartre. The artillery pieces were
escorted by 1.200 men of the Imperial Guard and detachment of Elite Gendarmes.
Napoleon had charged his brother Joseph and 40,000-65,000 soldiers with the defence
of Paris, the city, walls and 56 gates. The discipline was much relaxed. Looting had
begun and one saw soldiers with torches carrying off furniture to their bivouacs.
French troops in Paris:
- Marshal Mortier's 8,000-15,000 Imperial Guard
- - They were mostly the Young Guard, with only few units of the Old Guard.
- Marshal Marmont's 15,000-20,000 regular troops
- Marshal Moncey's 15,000-30,000 National Guard
- field artillery and "40 fortress guns in fixed emplacements" (- Henri Lachoque)
- three Polish field batteries (18 guns)
- two Polish light cavalry units; the 3rd Guard Eclaireurs
- - and part of the superb 1st Old Guard Lancers.
Joseph Bonaparte
Napoleon had charged his brother
Joseph with the defence of Paris.
.
Deployment of French troops.
Joseph set up his command post on
the top of the Montmartre Heights.
The French troops were deployed as follow; Christiani's
infantry division defended the north of Paris, Belliard's
cavalry was deployed on the plain of Saint-Denis,
Ornano's cavalry stood to the left of Belliard, Compans'
infantry has holding area of Romainville, Curial's infantry
defended Les Maisonettes.
The division under General Michel (4,000 men) was
formed from the depots of infantry, of which a thousand,
arriving from the towns of the Departments of the West,
had been armed only that morning. This division covered
the hamlet of the Maisonnettes and kept the bridges of the
channel of Ourcq. In front of Clichy was General
Dautancourt with 320 cavalrymen drawn from all depots
of the Guard. The battalion of the sappers of the engineers
of the Imperial Guard occupied the heights of
Montmartre.
Marshal Mortier's Young Guard camped near their combat positions. Six batteries
under Major Pion des Loches were placed on the outskirts of La Villette and Pantin,
and near the Barriere du Combat. Two divisions occupied the positions in front of
Pantin. The weak Young Guard Division under Boyer de Reberval (2,000 men) was
made of two battalions of 11th Guard Voltigeurs, one battalion of Guard Flanqueurs-
Grenadiers, and a battalion of th Guard Tirailleurs. They held the Saint-Gervais
meadows and the banks of the plateau of Beauregard.
King Joseph set up his command post on the top of Montmartre Heights.
.
"To Arms !"
"We have not enough troops to resist
these large armies for long; but today,
more than ever before, we are fighting
for our honor." - Marshal Mortier
In early morning the French NCOs cried "To Arms !" and in about the same time the
young Polytechnicians arrived with General Evain at the Barrire du Trne. Innocently
unaware of war's grim realities, they wore a variety of uniforms and were largely
indifferent to the complexities of grand maneuvers. They would rely on patriotism
rather than tactical proficiency to vanquish the hated enemy.
The young men were joined by veteran gunners and 28 guns of the reserve. Frederick
Maycock writes, "At 2 AM on the morning of the 30th of March, the drums beat the
generale throughout Paris, and the National Guard, assembling hastily, marched to
their appointed positions. The Allied troops were also under arms before dawn, and
soon after daybreak, heavy columns were seen approaching on the road from Meaux."
Marshal Mortier took up his position very early before La Villette in a redoubt whose
heavy 24pdrs commanded the high road. The marshal said to his staff: "We have not
enough troops to resist these large armies for long; but today, more than ever before,
we are fighting for our honor." The men shared their commanders' determination, if
not their military experience. Some were in a state of glee and excitement under the
impression that they are to be led out to attack the 'northern barbarians' at the gates of
Paris.
Marshal Mortier
.
The first Allies attacks.
The Parisians had been watching
the fighting through telescopes.
At daybreak the fighting began and the Parisians had been watching the battle
through telescopes. The air shuddered with a massive roar, and the houses trembled.
Hissing projectiles ending with sonorous rumbles arced above the troops and
buildings. The grenades (shells) bursted into tens of splinters, and they were
dangerous within a radius of 10-30 meters.
Russian skirmishers had hard time to defeat the French skirmishers so the Astrahan
and Pskov Cuirassiers drew sabers and charged the enemy. The French were broken
and pursued as far as the batteries of Belleville. (Mikhailofsky-Danilefsky A. - History of
the Campaign in France London; Smith, Elder, and Co. Cornhill, 1839, p 356)
As the escalating roar of battle gave evidence that the Allies had begun their assault,
the Mamelukes and Guard Eclaireurs came sweeping toward the eastern suburbs,
driving Allies skirmishers before them.
Between 6 and 7 AM a sharp fight took place near Romainville, whose strategic
importance was considerable. The green-clad Russians dislodged the Young Guard.
The 11th Voltigeurs of Young Guard counterattacked.
Austrian artillery
.
Map of the battle of Paris.
Map of Battle of Paris, 1814.
.
The battle rages on.
When the Russian uhlans captured French battery,
they discovered that many of the gunners were
students of the cole Polytechnique.
Many troops fought in skirmish order or in small battle groups defending streets,
gardens and buildings. The pieces of Guard artillery placed in La Villette were firing
continuously. As the armed Parisians and the infantry waited along the fence-lined
edge of a garden in eastern La Villette, their commanding officers moved forward to
assess the situation. Moments later, they came back, and ordering the men to their feet.
Over the fence and forward through the garden they went, opening fire on the
advancing Allies.
To the north, Blcher's Prussians attacked in Aubervilliers.
But the Prussians didn't press too hard. To the southeast, Prince of Wurtemberg seized
Saint-Maur and Charenton. Four regiments of Russian cuirassiers had sallied out of
the village of Pantin but had found themselves handicapped by ditches and enclosures
and exposed to artillery fire. The French counterattacked and the cuirassiers withdrew
toward Pantin.
The artillery of Imperial Guard was firing continously and sent for more ammunition.
Then the Prussian Royal Guard arrived. The gunners hurled 2 guns into the canal and
abandoned other 2 as they retired.
Group of voltigeurs of the Young Guard was surrounded at St.Denis by the Russians
and Prussians. They ran out of ammunition, and the tirailleurs of Young Guard and 80
Polish cavalrymen led by the "hero of Somosierra" Kozietulski, tried to bring them
cartridges. Lafitte with the Guard Horse Chasseurs and Kozietulski with the Polish
Guard Lancers led several charges before Marshal Moncey ordered them to retreat.
At Parc des Buttes Chaumont, the National Guard and marine artillery fought a
desperate battle against the assaults of the Prussians, before surrendering. When the
(Russian) Chuguyev Uhlans captured French battery, they discovered that many of the
French gunners were students of the cole Polytechnique. Some of the prisoners were
crying while others were hostile and defiantly stood by their cannons.
King Joseph moved to Chateau of Brouillard.
La Barriere de Clichy, by Horace Vernet.
.
Fight for Montmartre Heights.
"The Old Guard has never
laid down its arms".
Generals Andrault Langeron (a French emigree in Russian service) and General
Alexander Rudsevich led the assault on French positions at Montmartre Heights. The
Russian drummers beat the rhythm. Some officers, riding out in front of the ranks
with their sabers unsheathed, barked out words of encouragement. The Russians
marched through the gardens and then up the slope and carried off the Montmartre
batteries.
The French fought with desperation, Marshal Marmont's uniform was torn and blood-
stained, his boots covered with mud and face black with powder. Marmont retired to
Telegraph Hill from where he personally led a series of counterattacks. Although
wounded and bleeding, he refused to surrender. Near Montmartre was fighting the
Polish 3rd Eclaireurs, superbly led by Dwernicki.
Lieutenant Viaux of 2nd Grenadiers of Old Guard collected 20 soldiers at Montmartre
and fought to the end. His body full of wounds was found under a tree, with saber in
his hand and surrounded by corpses of dead and wounded Prussians. Near
Courbevoie the invalids of Old Guard refused to surrender shouting "The Old Guard
has never laid down its arms". The invalides gave up the fight only after had been
granted a honorable terms. At Saint-Denis 400 voltigeurs of Young Guard led by
Major Savarin refused to surrender to the Russians.
Montmartre Heights in early 19th century.
Russian infantry storming the Montmartre Heights.
.
Capitulation.
Napoleon: "Joseph is an ass..."
There were as many as 18,000 killed and wounded. The doctors, military and civilian,
were on the go all day. Next day they had to tend the enemy as well. Everyone was
expecting Napoleon to come, and there were several false alarms.
Marshals Mortier, Moncey and Marmont fought until King Joseph Bonaparte
abandoned Paris desiring Marmont to conclude a convention for its surrender.
Napoleon was furious: "...they must hold out until night ! Everyone has lost his head.
Joseph is an ass ..." But the three marshals surrendered. Only one battalion of
voltigeurs of the Young Guard under Mjr. Savarin still held out for a while.
Tzar Alexander of Russia summoned Orlov and ordered him to accompany a French
officer and to go with him to King Joseph as an envoy to hasten the surrender. The
Russian monarch said to Orlov: "When God made me powerful and gave my armies
success He wished me to secure the peace of the world. If we can do so without
shedding any more blood we shall be glad, but if not, we shall carry on the fight to the
end ... Whether it be in the palaces or on the ruins, Europe will sleep tonight at Paris."
Orlov had shown himself to be a sincere friend of France but the Prussian officer
Muffling (He was with Wellington at Waterloo) in his impatience was already asking
Alexander whether Paris should not be set on fire (According to French author
l'Houssaye).
Marshal Marmont took Orlov to his house while the Parisians were most anxious to
learn the terms of capitulation. Marmont and Mortier learned that Alexander w ished
to spare the Parisians. The capitulation was signed at Marmont's house at 2 a.m.
Next day Marmont's troops marched out of the capital toward Essones and Mortier's
to Mennecy. The Polish 3rd Guard Eclaireurs refused to follow Marmont's troops and
left Paris hoping to join Napoleon in Fountainbleu.
By this time Talleyrand had presented the keys of Paris to the Tzar.
Marshal Marmont
The capitulation of Paris
was signed at his house.
~
Allies enter the city.
A huge bonfire was lighted in the court of Invalides
and hundreds of standards captured from the Allies
by French soldiers "were given to the flames."
General Sacken became the new Governor of Paris.
Parisian deputation went to the Tzar and presented the capitulation of the city.
The Allies made feverish preparations to enter Paris, "the modern Babylon." They
were brushing their uniforms, polishing their buttons, and waxing their boots.
They entered the city through the Pantin Gate. he French National Guard was
lined up on either side of the way, making way for the men they had been
fighting the day before. (The French regular troops left Paris during the night -
according to the terms of armistice. Only the National Guard was allowed to
stay.)
Parisians had climbed up into trees, on top of carriages and rooftops, and heads
appeared at every window. Napoleon was in Fontainebleau where - as
Mihailovski-Danilevski wrote - "he remained a silent witness of the triumph of
Alexander in Paris."
Heinrich Steffens writes, "We waited till the generals and officers, in their best
array, together with the troops, had left the suburb. We then rode by a rough and
steep road down into the Faubourg Montmartre. The streets were empty; we
only saw a few persons who were hastening forward, and we thought it wise to
follow the direction they took. We thus reached the Boulevard at the moment
when the Tzar and the King were passing in slow and magnificent procession
along the handsome row of buildings. Immense crowds thronged the streets
which led to the Boulevard; but the military had taken care to preserve the line of
procession perfectly free for the conquerors.
Every window was filled with spectators shouting forth acclamations, the ladies
in their gayest dresses; while handkerechiefs waved from the windows, and a
shower of white lilies fell from every story upon the victoriuous enemy. Every
well-dressed man in the streets wore a white cockade (symbol of Bourbons). One
would have taken the scene for the triumphant entrance of a French army which
had annihilated a dangerous and detested foe. Yet at that very moment the hero
who had subdued the whole continent of Europoe, and who had made France
the ruler of the nations, surrounded but by a few faithful troops, and deserted by
his people, was sinking to destruction. I confess that in that moment the Parisians
were contemptible in my sight.
Napoleon had not been so received in Germany. Berlin had seen him enter with a
silent but bitter rage."
Allies enter Paris in 1814.
The Tzar appeared in the city being greeted
in a way "no pen is able to describe."
The Tzar appeared in Paris being greeted in a way "no pen is able to describe."
The Russian monarch rode on grey thoroughbred named Eclipse (gift of
Napoleon), on his one side was King of Prussia, and on his other side
Schwarzenberg representing the Emperor of Austria. Approx. 1000 Russian,
Austrian, Prussian, Bavarian, Wirtembergian, Baden and British officers followed
the monarchs. According to Mihailovski-Danilevski the order in which the Allies
entered Paris was as follow:
Prussian Guard Cavalry
Russian Guard Light Cavalry
Austrian grenadiers
Russian grenadiers
Russian, Baden and Prussian Guard Infantry
And finally, in the tail rode the long lines of booted to their knees and "full of
vigor" Russian 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Cuirassier Division with horse artillery to create
the climax of this parade march.
Almost 400 guns passed by making an earsplitting din and raising a murmur of
amazement.
Alexander halted, some ladies climbed up on the horses of officers as they
wanted to get a closer look at the "Agamemnon of people." Alexander said in a
loud voice: "I do not come as an enemy, I come to bring you peace and commerce
!" The Parisians cheered and a citizen took a step forward and cried: "We've been
waiting for you a long time !" The monarch replied: "If I didn't come sooner it is
the bravery of French troops that is to blame !" The Parisians shouted: "Long live
Alexander ! Long live the Allies !"
After the parade was over the Tzar went to the residence of Talleyrand and slept
there.
A huge bonfire was lighted in the court of Invalides and hundreds of standards
captured from the Allies by French soldiers "were given to the flames."
Allies enter Paris, 1814. Picture by Weygand, France.
The lines of booted to their knees and "full of vigor" Russian heavy cavalry
created the climax of this parade march. Almost 400 Allies guns passed by
making an earsplitting din and raising a murmur of amazement.
Within next weeks there were held reviews of the Allies' troops with thousands
of Parisians as curious spectators. The troops were ordered drilling and spit and
polish sessions to look at their best. The Cossacks set their headgears with an air
of defiance and cheerfulness everytime they passed the monuments erected for
the glory of the French army.
The Russians made remarks that they were busier because of the preparations to
parades than during the campaign. The French, British and German observers
expressed their enthiusiasm for the way the Russian Guard looked and marched.
The crowd's reaction was one of bewildered awe.
Russian officer Glinka was impressed with Paris and its surroundings. He wrote
that all the villages around Paris were well build, and the castles, palaces and
gardens with fountains decorated the landscape. Only the smell of decomposed
bodies of recently killed soldiers and horses spoiled the picture and polluted the
air.
Another officer, Lwenstern, experienced an indescribable feeling when he first
time saw Paris. As he wrote, this is from this city laws, fashion and culture
radiated on the entire Europe.
For many Russians it was only during the peacetime that they noticed the
cheerful nature of the French. The Parisian girls and women were described as
cheerful, and either singing and speaking unceasingly. "And they are pretty"- as
Glinka added. The girls and women were one of the main atractions for the
cavalrymen.
A. Chertkov from the Russian Guard Cavalry enjoyed visiting the Palais Royal
where on the third floor he met prostitutes and on the second floor could play the
roulette.
Other attraction were visits to Muse du Louvre, Notre Dame Cathedral, opera
and theaters. Some officers slept in hotels, full of carpets and big mirrors,
although they complained for the high prices. Glinka wrote ("Pisma russkogo
ofitzera" Part V) that one day in Parisian hotel would cost 15 roubles (!)
However not all Russians were so enthiusistic about Paris; after all here the
bloody revolution and the Napoleonic expansion were born. So although they
admitted that Paris looked grandious and rich they were disgusted in the excess
of luxury.
Officers wrote that Paris occupies smaller space than Moscow and is more
crowded. That in Moscow every family has its own house but in Paris "one finds
family behind every window."
Russian General Fabian Sacken
became the new Governor of Paris
Blucher & Sacken were the hardest
fighting Allies generals of the war
.
The Parisians.
Some were hostile toward the Allies,
while others were very friendly.
A hostile group of Parisians surrounded several Russian officers. The Russians
dashed to nearby shop but the crowd followed them. One Frenchwoman
approached them and set her fist at the face of Russian officer Lwenstern,
cursing and shouting. The French National Guard, responsible for order, arrived
and walked the Russians into safety.
The French royalists however were mad with joy and paraded the streets
shouting "Long live the Bourbons !" When Russian hussars under Pahlen crossed
the Austerlitz Bridge they were met by groups of royalists who offered bread and
wine. Some hussars became so drunk so quickly that they had trouble to stay in
saddles.
During the occupation, "the British were looked down, the Prussians were hated,
but the Russians succeeded to create a friendly relationship with the French." Just
like the town of Givet, which was so relieved to receive a Russian garrison and to
see the departure of the Prussians. The Russian army stayed in Paris in its
vicinity from spring to summer 1814. Then part of the troops and the Guard were
ordered to march home.
Prussian line infantry , by Knotel.
"The British (troops) were looked down, the Prussians were hated,
but the Russians succeeded to create a friendly relationship with
the French."
.
The Cossacks in Paris.
In the beginning the Parisians were scared of the Cossacks. Russian and Cossack
officers gathered in certain restaurants and hammered on the tables yelling bistro
! which is Russian word for "quickly". Hence the name bistro for this type of
restaurant. Nicholas V. Feodoroff writes, "The reminder of the presence of
Cossacks in Paris is the word bistro. When the Cossacks had their bivouacs on the
Champs Elysees, they would ran fast (bistro in Russian) to have coffee or cognac
at the nearest caffee." (Feodoroff - "History of the Cossacks")
The accuracy of the two stories however has been disputed on the grounds that
bistros only started to be called bistros several decades later.
The dreaded Cossacks were received with the best foods but they preferred to
cook their own meals. The no-nonsense warriors bivouacked in the square of the
Carousel before his majesty's windows, and dried their shirts and trousers on the
iron railings of the palace. The Cossacks also camped out on the famous Champs
Elysees.
Bistro
Cossacks in Paris.
.
French Royalists and the English.
The Royalists decorated their houses
in Paris with Bourbons' symbols.
The French royalists and the English newspapers described Napoleon as a
coward, a charlatan and compared him to Cromwell and leader of the Huns,
Attila. The royalists were overjoyed when their king returned to Paris. They
decorated their houses and gates with Bourbons' symbols.
There was no love lost between Napoleon and the royalists. In 1793, Napoleon
freed Toulon from the royalists and from the British troops supporting them. In
1795, when royalists marched against the National Convention in Paris, he had
them shot. The royalists then devised a plot that involved kidnapping and
assassinating Napoleon and inviting the Duke of Enghien, to lead a coup d'etat
that would precede the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy.
The British government of William Pitt the Younger had contributed to this
Royalist conspiracy by financing one million pounds and providing naval
transport to the royalists. In English caricature Napoleon was portrayed as a little
Corsican upstart and Josephine as a tart. The cartoons of Gillray drew crowds of
people to the shops and discounts were offered for buying larger numbers of
prints. Napoleon was demonised and British mothers would tell their children at
night, 'If you don't say your prayers, Boney will come and get you.'
German farmer, mounted Cossack, and an Englishman,
enjoying a duel between the robust Blucher and the
little Buonaparte. Picture by G Shadow, Great Britain.
On May 3rd took place a solemn entry of King Louis XVIII in Paris. He was
seated beside his niece, Marie-Antoinette's daughetr and sole survivor of the
former royal family. The royalist diarist de Boigne writes: "The procession was
escorted by the Imperial Guard. Its aspect was imposing, but it froze us. It
marched quickly, silent and gloomy. With a single glance it checked our
outbursts of affection. ... The silence became immense, and nothing could be
heard but the monotonous tramp of its quick striking into our very hearts."
Another royalist, Chateaubraind had noticed how the veterans had "pulled their
bearskins down over their eyes and presented arms with a gesture of fury."
The Bourbons were disliked by many Frenchmen and political caricatures and
cartoons appeared on walls. One of them showed the fat King Louis XVIII riding
behind a Cossack, "over the corpses of French soldiers."
Marshal Marmont was not the only one falling in love with the old regime.
Marshal Michel Ney, "The Bravest of the Brave", Marshal Macdonald (nothing in
common with the fast-food chain), the stalwart Marshal Oudinot, and generals
Compans, Souham, and Bordesoulle followed Marmont's steps. Ney and
Macdonald had forbidden Berthier to transmit Napoleon's orders to the army.
King Louis XVIII
One anti-Bourbon cartoon showed the fat
King Louis XVIII riding behind a Cossack
"over the corpses of French soldiers."
~
Napoleon's abdication.
"Down with the traitors !
On to Paris !" - Old Guard
Napoleon abdicated on April 6. However, occasional military actions continued
in Italy, Spain, and Holland throughout the spring of 1814. Part of the French
army was very unhappy with the new situation. Even 5 days after Napoelon's
abdication Davout's men, bottled up in Hamburg and still fighting on, hadn't yet
heard of it. So that when, at dawn on 9 May, they'd seen "the enemy line decked
out in white flags, the marshal [Davout] ordered us to fire on them. After a
quarter of an hour they'd been knocked down by our gunfire. New flags quickly
appeared, out of range of our roundshot."
On April 7th, the Chasseurs and Grenadiers of the Old Guard, and elements of
the Middle Guard, came out of their barracks in Fountainebleau carrying torches
and weapons shouting "Vive l'Empereur !" and "Down with the traitors !" These
lads were looking for trouble.
Already few days earlier Chateaubriand related that "when the King passed, the
grenadiers of Old Guard bared their teeth like tigers. When they presented arms
they did so with a movement of fury, and with a noise which filled the onlookers
with terror."
Kozietulski, the Hero of Somosierra, declared that his Old Guard Lancers were in
a fighting mood and were devoted to the Emperor. "Count Krasinski,
commander of the regiment, ... his black horse caparisoned like a charger in the
'Arabian Nights,' drew up his unit in two lines of battle." Then they joined the
French Old Guard Grenadiers, lit torches and marched to Paris.
Old Guard Grenadiers in 1814.
T h e y came out of their barracks
carrying weapons and shouting
"Down with the traitors !"
"Vive l'Empereur !"
On April 7th Napoleon called for volunteers from his Old Guard to serve in his
guard on Elba Island. The Allies allowed for 500 infantrymen, 120 cavalrymen
and 120 artillerymen. Generals Petit and Pelet were soon swamped with requests.
Many officers asked to serve as simple privates. Out of 400 volunteers of Guard
Artillery only 100 were selected for Elba. Out of the Marines 21 men were
accepted.
There were additionally several hundred volunteers from infantry, 300
grenadiers and 300 chasseurs of Old Guard. Out of the French and Polish cavalry
only 100 Polish lancers were chosen.
Polish lancers of the Old Guard.
"S i r e, if you had mounted the throne of Poland,
you would have been killed upon it; but the Poles
would have died at your feet to a man."
- General Krasinski to Napoleon, 1814
Charles Parquin writes, "General Krasinski who commanded the Polish lancers ...
came forward with his officers. As he took his leave of the Emperor he uttered
these words, which do the greatest credit to his nation: "Sire, if you had mounted
the throne of Poland, you would have been killed upon it; but the Poles would
have died at your feet to a man."
Krasinki wearing his parade uniform announced to his lancers that "God has
visited misfortune upon the Emperor" and all began to weep. They regreted they
had not all been killed before hearing that anyone had dared demand Napoleon's
abdication. Loud cries for vengeance were heard along with "Vive l"Empereur!"
Sabers and lances were brandished and the cavalry moved toward
Fontainebleau. They passed through Nainville before Sebastiani's ADC halted
them.
Krasinski galloped off to headquarters to protest that his duty and honor called
him to Napoleon's side, since it was not to France but to Napoleon that his lancers
had pledged their lives. The lancers bivouacked near Fountainebleau where also
the French Old Guard Artillery set their camps.
Napoleon's farewell with Old Guard in 1814.
On April 20, 1814 the Emperor of France bid farewell to the soldiers of his Old
Guard.
Tears trickled down their cheeks and they struggled to maintain composure
when he said:
"Soldiers of my Old Guard: I bid you farewell. For twenty years I have constantly
accompanied you on the road to honor and glory. In these latter times, as in the
days of our prosperity, you have invariably been models of courage and fidelity.
... I go, but you, my friends, will continue to serve France. Her happiness was my
only thought. It will still be the object of my wishes. Do not regret my fate; if I
have consented to survive, it is to serve your glory. ... Adieu, my friends. Would I
could press you all to my heart."
At these words General Petit waved his sword in the air and cried Vive l'Empereur
! which was rapturously echoed by the whole Guard. But when Napoleon was
leaving not one of the old warriors was able to utter a sound. They watched in
mournful silence, some cried. On the way home they beat up some royalists and
gendarmes and nailed to the bridge a placard inscribed 'Long live Napoleon the
Great !'
PS.
The Russian and Prussian armies were drawn up on both sides of the road
leading to Paris. They presented arms to the few French troops. General
Bordesoulle met the 30th Dragoon Regiment and ordered them to draw sabers
and render the honors. The colonel of the 30th Dragoons was in very bad mood.
He angrily replied: "If my dragoons draw sabers it will be to charge !"
After Napoleon's surrender at Rochefort, King Joseph and many generals and
officers went to the Americas.
~
Meeting in London.
Allies sovereigns and generals were guests at a diner held
by the British merchants and bankers. "Twenty times Tzar
Alexander had to appear on the balcony to respond to the
ovations of the English." (- Henri Troyat)
In England news of Napoleon downfall was greeted with euphoria and Tzar
Alexandr's earlier duplicity was forgotten while the English newspapers heaped
praise upon the Russian troops.
When Allies leaders (the Tzar of Russia, King of Prussia, Prince Metternich,
Prince of Liechtenstein, Hannoverian Prince, generals Schwarzenberg, Blucher,
Platov, de Tolly and many others) disembarked at Dover, they realized that the
English were as infatuated with them as the Parisians (or rather the French
royalists).
Huge crowds cheered Emperor Alexander along the road. The Londoners
unhitched the horses from the barouche in which the Tsar of Russia was sitting
with the King of Prussia and pulled the carriage through the streets. While the
monarchs were waiting for a visit from the Prince Regent, an enthusiastic crowd
gathered in front of the house. "Twenty times Tsar Alexander had to appear on
the balcony to respond to the ovations of the English." (- Henri Troyat)
Important events in London:
7th June - arrival of Allied leaders
16th June - the sovereigns are guests at a diner held by merchants and bankers.
20th June - Blucher, Wellington and Barclay de Tolly reviewed 12,000 British
troops in Hyde Park.
Allied Sovereigns and Generals Attending a Review
Of British Troops in Hyde Park, in 1814.
Allied sovereigns and generals were showered with gifts and awards.
The Tzar received an honorary doctorate from Oxford University and showed
himself in Hyde Park on horseback dressed in English uniform. He also visited
Westminster, the British Museum, and the races at Ascot. The Tzar met with the
Quakers and discussed religious questions and talked with Jeremy Bentham, a
philosopher and jurist.
He was also invited to Guildhall, at which 700 guests gathered. Italian singers did
their best to charm the distinguished guests and the dinner was served on gold
plates. (Guildhall has been used as a town hall for several hundred years, and is
still the ceremonial and administrative centre of the City of London, which
should not be confused with Greater London.)
Suddenly the Russian Grand Duchess Catherine abruptly asked that the Italians
be silent, she detested music. Alexander was hard of hearing and didn't
understand the embarrassed murmurs all around him. Her demand threw the
company into great confusion and the monarch couldn't wait to leave this
country that was too proper and stiff for his taste.
On top of this embarasment there were disagreements between Alexander and
the Prince Regent.
Alexander noticed that the British court and diplomats strongly objected to his
views on Poland (France's devoted ally) and further strengthening of the Russian
Empire. Alexander took ship at Dover and sailed to France before returning to
Russia. He rode through Germany, Poland, and the devastated western Russia
before reaching S. Petersburg. After 1815, despite some opposition from London,
Russia assumed hegemony over the semi-autonomous Poland.
Allies' popularity faded quickly but Matvei Platov and his bearded Cossacks
were liked to the very end of their stay in Great Britain. Platov was awarded a
golden sword and a honorary degree by the prestigous University of Oxford.
(Oxford University is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. It
traces its roots back to at least 1167 to the expulsion of foreigners from the
University of Paris which caused many English scholars to return from France
and settle in Oxford.)
Platov, the (headman) of the Cossacks.
He was awarded a honorary degree
by the University of Oxford.
~
"When the eagle was silent,
the parrots began to jabber."
When England sided with France and Austria ,
the Tzar reminded Castlereagh that there were
400,000 Russian troops in Poland and Saxony,
and he invited England to remove them if it could.
After Napoleon' abdication in 1814 a congress met in Vienna. It was a conference
between ambassadors, from the major powers in Europe that was chaired by the
Austrian statesman Metternich. Its purpose was to redraw the map of Europe.
When the eagle was silent, the parrots began to jabber.
Initially, the representatives of the four victorious powers hoped to exclude the
French from serious participation in the negotiations, but Talleyrand managed to
skillfully insert himself into "her inner councils" already in the first weeks of
negotiations.
Participants:
- Russia (Nesselrode)
- Britain (Castlereagh)
- Austria (Metternich)
- France (de Talleyrand-Prigord)
- Prussia (Hardenberg)
- Spain (Marquis of Labrador)
There were also representants of Portugal, Sweden, Netherlands and several
German states. Even the Iroquois Confederacy from America participated in the
congress as it had been an ally of the British during the War of 1812.
The Tzar set forth what he expected: Poland should become monarchy under
himself, and wanted Prussia to have Saxony. When Castlereagh of Britain sided
with France and Austria, Alexander reminded Castlereagh that there was 400,000
Russian troops in and around Poland and Saxony, and he invited Britain to
remove them if it could.
The Congress's principal results:
- Russia was given most of the Duchy of Warsaw (Poland)
and was allowed to keep Finland which it had annexed
from Sweden in 1809 and held until 1917
- Prussia was given 2/5 of Saxony, and parts of the Duchy
of Warsaw (Poland), Danzig (Gdansk), and Westphalia.
Sweden ceded Swedish Pomerania to Prussia.
- Austria regained control of the Tirol and Salzburg;
of the former Illyrian Provinces, and received Lombardy
in Italy and Ragusa in Dalmatia.
- Great Britain received parts of the West Indies at the
expense of the Netherlands and Spain and kept the former Dutch colonies
of Ceylon and the Cape Colony. It also kept Malta.
- Marie Louise, Napoleon's wife, received the Duchies of Parma &
Piacenza.
- United Kingdom of the Netherlands was created for the Prince of Orange
- The Papal States were under the rule of the pope.
- The neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed.
- The slave trade was condemned.
Congress in Vienna
Sources and Links.
Recommended Reading
Mikhailovski-Danilevski - "History of the Campaign in France, 1814"
Steffens - "Adventures on the road to Paris during the campaign of 1813-14"
Campaign of France, 1814
Napoleon's defeat at La Rothiere
Napoleon's victory at Montmirail. (UNDER CONSTRUCTION)
Napoleon's victory at Craonne. (UNDER CONSTRUCTION)
Napoleon's victory at Montereau. (UNDER CONSTRUCTION)
Hundred Days Campaign : Waterloo Campaign : Battle of Quatre Bras 1815
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/BATTLE_OF_QUATRE_BRAS.htm[2012-05-21 12:45:58]
Hundred Days Campaign 1815
and the
Battle of Quatre Bras
"Ney, outnumbered ...fought Wellington to a draw there,
giving somewhat more punishmnet than he took . ..... "
(4,140 vs 4,800 casualties)
" Wellington reported Quatre Bras as an English victory
won over superior forces (actually the Duke enjoyed 2 to 1
advantage ) , and so it has remained in British history . "
( John Elting - "Swords Around a Throne")
Introduction.
Napoleon returns. >
"I will fix Bonaparte !" >
Napoleon enters Paris. >
French army in 1815.
Marshals and generals. >
Officers and soldiers. >
Map: France vs Europe.
Waterloo Campaign 1815.
"We are too strong to be attacked here"-Wellington >
The French invasion of Belgium. >
The French stormed the Charleroi bridge. >
General Bourmont deserted to the Allies. >
Map: "Napoleon has humbugged me, by God!" >
Battle of Gilly
Deployment of troops. >
The battle. >
Slaughter of Prussian battalion. >
The Prussians fell back. >
Marshal Ney join the army. >
Map of battle of Gilly. >
.
Battle of Quatre Bras.
- - Map of battlefield >
- - Marshal Ney's troops. >
- - Prince of Orange's troops. >
- - Morning skirmish. >
- - Chaos on the roads. >
- - Wellington rode to Blucher. >
- - The first French attack. >
- - Allies' reinforcements. >
- - The French capture Gemioncourt farm >
- - Bijlandt and Merlen halt the French advance >
- - French lancers create havoc. Friendly fire. >
- - The 95th Rifles are repulsed. >
- - British & Hanoverians defeat the French inf. >
- - French cavalry halt Duke's offensive. >
- - Allies suffer from French artillery fire >
- - Where is de Erlon's Corps ? >
- - The Hanoverians retake Pireaumont. >
- - French cuirassiers scatter several British units. >
- - The French cavalry inflict heavy casualties
- - on the British Foot Guards. >
- - Wellington's offensive. >
- - Aftermath . >
Prince of Orange leading the 5th Militia Battalion
to the attack at Quatre-Bras in June 1815.
Introduction.
On Elba Island the Old Guard infantry
were assigned to guard t h e Emperor .
"Major Raoul, carrying a brace of loaded
pistols, and 2 Polish Old Guard Lancers
escorted Napoleon every day."
- Henri Lachoque
On May 3rd took place a solemn entry of King Louis XVIII in Paris.
One young Napoleonic officer was very surprised, "How odd ! I thought the King perished in the
Revolution !" The Bourbons were back. "And indeed a mere 11 months in office have sufficed for the
new regime to make itself detested. Notable among its innumerable mistakes has been to alienate
the army. ... Of course the army had had to be cut down to a peacetime footing. Louis XVIII's
government had inherited a national debt of 759,175,000 francs and in the last years of war, though
comprising only 2,58 % of the population, the army had been consuming over half the national
budget." (Britten Austin - "The Return of Napoleon" p 50)
The French army was reduced from 500,000 to 200,000 men.
But in the same time was created ruinously expensive 20,000-strong Household Troops Maison du
Roi. The army was to be remodelled on Frederick the Great's Prussian army. No wonder if some
troops 'offered shouts and insults to the royal emblems.'
Napoleon was on Elba Island but many politicians were worried about Bourbon ineptitude and the
growing tensions in France. The Prussians and Spaniards present in the Vienna Congress have been
seeing it as "a powder barrel liable to explode any moment." Voices have been urging Napoleon's
deportation to more remote islands like St.Lucia, St.Helena or Azores. One British newspaper was
thinking that the vile climate "would soon purge this world of our friend Bonaparte." Minister
Talleyrand wrote to King Louis XVIII "People are showing their intention of sending Bonaparte
away from Elba. ... Everywhere people have been mooting this project."
Louis X V I I I ( 1755 - 1824 )
King of France and Navarre
The king suffered from a severe case of gout
(He was wheelchair-bound most of the time)
and from elephantiasis (ext.link)- thickening
of the tissues in the legs and genitals.
.
Napoleon returns.
"Kill your emperor, if you can !"
- Napoleon to the soldiers of 5th Line
The idea of making an eventual comeback had been in Napoleon's mind even when he'd left
Fountainbleau. In February he'd sent his trusted Corsican secret service agent Francisco Cipriani to
Vienna, to report back as soon as the Congress' dissoultion was imminent.
One day, after Sunday mass Napoleon announced his departure from Elba Island.
Seeing the merchant ship "Saint Esprit" sailing into the harbour, the Emperor has realised he was
short of transports. He ordered Jerzmanowski to take 20 Old Guard Lancers, board her, and toss the
cargo of Turkish gran into the dock. Peyrusse was ordered to pay for it. At 7 PM Napoleon left his
palace. His sloop passed closely by each of the 6 other vessels, where the troops were piled up. At 8
PM one of the "Inconstant's" cannons fired the signal to depart.
Napoleon's flotilla eluded both of the French [royalist] frigates and the British warships, tacking to
and fro between Elba and Corsica Island to prevent just this eventuality. Napoleon and his small
corps (Elba Battalion, Elba Squadron, and small Corsican battalion called "Elba Flanquers") returned
to France. Napoleon's landed at Antibes, at 5 PM on 1 March.
Napoleon's landing at Antibes, at 5 PM on 1 March.
Napoleon's small corps included:
"Elba Battalion" ( Old Guard Grenadiers and Chasseurs )
"Elba Squadron" (squadron of Polish Old Guard Lancers)
" Elba Flanquers " ( battalion of Corsican light infantry )
Napoleon wrote, " ... by marching quickly, I left people ignorant of [the size of] my forces. I
wouldn't have succeeded if I'd marched on Toulon, because they'd have formed a correct idea of
how feeble they were, and no one likes getting stuck in such escapades." Napoleon instructed
General Pierre Cambronne, "You will go on ahead - always ahead. But remember that I forbid one
drop of French blood to be shed to recover my crown." According to Mark Adkin General
"Cambronne was very much the rough spoken, hard as nails ex-ranker - a soldier's soldier. " He was
made a colonel during the Jena Campaign in 1806, and given command of the 3rd Regiment of the
Voltigeurs of the Young Guard in 1810. Cambronne took part in numerous campaigns, from Spain
to Russia, and from Switzerland to Netherlands.
General Cambronne
"Cambronne was very much the rough spoken,
hard as nails ex-ranker, - a soldier's soldier . "
( - Mark Adkin )
The troops set off.
The Old Guard Lancers, encumbered with boots, lances, and sabers, carried their saddles on their
heads and hung their headwears around their necks. They sounded like itinerant ironmongers as
they clanked along.
One the way to Paris Napoleon met several troops sent by the royalists to stop him.
One of them was the 5th Line Infantry Regiment. Randon writes, "The Emperor appeared on the
road and halted beside his troopers. Some 100 Old Guard Grenadiers who were following him
placed themselves off the road to his left, in line with the Old Guard Lancers. It was the most
emotional moment of the encounter. ... The sight of the Emperor ... shook the fidelity of the men of
the 5th Line Regiment."
Rouget de l'Isle added these words, "Clad in the little grey overcoat which so often had had a
magical effect on the men ... he came forward to within pistol range." There is a sudden silence
before Napoleon says, "Here I am. Soldiers of the 5th Line, recognise me ... If there is a soldier
among you who wants to kill his Emperor he can do so." (According to Louis Marchand "Kill your
emperor, if you can.")
Randon continues, "The Polish Guard Lancers, sabres sheathed, reached the men of the 5th Line,
began parleying with them, broke them up; and almost instantly shouts of Vive l'Empereur ! rang out
on all sides.
As if by an electric reaction the state of exaltation passed through the ranks of the 5th, and in the
twinkling of an eye shakos were on bayonet points, and all chests breathed out vivat !"
Lachoque writes,
"Captain Randon shouted 'Fire !'
Nothing happened. He overheard
a soldier say 'The dumb bastard !
If we fired, he's not the one we'd shoot.'
Then another, 'We would be son-of-the-bitches
to harm a man who has done us nothing but good...."
"Kill me if you can."
One the way to Paris Napoleon met troops
sent by the ( French ) royalists to stop him.
At Grenoble Napoleon, his Elba troops and the 5th Line Infantry met 7th and 11th Line, 4th Hussars
and the Engineers. These troops were told that Napoleon arrived. Jube writes, "I'm told that the 7th
Line ... has just left at the double shouting Vive l'Empereur ! and that at its head the colonel, after
drawing a pencil plan of the gateway, had broken open a side drum and taken out the eagle, which
had been immediately placed on the standard's lance head. Tricolour cockades had been distributed
to the men ..."
Guiraud of the Engineers wrote, "Our regiments wanted to follow the 7th. The gunners were
charging their cannon with the fleurs-de-lis [the very medals, perhaps, Artois had been so lavish
with !]. The cavalrymen [hussars] were tearing their white [royalist] cockades to pieces with their
teeth." According to Labedoyere on 13 March Napoleon rode out of Lyons, escorted by horse
artillery and 4th Hussars. This group was "accompanied as far as the barrier by the populace,
whose voiceferations redoubled as he left."
1815 : Napoleon with his die-hards, the
Old Guard Grenadiers and Old Guard Lancers.
.
Ney declared "I will fix Bonaparte !"
He also repeated his words about taking
Napoleon back to Paris in an iron cage.
Marshal Ney was on his estate at Coudreaux, more and more convinced it's time for him to retire.
He declared "The Emperor can't come back ! He has abdicated. And if he were to land, it'd be every
Frenchman's duty to fight him."
On 6 March one of the War Minister's ADCs arrived bringing this famous marshal order to go
immediately to his command area. Ney goes to Paris and then leaves for Besancon "with the firm
determination to fight the Emperor ..." Ney declared "It's good thing the Man from Elba has
attempted his crazy enterprise. It's going to be the last act of his tragedy. I'll fix Bonaparte. ... That
raving lunatic'll never forgive me for making him abdicate." He repeats his words about taking
Napoleon back to Paris in an iron cage.
At Besancon, Marshal Ney met General Lecourbe "Lecourbe, I know you. You love your country.
Bonaparte abdicated. ... You owe him nothing. If he exiled you to your estates it was because he
wanted all services to be done to him personally."
Lecourbe says he harbours no bitterness against Napoleon. All over the area where Ney's and
Lecourbe's troops are scattered the peasantry is declaring for Napoleon. And Ney own 7,000 troops
aren't to be relied on.
The marshal meet with regimental officers and exhorts them, "Louis XVIII reigns over France. ... I'm
counting on you. You'll see me at your heart. But if anyone among you, for personal reasons, finds it
repugnant to fight this war, let him frankly say so. ... We don't need any cry-babies, male of female."
The officers began murmuring, showing Ney's words weren't altogether to their taste. One of Ney's
first acts having been to imprison an officer for shouting Vive l'Empereur ! Ney became animated in
word and gesture and cried "I'll march at your head. And if need be it'll be I who'll fire the first shot
! ... I'll run my sword through the first man that budges !"
Several days later Ney is informed that "a battalion of the 76th Line, which was escorting Ney's
artillery park, has just entered Chalon to shouts Vive l'Empereur ! The town has instantly revolted.
The troops say they want to present this artillery to the little corporal ..." And more bad news,
regiment of hussars had adopted the tricolor cockade, forced the gates of Auxonne, and was
marching on Dijon.
Ney was in state of great perplexity, pacing his room.
Few days passed however and Ney began changing his attitude. He gathered his troops to read a
proclamation. More than one anxious observer was remembering the days of the Revolution, when
troops had massacred their officers. But Ney's proclamation is surprising: "The legitimate dynasty
adopted by the French nation is going to reascend the throne. Only the Emperor Napoleon, our
sovereign, has the right to reign over our beautiful country. ...
Soldiers ! ...
Now I'm going to lead you toward this immortal phalanx Napoleon is leading to Paris ..."
The soldiers couldn't believe their ears and eyes. The shouts Vive l'Empereur ! set their hearts, so long
oppressed, on fire. Larreguy writes, "One saw officers and men prick their hands to mingle their
blood with the liquor and so swear to shed it to the last drop for Napoleon's cause." Chlapowski of
Guard Lancers writes, "I was in Bath ... when the news arrived that the Emperor had left Elba and
landed at Frejus. Knowing the French army as I did, I did not doubt that they would nearly all rally
to him." (Chlapowski, - p 152)
Marshal Ney
The officers were murmuring ,
showing Ney's words weren ' t
altogether to their taste .
Some anxious observers were
remembering the days of the
Revolution, when troops had
massacred their leaders .
.
Napoleon enters Paris.
Napoleon appeared in front of the crowds.
The explosion was sudden.When the escort
couldn't get the crowds under control , the
people rushed forward to him . Napoleon
was carried up to his appartments without
his feet touching the steps of the staircase.
"I thought myself present at the
Resurrection of Christ." -Thiebault
On 16 March the King Louis XVIII swore to "die on the throne" but three days later he fled to
Belgium followed by his Maison du Roi. Napoleon entered Paris. Many witnesses noticed what a lot
of weight he'd put on and his peculiar bronzed complexion.
On 20 March several regiments of light cavalry came and drew up in the White Horse Courtyard -
the very same courtyard where their master had last year taken so moving a farewell fo the Old
Guard. Napoleon inspected them "at length." Napoleon had been also struck by the depth of
republican sentiment evident among the French people.
Paul Britten-Austin writes, "Going through the streets [of Paris] where 'every bird seemed to the
workmen to be an eagle,' Lavalette hears that 'the King and the entire court have left during the
night..." At 11:00 AM Napoleon still have not arrived from Fountainbleau.
The Emperor gave order for the Elba Battalion should have a day's rest; which means the Grognards
won't share Napoleon's entry into the capital. On the road between Fountaibleau and Paris the
Emperor reviewed another regiment. At St Denis when the colonel of 2nd Line Infantry refused to
join Napoleon's troops, his own officer tore off his epaulettes and "fling it in his man's face."
It was evening when Napoleon reached Paris.
The Emperor, seeing his carraige could get no further, got out in the midst of immense crowd
(20,000 people at least) pressing around him. The people almost stifled him. Thiebault writes,
"Suddenly Napoleon reappeared. The explosion was sudden, irresistible. I thought myself present at
the Resurrection of Christ." He was carried up to his appartments without his feet touching the
steps of the staircase. Officer Lavalette had his eyes "bathed in tears." The crowd tried to come
forward to him, but a wave of officers rushed forward and would have crushed them. The doors,
with difficulty, were shut, and the crowd dispersed.
"Napoleon's unheralded return from Elba, which split France diagonally in two and startled an
admiring but also terrified Europe, would lead to a catastrophe every bit as great as that of 1940.
Once again Frenchmen were faced with the implacable hostility of all Europe's ' legitimate'
sovereigns and aristocracy determined to have done with the detestable Bonaparte once and for all,
with revolutionary ideas and French militarism." (Austin - "The Return of Napoleon" p 15)
At Vienna the vilinists who were playing as the Congress danced stopped the music,
their bows in mid-air. HE had returned !
"The general aspect of France at that moment was singularly warlike.
It was that of a whole nation buckling on its armour; over the entire country armed bodies were to
be seen in motion towards their several points of destination : every where the new levies for the
Line, and the newly enrolled National Guards were in an unremitting course of drill and
organisation: the greatest activity was maintained, day and night, in all the arsenals, and in all the
manufactories of clothing and articles of equipment: crowds of workmen were constantly employed
in the repair of the numerous fortresses, and in the erection of entrenched works.
Everywhere appeared a continued transport of artillery, waggons, arms, ammunition, and all the
material of war ; whilst upon every road forming an approach to any of the main points of
assembly in the vicinity of the frontiers, might be seen those well-formed veteran bands, Napoleon's
followers through many a bloody field, moving forth with all the order, and with all the elasticity of
spirit, inspired by the full confidence of a renewed career of victoryrejoicing in the display of
those Standards which so proudly recalled the most glorious fields that France had ever won, and
testifying by their acclamations, their enthusiastic devotion to the cause of the Emperor, which was
ever cherished by them as identified with that of their country." (Siborne - "The Waterloo Campaign,
1815")
Paris
~
French army in 1815.
The army was without discipline and confidence in its leaders,
haunted by the dread of treason, and on that account, perhaps,
liable to sudden fits of panic; it was, nevertheless, instinct
with warlike aspirations and loving war for its own sake.
Napoleon had never before handled an army, which was
at once so aggressive and so fragile.
On his return Napoleon found less than 200,000 men under arms. He
might have doubled this number by calling for an extraordinary levy
"on the lists dating from 1806 to 1814, and also those of 1815 ... But
having just resumed the crown, he hesitated to resort to such an
unpopular measure as the re-establishment of conscription, which
Louis XVIII had recently abolished." (- Henri Houssaye)
There were other ways of increasing the army. For example there were
30,000 men on six months' leave of absence, and 70,000 who deserted
from the army under royalists. Theoretically it gives 100,000 men but
the Minister of War (Marshal Davout) reckoned that it would muster
much less (60,000). Davout proposed to form the retired officers and
soldiers, into companies of veterans for the fortified places.
Due to political reasons the proclamation calling out the troops was not
published until April 9th. Napoleon opened negotiations with the Allies
for the maintenance of peace and was afraid that the placing of the
army on war footing would seem a contradiction of his declarations.
With regard to the people of France, who were ardently longing for peace, he felt bound to act with
the greatest discretion. The Royalists were labouring to undermine Napoleon's popularity, by
prophesying war.
As the Emperor had foreseen, this proclamation of increasing the army came as a shock to the
whole country and gloom and depression prevailed among the rural populations. Public opinion
was hostile to the idea of war. In the departments where Royalist tendencies prevailed, the recalled
soldiers behaved in a most disorderly way at the recruiting stations. They shouted: "We will not go !
Long live the King !" In many departments however, the levy took place without a hitch. In early
June 80,000 recalled men had been enrolled and 20,000 were on their way to join. The number of
volunteers amounted to 10,000 men.
There were also problems with increasing the National Guards. For example, by the end of May the
department of Pas de Calais had raised only 437 Guards instead of 7,440. In Vendee, when an
insurrection was feared, the National Guard was never called out. At Amiens the following placard
was posted up:
"Who reecalled Buonaparte ?
The Army.
Well, let the Army defend him.
It is not for us to carry arms
in the defence of a man cast up
by hell itself."
There was a scarcity of muskets, ammunition, harness and horses. The arsenals furnished 180,000
muskets, 60,000 of which needed repair. Orders were given for 235,000 muskets and musketoons,
and 15,000 brace of pistols. "Attempts were also made to buy muskets in England, and several
thousand were conveyed surrepitiously in coal barges from Belgium and the Rhennish provinces.
Others were brought in by the peasants, a premium of 12 francs being offered for every musket
recovered ..." (- Henri Houssaye)
Bayonets were made in the Langres and Moulins cutleries.
The uniforms were in tatters. The 29th Line Infantry Regiment (in Durutte's division of d'Erlon's
corps) served through the campaign with policemen's caps on their heads. The 14th Light Infantry
had been wearing for the last two years (1813-1815) their old canvas trousers, regardless the time of
year. In more than 20 infantry regiments the men were without shoes.
In the end of March the cavalry had only 27,864 horses. Some of the horses were let out to farmers
in order to save their keep; they were hastily reclaimed for the use of the army. Napoleon also
appropriated half the horses of the gendarmerie. Each gendarme received a compensation of 600
francs and was bound to find another horse for himself. Thanks to this expedient 4250 horses, strong
and trained, were alloted to the cuirassiers and the dragoons.
In spite of a mismanagement at the beginning there was a pretty good body of horses in the cavalry
and especially in the artillery.
Imperial Guard:
in the Army of the North - 21,000
in the Army of the Loire - 2,000
in the depots (fit or unfit for service) - 5,000
28,000 men
Troops of the first line:
in the field armies - 165,000
in the fortresses - 11,000
in the depots (fit or unfit for service) - 60,000
in the hospitals - 8,000
in the colonies - 4,500
248,500 men
Auxiliary troops:
National Guard - 135,000
military pensioners - 25,000
marine gunners - 5,000
marine fusiliers - 10,000
veterans - 7,500
garrison artillery - 6,000
gendarmes - 14,000
custom house officers - 12,000
partisans and free corps - 4,000
218,500 men
Other troops:
free battalions from Corsica - ?
militia from Elba Island - ?
Vendean chasseurs - ?
federal sharpshooters from Paris and Lyon - ?
25,000 men
garrison artillery of the National Guard - ?
France's Minister of War in 1 8 1 5
Marshal Davout (the Iron Marshal)
Davout repeatedly requested a command in the field army
but Napoleon invariably answered : "I can entrust Paris to
no one but you."
He appeared little liked in Paris, on account of the stiff and
severe manner in which he discharged his military duties.
.
French marshals and generals in 1815.
"Do not employ the marshals during the
campaign" somebody wrote the Emperor.
There were many marshals, generals and colonels whom Napoleon had good reason to distrust. In
1814, amongst the marshals many had been the cases of hesitation, disobedience and treachery.
Changes in the upper ranks were inevitable. At the suggestion of the Minister of War, Marshal
Davout, several colonels, majors and junior officers were struck off the rolls on "the charge of
persistent hostility."
Marshals Augereau, Victor, MacDonald and Oudinot, had shown their incapacity in the last
campaign (1814), or treachery like Marmont and Souham. In 1815 Marshals Victor and Marmont
had accompanied or joined Louis XVIII in Belgium. "Do not employ the marshals during the
campaign" somebody wrote the Emperor.
The generals who, without being ardent royalists, would yet have preferred to end their long careers
peacefully under the Bourbons, scowled on the Bonapartists, "who had plunged their country into a
perilous venture and provoked a frightful war." General Foy had been faithful to republicanism
under the Empire; he became a convert to constitutional monarchy under Louis XVIII. Napoleon
however gave him the command of infantry division in Reille's II Army Corps. (At Waterloo Foy
attacked Hougoumont.)
General Bourmont was left without employment for some length of time. He had rushed to Paris to
be with King Louis XVIII. At Marshal Ney's request Napoleon gave orders for his arrest, but the
marshal reconsidered the matter, and was the first to petition the Emperor to restore him to his
command. Gerard shared Ney's attitude. Napoleon consented to this after much hesitation; he had
great difficultiy in convincing Davout, who only yielded to formal order from the Emperor.
"Gerard answers for Bourmont with his head," said the Emperor.
"Gerard is wrong," replied Davout; "I never answer for anybody,
I only answer for myself."
PS.
At the very beginning of the campaign General Bournemont deserted to the Allies.
For more info read chapter: "A cur is always a cur."
Some generals thought Napoleon's chances of victory are low. Fore example General Ruty of
artillery said, "Bonaparte is doomed without greater resources. The King will return before long."
Many were surprised and disappointed to see Marshal Soult and General Bruny in Paris. General
Pire of cavalry, objected to the insufficiency of the pay on taking the field first. General Mathieu
insisted on retiring, to avoid serving under General Clausel, who was his junior. Duhesme, placed at
first in the III Army Corps under General Vandamme, was sent into the Young Guard. "He cannot
serve under Vandamme" wrote the Minister of War. General Bonnet accused General Ornano of
having prejudiced Napoleon against him.. Only with the greatest reluctance did Generals
Vandamme and Gerard served under Grouchy.
General
.
French junior officers and soldiers in 1815.
"We claim the dismissal of our colonel,
whose ardour in the cause of your Majesty
is not by any means equal to our own devotion."
On the other hand, the junior officers, the NCOs, and the soldiers, were filled with enthusiasm and
confidence. They were dreaming the dream of glory and adventure. In their opinion Napoleon was
invincible. If he was defeated in 1812 by the Russians it was by the snow and cold. The defeat in
1813 was blamed on the treacherous Saxons and Germans. The defeat in 1814, because he was
betrayed by marshals.
The soldiers and junior officers were not inclined to obey their colonels and generals who were
capable (they suspected) of treason, or to respect those who, only few weeks previously, were
leading them against Napoleon, and who now professed ardent feelings of loyalty towards him.
The soldiers of 12th Dragoon Regiment petitioned Napoleon for the dismissal of their colonel. "We
claim the dismissal of our colonel, whose ardour in the cause of your Majesty is not by any means
equal to our own devotion." The officers and soldiers of the 75th Line Infantry Regiment wrote "We
are convinced that it is in your Majesty's intention not to keep a single traitor at the head of a
French regiment."
On March 26th the Old Guard Dragoons arrived from Tours. They learnt on the quays that
Napoleon was in person, reviewing the troops. It was one year since they had seen their idol ! They
got beyond the control of their officers, filed through the gateway of the Louvre, and burst in upon
the Place du Carrousel at quick trot, bespattered with mud on their horses, with cries of Vive
l'Empereur ! A few days later, during an inspection with open ranks, the line dragoons (not Guard)
followed their own cue; suddenly the first rank faced right about, and both ranks raised their
swords and crossed them over the head of the Emperor. Napoleon bent his head laughingly and
finished the inspection under the canopy of steel.
Grouchy's cavalry ran riot at Orgon under the pretext that the previous year, when Napoleon
passed through the town on his way to exile, the inhabitants threatened to hang him. The soldiers
set some houses on fire and beat several people. The soldiers of 105th Line Infantry Regiment pulled
down a newly built house only because its frontage was decorated with the royalists symbols. At
Aix the gunners beat the hell out of young Royalists walking about with white roses in their
buttonholes. The Young Guard mutined because there was no napoleonic flag over the entrance
gate to their barracks. In the cafees and theaters of Paris the officers beat those who refused to shout
Vive l'Empereur !
The regiments hailed their napoleonic eagles with enthusiastic cheers and threatening oaths. They
answered the cries of Vive l'Armee ! with shouts of Vive l'Empereur ! They swore with swords
crossed over flaming punch bowls, that they would conquer or die. They left their garrisons and
marched through towns and villages shouting Vive l'Empereur ! They tore to shreds the white
royalists flags and put them to the vilest uses. They took it upon themselves to arrest all traitors,
and they beat some of them. They said "they did not care a rap for their skins provided Napoleon
trashed the Allies."
Unfortunately with the distrust and suspicion toward their commanders came problems with
discipline. Forage magazines have been plundered, and horses have been stolen. In some frontier
towns plunder has been going on for several days. General Friant complained that the Old Guard
Grenadiers were taking women in their train. Approx. 300 men of the 39th and 59th Line Infantry
Regiment declared they would desert if they were not passed on into the Guard. Rivalries between
the regiments led to brawls and duels. But if the army was weakened by its lack of discipline, it was
filled with eagerness to fight, resolution to conquer, idolatry of Napoleon, and hatred of foreigners
and royalists. (One of the royalists wrote: "The King on his return will have to disband the Army
and to create a new one.")

"One saw officers and men prick their hands
to mingle their blood with the liquor and so
so swear to shed it to the last drop for
Napoleon's cause." - Larreguy
Voltigeur of line infantry.
When the colonel of 2nd Line Infantry
refused to join Napoleon's troops , his
own officer tore off his epaulettes and
"fling it in his man's face."
Map: France vs Allies in 1815
France of 1815 was no longer the almighty Empire of 1805-1812. After Napoleon's triumphant arrival in Paris,
the Allies (Russians, Austrians, Prussian, British, Spaniards, and German and Netherland troops) undertook
to provide over 800,000 men between them. According to David Chandler, France's resources (300,000 incl. res.)
"were stretched pathetically thinly."
"I'd like the Emperor to win the first 2 battles, but lose the third."
-Joseph Fouche, Napoleon's one-time Minister of Police
The beginning of the campaign.
The landscape of Belgium is a contrasting landscape
of flatlands in Flanders and rolling hills in Wallonia.
In 1815 Napoleon's army entered Belgium to find and
defeat the two Allied armies; Prussian and British.
"On the 12th of June, Lieutenant Colonel Wissell, whose regiment, the 1st KGL Hussars formed an
extensive line of outposts in front of Tournai, reported to Major General Sir Hussey Vivian, to
whose brigade the regiment belonged, that he had ascertained, from information on which he could
rely, that the French Army had assembled on the frontier, and was prepared to attack. ... The next
morning, Vivian repaired in person to the outposts, and found that a French Cavalry picquet which
had previously been posted opposite to Tournai, had a short time before marched to join the main
Army, and had been relieved by Douaniers. These, upon being spoken to by [General-Major]
Vivian, did not hesitate to say that their Army was concentrating, and that if the Allies did not
advance, their troops would attack.
On returning to his quarters, Vivian communicated what he had seen and heard both to Lord Hill
and the Earl of Uxbridge, by whom the circumstances were made known to the Duke of
Wellington. His Grace, however, for reasons before stated, did not think the proper moment had
arrived for making any alteration in the disposition of his forces." (Siborne - "The Waterloo Campaign,
1815")
KGL Hussars, picture by Knotel.
The superb 1st K G L Hussars formed an extensive line of
outposts in front of Tournai.The Germans informed GenMjr
Vivian that the French army had assembled on the frontier
and was prepared to attack
Because the British Cabinet had refused to declare war against France as opposed to war against
Napoleon, Wellington was constrained from sending his cavalry across the border. General-Major
Merlen's 2nd Netherland Cavalry Brigade (4th Light Dragoons and 6th Hussars) had captured
several French patrols, but were ordered by Wellington to escort them back across the frontier.
Commanders of both regiments, Lieutenant-Colonel Bereel and Lieutetenant-Colonel de Merex,
were quite disappointed. This situation continued until 13th June. Frustrated Prince of Orange wrote
to Wellington: "I'm going to send back the French prisoners this morning with a letter to General
Count d'Erlon according to your wishes."
Wellington however had an extensive network of spies in France, and had the advantage of having
money to pay them. He received daily information from the spies and agents. One of them, Grant,
secured information from Royalist sympathizers provided by the Comte d'Artois.
"Napoleon still had time to decide on his method - offensive or defensive - in selecting his terrain for
a national war. He would personally have preferred a national war, but the French Chamber of
Representatives, the liberals, the ideologists, the 'Constitutionalists' and La Fayette had began to
have misgivings: ruled by politics the sovereign had to impose silence on the war leader. Occupied
with enemies inside and outside France, he had first to vanquish the latter in order to win over the
former. ..." (Lachouque - "Waterloo" pp 57-58)
Netherlands Light Dragoons, by de Beaufort.
Netherland cavalry had captured several French patrols,
but were ordered by Wellington to escort them back across
the frontier.
.
"We are too strong to be attacked here." - Wellington.
"Bonaparte will not attack us." - Blucher.
On 14th it was raining and the bivouacs were flooded. Few campfires were carefully concealed from
view. Part of the the infantry and engineers camped in the mist-drenched woods. Four French
Battalions had crossed the river at Solre sur Sambre, and occupied Merbes le Chateau. That late in
the night the French had pushed forward a strong detachment as far as Sart la Bussiere.
Grouchy's cavalry was ready to reconnoitre the army's road to Charleroi. The Prussian cavalry
outposts were on the alert. A French deserter informed the Allies that the attack was planned for
the following day. The Britissh had known that the French troops were gathering between Avesnes
and Philippeville; but they were reluctant to believe the reports.
"We are too strong to be attacked here," Wellington proclaimed. "Bonaparte will not attack us,"
predicted Blucher. Wellington and Blucher had booked full diaries of social activities. Wellington
was planning to attend cricket match and gala ball at the Duchess of Richmond. See picture below.
Duchess of Richmond's ball held on the night of June 15.
The were more than 200 invitees in all, incl. Wellington, Prince of Orange,
Duke of Brunswick , Prince of Nassau , Lord Uxbridge , and 2 2 colonels .
It was at this ball that Wellington learned Napoleon had crossed the border.
Approx. 72 hours later, almost half of those men were wounded or dead.
.
The French invasion of Belgium, June 1815.
Napoleon decided to invade Belgium and separate the Allies armies.
" . . . Wellington and Blucher were only mediocre strategists .
Wellington was skilful in defence but not much good at manoeuvres
- slow to get going . . . Blucher, the fiery hussar with "Forward !" on
his lips, was a firm believer in attacking ... " (- H. Lachouque, France)
Napoleon decided to concentrate the army around Beaumont, storm Charleroi, cross the Sambre
River at this point, invade Belgium and separate the two Allies armies. The Prussian and the
British-Netherlands armies were immobile along 150 km of frontier - the former looking towards
the Rhine River and the latter towards the sea port at Ostend. Their headquarters were 65 km apart.
"The psychological factor was that Wellington and Blucher were only mediocre strategists.
Wellington was skilful in defence but not much good at manoeuvres - slow to get going, prudent,
practical, egotistical; Blucher, the fiery hussar with "Forward !" on his lips, was a firm believer in
attacking with the utmost force ... " (- Lachouque, p 59)
The Imperial Guard began its march from Paris on the 8th.
Emperor himself had quitted Paris on the 12th of June.
The I, II, III and IV Cavalry Corps concentrated upon the upper Sambre.
D'Erlon's I Corps, Reille's II Corps, and Vandamme's III Corps, arrived at Maubeuge and Avesnes
on the 13th.
The junction of the several Corps on the same day, almost at the same hour (with the exception of
the IV, which joined the next day), displayed the usual skill of Napoleon in the combination of
movements. Their leaders congratulated themselves upon these auspicious preparations, and upon
finding the Grand Army once more assembled in all the pomp and circumstance of glorious war.
During the night of the 13th, the fires of the French bivouacs did not escape the vigilant observation
of Ziethen's outposts. These fires appeared to be in the direction of Walcourt and of Beaumont, and
also in the vicinity of Solre sur Sambre. All reports received through spies and deserters concurred
in representing that Napoleon was expected to join the French army; that the Imperial Guard and
Reille's II Corps had arrived at Avesnes and Maubeuge.
On 15th June the French army started early and commenced their march towards the Sambre River.
Vandamme's III Corps however was still asleep when Lobau's VI Corps, which should have been
following it, rushed into its bivouacs. Vandamme had received no marching orders and was 3 hours
behind schedule.
It was alleged that the messenger bringing them had broken his leg. In the past, Marshal Berthier
had sent orders in duplicate or triplicate by different messengers, but unfortunately, Berthier was
dead, and the new chief-of-staff Marshal Soult was not made for staff work. The route stages were
long, and the terrain was difficult, wooded. The heat was overpowering.
The Old Guard cursed.
Marshal Soult , chief-of-staff .
There was chaos and delays on the roads,
and the staff work was poorly organized.
The new chief-of-staff, Marshal Soult, was
not made for staff work.In Charleroi there
was a massive pile-up of vehicles & such
disorder near the bridge that the military
police were unable to overcome.
.
The French stormed the Charleroi Bridge.
The French light infantry overthrew the Prussian
battalion that was defending the bridge. The Guard
Sappers and Guard Marines then cleared the bridge
and threw the barricades into the river.
As early as 3 AM, the advance guard of the French army (General Domon with 4th, 9th, and 12th
Horse Chasseurs) came in contact with the Prussian troops in front of Lobbes, firing upon, and
driving in, the 1st Westphalian Landwehr Regiment. The Prussians were overpowered and driven
back upon Thuin.
At 4 AM, the French commenced a fire from 4 guns upon the Prussian outpost about a mile in front
of Thuin. This cannonade, which announced the opening of the campaign by the French, was heard
by part of Steinmetz's infantry brigade (of Ziethen's I Army Corps) and at Charleroi. The French
advance guard discovered that the roads had been cut by trenches and barren with fallen trees to
make them unusable. To Domon's surprise no Prussian cavalry had been encountered.
General Pajol's I Cavalry Corps formed the advance guard of the French Army: it was to have been
supported by Vandamme's III Army Corps, but by some mistake, Vandamme had not received his
orders, and at 6 AM had not quited his bivouac.
Napoleon, perceiving the error, led forward the Imperial Guard in immediate support of Pajol. As
the latter advanced, the Prussian outposts, though hard pressed, retired, skirmishing in good order.
At Couillet, on the Sambre River, about 1.5 mile below Charleroi, the French cavalry fell upon a
company of III/28th Infantry Regiment, surrounded it, and forced it to surrender.
Immediately afterwards, the French gained possession of Marcinelles, a village quite close to
Charleroi, and connected with this town by a dike 300 paces in length, terminating at a bridge, the
head of which was palisaded. Along this dike the French cavalry ventured to advance, but was
driven back by the Prussian skirmishers, who lined the hedges and ditches intersecting the opposite
slope of the embankment. A part of the village was retaken, and an attempt made to destroy the
bridge. The French, however, having renewed the attack with increased force, succeeded in finally
carrying both the dike and the bridge, and by this means effected their entrance into Charleroi.
The beautiful city of Charleroi owes its name to Charles II of Spain.
Charleroi was fortified. Its inhabitants live in a war zone for several centuries known what it is to be
in the midst of wars and sieges. (Le recensement de 1812 donnait 4.020 habitants Charleroi.)
Lachouque writes, "At that time they readily acclaimed Napoleon; but they feared his soldiers, who
had a reputation as pillagers and whose lack of discipline was well known.
They preferred the English, who were governed by an iron fist and who paid well. However,
everything is relative: they were prepared to welcome the French because they had chased away the
Prussians - brutal, mean, ravenous and hating anyone who spoke French."
The sun swept the mist away, it was going to be hot.
The bridge in Charleroi was 8 m wide, protected by a palisade, barricaded and defended in front
and in the rear. Beyond it a street climbed towards the upper town, which was built in the shape of
an amphitheatre on a hill. The slopes were cluttered with houses and gardens. Two battalions of
Prussian 6th Infantry occupied the city and General Ziethen had established his headquarters there
that morning. The Prussian commander was forewarned of the French attack by his outposts.
The French cavalry of General Pajol, backed by
the Guard Sappers and the Guard Marines ,
storm and take the Charleroi Bridge.
At noon the French light infantry overthrew the Prussian battalion that was defending the bridge.
The Guard Sappers and Guard Marines then cleared the bridge and threw the barricades into the
river. Napoleon arrived and immediately launched Pajol's hussars (1st, 4th and 5th Hussars). The
Prussians halted them with grape shot.
The Guard Sappers and Guard Marines went on, followed by the Young Guard infantry. The enemy
was in full retreat and the French cavalry moved after them. The Young Guard infantry, Guard
Sappers and Guard Marines occupied the houses in the suburbs of Charlerois to organize the
defense in case the Prussians should attack.
By 11 AM, the French were in full possession of Charleroi, as also of both banks of the Sambre
above the town. Reille's II Army Corps was effecting its passage over the river at Marchienne an
Pont. The Prussians fell back, having left two Silesian rifle companies and the F/7th Infantry at
Farciennes and Tamines, for the purpose of watching the points of passage across the Sambre.
The Emperor set up his headquarters in a mansion where the lunch had been prepared for Prussian
General Hans Ernst Karl Graf von Ziethen-II. The Red Lancers dismounted to water their horses,
while the famous green-clad Guard Horse Chasseurs (Chasseurs-aCheval de la Garde Imperiale) as
usual escorted Napoleon.
The Emperor was very tired, he sat astride a chair and watched the cheerful Young Guard marching
past. Several infantry divisions and some artillery arrived and were crossing the bridge and the
frontier. Several regiments of dragoons under General Exelmans had also crossed the Sambre River.
Pajol's hussars and lancers was a little bit late due to the foundering of a large number of their
horses. The 1st Hussars was exhausted. Napoleon ordered several troops to cross the frontier not at
Charleroi, where there was heavy congestion, but at Le Chatelet. The roads were full of soldiers,
horses, guns, caissons and supply wagons.
Napoleon and the Young Guard in 1815.
The Emperor was very tired , he sat astride a chair
& watched the cheerful Young Guard marching past.
.
General Bourmont deserted to the Allies.
"A cur is always a cur."
The commander of the 14th Infantry Division of IV Corps, General Bourmont, deserted with his
staff, thereby dishonoring his name. There followed great disturbance among the soldiers and
officers and some time was wasted to restore order.
General Gerard finally managed to reassure the troops, who spat out the name of the traitor
between an oath and a curse and wanted only to advance against the enemy. Blucher on seeing
Bourmont refused to receive him, saying: "A cur is always a cur."
Napoleon soon learned about Bourmont.
Jardin Ain (the elder) writes, "During the night various officers of the staff kept coming and going
to give Napoleon accounts of the movements made by the different army corps. From their
investigations they reported to him that General Bourmont had joined the enemy. Napoleon
considered it necessary to make fresh plans, being pretty sure that this General from his treachery
would give the enemy an exact account of the position of the French army."
William Siborne writes, "While Napoleon was occupied in prescribing his intended order of attack,
he received a despatch from Count Gerard announcing that General de Bourmont, and Colonels
Clouet and Villouteeys, attached to the IV Corps, had deserted to the enemy - a circumstance which
induced the Emperor to make some alteration in his dispositions."
Map.
"Napoleon has humbugged me, by God !
He has gained 24-hour march on me.
- exclaimed Wellington
"Blucher and Napoleon had their armies in hand,
Wellington didn't." - Peter Hofschroer
"They [Allies] had been put in possession of the fact that considerable masses of French troops had
moved by their right, and assembled in front of Charleroi. Still, this baring of the frontier beyond
Tournai , Mons , and Binche , of the troops which had previously occupied that line , and t h e i r
concentration in front of Charleroi , might be designed to mask the real line of operation, to draw
the Anglo-Allied troops towards Charleroi , upon which a feigned attack would be made , while
the real attack was intended to be by Mons.
Hence no alteration was made by the Duke in the disposition of his forces; but . . . . . [Blucher]
immediately ordered the concentration of his own troops at a point where they would be at hand
in case Charleroi should be the real line of attack ... " (Siborne - "The Waterloo Campaign, 1815")
By the way, there is an interesting article in NAPOLEON magazine, published in fall of 1999, and
covering Hofschroer's book on Wellington, Blucher and the Waterloo Campaign. Below only two
short fragments: "It appears that the Allies were better informed of Napoleon's concentration than has
been previously realized, but that Wellington badly misjudged Napoleon's probable strategy and,
though promptly warned of his advance, was slow to react. If this version of Wellington seems less
than omniscient, remember that the Duke never was exactly a timid soul, and that a commander who
could devastate his Portuguese ally's territory to cover his retreat into the Lines of Torres Verdes
(1810-1811) just might have been capable of considering Blucher's army an expendable rear-guard. (...)
By his own admission, Wellington had been humbugged by Napoleon's opening maneuver. Did he
in turn humbug Blucher and Gneisenau to regain this lost time ? Since this appears to be true,
should historians now reconsider similar tales of mistrust attending Wellington's relationship with the
generals of Spain and Portugal during the Peninsular War ?"
Article "Wellington Reappraised. The American Reaction to Peter Hofschroer's 1815 book"
published in NAPOLEON magazine, in fall of 1999.
Battle of Gilly, 1815.
The Prussians had , since daybreak , been constantly under arms ,
in motion, and almost as constantly engaged, pursued, and assailed
upon all points by an overwhelming superiority of force, headed by
the elite of the French cavalry; they effected its concentration in Ligny.
Ziethen's I Army Corps was in retreat towards Fleurus (not far from Ligny). He was falling back as
slowly as possible and protected the Prussian army concentrating at Sombreffe. Constant-Rebecque
had kept his Netherlands divisions on the alert.
The British were quiet; Wellington read the despatches but thought the French attack on Charleroi
was a feint. The peasants informed Allies that Napoleon was with his Guard at Charleroi.
As soon as the French had assembled in sufficient force at Charleroi, Napoleon ordered Pajol to
detach one hussar regiment (1st Hussars) towards Gosselies, and to advance with the remainder of
his I Cavalry Corps towards Gilly. The 1st Hussars advanced to attack Gosselies, but were met by
the Prussian 6th Uhlans and 24th Infantry and defeated. The 6th Uhlans attacked and drove the
French back in disorder, only to be attacked in turn by Pire's lancers. Heinrich Niemann of the 6th
Uhlans wrote, "By command of General Ziethen we engaged the French [hussars]; but it was
nothing more than a feint; they retreated before us." Uhlans' short lived victory secured for
Steinmetz time to pass the Piston.
Lefebvre-Desnouettes's Guard Light Cavalry Division joined the hussars. An infantry regiment of
the Young Guard was advanced midway between Charleroi and Gosselies as a reserve to Lefebvre-
Desnouettes. The leading echelons of Reille's II Army Corps, were also moving upon Gosselies, with
the design both of cutting off the retreat of Ziethen's troops along the Brussels road, and of
separating the Prussians from Wellington's army. D'Erlon's I Army Corps, which was considerably
in the rear, received orders to follow and support Reille.
Steinmetz, upon approaching Gosselies, and the danger of being cut off, directed the II/1st
Westphalian Landwehr to march against the French left flank, with a view to divert his attention
and to check his advance, while, protected by the 6th Uhlans and the 1st Silesian Hussars, he
continued his retreat upon Fleurus. Steinmetzs brigade was pursued by Girards 7th Infantry
Division.
Ziethen-II's I Army Corps and the French advance.
I Army Corps consisted of four infantry brigades (1st,2nd,3rd,4th), reserve cavalry (two
brigades), and reserve artillery. The 1st Brigade (Steinmetz's) held the ground between Binche and the
Sambre River. The 2nd Brigade (Pirch-II's) occupied Marchienne au Pont, Charleroi, Chatelet, and Gilly.
The 3rd Brigade (Jagow's) stood along Sambre, and in reserve between Fleurus and the Sambre.
The 4th Brigade (Henckel's) was extended along the Sambre River nearly as far as the city of Namur.
The Reserve Cavalry was under General von Roeder and was stationed in and around Gosselies.
In this position the I Army Corps remained fully prepared for the expected attack.
Soon Ziethen was slowly falling back, and protecting the Prussian army concentrating at Sombreffe.
The French left column ( Reille's and d'Erlon's corps ) advanced by Thuin upon Marchienne au Pont.
The centre column from Beaumont upon Charleroi. The right column from Philippeville upon Chatelet.
.
Deplyment of troops.
Napoleon himself drew up
his troops for the assault.
Pirch-II's 2nd Brigade, when forced to abandon Charleroi, retired to Gilly, where, about 2 PM, they
took up a position along a ridge in rear of a rivulet. The village of Gilly consisted of long row of
houses. The road towards Gilly was blocked by abatis. (Today Gilly is part of Charleroi.)
The 1st West Prussian Dragoons stood north of Chatelet. The dragoons also patrolled the valley of
the Sambre River, maintaining the communication with Jagow's detachment at Farciennes.
Skirmishers were placed behind the hedges to protect the battery.
The I/2nd Westphalian Landwehr and the Westphalian Landwehr Cavalry were on the march to
Fleurus.
Marshal Grouchy who had gone forward to reconnoiter, returned to the Emperor (resting at the
windmill near the Grand Drieu farm) with a request for further instructions. Upon this, Napoleon
undertook a reconnaissance in person, accompanied by the four squadrons of Imperial Guard. The
Emperor called on Vandamme's III Army Corps to speed up his march towards Gilly and the Guard
to support Grouchy.
At 5 PM, after 40 km march in intense heat, arrived Vandamme's exhausted III Corps.
At 5:15 PM Pirch-II sent his corps commander, Ziethen-II, an information about the French
offensive.
Napoleon himself drew up his troops for the assault.
In the center was Vandamme with two infantry divisions (Lefol's 8th and Berthezene's 11th) and
Pajol with two light cavalry divisions (Soult's 4th and Subervie's 5th ). Some sources, however, give
only only cavalry division.
Letort's Old Guard Dragoon Regiment formed the reserve.
On the right flank was Exelmans with two dragoon divisions
(Strolz's 9th and Chastel's 10th) each with horse battery.
.
The battle.
The Prussian retreat had scarcely commenced
when their infantry battalions were assailed
by the French elite cavalry.
The French opened the engagement about 6 PM, with a fire from two batteries. Three columns of
infantry, two battalions each, advanced in echelon from the right,
- the first directing its course towards the wood (occupied by F/6th Infantry)
- the second column passing to the right of Gilly;
- the third winding round the left of this village.
The attack was supported by Bourthes and Bonnemains dragoon brigades, of which one was
directed against Pirch-II's left flank, and the other advanced along cobbled road to Fleurus. (Both
dragoon brigades were part of Strolz's 9th Cavalry Division.)
The Prussian battery was in the act of replying to the fire from the French artillery, and the
skirmishers were already engaged, when Pirch received Ziethen's orders to avoid an action against
superior numbers, and to retire upon Fleurus. Meanwhile the French skirmishers were able to push
back the Prussian outposts.
The Prussian retreat had scarcely commenced when their battalions were assailed by the French
cavalry. Frustrated Napoleon, in the hope of profiting by this retrograde movement, sent against the
retreating Prussians the Old Guard Dragoons Guard under General Letort. The Prussian infantry
withstood the repeated attacks of the French cavalry, and aided by Woiskis 1st West Prussian
Dragoons, checked enemeys progress. The Prussian F/28th Infantry was the only troop broken on
this occasion.
Napoleon, Letort, and the Old Guard Dragoons at Gilly, 1815.
". . . a bullet struck Letort in the stomach, and he fell from his horse . . .
He was a kind and fearless leader and the dragoons worshipped him; and
they avenged his death by slaughtering all who came within reach of their
long swords." Henri Houssaye - "1815 Waterloo"
.
Slaughter of Prussian battalion.
The Old Guard Dragoons under Letort
cut to pieces a strong Prussian battalion.
Letort's death.
When the Prussians left the battlefield, dissapointed Napoleon sent Pajol's and Letort's cavalry in
pursuit. The French cavalry was without horse artillery. The F/6th Infantry under Major von Haine
covered the Prussian withdrawal. Another battalion of light infantry, the F/28th Infantry was
nearby. Both units were formed in squares 500 paces from the wood called de Tricheheve. Major
Heine spoke to his men, he called on them to remain calm and finished with the words: "No man is
to fire unless I give the order."
The Old Guard Dragoons and part of 15th Dragoons then charged, broke the enemy, and cut to
pieces the F/28th Infantry in full view of von Haine's men. A number of men from the broken
square sought refuge in the square formed by the F/6th Infantry.
There is a graphic description of these charges in the regimental history of the 28th Infantry (a
former Berg regiment, French ally): "Although several cavalrymen managed to break into the
square, they were all bayoneted. Even after such a show of resistance, the enemy tried to persuade
the troops to change sides. General Letort, commander of the French Guard Dragoons, recognised
the Fusiliers by their Berg uniform. He thought that, since the hopelessness of their position would
be obvious to them, their loyalty might waver.
He rode up and demanded they desert the Prussian army.
A shot rang out and Letort fell dead from his saddle. Fusilier Kaufmann of the 12th Company had
leapt out of the square and given the enemy general his answer, in powder and lead. The battalion
continued to withdraw but just before it reached the wood, the enemy cavalry approached again.
The 10th Company faced front while the others continued their movement. At this critical moment,
the full force of the enemy cavalry charge it home."
General Letort (1773-1815)
Letort rode up and demanded the
fusiliers desert the Prussian army .
A shot rang out and Letort fell dead
from his saddle . Private Kaufmann
had leapt out of te square and given
Letort his answer,in powder & lead.
The Guard Dragoons avenged the death of their beloved Letort, the F/28th Infantry lost 13 officers
and 614 men that day ! This battalion was then reorganised into a new 'combined battalion' with the
survivors of the III/2nd Westphalian Landwehr which had suffered heavily on the retreat from
Thuin earlier on.
Standard-bearer of Guard Dragoons.
Picture by L. Rousselot, France.
"The men are very handsome, the horses fine, strong,
and well cared for. The officers , NCOs , and soldiers
are animated by an excellent spirit, perfect discipline,
and have a splendid appearance." - General Ornano
After Napoleon's abdication in 1814 , the Dragoons
called the returning King Louis XVIII "fat pig." The
Bourbons and the Royalists hated them.
.
The Prussians fell back.
Pirch-II's 2nd Brigade was able
to reach Ligny before midnight.
Ziethen sent von Roeder with three cavalry regiments (incl. Brandenburg Dragoons)and II Horse
Battery under Captain Borowski, in support of the hard-pressed Pirch-II's brigade. The
Brandenburg Dragoons made several charges against the French cavalry, which they repulsed and
compelled to relinquish its pursuit. Pirch-II''s 2nd Brigade now took up a position in front of
Lambusart, which was occupied by some battalions of Jagow's 3rd Brigade, At this moment, the
French cavalry, which was formed up in position, opened a fire from three horse batteries, and thus
brought on a cannonade, with which, however, the affair terminated.
It was not the duty of the rear guard to be annihilated, but to give ground as slowly as possible. The
Prussians had stopped the enemy for several hours, until Napoleon had had to deal with them, and
then they quickly fell back. But it is always difficult to try to withdraw in the face of more numerous
enemy. The Prussians had, since daybreak, been constantly under arms, in motion, and almost as
constantly engaged, pursued, and assailed upon all points by an overwhelming superiority of force,
headed by the elite of the French cavalry; they effected its concentration in position between Ligny
and St Amand. Pirch-II's brigade was able to reach Ligny before midnight.
Article: "Battle of Ligny, 1815: the Prussians stand alone." >
Generallieutenant von Ziethen-II
At the end of the Waterloo Campaign 1815,
his I Army Corps was granted the honour
of being the first Allies corps to enter Paris.
.
Marshal Ney join the French army.
The soldiers recognized Marshal Ney
and appeared happy to see him.
It was 7 PM of the 15th, when Marshal Ney, who had just arrived, joined the Emperor near
Charleroi, at the point where the road to Fleurus branches off from the one to Brussels. Having
expressed the pleasure he felt at seeing him, Napoleon gave him the command of Erlon's and
Reille's corps; explaining at the same time that Reille was advancing upon Gosselies; that Erlon
would pass the night at Marchienne au Pont. That he would find under his orders the two light
cavalry regiments of the Guard, of which, however, he was not to make use except as a reserve.
"Tomorrow," added the Emperor, "you will be joined by Kellermann's IV Cavalry Corps. Go and
drive back the Enemy." The soldiers recognized Ney and appeared happy to see him. ( hauteur d
la porte de Bruxelles, Dampremy, l'arrive du marchal Ney plaisait, les soldats le reconnaissaient,
ils paraissaient heureux de le voir. a va marcher! criaient-ils, voil le rougeaud.).
It was a hot night.
Napoleon was back in Charleroi, very tired he fell asleep. In the courtyard, the II Battalion of the 1st
Grenadiers (the old of the Old Guard) was on duty. Marshal Soult and his staff however were at
work sending out message to various troops. The Emperor thought that Blucher, who had been
affected by the sudden appearance of the French near his dispersed forces, would beat retreat.
Wellington would not be able to withstand a French attack unaided and would fall back. In theory
this calculation looked simple and depended on the speed of the marching troops. In Charleroi
however there was a massive pile-up of vehicles and such disorder near the bridge that Radet's
Gendarmes were unable to overcome.
Second stage of the battle of Gilly, 1815.
.
Battle of Quatre Bras, 1815.
The Netherlands troops had fought a combat
with the French troops the previous evening.
They had done so on their own initiative , ----
choosing not to carry out Wellington's order
to move their entire force on Nivelles.
- Peter Hofschroer
Napoleon despatched Marshal Ney with Reille's II Army Corps and Lefebvre-Desnouettes' Guard Light
Cavalry Division (Red Lancers and Old Guard Horse Chasseurs). Ney's force was advancing upon
Gosselies and Frasnes.
At 6:30 PM the Red Lancers were receieved with musket fire but after some quick maneuvers the enemy
fell back. The hostile troops were Prince Bernard of Saxe-Weimar's battalions. The Nassauers were
alarmed by the exodus of peasants and the artillery fire coming from the Fleurus direction. Ney wrote
Napoleon, "The troops that we found at Frasnes had not been fighting at Gossieles ... Tomorrow, at
daybreak, I will send out a reconnaissance party to Quatre-Bras which will, if possible, occupy this
position, because I believe the Nassau troops have gone ..."
General-Major Prinz Bernard von Saxe-Weimar, commander of the Nassau Infantry Brigade, wrote
General Perponcher, "At about 6:30 PM the French attacked the forward posts at Frasnes with infantry
and artillery, the Nassau battalion and the battery there withdrew half way to Quatre-Bras."
General-Major Prinz Bernard von Saxe-Weimar with officers.
The Prince is (mounted) on the right. On the left are officers
of Nassau and Orange-Nassau infantry regiments in 1815.
Quatre Bras was a very small village located near the important crossroards on the road to Brussels.
Kincaid recounted, "Quatre Bras at that time consisted of only 3 or 4 houses ... "
Marshal Ney arrived at Quatre Bras around 2 PM.
The visibility was limited for both sides because of standing crops of tall rye, wheat and corn. The tree-
lined brook banks offered good vantage line for skirmishers. So far there were only few troops on the
battlefield.
Ney immediately recognized the importance of the crossroads at Quatre Bras and the Bossu Wood. It
was impossible to move along the road to Brussels while the enemy occupied the wood. The Bossu
Wood consisted of tall trees and thick undergrowth, wide footpaths facilitated toop movements. Nearby
stood Gemioncourt.
Gemioncourt was a large farm with large towers, walled gardens and orchards offering a strongpoint for
the defence. H.Williams described the strongpoint, "Gemioncourt was typical of Belgian farms of the
period: it was built strongly of stone, with the main house and subsidiary buildings grouped around a
central courtyard entered by a single wooden gate, so that from without the farm presented the thick,
windowless outer walls of its buildings and high connecting walls. With the simple addition of
loopholes, such a farm became a formidable bastion"
Quatre Bras
.
Map of battlefield.
.
Prince of Orange's troops.
The Jager and Line battalions were
professional soldiers, but even these
had large numbers of new recruits.
The militia was second-rate troop.
At 6 AM arrived Prince of Orange and inspected the front line.
He was in command until Wellington returned from his meeting with Blucher. Although only 23 at
Waterloo His Royal Highness The Prince of Orange commaded the Netherland troops during the
Waterloo Campaign. This command was given to him for entirely diplomatic reasons. Until Wellington
arrived in Brussels in April, Prince of Orange was the commander-in-chief of Allied forces stationed in
Netherlands. It was only after intense pressure and persuasion that his father, the King of the
Netherlands, agreed to Wellington taking overall command. Nothing less than I Corps was acceptable to
his father. (- Mark Adkin)
In the beginning of the battle of Quatre Bras, the young Prince had 9-10 infantry battalions and 16 guns.
These troops were part of General Perponcher's 2nd Netherland Infantry Division. According to Erwin
Muilwijk the Netherland troops in 1815 were "... typical new recruits with no campaign experience yet;
just like every other army had large numbers of them in this period. Obviously the Jager and Line
battalions were professional soldiers, but even these had large numbers of new men. The militia was all
sort of conscripted, but there was no specific difference I think. Not a bad army, not a distinguishable
army perhaps at the start; but it prooved its task, to me. Perhaps a study on its own........"
The 7th Line Battalion was one of the best Netherland infantry units, especially the officers were
excellent. Commander F. C. Vandensande served in the French 112th Line Infantry Regiment, and was
awarded with Lgion dHonneur. Captain LOlivier served in the French 7th Line Infantry Regiment as
commander of grenadier company. Captain Nieuport served in the French 13th Tirailleur Regiment of
Young Guard. Lieutenant Nieulandt served in the 1st Regiment of Honor Guard. Lieutenant Scheltens
served in the famous Grenadiers of Old Guard.
The 27th Jager Battalion was also a good unit. It was commanded by Luitenant-Colonel Jan Willem
Grunebosch, a seasoned officer. In the previous years he served in the line infantry and as lieutenant with
the Guard Grenadiers of the King of Holland. According to Major Hans Boersma on 12 June 1815 the 27th
Jager Battalion had 23 officers, 786 NCOs and soldiers in the field, with 7 horses attached. (On 15 June
739 NCOs and privates.) The NCOs and privates included:
- 667 Dutchmen
- 43 Germans
- 26 Belgians
- 15 men of other nationalities.
Of these, 182 men or 23 % had combat experience. And one very important thing; all were volunteers.
Netherlands infantry battalions consisted of 6 companies and 1 depot company. The 1st and the 6th
Companies were designated as Flank Companies, while the 1st-4th were Centre Companies. The Flank
Companies formed the elite units of the battalion, comprising the best men.
The Netherland infantry units were arrayed in 2 instead of in 3 ranks.
The infantry was armed with British Brown Bess muskets. Majoor Boersma writes, "As early as August
1814, while the Brown Bess was still being widely distributed, it was decided that the French musket
would become the standard infantry firearm for the Army. It would be produced in the Netherlands as
the Model 1815 ..."

The Dutch and Belgians were hard pressed by the enemy.
Col. de Jongh of the 8th Dutch Militia, had been wounded
and had ordered his staff to tie him to the saddle so he can
stay with the troops. His battalion suffered heavy losses.
Almost the entire force under Prince of Orange was made of Perponcher's infantry division.
2nd Netherland Infantry Division : Gen.Ltn. Baron de Perponcher
Chief-of-Staff: Col. van Zuylen van Nyevelt
- - - 1st Brigade: Gen.Mjr. Graf van Bijlandt
- - - - - - 27th Dutch Jager Battalion
- - - - - - 7th Belgian Line Battalion
- - - - - - 5th, 7th and 8th Dutch Militia Battalion
- - - 2nd Brigade: Gen.Mjr. Prinz Bernard von Saxe-Weimar
- - - - - - I, II, III/2nd Nassau Regiment
- - - - - - I, II/Orange-Nassau Regiment
- - - - - - Volunteers Jaegers Orange-Nassau
- - - Artillery: Mjr. van Opstal
- - - - - - Belgian Foot Battery: Cpt. Stievenaar
- - - - - - Dutch Horse Battery: Cpt. Bijleveld
Terminology and abbreviations :
Luitenant Generaal (general lieutenant) = Gen.Ltn.
Majoor Generaal (general major) = Gen.Mjr.
Kolonel (colonel) = Col.
Luitenant Kolonel = Ltn.Col.
Majoor (major) = Mjr.
Kapitein (captain) = Cpt.
Luitenant (lieutenant) = Ltn.
I/Regiment = the 1st battalion of that regiment
Baron de Perponcher-Sedlnitzky (1771-1856)
With the French occupation of his country,he
fled to England entering the British army in
-- 1800 . After the Napoleonic Wars he was
appointed the Dutch ambassador to Prussia.
Captain Stevenaart had 6 foot guns posted between Bossu & Gemioncourt, and 2 detached to the
southwestern corner of the wood. Captain Bijleveld had 5 horse guns on a small hill, and 3 guns near
Quatre Bras. All artillery wagons were withdrawn to behind Quatre Bras.
The 27th Dutch Jagers Battalion stood between the farms of Gemioncourt and Pireaumont. They also
guarded the bridge near the Materne Pond. One company supported the artillery. The 5th Dutch Militia
Battalion stood on a hilltop north-west of Gemioncourt, one company was detached to the farm. The
superb I,III/2nd Nassau and I/Nassau-Orange occupied the wood. The Red Lancers didn't allow them to
form in the open.
The 8th Dutch Militia Battalion was placed in the wood and a small detachment defended Grand
Pierrepont. The 7th Dutch Militia Battalion was held in reserve but it soon was ordered to enter the
wood. The II/2nd Nassau and II/Nassau-Orange were held in reserve. The 7th Belgian Line Battalion
arrived before 3 PM, was held in reserve for a short while, and then ordered into the wood.
The Nassau and Netherlands troops had fought a combat with some French the previous evening. They
had done so on their own initiative, choosing not to carry out Wellington's orders to move their entire
force on Nivelles. Thanks to Constant Rebeque and Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, the French had just about
been thwarted in their attempt to drive the two Allied armies in Belgium apart.
The Nassau light infantry
by Dmitrii Zgonnik of Ukraine.
The Nassau infantrymen served with considerable distinction
during the Napoleonic Wars , both in alliance with and against
Napoleon. They saw action in Germany and Poland in 1806-07
and in Spain, Austria (1809) and Saxony (1813).
.
Marshal Ney's troops.
"The army was brave, but there was an inevitable
lack of cohesion because the men did not know
their commanders and distrusted the generals."
Lachouque - "Waterloo" p 48
Marshal Ney had Reille's II Army Corps (5th, 6th, 9th Infantry Division, and 2nd Cavalry Division) and
the elite Guard Light Cavalry Division. The rank and file, NCOs and officers were excellent. The artillery
was - as usual - superb. The cavalry however lacked many horses. Henri Lachoque writes, "The army was
brave, but there was an inevitable lack of cohesion because the men did not know their commanders and
distrusted the generals."
The French infantry battalion consisted of 6 companies formed in 3 ranks. Staff and two or three field
battalions formed an infantry regiment. There were line and light infantry regiments. Light infantry was
better suited for skirmishing and maneuvering. In 1815 there were 90 line and 15 light regiments. The
French cavalry regiment suppose to have four squadrons of 2 companies each. Many however had three
squadrons and some had only two. The hussars were armed with curved sabers, the chasseurs with
curved sabers and carbines, the dragoons with straight sabers and muskets, the lancers with sabers and
lancers, and the cuirassiers were armed with straight sabers and wore armor. Each battery of foot
artillery had 6 cannons and 2 howitzers. The horse battery had 4 cannons and 2 howitzers.
For more information read:
"French infantry" >
"French cavalry" >
"French artillery" >
The bulk of Ney's forces was made by the II Army Corps under General de Division Reille.
Honore-Charles-Michel Reille(1775-1860)
From 1810 until the end of Peninsular War he was
fighting Wellington's troops and Spanish guerillas.
His relationship with Marshal Soult was strained to
the extent that Reille abandoned his post in 1814 .
II Army Corps : Gen.Div. Reille
Chief-of-Staff: Gen.Brig. Lacroix
Chief-of-Artillery: Gen.Brig. Pelletier
Chief-of-Engineers: Gen.Brig. de Richemont
- - - 5th Infantry Division: Gen.Div. Baron Bachelu
- - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade: General de Brigade Husson
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3rd Line Infantry Regiment [2]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 61st Line Infantry Regiment [2]
- - - - - - - - - 2nd Infantry Brigade: Gen.Brig. Campi
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 72nd Line Infantry Regiment [2]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 108th Line Infantry Regiment [3]
- - - - - - - - - Artillery: XVIII Company of 6th Foot Artillery Regiment [8]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Company of Artillery Train
- - - 6th Infantry Division: Gen.Div. Prince Jrme Bonaparte
- - - Second in command: Gen.Div. Guilleminot
- - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade: Gen.Brig. Bauduin
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Light Infantry Regiment [3]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Light Infantry Regiment [4]
- - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade: General de Brigade Soye
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Line Infantry Regiment [3]
- - - - - - - - - Artillery: II Company of 2nd Foot Artillery Regiment [8]
- - - 9th Infantry Division: Gen.Div. Foy
- - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade: Gen.Brig. Gauthier
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 93rd Line Infantry Regiment [3]
- - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade: Gen.Brig. Jamin
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4th Light Infantry Regiment [3]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 100th Line Infantry Regiment [3]
- - - - - - - - - Artillery: I Company of 6th Foot Artillery Regiment [8]
- - - 2nd Cavalry Division: Gen.Div. Pir
- - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade: Gen.Brig. Hubert
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1st Chasseur--Cheval Regiment [4]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6th Chasseur--Cheval Regiment [4]
- - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade: Gen.Brig. Wathiez
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5th Chevau-Legers-Lanciers Regiment [3]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6th Chevau-Legers-Lanciers Regiment [4]
- - - - - - - - - Artillery: II Company of 4th Horse Artillery Regiment [6]
- - - - - - - - - Reserve Artillery:
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - VII Company of 2nd Foot Artillery Regiment (8)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Note: the 8 pieces in reserve were not the 6pdrs but the heavier 12pdrs.
General de Division (general of division) = Gen.Div.
General de Brigade (general of brigade) = Gen.Brig.
Colonel (colonel) = Col.
Major (major) = Mjr.
Capitaine (captain) = Cpt.
Infantry Regiment [3] = regiment has 3 battalions
Cavalry Regiment [4] = regiment has 4 squadrons
Company of Artillery [8] = company has 8 guns
French line infantry, by Lilien & Fred Funcken
There was also the superb Guard Light Cavalry Division under General de Division Charles, Comte
Lefebvre-Desnouettes. In the beginning of the battle, this unit stood as a reserve behind Bachelu's and
Foy's infantry. Once the cuirassiers arrived the Guard Cavalry moved on the left flank.
- - - Guard Light Cavalry Division: Gen.Div. Lefebvre-Desnouettes
- - - - - - - - - 1st Brigade: Gen.Brig. Lallemand
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Guard Chasseur--Cheval Regiment [5]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Note: the I, II, III, and IV Squadron were Old Guard, the V was Young Guard.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - One of the five squadrons was probably detached to escort the Emperor.
- - - - - - - - - 2nd Brigade: Gen.Div. Baron de Colbert-Chabanais
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Chevau-Legers-Lanciers Regiment [5]
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Note: the II, III, IV and V Squadron were the so-called Red Lancers made
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - of French (and some Dutch) cavalrymen. Some were Old Guard and many
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - were ex-Middle Guard.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - The I Squadron was the famous Elba Squadron made of the best lancers
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - of the Old Guard. Together with the Old Guard infantry they formed
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Napoleon's escort on Elba Island 1814-1815.
Article: "Napoleon's Guard Cavalry"
The Guard Lancers ("Red Lancers")
They wore one of the most striking uniforms.
.
Morning skirmish at Quatre Bras.
At 7 AM a small body of French troops
probed enemy positions but was driven
back after a brief exchange of fire.
The Red Lancers (made of French and Dutch veterans) approached Frasnes and were greeted with
artillery fire from the Dutch horse battery and musket fire from the II Battalion of 2nd Nassau. Lefebvre-
Desnouettes decided that it was folly for cavalry alone to try to drive infantry out of a village, and called
for infantry support.
A single battalion from Bachelu's division would take time to reach the outskirts of Frasnes. Meanwhile
the I Squadron of the Red Lancers (it was the Elba Squadron) moved round the east of Frasnes and
advanced, getting close to Quatre-Bras without encountering serious resistance.
Captain Bijleveld of horse battery writes, "Towards the end of the afternoon we were attacked by French
Lancers, but the precautions I had made with Major Normann, commanding the II Battalion of Nassau
Regiment ... frustrated the French. ... As soon as I had arrived with my battery ... ordering them to load
canister. The infantry drew up in line to the left and right. ... The French Lancers debouching from
Frasnes were fired upon by canister by the whole battery which killed and wounded several men and
horses. They retired to the village and sent out patrols. ... They posted sentries; we did also, maintaining
our position till the next morning."
Ney wrote to Napoleon, "The troops that we found at Frasnes had not been fighting at Gossieles ...
Tomorrow, at daybreak, I will send out a reconnaissance party to Quatre-Bras which will, if possible,
occupy this position, because I believe the Nassau troops have gone ..."
At 5 AM in Quatre Bras, General Perponcher deployed the 27th Jagers Battalion, replacing the posts of
the III/2nd Nassau. Skirmishers covered the path along the southern edge of Bossu Wood. Two
companies of the II/2nd Nassau were sent to reconnoitre.
Stevenart's (Netherland) Foot Battery was deployed as follow: 6 guns stood between Bossu Wood and
Gemioncourt, and 2 guns were near the south-western corner of the Bossu Wood.
There were also 50 men of the Prussian Silesian Hussars under Lieutenant Zehelin, they had been cut off
from the Prussian army in the previous day's fighting. The hussars skirmished with flankers sent by the
Red Lancers. The cavalry combat however was short and both sides disengaged after light casualties.
Bijleveld's battery opened fire on the Red Lancers.
Colonel van Zuylen van Nuevelt writes, "At 7 o'clock the enemy [French] began to reconnoitre our
position by making a few cavalry charges, which were however, repulsed with loss on his side ... Up to
now the enemy had not appeared in great strength; the troops against whom we had to fight consisted,
besides part of the line infantry, the Guard Chasseurs, Guard Lancers and Guard Horse Artillery ..."
An attempt by two companies of Nassauers to advance towards Frasnes was likewise repelled. French
artillery arrived and large groups of skirmishers made demonstrations along the front line. At noon the
III/2nd Nassau relieved the II/2nd Nassau which then went for lunch.
At 6 AM arrived Prince of Orange and inspected the front line. He was in command until Wellington
returned from his meeting with Blucher. Prince of Orange saw French foragers making their fires close
by, behind them, in the tall crops near Frasnes, stood lancers.
It was a very hot day.
.
Chaos on the roads.
The road to Nivelles was blocked by the baggage
of the British 3rd Division. Nobody seemed to be
in charge of traffic control . The bottlenck was
appalling.
There was chaos at the various choke-points on the line of march.
Constant Rebeque found state of confusion on the road to Quatre Bras, as von Alten's (British-German)
and Chasse's (Netherland) divisions had arrived at the same time. The noise of battle could be heard by
many troops on the road.
The road to Nivelles was blocked by the baggage of the British 3rd Division. Nobody seemed to be in
charge of traffic control. The chaos was such that much of Wellington's force would not arrive until the
late evening, when the battle was over.
The cavalry that Wellington had confidently predicted to Blucher and Gneiseanu would be at "Nivelles at
noon" were, unknown to anyone at Quatre Bras, somewhere between Enghien and Braine-le-Comte,
caught in the infernal confusion that had engulfed much of the Allied army.
Wellington's orders had brought the cavalry down from Ninove to Enghien, where they began to lose
themselves in the morass that was intermingled units of infantry. The bottlenck was appalling, even by
the undemanding standards of the day.
Captain Mercer of the Royal Horse Artillery writes, "The 23rd (Light Dragoons)
floundered through ... About noon after threading through more mud and many
watery lanes , doubtful if we were in the right direction , we came out upon a ---
more open and dry country... To the same point various columns of cavalry were
converging, and under a park wall we found Sir Vandeleur's brigade ... Here we
also dismounted to await the arrival of Major McDonald ...
All the corps as they arrived, I observed took this road, and continued onwards ...
having waited a good half-hour, and no Major McDonald appeareing, I began to
look around for some one to give me information , but no staff - officer was to be
seen, and no one else knew anything about the matter. Corps after corps arrived
and passed on, generally without halting, yet all professing ignorance of their
destination. ...
Sir Ormsby cut my queries short with an asperity totally uncalled for , " I know
nothing about you sir ! I know nothing about you !' 'But will you have the good
-ness to tell me where are you going yourself ?'
'I know nothing about it, sir !
I told you already I know nothing at all about you !'
Finally Mercer's battery reached Braine-le-Comte.
"Here as before I could obtain no intelligence respecting our march, the direction
and meaning of which all I spoke to professed ignorance.." Then Mercer's battery
became entangled with dragoons and hussars. "It was here that Major McDonald
overtook us, and without adverting to the bivouac at Enghien, of which probably
he had never heard, gave me orders to attach myself to the Household Brigade ..."
.
Wellington rode to Blucher.
Wellington and his staff officers
(some had their umbrellas) rode to
Bussy Mill near Ligny where they
met with Blucher and Gneissenau.
Meanwhile Wellington rode to Blucher. At noon he arrived from Quatre Bras and was greeted by one of
Blucher's brigades, Tippelskirch's 5th Infanterie-Brigade. Wellington, his staff officers (some had their
umbrellas) and escort rode to Bussy Mill where they met with Blucher and his staff.
Wellington speaking fluently in French [1] asked Blucher and Gneiseanu: Que voulez-vous que je fasse ?
(What do you want me to do ?) Prussian officer Muffling acted as translator for the discussion. Blucher's
plan was simple; to give battle, aided by a significant force to be sent by Wellington.
[1] - In 1786 Wellington studied in the French military academy at Angers, in Anjou,
becoming fluent in French language and making friends with the French officers.
.
The first French attack.
The French artillery opened fire
and the infantry moved forward.
Ney arrived and saw only the German and Netherland outposts. He remarked to General Reille, the
commander of II Army Corps: "There is hardly anyone in the Bossu Wood, we must take it at once."
Bossu Wood was very important but the main attack was directed east of the wood, along the road to
Quatre Bras.
Marshal Ney reasoned that, with attack along the road, the enemy in the Bossu Wood would be obliged
to pull back their line to avoid being outflanked.
Around 2 PM the French moved in force, and the Allied outposts retired to Grand-Pierrepont. The
French artillery opened fire and the infantry columns screened with skirmishers moved forward. The first
assault was made by Bachelu's 5th Infantry Division. Baron Gilbert-Desire-Joseph Bachelu (1777-1849)
was a competent general, engineer by training. He was an outspoken, unrepentant republican.
The four companies of 27th Jager Battalion were assigned to the center of Allies positions. The jagers
wore a bell-topped shako of Austrian pattern, with front and rear peaks. On the front was a brass
stringed bugle with the battalion number on top and orange cockade. The coat was dark green of British
pattern, single-breasted, with yellow collar, cuffs and tunic front piping; dark green shoulder-straps and
cuff flaps, piped yellow. The trousers were grey, while the crossed leather belts were black. The officers
wore black boots la Suvarov. The Dutch jagers were armed with British "Brown . Bess" musket (ext.links)
with bayonet. These were used firearms, some had to undergo several repairs.
While Bachelu's division pushed back the Dutch 27th Jagers towards Gemioncourt, Foy's 9th Infantry
Division moved against the center of enemy. General de Division Comte Maximilien-Sebastien Foy
(1775-1825) was a competent commander and staff officer and a veteran of Peninsula War.
Half of Foy's division (Gauthier's brigade) attacked the southern edge of Bossu Wood but was thrown
back by I/Nassau-Orange and 8th Dutch Militia. The two battalions then were driven back 250 m into the
wood by a new French attack. (During this battle, the brave Colonel de Jongh of the 8th Dutch Militia,
had been wounded and had ordered his staff to tie him to the saddle so he can stay with his battalion.)
Duke Bernhard led the volunteers of the I/2nd Nassau and 2 companies of the 7th Militia in a
counterattack, and pushed the French back out of the wood.
Around 4 PM arrived the 6th Infantry Division of Jerome Bonaparte.
Prince Jerome (1784-1860) was Napoleon's youngest brother. He was first and foremost a socialite rather
than a soldier. The 6th Infantry Division was an excellent unit with four strong regiments and one
battery. The best of them was probably the 1st Light Infantry Regiment under Colonel Amedee-Louis
Despans-Cubieres. The battery of 8 pieces was under Capitaine Meunier.
Marshal Ney ordered Jerome's division immediately to the Bossu Wood. The Nassauers and the
Netherland troops fell back in rather good order. They still held the northern part of the wood and
supported with fire the Netherlands troops defending Gemioncourt. Meanwhile Foy's division rallied on
the road to Quatre Bras.
Four companies of 27th Jagers were in the process of withdrawing when Pire's cavalry (1st and 6th
Chasseur-a-Cheval Regiment led by General de Brigade Hubert) struck them, inflicting casualties, and
scattering many survivors. Comte Hippolyte-Marie-Guillaume Pire (1778-1850) was a seasoned officer,
and an excellent cavalryman. He was wounded at Borodino, and distinguished himself at Dresden, after
which he was promoted general de division. On 22nd March 1814, Pire with only 400 light cavalry
moved from Frignicourt to St.Dizier where he captured most of the two Allies battalions (1,100 men) and
a large convoy. There were some other successes, but splendid as his dash had been, Pire was not
satisfied. "Pire handled his division brilliantly at Quatre Bras." (Mark Adkin - "Waterloo Companion")
The French artillery fired on all cylinders. The 5th Militia Battalion suffered from French howitzers, while
Bijleveld's and Stevenart's batteries suffered considerable loss of gunners and horses.
General-Major Bijlandt rallied his shattered troops; the gunners, the 27th Jagers and the 5th Militia. He
knew them well. In 1814 Bijlandt served as lieutenant-colonel in the Dutch militia.
Willem Frederik van Bijlandt (1771-1855)
In 1795 Bijlandt left service after the French takeover
and took command of squadron of British cavalry in
Dutch West Indies . In 1 7 9 7 as lieutenant - colonel
served in British cavalry in Ireland. In 1802 (after the
Peace of Amiens ) he left the British service . For his
services during the Waterloo Campaign 1815 he was
awarded the 3th Class Knight MWO medal.
.
Allies' reinforcements.
After 9 hours march arrived
Merlen's Netherland Cavalry.
After Merlen , the 5th British
Division came, and then the
Brunswickers.
Heavily outnumbered and hard pressed, the Dutch, Belgians and the Germans (Nassauers) under
Bijlandt and Saxe-Weimar were in a critical situation. Before 3:30 PM arrived van Merlen's Netherland
Cavalry Brigade (5th Light Dragoons, 6th Hussars) with 2 guns. Both regiments were Dutch. Merlen was
a seasoned general, his troopers however were exhausted. The horses had been saddled since the
morning before, and they marched 9 hours (!) in oppressive heat that day.
Shortly after Merlen's Netherland light cavalry, General Picton's 5th British Infantry Division came.
It was one of the best division of the army. The British battalions were composed of battle-hardened
veterans of Peninsular War led by seasoned officers. The Cameron Highlanders were under Lieutenant-
Colonel Neil Douglas, the Royal Highlanders under Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Robert Macara, and the
Gordon Highlanders were under Lieutenant-Colonel John Cameron of Fassifern. The divisional artillery
was very good. It was commanded by a German officer, Major Heinrich Heise, and consisted of one
British and one Hanoverian battery.
Picton deployed his troops as follow, Kempt's and part of Pack's brigades in the first line, and Best's
Hannoverian brigade in the second. Hanoverian battery was placed on the right, and British battery on
the left.
5th British Infantry Division
Commander: Ltn.Gen. Sir Thomas Picton
Chief of Staff: Mjr.Gen. Gomm
- - - - - - - - - 8th British Brigade: Mjr.Gen. Sir Kempt
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I/28th Regiment of Foot - veterans of Peninsula War
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I/32nd Regiment of Foot - veterans of Peninsula War
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I/79th Regiment of Foot (Cameron Highlanders) - veterans of Peninsular War
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - part of I/95th Regiment of Foot (Rifles) - veterans of Peninsular War
- - - - - - - - - 9th British Brigade: Mjr.Gen. Sir Pack
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III/1st Regiment of Foot (Royal Scots, Lowlanders)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 42nd Regiment of Foot (Royal Highlanders) - veterans of Peninsular War
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II/44th Regiment of Foot (East Essex) - veterans of Peninsular War
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I/92nd Regiment of Foot (Gordon Highlanders) - veterans of Peninsular War
- - - - - - - - - 5th Hannoverian Brigade: Col. von Vincke
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - "Hameln" Landwehr Battalion
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - "Gifhorn" Landwehr Battalion
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - "Hildesheim" Landwehr Battalion
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - "Peine" Landwehr Battalion
- - - - - - - - - Artillery: Mjr. Heisse
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hannoverian foot battery (5? 6pdr, 1? 5.5" howitzer): Captain Braun
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - British foot battery (5 9pdr cannons, 1 5.5" howitzer): Major Rogers
Lieutenant-General = Ltn.Gen.
Major-General = Mjr.Gen.
Colonel = Col.
Lieutenant-Colonel = Ltn.Col.
Major = Mjr.
Captain = Cpt.
I/Regiment = the 1st battalion of that regiment
Sir Thomas Picton ( 1758 - 1815 )
He was one of the hardest fighting generals ,
respected for his courage , and feared for his
irascible temperament. Wellington, it is true,
"never reposed in him the confidence that he
gave to Beresford, Hill, and Craufurd. But in
the resolute,thorough and punctual execution
of a well-defined task Picton had no superior
in the [British] army. " (- wikipedia)
Next came several strong battalions of the black-clad Brunswick infantry along with artillery and cavalry.
The Brunswickers had a higher proportion of inexperienced youths than any other formation. Their
infantry fought in in a 2-rank line, and every battalion carried a Color. Each battalion had 4 companies.
The Brunswickers deployed between Bossu Wood and the road to Charleroi. Duke of Brunswick
deployed two companies of the Vanguard Battalion in the wood, and the well-trained Jager Battalion in
a ditch near Gemioncourt. The jagers were in groups of 4 at intervals of six paces.
Brunswick Division: Duke of Brunswick, then Col. Olfermann
- - - - - - - - - Advance Guard: Mjr. von Rauschenplatt
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Jager Battalion
- - - - - - - - - Light Brigade: Ltn.Col. von Buttlar
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Light Battalion "Leib"
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Light Battalion
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Light Battalion
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III Light Battalion
- - - - - - - - - Line Brigade: Ltn.Col. von Specht
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I Line Battalion
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II Line Battalion
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - III Line Battalion
- - - - - - - - - Artillery: Mjr. Mahn
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Foot Battery (8 6pdr cannons): Mjr. von Moll
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Horse Battery (8 6pdr cannons): Cpt. von Heinemann
- - - - - - - - - Cavalry Brigade
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2nd Hussar Regiment
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Uhlans
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Gendarmes (17 men)
Mark Adkin writes, "Hitler's feared SS formations of World War II wore the all-black
uniform and silver Death's Head skull and crossbones badge ( <-- see photo ) of their
German forebears in the Duke of Brunswick's "Black Legion" or "Black Horde" to give
its more sinister designation. In 1814 the "Black Duke", as Brunswick was called,
disbanded his Legion that had fought for Britain since 1809, and raised a new national
army. Units were built up on cadres of veterans of the Peninsular War, where the
Brunswick-Oels Regiment had provided semi-independent light companies to most British infantry
divisions to beef up their scouting and skirmishing capacity."
Battle of Quatre Bras by James Jenkins. The Stapleton Collection.
The British and Hanoverian red-clad infantry is in the foreground.
The French infantry is in the background, the lancers on the left.
.
The French captured
Gemioncourt farm.
The French kept pressing the Netherland and Nassau troops along the entire front. Ney and Reille then
concentrated their efforts in the center, and it was not long before Gemioncourt was taken. The farm was
a real strongpoint but Prince of Orange had not many troops left. The one sent to defend the farm was the
5th Militia Battalion. The walls bristled with muskets.
The French assault was spearheaded by several battalions of 4th Light and 100th Line Infantry Regiment.
While some of the French aimed at the walls others rushed against the gate. The musket fire was light at
first and then erupted in intensity and volume. Before the attackers were able to surround Gemioncourt
on all sides, the defenders fell back. The French rushed in with bayonets and entered the farm.
With the 5th Militia dislodged, the British I Battalion of 28th Regiment of Foot (The North
Gloucestershire) under Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Charles Belson (of Kempt's brigade), also fell back. The
Allied centre was in immediate danger of collapse. The well-placed French artillery wrought great
destruction.
The Dutch 5th Militia Battalion under Ltn.-Col. Westenberg defending the farm.
Gemioncourt, photo by D Timmermans.
It was built strongly of stone, with the main house and subsidiary buildings
grouped around a central courtyard entered by a single wooden gate , so
that from without the farm presented the thick, outer walls of its buildings
and high connecting walls. With the simple addition of loopholes, such a
farm became a formidable bastion.
.
Bijlandt and Merlen halt the
French further advance.
Despite all odds, the 5th Dutch Militia still hang on north of Gemioncourt.
Seeing the arrival of fresh reinforcements the militiamen stormed the farm at bayonet point, and cleared
away French skirmishers (of Jamin's brigade, Foy's division) from the walls and fields. Only a handful of
Frenchmen held on in the farm itself. The diehards were from 4th Light and 100th Line Infantry
Regiment.
Several companies of the militia then deployed to the south of Gemioncourt.
They were then charged by the French 6th Chasseurs-a-Cheval. Supported by the fire of Bijlevald's
battery, the 5th Dutch Militia delivered a deadly volley at close range and beat off the French. The
chasseurs came back and charged again. And again they were thrown back. The third cavalry charge was
made by the 6th Lancers. Meanwhile the militiamen were joined and encouraged by the brave Prince of
Orange. The lancers were repulsed.
Several battalions of French infantry led by General de Brigade Jamin (of Foy's division) moved east of
Gemioncourt. Prince of Orange ordered Merlen's Netherland Cavalry Brigade (5th Light Dragoons and
5th Hussars) to charge these forces, while the 5th Dutch Militia Battalion and 27th Dutch Jagers were to
attack from the flank. These units acted in concert, they charged almost simultaneously and drove off the
French.
Prince of Orange at Quatre Bras
.
French lancers created havoc.
Costly friendly fire.
Van Merlen's cavalry brigade was attacked by the 5th Lancers and 1st Chasseurs while they were still
deploying. The Netherland cavalry fled with the French hot on their heels. Prince of Orange's ADC,
Major van Limburgh Stirum, was badly wounded.
The French lancers followed through to Bijleveldt's and Stevenart's batteries and cut down some gunners.
Then they hit the 5th Militia and 27th Jagers and inflicted casualties. Peter Hofschroer writes, "The Prince
of Orange was caught in the rout, but was saved by the speed of his mount. This was also the moment
when Wellington returned from his meeting with Blucher at Brye, with his steed also helping to extract
him from similarly precarious position."
Wellington
Wellington returned from his meeting with Blucher
and was caught in the rout . His steed helped to
extract the Duke from a very precarious position.
Some time later the lancers charged again driving
the Allies and Wellington himself back beyond the
crossroads . Wellington, to avoid death or capture ,
rode toward the 92nd Highlanders. Calling out to
the Scots to crouch low, he jumped his horse over
their heads and found refuge behind them.
The lancers spread over the field. The II/Nassau-Orange battalion and a British battalion formed
themselves in squares and fired at the French. The cavalry fell back.
Meanwhile the 5th Belgian Light Dragoons fought with French 6th Chasseurs-a-Cheval under Colonel
Faudoas-Barbazan. After a brief hand-to-hand fight the Belgians fell back, but the French did not pursue
them. The Scots mistook the Belgians for French and fired.
Williams writes, "There then occured one of those tragic incidents of war in which men die in error at the
hands of friends. Seeing the Netherlands in blue (hussars) and green (light dragoons) galloping wildly
toward the crossroads and hearing them shouting in French, the Scots of the 92nd and 42nd Highland
along the Namur road mistook them for French and were ordered to open fire on them.
Many horses in particular were brought down, as they presented the largest targets ... Pire's troopers,
picking their way around Merlen's stricken horse, came under fire on the left of the crossroads from
Rogers' battery firing canister, and withdrew, being unsupported by infantry or horse artillery. ... Merlen
was left to reflect with sadness on the losses his unit had suffered and with bitterness that more had been
caused by their 'Scotch' allies than by the French."
French lancers, picture by Detaille.
.
The 95th Rifles were repulsed
by a massive volley.
The Brunswick jagers deployed in the ditch had put their large hats on the bushes in front of them. It
attracted a lot of musket fire from French voltigeurs.
The 95th Rifles was unable to retake the village defended by Bachelu's infantry. Prince of Orange sent
several companies of 27th Jagers to assist the British, but language proved a barrier to useful co-
operation. Sir Andrew tried to encourage the Dutch to march forward in line with his men, but the Dutch
tried to explain that the French are in too great numbers to attack frontally.
The French were in tall crop and unseen to Sir Andrew's men. Sir Andrew insisted and his riflemen went
forward unaccompanied, only to be repulsed at once by a massive volley.
This was typical problem arising from the mutual inability within Allied polyglot army to understand
one another. The British troops were unfamiliar with the terrain at Quatre Bras. The Dutch on the other
hand, had been on this ground skirmishing intermittenly with the French for nearly 24 hours. The Dutch
jagers, unable to speak English, tried to indicate by gestures the situation they faced. Some British
soldiers undrestood while others not. Kincaid for example wrote, "... they [the Dutch jagers] were a raw
body of men, who had never before been under fire; and they could not be prevailed upon to join our
skirmishers."
The 95th Rifles in 1813, by Knotel.
The 95th Regiment of Foot earned the nickname "The Grasshoppers"
for their dark green uniforms and agility. As part of the famous
British Light Division they had been Wellington's eyes and ears.
The Grasshoppers were armed with the excellent Baker rifles.
They were deadly proficient at marksmanship and skirmishing.
The British and Hanoverian infantry
defeated the French infantry.
Meanwhile Marshal Ney ordered Bachelu's division (8 battalions) and part of Foy's division (5-6
battalions) to advance. Five batteries were deployed between Gemioncourt and Pireaumont in support.
Against Ney's force Wellington deployed 7 British battalions 500 m south of Quatre Bras, and 4
Hanoverian battalions on the Namur road. They were joined by the 95th Rifles and Roger's battery. The
British 28th of Foot was sent to support the Netherlands troops in Gemioncourt.
The steady tramp of marching feet filled the air. The French infantry cheered Marshal Ney, nicknamed
"The Bravest of the Brave", as they marched past him. The drummers, tediously beating the rhythm of
the march, broke into flurries when they realized he was so close. The French crossed the brook and got
closer to the lines of British and German infantry. Then they halted and the drummers stopped beating.
The walls of muskets on both sides snapped down and rattled. Smoke covered the field and the troops.
The redcoats and the Hanoverians then charged with bayonets and Ney's infantry had enough and fell
back.
The Highlanders at Quatre Bras.
" Scottish troops were the best in the army in situations
calling for coolness,steadiness and obedience to orders"
(Barbero - "The Battle")
.
Due to French lancers and chasseurs charge,
Wellington's forward movement failed.
Allies infantry was halted by French artillery fire and then was thrown into confusion by cavalry charge.
Fortunately they managed to form squares. Peter Hofschroer writes, "... squares of British infantry held
off the French cavalry at first, but the square of the 42nd was broken and the 44th was thrown into
disorder, the colour of the 44th being fought over."
Sergeant Anton of the 42nd Highland, "We were ready and in line ... and forward we hastened though
we saw no enemy in front. The stalks of rye, like reeds that grow on the margins of some swamp,
opposed our advance; the tops were up to our bonnets, and we strode and groped our way through as
fast as we could. By the time we reached a field of clover on the other side we were very much straggled;
however, we united in line as fast as time and our speedy advance would permit. The Belgic skirmishers
retired through our ranks, and in an instant we were on their victorious pursuers. ... Marshal Ney ...
observed our wild unguarded zeal, and ordered a regiment of lancers to bear down upon us. We saw
their approach at a distance, as they issued from a wood, and took them for Brunswickers coming to cut
up the flying [French] infantry ... they were approaching our right flank, from which our skirmishers
were extended, and we were far from being in a formation fit to repel an attack ... no preparative
movement to receive them as enemies; further than the reloading of our muskets. ... a German [KGL]
orderly dragoon galloped up, exclaiming 'Franchee ! Franchee !' and, wheeling about, galloped off.
We instantly formed a rallying square; no time for particularity: every man's musket was loaded, and our
enemies approached at full charge; the feet of their horses seemed to tear up the ground. ... our brave
Colonel [Sir Robert Macara] fell at this time, pierced through the chin until the point reached his brain.
Captain Menzies fell covered with wounds. ... The grenadiers [of 42nd Highland], whom he commanded,
pressed round to save or avenge him, but fell beneath the enemies lances."
The 42nd Highlanders being cut down by Pire's lancers.
Black Watch Museum, Dalhousie Castle in Perth.
"... our brave Colonel [Sir Robert Macara] fell at this time ,
pierced through the chin until the point [of lance] reached
his brain . Captain Menzies fell covered with wounds . "
- Sergeant Anton of 42nd Highland
The official report of the Hanoverian brigade described the action that followed, "... Verden Battalion was
not able to fall back quickly enough and was largely ridden down or taken prisoner."
Wellington rallied the Brunswick hussars and, bringing up the remnants of Merlen's cavalry, prepared to
go forward and plug the gap. Williams writes, "But before his cavalry was positioned to advance, Pire's
superior forces struck, driving them and Wellington himself back beyond the crossroads."
Wellington, to avoid death or ignominious capture, rode toward the 92nd Highlanders ... Calling out to
the men to crouch low, he jumped his horse over their heads and found refuge nehind them." According
to Best approx. 2 squadrons of French chasseurs attacked battalion of the 92nd Highland but without
success.
Due to French cavalry charges, Wellington's forward movement failed. He was obliged to order Picton's
division to retire from their present positions to the shelter of their original positions along the Namur
road.
The Duke of Saxe-Weimar observed this scene from the Bossu Wood and the next day wrote: "... whilst I
was defending the wood, the enemy drove our left wing [Picton] as far as Quatre Bras, at this moment
the brave Duke of Brunswick was killed ..."
Death of Col. Macara, by Cpt. Jones.
.
Allies infantry suffered from
French artillery and sniper fire.
Death of Duke of Brunswick.
Wellington moved the Brunswickers nearer Gemioncourt, and deployed on the north bank of the brook.
Hofschroer writes, "As their flank was exposed, Pack's 42nd and 44th Foot, partly recovered from the
French cavalry attacks, moved up along the road a little. On the left of the Brunswickers, on the Namur
road, stood the Luneburg Landwehr Battalion who had replaced the 92nd Highlanders. ... The 3rd Line
occupied several buildings on the Quatre Bras road with the 2nd [Brunswick] to its right, and a battalion
of the 92nd [Highland] to its left, in the ditch along the roadside."
Because the Brunswickers and some Scots formed the first line, they suffered the most from artillery fire.
But the Netherland troops were not immune to losses neither. Ltn.Col. de Jongh of 8th Militia writes, "...
the cannonballs of the French artillery ... now began to fall in it [his battalion], by which the sergeant-
majoor colour bearer and two NCOs of the colour section were badly wounded ..."
The French gunners at Quatre Bras were under the command of General de Brigade Jean Baptiste
Pelletier (1768-1825). Pelletier was one of the best French gunners. He took part in numerous campaigns
and battles (Smolensk, Borodino, Quatre Bras, Waterloo and many others) and reorganized and
commanded the Polish artillery In Waterloo his several batteries bombarded Hougoumont and the British
and German infantry deployed behind it. (The artillery of Erlon's corps was under General de Brigade
Jean-Charles Desales.)
The skirmishers of Foy's division had moved up the bushes and along the brook. More skirmishers were
firing from the flank, from Bossu Wood.
The French fire was quite annoying for the Allies. Major von Rauschenplat had his arm ripped off by a
shell splinter, and Major von Cramm was fatally wounded. The under-fire Brunswick infantry retired a
little bit, while their uhlan squadron attacked the French 1st Light Infantry (of Jerome Bonaparte's
division) formed in square. One volley drove off the uhlans.
Duke of Brunswick and his horse were struck and fell near the Leib Battalion [Brunswick]. He was
rescued by jagers who carried him to the battalion, using their weapons as a stretcher. It was a fatal
wound, the musketball smashed through Duke's one hand, his abdomen and his liver. Major Prostler of
the Leib Battalion tried to rally his men, but two French horse guns swept them with canister and they
broke, reeling back toward the crossroads.
The Brunswickers at Quatre Bras.
Before 5:30 PM arrived the 3rd British Division made of British and German troops. The French were
outnumbered. Kielmansegge's Hannoverian brigade was sent on the flank, towards Pireaumont, while
Halkett's brigade deployed west of Quatre Bras. Hofschroer writes, "Major Lloyd with 4 9pdrs moved up
to the left of Rauschenplat's companies. Ney responded by deploying two horse batteries from his
reserve cavalry, which soon knocked out 2 of Lloyd's guns and killed a large number of the battery
horses." The battered remnants of Lloyd's battery limbered up and withdrew.
French horse battery opened canister fire at British 33rd Foot 1st Yorkshire -West Riding. The redcoats
broke up and fled to Bossu Wood.
Then Ney sent 3 battalions (one in line and two in column) followed by 3 battalions between the road
and Bossu Wood, which was now largely in French hands. Five battalions under Gauthier (of Foy's
division) advanced alomg the Charleroi road, with Pire's light cavalry to its rear.
A Prussian officer, Captain von Wussow, arrived at Quatre Bras. He was carrying a duplicate message
from Blucher. (The first courier, Major von Winterfeld, had been shot by Bachelu's skirmishers.) Wussow
recounted his experience: "I had to ride through enemy musketry, but managed to reach the English
troops at Quatre Bras unscathed. Here I found the Duke of Wellington on foot, holding his telescope and
watching the attack and movements of the enemy."
Death of Duke of Brunswick at Quatre Bras.
Duke of Brunswick was struck and fell near the
Leib Battalion . He was rescued by jagers who
carried him using their weapons as a stretcher.
.
Where is de Erlon's Corps ?
In the meantime the Emperor had been reflecting that Ney might not succeed in carrying out the
movement of turning the corner at Quatre Bras but instead become enmeshed in an inconclusive fight
with Wellington, with the result that d'Erlon corps would not get over to support him in time. But
Napoleon considered that Ney should be able to carry out his primary mission of keeping Wellington
from joining Blucher even without d'Erlon's corps. (Ney did not intentionally leave d'Erlon's 1st Corps
behind.)
Ney was speechless with surprise and alarm when Delcambre informed him that in obedience to an
order from Napoleon, d'Erlon's corps was marching off toward St.Amand to attack the Prussians at
Ligny. How could the Emperor expect him to hold up an army with three battle-weary divisions ?
Ney decided to countermand Napoleon's order to d'Erlon. Meanwhile Count dErlon had moved from
the high road between Gosselies and Frasnes upon the Roman Road leading towards Wagnele, and his
advance had just come in sight of the field of battle when he received counter-orders from Marshal Ney.
(There has been much debate of what would have happened if d'Erlon's I Corps had engaged at either
Ligny or Quatre Bras.)
De Erlon
.
Hannoverian Light Battalion
retook the village of Pireaumont.
Due to heavy artillery fire the Hanoverian troops were ordered to lie down. General Charles Alten writes,
"Both sides now engaged in a heavy artillery bombardement, and the enemy tried several times to force
the left flank, consisting of my division. I sent off the 1st Luneburg Battalion to drive him again out of the
village of Pireaumont, to our fore, which the Brunswick infantry had been forced to leave.
Lieutenant-Colonel von Klenke carried out this order with absolute determination, and he was able not
only to retake the village, but also to throw the enemy back into a wood the far side of the village, and to
repel his subsequent counter-attacks."
The official Hanoverian report added: "An English battalion and two companies of Brunswick jagers were
the only troops that had until now been available to offer the enemy resistance on the left wing. They had
just been attacked with such force, that they had been driven out of the village of Pireaumont and pushed
back so far that the enemy skirmishers were able to fire on the head of the column of the 1st Hanoverian
Brigade on the road.
The Light [Field] Battalion Luneburg, which was in the lead, was immediately ordered to deploy for an
attack. It carried out this attack with such a force that, despite determined resistance, it drove the enemy
out of all his positions, not only from the fields and hedges along the road, but also out of the village of
Pireaumont and the tip of the wood adjoining it. He only just manage to salvage a battery which he had
moved up next to the village. As the resistance stiffened, particularly in the wood, the Grubenhagen
Battalion was sent to support the Luneburg Battalion."
The French infantry attempted to retake Pireaumont. They came with stronger force but the Allies had
already 2 Hanoverian battalions and 2 companies in the village, and 2 more Hanoverian battalions
behind it. The French attack was beaten off.
Halkett's British brigade, followed by two Brunswick battalions (Life, and 1st Line) reached the fields of
tall rye. The Brunswickers took up their positions in the ditches along the Nivelles road.
General Alten writes, "... several enemy columns moved forwards, so I detached the battalions
Grubenhagen, Duke of York, and Bremen, against them. With artillery support from Cleves of KGL, the
columns were driven back. On my right, enemy cavalry tried, with several charges, to force their way
through, but, thanks to the resolute behaviour of my troops, were not successful. In this affair, the
Landwehr Battalion Luneburg under Ltn-Col. von Ramdohr particularly distinguished itself. It let the
enemy advance to 30 paces before firing a volley that threw back the cavalry with great loss."
According to Best report: "... the Luneburg Battalion had laid down in the ditch along the main road. ...
Just as the enemy came into range, the Luneburg Battalion stood up and fired from 30 paces with such
effect that the larger part of the enemy fell with many them killed. ... The fire was so well directed that
only a few enemy cavalry survived, several falling only 5 to 6 paces from us."
Hanoverian infantry, by Knotel.
[They] "... carried out this attack with such a force that,
despite determined resistance, it drove the enemy out
of all his positions, not only from the fields and hedges
along the road,but also out of the village of Pireaumont"
.
French cuirassiers captured
the color of the 69th Foot
and scattered several British units.
Marshal Ney learned that d'Erlon's powerful I Army Corps had moved towards Ligny. This meant that
there were no reinforcements for Ney. He was outnumbered and could not now crush the enemy. Ney
sent for Guiton's Cuirassier Brigade in one last attempt to win. The heavy cavalry charged with
outstretched sabers, but without any support and without horse artillery.
The British 69th Foot fired a volley at 30 paces. The British square was charged by the 8th Cuirassiers and
broken up. Cuirassier Henry with the help of Marchal-des-logis Massiet jumped to the ground and
picked up the king's color of the II Battalion of the 69th (the South Lincolnshire) from the arms of ensign
Clarke who had been hacked down by 23 saber cuts. For this, he received the Legion of Honour.
American military historian John Elting writes, "The 69th at once ordered its regimental tailors to make
up a new flag, and denied any loss. Unfortunately, Napoleon had already announced the capture."
(Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" p 352)
The cuirassiers also scattered the British I/33rd Regiment of Foot (the 1st Yorkshire West Riding) .
"The 73rd were panicked by the fate of the 69th, and they too broke and ran for the wood. The 33rd
formed on a knoll, became the target of horse battery, which cut them up with canister, causing them to
follow the others who had broken." (Williams - "Waterloo ..." p 220)
The II/30th Regiment of Foot (The Cambridgeshire) however held their ground.
The brave cuirassiers reached Quatre Bras. Wellington reacted immediately, he formed 2 Brunswick
battalions in squares and posted them near the croassroads. Kuhlmann's horse battery had come on
ahead and opened fire.
"The 69th at once ordered its regimental tailors
to make up a new flag , and denied any loss .
Unfortunately, Napoleon had already announced
the capture." (Elting-"Swords Around a Throne")
The British color was not the only one taken by the French cavalry.
W.Y.Carman wrote, "At Quatre Bras the French cavalry general, Donzelot [sic], captured the colours of
the British 69th and also a Dutch colour. These were eventually sold in 1909 to an English officer. The
Dutch colour was brought to me in 1956 for identification and I recognized it as the original relic. I was
able to arrange that it went to the Netherlands Army Museum at Leiden.
There it was identified as from the 2nd 'Nassauche Ligte Infanterie'.
Only the centre remained at the time. On the light yellow silk was embroidered the shield of the Orange-
Nassau coat of arms. The crowned rampant lion was on field filled (with) billets. ... The crown at the top
showed five hoops and the oval area was limited by a wreath. The remnant was not in the best
condition." (- Letter from W.Y.Carman in Tradition Magazine # 31)
.
French light cavalry inflicted
heavy casualties on the British
Foot Guards.
Around 6:30 PM the British Foot Guards arrived.
Their artillery deployed behind the ditch occupied by the Luneberg Battalion. It took the Foot Guards
almost two hours to reach the southern edge of Bossu Wood, for the French infantry had disputed every
tree and shrub of it. Also the Nassauers retook lost ground.
When the Foot Guards emerged from the wood in a broken line, heading for the Grand Pierrepont Farm,
they and the adjoining Brunswickers were pounded by French artillery, then attacked by Pire's lancers
and driven back into the wood. Other sources claim that the charge was made by Pire's 6th and 1st
Chasseurs. The green-clad chasseurs attacked, forcing some of the Allied infantry into squares. The
French caught the Foot Guards formed in line and in the open. The cavalry charged from a "concealed
positions in a depresion near Pierrepont" and routed the British Guard within a moment. [- Source: GdD
Pire's letter to GdD Reille, June 25th 1815, in Arch. Serv. Hist.]
Approx. 500 redcoats were killed and wounded, and the remaining guardsmen high-tailed it back to the
Bossu Wood. The French infantry followed them and their voltigeurs retook some of the lost terrain.
Meanwhile the 7th Cuirassiers attacked one of Saxe-Weimar's battalions. The Germans also sought refuge
in the wood.
French chasseur, by Keith Rocco.
.
With a 2 to 1 advantage in men
Wellington decided to go over
to the offensive.
As we already mentioned before, at 5:30 PM arrived most of the 3rd British Division under Lieutenant-
General Sir Charles Alten K.C.B. He was a German Count Karl von Alten, a member of an old
Hanoverian family. General Alten was one of the best generals in Wellington's army. In 1803 the
Hanoverian army was disbanded, and Alten took service with the King's German Legion (KGL) in British
pay. In command of the light infantry of this famous corps he took part with Lord Cathcart in the
Hanoverian expedition of 1805 and in the Copenhagen in 1807. Alten was with General Sir Moore in
Sweden and Spain. In April 1813 Wellington placed him at the head of the famous British Light Division.
3rd British Infantry Division: Ltn.Gen. Sir von Alten
Chief-of-Staff: Col. von Berger
2nd KGL Brigade - Col. Baron Ompteda
- - - - - - - - - I Light Battalion KGL
- - - - - - - - - II Light Battalion KGL
- - - - - - - - - V Line Battalion KGL
- - - - - - - - - VIII Line Battalion KGL
5th British Brigade: Mjr.Gen. Sir Halkett
- - - - - - - - - II/30th Regiment of Foot
- - - - - - - - - II/33rd Regiment of Foot
- - - - - - - - - II/69th Regiment of Foot
- - - - - - - - - II/73th Regiment of Foot (Highland)
1st Hannoverian Brigade: Mjr.Gen. Graf von Kielmannsegge
- - - - - - - - - Field Jgers
- - - - - - - - - Light Battalion "Grubenhagen"
- - - - - - - - - Light Battalion "Lneburg"
- - - - - - - - - Line Battalion "Osnabruck"
- - - - - - - - - Line Battalion "Werden"
- - - - - - - - - Line Battalion "Bremen"
Artillery: Ltn.Col. Williamson
- - - - - - - - - KGL 1st Foot Battery (5 9pdr cannons, 1 5.5" howitzer): Cpt. Cleeves
- - - - - - - - - British foot battery (5 9pdr cannons, 1 5.5" howitzer): Mjr. Lloyd
At 7 PM fresh reinforcements arrived for Wellington, these were I and III Brunswick Light Battalions,
and von Kruse's 2,800 Nassauers.
Nassau Brigade: Mjr.Gen. von Kruse
- - - - - - - - - I, II/1st Infantry Regiment
- - - - - - - - - Landwehr Infantry Battalion
Brunswick Light Brigade: Ltn.Col. von Buttlar
- - - - - - - - - Light Battalion "Leib"
- - - - - - - - - I Light Battalion
- - - - - - - - - II Light Battalion
- - - - - - - - - III Light Battalion
Wellington ordered the Foot Guards, the 3rd and 5th Division to move forward. Prince of Orange moved
his Nassauers and Netherland troops to eject the French from the Bossu Wood. The heavily outnumbered
French troops were pushed back. Allies had maintained their positions they had held that morning.
Night fell and the fighting died down.
Officer Basil Jackson of the Staff Corps was on the road from Brussels and saw the evidence of the raging
battle: "... we ... began to meet wounded men and stragglers ... There was quite a stream of disabled
soldiers on the road, habited in red, blue or black ... some of our friends, belonging on the Staff, gave us
in the meantime, an account of the battle; all agreeing that the Duke had never before been so severely
pressed, or had so much difficulty to maintain his position." [*1]
[*1] - Jackson, in Colburne's United Services Magazine, 1847.
This is the original account by Jackson, not to be confused with the 1903 distortion 'edited' by Seaton. Jackson reported no cowardly
foreigners fleeing along the Brussles road, only those foreigners who were aiding Allied wounded or even themselves wounded.
Seaton also altered Jackson's "... all agreeing that the Duke had never been so severely pressed, or had so much difficulty in
maintaining his position" to "... all agreeing that our troops had never been more severely pressed in maintaining their position."
British infantry in combat, by Keith Rocco.
"Wellington's force had swollen to 36,000 men and 50 guns.
With a 2 to 1 advantage in men and rough parity in guns
Wellington decided to go over to the offensive."
.
Aftermath.
"Even thirteen-thumbed Michel Ney ,
outnumbered and quite possibly under
the handicap of a thudding hangover,
fought Wellington to a draw there . "
(- John Elting )
Marshal Ney had little to reproach himself for in the day's proceedings. Thrown into his command at the
eleventh hour, with only three infantry divisions and small cavalry force, he had by skill and courage
succeeded in fulfilling the intent of his original orders: he had prevented Wellington from aiding the
Prussians for the whole of the 16th. At Ligny the Prussians stood alone and were crushed. Ney however
can be partially blamed for the mess with d'Erlon's corps.
Wellington had less with which to be content.
He had fought the most confusedd battle of his military career. His staff had let him down badly over the
concentration of his army. Fortunately, though, his Netherland, German and British troops had all
worked well together. Colonel John Elting writes, "Had Davout, instead of Ney, commanded Napoleon's
left wing, there can be little doubt that Quatre Bras would have been a French victory. Even thirteen-
thumbed Michel Ney, outnumbered and quite possibly under the handicap of a thudding hangover,
fought Wellington to a draw there, giving somewhat more punishmnet than he took. Victory at Quatre
Bras would have shifted the fortunes of that campaign and probably of the whole war." (Elting - "Swords
"Wellington reported Quatre Bras as an English victory, won over superior forces [actually the Duke
enjoyed 2 to 1 advantage], and so it has remained in British history. As for the hangover, belgian legend
has it that Ney and his staff had billeted themselves on a Belgian dignitary who was famous for his wine
cellar, which they thoroughly reconnoitered." (Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" p 732)
At Quatre Bras Marshal Ney lost 4,140 men. The French captured British color. Ney also successfully
stopped any of Wellington's forces going to the aid of Blcher's Prussians. Wellington losses were
approx. 4,800 killed and wounded. The next day Wellingon's forces left the battlefield to the French and
fell back.
Retreat of the British army.
PS.
In the opening years of the First World War the British Royal Navy constructed a monitor HMS M13. She
was named for the French Marshal Ney. Designed for inshore operations it was equipped with two
massive 15" naval guns. Originally, these guns were to have been stripped from one of the battlecruisers
HMS Renown and HMS Repulse after they were redesigned.
Marshal Ney
As for Ney's hangover, belgian legend has it that
the marshal and his staff had billeted themselves
on a Belgian dignitary, who was famous for his --
wine cellar, which they thoroughly reconnoitered.
John Elting - "Swords Around a Throne"
Sources and Links.
Napoleonic Wars (maps) >
Siborne - "The Waterloo Campaign, 1815"
Chandler - "Waterloo - the Hundred Days"
Hofschroer - "1815: The Waterloo Campaign"
A Concise History of the Netherlands Battaillon Jagers No. 27
Houssaye - "1815 Waterloo", publ. in London in 1900 by Adam & Charles Black
in the Waterloo Campaign, 1815. Part I. By Majoor Hans Boersma. >
Almost everything about the Netherland troops in 1815. >
Battle of Dennewitz 1813: Ney routed by Bulow and his Prussians

Battle of Ligny 1815 : Napoleon : Blucher : Schlacht : Bataille
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Ligny_1815.htm[2012-05-21 12:46:10]
Battle of Ligny, 1815
Not having their entire army concentrated and the British-Netherland troops
still being on their way , ---- the Prussian generals had dilemma what to do .
Fieldmarshal Blcher, however after Wellington had agreed in detail to give
h i m substantial support already made his mind up .
Blcher wanted to fight and he got what he prayed for.
Introduction.
Battlefield and armies (+ map)
Prussian army >
French army >
Strength of both armies >
Map of battle
Battle of Ligny (left flank)
"The Prussians will be crushed." >
"Courage, lads !" Vandamme vs Zieten. >
Old Blcher led the counter-attack. >
"The French infantry hidden in tall
crops let off crushing volleys." >
Wellington on French flank ! >
Vandamme and the Young Guard
versus Ziethen and Pirch >
Map >
.
.
Battle of Ligny (center)
French infantry storming Ligny. >
Bajonett Angriff ! >
The churchyard was besieged. >
"The devils of Henckel and Jagow
hurled out their hatred." >
French sappers attempted to
smash down the gate of chateau. >
The fighting took on a new savagery. >
Battle of Ligny (right flank).
Grouchy vs Thielemann >
Exelmans vs Thielemann >
"The advance of Old Guard was accompanied by
artillery cannonade and thunder lightnings."
Victory !
To Waterloo.
Bulow's guilt.
Battle of Ligny 1815, by T. Yung.
In the foreground Vandamme's troops (artillery and infantry) .
In the right upper corner: the village of S.Amand ( burning ) .
In the left upper corner: Prussian infantry retire in disorder.
Introduction.
" ... The Prussians have been caught flagrante delicto
as they were seeking to join the English." -Napoleon
On March 17th, the chief-of-staff of the Prussian army, General Gneisenau, was
dispatched to assemble the troops. Seven army corps were formed, four (I, II, III,
IV) were concentrated on the Rhine, one corps (V) on the Oder, and two (VI, VII)
assembled near Berlin. Field Marshal Blucher was ordered out of retirement by the
King to assume the command of the army. Should Bluchers ability to command be
incapacitated, the senior commander would succeed him. The King desired
Gneisenaus leadership and to solve this dilemma, Generals Ziethen, Pirch and
Thielemann, all junior to Gneisenau, were made commanders of the I, II, and III
Army Corps.
The Big Four (Bulow, Tauentzien, Kleist, and Yorck) were senior to Gneisenau and
to quiet them they were given honorable appointments. Kleist was appointed to
command the North German Corps in Luxembourg. Although Bulow was held in
high regard, his IV Corps initially was not designated to directly participate in the
planned offensive. Yorck commanded the V Corps, and Tauentzien the VI, both
were far away from the theater of war.
Three Prussian army corps entered Netherlands. Due to Prussias weak economic
situation, providing for the four army corps stationed in Belgium proved difficult
as funds became scarce. Blucher and Gneisenau pledged English merchants their
personal credit of 50,000 pounds in order to purchase food and supplies for the
army and pay for quartering the troops.
Prussian staff officers visited the Ligny position several weeks before and Major
Groeben made a map of it. They considered this position as a good one, two corps
could be deployed defensively, while two other corps would outflank Napoleon on
his left. The Prussians hoped to be able to hold their line long enough for
Wellington to arrive.
Wellington had a good relationship with Blucher, the Prussian trusting the Duke
implicitly. When Major Nostitz once questioned the honesty of Wellington's
intentions to come to the aid of the Prussians, the old fieldmarshal dismissed the
accusations. Nostitz had first expressed his missgivings before the war, when
Wellington had shown no signs of moving his army into a position where it could
better support Blucher. "Thus no further attempt was made to get the Duke of
Wellington to move his army into other quarters that would have given us a more
certain assurance of the promised support." - Major Count Nostitz
Before the battle of Ligny, the Duke rode to the Prussians, where he was again to
repeat his promises of support. The Prussians held their ground against Napoleon
until 7 pm. They were anxiously awaiting the arrival of Wellington but nothing
came.
The Allied failure to concentrate their armies resulted in Prussians suffering a
defeat, and in British-Netheralnd army being forced to retire after being held at
Quatre Bras by Marshal Ney.
Prussians' major error however was not Blucher's blind trust in Wellington, but his
own failure to ensure that Blow's moved his IV Army Corps on time and joined
the main army at Ligny. According to Peter Hofschroer the Chief-of-staff
Gneisenau "failed to convey the urgency of the situation" and "for Blow was also
being delibarately awkward and obtuse". (Hofschroer - "1815 The Waterloo
Campaign" p 220)
Not having his entire army concentrated at Ligny, Blcher might have done better
to consider a withdrawal towards Gembloux. There Blucher could have all four
corps (and not three) and hold a defensive position instead of fighting a major
battle already at Ligny.
If the French followed Blcher to Germbloux, Wellington could move from Quatre
Bras and attack their flank and rear. The Prussian generals had dilemma what to
do but the old Blcher after Wellington had agreed in detail to give him
substantial support already made his mind up. Blcher wanted to fight and he got
what he prayed for.
Major Nostitz explains Blucher's situation, "One asked the question if it were more
advisable to join up with the English by means of a flank march, or to fall back
towards Bulow's IV Army Corps. Some commanders, in such circumstances, would
have chosen one or the other way out of a battle, particularly as only part of the
force were concentrated; I can affirm that the Field Marshal (Blucher) made his
decision without a moment's hesitation, and that nobody in headquarters uttered a
word against this.
It is indisputable that it would have made a bad impression on the army if such a
courageous commander, trusted by all, and at the head of 80,000 men, largely
experienced soldiers, had avoided a battle in a position chosen by himself and
where the Duke of Wellington had agreed in detail to give him substantial
support." (Major Graf von Nostitz - "Das Tagebuch des Generals der Kavallerie Grafen
von Nostitz" II. Theil 'Kriegsgeschitchliche Einzelschriften' Heft 6, p 22 f. publ. in Berlin
1885)
PS.
There is an interesting interview with Peter
Hofschroer in the NAPOLEON magazine.
QUESTION:
"Prior to the campaign's commencement,
elaborate planning had been made for the
Prussian army to fight on what would come to
be known as the field of Ligny. The night
before the battle, 15 June, there was concern in
Prussian headquarters that since Bulow's IV
Corps would not arrive, and that no assurances
had yet been received from Wellington, that
perhaps the position was a bad one. Blucher, as
you describe, without a moment's hesitation,
decided to stand and fight on the battlefield
chosen by himself. It appears that Blucher
unilaterally decided to stand at Ligny. How can
Wellington be held responsible for this decision
? How did Wellington's deception affect
Blucher's deployment and conduct of battle ?
Had Wellington been fortright in his troop
locations, how would the battle of Ligny turned
out differently ?"
ANSWER:
"I believe you are referring to my quote from
Nostitz on page 222. If so, then I can find
nothing there to the effect that the Sombreffe
position was a bad one, as you say. Seems to me
you have been reading too much of Longford !
During the night of 15/16 June, Blucher
decided to hold his positions, as you state. The
Prussians could have used the cover of
darkness to slip away. However, as Blucher had
given his word to Wellington to make a stand
in this position, he did so, pending the arrival
of information from Wellington as to his
movements and intentions. This information
arrived during the course of the morning of 16
June. It was in part false and very misleading.
Had Wellington given Blucher correct
information, then it is likely that Blucher
would have concentrated his army in the next
best defensible position, that around
Gembloux, where he knew the IV Corps
would arrive. The I Corps would have formed
the rearguard, holding the Sombreffe position
for as long as possible, to cover the movement
of the II and III Corps.
Napoleon would then have been
able to move the bulk of his forces
against Wellington's scattered
troops and possibly have reached
Brussels by that evening. Thus, if
Wellington had not misled Blucher, Ligny
would most likely have only been a rearguard
action involving one Prussian army corps."
"Waterloo Controversy - Did the Duke of Wellington Intentionally
Deceive His Prussian Allies ?"
- an interview with Peter Hofschroer by Dana Lombardy, with
commantary by Colonel John Elting
and Ed Wimble in NAPOLEON magazine published in fall of
1999.
~
Battlefield and armies.
At noon Napoleon climbed up the windmill at
Fleurus , from where he observed the enemy .
" Blucher's Prussians were solidly entrenched in
the villages bordering the small river of Ligny ..."
A position south of Sombreffe had been selected in May as a suitable spot for a battle
against the French army coming from Charleroi. Sombreffe became the concentration
point for Blucher's army.
The gently undualting battlefield was covered with growing crops, and was divided
approx. in half by the Ligny Stream. The steep-banked stream was 1-4 m wide with
banks overgrown with willows and bushes. There were 4 bridges along the stream.
Near the wood of Bois du Loup was a marshy meadow.
The highest point was the Bussy Mill, between Brye and Ligny, where Blcher's
observation post was located. The second highest point was Point du Jour where general
Thielemann (Tielemann) established his headquarters.
The villages were well built with a number of stone buildings and church towers. Some
villages had ditches and hedges around their perimeters. The village of Saint-Amand
was made up of isolated farms and buildings surrounded by meadows and thickets.
There were two parallel roads running through Ligny - one on the right bank, the other
on the left bank - connected by a stone bridge and a few wooden foot-bridges. To the
west of Ligny stood the strongly built Chateau de Looz.
The battlefield at Ligny.
The steep-banked Ligny Stream.
It "was bordered with willows , alder trees
and thickets of brambles." -Henri Houssaye
.
Prussian army: strength and deployment.
" With my 120,000 Prussians I would undertake
the capture of Tripoli, Tunis and Algiers if there
wasn't any water to cross ! " - Blucher
On June 15 Ziethen's I Army Corps was already near Fleurus. His fighting retreat from
the border gave time for the II, III and IV Army Corps to march towards Sombreffe. In
that village Blucher had established his headquarters. Ziethen and his chief of staff
(Reiche) requested permission from Blucher (and Gneisenau) to move his corps north of
the Ligny Stream. "Gneiseanu refused Reiche's request, no doubt because he did not
want to disturb the troops' sleep or to allow the French to approach the Ligny brook
under cover of darkness.
Dawn broke around 4 am.
Reiche returned a second time to Blucher's headquarters and this time Gneisenau
agreed to Reiche's suggestion. At 5 am, I Corps began to retire to positions north of the
Ligny brook. These troops movements were spotted from the French outpost lines by
Marchal Grouchy's cavalry. Grouchy forthwith despatched a report to Napoleon at
Charleroi that strong Prussian columns were heading towards Brye and St. Amand
villages. A further note departed for Napoleon an hour later. The French had spotted
Prussian troops massing around the Bussy windmill." (Uffindell and Roberts - "The
Eagle's Last Triumph")
Ziethen's I Army Corps was posted in the villages along Ligny brook. They were busy
loopholing walls and constructing barricades. By 8 am they finished their preparations.
Pirch's II and Thielemann's III Army Corps were still on their way. The villages of Saint
Amand and Ligny were strongly occupied. Wagnelee and western part of Saint Amand
were not well suited to defence and were only very lightly garrissoned. Roeder's
powerful reserve cavalry stood in the hollow ground between Brye and Ligny. Pirch's
brigade stood near Bossu Mill. Henckel defended Ligny. (He had only 6 of his 9
battalions.)
Once the II and III Army Corps arrived their brigades were led to their assigned
positions. By Tongrinne was placed Kemphen's brigade. The flank of Prussian army
was covered by part of von Hobe's cavalry (Lottum's brigade) while other part
(Marwitz's brigade) moved to the opposite flank. Marwitz had been ordered to send
out patrols to establish contact with the English.
At noon Wellington arrived from Quatre Bras and was greeted by Tippelskirch's 5th
Infanterie-Brigade. Wellington, his staff officers (some had their umbrellas) and escort
rode to Bussy Mill where they met with Blucher and his staff.
Wellington
Hailed as the conquering hero ,
Wellington was created "Duke
of Wellington", a title still held
by his descendants.
The Prussian army was organized into several army corps. Each corps had four infantry
brigades, two or three cavalry brigades, and reserve artillery. Prussian infantry brigade
consisted of three (sometimes two) infantry regiments, or landwehr infantry regiments,
and few guns. In some cases there were also few cavalry squadrons attached. Infantry
regiment had 3 battalions, one fusilier and two musketier. Similar organization had
landwehr regiment. Prussian cavalry regiment had theoretical strength of 4 squadrons.
I ARMY CORPS : Gen.Ltn. Ziethen-II
Chief-of-Staff: Col.Ltn. von Reiche (Mjr. Groben)
Chief-of-Artilery: Col.Ltn. Lehmann
Topographical Section: Ltn. Krauser
- - - - 1st Infantry Brigade: Gen.Mjr. Steinmetz
- - - - 2nd Infantry Brigade: Gen.Mjr. Pirch-II
- - - - 3rd Infantry Brigade: Gen.Mjr. Jagow
- - - - 4th Infantry Brigade: Gen.Mjr. Henckel
Reserve Cavalry: General-Lieutenant Roeder
- - - - 1st Cavalry Brigade: Gen.Mjr. Treskow-II
- - - - 2nd Cavalry Brigade: Col. Lutzow-II
Reserve Artillery (40-48 guns): Mjr. von Rentzell
.
Feldmarshall (field marshal)
II ARMY CORPS : Gen.Mjr. Pirch-I
Chief-of-Staff: Col. von Aster
Chief-of-Artillery: Col.Ltn. von Rhl
- - - - 5th Infantry Brigade: Gen.Mjr.
Tippelskirch
- - - - 6th Infantry Brigade: Gen.Mjr. Krafft
- - - - 7th Infantry Brigade: Gen.Mjr. Brause
- - - - 8th Infantry Brigade: Gen.Mjr. Bose
Reserve Cavalry: Gen.Mjr. Jrgass
- - - - 1st Cavalry Brigade: Col. Thmen
- - - - 2nd Cavalry Brigade: Col.Ltn. Sohr
- - - - 3rd Cavalry Brigade: Col.Ltn.
Schulenburg
Reserve Artillery (40-56 guns):
III ARMY CORPS: Gen.Ltn. Tielemann
Chief-of-Staff: Col. von Clausewitz
Generall der Kavallerie (general of cavalry) =
Gen.Cav.
Generall der Infanterie (general of infantry) =
Gen.Inf.
Generall der Artillerie (general of artillery) =
Gen.Art.
Generalleutnant (general lieutenant) = Gen.Ltn.
Generallmajor (general major) = Gen.Mjr.
Oberst (colonel) = Col.
Oberstleutenant (colonel -lieutenant) = Col.Ltn.
Chief-of-Artillery:
- - - - 9th Infantry Brigade: Gen.Mjr. Borcke
- - - - 10th Infantry Brigade: Gen.Mjr.
Krauseneck
- - - - 11th Infantry Brigade: Col. Luck u.Witten
- - - - 12th Infantry Brigade: Col. Stlpnagel
Reserve Cavalry: Gen.Mjr. Hobe
- - - - 1st Cavalry Brigade: Col. Marwitz
- - - - 2nd Cavalry Brigade: Col. Lottum
Reserve Artillery (32-56 guns): Mjr. von
Grevenitz
For a detailed order of battle of the Prussian army
in the Waterloo Campaign in 1815 click here
(Kommandeur):
Feldmarshall Prinz Blcher
(Quartermaster-Generall):
Gen.Ltn. von Gneisenau
He entered as an officer the service of the Margrave of Bayreuth-Ansbach.
With one of that prince's mercenary regiments in British pay, he gained
valuable experience in the American Revolutionary War (external link)
Returning in 1 7 8 6 , he applied for Prussian service . In 1 8 1 3 Gneisenau
became Blucher's quartermaster-general and began the connection between
these two soldiers which has furnished military history with one of the best
examples of the harmonious co-operation between a commander and chief-
of-staff. His military character perfectly complemented Blcher's, and under
this happy guidance the young troops of Prussia , often defeated but never
discouraged , fought their way into the heart of France in 1814 and 1 8 1 5 .
.
French army.
At 11 am Napoleon arrived and was greeted
by the army with loud "Vive l'Empereur!"
It was a beautiful and hot June morning. The military songs
Grenadiere and Carabiniere were beaten by the French
drummers. Within 5 minutes the entire infantry of the
Imperial Guard formed in a single column and marched
through the fields to Fleurus where the natives lined the
main street, more out of curiosity than enthusiasm. At 10
am the first French troops started to move out of Fleurus to
take up their positions.
The Old Guard Chasseurs Division halted near the mill.
The Old Guard Grenadier Division followed them. The
Young Guard Division took up a position on the left,
behind Vandamme's III Army Corps. Vandamme had three
infantry and one cavalry division, but Napoleon
strengthened him with one infantry division under Girard.
The dragoons under Exelmans and light cavalry under
Pajol moved on the right flank.
Having carefully surveyed the Prussian dispositions, the Emperor concluded that they
stood awaiting Wellington to come down the road from Quatre Bras and form up on
their right. In consequence, Napoleon realized, the Prussians had based their
dispositions on an assumption: that Wellington would come in time and in enough
strength to make a difference. Napoleon planned accordingly. If he struck hard at
Prussians' right and destroyed it before Wellington could arrive, he might drive the
enemy in disorder back and be free to march on Brussles and defeat Wellington.
At 3;30 pm Napoleon had sent Lobau's VI Army Corps to advance to Fleurus.
Marechal de Empire (marshal of empire)
General de Division (general of division) = Gen.Div.
General de Brigade (general of brigade) = Gen.Brig.
Colonel (colonel) = Col.
Capitaine (captain) = Cpt.
II ARMY CORPS - (part)
- - - - 7th Infantry Division: Gen.Div.Girard
(3,890)
III ARMY CORPS (17,000 men + 38 guns)
Commander: Gen.Div. Vandamme
Chief-of-Staff: Gen.Brig. Revest
Chief-of-Artillery: Gen.Div. Doguereau
- - - - - 8th Infantry Division: Gen.Div. Lefol
- - - - - 10th Infantry Division: Gen.Div. Habert
- - - - - 11th Infantry Division: Gen.Div.
Berthezene
- - - - - 3rd Cavalry Division: Gen.Div. Domon
- - - - - Res. Artillery (8 guns): Cpt. Vollee
IV ARMY CORPS (16,000 men + 38 guns)
Commander: Gen.Div. Gerard
Chief-of-Staff: Gen.Brig. Remy
Chief-of-Artillery: Gen.Brig. de Pouilly
- - - - - 12th Infantry Division: Gen.Div. Pecheux
- - - - - 13th Infantry Division: Gen.Div. Vichery
- - - - - 14th Infantry Division: Gen.Div. Hulot
- - - - - 7th Cavalry Division: Gen.Div. Maurin
- - - - - Res. Artillery (8 guns): Cpt. Lenoir
VI ARMY CORPS (10.500 men + 32 guns)
Commander: Gen.Div. Lobau
Chief-of-Staff: Gen.Brig. Durroei
Chief-of-Artillery: Gen.Brig. de la Guignardiere
- - - - - 19th Infantry Division: Gen.Div. Simmer
- - - - - 20th Infantry Division: Gen.Div. Jeanin
- - - - - 21st Infantry Division: Gen.Div. Teste
- - - - - Res. Artillery (8 guns): Cpt. Chaudon
.
I CAVALRY CORPS (3,100 men + 12 guns)
Commander: Gen.Div. Pajol
Chief-of-Staff: Col. Picard
- - - - - 4th Cavalry Division: Gen.Div. Soult
- - - - - 5th Cavalry Division: Gen.Div. Subervie
II CAVALRY CORPS (3,300 men + 12 guns)
Commander: Gen.Div. Exelmans
Chief-of-Staff: Colonel Ferrousat
- - - - - 9th Cavalry Division: Gen.Div. Strolz
- - - - - 10th Cavalry Division: Gen.Div. Chastel
IV CAVALRY CORPS (3,000 men + 12 guns)
Commander: Gen.Div. Milhaud
Chief-of-Staff: Col. Chasseriau
- - - - - 13th Cavalry Division: Gen.Div. Wathier
- - - - - 14th Cavalry Division: Gen.Div. Delort
IMPERIAL GUARD
Chief-of-Artillery: Gen.Div. Desvaux De Saint-Maurice
Chief-of-Engineers: Gen.Div. Haxo
- - - Old Guard Grenadier Division: Gen.Div. Friant
- - - Old Guard Chasseur Division: Gen.Div. Morand
- - - Young Guard Infantry Division: Gen.Div. Duhesme
- - - Guard Heavy Cavalry Division: Gen.Div. Guyot
- - - Res. Heavy Artillery (32 guns): Gen.Brig.
Lallemand
- - - Res. Horse Artillery: Mjr. Duchand de Sancy
For order of battle of all the French armies click here
Napoleon at Fleurus.
Napoleon ordered his sappers to build an observation post
- a circular gallery around the windmill - and, map in hand,
began to survey the battlefield.In foreground Pajol's lancers.
"Opposite the hill of Fleurus, rises in a gentle slope above an undulating plain, a line of ridges of no great
height
. . . In the centre , is the village of Ligny, with its two large farms, its old castle , and its church surrounded by
a
cemetery,stretching upwards and surrounded by walls ... From Napoleon's observatory in the mill at Fleurus,the
Prussian positions did not appear as strong as they really were. . . . The ravine through which the Ligny
flowed,
was quite hidden from view . Before him lay what appeared to be merely vast plain covered with corn ,
slightly
depressed to its centre and rising in a gentle slope to the extreme of the horizon - a landscape of the true
Beauce
type . He sent for the land-surveyor of the town, a certain Simon , who gave hill all the information in his
power."
- Henri Houssaye
.
Strength of both armies.
The Prussians had much more infantry than the French.
The French however were superior in cavalry and artillery.
NAPOLEON
74,800 men and 252 guns
66,663 men * and 232 guns
43,998 infantry
14,573 cavalry
6,405 artillery
1,687 others
"SHAT. C15, nrs 34 and 35th."
* - excluding Lobau's VI Army Corps
.
BLUCHER
78,513 infantry
11,209 cavalry
4,119 artillery
834 others
"Das Preussische Heer in den Jahren 1814 und 1815"
73,030 infantry
8,150 cavalry
3,437 artillery
Siborne - "History of the War in France"
80,000 men
Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" p
250
84,000 men
Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" p
250
Map of battle of Ligny.
If Blucher had had no other object than to defend
his lines of communication with his army alone ,
he would have taken up his position perpendicularly
to the Fleurus road.
The extension of his right towards Wagnele, indicated
the existence of a design to unite with Wellington's army.
" At 12 o'clock Ziethen's four brigades ( Steinmetz, Jagow, Pirch, Henckel ) were the only ones drawn up in line of battle
with Roder's cavalry, the corps of Pirch, and of Thielemann were only just commencing to muster behind Sombreffe and
Tongrinne. The Emperor justly concluded that Blucher had only a single corps before him. But he did not deceive himself
as to Blucher's intentions...He conjectured that the FieldMarshal had taken up a waiting position, and that Blucher hoped
to overawe the French long enough to give his other army corps, and possibly Wellington's army also, time to join him.
If Blucher, in short, had had no other object than to defend his lines of communicatin with his own forces alone,
he would have taken up his position perpendicularly to the Fleurus road. The extension of his right towards Wagnele,
indicated the existence of a design to unite with the English army on their march from Brussels." -Henri H o u s s a y e
Other maps of Ligny - 1 , - 2 , - 3 (ext.links)
The Battle.
The battle was executed by the French and Prussians
using classic methods . The Prussians had defended
their positions agresively while the French attempted
to capture these strongpoints and make a breakthrough
The troops kept coming from several directions. The roads and meadows were
crowded with marching infantry and cavalry, rolling artillery and ammunition
wagons. Accompanying the thousands of soldiers and officers, and hundreds of
generals, were grooms, drivers, campfollowers and servants.
At 11 am Napoleon arrived and was greeted with loud "Vive l'Empereur!"
During a reconnaissance he realized that the Prussians would make a stand at Ligny
so he ordered to make the preparations to fight them. Lachouque writes, "Nothing
could be seen through the motionless fields of rye drooping in the heat, apart from a
handful of Prussian troopers emerging from a fold in the terrain behind a mound
called the 'Tomb of Ligny.' ...
Napoleon ordered his sappers to build an observation post - a circular gallery around
the windmill (see picture below) - and, map in hand, began to survey the scene to
check the information supplied by the surveyor Simon."
Napoleon could see (with the aid of field-glasses) a large group of horsemen near the
Busy windmill. It was Blucher with his staff. Orientation was difficult because of the
large elms planted along many roads. Gradually, the Emperor realised that the
Prussians were in front of him in rapidly increasing numbers.
Napoleon at Ligny
At 2 pm Gerard's IV Army Corps deployed about 800 m from the edge of Ligny.
Henri Houssaye claims that "whilst seeking the Emperor,he (Gerard) came within
musket range of the enemy's cavalry. The Prussians charged; Gerard thrown from his
horse, was in imminent danger of being captured; he was saved by one of his ADCs."
Other sources claim that Gerard was almost caught by the Prussian 6th Uhlan
Regiment while inspecting the front. "... his chief of staff was pierced 7 times by
lances." (- Henri Lachouque)
Gerard found Napoleon at the mill and mentioned about the desertion of General
Bourmont. The Emperor however cut him short saying, "It was just as I told you, my
general, what is blue is blue, and what is white is always white !"
Gerard had three infantry divisions, Pecheux's 12th, Vichery's 13th, and Hulot's 14th.
The best of them was Pecheux's, it had 6th Light Regiment (they won 7 battle honors)
and 96th Line Regiment (4 battle honors). Pecheux was assigned to captue Ligny itself.
Each division had four regiments and few pieces of artillery. The cavalry was
represented by one division under Maurin.
Vandamme was to have the honor of the attack on the Prussian right.
His corps deployed in front of S.Amand and S.Amand la Haye. Vandamme had three
infantry divisions; Lefol's 8th, Habert's 10th, and Berthezene's 11th. Their quality was
about the same. Each division had four regiments and few guns. The cavalry was
represented by one division under Domon.
It appears that Napoleon had thought at first of attacking Blucher by Wagnele and
St.Amand, so as to throw the enemy back on Sombreffe. But then he changed his mind
and decided to attack in the center (S.Amand - Ligny) while in the same time using
Ney against enemy's flank. The Emperor wrote Marshal Ney to inform him that he
would attack the Prussians at 2:30 pm. Ney was to attack any force before him (at
Quatre Bras) and then turn against Blcher's flank at Ligny.
The Prussian infantry took cover behind walls and hedges and in hollow ground.
How well chosen the Prussian positions were tell us Soult's message to Ney. Marshal
Soult wrote, "The Emperor has charged me to inform you that the enemy has
assembled one corps of troops between Sombreffe and Brye and that at 2:20 pm
Grouchy will attack them with the III and IV Corps."
French author, Henri Lachoque, was impressed with Prussian deployments; "Blucher's
Prussians were solidly entrenched in the villages bordering the small river of Ligny -
more particularly at Saint-Amand and at Ligny." (Lachoque - "Waterloo" p 83)
General Gneissenau with a staff officer.
.
"The Prussians will be crushed
as they were at Jena." - Gen. Lefol
At 2 pm, in the very center of French positions, square-formed the 8th Infantry
Divison listened to General Lefol on horseback: "The battle is about to begin ... The
Prussians will be crushed as they were at Jena ... Victory !" The infantry cheered Lefol
with almost as much enthusiasm as they had shown in happier days.
At 2:30 pm the French lines echoed with the sounds of three cannons being fired by
the Guard Artillery. A great shout went up: "Long live the Emperor !"
The French infantry columns moved forward with bands playing.
The band of the 23rd Line (of Lefol's Division) entangled in the growing crops, played
Le Chant dy Depart, la Victorie en chantant. The French advanced down the roads and
across meadows and fields. The drums beat the charge, the cannons roared. It was the
first great battle of this campaign and all the troops were fresh and eager to fight.
Vandamme attacked west of S. Amand, while Gerard east of that village. Exelmans
cavalry was on the flank, the Imperial Guard and heavy cavalry in reserve.
The French are coming !
.
"Courage, lads !"
Vandamme vs Zieten.
Vandamme and Ziethen (or Zieten) were about to fight for three villages; Wagnele,
S.Amand-la-Haye and S.Amand. Ziethen assigned the 1st Brigade under General
Steinmetz to defend them. The bulk of Steinmetz's brigade was made of three strong
regiments; 12nd Infantry (2,300), 24 Infantry (2,400), and the 1st Westphalian
Landwehr (2,400). Steinmetz also had Landwehr jagers (300), Silesian riflemen (350),
VII Foot Battery (8 guns) and VII Horse Battery (8 guns). Steinmetz's best troops were
the 12th Infantry and the riflemen. The village of Brye was north of the Prussian
frontline and in the beginning was not attacked by Vandamme's troops.
General Vandamme "was a knock-down, drag-out, whoop-it-up roughneck ... His
temper was instantaneous, his vocabulary sulphurous, his talent for insubordination
stupendous. No marshal would willingly have him as a subordinate; only Davout
could manage him. ... German troops liked serving under him; he treated his
subordinates with iron rigor but took the best possible care of them." (Elting - "Swords
Around a Throne" pp 158-159) In the famous battle of Austerlitz, General Vandamme
captured crucial position in Allies line. Vandamme was defeated in 1813 at Kulm and
was taken prisoner by the Russians. After the restoration of King Louis XVIII of
France Vandamme was exiled to America.
Dominique Vandamme (1770-1830)
He was a brutal and violent soldier , renowned for
insubordination and looting. Napoleon once said to
him , "If I had two of you , the only solution would
be to have one hang the other . " He also said that
were he , Napoleon , to launch a campaign against
Lucifer__in_Hell , then he would give Vandamme
command of the vanguard." (-wikipedia.org 2005)
Hans-Karl von Ziethen-II (Zieten)
He was not shy of making quick decisions.
Ziethen was a competent cavalry leader but
not the best general f o r using infantry o n
defensive position.Although Ziethen shared
the hardships of campaign with his soldiers
he was somehow aloof.
Lefol's 8th Division (4,800 men in 11 battalions) was ready and eager for action. Three
battalions formed themselves in columns and proceded by skirmishers entered the
unoccupied S.Amand. (Some sources mention Prussian skirmishers in that village).
Lefol then kept moving towards S.Amand-la-Haye.
Here the attackers were greeted by Prussian batteries deployed on the ridge behind
the village. Killed and wounded carpeted the ground. Lefol's own horse was killed
under him. The French moved one battery (8 guns) up to the west of the village and
fired canister at skirmishers of the Prussian I/29. Infantry Regiment. The Prussian
skirmishers fell back and 3-deep line of infantry opened long range fire on the
gunners. The musketry continued with unrelenting intensity for 30 minutes until the
Prussian battalion withdrew towards S.Amand-la-Haye.
Lefol's attack is nicely described by Henri Houssaye; "Vandamme did not even deign
to prepare the way for the assault with his artillery, but hurled Lefol's division on
Saint-Amand. To the tune of La victoire en chantant played by the band of the 23rd
(Line Infantry Regiment), the division marched forward in three columns (regimental
columns ?) each of which was preceeded by a swarm of tirailleurs.
The ground in front of the enemy had been swept of every tree and hedge, and was
now a sheet of ripening corn 4 or 5 feet high. The march through this surging mass
was slow and difficult, and though the easr of wheat afforded cover to the tirailleurs
(skirmishers), the columns were perfectly visible. IOt was on the latter, therefore, that
the batteries directed their fire: cannon balls ploughed down files of men ...
The Prussians were well under cover, ambushed in the houses or behind the
embankments, and the dense hedges which surrounded the orchards. Fifty yards from
the village, Lefol's soldiers sprang up to the first enclousers. Even point-blank
discharges failed to check their rush; in less than a quarter of an hour's furious
fighting, the enemy was driven from the orchards, the houses, the cemetery, and the
church."
French battery fired shells on S.Amand unsuccessfully attempting to set the buildings
on fire.
In S.Amand-la-Haye the II/29.Infantry Regiment and III/3.Westphalian Landwehr
Regiment engaged the French for one hour. Girard's 7th Division moved on S.Amand-
la-Haye from the west. Girard's division was an excellent force and included the 11th
Light Regiment under Colonel Vicomte Sebastiani (they were ex-sharpshooters from
Corsica and the Po Valley), the 12th Light Regiment, the 82nd Line, and the 4th Line
under Colonel Foullin (they won 4 battle honors). Girard led the 11th Light "Courage,
lads ! Lead to the right ! Close the ranks ! Charge !"
In the village were numerous hedges and ditches which served as good cover for the
Prussian skirmishers. Girard reinforced his skirmishers and under cover of their fire
moved large columns against the village. His 12 Light and 4th Line Regiment colided
with the enemy.
The French with drums beating entered S.Amand, while Prussian 3 battalions had
their ammunition exhausted and withdrew from that part of the village. The French
pursued them until got under artillery fire from Prussian artillery deployed on the
ridge. The pursuers fell back to the village.
The Prussians moved against S.Amand-la-Haye with 2 battalions of 12.Infantry
Regiment and 3 battalions of 24.Infantry Regiment. They brought up foot battery and
opened canister fire. The French were driven off from the village. In the same time
F/24.Infantry Regiment and II/3. Westphalian Landwehr Regiment supported by
riflemen of Silesian Schtzen and few companies of 29.Infantry Regiment captured the
rest of S.Amand-la-Haye.
The 24.Infantry Regiment moved at a run from S.Amand-la-Haye to S.Amand but
they were unable to make headway and fell back. They suffered 200 men killed and
wounded and had exhausted ammunition. This regiment was pulled out of S.Amand-
la-Haye and placed in a hollow ground in the rear where the soldiers sat and rest for
a while.
General Steinmetz ordered 2 battalions of 1.Westphalian Landwehr to counterattack.
The landwehr marched into a storm of shot, had lost a large number of men from the
French hidden in S.Amand and fled. Lefol's 8th Division garrissoned S.Amand while
Girard's 7th Division occupied S.Amand-la-Haye.
The fighting for the three villages was very bloody. Steinmetz's 1st Brigade lost 2.350
killed and wounded (!) Girard's 7th Division was so weakened by casualties that it
remained near Fleurus for the rest of the war.
French infantry storming St.Amand and S.Amand-la-Haye.
There were numerous trees, hedges and ditches which served
as good cover for the Prussian and French skirmishers .
.
Blcher led the counter-attack.
"Forward, in God's name !"
Blucher arrived with the cry "Young men ! Keep yourself worthy ! Forward, in God's
name !" Steinmetz renewed his counterattacks with force superior to the French. They
attempted to retake S.Amand but their skirmishers were driven off by French
skirmishers.
It was 4 pm.
Pirch's 2nd Brigade stood near Bussy Mill when Blcher ordered them to retake
S.Amand. Tippelskirch's 5th Brigade from the reserve was to retake S.Amand-la-
Haye. The two brigades formed themselves in battalion columns with two cavalry
brigades, Sohr's and Marwitz's, behind them as a reserve. Sohr had only 8 from his 12
squadrons of hussars (2 squadrons were attached to Tippelskirch's 5th Infantry
Brigade, and 2 squadrons to Krafft's 6th Infantry Brigade). Marwitz brought 7
squadrons of uhlans.
Blcher rode to the front rank and personally led Pirch's brigade already moving at
the "pas de charge". The infantrymen were quite animated and advanced with fixed
bayonets. The French skirmishers and few battalion columns took to their heels,
reeling before the advancing Prussians. The village was captured with the exception of
a strong farmhouse occupied by a single battalion of 70th Line Infantry of Habert's
10th Infantry Division. (Some sources give only three companies of that regiment; one
voltigeurs and two companies of grenadiers.)
The Prussians attempted to dislodge the defiant French infantry in the farmhouse but
it was not an equal fight. The defenders were protected by buildings and walls while
the attackers were crowded on the streets and were an easy target. The Prussians
became disordered and suffered heavy casualties so officers pulled them back in an
attempt to rally and reform.
The front was stabilized and old Blcher returned to army's headquarters.
Blucher led Pirch's 2nd Brigade forward shouting
"Kinder, haltet euch brav ! Lasst die Nation
nicht wieder Herr ber Euch werden !
Vorwrts, vorwrts in Gottes Nahmen !"
.
"The French hidden in tall crops
let off crushing volleys."
Large group of Prussians gathered on the edge of S.Amand but was attacked by
French cavalry and almost lost battalion-color. As if that was not enough the French
skirmishers appeared in large number and hidden in tall crops fired on the Prussians.
In this situation General Pirch ordered his brigade to fall back.
The French by harrassing and following Pirch's brigade moved closer to the flank of
Prussian batteries deployed on the ridge. This movement alarmed Prussian generals,
and 2 squadrons of 3rd Uhlan Regiment with some Landwehr cavalry charged out of
hollow ground and dispersed the skirmishers. In this action Lieutenant von Grodski
of 3rd Uhlans distinguished himself. His horse however had been wounded and he
was saved by Private Grosschupf.
Tippelskirch's 5th Brigade moved through relatively empty Wagnelee, then wheeled
to the left and moved against S.Amand-la-Haye. In the front marched F/25th Infantry
Regiment and F/2nd Infantry Regiment having their skirmishers up in front. They met
French skirmishers and threw them back. The sight of entire Prussian brigade
advancing in battle array was enough for two French battalions standing on a
meadow by the farmhouse. They turned around and retired.
Other French troops lay quietly in the fields of tall crops watching the enemy's
advance. The French then stood up and delivered a volley at the II/25th Infantry. The
Prussians halted and began deploying, while the I Battalion of this regiment
attempted to deploy on their flank. Because of the speed of their movement they failed
to maintain the distance necessary to deploy and instead of being on the flank they
found themselves in front of it. French artillery fired canister at them, while infantry
battalion advanced to within 60 paces and fired at the Prussians. The Prussians
returned fire but were soon badly disordered by fleeing skirmishers of 5th
Westphalian Landwehr Regiment.
Both flanks of the 5th Westphalian Landwehr Regiment got under lively fire from
French skirmishers hidden in tall crops, and fell back. The F/25th Infantry Regiment
was marching on the road to the farmhouse when they received fire from the French
hidden in crops. Commander of the Prussian battalion and all senior officers fell
wounded. Shocked but not broken the fusiliers fixed bayonets and rushed against the
French. Then another French battalion appeared and the fusiliers hastily withdrew.
Their retreat towards Wagnelee was done under the cover of their own skirmishers.
It was not all doom and gloom for the Prussians. The 2nd Infantry Regiment enjoyed a
great success as they recaptured S.Amand-la-Haye in a spirited bayonet charge.
Saint Amand as seen from the French positions.
The village and its surroundings were defended by Steinmetz's 1st Brigade, and 2 btns. of Jagow's 3rd
Brigade.
On the ridge behind the village (see photo) stood several Prussian batteries. Behind the ridge stood their
reserves.
These troops came from the I Army Corps. (At Waterloo Ziethen's corps was the one that linked with
Wellington's
army.) The village and its defenders were pounded by Vandamme's artillery and one or two batteries of the
Imperial Guard. The village was attacked numerous times by Vandamme's infantry and the Young Guard.
.
Wellington on French flank.
"They are enemies !"
One of Vandamme's staff officers had been sent to identify troops that were showing
up on Vandamme's flank. He came riding back shouting "They are enemies !" Some of
the troops (for example the exhausted division under Lefol) panicked and soon
anxiety and fear spread along the ranks like wild-fire. Lefol turned cannons on his
own infantry to stop them fleeing. Girard's division abandoned S.Amand-la-Haye and
bravely faced the flank to meet the new enemy. Vandamme hurriedly rode to
Napoleon with news that probably part of Wellington's British-Netherland army was
marching on him with the intent of attacking his flank.
Fighting against two armies could be a disaster, even for Napoleon. He was defeated
by enemy attacking his flank at La Rothiere and Leipzig. Napoleon met Vandamme
but remained calm. He sent one of his staff officers and the 3rd Old Guard Chasseur
Regiment to investigate the mysterious troops.
To calm Vandamme down the Emperor ordered Young Guard Division and
Subervie's light cavalry division to march on the flank. Meanwhile the officer returned
with news that the mysterious troops was French d'Erlon's I Army Corps and not the
British-Netherland army attempting to outflank them. The French corps marched on
Marbais and St.Amand.
Lachouque writes, "At the Fleurus windmill, under heavy storm-clouds, his forehead
beaded with prespiration ... hands crossed over the tails of his green coatee, fingers
clenching feverishly, Napoleon strode up and down on the flour-coated floorboards
and kept vigil ... On a map nailed to a beam, the name 'Marbais' had been underlined
10 times."
De Erlon's corps was seen by patrol of Prussian hussars.
Picture by Patrice Courcelle, France.
.
Vandamme and Young Guard
versus Ziethen and Pirch.
Prussian and French artillery redoubled their cannonade along the whole line and
clouds of smoke covered the battlefield. The Emperor ordered to strengthen
Vandamme's artillery with one battery of the Old Guard. A little bit earlier the Young
Guard Division deployed behind Vandamme. The Young Guard was under General
Duhesme and comprised of four regiments; 1st and 3rd Tirailleurs, and 1st and 3rd
Voltigeurs. Duhesme had no cavalry and engineers but there were two foot batteries
under Captains CreAach and Charbonier.
Expecting that Ziethen's I Corps will be again under pressure, Blucher moved the bulk
of Pirch-I's II Corps (Krafft's, Brausse's and Tippelskirch's brigades) behind him. Thus
more than 20 battalions of infantry and landwehr, with some artillery, moved south
and south-east. In front of this massive force rode Generallmajor (General-Major)
Pirch-I and his chief-of-staff Oberst (Colonel) von Aster.
Note: Georg Dubislav Ludwig von Pirch-I commanded the II Corps. This veteran
general was was almost deaf. Pirch-II commanded only one brigade in Ziethen's I
Corps. It was this brigade that fought a costly rear-guard action at Gilly. The III/2nd
Westphalian Landwehr had suffered heavily on the retreat from Thuin earlier on.
Private Kaufmann of F/28th Infantry (a former Berg regiment) shot and killed General
Letort, commander of Old Guard Dragoons. But the veterans cut to pieces Kaufmann's
battalion that was then reorganised into a new 'combined battalion' with the survivors
of the III/2nd Westphalian Landwehr.
von Pirch-I
Pirch-II's 2nd Brigade advanced against S.Amand, passed over the stream and took
the village at bayonet point. They also captured the church and moved out of the
village against the enemy deployed in open field. Here the French artillery shattered
them and the Prussians hastily fell back to the village.
Four Prussian cavalry regiments moved against the French west of S.Amand.
In the first line rode the 3rd Uhlan Regiment, in the second were 4th Kurmark
Landwehr Cavalry, in the third 5th Dragoon Regiment, and in the reserve was the 1st
Queen's Own Dragoon Regiment. (Earlier all four units were deployed behind artillery
on the ridge and suffered from French counter-battery fire.)
The 3rd Uhlan Regiment charged, forcing the French light cavalry back. The French
cavalry however regrouped and almost captured Prussian heavy battery positioned by
the stream. The cavalry battle was a stalemate.
It was 6 pm when Pirch's 2nd Brigade exhausted ammunition and was forced to
abandon S.Amand. But part of Krafft's 6th Brigade and two fusilier battalions of
Steinmetz's 1st Brigade attempted to retake the village. They continued their advance
despite artillery and musket fire. The Prussian skirmishers outnumbered the French
skirmishers posted in the houses and gardens and drove them back. Behind
skirmishers advanced columns and these also entered the S.Amand. Except the
farmhouse the entire village was now re-occupied by the Prussians. Several battalions
left the village and marched into the open where stood French battalions already being
deployed in lines. Both sides opened fire and became enveloped in thick smoke.
Vandamme noticed that the Prussians were unable to move out of the villages.
Vandamme's infantrymen motivated by spectacular efforts of their officers and
supported by the Young Guard captured S.Amand and S.Amand-la-Haye.
But the Prussians were not giving up and brought Tippelskirch's 5th Brigade. Their
batteries on the ridge bombarded both villages and two fusilier battalions (F/2nd
Infantry Regiment and F/25th Infantry Regiment) attacked the farmhouse, while three
musketier battalions (I,II/2nd Infantry Regiment and I/25th Infantry Regiment)
supported by one battalion of 5th Westphalian Landwehr Regiment attacked
S.Amand. Behind the infantry rode three cavalry regiments; 2nd Uhlan Regiment and
11th Hussar Regiment in first line, and 5th Kurmark Landwehr Cavalry Regiment in
the second line.
The French occupied S.Amand-la-Haye with 2 battalions while a substantial mass of
infantry with two batteries stood in reserve behind the village. The Prussian light
infantry (F/2nd Infantry Regiment and F/25th Infantry Regiment) entered S.Amand-
la-Haye and slipped to the right and left. After a bloody house-to-house fighting they
captured the village.
The French in neighbour S.Amand counterattacked but the fusiliers were strenghtened
with other troops and threw the attackers back. The French attacked three more times
and three times they were repulsed. This victory had reversed the earlier French
successes at S.Amand-la-Haye. Part of Tippelskirch's 5th Brigade captured the weakly
defended Wagnelee.
Brause's 7th Brigade descended from the ridge and captured S.Amand. (With Brause
were 2 squadrons of Elb Landwehr Cavalry from Schulenburg's 3rd Cavalry Brigade).
During pursuit they found themselves in the open and the French cavalry attacked
them. The Prussians run fast but in the opposite direction seeking safety in the village.
The French cavalry also attacked skirmishers of 2nd Infantry Regiment but were
driven back by two squadrons of 5th Kurmark Landwehr Cavalry.
General Lefol was almost taken prisoner in S.Amand as his horse had fallen.
During the battle General Girard was wounded three times. The third time a musket
ball broke his right arm and got stuck in the spine. Doctor d'Heralde was permitted to
leave the battlefield and escort the wounded general to Charleroi. Napoleon
nominated Girard as duc de Ligny on 21 June. Girard's division however was able to
hold St.Amand le Hameau.
Lefol's and Berthezene's divisions occupied most of St.Amand but were not able to
emerge from the village. With his infantry pushed back, Vandamme turned his
artillery to pound the offending Prussians into submission. So far the Prussians were
able to withstand all attacks and held their positions but they used two corps;
Ziethen's and Pirch-I's, against one French corps (Vandamme's), and the Young
Guard division. It was getting dark and the battle between Vandamme and Ziethen
became limited to artillery and skirmish combat.
General Girard was seriously wounded .
Transported back to France , Girard died
on27th and was hence spared the allied
occupation of the capital city. In his will
Napoleon left 100,000 francs to Girard's
children.
Article: "Battle of Hagelberg 1813" >
(Girard vs Prussian Landwehr
and Russian Cossacks)
Map of battle of Ligny, 16 June 1815.
Vandamme versus Ziethen-II and Pirch-I.
Battle for Saint Amand, Saint Amand la Haye, and Wagnele.
Battle of Ligny (center).
The fight for Ligny between Gerard and the Prussians
was even more ferocious than Vandamme's and Ziethen's
battle for Saint Amand and S.Amand la Haye. In terms of
moral strength (and not numbers) Gerard's IV Corps was
the best corps in the French army right after the Guard.
The village of Ligny was approx. 1 km long.
"Ligny was formed of two streets which ran parralel to the Ligne (Stream) and were
separated by it: the Rue d'En-Haut to the south, the Rue d'En-Bas to the north.
Between the two streets there were a few straggling cottages, the square of the church,
and a vast common which sloped down to the Ligne in the form of a glacis." (- Henri
Houssaye)
The right side of the village was defended by two battalions (F and I/19th Infantry)
while the left part by two battalions of 4th Westphalian Landwehr. The infantrymen
and Landwehr were well protected by walls and hedges. Their skirmishers took
positions along the edge of village while individual companies stood behind them in
the narrow streets as support and reserve. The Prussians removed many windows and
barricaded the doors.
The banks of Ligny Stream were here 2 m high (!) and the skirmishers cut steps into
them and cut paths through fences and hedges. It helped them to move around and
communicate. The nearest fields of tall crops were cut down giving no cover for the
attackers. On the higher ground behind the village were set up 16 guns (some sources
give 24-32 guns). As a general reserve served four battalions.
South of Ligny stood strong chateau. It was defended by skirmishers detached from
I/19th or F/19th Infantry Regiment. (According to F Harkort there was just one
company of infantry.) There were three gates and each was barricaded and defended
by group of soldiers. Fourth and fifth group took cover behind hedges and along the
walls, while the sixth group stood in the courtyard and served as a reserve.
Ligny itself was about to be attacked by Gerard's IV Army Corps. Many of Gerard's
regiments were recruited on areas very loyal to Napoleon. In terms of moral strength
(and not numbers) it was probably the best corps in the French army right after the
Imperial Guard. This fact alone assured Napoleon that Ligny will fall rather sooner
than later. Gerard himself was a seasoned commander.
tienne Maurice Grard (11773-1852)
Gerard distinguished himself at Austerlitz (1805) and Jena (1806)
and was made general de brigade . For his conduct a t Wagram
he was created a baron. During the Peninsular War (1810 - 1811)
Grard gained distinction at Fuentes de Onoro . In 1812 , during
the Invasion of Russia , Gerard displayed bravery and ability in
Valutina Gora and Borodino and Napoleon made him general de
division. Gerard was gravely wounded in Leipzig (1813). In 1814
during the Campaign in France, Gerard distinguished himself at
La Rothiere and Montereau.
.
Gerard's infantry storming Ligny.
A great body of Prussians had rallied near the church.
They charged the French throwing them into disorder.
The little square, too narrow for such a number of
combatants became the scene of a terrific contest.
The Prussians at last gave way.
Napoleon reinforced Gerard's artillery with several batteries of Imperial Guard. They
opened fire on Ligny. The cannon balls shattered the houses and ricocheted in the
streets, the thatched roofs took fire and fell in; the conflagration burst out in several
points at once.
When at 3 pm columns of French infantry closed on Ligny they were greeted with hail
of canister and musket fire. The French advanced in three columns screened by
skirmishers; two attacked the village while third moved against the chateau. Taking
advantage of this movement the French batteries limbered up and moved closer to the
village. The French unlimbered just within canister range from the edge of Ligny.
Prussian artillery opened fire in an attempt to stem the tide of advancing French.
French columns - some were carrying the tricolor-flags - climbed up into gardens and
over the fences. The hidden Prussians fired at close range, shattering the heads of the
columns. The attackers were shocked at their casualties and halted. The 30th Line
Infantry alone lost 700 killed and wounded ! All three battalion commanders were hors
de combat; Richard and Lafolie were killed, and Blain was wounded. Additionally one
major, eight captains, and sixteen lieutenants of that regiment were hors de combat.
The Prussians counterattacked and the French fell back. The French were pursued to
the field of tall crops where their fresh troops opened fire on the pursuers. Now it was
the Prussian turn to flee and they did it with gusto.
The French artillery concentrated its fire on the garden walls, hedges and buildings
that surrounded Ligny in an effort to punch holes in them. Gerard's men plunged into
the ditches and pressed up against the walls and fences, tearing it down as best they
could. Despite heavy casualties the furious French assault succeeded in gaining a
foothold in the village.
Fight for the bridge and Farm d'en Bas. Picture by Knotel.
The Prussians ( left and right ) charge over the stream to
attack the French infantry ( center ) on the far bank . The
massive entrance gateway of the farm no longer exists .
.
Prussian response:
Bajonett Angriff!
The II/19th Infantry moved through Ligny and deployed from column into line by the
Ligny Stream. They sent forward skirmishers but these were quickly driven off by
French skirmishers. A single French column advanced against the Prussian line. Major
von Bnau's battalion opened fire while the French column attempeted to deploy into
line to return the fire.
The Prussians delivered a second volley and charged with bayonets.
The French fled. Bnau's battalion was then directed to the other end of the village.
His men broke up into small groups to take advantage of the hedges, walls and fences.
They met the French and both sides opened fire before Bnau's men charged with
bayonets. The French were thrown back and across the stream. They then rallied and
reformed behind their artillery. The stubborn French advanced again and Bnau's men
again drove them back.
When an isolated company of Bnau's battalion saw French company marching in
their direcion they charged with bayonet. The French however kept moving until there
was only 10 paces between the sides. The French company then halted, wavered and
fled. (Rudolf von Leszczynski - "50 Jahre Geschichte des Koniglich Preussischen 2.Posenschen
Infanterie-Regiments Nr.19" p 162)
Bnau's battalion had spent much of the day fighting either in skirmish order or in
small battle groups. The skirmishers often had to crawl through gaps in the fences and
hedges or very quickly move from one place to another. If all Prussian infantry was
like Bnau's battalion, Ligny would probably never fall into French hands.
Prussian line infantryman
with musket and bayonet ,
by Steven Palatka
.
The churchyard in
Ligny was besieged.
Several French battalions deployed from columns into thick skirmish lines, penetrated
Ligny and besieged the churchyard. Gradually they got up to the walls, fences and
hedges. The French skirmishers were supported with 2 guns. The well coordinated
action between infantry and artillery brought great result, the Prussians hastily
abandoned the churchyard.
Wounded were bayoneted by the French on the spot, and Gerard's infantry poured
into the buildings. But before they were able to establish themselves in the churchyard
and get more ammunition the enemy counterattacked. The French hurriedly
abandoned their positions and even left behind the two guns. The Prussians pursued
them but only for a short while because French battery fired canister at them.
The Landwehr infantry suffered heavy losses from French artillery.
Lachouque writes, "A battery of cannon in the cemetery pulverised three battalions
under von Jagow." Two officers commanding the Prussian skirmishers remained with
troops until they fainted from loss of blood. The smoke was so dense that it was
impossible to distinguish Prussians from the French.
Gerard's infantry again attempted to capture the churchyard and the houses around it.
Every street, building, and garden was disputed - bayonets and musket butts were the
weapons of choice. Gerard's infantry forced their way into the center of Ligny and in
ferocious assault took the churchyard again.
Prussian infantry
.
"... the devils of Henckel and Jagow
hurled out their hatred." - Lachouque
By now Ligny was almost entirely in French hands. Henckel and Jagow however held
the chateau and few houses. Remember that Henckel had only 6 out of 9 battalions.
(According to Peter Hofschroer, after Lettow-Vorbeck, the 3 battalions of 13rd Infantry
Regiment were detached to Mainz.) Two battalions of Jagow's 3rd Brigade (I and
II/7th Infantry Regiment) with their drums beating and loud cries entered the village.
On Jagow's flanks rolled 16 guns and advanced two battalions of light infantry (F/7th
Infantry and F/29th Infantry). According to von Reiche the men of 29th Infantry (ex
Berg infantry, France's ally) wore greatcoats as they had white uniforms, in order to
make them less conspicious. Jagow directed his assault against the church and its
surroundings but Gerard's infantry were ready and waiting for them.
General Jagow
Two French battalions formed in columns counterattacked puting Jagow's two leading
battalions into flight. The victors however decided not to pursue the enemy behind
village so Jagow was able to rally his troops and come back. This attack was better
organized, they moved forward screened by skirmishers so there were no suprises.
The church was taken. Pardon was neither asked nor given, the badly wounded
French who fell into Prussian hands were bayoneted.
Battle of Ligny 1815, by Adalbert von Rler.
Two French battalions formed in narrow columns rushed forward with outstretched
bayonets. Only the front ranks were able to fire as the place was overcrowded and
officers lost control. The fierce firefight continued for half hour and many were ripped
to pieces by musketballs.
The surrounding houses and even the church spire were full of holes. The fight
throughout the whole village was now at the hottest. Lachoque writes, "Bayonets
broke against the church flagstones, one of them pinning a sergeant to the church
door."
The French brought cannons and fired canister at the enemy positioned near the
church. The Prussian infantry and Landwehr were horryfied by the losses. Fortunately
for Jagow's men, two battalions of 7th Infantry Regiment counterattacked in such a
speed that the surprised French gunners left their pieces and fled. The gunners were
followed by large group of French infantry.
When the pursuing Prussians got near the field of tall crops they were greeted with a
hail of musketballs and driven back to the village. The elated infantry of Gerard's
division pursued the enemy and recaptured the churchyard in the same time.
Both sides were exhausted.
Church in Ligny.
.
"The French sappers attempted
to smash down the gate of chateau."
It was almost 4 pm when the French attacked chateau.
Their skirmishers opened fire while sappers attempted to smash down one of the three
gates. The defenders shot the sappers within moments and opened fire on ths
skirmishers. The French brought 8 guns and unlimbered them within 400 paces from
the chateau. When the battery fired shells and canister the infantry encircled the
chateau. The Prussian snipers managed to pick off several gunners and infantry
officers and held the French at arms length.
The French brought more artillery and fired shells on the chateau.
Some buildings went up in flames and the Prussians jumped out of the first floor
windows and over the high walls. Gerard's infantry fired at them, it was as if fun of
duck hunting but without the ducks.
Ligny Chateau.
.
The fighting in Ligny
took on a new savagery.
From west to east, brigade after brigade, division after division, the units of Blucher's
and Napoleon's armies were punching each other in a series of trip-hammer blows.
Krafft's 6th Brigade and Bose's 8th Brigade were ordered to leave Ziethen's troops and
to retake Ligny. (With Bose were 2 squadrons of Elb Landwehr Cavalry from
Schulenburg's 3rd Cavalry brigade). Exhausted Henckel's 4th Brigade (two regiments)
was withdrawn to the safety of the wood of Bois du Loup. The French began a
vigorous artillery fire on the fresh forces as soon as they became visible through the
smoke. The artillery on both sides were roaring and many of the houses in Ligny were
ablaze.
The fall of Ligny would be a threat to the Prussian center so they attempted to capture
it at all cost. Four remaining battalions of Krafft's 6th Brigade entered village and
marched down the main and widest street. (His two other battalions were already in
Ligny and further three were engaged in S.Amand.)
Krafft's troops began fighting for every house and garden but that was not easy as the
French skirmishers were numerous and being constantly reinforced. The Prussian
skirmishers crossed the stream nine times and nine times were driven back !
The village was so packed with Frenchmen and Prussians that many units were so
mixed up with others that it took time to extricate them. Now the fighting took on a
new savagery with men lashing out with musket butts and bayonets and shouting
insults. The streets were choked up with the wounded and the dead. The troops
fought in groups, defending houses and barns like little forts. The larger buildings
were attacked by the Prussians in the following way: their skirmishers surrounded the
house and fired on the defenders while the battalion sappers smashed down the
doors. Once the doors were down part of the skirmishers charged with bayonets while
other part fired on those Frenchmen who attempted to escape from it by the windows
and back doors.
The Prussians
The attacks advanced with surprising vehemence and quickly turned into a close, bitter
battle where death gained a plentiful bounty. The Frenchn so stubbornly defended
themselves against the Prussian attacks that - for example - the Prussian 21st Infantry
Regiment made 6 attacks and gained no ground. Gerard's infantry showed vigor and
aggressivennes that had once been the hallmark of the Napoleonic infantry during the
Glory Years (1805-7).
William Siborne writes, "The battle, on this part of the field, now presented an awfully
grand and animating spectacle, and the hopes of both parties were raised to the
highest state of excitement. Intermingled with the quick but irregular discharge of
small arms throughout the whole extent of the village [Ligny], came forth alternately
the cheering En avant! and exulting Vive I'Empereur ! as also the emphatic Vorwdrts !
and the wild Hourrah ! whilst the batteries along the heights, continuing their terrific
roar, plunged destruction into the masses seen descending on either side to join in the
desperate struggle in the valley, out of which there now arose, from the old Castle of
Ligny, volumes of dark thick smoke, succeeded by brilliant flames, imparting
additional sublimity to the scene. The Prussians gradually gained ground, and then
pressing forward upon all points of the village, succeeded in clearing it of the French;
who, in retreating, abandoned 2 guns which had been moved close down to the
principal outlet on that side."
Around one of the French regimental flags began a massive brawl, Prussian
skirmishers ripped the flag from its pole and took away bands and tassels but the
French bayoneted many of the attackers and saved the precious Eagle. According to
French sources Ligny was attacked five or six times.
The French (Gerard's corps) at Ligny.
~
Battle of Ligny (right flank).
It was getting dark when the battle
between Thielemann and Grouchy began.
Napoleon sent Marshal Grouchy with several divisions on the French right flank.
Grouchy had only one infantry and five cavalry divisions. Napoleon thought it
was enough to secure his position from any major threat from that direction.
Grouchy had the following troops:
Drawn from Gerard's IV Army Corps
- - - Hulot's 14th Inf. Division (9th Light, 11th, 44th, 50th Line) *
- - - Maurin's 7th Cav. Division (6th Hussars, 8th Horse Chasseurs, 6th, 16th Dragoons)
Pajol's I Cavalry Corps
- - - Soult's 4th Cav. Division (1st, 4th and 5th Hussars)
- - - Subervie's 5th Cav. Division (1st, 2nd Lancers, 11th Horse Chasseurs) **
Exelmans' II Cavalry Corps
- - - Strolz's 9th Cav. Division (5th, 13th, 15th, 20th Dragoons)
- - - Chastel's 10th Cav. Division (4th, 12th, 14th, 17th Dragoons)
* - One battalion of 50th Line Regiment was sent to support Exelmans' dragoons.
** - Some sources however claim that Subervie's division had been sent
to the left to observe the mysterious troops on Vandamme's flank.
I am not sure if Subervie's division was later recalled or not.
Grouchy's force was relatively weak in numbers but it included several excellent
regiments. The 4th Hussars won 5 battle honors, the 5th Hussars also won 5 battle
honors and in 1806-07 they were part of Lasalle's Hellish Brigade. The lancers were
excellent. The 9th Light Infantry won 4 battle honors and the nickname
"Incomparable" . It was one of the best French infantry outfits. The French artillery
was superb as usual, 30 horse and 8 foot guns supported the infantry and cavalry.
Grouchy deployed his troops on the French right flank, between Sombreffe and
Balatre.
Emmanuel Grouchy (1766-1847)
He came from aristocracy . ". . . a thin-skinned man ,
reluctant to assume responsibility yet conscientious in
discharging it ." He was superior to Murat in tactical
skill , administrative ability , and common sense .
Grouchy faced Thielemann's III Army Corps. Thielemann's headquarters were in
the windmill on Point du Jour, the second highest place on the battlefield.
Thielemann's chief-of-staff was Colonel Karl von Clausewitz. The bulk of
Thielemann's force comprised of infantry:
- - - Borcke's 9th Infantry Brigade (8th* and 30th Infantry, 1st Kurmark Landwehr)
- - - Kemphen's 10th Infantry Brigade (20th** and 27th Infantry, 2nd Kurmark Landwehr)
- - - Luck und Witten's 11th Infantry Brigade (32nd*** Infantry, 3rd and 4th Kurmark Landwehr)
- - - Stulpnagel's 12th Infantry Brigade (31st Infantry, 5th and 6th Kurmark Landwehr)
Cavalry: Gen.Mjr. von Hobe
- - - Col. Marwitz's 1st Cavalry Brigade (7th and 8th Uhlans, 12th Hussars*** , 3rd Kurmark Landwehr)
- - - Col. Lottum's 2nd Cavalry Brigade (5th Uhlans, 7th Dragoons, 9th Hussars, 6th Kurmark Landwehr)
* - it was the excellent 8th Leib (Life) Infantry Regiment
** - in Mainz
*** - not present in battle
Thielemann's cavalry was very weak. Colonel Marwitz's cavalry brigade was
moved on the opposite flank of the army. Two squadrons of 9th Hussars were on
outposts near Dinant. Additionally each infantry brigade was strengthened with
Landwehr cavalry:
- 2 squadrons of 3rd Kurmark Landwehr were attached to Borcke's 9th Brigade.
- 2 squadrons of 6th Kurmark Landwehr were attached to Luck/Witten's 11th Brigade.
- 2 squadrons of 3rd Kurmark Landwehr were attached to Kemphen's 10th Brigade.
- 2 squadrons of 3rd Kurmark Landwehr were attached to Stulpnagel's 12th Brigade.
Majority of Thielemann's battalions were Landwehr (18 battalions) and not the line
infantry (9 battalions). The Landwehr accepted men aged 25 to 40, too old and
weak for the line infantry. They were equipped not by the central goverment and
ministry of war but by provinces. The typical Landwehr uniform was designed for
function and serviceability, not show. The outfit was much plainer than the finery
worn by most regular troops but were easily manufactured in the numbers
necessary to outfit tens of thousands. They also wore captured French and
purchased British items. "Theoretically the Landwehr were to be used only for
home defence purposes within the frontiers of Prussia, but in practice they were
used exactly as if they were regulars." ( - Digby Smith)
Prussian landwehr, by Dmitrii Zgonnik.
.
Grouchy versus Thielemann.
The "Incomparables" in action.
"Beyond an occasional cannonading, the action on the eastern side of the field,
between the Corps of Grouchy and of Thielemann, was comparatively languid:
being limited to a contest, varied in its results, for the possession of the village of
Bognde, and subsequently, of those houses of Tongrines which were situated
along the bottom of the valley; as also to some skilful manoeuvring on the part of
Grouchy with his cavalry, with a view of menacing the Prussian left." (Siborne -
"The Waterloo Campaign, 1815")
Stlpnagel's 12th Brigade had its skirmishers deployed along Ligny Stream. Vast
majority of the skirmishers were drawn from F/31st Infantry and Kurmrk
Landwehr. The remaining battalions were formed in columns. Thielemann
strengthened 12th Brigade with 8 heavy guns taken from artillery reserve.
The presence of the French cavalry to the east caused Thielemann to be concerned
about his flank, so he directed part of Hobe's cavalry to Tongrinne and south of
Botey. Tongrinne was occupied by part of Borcke's 9th Brigade. Along the edge of
village were placed skirmishers of F/30th Infantry. In the center stood two other
battalions of that regiment. The 8th (Life) Infantry Regiment was kept in reserve.
The battle between Thielemann and Marshal Grouchy began between 4 and 6 pm.
The French attacked with their battalion columns screened with skirmishers. Two
battalions of the 9th Light Infantry Regiment moved against Tongrenelle and
Sombreffe. It was a famous regiment, they won battle honors for Ulm, Friedland,
Essling, and Wagram > . They also participated in the storming of Somosierra Pass
> and quareled with the Consular Guard > . It Italy Napoleon nicknamed
them"Incomparables". The 9th Light Regiment was followed by the rest of Hulot's
division. The French easily pushed back the outposts of 5th Kurmark Landwehr
Infantry, but their columns got under Prussian artillery fire. The French wavered
for a moment. Two fusilier battalions (one from 31st Infantry, and one from 5th
Kurmark Landwehr) followed by two musketier battalions (both from 31st
Infantry) counterattacked and drove the French back to their positions on the other
side of the stream.
It was getting dark and the French skirmishers were taking advantage of this
situation. They sneaked around the Prussians and fired on their large columns
from the flank and rear. The angered Prussians charged with bayonets but the
skirmishers simply withdrew. They came back and kept popping up and firing
into the Prussians.
French light infantry in 1815.
Picture by Dmitrii Zgonnik, Ukraine.
Prussian Landwehr in 1813-15.
Picture by Knotel, Germany.
.
Exelmans versus Thielemann.
The French dragoons in action.
On Grouchy's right flank stood large force of cavalry under General Exelmans.
Exelmans was a seasoned soldier. He accompanied Marshal Murat in the
Austerlitz (1805), Jena (1806) and Friedland (1807) campaigns. For Austerlitz he
was promoted colonel, and general of brigade for his conduct at Eylau. In 1808, he
accompanied Murat to Spain, but was there made prisoner by British troops, and
conveyed to England. On regaining his liberty in 1811 he went to Naples and
joined Murat. Exelmans distinguished himself in 1812 at Borodino (won the rank of
gnral of division.)
The French dragoons attacked one of the Prussian battalion columns but without
success. The French moved one group of infantry and some artillery against
Tongrinne while another group drew up to receive the Prussian II/30th Infantry.
The Prussian battalion attempted to outflank the stationary enemy but was
attacked by French dragoons and forced to halt and form square.
The French infantry and dragoons then moved against I/Infantry Regiment but
the fight was inconclusive. The French were repulsed with musket fire but the
Prussians soon fell back. In this situation the French again pressed on Tongrinne
and Thielemann ordered Luck's 11th Brigade to defend it. (It was one of the
weakest brigades in terms of numbers and quality. This brigade had only six
battalions and all were Landwehr.) It was not long before Luck used 5 out of his 6
battalions.
The French moved south-east of Tongrinne in an attempt to outflank the Prussian
line. Thielemann answered by throwing at them Kemphen's 10th Brigade. He also
placed Lottum's 2nd Cavalry Brigade behind Kemphen's men as a reserve. This
attack was supported with 8 heavy and 8 horse guns.
Lottum moved horse battery escorted by two squadrons of 7th Dragoon Regiment
towards Boignee, on more advanced position. This group however was attacked
by 5th and 13th Dragoon Regiment and driven off, the battery was captured.
French dragoons.
~
The advance of Old Guard was accompanied by
artillery cannonade and thunder lightnings.
The Old Guard entered Ligny and swept everything before them
with the bayonet, moving like a raging bull with lowered head.
Napoleon ordered preparations for the main attack against the Prussian center.
Lobau's VI Army Corps was called and the Young Guard was taken away from
Vandamme. Blcher took the withdrawal of Young Guard as a sign of his victory
on this part of the battlefield. He ordered forward three battalions of 8th Brigade
and partially reestablished the original line of defence. His joy was however short
lived. Cavalry patrol captured French officer who gave the information that
another French corps was nearby (it was d'Erlon's).
The Prussians realized that the English were not going to be joining them that day.
Dark clouds began to roll across the sky throwing the entire battlefield into
darkness.
The artillery cannonade was accompanied by thunder lightnings. Desvaux
St.Maurice (see picture below) saluted the Prussians with his Guard artillery,
pounding Ligny and its outskirts and setting up a crossfire with the Young Guard
batteries opposite, north of St.Amand. The slopes around the Brye mill were
literally deluged with cannonballs and shells that pulverized the Prussians.
Desvaux de St.Maurice
At 7.45 pm battalions of the Imperial Guard with drums beating moved forward
like ancient phalanx. The veterans lowered bayonets and advanced They moved
against Ligny in two lines. In the first line marched 2nd, 3rd and 4th Grenadier
Regiment. In the second line advanced the best of the best, the 1st Grenadier
under Jean-Martin Petit (2 battalions) and the 1st Chasseurs Regiment (2
battalions). They were all hand picked veterans with plenty of experience under
fire.
Marshal Soult, Napoleon's chief-of-staff, wrote about six battalions of Old Guard
being involved in the attack. In my opinion there were probably as many as eight
or ten battalions. The 3rd Chasseurs had been sent to the left to observe the
mysterious troops on Vandamme's flank. General Drouot however claims that this
regiment soon returned back to the centre where they came from. The 2nd and 4th
Chasseurs were not far from the village of St.Amand and Duhesme's Young
Guard.
Lachouque writes, "The infantry of the Guard were marching in battalion columns
at half-distance. Friant and Morand ... were marching at their head. 'Pere Roguet'
was on horseback in front of Christinai's 2nd Grenadiers, which followed Petit, at
the head of the 1st Grenadiers, who the previous year had been embraced in the
courtyard of Fontainebleau by the Emperor. About 200 m to the left were the 1st
Chasseurs under Cambronne ... Behind, Boissonnet's pioneer-sappers were with
the marines of the courageous Tailhade.
In a great clanking of vehicles and steel, the artillery reserve advanced on the right
flank with 8 guns abreast, preceded by Desvaux de St.Maurice (see picture) and
Lallemand, and then 800 Guard Horse Grenadiers, 800 Guard Dragoons, and 1,600
cuirassiers under Delort ... The approach march lasted 20 minutes under the
rumbling of a thunderstorm."
Behind the Old Guard infantry marched two divisions of Gerard's IV Army Corps,
followed by several regiments of cuirassiers and the Guard Horse Grenadier
Regiment mounted on large black horses. General Gerard however claims that his
IV Army Corps (two divisions, Pecheux's and Vichery's) preceded the Guard in
entering Ligny.
The exact number of cuirassier regiments involved in the attack is unknown to me.
My sources mention either four regiments (Marshal Soult and General Delort) or
six regiments. Michel Ordener, colonel of 7th Cuirassier Regiment, says eight
regiments. According to the official Prussian army report the French infantry
turned the village on one side and the cuirassiers at the other.
The Old Guard infantry entered Ligny and swept everything before them with the
bayonet, moving like a raging bull with lowered head. Ligny was taken to the
refrain of the Chant du Depart. The 5th Cuirassier Regiment charged the first line of
Prussian cavalry and threw it back. The 9th Cuirassier Regiment sabered enemy's
gunners and captured one howitzer. The Old Guard passed through Ligny and
emerged on the other side of the village. The first line of the Old Guard climbed
up the slope at Bossu Mill while the Prussian 21st Infantry Regiment was attacked
by heavy cavalry and fought for survival. The Landwehr cavalry attempted to
rescue their comrades but received a volley at point blank and fled in disorder.
The second line of Old Guard (1st Grenadiers and 1st Chasseurs) went east of
Ligny.
Old Guard Grenadier.
Picture by H Vernet.
Blcher, mounted his horse, and with cloak streaming in the wind he rode to his
last reserve. "In the Devil's name, attack, then!" he shouted to Roeder's
cavalrymen. The old warrior drew his sword and led three cavalry regiments (6th
Uhlans, 1st Dragoons, and 2nd Kurmark Landwehr) into a desperate counter-
attack. William Balck writes, "Ligny 1815. The charge made by the 6th Prussian
Uhlans against French Guard infantry failed in a grain-field when a steep 6 foot
declivity was reached." The uhlans were decimated by the 4th Grenadier
Regiment, 13 officers and 70 troopers swept down within 20 m of the square.
The uhlans were then charged by French heavy cavalry and fled leaving behind
their wounded and prisoners. The dragoons and Landwehr were also attacked and
driven off. Some horse fell; others, riderless, galloped around in the smoke and
finally tumbled into the stream.
Blcher's horse was hit and fell to the ground trapping the commander
underneath it. His adjutant's horse was hit too. According to Hofschroer "Two
more charges of French cavalry passed over the pair before help could arrive." He
wasn't noticed by the French cuirassiers because of his plain uniform.
Fieldmarshal Blucher on the ground.
His excellent horse had been a present
from the Prince Regent of England .
The massive French attack was almost over, the rain stopped and the sun
appeared again.
The advance of the Old Guard was unstoppable, but the Middle Guard had
encountered some problems. For example the 4th Chasseurs suffered so heavy
casualties that after battle was reformed from two to one battalion. The Prussian
1st (Queen's) Dragoons executed a successful charge against French cavalry.
The II/1st Westphalian Landwehr formed square on top of a hill near Brye and
repulsed three charges made by the cuirassiers and Guard cavalry. Three other
Prussian battalions stubbornly held Brye for hours and abandoned it only in early
morning, at 3 am.
~
Victory !
Napoleon would have won far more decisively i f
he had the 15000 men of d'Erlon's Corps at Ligny.
There were rumours that Blcher was taken prisoner.
The bodies of the dead and wounded French and Prussian soldiers lay in irregular
lines amidst the wreckage, a reminder of the grim fighting. It was dark and the
roads were full of Prussian soldiers from different battalions, squadrons and
batteries mixed together. There was chaos and noise everywhere and they thought
that only a speedy withdrawal was the sole possibility for salvation. Some troops
had to fight off continuous cavalry charges and many fugitives were sabered.
There were rumours that Blcher was taken prisoner. The worst situation was in
the troops ejected from Ligny while many of the regiments on the flanks retreated
in good order. Ligny was in ruins, the streets were covered with wounded men
and horses and abandoned equipment: muskets, sabers, cartridge boxes, shakos
etc..
Napoleon spent his time after battle in a residence in Fleurus while Blucher in Tilly
where his troops were ordered to stop their flight. Prussian staff officers were sent
to block the roads leading to Gembloux and to redirect the retreating brigades
with the intention to maintain contact with Wellington's army.
If the French continued their pursuit with the same vigor as shortly after battle the
Prussian brigades would fall apart. The progress of French pursuit became
considerably slower because of three reasons:
exhaustion of troops
Marshal Soult's poor staff work
abandoned Prussian vehicles blocked the roads
William Siborne writes, "While the Prussians were thus effecting their retreat in
good order ... no corresponding activity manifested itself on the part of the French,
whom the morning's dawn found still lying in their bivouac. Their vedettes stood
within half a mile of the columns of Thielemann's rear guard; the retreat of which,
not having commenced until after sunrise, might have been easily remarked: and
had the French detached but the smallest patrol, they could not have failed to
discover the direction of that retreat-whether towards Namur or Gembloux.
It was not until after Thielemann had retired a sufficient distance to escape further
notice that any disposition for movement occurred to disturb the perfect quietude
of their repose. Then, Pajol with a Division of his Light Cavalry, under General
Baron Soult, consisting of the 1st, 4th, and 5th Hussars, was detached in pursuit of
the Prussians. He struck into the Namur road, and shortly afterwards General
Teste's Infantry Division of Lobau's Corps, followed in support, and took up a
position on the Heights of Mazy.
Pajol had not proceeded very far when he perceived a Prussian battery retiring
upon Namur, which he lost no time in capturing and forwarding to Headquarters
... It was accompanied at this moment by a Squadron of the 7th Prussian Uhlans,
which the III Corps [Thielemann's] had neglected to recall from Ouoz. The
squadron ... escaped with a loss of 30 men; but all the guns fell into the hands of
the enemy.
Pajol, feeling at last some reason to doubt that Namur was a point in the Prussian
retreat, diverged from the high road, and proceeded to St Denis, where he was
joined by Teste's [Infantry] Division. A [dragoon] brigade of Excelmans' Cavalry
Corps had been detached to offer support to Pajol, should the latter require it; but
in consequence of certain information, gained upon the road, it was subsequently
directed to proceed towards Gembloux, on approaching which it discovered traces
of the Prussian retreat.
Grouchy, who commanded the right wing of the French army in Napoleon's
absence, repaired early in the morning to the Emperor's headquarters at Fleurus,
for instructions ... He was desired to wait and accompany the Emperor, who was
going to visit the field of battle. The latter, however, did not start from Fleurus
until between 8 and 9 o'clock, and on reaching St Amand, he examined the
approaches by which this village had been attacked the day before; then, he rode
about the field, gave directions for the care of the wounded; and, as he passed in
front of different regiments, that were falling in without arms on the ground where
they were bivouacked, he was received with loud cheers. ...
Having dismounted, he conversed freely, and at great length, with Grouchy and
Gerard, on the state of public opinion in Paris, the different political parties, and
on various other subjects quite unconnected with those military operations upon
the successful issue of which depended the stability of his present power. That
Napoleon should have neglected to follow up the advantages which fortune had
thrown in his way on the morning of the 17th of June, is quite incomprehensible".
Prussian generals were able to restore the order and assemble a large number of
fugitives. The Prussian casualties were heavy but not overwhelming, 16,000 killed
and wounded and 21 guns lost. This is approx. 15 % of their strength. There were
also 6,000 men who abandoned their regiments in the night although many of
them returned to ranks during the next day.
The French casualties were 12,000 killed and wounded.
The French won but a substantial part of the Prussian
army escaped destruction and were able to march to the
aid of Wellington's German-British-Netherland army and
decide the outcome of Waterloo.
Napoleon would have won more decisively if he had the
15.000 men of d'Erlon's I Corps at Ligny. Earlier Napoleon sent several orders for
d'Erlon's Corps which was between Quatre Bras and Ligny ordering him to march
to Ligny. Napoleon thought that if Ney could not march to Ligny, he would settle
for dErlons corps as compensation.
However Marshal Ney believed that his battle at Quatre Bras was the more
important battle than Napoleon's at Ligny. The result was that d'Erlon wasted the
day by marching and countermarching between Ligny and Quatre Bras and
contributing to neither.
The battle would have a different outcome if Blcher had either 30.000 men of
Blow's IV Corps or Wellington's 30.000-60.000 at Ligny. Blcher and Wellington
made mistakes and this is not surprising for me. But I am a little bit disappointed
with Napoleon. The whole affair with d'Erlon's corps and the short pursuit after
battle were his failings. Maybe in 1815 he was no longer the genius, the energetic
man like he was during the Italian Campaigns. Who knows.
Wellington claimed to have watched the Prussian defeat at Ligny through his
telescope from the crossroads at Quatre Bras. It must have been an "extraordinary
telescope", wrote British author Siborne in his History of the War in France and
Belgium in 1815 (1844), "to be able to see through a hill - in the dark".
Ligny after battle.
~
To Waterloo !
Waterloo would be a battle against the clock.
The arrival of Prussians would mean the difference
between victory and defeat.
Napoleon was convinced that Blucher, after his defeat, would be careful not to risk
his already battered army a second time. He declared that the Prussians would
need at least 2 days to recover. Napoleon arrived at the chateau called 'Peace
Castle' but was too tired to receive Grouchy who came for orders to pursue
Prussians. The next day Marshal Grouchy sought orders but was told to wait and
accompany Napoleon to Ligny itself. At 9 AM the emperor rebuked him stating I
will give the orders to you when I see fit. Napoleon then conversed at great
length with several generals on the political situation in Paris. At 11 AM Grouchy
finally received instructions from the emperor.
Napoleon believed that the mere appearance of Grouchy's troops would cause the
Prussians to accelerate their retreat. In the early morning Napoleon ordered
Grouchy, "Follow him [Blucher] closely, with your sword against his back."
Grouchys force, however, was not strong enough to confront Bluchers army but
was more than adequate to watch the enemys movements. Siborne points out that
Napoleon gave Grouchy no particular direction because he was not sure of the real
line of the Prussian retreat.
Next day Blucher woke up and chased away the physician who tried to rub some
ointment into his bruised shoulder. Blucher made a comment "... if things go well
today, soon we will all be washing and bathing in Paris." Then he wrote a letter to
Muffling that if Napoleon "do not attack today, then in my opinion we (Blucher &
Wellington) should attack him (Napoleon) tomorrow". The Battle of Waterloo
would be a battle against the clock. The arrival of Prussians would mean the
difference between victory and defeat.
At 9:30 pm, Lobau's VI Army Corps passed through Ligny and took up position on
the plateau of the Brye mill. On the battlefield the band of the 1st Grenadiers of
the Old Guard played Victoire est a nous. The Young Guard and the exhausted
infantry of Vandamme's and Gerard's corps set up wretched bivouacs on the
battlefield. The Prussian cavalry outposts were within range of the muskets of the
French outposts guards. Some French battalions bivouacked drawn up in squares
and with one rank under arms.
What Napoleon did not know was that at 3:30 AM Wellington received a letter
from Blucher. In it the Prussian general announced that he would be leaving at
dawn and would attack the enemy's right flank with one or perhaps three army
corps. Henri Lachouque writes, "The Duke experienced an immense feeling of
relief ..."
General Gneisenau , directs the retreat of the army .
Blucher wrote that if Napoleon "do not attack today, then in my opinion
we (Blucher and Wellington) should attack him tomorrow". French officer,
Gaspard Gourgaud made a bitter remark "If Blucher were to have only 2
battalions available, he would have used these to support the E n g l i s h
army, while one could take it for granted that Wellington would not attack
the French in support of Blucher until he had concentrated his entire army"
~
Bulow's guilt
Bulow held the old Bluchers command capabilities in contempt.
It led him to boldly alter any orders that he believed were poor.
Bulows failure to reach Ligny would have been reason to start
a formal investigation. This step however was not taken.
Bluchers instructions were for Bulow and his IV Army Corps to arrange his troops
on the 14th so that they could unite on a march to Hannut. According to a letter
written by Gneisenau on the 14th, however, Prussian headquarters expected
Bulow to begin marching to Hannut that same day. In order for Gneisenaus
supposition to be true, Bulow would have had to receive the order no latter than 5
PM on the 14th. This, however, was not the case, and the general did not receive
them until 5 AM on the 15th. Bulow, however, executed the orders by directing his
troops to assemble around Luttich during the 15th so as easily march to Hannut
on the 16th. Instead of marching directly to Hannut, themovement to
concentrate around Luttich only caused consaiderable postponement in the arrival
of the corps at Hannut. Bulow failed to realize that Bluchers objective was for
the IV Corps to reach Hannut. Instead of covering the 5 miles between Luttich and
Hannut with easy, Bulows troops remained assembled at Luttich throughout the
15th."
Upon receiving Gneisenaus note, Bulow dispatched an officer with a letter stating
that the IV Corps would assemble at Hannut on the 16th in accordance with the
Field Marshals June 14th order. "Bulow also requested all necessary information
concerning the other corps dislocations. Rather than altering his orders to include
a march to Hannut, Bulow continued his movements during the 15th confident
that the French would not attack. Napoleon did attack on the 15th. ( Michael
Leggiere Bulow and the campaign of 1815)
Gneisenau politely but adequately made his point and needed obedience, not
Bulows independent considerations. Regardless, Bulow saw the order as a
suggestion that he did not have to heed. He believed that since a younger officer
had signed the order, it was not binding. In the Prussian army seniority of service
within the officer corps was considered extremely important. Charles Chesney
claims that Bulow, who was used to independent command in 1813 and 1814,
chose his own course. In the case of Blucher falling ill, Bulow would take
command of the army, therefore, upon receiving his orders, he expected to be
informed of the state of affairs as well as Bluchers objectives. His dislike of the
Field Marshal was bolstered by the formers confidence in his own abilities. He
held Bluchers command capabilities in contempt. It led him to boldly alter or
correct any instructions that he believed were poor. Bulow also hated Gneisenau
and Grolmann and wished to be treated differently than a common corps
commander. Although he failed to hide his feelings, these officers treated him
with respect and sought to handle his irritability in a gentle manner. (- Michael
Leggiere)
On the 16th Bulows IV Army Corps was marching to Hannut. Just as the general
was mounting his horse, an officer delivered Field Marshal Bluchers orders. Upon
reading that his corps should be in march to participate in battle, Bulow dried out;
My God, why was I not informed of that before ? Although marching the entire
day, Bulows IV Army Corps (30,000 men) was too distant from Ligny to
participate. In Bluchers case, had he been fully aware of the delay, he may not
have chosen to accept battle at Ligny.
Bulows guilt, however, is somewhat lessened by the insufficient system of
communications that existed in the Prussian army. An irrefutable fact is that each
of the three orders sent from Bluchers headquarters only reached Bulow after
great delay. Bluchers first order, sent on the main road from Namur to Luttich,
took approx. 14 to 17 hours to reach Bulow. Gneisenaus order of midnight, June
14-15, took 10,5 hours before Bulow received it at 10:30 AM. Both despatches
should have taken no more than 5 hours to reach their destination. Such
inefficiency may be atr=tribute to the utilization of NCOs as letter couriers instead
of staff officers. Staff officers were usually more reliable, resourceful, and faster
than NCOs. (Leggiere Bulow and the campaign of 1815 pp 96-97)
Bulows failure to reach Ligny would have been reason to start a formal
investigation. This step however was not taken. Nostitz states: Bulows powerful
and decisive leadership in the Battle of Alliance (Waterloo) and the remarkable
results achieved on this day were reason enough for the old Field Marshal to
forget what happened in the past. In his reports to the king, Blucher called the
issue a mere misunderstanding between himself and the commander of the IV
Corps.
Nevertheless, Bulow remained bitter and spiteful towards Blucher and Gneisenau
stating: In the event that the battle of Belle-Alliance (Waterloo) had not gone so
well, the gentlemen would have done everything possible to court-martial me, but
I have would not have feared anyway. (Leggiere Bulow and the campaign of 1815
pp 99-100)
Bulow
Sources and Links.
Recommended reading.
Houssaye - "1815 Waterloo", publ. in London in 1900 by Adam & Charles Black
Hofschroer - "1815 The Waterloo Campaign: Wellington, His German Allies..."
Elting and Esposito - "A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars"
Unfindell and Roberts - "The Eagle's Last Triumph"
Leggiere Bulow and the campaign of 1815
Chandler - "Campaigns of Napoleon"
Siborne - "Waterloo Letters"
Napoleonic Wars (maps) >
Battle of Waterloo 1815 : La Belle Alliance : Napoleon : Wellington : Blucher
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/BATTLE_OF_WATERLOO.htm[2012-05-21 12:46:25]
Battle of Waterloo
Bataille de Mont St.Jean
Schlacht bei Belle-Alliance
Many of the French accounts in an attempt to preserve the myth of Napoleonic infallibility,
put the blame upon Marshals Ney and Grouchy and shed very warm light on the Emperor.
The British accounts have tended to magnify out of all proportion the accomplishments of
the very modest numbers of British soldiers.
Introduction.
Armies and battlefield. >
Field Marshal Wellington. The "Old Hookey" >
Field Marshal Blucher. The "Old Forward" >
In the morning.
Emperor's breakfast. >
Emperor's orders. >
"They are Prussians, aren't they ?" "Yes, sire." >
Napoleon's inspection of troops. >
Artillery fire.
The fight for Hougoumont Farm.
(1st attack ) ----- Jerome Bonaparte in action. >
(2nd attack) ---- General Bauduin is killed. >
(3rd attack ) ---- Fight for the gates. >
Jerome and Foy attacked Hougoumont. >
French artillery set Hougoumont alight. >
Comments on the "gigantic waste". >
Attack of d'Erlon's infantry columns.
Allies skirmishers and rifles were forced
"to abandon their position in great haste." >
Panic began to spread among Allies gunners. >
The French cuirassiers cut to pieces
the Luneburg Light Battalion >
Bijlandt's 1st Netherland brigade fell back. >
The Highlanders wavered. Picton's death. >
Erlon had captured the crest of the ridge. >
Papelotte Farm: French vs Nassauers. >
Map of d'Erlon attack. >
Brilliant charge of British heavy cavalry.
"On to Paris !" >
"Scotland Forever !" >
d'Erlon's infantry after the charge. >
French cavalry counter-charges.
The French lancers and cuirassiers fell on the
British cavalry and did terrible execution. >
Vandeleur's and Ghigny's brigades to the rescue. >
French cavalry vs Allies infantry squares.
The British, German and Dutch infantry held fast. >
Counter-charges of Allies cavalry. >
"Our squares presented a shocking sight" >
French infantry captured La Haye Sainte.
(1st attack ) -- The French captured the orchard >
(2nd attack) -- "They nearly surrounded us ..." >
(3rd attack) -- Fall of La Haye Sainte. >
The attackers got inside the farm. Slaughter. >
The cuirassiers annihilated KGL
battalion . Ompteda ' s death . >
The French pushed beyond La Haye Sainte. >
The Prussians are coming !
Prussians' flanking movement. >
Bulow's corps fell upon Napoleon's exposed flank. >
The French infantry and lancers
tried to halt the Prussians. >
Allies friendly fire. >
Bloodbath in Plancenoit.
Bulow's first attacks on the village. >
Young Guard had got into Plancenoit. >
Old Guard Chasseurs enters the village.
Enraged they cut the throats of their prisoners. >
Old Guard Grenadiers retook Plancenoit.
Their drummajor used his mace as a club. >
The level of slaughter in Plancenoit
even surpassed Hougoumont. >
"The French were abandoning Plancenoit." >
Ziethen linked up with Wellington.
"That scoundrel Napoleon is
with his Guard over there."
The French army disintegrated. Pursuit.
Wellington and Blucher decided that the
Prussians alone would continue the pursuit. >
Allies armies entered France. >
"We have no more Emperor ..." >
Race to Paris. >
Allies in Paris. End of War. >
Execution of Marshal Ney.
"Fire straight at my heart." >
Casualties at Waterloo.
Fortress war after Waterloo. .
.
On the road to Waterloo. Picture by Ernest Crofts.
Introduction.
" In the wagon train the Emperor ' s robes were ready ,
with the gold and the proclamations addressed to the
Belgian people ..." - Henri Lachoque
Waterloo (La Belle Alliance, Mont St.Jean) was the decisive battle of the Waterloo
Campaign and Napoleon's last. The defeat put an end to his rule as the French
emperor, and marked the end of the epoch called Napoleonic Wars.
The battlefield is in present-day Belgium, about 8 miles (12 km) of Brussels, and about
1 mile (1.6 km) from the town of Waterloo.
Armies and battlefield.
The battlefield was intersected by two wide highways, the eastern one leading from
Charleroi and Genappe, and the western from Nivelles. Siborne writes, "From their
junction at the village of Mont St Jean whence their continuance, in one main road, is
directed upon the capital of Belgium. South of Mt.St.Jean was a gentle ridge, a natural
military position for the defence of this approach to Brussels." This ridge constituted
the position of the first line of the Wellington's army.
The battlefield at Waterloo (Mont St. Jean, La Belle Alliance).
View from the positions occupied by Pack's Scottish brigade , and Bylandt's Netherland brigade.
The tiny farm of La Belle Alliance is on the left . La Haye Sainte and the orchard are on the right .
From the left , across this field , marched d'Erlon infantry , and charged Milhaud's cuirassiers .
From the right, charged the British heavies, slaughtering the French infantry and taking 2 Colors.
Here the French lancers counter-charged, killing the British heavies at will.
There were 150,000-200,000 combatants on the battlefield.
Wellington and Blucher enjoyed 1,5 : 1 advantage in
(122,250 men and 291 guns vs 75,000 men and 246 guns).
Napoleon's army at Waterloo was 75,000 men strong.
(It inculdes 52000 infantry, 15000 cavalry, 6000 gunners,
and 2000 staff officers, engineers, sappers, medical services.)
Wellington had 72,250 Britishm German and netherland soldiers.
Blucher's army at Waterloo was 50,000 men strong.
(It includes 32000 men of IV Corps, 13000 men of II Corps, and
5000 men of I Corps. They arrived on the battlefield at different times.)
Napoleon, "this once despotic sovereign of the battlefield ,
in whose presence but few generals ventured to maneuver,
striving only to ward off his blows ... "
- Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii
According to English newspaper "The Independent" (November 2004) Waterloo was
largely won by Prussians, Hanoverians, Saxons, Dutch and Belgians. Although the
British prefer not to dwell on it, these nations supplied around three-quarters of the
120,000 soldiers who defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Of the 26 infantry brigades in
Wellington's army of 70,000, only nine were British; of the 12 cavalry brigades, only 7
were British. Half the 29 batteries of guns were Hanoverian, Dutch or Belgian. None of
these included the 53,000 Prussians who turned up eventually for the battle and swung
it Wellington's way when the French were pushing for a late victory. "
This is what Peter Hofschroer had to say, "Wellington's force consisted of contingents
from three countries: Britain, Germany and the Netherlands. Each formed roughly
one-third of his army, with the Germans making the largest third, the British the
smallest. Almost all of Blcher's Prussians were ethnic Germans. In the theatre in the
Low Countries, 75% of the troops were German. Of these, Blcher's Prussians did most
of the marching, fighting and bleeding. Reference to the relevant charts in volume 2 of
my work on 1815 demonstrates this clearly.
Germany could have won this campaign without Britain.
Great Britain could not have won it without Germany . "
Order of Battle of the Prussian Army in 1815
Order of Battle of Wellington's army at Waterloo
.
Wellington had 84 infantry battalions.
41,5 German battalions
(KGL,Brunswick,Hanoverian,Nassau) or 50 %
25,5 British battalions (English, Irish, Scottish) or 30 %
17 Netherland battalions (Dutch, Belgian) or 20 %
Average strength of battalion at Waterloo:
665 men in British battalion of 10 companies
610 men in Prussian battalion of 4 companies
520 men in KGL battalion of 6 companies
520 men in French battalion of 6 companies
The largest battalion on the battlefield was the British I/52nd Reg. of Foot, 1130 men.
It was deployed on the ridge, north of Hougoumont, side by side with the Foot
Guards.
The smallest battalion was the French III/108th Line Regiment, 251 men.
Wellington had 93 cavalry squadrons.
45 British squadrons (English, Irish, Scottish) or 50 %
25 German squadrons (KGL,Brunswick,Hanoverian) or 25 %
23 Netherland squadrons (Dutch, Belgian) or 25 %
Average strength of squadron at Waterloo:
145 men/squadron in Wellington's cavalry
135 men/squadron in Napoleon's cavalry
115 men/squadron in Blucher's cavalry
The largest cavalry regiment was the French Guard Horse Chasseurs, 1197 men
The weakest cavalry regiment was the French 7th Cuirassiers, only 180 men.
At Waterloo Napoleon had 246 guns to Wellington's 157 pieces
(77 British and 80 German and Netherland).
Blucher managed to bring 134 guns onto the battlefield.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
NOTE: The strength of the troops is given in approximate numbers,
just for the sake of simplicity. If you don't like it, do the math yourself.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.
Field Marshal Wellington.
The "Old Hookey"
He was one of the leading military and political figures of the XIX century. Wellington
is often compared to the Duke of Marlborough, with whom he shared many
characteristics, chiefly a transition to politics after a successful military career. In 1828
he became Prime Minister.
Wellington has often been portrayed as a defensive general, even though many of his
battles were offensive (Oporto, Salamanca, Vitoria, Toulouse). The Iberian peninsula
provided excellent defensive terrain and he was never slow to take advantage of it. In
his battles, he showed an understanding of defensive tactics almost unmatched.
Wellington realised the use of a reverse slope in a defensive battle, and made use of
one whenever he could, to conceal his numbers and protect his men from French
artillery. On the attack also, he showed an understanding of tactics and terrain.
Wellington's military promotions and dates of rank:
- ensign in March 1787
- lieutenant in Dec 1787
- captain in 1791
- lieutenant-colonel in 1793
- colonel in 1796
- major-general in 1802
- lieutenant-general in 1808
- general - in 1811
- field-marshal in June 1813
Wellington's chief of staff.
Sir Oman put it: "He [Wellington] did not wish to have a Gneisenau or Moltke at his
side: he only wanted zealous and competent chief clerks." At Waterloo there were
British and German officers listed as being part of Wellington's staff. Wellington
however was highly critical of their competence and lack of experience. Wellington
could not have worked with a chief of staff who was also his second in command. The
Duke made his own decisions and rarely shared his plans.
Wellington
Field Marshal Blucher.
The "Old Forward"
Michael Leggiere writes, "Blucher is usually not counted among the upper echelon of
Allied strategists. This omission is due more to his tactical shortcomings than his
ignorance of operations and strategy, however. Although driven by hatred rather than
intellect, Blucher understood the essence of Napoleonic warfare: the battle of
annihilation. Rather than concern themselves with politics and postwar posturing, he
and Gneisenau pursued the objective of winning the war on the battlefield in the same
decisive manner as Napoleon." (Leggiere - "The Fall of Napoleon" pp 136-137)
Some authors ridicule Blucher, describing him as "rashing fool", "very poor general"
etc. Blucher was aware of his limitations, and freely admitted his need for the expert
assistance of his chief-of-staff General Gneisenau to keep him along the right strategic
lines.
Blcher was no afraid of Napoleon.
He was a tough, stuborn old sod who refused to give in, when many others would
have rolled over. I would agree with David Chandler, he writes, "Despite certain
mental limitations, he was a fine fighting commander loved by his troops, who dubbed
him "Papa Blucher" or "Old Forward" for his personal valor, strong character, and
loyalty to both his men and allies."
Both generals, or rather fieldmarshals, Wellington and Blucher, had a good record as
commanders. While Wellington routed Marshal Marmont at Salamanca, the Prussian
duo (Blucher & Gneissenau) defeated Marshals Marmont and Ney at Mockern
(Leipzig) in 1813.
Wellington defeated Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, at Vitoria in 1814.
But the two Prussians defeated Napoleon himself at La Rothiere.
And they did it again at Laon in 1814.
Article:
Blucher and Gneisenau during the Campaign of France in 1814
Napoleon, when asked on St.Helena about the two Allied commanders, replied, "Ah !
Wellington ought to light a fine candle to old Blucher. Without him, I don't know
where His Grace, as they call him, would be; but as for me, I certainly wouldn't be
here."
Injured old Blucher with Napoleon's hat
shortly after Waterloo.
~
In the morning.
Poor work by Soult ' s staff resulted in
chaos on the roads, and with almost no
food for men and horses. The Old Guard
grumbled that it all smacked of treason.
The sun rose at 4 am and soon the French army hit the road. The leading
elements were not far away from Waterloo. Marshal Soult, the chief-of-staff,
wrote, "The Emperor orders the army to be ready to attack at 9 AM. The
commanders of the army corps will assemble their troops, see that weapons are
in order and allow the soldiers to prepare a meal." At 9 AM Reille's II Army
Corps passed in front of Le Caillou, followed by the Imperial Guard, and
Kellermann's Cavalry Corps. About midday came a single division (Durutte's) of
d'Erlon's I Army Corps.
The waterlogged state of the ground was hindering the movements of the
cannons and howitzers. The troops had set up the cooking pots, and cooked flour
mixed with water because Soult had no thought of ordering up the supply
wagons, laden with bread and meat, from Charleroi. Hunger drove the battle-
hardened veterans of the Old Guard to go marauding and they grumbled that it
all smacked of treason.
Napoleon had ordered his troops to be in position at 9 AM, however, this was not
to be. The supply trains only caught up with their troops late the previous night
or early in the morning, adding to the delays. The soldiers had to search for
something edible, causing the units further dispersed. The delays were making
up, in part, for the time Blucher's troops were losing on the muddy roads
between Wavre and Lasne.
Reveille. Picture by Job.
.
Emperor's breakfast.
Napoleon's headquarters were set up in the small farm at Le Caillou. A walled
orchard that ran from the courtyard towards the north had already been
comandeered as a bivouac for the duty battalion (I/1st Chasseurs of the Old
Guard) under Duuring's command. The first room on entering the building was
reserved for the duty officers, and in the rooms on the first floor were bales of
straw for the staff offices. Jerome Bonaparte and General Reille were
accommodated at the Hotel du Roi d'Espagne. The generals' mess was at
Plancenoit. In the night (2 AM) Napoleon received despatch from Marshal
Grouchy that the Prussians were withdrawing either to Wavre or Perwes.
Marshal Soult breakfasted with the Emperor, his brother Jerome, and Marshal
Ney. After breakfast the table had been cleared and maps were spread on it. Ney
claimed that Wellington's British-Nethrlands army was in retreat, while Soult
expressed regreat about the remoteness of Grouchy's troops in view of its
importance.
General Reille passed information given to him by the waiter at the Genappe inn
about "a concerted link-up between the British and the Prussians coming from
Wavre." "Foolishness" retorted Napoleon " after a battle like the one at Ligny, the
joining of the British and the Prussians is impossible."
What Napoleon did not know was that at 3:30 AM Wellington received a letter
from Blucher. In it the Prussian general announced that he would be leaving at
dawn and would attack the enemy's right flank with one or perhaps three army
corps. Henri Lachouque writes, "The Duke experienced an immense feeling of
relief ..."
Le Caillou in June 1815.
.
Emperor's orders.
About 10 AM, Napoleon had Marshal Soult write the following letter to Marshal
Grouchy,
" The Emperor has charged me to inform you that at this moment ,
His Majesty is going to attack the English army which has taken
positions at Waterloo, in front of the forest of Soignes. Thus , His
Majesty wishes that you direct your movements on Wavre so as
to move closer to us , to link your operations a n d establish
communication,pushing before you the Prusian corps which has
taken this direction and might have stopped in Wavre, where you
are to arrive as soon as possible. You are to follow the enemy
columns on your right with some light troops to observe their
movements and to gather up their stragglers."
At 11 AM Napoleon dictated order to Soult,
"As soon as the entire army is deployed in order of battle, by 1 PM,
the attack to seize the village of Mont St.Jean at the road junction
will commence, when the Emperor gives the order to Marshal Ney.
To this end, the 12pdr batteries of the II [Reille's] and VI [Lobau's]
Corps will join that of the I [deErlon's] Corps. These 24 guns will
fire on the troops at Mont St.Jean, and d'Erlon will commence the
attack with his left flank division, and according to circumstances,
support iy with other divisions of the I Corps. The II Corps will
advance far enough to guard d'Erlon's flank. The sapper companies
of the I Corps will be prepared to barricade themselves at Mont
St.Jean immediately."
"They are Prussians, aren't they ?"
"Yes, sire."
Napoleon mounted his mare La Marie and went ahead of the troops, stopping
beyond Rossomme farm. The troops acclaimed the Emperor as they took up their
positions. The British, Germans and Netherland troops could hear the French
regimental bands playing.
The Emperor was growing impatient and he thought about the Prussians. He sent
Marbot's 7th Hussar Regiemnt and one infantry battalion, on the right flank,
beyond Fichermont. Marbot writes, "At the beginning of the battle, towards 11
AM, I was detached from the division with my own regiment and an infantry
battalion ... These troops were posted on our extreme right, behind Frischermont,
facing the Dyle." Posts were set up at the Mousty and Ottignies bridges - possibly
to make contact with Grouchy.
Meanwhile the Emperor directed his fieldglass to the east, it was impossible to
make out something glittering ... perhaps troops ? French ? Prussians ? Napoleon
sent his ADC, General Bertrand, toward the plateau between Couture St.German
and La Chapelle-Robert.
Bernard returned, hat in hand.
"What news ?"
"Bad, sire."
"They are Prussians, aren't they ?"
"Yes, sire."
"I thought as much."
This information was confirmed shortly afterwards by a prisoner belonging to the
Prussian hussars. This unit was already at Chapelle St.Lambert. The captured
Prussian spoke French and told the Emperor that the troops just seen are the
advance guard of Bulows IV Army Corps. The hussar, however, did not reveal
that the entire Prussian army was in march.
NCO of Prussian hussars was taken prisoner by Marbot's hussars.
Picture by Robert Alexander Hillingford, Great Britain.
.
Napoleon's inspection of troops.
"The formation of the French lines was scarcely completed when the magnificent
and animating spectacle which they presented was heightened in an
extraordinary degree by the passing of the Emperor along them, attended by a
numerous and brilliant staff. The troops hailed him with loud and fervent
acclamations. There was depicted on their brows a deep rooted confidence in his
ability, with such an army, to chain victory to the car in which he had already
advanced in triumph to within a few miles of the capital of Belgium. ...
Napoleon, having completed the inspection of his troops, proceeded to take up
his own station upon the height in rear of La Belle Alliance, which afforded him a
commanding view of the whole field. The infantry brigades speedily formed lines
of battalion columns respectively. The state of the ground was reported
practicable for the movements of artillery. All was in perfect readiness. The
anxiously looked for moment had now arrived." (William Siborne - "The Waterloo
Campaign, 1815")
~
Artillery fire.
For the first few hours the French artillery fire was negated by
the fact that Wellington had his infantry lie down. The French
cavalry forced Wellington's infantry to stand up. Although his
infantry repulsed the cavalry, they became fine targets for the
French artillery. It was one of the most extraordinary and pitiful
incidents in military history. The infantry stood out in the open
whilst exposed to the merciless artillery fire of the French.
The Emperor sent an order to General Reille to begin the battle by an attack upon
Hougomont farm. Reille's batteries opened fire, to draw off the fire from their
infantry columns. Napoleon sent an order to Kellermann to push forward his 12
pieces of horse artillery into the front line, facing Hougomont.
The French also formed 54-80 gun battery (commanded by Desvaux de
St.Maurice until killed, then under Lallemand) in their center, on a low ridge,
within 600-900 m from the Allies. Most of the artillery limbers, horses, and
ammunition wagons were positioned in hollow ground. Mark Adkin gave the
following numbers for the Grand Battery:
18 12pdrs cannons
42 6pdrs cannons
20 howitzers.
The Grand Battery opened fire and kept firing for several hours.
For the first few hours the French artillery fire was negated by the fact that
Wellington's infantry was behind a ridge (or on reverse slope). By placing the
ridge between his own infantry and his opponent's, and having his troops lie
down, the Duke was also able to surprise the French by having his troops leap up
at the last moment and deliver volleys of musketry at close range.
The soft soil (after heavy rain) had yet to dry to allow the French cannonballs to
ricochet.
The French cavalry forced Wellington's infantry to stand up. Although the
infantry repulsed the cavalry charges, they became fine targets for the French
artillery. "... standing to be cannonaded, and having nothing else to do, is about
the most unpleasant thing that can happen to a soldier ..." wrote Leeke of British
52nd Foot.
Lieutenant Wray of British 40th Foot (Lambert's Infantry Brigade) writes, "We
had three companies almost shot to pieces, one shot killed and wounded 25 [men]
of the 4th Company, another of the same kind killed poor Fisher, my Captain and
18 [men] of our Company ... at the same time poor Fisher was hit I was speaking
to him and I got all his brains, his head was blown to atoms." The I/27th Foot
(Inniskilling) suffered even heavier casualties. Of their 19 officers present, 16 were
killed and wounded ! Other ranks casualties amounted to staggering 463.
When a French shell fell into the column of British 15th Hussar Regiment, the
swords and scabbards were flying in the air and wounded men and horses fell
on the ground. The trumpeters sounded to lie down. The cavalrymen dismounted
and lay facedown on the wet earth while French cannonballs whizzed over their
heads, hiting rather horses than men. The 7th Hussars dismounted in order to
offer a less conspicious target, and had been moved back and forth several times.
Then they took cover in the sunken lane, but not even this was safe. In contrast,
the Cumberland hussars were motionless in their saddles.
The Grand Battery killed quite a few enemy troops in all, but over a long period
of time. It never killed enough and quickly enough, to enable the French infantry
or cavalry to break that line beyond repair.
Wellington forbade counter-battery fire: "They [British gunners] received the
order not to shoot against the enemy's guns, only against his infantry and
cavalry. It was difficult to get them to follow this order." Captain Mercer
disobeyed Duke's instructions.
Mercer writes, "About this time being impatient of standing idle, and annoyed by
the [French] batteries on the Nivelles Road, I ventured to commit a folly, for
which I should have paid dearly had our Duke chanced to be in our part of the
field. I ventured to disobey orders, and open a slow deliberate fire at the [French
horse] battery [of Pire's cavalry division], thinking with my 9-pounders soon to
silence his 4-pounders. My astonishment was great, however, when our very first
gun was responded to by at least half-a-dozen gentlemen of very superior calibre
whose presence I had not even suspected, and whose superiority we immediately
recognised bu their rushing noise and long, for they flew beyond us. I instantly
saw my folly, and ceased firing, and they did the same - the 4-pounders alone
continuing the cannonade ... The first man of my troop touched was by one of
these confounded long shot. I shall never forget the scream the poor fellow gave
when it struck."
French foot gunner,
by Keith Rocco, USA.
~
The fight for Hougoumont Farm.
In the course of the day , the French employed here
Reille's Army Corps (15,000 muskets and 38 guns).
Against them , Wellington committed 21 battalions
12,000 muskets and several batteries or 50 - 64 guns
Between 7 AM and 8:30 AM Wellington inspected the line from west to east, this
included visiting Hougoumont and ordering reinforcements. At 10 AM he visited
Hougoumont the second time. Hougoumont, originally called Gomont or Goumont,
was a Chateau and farm lying about 5 km south of the village of Waterloo. It was
owned by the Chevalier de Louville. He lived in Nivelles and rent the Chateau to a
farmer called Dumonceau. The Chateau building itself, however, remained
unnoccupied.
Hougoumont was a robust compound surrounded by walls, with stables, barns, and
houses. There was a massive gate on the south side, leading to an inner courtyard.
The compound itself faced the Allies. There was a garden, whose walls extended
eastward for approx. 200 yards, and beyond it was an orchard. It all, however, was
known only to the Allied troops who were occupying the farm, all the French could
see from their positions were trees and few buildings.
Model of Hougoumont in 1815. Although
not accurate in every detail, it gives a good
impression of what it looked like.
- Mark Adkin
At about 09.30 AM the 1st Battalion of Nassau was brought to Hougoumont. Its
carabinier company took up positions inside the buildings to the south. The
voltigeur company lined up with a Brunswick jger company at the edge of the
wood. The garden walls were defended by two companies, and the hedge of the
orchard by one company. One company was held in reserve in the wood.
General von Kruse writes, "About 9:30 AM ... the 1st Battalion of the regiment,
received the order to occupy the farm of Hougoumont that lay ahead of the centre of
the right flank. A company of Brunswick jager stood along the fence of the wood
near the farm and, behind the gardens, a battalion of the 2nd English Guard
Regiment."
The I Battalion of 2nd Nassau Regiment (I/2 Nassau) was commanded by Major
Busgen. This is what he has to say: "The farm was in the shape of a long, closed
rectangle. ... On my arrival with the battalion, the farm and the garden were
unoccupied. A company of Brunswick Jagers stood on the furthest edge of the wood.
A battalion [sic] of English Guards ... was deployed partly behind the farm, and
partly in a sunken road behind the gardens mentioned ... From the measures of
defence already undertaken, it was clear that this position was already occupied.
One room house, as was later apparent, contained supplies of infantry ammunition.
I immediately undertook the necessary deployment for the defence. I had the
Grenadier Company occupy the buildings, and sent two companies to the vegetable
garden next to them. I placed one company behind the hedge of the orchard, moved
the voltigeurs into line with the Brunswick Jagers, and placed one company in
reserve a little to the rear. Hardly was this deployment finished when the enemy
began their attack on the wood with a heavy bombardement of shell and canister."
According to British researcher Mark Adkin the myth that Hougoumont was
defended solely by the British Guards has arisen, not so much with serious students
of the battle, but through the more casual reader or visitor to the battlefield. Great
emphasis is placed in many accounts of the fight on the role played by the Guards.
This misunderstanding is certainly compounded, if not caused, by the numerous
plaques commemorating the actions of the Guards in Hougoumont.
Five plaques are dedicated to the Guards and 2 to the French.
There is nothing to show others played an important role.
Troops defending Hougoumont
11:30 AM
light company (100 men) of II/2nd British Guards
11:30 AM
in the Garden
light company (100 men) of II/3rd British Guards
west of the buildings
detachment (10-20 men) of Netherland light infantry
Withdrawn before the battle ?
grenadier company (135 men) of I/2nd Nassau
in the buildings
two companies (2 x 135 men) of I/2nd Nassau
in the Garden
one company (135 men) of I/2nd Nassau
in Great Orchard
two companies (2 x 135 men) of I/2nd Nassau
in the Wood
one company (100 men) of Field Jager Corps
detachment (50 men) of Luneburg Light Battalion
detachment (50 men) of Grubenhagen Light Battalion

British (200)

Dutch and Belgians (10-20)

Germans (1,000)
These forces were attacked by half of
French 6th Division under Prince Jrme
(1st and 2nd Light Infantry Regiment)
.
12.30 - 1.15 PM
four light companies of British Guards (4 x 100 men)
I/2nd Nassau (800 men)
seven companies of II/2nd British Guards (7 x 100)
.
.
.
12.30 - 1.15 PM

British (400)

Germans (1,500)
These forces were attacked by the entire
French 6th Division under Prince Jrme
2.45 - 7.00 PM
II/2nd British Guard (900 men)
II/3rd Guard British (900 men)
.
.
.
2.45 - 7.00 PM

British (1,800)

Germans (800)
These forces were attacked by French
6th Division under Prince Jrme and
9th Division under Maximilien Foy.
7.00 - 8.00 PM
II/2nd British Guard (900 men)
II/3rd Guard British (900 men)
II KGL Line Battalion (520 men)
Hannoverian Saltzgitter Landwehr Battalion (640 men)
Brunswick Advance Guard Battalion (650 men)
Brunswick Leib Battalion (565 men)
Brunswick I Light Battalion (680 men)
.
.
7.00 - 8.00 PM

British (1,800)

Germans (3,855)
These forces were attacked by French
6th Division under Prince Jrme and
9th Division under Maximilien Foy
Wellington garrisoned all three farms, Hougoumont, La Haye Sainte and Papelotte.
Most of the defenders were German troops:
- in Hougoumont (see above)
- in La Haye Sainte 450 Germans
- in Papelotte 900 Germans
Nassauers in combat. Picture by Knotel.
.
First attack on Hougoumont.
Jerome Bonaparte in action.
Artillery of Reille's II Army Corps opened fire and the Allied batteries immediately
responded. Captain Sandham's Battery claims to have fired the first Allies cannon
shot of the battle - a claim disputed by Cleeve's Battery of King's German Legion.
At about midday, Reille decided to send light infantry into the Hougoumont wood
and see what would happen. To begin the attack Reille selected Jerome's Bonaparte's
division. Jerome did not owe his command to any particular military ability; in fact,
his performance as commander of the Westphalian troops during Napoleon's
invasion of Russia had been a failure. Within the army, Jerome was better known for
his scandalous American wife, whom Napoleon had refused to allow into France.
The 1st Light Infantry Regiment had barely taken up their positions before
Hougoumont when the order came to advance into the wood. The 1st Ligth was an
interesting unit. Although they won only three battle honors (1805 - Ulm, 1806 - Jena,
1807 - Friedland) the regiment took part in 47 battles and combats. It makes them
one of the "busiest" French infantry outfits. Two days earlier the 1st Light formed in
squares had thrown back Wellington's cavalry at Quatre Bras.
The 1st Light immediately formed themselves in three columns and moved forward
screened by skirmishers. The skirmishers were running toward the trees, leaping a
ditch, and getting through the hedge. They found themselves under lively fusillades
from the German light infantry. The three columns were ordered them down into a
little lane-sunken that ran right along their front. The French officers started sending
small troops into the wood, where the skirmishers exchanged shots with the enemy.
"At that moment there were about a thousand muskets at Hougoumont, of which
perhaps half were defending the perimeter of the park." (- A. Barbero)
At 11 am Petters' Netherlands battery received order to move forward and take
position on the plateau of Mont St.Jean. Petter wrote that his guns were "... standing
opposite the farm named Hougoumont.... in front of us was the farm ... " (Erwin
Muilwijk wrote that "In a recent book by Mark Adkin "Waterloo Companion", the
battery is left standing in reserve for the entire battle, see map 16, page 274.") Petters'
battery and British battery under Ramsay supported the defenders of Hougoumont.
As soon as Petters' battery deployed the French fired on them and hit several
caissons that exploded into the air. But they held their ground and remained firing
until 7 o'clock in the evening before received order to pull back from the artillery
line. They lost many train horses and the battery was almost unteamed.
The first French attack on the chateau.
Note: William Siborne mention two horse batteries supporting Reille's artillery:
"The batteries of Reille's Corps now opened in their turn, to draw off the fire from
their [infantry] columns. Napoleon sent an order to Kellermann to push forward
his 12 pieces of horse artillery into the front line, facing Hougomont."
Honore-Charles-Michel Reille(1775-1860)
From 1810 until the end of Peninsular War he was
fighting Wellington's troops and Spanish guerillas.
His relationship with Marshal Soult was strained to
the extent that Reille abandoned his post in 1814 .
.
Second attack on Hougoumont.
General Bauduin was killed.
Jerome sent another regiment into the wood, the 2nd Light under Colonel Maigros.
The two units (1st and 2nd Light Infantry) were under General de Brigade Pierre-
Francois Bauduin who was on horseback and urging his men forward. The Germans
fired well-aimed shots and Bauduin fell from his horse. He was killed almost at
once. The Germans became frustrated by the rapidly growing number of French
infantrymen pouring into the wood. They ran short of ammunition and fell back to
the buildings and the garden. Major Busgen of the I/2nd Nassau writes, "Under
close pursuit from the French, the retiring troops fell back partly around the right of
the buildings, partly to the left between the garden wall and the orchard hedge."
The French reached the 6-feet high wall protecting the garden. But the Germans
were waiting for them, and together with the light companies of the British Foot
Guards they repulsed the attackers. "The murderous fire coming from the buildings,
the garden wall and orchard hedge halted the French." (- Major Busgen of the
Nassauers)
The French skirmishers fell back into the safety of the wood, where also stood their
columns. Howitzer battery under Mjr. Bull (one of the few officers who wore a
beard) opened fire and shells began to explode among the trees and above the heads
of the French. The French abandoned the wood and the hedgerows at once. The
Germans and the Foot Guards went forward and retook the lost ground.
French general.
.
Third attack on Hougoumont.
Fight for the gates.
While Bauduin's two regiments stayed in the shelter of a sunken lane, Jerome sent
forward two other regiments of his division. The freshmen were the 1st Line under
Colonel Cornebise, and 2nd Line under Colonel Trippe. They formed brigade led by
Baron Soye and they compelled the Germans and British Guards to retreat to the
buildings and the garden.
"Towards one o'clock, the French renewed their attack, moving against the buildings
and gardens in a great rush, attempting to climb the garden wall and to seize the
orchard hedge. However, the skirmish fire from the garden wall chased them off
and they were repelled at all points. In this attack, the enemy set lights to several
stacks of hay and straw close to the farm, intending to set the buildings alight, but
this was not successful." (- Mjr. Busgen)
The French began maneuvering around the flanks.
Several columns moved across the plain west of Hougoumont. They were under
cover from horse battery that had advanced beyond the Nivelles Road. Soye's men
invaded the orchard, forcing the Germans and British Foot Guards to abandon it.
The guardsmen were chased back into the hollow way (bordered with thorny
hedgerows) that ran in front of the chateau. The British and Germans hidden behind
garden walls opened fire. The French stood their ground and engaged the defenders
in an intense firefight.
The French hauled a cannon into the orchard.
The guardsmen attempted to capture it but failed miserably. The musketry however
was so fierce that the gunners withdrew the cannon to a more covered position.
Despite being more exposed the French stubbornly held their ground and the
exchange of musketry went on, more or less inconlusively. Meanwhile the Foot
Guards had brought an ammunition cart through the north gate (it was not
barricaded).
Bauduin's two regiments moved on the west side of Hougoumont.
Pressed by French skirmishers the British light troops were obliged to give ground.
The French descended into a sunken lane, and found themselves in front of the
north gate. After Bauduin's death Colonel de Cubieres had taken command of the
brigade. He was mounted and urging his skirmishers forward. His one arm was in a
sling because of a wound he had suffered at Quatre Bras. Within a moment he was
wounded again.
Surprised by the appearance of Cubieres and his
skirmishers the Foot Guards beat a hasty retreat, passing
through the still-open gate into the farmyard and closed
the big door as fast as they could. Lieutenant Legros -
nicknamed "The Smasher" - took a sapper's axe and
positioned himself before the gate. He choped a hole
through the door panel with an axe.
Then the gates yielded to the pressure of many bodies,
and a group of Frenchmen burst inside. At the beginning
of the melee that followed, the Germans and British sought refuge in the buildings,
leaving Legros' group masters of the field. A Frenchman armed with an ax chased a
German officer, caught up with him and chopped off one of his hands. The French
however found themselves in a crossfire and were killed except a boy-drummer.
Some French infantrymen attempted to climb over the walls but were shot by the
defenders.
Wellington decided to alleviate the pressure on the defenders of Hougoumont, two
battalions went down the slope in companies, one after the other, and attacked the
enemy. The French surprised by the arrival of reinforcements withdrew and
abandoned the orchard. Only a handful of men of the 1st Light, resisted the British
Foot Guards and German light infantry. (See picture below)
The French inside of the farm, by Keith Rocco.
The die-hards of the French 1st Light Infantry.
They took position in the orchard and resisted
the British Foot Guards and the Germans.
Painting by E. Chaperon.
.
Jerome's and Foy's divisions
attack Hougoumont.
"At Hougoumont, the struggle continued unabated. The British Guards light
companies, the Brunswickers and one of du Plat's KGL battalions fought with two of
Foy's regiments. ... A battery of French howitzers lobbed shells into the buildings,
setting them alight. The chateau, the farmhouse, the stables and storehaouses all
went up in flames. The British fell back into the chapel and the gardener's house
from where they continued to fire on the French..." (Hofschroer - "1815 Waterloo
Campaign - The German Victory" p 81)
The French grenadier companies led the assault, and they forced their way through a
small side door into the upper courtyard. They even took several prisoners before
the musket fire from the windows and walls drove them out. The Nassau battalion
and British Guards battalion followed them and regained much of the lost ground. It
was the last large infantry attack on Hougoumont.
Note: William Siborne mention two horse batteries supporting Reille's artillery:
"The batteries of Reille's Corps now opened in their turn, to draw off the fire from
their [infantry] columns. Napoleon sent an order to Kellermann to push forward
his 12 pieces of horse artillery into the front line, facing Hougomont."
.
French howitzers set
Hougoumont alight.
Reille's artillery kept firing on all cylinders and several guns had been brought up as
far as the Nivelles Road. Almost all the British eyewitness accounts confirm that the
British and German infantry massed on the high ground beyond Hougoumont came
under fire and suffered a steady attrition that gradually began to wear on the men's
nerves.
Most of the British battalions were formed in column of companies (not a "thin red
line").
It was a very deep formation with all 10 companies lined up one behind the other. It
was easy to maneuver battalions so deployed and therefore ideal formation for
waiting troops; but it certainly wasn't suitable for withstanding artillery
bombardement. To lessen their casulaties from artillery fire the British and German
infantry out on the ground.
The cavalry in the second line also suffered from atyillery fire. Sergeant Wheeler of
the British 51st Light writes, "A shell now fell into the column of the 15th Hussars
and bursted. I saw a sword and scabbard fly out from the column ... grape and
shells were dupping about like hell, this was devilish annoying. As we could not see
the enemy, although they were giving us a pretty good sprinkling of musketry ..."
A British officer wrote that one of the French batteries "was committing great
devastation amongst our troops in and near Hougoumont." Bull's howitzer battery
also got under fire, suffered losses in men, wagons and horses, and exhausted their
own ammunition to such a point that, no more than 2 hours after the beginning of
the battle, they were compelled to abandon the line of fire.
The fire of the French artillery distracted the British gunners. Instead of targeting the
French columns they got involved in counter-battery fire. Wellington had expressely
forbade it but it was ignored. (Napoleon explained: "When gunners are under attack
from an enemy battery, they can never be made to fire on massed infantry. It's
natural cowardice, the violent instinct of self-preservation ...")
The British artillery was also very effective. Some battalions of Reille's corps
remained stretched out on the ground in hollows and sunken lanes. Other battalions
received the fire standing firm. The French cavalry stood behind their infantry, in the
second line. They also came under fire. Major Lemonnier-Delafosse, ADC to General
Foy, writes, "Behind us in reserve was the brigade of carabiniers on which the
cannonballs which passed over us went to fall. To get out of their range, this this
brigade moved to their left, which provoked General Foy to laugh, 'Ha ! Ha ! The big
boots don't like the rough stuff'. We received the cannonballs standing firm ... for
many of the projectiles buried or muffled themselves while rolling along this muddy
soil."
"Between 2 and 3 PM, a [French] battery drew up on the right side of the buildings
and began to bombard them heavily with cannons and howitzers. It did not take
long to set them all alight." (- Major Busgen, Nassau Battalion)
The Farmer's House - it was burned down by the French artillery
The Chateau - it was burned down by the French artillery
The Barn - it was burned down by the French artillery
The Gardener's House - it was the only buidling in H. to escape fire.
Large group of French skirmishers climbed the slope in the direction of the British
batteries, concealing themselves amid the tall crops. In the course of few minutes
several gunners and horses were hit and the battery was forced to abandon the line
of fire. Major Ramsay of Royal Horse Artillery was lost to a musket ball early on. The
heavy skirmish fire and artillery bombardement continued to the last minutes of the
battle of Waterloo.
Hougoumont is burning, and dark smoke cover the sky.
.
Comments on the
"gigantic waste".
Several sources claim that by the end of the day the entire French II Corps had been
sucked into the struggle for Hougoumont - some 18,000 infantrymen. This is difficult
to justify. The figure hinges on whether Bachelu's division was drawn in. It is clear
that at least his leading brigade attempted to advance on Hougoumont from the
south-east around mid-afternoon. These battalions had to advance 1000 m
diagonally across the Allied front. They came under heavy artillery fire and the
attack broke up without reaching Hougoumont. For all its ferocity the fighting for
Hougoumont was a subsidiary part of the day's events.
The artillery of Reille's corps pounded not only Hougoumont itself but also the
British and German infantry and artillery deployed behind the chateau. Even the
Allied cavalry received its share of lead.
Wellington's batteries were no different, their target was not only the French infantry
directly storming the chateau. They inflicted casualties on Reille's gunners and
reserves as well.
The French probably employed 6-7 bateries (42-50 guns) in this sector of the
battlefield:
-- Deshaulles' foot battery of 8 6pdr guns,
-- Meunier's foot battery of 8 6pdr guns,
-- Tacon's foot battery of 8 6pdr guns,
-- Gronnier' horse battery of 6 6pdr guns,
-- Gayat' foot battery of 8 12pdr guns
The heavy battery under Gayat probably
joined the Grand Battery in the center.
According to Wiliam Siborne, however, there were
also two horse batteries of Kellermann's IV Cavalry
Corps "facing Hougomont":
-- Marcillac's horse battery of 6 6pdr guns,
-- Lebau's horse battery of 6 6pdr guns
The Duke brought up 8-10 batteries (50-64 guns) into action against Reille's corps. In
this number are included British, German and one Netherland (Petter's) batteries.
Most sources state as a bald fact that 5.000 Frenchmen fell dead or wounded at
Hougoumont but without justifying this number and not taking into account the
heavy losses suffered during the retreat after battle.
"Historians have often stated, that the French attack against Hougoumont was a
gigantic waste, in which a small number of defenders kept engaged and eventually
defeated an immensely superior enemy host. However, from Napoleon's point of
view, the offensive against the perimeter wall of the chateau represented only one
aspect of a much broader maneuver, whose objective was to drive in Wellington's
entire right wing, and the duke, knowing what was at stake, responded in kind.
While the Hougoumont defenders never had, at any given moment, more than 2,000
muskets within the perimeter of the chateau, the total number of soldiers in all the
battalions that were committed to this section was much higher. ... Reille's corps
exerted pressure not only on the troops inside the perimeter of the chateau but also
on all the Allied infantry deployed in that sector, keeping them constantly engaged
until the very last phase of the battle.
Clearly, the disproportion of the forces involved in the struggle for Hougoumont is
nothing but a legend of historiography. In the course of the day, the French
employed the three divisions of II Corps in this sector, for a total of 33 battalions and
some 14,000 muskets. Against them, Wellington committed the brigades of Byng, du
Plat, Adam, and Hew Halkett, 5 Brunswick battalions, one from Nassau, ....
amounting to 21 battalions - 6 British and 15 German - and a total of 12,000
muskets."
( Barbero - "The Battle")
Hougoumont after battle - a sight most pitiful.
~
Attack of d'Erlon's infantry columns.
" But farther to the right [ of La Haye Sainte ] , the combat had
advanced beyond the sunken lane , and it was clear that the
French [infantry] had captured the crest of the ridge and were
gradually pushing the enemy back." A Barbero - "The Battle"
Napoleon was by Rossomme, his spyglass was in his hand and he often pointed it
at various parts of the battlefield. During one of the surveys he seemed to catch a
glimpse of sometning in the distance, something that hadn't been there before.
Nevertheless, all uncertainty was soon dispelled, because a squadron from the
7th Hussars of Colonel Marbot arrived bringing the Emperor a Prussian prisoner
with a note addressed to Wellington.
The time was running short. Napoleon ordered d'Erlon to attack Allies line. The
French were going to come out and pound it right at the Allies defense and see if
that defense was for real. They were going to punch it and punch it and punch it,
and hit them in the mouth, and see what happens.
Before 2 pm four infantry divisions of d'Erlon's corps began their advance. Each
division had two brigades of 4-6 battalions. For the first 500 m they marched not
in heavy columns but in narrow and long formations threading their way
through the more than 200 limbers, and ammunition wagons that fed the 80 guns
of French Grand Battery.
As they reached the line of guns of the French Grand Battery, the firing ceased
and the infantry formed up their battalions in lines, with every battalion sending
forward its voltigeurs as skirmishers. Behind the skirmishers marched entire
battalions. Each division formed one block of 8-10 battalions. The battalions
averaged 480-580 men, or 400-485 without the voltigeurs.
Actually there were only two divisional columns, not four. The two other were
brigade-size formations. On the left one brigade of Allix/Quiot's division
attacked La Haye Sainte, while another brigade crossed the hedge and the road
behind. Donzelots division almost reached the hedge, while Marcognets
division was within 50 m of the crest. One brigade of Duruttes division was far
behind and climbing the slope while the other marched towards Papelotte. In the
beginning of the advance the gaps between division columns were about approx.
160-240 m.
The soil was muddy, some gaiters came apart and many shoes were lost. The
marching soldiers flattened the fields of rye "whose crops "had stood almost as
tall as a man." Riding at the front of the four divisions was Marshal Ney and
General dErlon, with their staff.
William Siborne writes, "The simultaneous advance of D'erlon's four divisions of
infantry, amounting to more than 16,000 men, was grand and imposing. As the
heads of the columns cleared their own line of batteries ranged along the crest of
the intervening ridge, and as the points on which they were directed for attack
opened out to their view, loud and reiterated shouts arose from their ranks of
Vive VEmpereur! which, as the masses began to descend the exterior slope of their
position, were suddenly drowned in the roar produced by the discharge of
74pieces of French cannon over their heads. ... Light troops[skirmishers] now
issued forth from each column, and soon spread out into a line of skirmishers
extending the whole length of the valley."
De Erlon's infantry at Waterloo, by Jean Auge.
" The attack was the natural way for Frenchmen to fight .
in the art of standing still under fire but the mercurial
Frenchman could not be so inhibited."
Paddy Griffith - "Military Thought ..."
Manchester University Pr (Sept 1989)
.
Allies skirmishers and rifles were forced
"to abandon their position in great haste."
Most of Allies infantry battalions were deployed at least a 100 yards behind the
Chemin d'Ohain and the thick, thorny hedge that lined it. The battalions were
formed in lines and columns and only their skirmishers were up in front,
covering the entire position. Their primary target were enemy's officers,
trumpeters, drummers, gunners, and skirmishers. However, Allies skirmishers in
front of Kempt's, Bijlandt's and Pack's brigades banged away and quickly fell
back behind their artillery. Anyway it was not their role to stop the massive
French assault.
Bourgeois' brigade of Allix/Quiot's division (4 battalions) came under artillery
and rifle fire from British riflemen in the sandpit and from the "German riflemen
[KGL] on the roofs of La Haye Sainte causing it to veer slightly right." The French
skirmishers stormed the sandpit and the mound behind it, forcing the British 95th
Rifles "to abandon their position in great haste." The rest of the Rifle battalion,
stationed in the sunken lane, ought to have held out longer but "when these
troops saw Kincaid's unit falling back, they experienced a moment of panic..."
The 95th Regiment of Foot ("Rifles.")
Picture by Knotel, Germany.
In Sept 1 8 1 3 Marshal Soult wrote to the Minister of War
that British sharpshooters were killing the French officers
in a fast rate: "the losses of officers are so out of proportion
with the losses in soldiers".
.
" ... a wave of panic began to
spread among the artillerymen."
Allies artillery in this section of the battlefield was represented by several
batteries:
- Major Rogers' British foot battery (5 9pdr cannons, 1 5.5" howitzer)
- Captain Sinclair's British foot battery (5 9pdr cannons, 1 5.5" howitzer)
- Major Beane's British horse battery (5 9pdr cannons, 1 5.5" howitzer)
- Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Ross' British horse battery (5 9pdr cannons, 1 5.5"
howitzer)
- Captain von Rettberg Hannoverian foot battery (5 6pdr cannons, 1 5.5"
howitzer)
- Captain Braun's Hannoverian foot battery (5 6pdr cannons, 1 5.5" howitzer)
- Captain Bijleveld's Dutch horse battery (6 6pdr cannons, 2 5.5' howitzers)
NOTE: only 30 (29 ?) of the 44 guns stood in the first line.
The British and Netherland batteries fired as fast as the gunners could reload. "In
some cases, the gunners had forced open a passage for their cannon through the
hedge that bordered the sunken lane." The cannonballs tore through the tightly
packed French ranks.
"When the line of French skirmishers, closely followed by the leading columns,
approached the British batteries behind the sunken lane, a wave of panic began to
spread among the artillerymen. Sir William Gomm, a member of Wellington's
staff, saw 2 cannons being moved back in great haste at the enemy's approach,
and he couldn't help noting that this withdrawal was carried out with
'considerable bustle'. But the majority of the guns were simply abandoned.
British artillery in battle.
The British artillery's "Frames, caissons, barrels ...
are remarkable for the goodness of the materials,
as well as excellent workmanship."
- French General Maximilien Foy
.
The French cuirassiers cut to pieces
the Luneburg Light Battalion.
Around 1.30 PM the French tirailleurs (of Charlet's brigade, Allix's division)
attacked the farm of La Haye Sainte. They soon captured the orchard and the
KGL riflemen retired into the buildings. The divisional commander, von Alten,
ordered up the Luneberg Light Battalion under von Klencke and 2 companies of I
Light KGL to counter-attack so they might relieve the pressure on La Haye
Sainte.
The Luneburg Light Battalion was part of Hanoverian Brigade under Major-
General Friedrich, Graf von Kielmansegge and numbered 647 men (30 officers
and 617 other ranks). Major Baring and group of KGL riflemen went outside the
farm and merged with the newcomers.
Suddenly from nowhere the French cuirassiers (Dubois' brigade, 1st and 4th
Cuirassier Regiment), charged; instead of forming a square or retiring into the
barn, the infantrymen ran back towards the ridge whence they had come. Von
Klencke was killed, some of his men were slaughtered, others fled in panick
towards allies line. Only few managed to reach La Haye Sainte.
.
Bijlandt's 1st Netherland
brigade fell back.
Bijlandt had five understrength battalions of Dutch-Belgian infantry. One
battalion formed skirmish chain (27th Dutch Jagers), another three were lining
the hedge, and one battalion was held in reserve. The Dutch and Belgian infantry
were formed on 2 ranks and covered a lot of front.
Lieutenant Scheltens of 7th Belgian Line Battalion write, Our battalion opened
fire as our skirmishers had come in. The French column was unwise enough to
halt and begin to deploy. We were so close that Captain Henry lOlivuer,
commanding our grenadier company, was struck on the arm by a ball, of which
the wad, or cartridge paper, remained smiking in the cloth of his tunic One
French battalion commander had received a sabre cut on his nose, which was
hanging down over his mouth.
Colonel van Zuylen van Nyevelt, chief-of-staff of 2nd Division, writes, "Having
approach us to within 50 paces not a shot had been fired, but now the impatience
of the soldiers could do no longer be restrained, and they greeted the enemy
(French) with a double row."
"As the Dutch and Belgians opened up with their muskets, the two British
brigades (Kempt's and Pack's) on either side and 50 m to the rear of them, began
to change from battalion column of companies to line." Bijlandt's brigade
eventually gave way and retreated through British line. Lieutenant Hope of
British 92nd Foot writes, the Belgians, assailed with terrible fury, returned the
fire of the enemy for some time with great spirit then partially retired from the
hedge. Except one battalion the rest fell back but General-Major Constant-
Rebeque rallied them in the rear.
Netherland infantry at Waterloo.
They were armed with used British Brown Bess muskets.
Only few had French weapons. Their battalions consisted
of 6 companies ( like the French ) but they were arrayed
in 2 ranks (like the British).
.
General Picton's death.
The Highlanders 'seemed to have
had more than they liked of it.'
Once the gunners and skirmishers were out of the way, the infantry fight began
on the left. The French 51st Line Regiment had reached the hedge and overrun
the abandoned guns. With the British infantry finally in sight, the French were
maneuvering to change from column into line. "Kincaid had time to see the
advancing French quickly spreading out, 'cheered and encouraged by the
gallantry of their officers...' Another officer of Kempt's brigade also remembered
with admiration "the gallant manner the French officers led out their companies
in deploying...
When the French column appeared, the battalions of Kempt's brigade rose to
their feet and opened fire." (Kempt's battalions were deployed not in their typical
2-rank deep formation but rather in 4-rank line.) French General Aulard was
killed and his "soldiers took shelter behind the hedge, each man responding as he
might to the enemy fire... Kincaid realized that the ranks of his riflemen were
growing dangerously thin..."
General Picton spurred his horse "into the midst of Kempt's men and ordered a
bayonet assault: Charge ! Charge ! Hurrah !" Upon reaching the sunken lane, the
troops of 32nd Regiment found themselves in the midst of the enemy (near the
sandpit), who were retreating down the slope. A little farther left, the 79th
Regiment, the Cameron Highlanders, "encountered such heavy fire that they
chose to stop before reaching the hedge, content to respond with volleys of their
own."
Some French troops halted their advance, others not - and all kept up their fire
throughout. The French seemed to have no intention of giving up, and
Wellington himself, who wasn't far away from the struggle, noticed that after a
while the Camerons 'seemed to have had more than they liked of it. The
Highlanders fell back.
When Sir Thomas Picton saw, to his horror, that the Scots were starting to
disband, he ordered one of his officers to go and stop them. But when he was
speaking to the officer a French soldier fired and mortally wounded Picton.
Officer's horse was wounded by another bullet and collapsed. William Siborne
writes, "The truly brave and noble Picton was struck by a musket ball on the right
temple. His death, which was instantaneous, was first observed by the Earl of
Uxbridge's Aide de Camp, Captain Horace Seymour ; whom he was, at the
moment, desiring to rally the Highlanders."
Death of the brave Picton, by Edward Orme.
Since his luggage had not arrived in time , Picton had
fought the battle wearing civilian clothes and a top hat.
Picton's body was brought home to London, and buried
in the family vault at St. George's, Hanover Square.
Thomas Picton's Monument (ext.link) in Carmarthen.
.
Erlon's infantry had captured
the crest of the ridge.
Meanwhile other French brigade under Grenier marched against Pack's brigade.
Packs men did not attack the French until they had crossed over the hedge. The
French infantry threw the famous British 42nd Foot (Royal Highland) of Pack's
9th Brigade into some confusion.
Major de Lacy Evans writes, Sir Denis Pack ordered 4-deep [line] to be
formed and closed in to the centre. The Regiment, which was then within about
20 yards of the column, fired a volley into tem. The enemy on reaching the hedge
at the side of the road had ordered arms, and were in the act of shouldering them
when they received the volley from the 92nd.
Pack's men advanced to one side of the hedge, while the French were
approaching it from the other. Grenier's infantry, with the 45th Line Infantry
(reenactment group -> , ext.link) at the head of the column, reached the hedge
with their muskets still on their shoulders. Having got through, they were
crossing the lane when they realized that the enemy infantry was deployed in
their front.
The Scots fired a volley before the French could level their muskets, and for a
moment the head of the column seemed to break up; but the French fired an
answering volley almost at once, and theirs was equally deadly."
The 42nd Black Watch advanced as far as the hedge, stopped short, and
rounanced the idea of crashing through it. They were stopped and thrown back
by the French fire. "... Pack, who was advancing in the midst of the following
battalion, the 92nd Gordon Highlanders began to shout: "Ninety-Second,
everything has given way on our right and left and you must charge this
column."
The redcoats however rather than charge with lowered bayonets, "they too
opened fire, inevitably getting the worst of the exchange, so that they started to
fall back in disorder, while the men of the French 45th Line burst through the
hedge en masse, yelling in triumph." Panic spread through the 92nd Gordon
Highlander and the troop dissolved into a mob of howling runaways.
From his chair on the heights of Rossomme, Napoleon could see nothing of this,
except for the white smoke that enveloped the entire ridge. Around La Haye
Sainte the smoke was not moving forward; there the King German Legion was
putting up a stiff resistance. "But farther to the right, the combat had advanced
beyond the sunken lane, and it was clear that the French had captured the crest
of the ridge and were gradually pushing the enemy back."
Napoleon mounted his horse and moved to the high ground at La Belle Alliance
where he continued surveying the battlefield through his telescope. "Things
seemed to be turning out as he had predicted. Almost everywhere, and more and
more clearly as the eye swung from left to right, the smoke was advancing, a sign
that the pressure being exerted by d'Erlon's troops was proving irresistible.... At
two o'clock in the afternoon, along the Chemin d'Ohain between La Haye Sainte
and Papelotte, the French were winning the battle fo Waterloo."
French infantry at Waterloo.
The redcoats rather than charge with bayonets," they too opened fire, inevitably
getting the worst of the exchange , so that they started to fall back in disorder ,
while the men of the French 45th Line burst through the hedge en masse, yelling
in triumph." Panic spread through the 92nd Gordon Highlander and the troop
dissolved into a mob of howling runaways.
.
Papelotte Farm:
French vs Nassauers.
The farms of Papelotte, La Haye, Fichermont and Smohain were defended by
Prince Bernhard Saxe-Weimar's Netherland's brigade. They were actually
Germans armed with French and British muskets. Prince Bernhard screened his
position with skirmishers, and in each farm were placed 1 or 2 companies. The
rest of his brigade stood in reserve. One of Prince Bernhard's battalions was sent
to Hougoumont.
Papelotte was made of long, strong buildings.
Along three sides of these buildings was a wall 3 m high around an orchard. In
many places tall crops obstructed any attackers. The farm was surrounded by
sunken roads and hedges. Colonel Best writes, "[The battle area] consisted of
fields of planted corn, with hedges and bushes here and there. However, the
columns of marching troops and their camps had trampled the lush cornfields
flat. The heavy soil had been much softened by the heavy rainfall, and hindered
the movements of the troops."
At noon General Durutte sent forward his skirmishers and bombarded the farms
with artillery. Napoleon sent him as reinforcement one battery of 12pdrs of the
Guard Artillery. Colonel Best writes, "A detachment of French infantry, mainly
light troops attacked our extreme left. It attempted to take possession of the
hamlet of Smohain and the farms of Papelotte and La Haye, as well as the
chateau of Fichermont. The brave Nassauers resisted with greatest determination.
Several bodies of infantry deployed in line to carry out this attack, supported by
a few guns, and with skirmishers in front."
The French managed to capture some buildings. After 3 pm they renewed their
attacks on the farm. The Nassauers counterattacked and forced the enemy out of
the sunken road at bayonet point. French battery fired canister and threw the
Nassauers back.
The Prussians arrived later and thought the farm was in French hands. They
mistook the uniforms of the Nassauers for French ones.
Papelotte
Map of d'Erlon attack.
"As the Dutch and Belgians (of Bijlandt's brigade) opened up with their muskets, the two British brigades
(Kempt's and Pack's) on either side and 50 m to the rear of them, began to change from battalion column(s)
of companies to (battalion) line(s)." Major de Lacy Evans writes, Sir Denis Pack ordered 4-deep [lines]
to be formed ..." On another hand, Bijland't Netherland battalions were formed in thin lines, 2-rank deep.
Actually there were only two divisional columns , not four . The two other were brigade-size formations .
On the left one brigade of Allix/Quiot's division attacked La Haye Sainte, while another brigade crossed the
hedge and the road behind. Donzelots division almost reached the hedge, while Marcognets division was
within 50 m of the crest. One brigade of Duruttes division was far behind and climbing the slope while the
other marched towards Papelotte.
Brilliant charge of British heavy cavalry.
"In the course of a few minutes, five French [infantry] brigades
had been transformed into a mob of fugitives." - A Barbero
Lord Uxbridge, a brave man and well known general, commanded Wellington's
cavalry. Lord Uxbridge having come from inspecting the cavalry deployed
behind Hougoumont, he arrived on the high ground above La Haye Sainte. He
saw the French cuirassiers sabering Ross' gunners and ordered Somerset's
Household Brigade to prepare to charge. He then rode to where Ponsonby's
Union Brigade stood and ordered Ponsonby to prepare his heavy dragoons to
charge.
The cavalry had to descend the slope, ascend the opposite slope, and then get
past the sunken road. They had to move through the Allied infantry and pass
through the thorny bushes on the side of the road. Lord Uxbridge in his hussar
uniform, rode ahead of Somerset's Household Brigade.
Lord Uxbridge, Marquess of Anglesey (1768 -1854)
He was not only an excellent officer but also a womanizer.
When he decided to elope with Wellington's sister-in-law
( and got her pregnant , before returning her to a tearful
husband only to elope for a second time, forcing a divorce
and then marrying the lady), the military establishment in
London wrongly supposed that his talents were no longer
required by Wellington because of the scandal.
.
"On to Paris !"
The charge of Household Brigade.
Two regiments of French cuirassiers were still scattered, not having had time to
reorder their ranks after destroying the Luneberg Battalion and chasing Ross'
gunners. In this situation the cuirassiers had no hope of resisting the sudden
attack of the Household Brigade. The French - after short fight - were thrown
back.
As the British were pursuing the cuirassiers, they came upon the flank of
Aulard's infantry brigade (Donzelot's division). The infantry was so surprised by
the sudden appearance of cavalry that they broke and fled without much
resistance. Some infantrymen however started firing at the backs of the cavalry,
and here and there a guardsman was dragged from his horse and hauled away
as a prisoner (incl. officer Waymouth, officer Irby, and others.)
Many guardsmen continued charging down the slope with Lord Uxbridge at
their head. French skirmishers stationed near La Haye Sainte opened fire on
them. Commanding officer of the 1st Life Guards fell dead, and the colonel of the
King's Dragoon Guards - crying out to his men "On to Paris !" - was also killed.
Battalions of Schmit's infantry brigade (Donzelot's division) formed squares near
La Haye Sainte and repulsed the guardsmen with musket volleys.
Meanwhile one or two squadrons of 3rd Hussar KGL led by Kerssenbruch made
fine attacks on two squadrons of cuirassiers. It was not long before two regiments
of German cavalry joined the fight. The French brought fresh cuirassiers and
dragoons, overlapped the Germans on both flanks and threw them back. The
Germans lost officers Janssen, Bruggemann, Oehlkers and True.
Household Brigade at Waterloo, by Mark Churms.
The regiments of the Household Brigade were the flower of Allies cavalry.
The troopers of the Life Guards were mounted on large , black horses with
manes brushed to the left to distinguih them from the Royal Horse Guards
(The Blues) who brushed them to the right.
Major General
Lord Robert Somerset
.
"Scotland Forever !"
The charge of Union Brigade.
When the Union Brigade (1st and 2nd Royal Dragoons, 6th Dragoons) came to
within 100-200 yards of Chemin d'Ohain, they halted and allowed the retreating
British and Netherland infantry to reach safety by passing through the intervals
between squadrons. Ponsonby rode up to a vantage point and saw the French
infantry was engaged in crossing the sunken road. It was a perfect moment and
Ponsonby ordered the charge. Lord Uxbridge writes, "My impression is that the
French were completely surprised by the first cavalry attack. It (our cavalry) had
been rather hidden by rising ground immediately before ther position.
I think the left wing of our infantry was partially retiring ..."
Bourgeouis' brigade was attacked by the 1st Royals, the 6th Dragoons struck
Donzelot's division, and the 2nd Dragoons (Scots Greys) moved against
Marcognet's division. The British cavalrymen appeared out of the smoke,
whirling their sabers above their heads. "As we approached at a moderate pace
the front and the flanks [of the infantry column] began to turn their backs
inwards; the rear of the columns had already begun to run away." (- De Lacy
Evans)
The infantry actually fired a volley that brought down some 20 dragoons. Then,
since there was no time to form a square formation against cavalry, they took to
their heels. An instant later, the dragoons were upon them, sabering their victims
without pity, even though at that point many of the French had thrown down
their weapons and were trying to surrender. The 105th Line was cut to pieces, it
lost its Color, colonel and many officers. The 28th Line was also hors de combat,
although suffered somehow less than the 105th.
The Scots Greys bore down on Grenier's infantry brigade. The leading battalion
opened fire and seemed able to repulse the attack. Captain Martin of French 45th
Line writes, "Our soldiers didn't wait for the order to cross it (the hollow road
lined with hedges) ; they hurled themselves at it, jumping over the hedge and
breaking ranks in order to rush upon the enemy (the Highland infantry). Fatal
recklessnes !
We struggled to bring them back into order. We brought them to a halt in order
to rally them. ... Just as I finished pushing a soldier back into his rank, I saw him
fall at my feet, struck down by a saber blow, and I quickly turned around. The
British cavalry were charging us on all sides and cutting us to pieces. ... They
even cut the boys who served as our pipers and drummers."
The death toll however was not extremely high - but Grenier's brigade was
nonetheless crushed. Sergeant Ewart captured the color of 45th Line. It was the
second Eagle captured at Waterloo and it would be the last.
The Scots Greys then attacked the 21st Line that had time to form square. The
infantry emptied great many saddles with their well aimed volley. Then however
the French broke their ranks and surrendered to the Scots. Many infantrymen
who had thrown themselves on the ground or raised their hands started
gathering up their muskets and firing again. Captain Clark was attacked by a
French soldier who pointed his musket at the captain's head, and pulled the
trigger; a sudden turn of the head saved Clark's life, but the musketball carried
away the tip of his nose.
Some officers tried to rally the dragoons and lead them back up the slope. Many
of the Scots Greys however decided that they had not yet had enough. They
attacked the Grand Battery, or part of it. There were no guns captured but many
gunners were seized with panic by the sudden appearance of the cavalry. (The
gunners had stopped firing for fear of killing their own fleeing infantry.)
NCO Dickinson of British cavalry thought 15 French guns were permanently put
out of action after the charge of Union Brigade. Others have suggested even
much higher numbers ctuly ke, 40 guns [!] This is approx. 50 % of the total
strength of the French battery. In fact, the Grand Battery was not put out of
action. The dragoons had no means of carrying the cannons away and
abandoned them. Nobody on the Allied ridge noticed any lasting reduction of
fire, and the guns continued to be the biggest killer of allied infantry to the very
last moments of the battle.
Durutte's division was also attacked by the Allied cavalry (several squadrons of
Vandeleur's light dragoons, and some Grey Scots). Here the infantry however
had time to form squares and repulsed every attack.
Charge of Ponsonby's Union Brigade (Scots Greys)
Major-General
Sir William Ponsonby
.
Erlon's infantry after the charge.
Ompteda's KGL Brigade, Bijlandt's Netherland brigade, and Pack's brigade
advanced in support of the Union Brigade and completed the roundup of
prisoners.
Due to confusion the British infantry fired on the Netherland troops, whose blue
uniforms resembled the enemy's. Shortly thereafter, having realized their error,
they mistook French troops for Netherland troops and let them get away.
According to some authors and witnesses d'Erlon's four divisions were
"completely destroyed", "smashed" by the British, German and Netherland
cavalry. They were "out of battle" or "all in captivity" etc. The quotations below
lead the reader to believe that Erlons corps suffered horrendous losses to the
cavalry, their morale was gone and they were surrendering by thousands.
- they could not prevent the Greys destroying the column in under 3
minutes. - Lieutenant Winchester
- The Union Brigade not only completely broke Donzelots division, but also
smashed Marognets the carnage was awful. - Jac Welller in Wellington at
Waterloo.
- The dragoons are in the midst of the enemy columns - the furious impetuosity
of their onslaught overcomes all resistance - the terror stricken masses, paralyzed
by this sudden apparition of cavalry amongst them - Siborne History of the
War in France and Belgium 1815
- The column that was charged by the Royals was broken and the greater part
taken prisoner. - Lieutenant Shelton of 28th Foot
Erlons corps suffered heavy casualties, there is no doubt about it.
However their casualties were due to several things:
- the capture of La Haye Sainte was very costly
- they also lost men during the attacks on Papelotte
- they lost heavily in the debacle of the rush to escape
the battlefield at the end (after the arrival of the Prussians)
- they lost many due to desertions during the next two days
De Erlons corps was able to rally after the cavalry charge and resumed attacks
on all three farms: Papelotte and Frichermont and La Haye Sainte, just in front of
Wellington's nose. Out of the three farms two were taken. However the deafeat
suffered by Erlon's corps limited Napoleon's posibilities. He could no longer
consider maneuvering against the Allies' left wing.
~
French cavalry counter-charges.
" In the memories of Waterloo , the French lancers , galloping at will
over the battlefield, sending saber-armed cavalry fleeing before them
and calmly stopping to finish off the wounded without even having
to dismount, appear as an image of vivid horror."
Triumphant Lord Uxbridge returned to the Allied lines and met Wellington
surrounded by staff officers and foreign military attaches behind La Haye Sainte.
Napoleon watched the brilliant charge of British heavy cavalry and the rout of
d'Erlon's infantry. He ordered a cuirassier division to counterattack. Gnral de
Division Baron Charles-Claude Jaquinot also sent one of his two cavalry brigades
against the triumphant Allies. Gnral de Brigade Gobrech led from the front. His 3rd
(Colonel Martigue) and the 4th Lancers (Colonel Bro) were formed in well aligned
ranks and struck the enemy with fury.
.
The French lancers and cuirassiers fell on
the British and did terrible execution.
The French lancers fanned out and started a mopping-up operation over the entire
length of the ground where catastrophe had struck Erlon's infantry. The lancers fell on
the British cavalry. Many dragoons dashed up the slope, and everyone tried to save
his own skin. Sir Ponsonby together with his adjutant, Mjr Reignolds made a dash to
own line, and a French lancer began pursuing them. While they were crossing a
plowed field, Ponsonby's horse got stuck in the mud and in an instant, the lancer was
upon him. Ponsonby threw his saber away and surrendered.
Reignolds came to his aid, but the lancer compelled both of them to dismount under
the threat of his lance. At that moment, a group of Scots Grays happened to pass a
short distance away, saw the three and galloped shouting in their direction with the
idea of liberating Sir Ponsonby. "In a flash, the Frenchman killed the general and his
major with 2 blows of his lance then charged the oncoming dragoons striking down 3
in less than a minute. The others abandoned the combat completely incapable of
holding their own ..."
Barbero writes, "In the memories of Waterloo, the French lancers, galloping at will
over the battlefield, sending saber-armed cavalry fleeing before them, and calmly
stopping to finish off the wounded without even having to dismount, appear as an
image of vivid horror." NCO Dickson remembered how his comrades had been
surrounded and struck down, slipping in the mud and trying to ward off the lance
blows with their hands.
The cuirassiers made at least an equal contribution to the pursuit and destruction of
the British heavy cavalry. Captain Hamilton's body was found the next day, missing
both arms and with a bullet in the heart. Lord Somerset however escaped the pursuit.
After the battle only 1 or 2 men reported out of an entire squadron of the 1st Dragoon
Guards. At the end of the battle, the two brigades (Hosehold and Union), by this time
combined, could muster only a few composite squadrons.
French lancers charging. Courtesy of Udo Sixel, Germany.
Before the Russian campaign Napoleon wanted to oppose the Cossacks who were nimble, tough warriors.
The 1st, 3rd, 8th, 9th, 10th and 29th Dragoons were converted to 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th Lancers.
The Vistula Uhlans and the Old Guard Lancers sent their troopers as instructors to the new French units.
Once trained by the Poles the regiments received tough lot of French officers.
French lancers (right) vs Scots Greys
Fleeing British cavalry at Waterloo, 1815.
.
Vandeleur's and Ghighny's cavalry
brigades to the rescue !
The victorious lancers were counteraatcked by fresh Allied cavalry. General
Vandeleur brought two regiments of British light dragoons. The 12th Light Dragoons
suffered heavy casualties. Before the charge there were more than 300 men in the
ranks. After the charge however only 94 remained in the three squadrons. Some lost
their horses during the fight and were therefore of no more use. Some were taken
prisoner by the lancers and rejoined the regiment only on the next day. Commander
of the 12th Light Dragoons was wounded in both arms and lost control of his horse,
which carried him into the midst of the lancers. He received a saber cut to his head
and lost consciousness. When he regained consciousness, he was lying in the mud,
and a lancer delivered a thrust that punctured his lungs. He lost consciousness again.
General Ghigny decided on his own initiative to attack the French lancers. The 8th
Belgian Hussars formed the first line, while the 4th Dutch Light Dragoons were in the
second line. The hussars were led by Duvivier, a napoleonic veteran and an officer of
the Legion of Honor. The two fresh regiments were too much for the lancers.
Duvivier's men scattered the French within moments. One author wrote that the 8th
Hussars fought with "insane gallantry" throughout the afternoon.
But there was a price to be paid for this victory. For example the 8th Belgian Hussars
lost 1 officer killed, 132 men killed, 7 officers wounded, and 145 men wounded. Not
only the French lancers contributed to their losses, the French artillery claimed its
share too. The young Count Camille Chastel de la Howarderie of 8th Hussars was
struck in the breast by a cannonball. He was the second of three brothers who were
present at the battle. His elder brother served in the 2nd Horse Carabiniers, and his
younger brother was also in the 8th Hussars.
General-Lieutenant Baron Jean Alphonse de Collaert, the commander of Netherland
Cavalry Division, was wounded. Under his command were three cavalry brigades;
Ghighny's, Merlen's and Tripp's.
British light dragoons.
Picture by de Beaufort
Netherland light dragoons
and hussars.
~
French cavalry vs Allies infantry squares.
"At 4 o'clock our square was a perfect hospital,
being full of dead, dying, and mutilated bodies."
Wellington appeared very "thoughtful and pale."
Napoleon was continuing to observe the Prussian movements. Major La Fresnaye
returned with a letter from Grouchy and the news were not good. Grouchy asked
for orders to move in the direction of Chyse the following day. Bad news for the
Emperor.
With the cavalry battle being over, the French artillery opened fire again. The Allied
batteries immediately answered them with their own thunder. Wellington moved
Lambert's 10th Infantry Brigade forward and deployed behind La Haye Sainte.
Major-General Sir John Lambert had three battalions (I/4th, I/27th, I/40th), one
battalion (II/81st) was left in Brussels.
The Allied generals, with fieldglasses in hand, realized that the French cavalry was
preparing to advance in even greater strength. Napoleon was sending General
Milhaud with eight cuirassier regiments and General Lefebvre-Desnouettes with
two regiments of Guard Cavalry, against the Allied center. This force consisted of 32
squadrons. (In comparison the Household Brigade, Union Brigade, and Tripp's
Horse Carabinier Brigade amounted to 27 squadrons of heavy cavalry).
When Milhaud's IV Cavalry Corps and light cavalry of the Guard were repulsed,
Kellermann's III Cavalry Corps and the heavy cavalry of the Guard were added to
the massed assault. Kellermann, recognising the futility of the attacks, tried to
reserve the two regiments of horse carabiniers from joining in, but eventually
Marshal Ney spotted them and insisted on their involvement. (Kellermann's and
Milhaud's corps were soon counter-charged by almost the entire force of Allies
cavalry.)
Siborne writes, "The French line of cavalry, as it advanced, presented an imposing
appearance. These veteran warriors bore with them an air of confident superiority
and anticipated triumph, joined with a sort of gaietd de cceur, inspired no doubt by
the reflection that they were about to encounter and overthrow their most
implacable enemies, the British. ... Infantry was posted, prepared for their reception:
a vigorous fire was opened upon them by the four guns of Ross's British Horse
Battery on the right of the high road, as also by Lloyd's British Foot Battery still
further to the right; but a few seconds sufficed to restore the order of their advance:
in the next moment their trumpets sounded the charge; when, amidst shouts of Vive
VEmpereur! this gallant line, glittering in all the splendour reflected from burnished
helmet and cuirass, rushed on to the attack." ( William Siborne - "The Waterloo
Campaign, 1815")
Even the cavalry of the Imperial Guard, Napoleon's reserve, got involved in the
charges. French officer, Captain de Brack of Red Lancers writes, "Under the sabres of
our Cuirassiers and the thrusts of our 4th Lancers of the Line, commanded by
Colonel Bro, they (British) strewed the ground with their dead ... This success
thrilled our cavalry who were now more impatient than ever to cross sabres. The
Guard cavalry having been ordered to move forward, we marched towards the
enemy in the direction of the fortified farm of La Haye Sainte, from which we were
separated by a slight unulaton, a gentle slope and a small level area. The four
regiments were on the same line, mounted on the main road, the Lancers on the
right and then, to the left, the Chasseurs-a-Cheval, the Dragoons, and the Horse
Grenadiers. ...
I spoke loudly, and my words were overheard. From the front of our regiment a few
officers pushed forward to join our group. The right hand files followed them; the
movement was copied in the squadrons to restore the alignment; and then by the
Guard Chasseurs-a-Cheval. This movement, of only few paces at the right, became
more marked (as it passed to) the left. The brigade of the Guard Dragoons and
Horse Grenadiers, who were awaiting orders to charge at any moment, believed this
had been (given) ...
They set off - and we followed ! This is how the charge of the cavalry of the Imperial
Guard took place, over the reason for which so many writers have argued so
variously. ... We were nearly level with this farm, between which and us our
Cuirassiers were charging. We rode through the batteries, which we were unable to
drag back with us. We turned back and threatened the squares, which put up a most
honourable resistance."
French cuirassiers at Waterloo
Cuirassiers sabering Allies gunners
and attacking the infantry squares.

.
The British, German and Dutch
infantry squares held fast.
Several abandoned Allies batteries were captured and some gunners were killed.
Wellington ordered his gunners to take shelter within the squares as the cavalry
approached, and to return to their guns and resume fire as they retreated.
English officer Patterson writes, "The French cavalry, having posessed themselves of
the battery of Dutch guns posted on the heights to the left and rear of the wood of
Hougoumont, were galloping, sword in hand, and cutting right and left at the
gunners, who took shelter beneath the guns; but in this maneuver the gallant
horsemen were exposed to the fire of the Black Brunswickers, whose heads were on
level with the slope of the hill, which proved so destructive to them, at the very
moment when they thought themselves in full posession of their prey, that, being
without means of spiking the guns, or carrying them off ... they were compelled to
retire ..."
Any Allies infantrymen caught in the open were cut down. (See picture below).
After capturing several batteries, the cuirassiers were in possession of the Mont-
Saint-Jean ridge. In front of them were Allied infantry formed in squares. The
infantry opened fire and repulsed the cavalry. The French regrouped and began
advance again. "Sometimes, this psychological game took on comedic rhythms. The
Duke of Wellington recalled having seen some squares which 'would not throw
away their fire until the cuirassiers charged, and they would not charge until we
had thrown away our fire.' But variations were introduced into the game. Having
realized that the squares' tactics was to hold their fire until the very last moment, the
cuirassier commanders started to send individual riders forward. These urged their
horses very close to the enemy and took aim with the short carbines they all carried.
... The British and German officers found it necessary to send some selected
marksmen out of the square - with all the risk such exposure entailed - in an attempt
to keep the cuirassiers and their carbines at a distance." (- Alessandro Barbero)
A British engineer officer (sheltered inside one of the squares) writes, "No actual
dash was made upon us. Now and then an individual more daring than the rest
would ride up to the bayonets, wave his sword about and bully; but the mass held
aloof, pulling up within 5 or 6 yards ..." (- Mark Adkin)
"In the Hougoumont sector, the French charges, mostly carried out by the Imperial
Guard cavalry, were regularly coordinated with the action of the infantry troops
occupying the pastures and part of the orchard. At first, the British cavalry
enthusiastically rushed into a counteracharge, hoping to hurl back the pointed
thrusts of the enemy: but they paid a heavy price for their zeal.
More than once the troops of a British regiment, descending the slope at a trot,
unexpectedly found themselves under fire from the [French] tirailleurs hidden in the
tall grain and were obliged to return in great haste to their starting positions in
order to avoid being trapped and cut off by the enemy closing in behind them: in
other instances, the retreating French cavalry drew their pursuers into range of
Reille's infantry squares, with consequences invariably disastrous for the British." (-
Alessandro Barbero)
French cuirassiers vs British squares.
Hougoumont is burning.
French cuirassiers vs German (Nassau) squares.
French cuirassier vs British
soldier caught out of the square.
.
Counter-charges of Allies cavalry
The French cavalry attacks were repeatedly repelled by the steadfast infantry
squares. The cuirassiers were also counter-charged by Allies cavalry, Tripp's
brigade, Grant's brigade, Dornberg's brigade and the remaining effectives of the
Household Brigade.
When the occassion presented itself, in the moment when the cuirassiers could be
surprised, when were scattered and falling back after an unsuccessful charge against
infantry, the Allied cavalrymen dashed forward. General Dornberg led the 23rd
Light Dragoons and the 1st KGL Light Dragoons against a single cuirassier
regiment. After an initial success Dornberg's men were defeated. Immediately
thereafter, while remounting the slope in disorder, a fresh cuirassier regiment
appeared and blocked their way. Seeing his light dragoons losing heart, Dornberg
tried to lead them personally, and received saber cut to his lung. Blood started
coming out of his mouth and he was forced to go to the rear. The British and
German cavalrymen fell behind the infantry squares.
General Trip led three fresh regiments of Dutch and Belgian carabiniers against the
French cuirassiers.
The three units (dark blue uniforms, without armor) and two regiments of French
cuirassiers (dark blue uniforms, with armor) met each other west of La Haye Sainte.
Then the two lines clashed and after a short fight the French fell back to the bottom
of the slope.
Demetrius C.Boulger writes, "... seeing that Wellington in his incomplete account of
the battle, specifically mentions Tripp, the Major-General in command of the
Carabinier Brigade ... it would be difficult to throw a stone at it. One critic says 'At
one moment Tripp showed hesitation.' Perhaps he did, perhaps so did Lord
Uxbridge, or Lord Somerset; but it was only 'at one moment', and perhaps even then
the critic was mistaken. We can, however, give him that 'moment' out of the 8 hours
of doubtful contest. The brunt of the cavalry fighting fell on the Carabiniers ... They
took part in the successive charges of the Heavy British Brigade, with the exception
of the first charge made in support of the Union Brigade, although the Dutch writers
state positively that Tripp supported Ponsonby. At this time they were placed in
reserve behind our Household regiments and the King's Dragoon Guards. As these
regiments became weak, and several charges were made in the order -
- the Heavy Brigade on the left,
- Tripp's Carabiniers in the center,
- Dornberg's KGL cavalry on the right.
English officer, Captain Batty of the Grenadier Guards, declared that he saw 'a
Belgian cavalry regiment fight valiantly with the cuiassiers in a manner never to be
forgotten.' This was no doubt the occasion when Tripp's Carabiniers forced the
Cuirassiers to retire into the hollow in the rear of La Haie Sainte, and probably this
was the charge in which General Barnes, the English Adjutant-General took part,
and received his wounds. ...
The 1st Carabiniers lost 3 officers killed, 25 men killed, 8 officers wounded, and 66
men wounded.
The 2nd Carabiniers lost 1 officer killed, 87 men killed, 4 officers wounded, and 64
men wounded.
The 3rd Carabiniers lost 32 men killed, 2 officers wounded, and 29 men wounded.
Of the wounded officers several died, including the colonels of the 1st and 3rd
regiments, Coenegracht and Lichleitner ..." (Demetrius Boulger - article "The Belgians at
Waterloo" published in "Contemporary Review" in May 1900)
The French cuirassiers being counter-attacked by
the British Household Brigade. Picture by Benigni.
The French cuirassiers being counter-attacked by
the Netherland Carabinier Brigade.
.
"Our squares presented
a shocking sight."
"Although the French cavalry was not making much progress, Wellington's situation
was precarious. The enemy had overwhelmed his defensive line, his guns were
temporarily lost, and he and all his generals were compelled to seek protection
inside the squares, from where it inevitably became more difficult to exercise
command. As Wellington remarked a few weeks later in a letter to Lord Beresford,
the enemy cavalry were moving among the Allied troops as though they were their
own." (- Alessandro Barbero)
Ensign Gronow of British 1st Foot Guard writes, "Our squares presented a shocking
sight. Inside we were nearly suffocated by the smoke and smell from burnt
cartridges. It was impossible to move a yard without treading upon a wounded
comrade, or upon the bodies of the dead; and the load groans of the wounded and
dying was most appaling. At 4 o'clock our square was a perfect hospital, being full of
dead, dying, and mutilated bodies." Wellington himself took refuge in this square.
He appeared very "thoughtful and pale."
The British claim that not a single square was broken. Siborne wrote that one square
had a side "completely blown away and dwindled into a mere clump."
The French however disagree with the British. General Delort of the cuirassiers
claims that, "several squares were broken." Brigadier (then private) Pilloy of the
French cuirrasiers wrote that he charged three times against a British square finally
riding "over and through it". (E. Tattet - Lettres du brigadier Pilloy ... in Carnet de la
Sabretache, Vol 15th)
Group of redcoats being cut down
by French cuirassiers. Waterloo.
Plan of La Haye Sainte Farm.
(Based on picture from "Waterloo Companion")
The French captured La Haye Sainte.
"Unlike Hougoumont, whose possesion
was not critical to either side, La Haye
Sainte was vital to both" - Mark Adkin
The location of La Haye Sainte gave the farm huge tactical importance to both,
Napoleon and the Allies. For Napoleon to capture it meant he had secured a
springboard from which to launch a final attack on Allies' center. The French brought
the garrison of La Haye Sainte to the verge of isolation. There is some evidence to
suggest that Napoleon insited the farm must be taken at any cost.
Adkin writes, "Unlike Hougoumont, whose possesion was not critical to either side,
La Haye Sainte was vital to both. ... A garrison of 400 indicates that it is likely
Wellington underestimated its importance, at least initially. And whoever ordered
Baring's pioneers and tools to Hougoumont on the night of 17/18 June had not got
his tactical thinking straight... The bungled ammunition supply was another
indication that the Anglo-Allied high command only belatedly appreciated the
significance of this outpost... Because Baring lacked both tools and timber, the
loopholes were few and there were no platforms built behind the walls... This meant
that shooting over the walls was often not possible, and seriously restricted through
them." (Mark Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion" pp 374, 376)
La Haye Sainte was defended by the II KGL Light Battalion (drawn from Ompteda's
2nd KGL Brigade.) This unit was commanded by Major George Baring. He was a
seasoned officer, with at least 10 years active duty. The second in command was
Major Bosewiel. The 403 Germans were armed with Baker rifles and dressed in green
uniiforms. The Les Coquins Verts or Green . Rascals (ext.link) were well trained and
disciplined unit. They were known for their excellence and their fighting ability.
La Haye Sainte and the road.
An old photo of La Haye Sainte
from the beginning of 20th century.
.
The first attack on the farm.
The French captured the orchard.
Major Baring writes, "Some [French] skirmishers commenced the attack. I made the
men lie down, and forbade all firing until the enemy were quite near. The first shot
broke the bridle of my horse close to my hand, and the second killed Major Bosewiel,
who was standing near me. The enemy did not skirmish for very long, but
immediately advanced over the height, with two close columns, one of which
attacked the buildings, and the other threw itself en masse into the orchard, showing
the greatest contempt for our fire."
Around 1.30 PM the French tirailleurs (of Charlet's brigade) attacked and captured
the orchard. The German riflemen retired into the buildings. The musket and rifle fire
was such that soon the farm was surrounded and covered by white smoke. Bosewiel
was killed. The divisional commander, von Alten, ordered up the Luneberg Light
Battalion under von Klencke and 2 companies of I Light KGL (under von Gilsa and
Marszalek) to counter-attack so they might relieve the pressure on La Haye Sainte.
Baring and group of his soldiers went outside the farm and merged with the
newcomers. Suddenly from nowhere the French cuirassiers charged; instead of
forming a square or retiring into the barn, the infantrymen ran back towards the
ridge whence they had come. Von Klencke was killed, some of his men were
slaughtered, others fled in panick towards allies line. Only few managed to reach La
Haye Sainte. The French tirailleurs followed the riflemen, captured the small garden
behind the farm and fired on those situated on the roof.
However after the repulse of d'Erlon's corps by British cavalry, the French
abandoned La Haye Sainte. Officer Graeme of KGL wrote, "A party of our men
sallied out and pursued the crowd [of retreating French infantrymen] a considerable
way up towards La Belle Alliance."
Fight for La Haye Sainte, 1:30-2:30 PM.
North of the farm a large elm tree stood. Consequently, Wellington must therefore have stood on the road
where he was sheltered from the artillery and musket fire. Henri Houssaye writes, "The tree was bought for
200 francs by a clever Englishman, who sold it in London in the shape of canes, snuff-boxes, and napkin-
-rings to Wellington's adorers."
.
The second attack on La Haye Sainte.
"The French nearly surrounded us ..."
After the first attack on La Haye Sainte only approx. 300 riflemen were still in the
ranks.
General Ompteda sent to La Haye Sainte reinforcements: 2 companies of I KGL Light
Battalion
and 1 company of V KGL Line Battalion. Major Baring deployed his troops as follow:
- II Light Battalion defended the barn, piggery, and the house.
- 2 companies of I KGL Light Battalion defended the garden.
- 1 company of V KGL Line Battalion defended the stables.
They wore red uniforms, and were armed with muskets.
The orchard was unoccupied.
The second attack began at about 3 PM.
Officer Graeme had his riflemen stationed on the roof of the 'piggery' when they saw
a single French cuirassier approaching at a trot along the main road. When he got
close, the cuirassier began waving his saber. The Germans thought he was a deserter
and Graeme ordered his men to hold their fire. The Frenchman rode up all the way
to the abatis that was blocking the road, raised himself in the stirrups as though
trying to see over it, then suddenly wheeled his big horse and galloped back. The
riflemen opened fire after him but the gallant cuirassier escaped their shots.
The French attack "followed in the same force as before; namely, from two sides by
two close columns, which, with the greatest rapidity, nearly surrounded us, and ,
despising danger, fought with a degree of courage which I had never before
witnessed in Frenchmen ... [They threw] themselves against the walls, and
endeavouring to wrest the arms from the hands of my men through the loopholes;
many lives were sacrificed to the defence of the doors and gates; the most obstinate
contest was carried on where the gate was wanting [the barn] ... On this spot 17
Frenchmen already lay dead, and their bodies served as a protection to those who
pressed after them..." - Major Baring
Using the pile of corpses as protection, the French tirailleurs kept firing into the
farmyard from behind it. Baring's horse was killed and his servant fled in panick.
A fight ensued around the loopholes of the farmyard. The French grabbed the barrels
of the German's rifles and tried to wrest them out of their hands. When they gained
control over one of the loopholes the French standing on the outside the wall started
firing into the yard, using the loaded muskets that his comrades passed him, one
after the other.
Private Lindau fired at French officer on horseback as he urged his men to attack. The
Frenchamn's horse was wounded and dragged down its master in the fall. The
Germans ran through the gate and attacked the French tirailleurs. Lindau was
searching the pockets of "his" officer when his comrades shouted to him: "Come on,
leave that ! The cavalry's coming !"
All ran for the farm and quickly closed the gate. Groups of cuirassiers remained
behind the tirailleurs but their presence kept the riflemen locked inside the farm.
When several squadrons of British Guard cavalry charged, some of the tirailleurs
crowded around the walls of the farm, while others fell back. The cuirassiers fell back
too.
The German riflemen greeted the withdrawal of the enemy with howls of derision
from the walls and roofs of the farm. The British victory however was short lived,
several squadrons of cuirassiers counterattacked and the Guardsmen fled behind the
ridge.
The French infantry storming La Haye Sainte.
Picture by Richard Knotel.
.
The third attack.
Fall of La Haye Sainte.
Meanwhile grand cavalry charges began (described above) and 20 German, 12 British
and 4 Dutch/Belgian battalions formed themselves in squares. The German riflemen
in La Haye Sainte opened fire at the serried ranks of cuirassiers slowly riding past the
farm. Major Baring writes, "I could see all this going on, and I'm not afraid to admit
that my heart sank more than once..."
Baring noted that his riflemen are runing short of ammunition and sent officer to
General Ompteda asking for emergency delivery. The garrison of the farm was
reinforced with Nassauers, it was the Light Company of II/1st Nassau (they were
dressed in green uniforms and were armed with muskets). The Nassauers brought
several large camp kettles, these were used to extinguish the fire in the barn.
- 1 light company of II Battalion of 1st Nassau Regiment.
They were dressed in green uniforms and were armed with muskets.
The French brought two infantry regiments of Durutte's division and several
howitzers. The barn started burning and disappeared from the sight in a cloud of
smoke, until the riflemen using the kettles managed to put out the blaze. The French
13th Light Regiment attacked the farm. The Nassauers were armed with muskets and
had a lot of ammunition, but the KGL riflemen were using up their last shots.
Baring sent another note again asking for ammunition.
The French broke down the outer door of the passage through the stables. It was here
where both sides crossed bayonets. The attackers were pushed back but the French
climbed up onto the roof of the stables and fired down into the yard at the riflemen.
The French seeing that the Germans' fire was growing lighter, attacked the side of the
farm nearest the road, and sappers armed with axes started knocking down the
carriage gate. It was officer Vieux of engineers who finally knocked down the gate.
The French eventually broke in through the stable passage and barn entrance in the
west. Shortly afterwards the main gate, underneath the dovecote, was battered down
with axes wielded by men of the 1st Engineer Regiment and stormed by the II
Battalion of 13th Light Regiment from Donzelot's 2nd Division.
The Germans defending the gate.
After W.B.Wollen.
The French sappers armed with axes
started knocking down the gate.
.
Slaughter. The French inside the farm.
The wounded Germans cried out in French Pardon !
begging for life but they were bayoneted on the spot.
The riflemen attempted to block up holes in the walls made by artillery fire but the
French scaled the walls and bursted into the farmyard. Baring gave order to retire
through the house into the garden. They rushed to the rear with the French hot on
their heels.
Some wounded cried out in French Pardon ! begging for life but they were
bayoneted. With shouts Coquin ! the French fired after the fleeing Nassauers. Baring
attempted to defend the small garden but quickly found it untenable. His last men
abandoned the farm sometime around 6.15 PM and sprinted up the slope.
The French caught up with some and killed. "... many of the men were overtaken by
the enemy, who vented their fury upon them in the lowest abuse..." The French were
screaming at them, kicked and stripped of all they had before they were turned over
to cuirassiers and escorted to the rear.
Group of French cuirassiers took over the prisoners and forced them to run. And
when a man couldn't run fast enough, "they killed him with a saber blow."
After 5 hours (with interruptions) of siege the French light infantry captured La Haye
Sainte. Major Baring was to receive no replenishment throughout the battle, despite 5
separate and desperate appeals ! Major Heise of II Light KGL (and ADC to von
Alten) stated that the cart with ammunition was overturned on the Genappe Road
during the confusion when the Cumberland Hussars fled from the battlefield.
Baring reported that at the end he had only 42 men, but this also includes the
'missing'. Once these men returned to the ranks on the following day, Baring had
approx. 50 % of his troops. The rest carpeted the ground in and around the farm or
were killed by the cuirassiers on their way nto captivity.
General Sir James Kempt had an idea to recapture La Haye Sainte
with the British 27th Regiment of Foot but quickly changed his mind. :-)
Napoleon's infantry (left) vs Wellington's infantry
.
The French cuirassiers
annihilated KGL battalion.
Ompteda's death.
Count Sir Karl von Alten, the commander of 3rd British Infantry Division, ordered
Baron Ompteda, the commander of 2nd KGL Brigade, to recapture the farm. Colonel
Baron von Ompteda protested that such a movement was suicidal in the presence of
French cuirassiers. Prince of Orange intervened, and curtly ordered Ompteda to obey.
The reluctant Ompteda finally ordered one of his squares to deploy into line and
advance against La Haye Sainte.
Ompteda took the V KGL Line Battalion under Major Schroeder (529 men). The
Germans boldly advanced dispersing French tirailleurs before them but then
somebody cried out "Cavalry !" The French tirailleurs turned back and attacked.
Ompteda and Lieutenant Wheatley were surrounded by enemy's cavalry and
infantry. Soon one of them was dead with a musket ball in his mouth, and the other
lost consciousness and was taken prisoner by the French. "I saw Colonel Ompteda, in
the midmost throng of the enemy infantry and cavalry, sink from his horse and
vanish." (- Captain Berger, V KGL Line Battalion)
The KGL battalion was slaughetered (90 % casualties !)
The British brought up and fired rockets but without much effect.
The British light dragoons charged but without much enthusiasm and result.
The cuirassiers were driven off only by Dornberg's cavalry (1st and 2nd KGL Light
Dragoons). The Belgian 5th Light Dragoons and 6th Dutch Hussars attacked the
French batteries but without success.
Then the cavalry on both sides withdrew, with the French halting their horses
now and then to stabb the wounded British and German soldiers on the ground.
Colonel von Ompteda
"I saw Ompteda, in the midmost throng of the enemy
infantry and cavalry, sink from his horse and vanish."
.
The French pushed beyond La Haye Sainte,
captured the sandpit and the knoll above it.
It was one of the most extraordinary and pitiful incidents in military history.
The British and German infantry stood out in the open whilst exposed to the
merciless artillery and skirmishing fire of the French. This moment resembled
the execution of the Prussian infantry in 1806 at Jena.
The French continued their advance beyond La Haye Sainte and their sudden
appearance provoked panic and consternation among the KGL and British squares.
Wellington rode up to this point and watched the French for a while. One of French
tirailleurs fired a shot at Wellington and the duke immediately rode away.
Another shot mortally wounded horse under Lieutenant Cathcart. The officer left the
horse to die and run on foot. According to Barbero "a great number of Wellington's
generals and aides were killed or wounded in this particular phase of battle,
particularly in the area behind La Haye Sainte."
Under the fire of French tirailleurs posted on the roofs of La Haye Sainte, the 95th
Rifles was forced to take quick refuge in the sunken lane. Other tirailleurs went down
on one knee and kept up an uninterrupted musket fire. They even captured the knoll
above the sandpit, and "whilst laying down, appeared to shoot their objects with
great precission" as wrote one of British officers. When years after the battle Captain
Siborne started building his huge diorama of the battle, British generals insisted that
the knoll where French tirailleurs were stationed and fired at the British had to be
represented.
After the farm fell into French hands, their artillery was brought forward.
British officer Mercer of Royal Artillery writes, "The rapidity and precission of this
[French] fire was quite appaling... Every shot almost took effect, and I certainly
expected we should all be annihilated. ... One shell I saw explode under the two
finest wheel-horses in the troop down they dropped." Some Allies squares went
under severe artillery bombardement. The British 27th Regiment of Foot lost more
than 2/3 of its men! Kincaid wrote "the 27th regiment were lying dead, in square, a
few yards behind us." Captain Scriba was with one of the Hannoverian squares. This
square "lost its original shape, at first it became irregular triangle, and then a mass
closed up on all sides, without any indefinitetable shape."
The British, Netherland and German infantry stood out in the open whilst exposed to
the merciless artillery and skirmish fire of the French. It resembled the execution of
the Prussian infantry in 1806 at Jena by the French tirailleurs.
Up until now Wellington was on the back foot and would have been beaten without
Blucher.
The Duke said, "Give me Blcher or give me night" and this is enough to see clearly
that
he was actually saying "I'm about to get my butt kicked".
The sand pit after the battle. The French infantry
ejected the 95th Foot (Rifles) from this position .
French artillery inflicting heavy casualties on Allies.
"The Duke was most desirous of our [Prussians'] arrival and
had repeatedly declared that this was the last moment , and
if we did not arrive soon,he would be compelled to retreat."
- Baron Von Muffling
Gneisenau , Prussian chief of staff , believed Wellington failed
to march to the Prussian assistance at Ligny and was in favour
of leaving the Duke to his own devices.Blucher thought otherwise.
~
The Prussians are coming !
If the Prussians had fallen back on their communication lines after Ligny,
Wellington would almost certainly have had have fallen back on his, which
ultimately meant reatreat to the channel coast with a view to re-embarking
a la Dunkirk.
If the Prussians had fallen back on their communication lines after Ligny,
Wellington would almost certainly have had have fallen back on his, which
ultimately meant reatreat to the channel coast with a view to re-embarking a la
Dunkirk. The object of offering battle at Waterloo was to hold Napoleon until the
Prussians arrived. [In the classic British version of Waterloo the Prussians arrived
just in time to mop up the battlefield.]
The absolute essential for a French victory at Waterloo was for the Prussians not to
arrive. The Prussian assault on this village of Plancenoit was the single biggest factor
that cost the French a victory at Waterloo.
To halt the Prussians Napoleon first dispatched Lobau's corps of two infantry
divisions, two cavalry divisions (Domon's and Subervie's), and part of his Imperial
Guard. "Napoleon's force available for attacking his main enemy [Wellington's army]
was instantly reduced by over 10.000 men. This meant that for the main battle,
which had yet to begin in earnest, Napoleon had less men than Wellington ... If
Plancenoit was lost, the battle was lost, if the battle was lost, so was the campaign
and with it the Emperor's throne....
When the French finally took La Haye Sainte ... it opened up a small window of
opportunity [for Napoleon] ... Ney saw it and demanded infantry to exploit it. They
were not forthcoming, primarily because of the situation in Plancenoit.... He
[Napoleon] had started the day with an infantry reserve of 36 infantry battalions ...
Keeping Plancenoit cost him 25 of them... In the event only 8 battalions of fresh
troops were committed to the last attack on Wellington's ridge, of these only 5 were
in the front line." (- Mark Adkin pp 381-2, 390-1)
Blucher's Prussian army on the road to Waterloo.
Blucher's "resolve to march from Wavre to Waterloo
seems all the more remarkable. The scene in Prussian
Headquarters that night is without a doubt worthy of
some great playwright."
- Ed Wimble in NAPOLEON magazine, fall 1999
.
Prussians' flanking movement.
March to Waterloo and then throw yourself at the right flank
of the enemy with the utmost vigor." - Blucher to Bulow
After Field Marshal Blucher received a dispatch from Wellington stating that
Napoleon now attacked his British-Netherland army, the Old Forward sent
instructions to Bulow to move at daybreak from Dion-le-Mont and march through
Wavre to Chapelle St.Lambert and then throw yourself at the right flank of the
enemy with the utmost vigor. The II Corps will follow immediately in support.
General Bulow issued his corps marching dispositions at 2 AM. He informed his
brigadiers that he would personally direct the march of his advance guard.
The ground between Wavre and Ohain was crisscrossed with wooded hillocks and
deeply cut streams. Rain fell from the noon the 17th to the morning of the 18th. The
roads became bogs of mud. The Prussians, wearied by the bloody and long fighting
at Ligny and forced marches, had laid down on the bare ground seeking the hollows
and furrows. Bulows troops were delayed by the bottleneck at Wavre. Innumerable
carts and guns, cluttered the roads and the narrow streets. A fire broke out in a mill
that increased confusion. As a result, Bulows corps lost precious time and did not
clear Wavre until after sunrise.
At 1 PM Field Marshal Blucher joined Bulows corps and continued the advance
from St.Lambert at the head of the column. Movement on the road and across the
Lasne was difficult. Any rise in elevation halted the gun carraiages and ammunition
wagons until they were dragged from the mud. increasing numbers of men
dropped from exhaustion. In several places, men and horses could only march in
single file. (Leggiere Bulow and the campaign of 1815 p 122)
One of Gneisenaus staff officers rode forward to to see if the woods were
unguarded. He reported crossing the wood unopposed and seeing on the other side
the entire battlefield.
Although the entire IV Army Corps had not arrived, the Old Forward chose to
attack Napoleon. Wagner writes, The first intention of the Prussian army was to
take up close positions and await the arrival of the remaining troops and break from
the wood towards evening. When they realized the intensity of the struggle and the
peril of Wellingtons right flank, Blucher ordered the advance. (Wagner Plane der
Schlachten p 86)
The Prussians were strung out in march and their flank was vulnerable to attack.
To determine if the French were moving against their left flank, Gen. Gneiseanu
dispatched von Witowski with the Silesian hussars and von Falkenhausen with
the Silesian landwehr to reconnoiter towards Dyle.
.
Bulow's corps fell upon Napoleon's exposed flank.
When the Prussians realized the intensity of the struggle
and the peril of Wellingtons right flank, Blucher ordered
the advance.
Prussian cannonballs began falling not far from Napoleon.
The Emperor turned his telescope in the direction the shots
came from.
"The French would have felt much less confident had they known that Prussian
officers ... had been watching them through their telescopes for several hours.
Sometimes past midday, Major von Falkenhausen, leadinga patrol of uhlans, went
as far as the main Brussels road south of La Belle Alliance, behind Napoleon's entire
army ... Farther north, General von Valentini, Bulow's chief of staff, together with
few adjutants, entered Fichermont and encountered a farmer, who was seized, set on
an artillery horse, and made to accompany the Prussians to the edge of the wood.
The ripening grain in the fields was taller than a man, and the red coats of a few
British deserters could be glimpsed ... Valentini pushed on beyond it (Fichermont
wood), dismounted and studied the horizon with telescope. Here and there he
spotted a few French sentries, but none of them thought to look to the right, in his
direction." (- Alessando Barbero)
The French cavalry patrols were attacked and dispersed and at 4 PM all the cavalry
and half of the infantry of Bulow's IV Corps were ready to fall upon the flank of
French army. Several batteries were pushed forward. Captain von Reuter noticed
that the Prussian infantry was in excellent spirit and greeted the gunners with
cheers.
General Bulow writes, "It was half past four in the afternoon, when the head of our
column advanced out of the Frichermont wood. The 15th Brigade under General
von Losthin deployed quickly into battalion columns, throwing out skirmishers. The
brigade's artillery, along with the Reserve Artillery (of Bulow's Corps), followed up
rapidly, seeking to gain the gentle ridge." Hiller's 16th Brigade moved out to the left.
Prussian cannonballs began falling not far from Napoleon, some hit La Belle Alliance
filled with wounded French soldiers. Napoleon turned his telescope in the direction
the shots came from.
General Friedrich von Blow.
Throughout his life Blow was devoted to music,and
his musical ability brought him to the notice of King.
He did not , however , neglect his military studies .
In 1813, Bulow fought against Oudinot in defence of
Berlin, and defeated Marshal Ney at Dennewitz.
I n 1814 Bulow invaded Netherlands and received a
hero's welcome in Holland.For more info click here >
.
The French infantry and lancers
tried to halt the Prussians.
Siborne states, The ground over which Bulows corps was now in the act of
attacking, was highly favorable for the development of a force destined to attack the
flank of an army, the front of which was so completely aux prises with the enemy as
was that of the French at this moment. Nearly at all points it commanded the
position occupied by the French right en potence; the line was remarkably well
appuid on the flanks; and its front was parallel with the enemys main line of
operation.
The first to face the Prussians were three cavalry divisions under Jacquinot, Domon
and Subervie, deployed on the right flank of the army. Subervie's division was
drawn from the I Cavalry Corps, Jacquinot division from Erlon's I Army Corps, and
Domon's division was detached from Vandamme's III Army Corps.
Since the Prussians opened artillery (six batteries of 8 pieces each) fire on Domons
light cavalry division beyond effective range, it is claimed this was for psychological
reasons that made an impression on friend and foe.
Domon attacked by sending regiment of chasseurs while he followed with the
remaining regiments. The Prussian 2nd Silesian Hussars (on the right) and 2nd
Neumark Landwehr (on the left) formed a line by moving through the intervals of
infantry. The two units advanced, supported by the 3rd Silesian Landwehr, and
routed the leading French chasseur regiment. But then they were forced to fall back
by Domons second line. The French pursued them and even attacked several
batteries before Losthins infantry brigade halted them with volleys.
Further charges by Domon's and Subervie's lancers and chasseurs slowed down the
Prussian advance. One of the lancer regiments was led by Colonel Surd who after
the combat at Gennappe had one arm amputated but insisted on maintaining
command of his unit.
The cavalry charges were followed by a skirmish battle between the French and
Prussian infantry.
Shortly before 5 PM Lobaus artillery silenced 3 Prussian guns (from XIV Foot
Battery). The 13th and 14th Brigades and part of the reserve artillery arrived and
deployed behind the 15th and 16th Brigades. By now the Prussian artillery assumed
a formidable appearance. Lobaus artillery was reinforced by 24 guns from the
Guard Artillery (Leggiere Bulow and the campaign of 1815 p 132)
Lobau's VI Corps was outnumbered by the Prussians and to prevent outflanking his
right wing Lobau began retreating. The French infantry tried to halt the Prussians
with a very strong skirmish line but one of the Prussian battalions moved up and
deployed, continually trying to force their way forward.
General Mouton,
Comte de Lobau
.
Allies friendly fire.
General Bulow sent 2 battalions to link up with Wellington and protect his exposed
flank. The F/18th and F/3rd Silesian Landwehr marched toward Frichermont,
Smohain and Papelotte. The Prussian infantry met the Nassauers and opened fire.
The Nassauers replied in kind and the musketry continued for 10 minutes before
both sides realized their mistake. Peter Hofschroer writes, "This symbolic union of
German soldier with German soldier marked the beginning of the end of the battle
for Napoleon."
The leading elements of Ziethen's corps joined Wellington's troops on the left flank.
Major von Gillhausen of Prussian landwehr writes, "Here we linked up with a
Hanoverian and a Scottish battalion."
Harkot continues, "The wavering English mistook the Prussian detachment for the
enemy and fired. As the Prussians did not reply, they soon noticed their error." The
men recognized each other and were shaking hands.
PS.
Meanwhile Grouchy won the battle of Wavre and was preparing to march on
Brussles. According to Houssaye, Marshal Grouchy and his generals heard the
cannonade at Waterloo. Many of them, with Gerard being the boldest and loudest,
soutght to convince Grouchy to march to the sound of the cannon. A heated debate
had no avail, and the marshal ordered the continuation of the advance to Wavre.
Gerard and Vandamme beging Grouchy to march to Warterloo.
~
Bloodbath in Plancenoit.
"If Plancenoit was lost, the battle was lost
if the battle was lost, so was the campaign"
- Mark Adkin
Plancenoit was a large village with a cobblestone street, a church built of stone
and a walled cemetary. According to Siborne the churchyard was elevated above
most of the village and enclosed by a low stone wall strengthened by a steep
outer bank. The terrain was intersected with hedges. All inhabitants fled their
houses yesterday. Lobau sent four battalions to occupy the village.
The French in the village were about to be attacked by the Prussian IV Army
Corps under Bulow. In terms of quality it was not the best of the six Prussian
army corps. Each infantry brigade had only one regular, line infantry regiment,
while the two remaining regiments were the second-rate Landwehr. The cavalry
consisted of five regular regiments and seven of Landwehr. In terms of numbers,
however, the IV Corps was a powerful unit. And it was no weakened by
casuatlies in previous engagements. (The IV Army Corps took no part in the
actions during the beginning of the campaign and was not present at Ligny.)
Bulow with 30 battalions (36-6=30) faced Count Lobau with 15 battalions. During
the battle however Napoleon sent strong reinforcements, 8 battalions of the
Young Guard, and 2 battalions of the Old Guard. The Prussians however
maintained superiority in infantry (35 vs 25 battalions), cavalry, and artillery.
Prussian infantry storming Plancenoit.
Picture by Duncker.
.
Bulow's first attacks on Plancenoit.
The French had brought canons and howitzers into the streets.
Bulow's first attack on Plancenoit village was made with 6 battalions of Hiller's
16th Brigade formed in three assault columns. The right column was made of 2
battalions of 15th Infantry, the center of 2 battalions of 1st Silesian Landwehr, and
the left of 2 battalions of 2nd Silesian Landwehr. The first wave of attackers were
supported with part of 14th Brigade (3 battalions of 11th Infantry and 3 battalions
of 1st Pomeranian Landwehr)
Bulow writes, "The enemy disputed every foot of ground, but not with any great
determination ... Six battalions of the 16th Brigade now came up to assault
Plancenoit. They formed three attack columns next to each other, with 2
battalions of the 14th Brigade ... following up in support. Just as this brigade
formed up behind the 16th, the 13th Brigade under General von Hake arrived
and moved up behind the 15th."
Two battalion columns of 15th Infantry Regiment (of Hiller's 16th Brigade
mentioned above) pushed into the village and then on the high walls of the
cemetary and church. The Prussians found themselves under fire from French
snipers stationed in the houses. A murderous exchange of shots erupted from
distance of no more than 20 paces. The French had brought canons and howitzers
into the streets "where close range blasts of canister would blow away
oppositions as a gale does autumn leaves." The Prussians however pressed
forward and captured 2 cannons and 1 howitzer and several hundred prisoners.
The French counterattacked throwing Hiller's 16th Brigade out of the village. The
brigade rallied under the protection of Ryssel's 14th Brigade. (Bulow is however
wrong claiming that already in this stage they were counterattacked by the Old
Guard.)
Once again Hiller's 16th Brigade attacked Plancenoit.
This time Hiller was supported by Ryssel's 14th Brigade. The 16th Brigade
advanced up the churchyard and forced the French to withdraw. The French
rallied and immediately counterattacked. Both sides suffered very heavy
casualties. The French skirmishers cleared the streets and tried to break out of
Plancenoit but the Prussian hussars chased them back.
Map: battle of Plancenoit, from Hofschroer's book, pp 121-122
.
Young Guard had got into Plancenoit.
The Young Guard had got into Plancenoit and took up positions in the houses
and behind the churchyard walls. They were supported by one or two battalions
of the Old Guard.
the fight rages on in gardens, orchards, streets, and houses; they slaughter
one another with fury (-Kaulback )
Victors and vanquished fired point-blank on each other, struggled hand-to-
hand, slew with the bayonet and with the butt-ends of their muskets. (-
Houssaye)
A whole battalion of Young Guard was decimated in Plancenoits cemetery.
Pirchs advance, however, was stayed at the churchyard where, despite
extraordinary efforts, the Prussians failed to storm the walls. ( Leggiere Bulow
and the campaign of 1815 p 142)
Within 30 min. of fighting the Young Guard (and some elements of Lobau's
corps) forced the Prussians to retreat all the way back to open country. Blucher
was furious, he mounted his horse and rode to the fleeing troops.
Hiller came on with his brigade. He described in detail what happened,
"Overcoming all difficulties and with heavy losses from canister and musketry,
the 15th Infantry and 1st Silesian Landwehr penetrated to the high wall around
the churchyard held by the Young Guard. These two columns succeeded in
capturing a howitzer, 2 cannon, several ammunition wagons and 2 staff officers
along with several hundred men.
The open square around the churchyard was surrounded by houses, from which
the enemy could not be dislodged in spite of our brave attempt. A firefight
continued at 15 to 30 paces which ultimately decimated the Prussian battalions."
It took more hard fighting before the Prussians took the churchyard from the
Young Guard, and then the rest of the village. Only few houses were left in
French hands.
Young Guard in Plancenoit.
.
Battalion of Old Guard Chasseurs
enters the village. Enraged they cut
the throats of their prisoners.
Once the Prussians have captured the churchyard Napoleon was very alarmed.
At each recoil General Barrois of the Young Guard called for help from the Old
Guard. General Morand sent Pelet the following order, "Take your first battalion
to Plancenoit where the Young Guard is being beaten. Support it and hold the
position ... Keep your troops together and well in hand. If you attack the enemy,
employ a single division (two platoons) with bayonets."
Formed in close column by platoons, the II/2nd Chasseurs under Colomban
marched towards Plancenoit. As the veterans neared the village they met General
Duhesme, commander of the Young Guard. Duhesme was wounded on the head
and could only remain in the saddle by being held there by the soldiers of Young
Guard. Wounded was also General Chartrand who told Pelet the situation had
got completely out of hand. Commander of the 3rd Voltigeurs of Young Guard,
was running after his retreating soldiers. These were now ordered to turn around
and follow the II/2nd Chasseurs.
The II/2nd Chasseurs had four companies.
Captain Peschot's company was ordered to fix bayonets and attack the Prussians
who were coming down the street. The enemy was stopped for a moment but
then some Old Guardsmen began to fire their muskets and Peschot lost control of
the situation. The Prussians threw them back.
Other companies of the II/2nd Chasseurs were already engaged; Captain Anguis'
company was sent to the street below to halt the Landwehr who were trying to
outflank the village. Heuillet's company defended themselves in and around the
church, then rushed forward to the edge of the wood.
The chasseurs enraged cut the throats of their prisoners. Pelet stopped them and
detailed the regimental sappers to guard them. The sappers complied with great
reluctance. Pelet, still mounted on his mare, galloped from one group of Young
Guard to another, trying vainly to rally them. The Prussians counter-attacked
and Pelet's men were surrounded in the churchyard. Pelet, stripped to his shirt
and mounted couldn't believe his luck "I saw muskets aiming at me 40 paces
away. I can not imagine how they did not shoot me 20 times."
Prussian line infantry (left) attacking the
Old Guard Chasseurs at Plancenoit.
Picture by Rohling.
.
Battalion of Old Guard Grenadiers
retook the village. Their drummajor
used his mace as a club.
Then came the II/2nd Grenadiers sent by the Emperor and Pelet's chasseurs
formed up with them.
The grenadiers marched with their drums beating, and the Young Guard
followed them with enthusiasm. Together they threw back the stubborn
Prussians. It was a one big sweep. They pursued the enemy with bayonet up to
the positions of artillery. The drum-major of the grenadiers, Stubert, used his
mace as a club.
The crusty General Roguet was no Pelet.
He had threatened with death any grenadier who should bring him a Prussian
prisoner. The two battalions of the Old Guard (II/2nd Grenadiers and II/2nd
Chasseurs) and large group of soldiers of the Yung Guardn hotly pursued the
enemy. Subervie's lancers attacked flank of the fleeing Prussians and inflicted
further losses. This is said that the 2 battalions of Old Guard defeated 14 Prussian
battalions. But one has to remember that most of the Prussian battalions were
already disordered by earlier attacks, counterattacks and street fighting. And at
least half of them were Landwehr.
The triumphant French however found themselves out of village and in the open.
The Prussian artillery opened fire forcing them to fall back. Subervie's dashing
lancers (1st and 2nd Lancer Regiment) forced the gunners to abandon several
batteries.
Meanwhile, to the south, two companies of the 1st Grenadiers, the oldest of the
oldest, were sent to a hill above the river Lasnes, opposite the woods of Virere
and Hubermont, to cover the French right flank. Two companies of 1st Chasseurs
forced their way into the Chantelet Wood.
The remaining companies of 1st Grenadiers and 1st Chasseurs were formed in
battalion squares on either side of Decoster's house near Rossomme Farm. These
few men were Napoleon's last reserve. The end was coming.
Grenadier of Old Guard
.
The level of slaughter in Plancenoit
even surpassed Hougoumont.
Blucher rallied his troops and attacked again. This time it was a decisive Prussian
attack. It was made by Ryssel's 14th and Hiller's 16th Brigade (of Bulow's IV
Crops), and Tippelskirch's 5th Brigade (of Pirch's II Corps) that had just reached
the battlefield. The French resisted with great determination before the Young
Guard was again ejected from Plancenoit.
Every house became like besieged fort. Despite being outnumbered by margin of
2 to 1 the eighteen French battalions (Lobau's 8, Young Guard's 8, and Old
Guard's 2) were able to hold on for one hour. Pelet writes, "Though I could not
collect my men (II/2nd Chaseurs), they were all well under cover and kept up a
murderous fire which contained the enemy ..."
The fighting was absolutely ferocious and the streets were covered with blood.
"The level of slaughter in Plancenoit even surpassed Hougoumont." (Mark Adkin -
"Waterloo Companion")
Commander of the Young Guard, Duhesme, was mortally wounded. General
Barrois was wounded. The commander of VI Army Corps, Lobau, was taken
prisoner. The 1st Tirailleurs suffered 92 % casualties, while the entire Division of
Young Guard suffered 80 % casualties !
"... entire groups of the Young Guard were starting to raise their hands in
surrender, although the Prussians maddened by the stubborn defense the French
put up, were not always disposed to take prisoners." (Barbero - "The Battle" p 245)
Lobaus corps and the Young Guard were slowly giving way to Bulows troops
before they were completely overthrown when part of Ziethens corps attacked
them in the flank. At 8:15 PM Bulows corps broke through the French line and
routed the French.
Prussian infantry storming Plancenoit, by Adolf Northern.
.
"The French were abandoning Plancenoit."
The Prussians emerged from the village
carrying their shakos on their muskets
and singing.
There would be 30 times as many bodies above
ground in the churchyard as were beneath it.
The French were abandoning Plancenoit. The last to leave were the veterans of
Old Guard. They defended the church and cemetery to the very last. The church
was built on a mound some 18 feet high that required men to ascend by steep
steps. The mound was encircled by the cemetery wall which had a ring of trees
planted along its length inside. There would be thirty times as many bodies
above ground in the churchyard as were beneath it. The village went up in flame
and the cries of wounded men trapped in the houses rose above the din of battle.
"In flaming Plancenoit, General Pelet, Golzio, and Colomban with their 600 fur
bonnets - 'all very pale' according to the General - and the Tirailleurs and
Voltigeurs still held out. In the cemetery and the church the 2nd Westphalian
Landwehr and the Pomeranians were shooting it out with the French at point-
blank range when the units, suddenly outflanked, took to their heels. Pelet rallied
his chasseurs around him, but it was so dark they could no longer recognize one
another at 10 paces. The confusion was complete." (Lachoque - "The Anatomy of
Glory" p 489)
Pelet and the Chasseurs of the Old Guard were the last to leave the village. He
collected 250 men and was retreating on the road to Genappe when Bulows
cavalry attacked. Darkness and general confusion aided Pelet in repulsing the
attack. Plancenoit however, was completely in the hands of the Prussians. (
Leggiere Bulow and the campaign of 1815 p 143)
Pelet embraced the eagle shouting to his veterans To me Chasseurs, let us save
the eagle or die around it. Then he formed a tiny square and drove the cavalry
off. The Prussian infantry emerged from the burning remains of village carrying
their shakos on their muskets and singing.
Siborne writes, The vigorous attack which was made by Bulow upon Lobaus
line simultaneously with the last assault on Plancenoit, contributed most
materially to the general and fatal panic which seized upon the whole Frewnch
army. (Siborne History of the War in France and Belgium in 1815 publ. in London
1845, p 396)
The last of the Old Guard Grenadiers in Plancenoit,
picture by Dmitrii Zgonnik of Ukraine.
~
Ziethen linked up with Wellington.
By 5 PM Steinmetz's 1st Brigade (of Ziethen's I Corps) had reached Lasne brook.
Ziethen's chief of staff rode on to the battlefield and met Muffling, who informed
him that the Duke was desperate for his help. A Prussian officer was sent on to
examine the situation. He saw many wounded and stragglers retreating from
Wellington's positions, while the French seemed to be pressing home their
advantage. La Haye Sainte fell.
Ziethen's batteries opened fire. Captain Borowski of II Horse Battery writes, "As
the smoke from the firing was so dense, I could only make out a few positions,
and could not see the enemy columns. At this moment, the English infantry was
forced back somewhat and I was ordered to occupy a ridge to the right."
Wellington had gained invaluable time to reinforce the weakened parts of his
centre by moving in troops from his right and others freed from his left by the
arrival of Ziethen's force. Just as the French Middle Guard was being repulsed by
the British and Netherland troops, Ziethen's advance was breaking through the
French line. The Nassauers joined the advance. The French infantry fell back
without much fight.
British historian, David Chandler stated: Wellingtons army had hardly any
chance of ultimate victory on its own, and the opportune arrival of a growing
flood of Prussian troops on the French right flank undoubtedly swung the
fortunes of the day. (Chandler The Campaigns of Napoleon publ. in London 1967)
Wellington and Blucher at Waterloo.
When before the battle Prince Jerome Bonaparte mentioned about the possibility of
Wellington and Blucher linking up, Napoleon dismissed this as totally impossible.
Napoleon said, "After such a battle as Fleurus [Ligny], the junction between the
allies is impossible for at least 2 days ..."
"That scoundrel Napoleon is with his Guard over there."
The Imperial Guard in 1815 were quite good troops but not superb,
a fact that has not been stressed enough in accounts of this l a s t
offensive.The old camaraderie of the Guard was replaced by suspicion.
The French Guard in 1815 was hastily assembled, lacked uniforms and quality
weapons. They wore shakos, hats, forage caps and woolen berets. The supplies
were scarce and everything was performed in haste and confusion. The Guard
artillery train lacked of military drivers so volunteer civil drivers were accepted
as "3rd class" soldiers.
There was less trust between the Guard and their commanders who abandoned
their Emperor a year ago, this had shaken their faith in their leaders. There had
been even defections among the officers of Middle and Young Guard whom
Napoleon couldn't replace. The old camaraderie of the Guard was replaced by
suspicion.
Less than 30 min before the attack of Napoleon's Guard, a French deserter officer
of horse carabiniers rode up to British 52nd Regiment of Foot yelling 'Vive le Roi
!'
He met the British saying "That scoundrel Napoleon is with his Guard over there.
He will be upon you shortly." According to Ensign Leeke of the British Guard it
was "...a French cuirassier officer came galloping up the slope and down the bank
in our front, near to Sir John Colborne, crying 'Vive l'Roi !'"
Wellington had brought a number of units in from both flanks to support the
troops facing Imperial Guard. Wellington was able to shorten his front line due to
the arrival of Blucher's Prussians. It was Blucher's indirect contribution to the
defeat of French Guard. The troops from the flank were Vivian's cavalry brigade,
Vandeleur's cavalry brigade and other smaller units. Halkett's and Du Platt's
brigades had come forward to support Hougoumont and flank the Imperial
Guard. Chasse's division deployed behind British infantry between Hougoumont
and La Haye Sainte.
Mark Adkin writes, "He [Napoleon] had started the day with an infantry reserve
of 36 infantry battalions ... Keeping Plancenoit [from falling into Prussian hands]
cost him 25 of them... In the event only 8 battalions of fresh troops were
committed to the last attack on Wellington's ridge, of these only 5 were in the
front line." (- Mark Adkin pp 381-2, 390-1)

The advance of Middle Guard at Waterloo.
Article:
Napoleon's Guard vs Wellington's troops.
~
The French army disintegrated. Pursuit.
Wellington wrote to Bathurst on the actions of Prussian army
on Napoleons flank and during pursuit describing them as
the "most decisive."
The French Middle Guard was repulsed by the British and Netherland troops,
Ziethen broke through the French line, and Bulow's men emerged from the
burning remains of Plancenoit carrying their shakos on their muskets and
singing. With the exception of few infantry battalions and several cavalry
regiments, the French army disintegrated, the battle was over. Darkness began to
fall and the number of fugitives rapidly increased. Some were fleeing toward
positions where stood Napoleon's last reserve, 3 battalions of Old Guard and part
of Emperor's baggage.
At 9:30 the Old Forward met with Generals Bulow, Pirch and Ziethen and
received orders to pursue the enemy and give no quarter and to pursue the
French as long as they had a man and horse able to stand.
Gneisenau stated, The causeway presented the appearance of an immense
shipwreck; it was covered with an innumerable quantity of cannon, caissons,
carriages, arms, and wrecks of every kind. Those of the enemy who had
attempted to repose for a time were driven from more than nine bivouacs. it
was moonlight, the whole march was but a continued chase, either in the
cornfields or the houses.
The fugitives were pursued mainly by the Prussian light cavalry.
Only few Netherland and British squadrons participated in the early pursuit.
General Gneissenau placed himself at the head of advance guard and urged his
exhausted soldiers all night long. Immediately after Napoleon left Le Caillou the
Prussians arrived and set fire to the farm and its adjacent barns, burning alive all
wounded Frenchmen who had been brought into these buildings.
Major Keller of Prussian 15th Infantry took possesion of Napoleon's sword,
medals, hat and purse of diamonds. Near Rossomme Lieutenant Jackson of
Wellington's staff saw a large group of Prussian infantrymen bayoneting
wounded French soldiers to death. He was genuinely afraid that they were going
to kill him.
Napoleon's surgeon Dr. Larrey was struck down by Prussian uhlan. The uhlan
robbed him, tied his hands behind his back, and brought to the Prussians.
Approx. 6,000 infantrymen of Reilles corps rallied at nighfall but the Prussian
cavalry dispersed most of them.
Only few companies of 93rd Line Infantry held fast.
At Genappe the French collected some artillery and infantry and entrenched
themselves behind overturned carriages. Horse battery came up and blasted
through the barrier, then two fusilier battalions and the 15th Infantry charged
and broke the French. Continuing the pursuit, Keller (and the uhlans) captured
3,000 French and Napoleons baggage. One Prussian officer wrote that his
soldiers got all Napoleons baggage, even his diamonds. The fusiliers sold 4 or 5
diamonds as large as a pea, or even larger the fusiliers have chosen the finest
as a present to the king. (The diamonds had belonged to Pauline Bonaparte and
were worth 1 million francs.)
Prussian pursuit at Waterloo. Picture by Knotel.
A drummer was mounted on one of the horses of
Napoleon's retinue.
.
Wellington and Blucher decided that the
Prussians alone would continue the pursuit.
Wellington and Blucher decided that the Prussians alone would continue the
pursuit.
This decision is usually explained by citing the exhausted condition of
Wellington's infantry, but Blucher's were surely no less tired. More likely the
choice reflected the plodding management and slowness of movement that
characterized British troops.
"The veteran and illustrious Blucher was foremost in the pursuit.
Various commands were deputed to different officers, so that no retreat should
be left for the convenient escape of the enemy. Among these was a small corps ...
under the direction of Major von Keller; this excellent and able officer, in
pursuance of his instructions arrived at the town of Genappe, at 11 o'clock at
night on the 18th of June. The town was blocked up and barricaded to prevent
the intrusion of the pursuing victors; it was also filled with French soldiers, who
maintained a constant firing of artillery and musketry against the Prussians.
The [Prussian] troops were not to be intimidated, but immediately took the place
by storm; near to the entrance they met with the travelling carriage of Napoleon,
having 6 horses, and the coachman and postilion ready mounted: the major, full
of expectations that Buonaparte was now in his possession, ordered the coachman
and postilion to stop, but as they did not obey the latter was immediately killed,
together with the two foremost horses, and the coachman was cut down by the
major himself.
The marks of the saber still remain upon one of the carriage springs; the gallant
Prussian then forced open one of the doors of the carriage, but in the interval,
Napoleon had escaped by the opposite door; and thus disappointed the
triumphant hopes of that gallant officer. Such, however, was the haste of the Ex-
Emperor, that he dropped his hat, his sword, and his mantle, and they were
afterwards picked up on the road." (- "Waterloo Memoirs", London 1817, Vol II, pp
32-37)
On 19 June Blucher sent off three corps in pursuit of the French army. They
moved off at daybreak marching until evening. Ziethen's I Army Corps reached
Charleroi. Wellington's troops followed up slowly and bivouacked around
Nivelles. Wellington himself had gone to his headquarters near Waterloo and
then to Brussels.
Though Blucher had taken many stragglers prisoner during the 19th, he had no
precise information on the whereabouts of the French army. Blucher wrote to
Muffling, "I beseech Your Excellency to do everything possible to ensure that the
English army moves to Mons or Binche tomorrow, for we have to move quickly
now to take full advantage of the terror of the lost battle."
Napoleon spent some time on 19 June rallying the fugitives arriving at
Philippeville. Laon was designated the ralyying point. Meanwhile Grouchy
reached Namur. Pirch's Prussians attacked but after losing 44 officers and 1,272
men killed and wounded, they fell back. Grouchy escaped from the trap and kept
his troops in good order. (Hofschroer - "1815: The Waterloo Campaign. The German
Victory.")
Napoleon's carriage brought to London.
After its capture by Major von Keller, William Bullock acquired the carriage.
I t aroused the curiosity of the English people and they flocked to see items
that were once His . The exhibit was a tremendous success earning Bullock
35,000 pounds . The carriage was exhibited for many years in London at
the famous Madame Tussaud's waxwork museum. (Ext.link)
It was never presented in Prussia, the country of Major von Keller.
.
Allies armies enetered France.
Wellington's army followed the Prussians and entered France on 21 June. While
Wellington's troops were to march through what they were told to regard as
friendly territory, Blucher intended to blaze a trail of destruction all the way to
Paris !
Blucher also suggested to Wellington that he send his Dutch and Belgian cavalry
as a raiding force to cut Napoleon's line of communication with Paris. The
similarity of uniform between the Netherlanders and the French together with
their familiarity with the French language could thus be used to great advantage.
Grouchy did not want his troops to mix with the broken remnants of Napoleon's
army, now led by Marshal Soult. Soult resigned as Napoleon's chief-of-staff.
Davout suggested Grouchy for the position, but he declined. However, he did
take over supreme command of the army for the moment. Lacking leadership,
large numbers of men were deserting from the army. On arrival in Laon there
were only 25,000 men with 30 guns. Two fresh batteries of the Young Guard
arrived.
.
"We have no more Emperor ..."
"Over 6,000 men answered the roll in the foot Guard on the 24th, including
around 5,000 grenadiers and chasseurs and about 1,100 tirailleurs and voltigeurs.
... Driving the stragglers before them, the troops marched to Soissons, the 1st
Chasseurs forming the rear-guard. The troops were marching at a good pace
when beyond Etouvelles, they were ordered to halt and assemble ... Soult
dismounted. In civilian clothes ... A 100 paces from the grenadiers he began
walking up and down with his hand behind his back, like the Emperor. After an
hour had passed he drew from his pocket a paper which his aides copied and
read to the battalions ... " (Lachoque - "The Anatomy of Glory" p 492)
It was a letter from their beloved Emperor.
He left the army and decided to abdicate.
The last words were lost in the din of a great roar of protest.
Crying 'Treason !' the veterans broke ranks, shouting and hurling imprecations. It
was not true - not a second abdication ! They jeered at their officers and booed the
generals. 'Say that again and you're dead !' cried a grenadier, pointing his musket
at a general who had threatened to have him shot. Some broke their muskets.
Others knocked down their officers and NCOs and set out fothwith for Paris.
Moton-Duvernet urged them to return to duty. 'To fight for whom ?' they asked.
'We have no more Emperor ..."
Finally the crusty General Roguet took command of the foot Guard and restored
discipline. The initial fury was followed by a mournful resignation. HE was gone.
.
Race to Paris.
The French asked for armistice but Blucher
refused unless Npaoleon was surrendered to HIM.
Anxious to strengthen Prussia's hand at the peace table, Blucher was already
thinking what effects his advance on Paris might have and hoping to reach it
before Wellington. Wellington's army was far to the rear and Blucher was not
willing to wait for his ally.
Napoleon had appointed Marshal Davout as Governor of Paris and supreme
commander of the National Guard. The Provisional Government confirmed
Davout as supreme commander of the army but put General Durosnel in charge
of the National Guard. A force of 65,000 men and 300 guns were effectively
collected to defend Paris. An additional 17,000 veterans augmented the
Parisian defenses. (Leggiere Bulow and the campaign of 1815 p 162)
On the 25th, Blucher received a letter from the commissioners of the French
parliament that revealed Napoleons abdication. The French asked for an
armistice, but the Old Forward refused unless Npaoleon was surrendered to him !
Blucher, eager to capture the Emperor, received intelligence on the 28th that
Napoleon was at Malmaison. The Old Forward ordered Majr Colomb with the 8th
Hussars and 2 battalions to secure the bridge to Chatou that leads to Malmaison.
Marshal Davout (see picture -->) however, had the bridge blown.
:-)
On June 30th the Prussians met strong French force near
Aubervilliers. The Prussians were halted by canal and French
artillery drawn up beyond it. Several troops of Young Guard
were rushed to la Villette and were now commanded by Davout
in person.
The Prussian and French skirmishers fired on each other all
afternoon. With the support of cavalry the Prussians gained
some ground before being thrown back. Although Ziethen received Blucher's
orders before midnight, he was concerned about making a night attack.
Blucher's army executed their move around the west of Paris to its relatively
undefended south where they planned to enter the city. Thurn und Taxis writes,
"It is probable that the French did not anticipate this very bold move in which we
gave up our basis of operations." Wellington's army relieved the Prussians on the
northern front of Paris on 2nd July. Three British light companies moved to
Aubervilliers and under fire from French skirmishers relieved the Prussian
outposts. Local armistice however broke the fighting (mostly long range musket
fire). Dr. Drude write, "Almost everywhere was deserted and had been
plundered by both the Prussians and the English ... Around noon, we heard
firing coming from Montmartre to the west, where the Prussians were having an
encounter with the French."
Factions within the French ruling circles made overtures towards the Allies,
hoping to attain a ceasefire. Blucher rejected their requests. The French also
approached Wellington from whom they received a more favourable hearing.
General Revest offering the surrender of Paris, requested a cease-fire.
.
Allies in Paris. End of war.
The honour of entering Paris fell to
the Prussian I Army Corps under Ziethen.
The French troops marched out of Paris between 5th and 11th July. Meanwhile
Marshal Massena maintained order in the city. On 6th July General Ziethen
deployed three battalions, one squadron and one battery to each of the 11 gates to
Paris on the left bank of the Seine. He also detached one cavalry regiment from
each army corps to restore order in the rear of the army.
Wellington wrote to Blucher expressing his concerns as to Blucher's wish to billet
the Prussian troops on the inhabitants of the city. Wellington suggested that,
because the low pay of the Prussian officers and soldiers meant they could not
afford Paris prices, they should instead draw their supplies from the magazines.
This would of course not be necessary for the British troops as they enjoyed much
higher pay. Blucher however disagreed, the French billeted their troops in every
Prussian city, incl. Berlin, during their occupation of Prussia. Blucher got his way.
On 7th July the honour of entering Paris fell to Prussian I Army Corps under
Ziethen.
This splendid formation had suffered the first casualties in this campaign when
hostilities opened on 15 June; Ziethen had suffered the heaviest casualties at
Ligny, Ziethen's arrival on Wellington's left at Waterloo allowed Wellington to
move men from that flank to save his centre from crumbling. Ziethen also
marched the hardest to Paris.
Wellington did not move any large bodies of troops into the city itself, dut did
have 20,000 men set up camp in the Bois de Boulogne on 7th July. Only a small
detachment camped on the Champs-Elysees.
.
Execution of Marshal Ney.
"Fire straight at my heart."
When Napoleon was dethroned, Marshal Michel Ney, the hero of Waterloo, was
arrested. Ney was one of the most popular of Napoleon's marshals, affectionately
known to his troops as le Rougeaud ("ginger") for the color of his hair. During the
battle of Waterloo, Ney, at the front of his men as usual, had 5 horses shot from
beneath him. With his face blackened by powder from the battle, Ney attempted
to rally one last charge, shouting, Come and see how a marshal of France can
die! But he survived.
Now Ney was tried, condemned, and was executed by firing squad.
He refused to wear a blindfold and said:
"Soldiers,
when I give the command to fire,
fire straight at my heart.
Wait for the order.
It will be my last to you."
Ney's execution by the French royalists was an example intended for other
marshals, many of whom were eventually exonerated by the Bourbons. One of
the legends of Ney was that he had managed to escape to the United States. For
more info read our article:
"Bonapartist refugees in America".
Execution of Marshal Ney
~
Casualties at Waterloo.
When after the battle Wellington dismounted
and gave his charger a firm pat on the croup,
the horse kicked out, almost scoring a direct hit
on his master's groin and resulting in the last
casualty of the day. - Alessandro Barbero
According to historian Allessandro Barbero, with rare exceptions the wounded men
who died after the battle do not seem to have been included in these totals, nor have
any reliable data on the subject been published, except in regard to the British
troops. Consequently, if these are excluded, at Waterloo, during the day, statistics
suggest that
207 officers from Napoleon's army were dead or missing
218 from Wellington's army
61 from Blucher's army
Therefore, based on traditional ratios of officers to enlisted men, it seems legitimate
to wonder whether the losses suffered by the French might even have been inferior
to those of Wellington and Blucher.
The most reliable data for Wellington's army list its losses as
3,500 dead
10,200 wounded
3,300 missing
Some of the missing later returned,
while others were declared dead.
TOTAL : 17,000
Blucher's casualties amounted to
1,200 dead
4,400 wounded
1,400 missing
TOTAL : 7,000
Wellington's and Blucher's losses together amounted to 24,000 killed, wounded, and
missing.
Napoleon's casualties: 17,800-25,000 killed, wounded, and missing.
There were also 10,000-15,000 who deserted the French ranks after battle and
simply went home.
On another hand, most of the British, German and Netherland deserters returned to
their victorious regiments after the battle.
English authors propose much higher numbers for the French dead and wounded,
arguing that the casualties suffered by Napoleon must have been vastly superior to
those of the British; however, the available data, which relate to the officers (see
above), would lead one to question this argument.
Allies took thousands of prisoners, some during the battle and some after, during
the pursuit. There were also many Allies prisoners in French captivity.
Lieutenant Waymouth of the British 2nd Life Guards received a saber blow from a
cuirassier, was dragged from his horse and hauled away as a prisoner. He remained
a prisoner in enemy hands for several weeks after Waterloo. Captain Irby of the 2nd
Life Guards was captured and taken away. There were also hundreds of
Hannoverian, Brunswick, Scottish and English infantrymen in French captivity.
Some were rescued in the end of battle and some were not.
Amost certainly some of the prisoners were in fact massacred in cold blood. For
example Napoleon's aide-de-camp Gourgaud was escorting a British heavy
dragoon to the rear when an infantry NCO stepped out of formation, struck the big
man down with the butt of his musket, and killed him with bayonet thrusts before
Gourgaud had time to stop him.
After the battle.
"Amazingly, at Waterloo the French had lost only 2 eagles, and those early in the
battle to English cavalry." By contrast, they had taken either 4 or 6 colors - the
number naturally is much disputed - from Wellington's army." - John Elting
"During the charges, the French cavalry captured several colors. The number is
given as six by Thiers (Le Consulat et L'Empire) and by General Regnault. General
Delort, in his account, refers to an English color being seized by a quartermnaster-
sergeant of the 9th Cuirassiers, and that of a battalion of the KGL by Captain Klein
de Kleinenberg of the Guard Chasseurs. The regimental history of the 10th
Cuirassiers mentions as English standard captured by Sergeant Gautier." (Lachouque
- "Waterloo" p 176)
There are known at least names of three troopers who captured the Allies Colors:
- one seized by Marechal de Logis Gauthier (Gautier) of the 10th Cuirassier
Regiment
- one by Fourier Palau of the 9th Cuirassier Regiment
- one by unknown cuirassier of the 8th Cuirassier Regiment [He captured the Color
of the British 69th Foot Regiment, GdD Kellermann to MdE Davout, 24th June 1815,
Arch.Serv.Hist.]
- one by Capitaine Klein de Kleinenberg from the Chasseurs of the Guard [he
captured one Color of the KGL, Lefebvre-Desnouettes to Drouot, 23rd June 1815,
Arch. Serv.Hist.]
During battle the captured colors were brought to and deposited in the farm of Le
Caillou, farmhouse Napoleon had been using for his headquarters. Unfortunately
during the retreat after battle the trophies were left there.
It sounds almost unbelievable that during the pursuit, the Prussians failed to
capture even single French Color, a sign that, Napoleon's army did not in fact
disintegrate as much as some British and Prussian sources claimed.
French cuirassiers with captured British colors
at Waterloo. Picture by Chaperon.
The battle is over and the Napoleonic Wars are over.
Picture by John Atkinson.
~
Fortress of Mauneuge
Fortress War after Waterloo.
The fortress war ended with Blucher
having taken 10 French fortresses.
Although the outcome of the campaign had been decided at Ligny and Waterloo,
and after the signing of the Convention of Paris peace talks were in hand, the
fortress war continued for some time in France. According to Peter Hofschroer,
Wellington and Blucher had agreed on 23 June (few days after Waterloo) that the
fortresses west of Sambre would be dealt with by Wellington's troops, and the
fortresses east of that river by the Prussians.
The King of Prussia appointed Prinz August of Prussia to carry out the task of
commanding the siege operations conducted by the forces under Prussian
command. He was allowed to determine which fortress he was to besiege, in
what order, and in what manner. The troops he had available for this were the II
Army Corps, the North German Federal Army Corps, and the garrison of
Luxembourg. The Prussians had no siege equipment at their disposal and little
ammunition for the field artillery. Oberst (Colonel) von Ploosen, formerly an
engineer officer in the French army, was appointed chief engineer officer for the
sieges. Additional engineer officers were made available in dribs and drabs, and
two companies of the Mansfeld Pioneer Battalion, whose men were miners, were
brought up in waggons. There was also number of infantry allocated to the Field
Pioneer Companies.
Maubeuge was the
strongest and most
significant fortress on
Sambre and was
commanded by seasoned
General Latour-Maubourg.
The garrison consisted of
3,000 men (mostly National
Guard) and 80 heavy
cannons. The besieging
Prussians had 7,700
infantry, 960 cavalry, 500
artillerymen, and 546
engineers. Prinz August
decided to begin the
bombardement as soon as
possible. Eight 12pdrs
cannons were deployed on
the left bank of Sambre, 14
7pdr howitzers were placed behind the lines of the old fortified camp, and 4
10pdr howitzers were deployed further to the west, just behind the old camp. The
artillery opened fire in the morning on the 29 June.
Meanwhile numerous requests were sent to Wellington to send his siege train of
38 heavy guns under Colonel Dixon. This finally arrived on 8 July.
On 9 July the French fired 150pdr (!!!) mortar bombs from the fortress, but these
had no effect.
For several days there was exchange of musket and artillery fire. Finally on 11
July the French commandant hoisted the white flag, requesting terms of
capitulation. Under these terms he was permitted to leave the fortress with the
honors of war, taking along 150 line troops and 2 cannons. The National Guard
was dismissed.
The fortress war ended with Blucher having taken 10 fortresses with several
hundred guns and large quantities of ammunition and powder. The breaking of
the French will to resist in the northern belt was largely a Prussian achievement
with Wellington's troops only having played a minor role.
Wellington appointed Prins Frederik of the Netherlands to carry out the task of
commanding the siege operations conducted by the forces under Wellington's
command. For this task Frederik used Stedman's Netherland Infantry Division,
the Indian Brigade, Belgian 5th Light Dragoons, and Ghigny's Cavalry Brigade.
(Hofschroer - "1815: The Waterloo Campaign. The German Victory." publ. by Greenhill
Books, UK)
Surrender of French fortress of Huningue to the Austrians. 1815.
Sources and Links.
Lachouque - "Waterloo"
Barbero - "The Battle"
Adkin - "Waterloo Companion"
Austin - "1815: The Return of Napoleon"
Chandler - "Waterloo - the Hundred Days"
Battle of Quatre Bras >
Battle of Ligny, 1815 >
Napoleon's Strategy and Tactics : Victories and Defeats : Principles of War
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/Napoleon_tactics.htm[2012-05-21 12:46:37]
Napoleon's Strategy and Tactics
"Read over and over again the campaigns of
Alexander , Hannibal , Caesar , Gustavus ,
Turenne , and Frederic the Great . This is
the only way to become a great general ... "
Napoleon, "this once despotic sovereign of the battlefield ,
in whose presence but few generals ventured to maneuver,
striving only to ward off his blows ... "
- Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii
Introduction.
Napoleon's strategy.
- - - - - Staff work
- - - - - Five principles guiding
- - - - - the development of his plans
- - - - - Rapidity of movements.
- - - - - Two favorite strategies
Three brilliant campaigns.
- - - - - Italian Campaign 1796
- - - - - Ulm-Austerlitz Campaign 1805
- - - - - Auerstadt-Jena Campaign 1806
- - - - - - - -
Napoleon's battle tactics.
.
.
His mistakes and defeats.
.
.
Jomini and Clausewitz
on Napoleon.
Napoleon never entrenched, and never hid behind ridges,
it was the maxim of the war - - - - - " where is the enemy ? "
"Let us go and fight him !"
Introduction.
"Why,in this age of nuclear weapons and guided missiles
should the student of military affairs be concerned with
the campaigns of Napoleon?" -Col.John Elting,US Army
Napoleon's greatness as a commander and leader was evident virtually from the start of his
remarkable career. Victory followed upon victory for over a decade. Success in the field, and in
supporting the right political faction at the right moment, brought him a generalship at 24 and
command of the Army of Italy at 26.
Of the French Republic's 13 field armies, the Army in Italy was the most neglected. It was in
horrible condition when Bonaparte arrived. Bonaparte's army lacked sufficient cavalry and
artillery and his infantry was weakened by detachments sent to guard the coast against British
and Sardinian navies. The French soldiers were chronically unpaid and short of everything:
uniforms, shoes, greatcoats, bayonets, ammunition etc. etc. They kept themselves alive by
plundering the countryside. In Italy the outlook for France seemed desperate. With Bonaparte's
arrival everything changed. General Sir Archibald P. Wavell writes, "If you discover how ...
[Bonaparte] inspired a ragged, mutinous, half-starved army and made it fight as it did, how he
dominated and controlled generals older and more experienced than himself, then you will
have learnt something."
Young Bonaparte's campaign in Italy was a masterpiece.
"In a fortnight he was ready for the field and made his first
move . Five days later he had already 4 times defeated the
Austrians . Then he turned upon the Sardinians , who in
another 5 days were in helpless retreat on Turin." - - - - - -
Wilkinson, Spenser - "The French army before Napoleon ;
lectures delivered before the University of Oxford" p 9 -10
From 1796, when he assumed his first independent military command, until 1809, Napoleon
displayed an astonishing near-invincibility in battle and an equally astounding ability to use
that battlefield success to compel his enemies to grant him his political objectives. A dazzled
Clausewitz (famous military historian and military theorist) had good reason to call Napoleon
the "god of war."
Yet if Napoleon's genius was obvious, his method was not.
Nor was he particularly helpful in the matter. Napoleon committed to paper neither the
principles that guided his conduct of operations nor the techniques that he employed to
implement those principles. "As a result, even before his ambitions led him to ultimate destiny,
military commentators undertook the difficult task of explaining his ways of war." (- Albert
Nofi)
Although Napoleon played a major role in the history and development of the military art he
was no great innovator as a soldier. In developing his art of war, he modified and applied the
ideas he found in the writings of 18th-century military theorists and commanders.
"He distrusted novel ideas, disbanding the balloon companies inherited from the armies of the
Revolution and rejecting Roger Fulton's offer of submarines (ext. link) and naval mines. His
genius was essentially practical, and his military concepts evolved from the close study of
earlier commanders, particularly Frederick the Great. He made the fullest use of the ideas of his
predecessors and breathed life into them." (David Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic wars" p
18)
Robert Fulton , American inventor , seeks to
interest Napoleon Bonaparte in his submarine.
According to English military historian, L Petre, Napoleon's genius was not that of a creator.
Indeed, he made few practical reforms or innovations in the military art. His talents lay
elsewhere, in the strategic and administrative areas of war. Napoleon had the ability to
visualize with great clarity the military situation confronting him and to determine the most
profitable course of action. He could conceive the most remarkably bold undertakings, and
then execute them, making full use of the considerable abilities of the reformed French army.
He developed an aggressive strategic style based largely on de Bourcet's proposals. And he
used the Republic as a model in his ability to tap the ultimate resources of France, frequently
stamping whole new armies out of the ground in the face if disaster. Thus Napoleon's genius
lay in the fact that he saw the ways in which all of the innovations of the late 18th century
could be orchestrated into a virtually invincible military system.
Napoleon took on all of Europe and gave
everyone a pretty good run for the money.
Napoleon is credited with being great tactician and a military genius.
His campaigns formed the basic of military education throughout the western world. (By
"western world" I mean western and central Europe, Australia, and northern America). A lot of
the military thinking is still influenced by the great Frenchman. In military academies around
the World, including the famous West Point, USA, students were taught French language so
that they might be able to read books on Napoleon's strategy and tactics. Majority of European
and American Civil War generals copied the methods of Napoleon with various success.
"I used to say of him (Napoleon) that his presence
on the field made the difference of 40,000 men. "
- Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
Wellington was extremally unwilling to stand on his
own against Napoleon. One could almost venture to
say that the Duke was running scared of Napoleon -
- and thats why he not wanted to face him alone at
Waterloo.
Even in the years of defeat Napoleon proved a resorceful, imaginative, and unpredictable
commander. "His enemies could not match his skills nor those of his armies. Their victories
were due more to overwhelming numbers than to the talents of their generals." (- Loraine Petre)
For example:
- in 1813 at Leipzig, 250,000-350,000 Allies troops (Russians, Austrians, Prussians and
Swedes) commanded by Schwarzenberg, Barclay de Tolly, Bennigsen, Bernadotte and Blucher,
defeated Napoleon with 175,000-200,000 troops.
- in 1814 at La Rothiere, 50,000-55,000 Allies troops (Russians, Austrians, and Germans) under
Blucher and Barclay de Tolly defeated Napoleon with 40,000-45,000 troops.
- in 1815 at Waterloo, 100,000-120,000 Allies troops (68,000 Wellington's British, German, and
Netherland troops and 32,000-52,000 Blucher's Prussians) defeated Napoleon with 70,000-75,000
men.
Napoleon in Russia.
Few, if any, commanders, before or since, fought more wars and battles under more varied
conditions of weather, terrain, and climate, and against a greater variety of enemies than the
French Emperor.
- campaign in the snow covered, vast plains of Russia (summer, fall, and winter)
- campaigns in central and western Europe (Germany, France, Poland)
- campaigns in the desert-like Egypt and Syria
- campaigns in mountainous Italy and Spain
Enemies:
- Austrians (regulars and landwehr)
- Prussians (regulars and landwehr)
- Piedmontese and Sardinians (regulars)
- Swedes and Brits (land forces and navies)
- Spaniards and Portuguese (regulars and guerillas)
- Russians (regulars and Cossacks, Bashkirs, Kalmuks)
- French royalists
Napoleon in Egypt.
Napoleon's understanding of mass warfare and his success in raising, organizing, and
equipping mass armies revolutionized the conduct of war and marked the origin of modern
warfare.
John Elting, however, ask why in this age of nuclear weapons and guided missiles, should the
student of military affairs be concerned with the campaigns of Napoleon ?
"A simple answer would be: for historical or professional background. But there are more
compelling reasons. ... Gigantic operations of huge forces, such as were undertaken on World
War II, are no longer feasible. Dispersion of forces and logistical facilities is essential to avoid
appalling casualties and massive destruction. ... Over-all success in military ground operations
will be dependent upon the aggregate of the individual tactical successes and failures of basic
units, operating virtually independently. Such basic units must be of moderate size, highly
mobile, compact and powerful armed, self-sustaining, and bravely led - precisely the attributes
that characterized a typical Napoleonic force. ...
It matters not whether tactical nuclear weapons would or would not be used; the mere threat
posed by their existence dictates a corresponding reorganization of forces and modification of
tactics. There is no assurance that Napoleon's advice would not be taken literally; "It is principle
of war that when thunderbolts are available, they should be used in place of cannon." ... The
conduct of war is an art based on ageless fundamental concepts that have remained valid
irrespective of the prevailling means and methods of warfare. ...
The Emperor did not imply that one must seek to memorize all the details of the campaigns of
great captains of past wars. No two battles or campaigns have ever been exactly the same.
Many fluctuating factors exert their influences; weather and terrain conditions tactics,
weapons,transportation facilities, training, morale, and leadership. The specific nature of all
these factors is pertinent in a military study, but the subject of paramount importance is the
skill with which the leader wielded the means available and exploited the victory, or,
conversely, how through ineptitude, poor judgement, or other deficiencies he lost opportunities
or suffered defeat."
"Strategy is the art of making use of time and space."
- Napoleon
Move fast and hit them hard.
The fast moving US troops in 21st century.
"Hell's Comin' with Me" by Michael Harris.
~
Napoleon's strategy.
"Frederician warfare - with its emphasis on pisition
maneuver, and attrition - differed fundamentally
from Napoleon's emphasis on a war of annihilation."
Michael Leggiere - "Napoleon and Berlin" p 13
In the 16th and 17th century and for much of 18th as well the conduct of war was rather formal
and stylized. Limited war for limited objectives was the rule. It was the sport of the kings,
carefully calculated undertaking designed to secure relatively modest gains at minimal cost.
Armies acquired lengthy and clumsy logistical trains.
The art of fortifications rose to remarkable level, resulting in the proliferation of fortified places
for defense and for the protection of the vulnerable lines of supply, and in the necessity of
dragging heavy siege guns about. Armies themselves became more skilled, necessitating long
years of meticulous and expensive training and maintenance. The net result was the tempo at
which was conducted slowed.
Bold strategic strokes were unusual. Sieges became the norm. "Washington, Marlborough,
Prince Eugene, Prussia's Frederick the Great, and Marshal Saxe all knew how to fight a battle
when necessary. But even these unusually able commanders did so relatively rarely." (- Loraine
Petre)
The age that immediately followed Frederick the Great chose to imitate his caution rather than
his aim.Military theory was characterized by ideas of victory without battle, maneuvering for
position, a system of lines and angles of operation. Cunning tricks and artifices replaced the
aim to destroy enemies. Great emphasis was put on terrain and the occupation of key
geographic points.
Achtung ! Frederick the Great's Prussian stalwarts are coming !
Prussia fought Austria to the south, Russia to the east, France to the west and Sweden to the north.
He used his central position to concentrate against individual armies of the enemy before they could
be reinforced by others. His battles were very bloody. The age that immediately followed Frederick
the Great chose to imitate his caution rather than his aim.Military theory was characterized by ideas
of victory without battle, maneuvering for position, a system of lines and angles of operation.
Cunning tricks and artifices replaced the aim to destroy enemies.
During the French Revolution armies grew rapidly in size. This necessitated dividing the army
first into divisions and later into corps. Although the French corps varied in size, they all
shared one thing: each was a balanced, all-arm force of infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineers
and staff. It was in fact a self-reliant miniature army able to take on much stronger enemy for a
limited time.
The rigid line formations of well-trained but few troops firing volleys gave way to infantry
fighting in fast moving battalion columns and skirmish lines. Napoleon took advantage of these
developments to pursue a "strategy of annihilation" that cared little for the mathematical
perfection of the geometric strategy. He invariably sought to achieve decision in battle, with the
sole aim of utterly destroying his opponent.
Napoleon used as little force as possible against non-critical objectives.
"There are in Europe many good generals," he declared in 1797, "but they see too many things
at once. I see only one thing, namely the enemys main body. I try to crush it, confident that
secondary matters will then settle themselves." According to David Chandler here lies the
central theme, of Napoleons concept of warfare.
In order to concentrate superior combat strength in one place, economy of force must be
exercised in other places. Economy of force requires the acceptance of prudent risks in selected
areas to achieve superiority at the point of decision.
One account has it that Napoleon allowed a subordinate to draw up a plan for the disposition
of his troops. Not knowing what the Emperor wanted, the subordinate distributed the forces
equally in neat little groups along the border. On seeing it Napolean remarked "Very pretty,
but what do you expect them to do? Collect customs duties?". :-)
Napoleon and his battle - hardened marshals and generals .
Grouchy was wounded 23 times in 25 years , Oudinot 34 times.
Lannes took 10 wounds (killed in battle). Picture by Meissonier.
.
Napoleon's staff.
The staff provided the administrative and logistical
support, that he found necessary to make his army
operate over long distances and in little known parts
of Europe. His army was able to operate across the
continent with great easy and speed.
A Ministry of War handled the "civil" functions of the army, such as conscription, pay, and
record keeping. Napoleon himself headed Grand-Quartier-General, which actually supervised
the army. Under him was his personal staff, La Maison, which included an operational
headquarters, a traveling cabinet of France, and the Bureau Topographique, his intelligence and
planning staff. The two principal subordinate agencies of G-Q-G were the General
Commissariat of Army Stores, which supervised all types of supply, and General Headquarters
of the Army, under Marshal Berthier.
Berthier directed the "General Staff", which had several distinct sections and departments, each
dealing with a well defined area of responsibility, such as troop movements and intelligence,
personnel and records, and legal affairs, plus special staffs for each arm of service.
The staff of Napoleon's army provided the administrative, logistical and communications
support that Napoleon found necessary to make his army operate over long distances and in
little known territories. Napoleon's army was able to operate across Europe with great easy and
speed. For example in 1796 Napoleon's army dropped out of the clouds of Switzerland, passed
through terrain thought impassable for an army, to strike and destroy the enemy in Italy. In
1805 Napoleon's army flew across northern France at speeds unimaginable to the rest of
Europe's army commanders. In 1814 Napoleon's found enemy scattered armies along the road
to Paris, with none of them being within supporting distance of any other. This led Napoleon's
four stunning victories at Champaubert, Montmirail, Chatteu Thierry and Vauchamps.
The staff consisted of several "divisions":
1st - handled troop movements, orders of the day, correspondence, etc.
2nd - supply, police, hospitals and headquarters administration
3rd - recruiting, prisoners of war, deserters, and military justice
4th - supervising the army's lengthening line of communications
5th - reconnaissance, correspondence with fortress commanders etc.
In 1812 the chief of staff had 9 aides , a General Staff with 5 generals, 11 adjutants and 50
supporting officers. There were also geographical engineers and cartographers, 19 officers of
military administration, war commissioners, inspectors of reviews, and artillery staff.
The professionalism of Napoleon's staff shortly before the battle of Austerlitz contrasted
sharply with the confusion prevailing in the Russian and Austrian staffs. Napoleon had
produced a plan of battle well in advance and his staff had issued written orders the evening
before, in the Russian and Austrian headquarters the plan had not been completed until the
night of DEcember 1st and "the column commanders had only learned of the details after
midnight. "Under such circumstances, confusion was inevitable." (Goetz - "1805: Austerlitz" pp
120-121)

According to John Elting Napoleon and his staff
were well served by the first semaphore telegraph
Chappe designed a new semaphore telegraph . It consisted of
a tower, from which rose a 30-foot mast with movable wooden
crosspiece pivoted at its top. The telegraph looked like a large
"T" and was painted black for better visibility. Messages were
sent 1 letter at a time . In good weather one sign could be sent
for 150miles in 5 min! Napoleon made good use ofthe Chappe
telegraph in his invasion of Italy . The Swedes and British also
had built their own telegraphs , but these were slower and less
advanced technologically. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Napoleon's staff organization was quite efficient, but had certain limitations, the principal ones
being Napoleon and Berthier themselves. Having worked so long together, the two became
incapable of working efficiently with anyone else. Napoleon had but utter a few words for
Berthier to comprehend his meaning and frame pages of clear, accurate orders. No one could
do that.
In effect, Napoleon's staff organization was a personal staff, rather than a genuine general staff.
A further problem was that Napoleon's staff tended to grow, for he was not merely running his
army, but all the other armies of France and the government as well. Nevertheless, the French
example was far superior to any other in Europe and began to be adopted rather widely, by
many other countries. In Prussia certain refinements were introduced, increasing specialization
and laying the foundations fore the evolution of modern military staff.
"Like Frederick the Great, Napoleon was sovereign, commander-in-chief, and chief-of-staff; his
subordinates viewed strategy as the emperor's domain. Pride and jealousy among the corps
commanders also hindered the coordination of French forces, particularly in Iberia and Russia.
Although hundreds or even thousands of miles from the area of operations, the emperor had to
issue detailed orders and instructions to his subordinates.
Napoleon's inability to grasp the concept of a competent General Staff system contributed to
the eventual breakdown of the French command structure. This defficency became acute when
the number of forces and theaters of war multiplied between 1808 and 1813." (Leggiere -
"Napoleon and Berlin" p 12)
"Napoleon was, as both Emperor and Commander in Chief, responsible to no one, called no
councils of war and was able, on the basis of a general plan of operations, to direct campaigns
as well as issue orders for specific engagements. His headquarters was, therefore, geared
entirely to Napoleon personally - not to the commander, regardless of who that might be."
(Riley - "Napoleon as a general" p 25)
Louis Alexandre Berthier, Napoleon's chief of staff.
In 1780 Bertheir went to America , and on his return ,
having attained the rank of colonel ,he was employed
in various staff posts . Berthier ' s incredible accuracy
combined with his mastery of detail made him the ---
ideal chief of staff to commander like Napoleon . The
manner of his death in 1815 is uncertain;according to
some accounts he was assassinated , others say that ,
maddened by the sight of Russian army marching to
invade France, he threw himself from his window &
was killed.
.
Five principles guiding
the development of his plans.
Before every campaign Napoleon considered all possible options.
The Emperor wrote, "There is no man more pusillanimous than I when I am planning a
campaign. I purposely exaggerate all the dangers and all the calamities that the circumstances
make possible. I am in a thoroughly painful state of agitation. This does not keep me from
looking quite serene in front of my entourage; I am like an unmarried girl laboring with child."
In the months and weeks before operations actually commenced he would begin to collect
information. In addition to reading an enormous number and variety of books bearing on the
enemy and the theater of war, he studied the copious volumes of intelligence reports
forwarded by the agents that he had scattered throughout Europe. He would pursue works of
polirical history, accounts of the state of roads and bridges, reportss on the politicians and
generals, and even studied local patterns of food stockpiling and distribution.
Napoleon's 5 principles to guide the development of his plans
designed to hasten the attainment of victory :

The primary objective is the destruction of the enemy ' s armies
or the main army. That done, any remaining problems could be
easily solved.
If the enemy did not want to risk a battle, they might be forced
to do so by a threat to their capital city.

All forces must concentrate on the task of attaining the objective.

Operations must be designed to surprise and confuse the enemy.
Always, he sought to seize and keep the initiative, to impose his
will on the enemy.

Every effort must be made to render the enemy helpless through
the severance of his lines of supply, communications, and retreat.
His favorite movement was to envelop one of the enemy's army's
flanks and threaten its rear and communications, forcing it either
to retire hurriedly or to turn and fight at a disadvantage.

The security of French forces must be guarded to prevent surprise.
Napoleon and his marshals;
Murat, Ney, Davout, Bernadotte and Berthier.
.
Rapidity of movements.
"Travelling light."
Napoleon's army was know for fast marching.
George Nafziger writes, "In the 17th and 18th centuries the military had evolved a supply
system based on the amassing of supplies in magazines and fortifications augmented by
purchases from civilian contractors who followed in the wake of every army. These supply
systems were rudimentary at best, and it was not possible for any army to sustain itself at any
distance from its magazines. This restriction led to a system of military operations that were
carefully planned, long in advance, and supported by the accumulation of military supplies for
months prior to the actual inception of the campaign. ...
The wars of this period were like the jousting of turtles and seldom penetrated far into the
country of either nation involved. These wars were primarily wars of maneuver where one
army attempted to establish itself in the enemy's territory in a strong position. ... These wars
resulted in a continual squabbling over border provinces that exchanged hands every few
years.
When the French Revolution erupted, the French military establishment found itself
undergoing a major revolution itself. The logistical administration and its supply system
rapidly decayed, proving incapable of providing the logistical support required by the newly
raised French armies. As a result, the French armies were frequently on the verge of starvation.
... By necessity they found themselves forced to fend for themselves, as their government had
proven incapable of providing for them. What began initially as the simple pillaging of the
countryside by starving soldiers rapidly evolved into a systematic requisitioning and amassing
of supplies in a given area. ...
The French quickly became expert at estimating the ability of an area to support an army and
developed skills in locating supplies in areas where other armies would have quickly starved if
forced to live off the land. These skills had permitted the French to execute the massive
maneuvers that gave them smashing victories in 1800, 1805, 1806, and 1809.
It also led to the mystique that the French army could outmarch every other army in Europe.
The ablity to maneuver strategically had been seriously handicapped for years by the necessity
to provide a wagon train for supplies. ... The French, lacking this military train and having the
ability to live off the land they were traversing, were able to march as fast as their soldiers' legs
could carry them, instead of at the pace of the oxen pulling the wagons." (Nafziger - "Napoleon's
Invasion of Russia." pp 83-85, 1998)
The system of living off the land worked well, but it had its limitations.
It could only work efficiently where the local resources were extensive.
In prosperous countries large armies could be supported.
But in inpoverished regions, a large army would starve. When foraging
using Napoleon's methods, an army of 100,000 men with 250 guns and
40,000 horses could be sustained in an area of about:
- 65 miles across in France , Germany , Netherlands , ( northern ) Italy
- 105 miles in Spain and Poland
- ??? miles in Russia
The French troops were unable to live off the land in 1812 in Russia.
Russia was described by many westerners as a "wasteland" with poor roads, few cities, and
long distances. Napoleon was forced to reorganize and expand his military train and supply
system. Supplies were stockpiled all along the Vistula and Odra rivers. The munitions
Napoleon gathered together for his 1812 campaign compare favorably with the efforts of the
heavily industralized nations during the First World War.
Napoleon used to say, "Strategy is the art of making use of time and space.
I am less concerned about the later than the former. Space we can recover, lost time never."
March or die was the napoleonic formula - and it did not appeal to the young soldiers. No one
was allowed to lag behind and in 1813 special NCO detachments knew how to make the "lame"
walk. Most often Napoleon pushed on with the attack, maintaining a constant element of
surprise. He used to say: "I have destroyed the enemy merely by marches."
The fast marching army gave Napoleon the advantage of selecting one or another part of
enemy line and forcing the enemy to time consuming regrouping and sometimes causing
temporary disorder in his ranks. He believed always in the attack, speed, maneuver and
surprise.
Napoleons troops travelled light.
They marched 15-50 km a day without any cumbersome baggage trains as they lived off the
land. Napoleon writes, "The strength of an army, like the power in mechanics, is estimated by
multiplying the mass by the rapidity; a rapid march augments the morale of an army, and
increases its means of victory, Press on !"
Napoleon wrote to Murat "The best marchers should be able to do 25-30 miles a day." (In 1812
Roguet's division had covered a distance of 465 miles by wagon and over 700 on foot !)
Paul Britten Austin described how the French marched during the invasion of Russia, "Each
division sets out after the one ahead of it at 2-day intervals. With a distance of 100 paces (70 m)
between battalions, its regiments march "in two files sharing the road whose crown they leave
free.' Halting for '5 minutes in every hour and at three-quarters of the day's march for half an
hour' and with a day's rest every fifth, they tramp on northwards at an everage speed of 25
miles a day. Every second day they pick up rations, provided along the route by Count Daru's
administration." (Austin - "1812: The March on Moscow" pp 27-28)
The old-fashioned attitudes of Allies' officers also contributed to the slowness with which their
armies moved. "In the middle of the century the aristocratic officer had always maintained a
lifestyle in the field that was consonant with his social position. This meant transporting large
amounts of gear such as tents, and even porcelain, accompanied by the necessary servants to
look after them.
The Duke of Cumberland, for example, travelled around with 145 tons of baggage.
This was not looked on as showing off, but rather as necessary for a man of high position, and
to do otherwise would have brought contempt rather than admiration. While everybody else
did the same thing, it had little effect on the army's performance, but once the enemy started to
do things differently, it had grave consequences, as an Austrian noted: Almost every day our
army loses half a march to the French. Their soldiers carry the same load as our men, but what an effort it
takes us to get under way ! The French officer accompanies his troops on foot, and if necessary he carries
his pack himself. In our army on the other hand, every company had a whole tail of carts just to transport
the officers' baggage. If possible, these gentlemen would like to bring along warm stoves and arm-chairs
as well.
The slowness with which the army moved was probably also a consequence of slow decision-
making on the part of the commanders ... Bonaparte himself provides an illustration of their
bewilderment with an anecdote concerning the early part of his 1796 campaign. It is taken from
his memoirs, which were written in the third person:
Napoleon, in his nightly rounds, encountered a bivouac of prisoners, where there
was a garrulous old Hungarian officer, whom he asked how matters went on with
them. The old captain could not deny that they went on very badly. 'But' he added,
'there is no understanding it at all. We have to do with a young general who is in
this moment before us, then again behind us, then again on our flanks - one does
not know where to place oneself. This manner of making war is insufferable and
violates all usage and custom'.
This was rather like the cry of a gentleman who had gone to fight a duel in
the proper ritualised fashion, and found an opponent who insisted on firing
before he was told to, and his behind trees to make a more difficult target.
Unfortunately, in this case there was no umpire." (Boycott-Brown - "The Road
to Rivoli")
In 1805, one Austrian general informed Marshal Murat, Napoleon's cavalry commander, that
his troops desperately needed a rest, and therefore requested him not to advance on Vienna too
rapidly. :-)
With the exception of the Light Division (in 1812 they covered 62 miles in 26 hours), the British
army was also considered as one of the slow armies in Europe. John Mills of British Regiment
of Coldstream Guards wrote: "Their (French) movements compared with ours are as mail
coaches to dung carts. In all weathers and at all times the French are accustomed to march,
when our men would fall sick by hundreds ..."
In the very end of the battle of Waterloo, Wellington and Blucher decided together that the
exhausted condition of Wellington's infantry, but Blucher's were surely no less tired. More
likely the choice reflected the plodding management and slowness of movement that
characterized British troops. [Professor A. Barbero]
In the beginning of the 1815-Campaign the Prussians got 3/4 of their men to the right place at
the right time, Wellington only miserable 1/3 of his total forces. Prussian officer Mffling asked
Wellington why the British advance so slowly and Wellington explained: "Do not press me on
this, for I tell you, it cannot be done. If you knew the composition of the British Army and its
habits better, then you would not talk to me about that. I cannot leave my tents and supplies
behind. I have to keep my men together in their camp and supply them well to keep order and
discipline." [- Peter Hofscshroer]
The Spaniards reproached the British for the tardiness of their marches.
French General Thiebault writes that the scattered state of the French army in Spain rendered
its situation desperate, and that the slowness of Sir Arthur Wellesley saved it several times. The
French troops were known for their skills of extracting provisions locally - much to the
annoyance of local population.
Gates writes: "In contrast, the Allies, particularly the British, seem to have been peculiarly inept
at surviving without plenty of supplies. Even in times of minor food shortages, indiscipline
erupted on a vast scale. The British divisions went to pieces in the lean days after Talavera for
example - and as late as the Waterloo campaign of 1815, we find Wellington commenting to his
Prussian friends that 'I cannot separate from my tents and supplies. My troops must be well
kept and well supplied in camp ..."
Wellington: "It is certainly astonishing that the enemy [French] have been able to remain in this
country so long; and it is extraordinary instance of what a French army can do. ... With all our
money and having in our favour the good inclinations of the country, I assure you that I could
not maintain one division in the district in which they have maintained not less than 60,000
men and 20,000 animals for more than two months."
Certainly, seeing the French army on the march seems to have been an unique experience. In
1805 (Ulm-Austerlitz Campaign) a French officer with the Bavarian corps attached to the
French army, described its progress:
Ulm taken and negligently occupied, the army of Bonaparte, the victorious army, was disbanded, and
appeared to me no longer anything but an army in rout; but in rout in advance instead of retreat. This
torrent took the direction of Vienna, and henceforth there was nothing but an 'arrive qui peut' by roads
full and encumbered. Our German corps alone marched like regular troops.
This impression of organised chaos is confirmed by the recollections of a pastor who saw in
Germany advancing to attack in 1796. Compared to the Austrian army, he said: One did not see
so many wagons or so much baggage, such elegant cavalry, or any infantry officers or horseback below
the rank of major. Everything about these Frenchmen was supple and light - movements, clothing, arms,
and baggage.
The lack of conventional discipline and order, indeed the army's general scruffiness and air of
destitution, seems to have led its enemies (especially the Prussians and Austrians) seriously to
underestimate its fighting potential.
Napoleon concentrated his troops before battle as no other general before and after him.
He wrote, "Gustavus Adolphus, Turenne, and Frederick, as well as Alexander, Hannibal, and
Caesar, have all acted upon the same principles. These have been - to keep their forces united
..." It was Napoleon's method that when several corps begin an aggressive action they should
concentrate at a place away from the enemy to prevent the opposing army from destroying the
approaching armies piecemeal. Speed of maneuver and speed of concentration were crucial
components of victory.
Fast moving Napoleon and his veterans.
.
Napoleon's favorite strategies:
- strategy of the central position
- strategy of indirect approach
"To make the utmost use of the superior
mobility and inspiration of his armies, he
developed two major strategic systems.
When facing a foe superior in numbers, the
strategy of the central position was employed
to split the enemy into separate parts, each of
which could then be eliminated in turn by
adroit maneuvering to gain the French a local
superiority of force in successive actions by
bringing the reserve into action at the critical
time and place. ...
Conversely, when the enemy was inferior to
the French, Napoleon would often employ a
maneuver of envelopment - pinning the foe's attention with a detachment while the bulk of the
army swept against the hostile lines of communications to sever the enemy's links with his
bases. ... On occasion, Napoleon would merge features of these two classic strategies." (Chandler
- "Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" p 19)
Napoleon had two favorites strategies: strategy of indirect approach and strategy of the central
position. He often used the two strategies interchangeably. In 1805, for example, he used the
indirect approach to place himself in the central position between the Austrian and Russian
armies.
In 1806 he did it again.
In 1813 he took advantage of his central position in Germany to undertake a series of indirect
approaches, though his victories at Lutzen and Bautzen were by no means as decisive as he had
hoped. To be truly decisive, a victory had to result not merely in the defeat of the enemy, but
also in pusruing him a outrance to total destruction. This desirable goal was but rarely achieved
operationally.
In Italy in March and April of 1797 he managed to chase the Austrians almost all the way back
to Vienna, and in 1806, in the 23 days following his victory at Jena, the French army totally
overran Prussia against triffling resistance. A few weeks more and the French were knocking at
the gates of Warsaw !
Allied strategy in the long wars pales beside that of Napoleon.
The bulk of his adversaries were able, but unspectacular. Wellington of Britain and Archduke
Charles of Austria were the exceptions. The best strategy most of Napoleon's enemies could
come up was to shove armies in his direction. Indeed, given endless manpower, this strategy of
the concentric advance - advancing armies from all directions - ultimately led to Napoleon's
defeat in 1813 and again in 1814. His enemies grew wary. The more often he defeated them, the
more they learned how to avoid these defeats. The Allies had confidence in the concentric
advance, for Napoleon might win some battles, but he could not be everywhere at once, and
they would surely win the last battle.

Strategy of Indirect Approach, or
Napoleon's strategy of superiority.
It was used when he had plenty of manpower and maneuvering room. It was more
sophisticated and more dangerous than Strategy of the Central Position. Essentially it
entailed a vast turning movement in the face of the enemy. One of two army corps
would be detached to pin the attention of the enemy to his front. Meanwhile, Napoleon
would take the bulk of his army on a swift, wide march around one of the enemy's
strategic flanks, behind a thick screen of cavalry, optimally with some sunstantial
geographic feature providing a "curtain of maneuver." As he advanced toward the
enemy's rear, he would trust a corps or two and some cavalry forward to prevent
reinforcements from coming up, and then fall upon the enemy from the rear, having
severed his lines of communication and retreat. It was this strategy which brought about
the smashing victories of Ulm in 1805, Jena in 1806, and Friedland in 1807. There was a
great risk in this strategy. Only bold execution, swift movement, and aggressive use of
the pinning forces and the cavalry could make it work. If the enemy gained any notion
of what was afoot, as in 1807 when the Russians intercepted an order revealing
Napoleon's intentions before Eylau, he might slip away, or even attack the relatively
vulnerable and separated marching columns.

Strategy of the Central Position or
Napoleon's strategy of inferiority.
It was used in situations where his armies were weaker than its enemy, but the latter
was dispersed in two widely separated concentrations, such as during the opening
phases of the campaign of 1809 in Austria and in 1815 in Belgium, and with remarkable
brilliance in the face of overwhelming odds in 1814, culminating in the tripple victories
of Champaubert, Montmirail, and Vauchamps. This strategy necessitated bold
leadership, careful timing, and aggressive movement, for it required the army to get
BETWEEN the enemey concentrations, thereby preventing them from uniting. By
movong swiftly into the central position, Napoleon could concentrate the bulk of his
forces against the more threatening enemy contingent and seek a decisive battle, while a
corps or two undertook to hold off the other enemy contingent as long as possible.
Things could go wrong, of course. The enemy could discern his intentions and
withdrew, as occured in April 1809 in the war with Austria, or the pursuit after battle
might be poorly handled (for example after the Battle of Ligny 1815), allowing a defeated
contingent to march to support of its comrades, both of which occured in 1815 .
Napoleon had devised - a strategy of the central position.
It was designed to place the army in such a position that
it could defeat detachments of the enemy in turn . - - - - - -
Napoleonn could use a mere part of his force to tie down
& occupy the attention of one enemy , then rapidly move
his remaining forces to buildup a local superiority against
the other . This strategy brought him fantastic victories vs
stronger enemies. Even in 1815 "the Emperor came within
a hairsbreadth of bringing off a major succes by using this
system." (Chandler - "Waterloo ..." p 76) -- - - - - - - - - - - - -
Accordingto Chandler only Napoleon' computer-like mind
and his fast marching army were suited to accepting this -
type of challenge. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
~
Two brilliant campaigns.
"Never interrupt your enemy
when he is making a mistake."
- Napoleon
The Napoleonic campaigns were a series of wars involving France and changing sets of
European allies and opposing coalitions that ran from 1790s to 1815. Some of the campaigns
were truly brilliant. Our favorites are the Austerlitz and the Jena campaigns.
The Italian Campaign 1796
"As he himself once said, it was not genius that suggested
what he should do, but reflection. His skill at thinking
through the scenarios ... " - Martin Boycott-Brown
"Italy was a secondary
theater, locked in a
defensive strategy at
the time Napoleon
assumed command.
His strategy clearly was
to divide the
Piedmontese Army
from their Austrian
senior partners.
Initially, his campaign
against the
Piedmontese was
unsuccessful and
wasteful. His frontal
assaults at Ceva were
futile. This is not the
Napoleon of legend; the
aggressiveness is there,
but not the tactical
finesse. Italy was
Napoleon's "on-the-job
training." He did not
spring, fully developed,
into the great military
mind that history holds
him.
But the seeds of
military genius are present in this campaign. He was eventually able to neutralize the Piedmont
Army by a threatened movement against Turin. His subsequent campaigns against the
Austrian Army in Italy further honed his strategic and tactical skills." (- David Gibson)
By maintenance of the initiative, rapidity of maneuver and concentration of superior forces at
the right moment and the right place, he defeated in Italy every army thrown at him.
According to British historian Liddell Hart "For a century the first (Napoleon's) campaign in
Italy has been described - I am almost tempted to say, sung - as a triumphant epic of offensive
movements, according to which Bonaparte conquered Italy so easily because he followed up
attack with attack, with a boldness that was equal to his good luck."
According to American historians Vincent Esposito and John Elting, Bonaparte's Italian
campaign revolutionized the prevaling deliberate, chessboard concepts of the art of war. Luck
not favored Bonaparte, the weather had clogged his operations, and the carelessness of his
generals and poor supplies invited disaster. Bonaparte's instinct for war had met every
challenge !"
At the end of the
campaign, Bonaparte's
first year of
independent command
(!), he stood less than
100 miles from Vienna,
the Austrian capital. He
forced the Austrians to
a truce and then a
peace, captured 160,000
prisoners of war, 170
flags and more than
2,000 guns, and
extorted untold millions
of francs in
contributions. Within
next months Bonaparte
had defeated 7 armies.
It was astounding
success.
"By any measure, his
achievements during
that year (1796) had
been absolutely
extraordinary. At its
beginning, the French
had been easily
perched on the edge of the Liguarian mountains, and their previous commander had been
talking of a retreat into Provence. Now they were masters of the whole of northern Italy, having
defeated Piedmont in the space of a few days, driven and harried the Austrians for several
hundred miles, and turned back four attempts to relieve Mantua.
Every hostile power in Italy, including Naples and the Papal States, had been reduced to
grudging, sometimes humuliating acquiesnence.
How had Bonaparte done it ?
It was a question that a writer, Antoine Arnault, asked Bonaparte himself when he met him in
Italy: With few exceptions, he said, it is the most numerous troops that victory is assured. The art of war
therefore consists in finding oneself with superior numbers at the point where one wishes to fight. Is your
army less numerous than that of the enemy ? Do not leave the enemy time to unite his forces: surprise
him in his movements, and moving rapidly on the various corps which you have had the art to isolate,
arrange your movements in such a way that you can oppose your whole army to army divisions in every
encounter. It is in this way that with an army half the strength of that of the enemy you will always be
stronger than he on the foeld of battle. It is in this way that I successively annihilated the armies of
Beaulieu, Wurmser, Alvinczy and Prince Charles.
It sounds simple, but of course if it had been simple, everyone would have
done it.
Bonaparte's remarkable achievemnt was to put the theories he had learned
from books into practice. The factors that made this possible were many.
His incontestable superiority as a strategist was partly based on a profound
knowledge of the georgraphy and military history of the campaign area.
Using this knowledge, he was able to analyse a military situation, calculate
speeds and timings of marches, and exploit his formidable power to
envisage and assess all the possible scenarios he might be faced with. As he
himself once said, it was not genius that suggested what he should do, but
reflection. His skill at thinking through the scenarios ... "
In the two centuries since it took place, the 1796-7 campaign has been largelrly overshadowed
by the later triumphs of Austerlitz and Jena, not to mention the glitter of the Napoleonic
Empire. In part, this may be because there were by then many people who were conscious that
Napoleon was moulding the history of Europe, and were keen to record their involvement in
the process, giving us an abundance of familiar accounts. ...
But were Austrelitz and Jena really greater achievements than Montenotte, the crossing of the
Po, or Rivoli ? This must be a matter of opinion, of course, but it is worth pointing out that in
1805 and 1806 Napoleon had various advantages that he did not have in 1796-7. For one thing,
he controlled French policy and diplomacy and could call on the resources of the whole
country. Moreover, he was more experienced commander, and had an army that was much
better prepared." (Boycott-Brown - "The Road to Rivoli")
Young Napoleon Bonaparte
"For a century the first (Napoleon's) campaign in Italy has been
described - I am almost tempted to say, sung - as a triumphant
epic of offensive movements ..." - Liddell Hart
Back in France in December 1797, Napoleon was given a
hero's welcome by both the government and the people.
He had brought security to France, riches to the government
and fame and glory to himself. He had Paris at his feet.
.
The Ulm-Austerlitz Campaign 1805
Napoleon's decision to hurl upon the enemy
his army was taken at once. It was executed
with unparalleled rapidity and exactness.
In 1805, Great Britain, Austria, Sweden, and Russia formed the Third Coalition to overthrow
the French. When Bavaria sided with France, the Austrians, 80,000 strong under General Mack,
prematurely invaded while the Russians under Kutuzov were still marching through Poland.
Bavarian force, 21,500 men under General Deroi, barely escaped. Napoleon's decision to hurl
upon the enemy his army was taken at once. It was executed with unparalleled rapidity and
exactness and in no time Napoleon had 180,000 men facing the Austrians. Five French cavalry
divisions under Murat, crossed the Black Forest to deceive the Austrians and to screen the
enveloping movements made by the French army.
On October 7, the Austrian commander, General Mack, learned that Napoleon planned to
march round the right flank of the Austrian army so as to threathen their supply lines and cut
him off from the Russian army under Kutuzov. (See map below.)
Napoleon crushed the Austrians before the Russians were able to join them.
Then he took care of the Russians and crushed them too.
French troops began to cross the Rhine River on a front of 260 km (160 miles). The French
cavalry under Murat screened the advance of the army and made demonstrations across the
Black Forest Mountains. The main French forces followed Murat and then swung towards the
southeast, a move that was supposed to isolate Mack and interrupt the Austrian lines of
supplies. The Austrian commander changed front, placing his left at Ulm and his right at Rain,
but the French went on and crossed the Danube at Neuburg.
Through feverish marching, Napoleon conducted a large wheeling maneuver that captured the
enemy army. On the 20th October the unhappy General Mack was surrounded in Ulm. He soon
capitulated with 30,000 men, all that remained under his command of the 80,000-90,000 with
whom he had invaded Bavaria few weeks before.
The surrender of Austrian army at Ulm in 1805.
Napoleon came to Augsburg proceeded by the Imperial Guard
who carried the numerous colours captured in this campaign.
This martial entry produced in the inhabitants an amazement
difficult to describe; they could not persuade themselves that
so great army of Austria had been destroyed in such few days.
The Russians withdrew to await reinforcements and to link up with surviving Austrian troops.
Napoleon followed, but soon found himself in a difficult situation: Prussian intentions were
unknown, and the Russian and Austrian armies now converged. Napoleon realized that the
only way to capitalize on the success at Ulm was to force the the Russians and Austrians to
battle and defeat them. Meanwhile the Austrian troops in Italy under Archduke Charles, were
compelled to retreat in the hope of covering Vienna, now threatened by Napoleon's advance.
Negotiations for armistice failed. Napoleon had entered Vienna. On the anniversary of his
coronation Napoleon inflicted on the Austrians and Russians the decisive defeat at Austerlitz.
Austria agreed to the terms of the treaty of Pressburg.
The campaign is generally regarded as a strategic masterpiece. The rapidity of movememnts of
the French army was impressive. Tsar Alexander of Russia wrote, "... the rapidity of Napoleon's
manoeuvres [in 1805] never allowed time to succour any of the points which he successively
attacked: his troops everywhere were twice as numerous as we were." Austrian General
Stutterheim praised the French too, "... the French generals manoeuvered their troops with that
ability which is the result of the military eye, and of experience ..."
Austerlitz is one of the great battles in history and for many this is the greatest one .
Napoleon's words to his troops after the battle were "Soldiers! I am pleased with you."
The victory was met by sheer amazement in Paris. The battle of Austerlitz is regarded
as a tactical masterpiece and is compared to other great tactical battles like Cannae.
~
Napoleon deliberately abandoned the Pratzen Heights in the center, & left his right flank under Davout weak.
The Allies ( Langeron , Kollowrath , Miloradovich, Liechtenstein ) began moving across the field to occupy the
strong position at Pratzen and then to attack Davout. The French troops however attacked them with fury. The
French and Russian guards exchanged blows, and Lannes fought with Bagration on the flank. Davout held fast.
Meanwhile the French under Marshals Bernadotte,Murat,and Soult retook Pratzen and split the enemy in half.

Epic battle (Austerlitz 1805) from epic movie ("War and Peace" 1965). Enjoy !
0:30 Russian infantry , 0:40 Napoleon and French infantry , 0:50 Fieldmarshal Kutuzov
1:10 arrival of the Tzar of Russia , Alexander , and Kaiser of Austria (in white uniform)
2:10 Napoleon, 2:20 the battle begins, 2:30 charges of French and Russian cavalry (both
dressed in partially wrong outfits) and some Hollywood-style casualties, followed by the
flight of Russian infantry (or rather part of it)
.
The Auerstadt-Jena Campaign 1806
Napoleon's strategic plan of this
campaign, was simple and beautiful.
For a perfect campaign, we need look no further than that of 1806 against Prussia.
Supremely confident of victory, the Prussians bragged that clubs would be all they needed to
thrash Napoleons French cobblers. Berliners cheered wildly when Queen Louise, wearing a
crimson and blue colonels uniform, paraded before the regiment of dragoons that bore her
name.
Napoleon's plan of this campaign was beautiful.
To base himself on the Rhine River and upper Danube and simply advance north - eastwards
on Berlin would, perhaps, be the easiest for Napoleon, but it would offer no strategical
advantages; for if he met and defeated the Prussians on this west-east line, he would simply
drive them backwards on their supports, and then on Russians, whose advance from Poland
was expected.
To turn the Thuringian Forest Mountains by an advance from his right,
was a less safe movement ; but, it offered great advantages:
- Napoleon would threaten the Prussian supply lines,
line of retreat, and line of communications with Berlin .
- Napoleon would separate the Prussians and the Russians.
The danger with this maneuver was this that the Prussians by a rapid advance through the
Thuringian Forest Mountains against his communication line, might sever him from France !
Of particular interest in this campaign is Napoleon's use of the bataillon carre (see below)
advancing behind a cavalry screen to execute nearly perfect manoeuvre sur les derries, in order to
bring the enemy to battle under circumstances particularly favorable to himself. The French
cavalry rode ahead and located the enemy, then reported back to Napoleon the positions of
enemy's troops. As soon as the Emperor plotted them on the map, he would order one or both
of his wing commanders to engage the nearest enemy force. The reserve was made of heavy
cavalry and the Imperial Guard. All troops marched within supporting distance of one another.
The wings consisted of one or two army corps each.
Napoleon's army formed in so-called bataillon carre .
In the end of September the Prussian army was spread over a front of 190 miles.
Their allies, the Saxons, had not yet completed their mobilisation. Within few days the
Prussians shortened their front to 85 miles in a direct line. (At the same time Napoleon had
huge army assembled on a front of 38 miles!)
Napoleon arrived at Bamberg on October 6. The following day he received the Prussian
ultimatum. Prussian advance guards were sent in the direction of the Thuringian Forest. The
Prussians also detached small corps from Ruchel's force against Napoleon's supply lines. But
by doing this they weakened their own main army.
Meanwhile the French army launched their 19th-century-style blitzkrieg. The army marched in
three columns. Bernadotte's I Corps was at the head of the center column, followed by Davout's
III Corps, and the reserves (Murat's Cavalry Reserve and the Imperial Guard). The right
column was made up of Soult's IV Corps, Ney's VI Corps and Bavarian corps. The left column
was made up of Lannes' V Corps, followed a days march behind by Augereau's VII Corps.
The French light cavalry encountered the Prussian advance posts at Schleiz and drove them
back. Lannes' troops ran into Hohenlohes advance guard under Prince Ludwig Ferdinand at
Saalfeld and also drove them back. The commander-in-chief of the Prussianarmy realized the
French were about to outflank him. He began to concentrate his troops and shift them to the
east to meet the advancing enemy. Rchel was ordered to join the army. Hohenlohe was to
remain at Jena to cover the left flank.
Napoleon issued orders to wheel the whole army to the left, onto the line of the Saale River.
(See map below).
Napoleon moved his fast marching army across the mountainous terrain,
then swiftly wheeled to the left and struck the enemy in the flank.
Heavy fighting began when elements of Napoleon's main force encountered Prussian troops
near Jena. The Battle of Jena cost Napoleon approx. 5,000 men, but the Prussians had a
staggering 25,000 casualties. At Auerstadt Marshal Davout's also crushed the enemy. Napoleon
initially did not believe that Davout's single corps had defeated the Prussian main body
unaided, and responded to the first report by saying "Tell your Marshal he is seeing double".
As matters became clearer, however, the Emperor was unstinting in his praise. Over the next
few days the remaining forces were unable to mount any serious resistance to Murat's ruthless
cavalry pursuit. Davout led his troops into Berlin on 25 October.
The French army secured the total annihilation of the Prussian army and state in one month. It
was a remarkable demonstration of what the French military system could accomplish under
Napoleon's guidance. Prussia was broken by the war, her army was ruined, she had no money
and had lost half of her former territory.
Prussian troops after the defeats at Jena and Auerstadt.
~
Napoleon's tactics.
"Tactics is the art of using troops in battle;
strategy is the art of using battles to win the war"
- Clausewitz
"Between a battle lost and a battle won,
the distance is immense and there stand empires."
- Napoleon
Napoleon's brilliance as a strategist only served to bring the enemy to the battlefield. "Battle
was always the ultimate object of all of Napoleon's planning and thought. Indeed, he
conducted more battles than most great commanders before or since and managed to win most
of them." (Petre - "Napoleon at War" p 165)
Once enemy contact was established, the advance guard seized the most favorable position
available, striving to fix the enemy. While the advance guard spent itself, these fresh units went
into action on its flanks. The light infantry probed in, developing weak spots and tying down
the enemy. Behind the light infantry the light artillery moved aggressively forward and the real
fighting began. Once the enemy was engaged Napoleon had but one purpose: destruction.
The Emperor preferred to fight offensively under all circumstances, even when on the
defensive. At Austerlitz he did actually stand on the defensive, lured his enemies into a trap,
and then attacked.
Normally he struck at one wing of a hostile army, preferably the one nearer its communications.
The flanking movement forced the enemy to turn, to make quick adjustments in the midst of
fighting, either through a retreat or reinforcing the threatened flank and weakening other flank,
center or reserves.
Napoleon recommended a maneuver upon the flank of enemy and assured that in such
situation "The victory is in your hands". (When Napoleon's own flank was attacked at Leipzig,
La Rothiere and at Waterloo, and in the three battles he was defeated.)
The Emperor had two basic battle plans:
Battle of maneuver (66 % of his battles)
It required some superiority in numbers.
The main force held the enemy ' s attention to his front , while another
force fell upon one of his flanks, and then rolling up the rest of the line.
The cavalry was sent in pursuit. The advantage of this tactic was that
it inflicted a major defeat on the enemy at minimal cost.
But things could go wrong. A movement of reserves in the enemy's rear
could thicken up the threatened flank. Enemy deployed with a ridge or
wood on his flank would be immune to this method.
Austerlitz , Jena , and Eylau, were all essentially battles of maneuver .
Battle of attrition (33 %)
It was a frontal match in which firepower was poured into the enemy
in enormous amounts until he appeared to be weakening , and then
great masses of men would be thrown in to smash their way through
his lines. Such a battle was costly affair,but there were times when no
other course was possible.
Some were incredible costly victories like Wagram and Borodino, and
several battles were defeats, such as La Rothiere and Waterloo. There
was much that could go wrong in such a battle. For example the enemy
might prove more numerous, or receive support from another army, or
built strong fieldworks.
Napoleon's greatest victories in 1805-15:
1. Austerlitz 1805
2. Jena 1806
3. Friedland 1807
4. Ulm 1805
5. Dresden 1813
Napoleon "this once despotic sovereign of the battlefield".
~
Napoleon's mistakes and defeats.
"One must change one's tactics every 10 years
if one wishes to maintain one's superiority ..."
- Napoleon
"A man has his day in war as in other things,
I myself shall be good for it another 6 years
after which even I shall have to stop."
- Napoleon in 1806 :-)
Napoleon possessed the common human habit of embellishing his best exploits and blaming others
for his reverses. For example he developed the account of his mediocre Marengo Campaign into a
first-class epic romance.
According to Colonel John Elting, "Napoleon's close followers, because of hero worship or personal
considerations, also suppressed and invented. On the other hand, his enemies strove to portray him
as a monster, and to present his best victories as lucky accidents."
Napoleon made several military and political mistakes :
fighting on several fronts at once.
his invasion of Russia resulted in the loss of half-million
of his best troops and 1,000 cannons. After that disaster he
never regained his greatness. (Napoleon believed that after
a few quick battles , he would bring Tzar Alexander to his
knees. Then Napoleon also decided that if he took Moscow
the Russians would ask for peace.
However, when he eventually occupied Moscow, the Tsar
still did not surrender. He could not surrender because if he
did, he would be assassinated by the nobles.)
the severity of Napoleon's terms to Prussia undermined
the security of the peace
his policy towards England contemplated nothing short
of her total ruin
his aggression raised Tirol, Calabria, Portugal and Spain
as fresh enemies
As a commander, Napoleon was becoming predictable, and his enemies were beginning to
appreciate the counter-measures and use them against him. Increasingly he refused to face up to
reality and suppressed all traces of criticism.
"Nevertheless, when all was said and done, he remained a giant surrounded by pygmies; his
reputation survived his fall, for his basic greatness was inviolable." (David Chandler - "Waterloo -
the hundred days" p 41)
Napoleon's defeats:
- 1796 combat at Caldiero is significant as being Bonapartes
first
undisputable defeat in open field, and although most of the
Napoleonic authors passed quickly over this episode to describe
and analyze the following battle of Arcole in much more
detail, the fact remains that by the standards of the Italian
Campaign Caldiero is a significant engagement. Napoleon was
much
depressed by his defeat, and on next day he wrote a letter to the
Directory that he would oppose the Austrians once again but
that he had no hope of stopping their drive to Mantua and would
probably retreat to the line of the river Ada.
Austrian commander: Alvinczi
-
- 1809 Aspern-Essling [1]
Austrians under Archduke Charles. (See picture -->).
Allied commanders: Archduke Charles
-
- 1812 Beresina Crossings
French victory.)
-
- 1813 Leipzig [2]
Napoleon withstood Allies assaults and then
counterattacked.
Meanwhile another army (under Bennigsen) attacked
his flank.
It forced Napoleon to abandon his strongpoints and
withdraw
his army closer to Leipzig. Then he was surrounded & crushed.
probably Napoleon's greatest defeat. Allied commanders were:
Allies' commanders: Schwarzenberg (Austrians), Tolly (Russians)
Bernadotte (Swedes) and Blucher/Gneisenau (Prussians).
Armies: 200,000 French, Poles, and Germans vs 300,000 Allies
Article: "Leipzig 1813 - Battle of The Nations"
-
- 1814 La Rothiere
The allied commanders (with the exception of Gneisenau) were
entirely carried away by their enthusiasm and, instead of
organising a vigorous pursuit, wasted the day following
the battle in feasting and mutual congratulations.
Armies: 45,000 French vs 52,000 Russians, Austrians, Germans
Article: "La Rothiere 1814"
-
- 1814 Laon
Allies' stand had prevented Napoleon from driving them north.
The Allies were still in a position to advance on Paris, which
they did at the end of March.
Armies: 35,000 French vs 60,000 Russians and Prussians
-
- 1815 Waterloo
his flank. Napoleon was crushed. In strategy as in tactics the
flank attack is one of the most powerful.
Armies: 75,000 French vs 122,250 Allies
Allies commanders: Wellington (British, German, Netherland)
and Blucher's/Gneisenau's (Prussians)
Article: "Waterloo 1815"
[1]
The defeat at Aspern-Essling is explained by Loraine Petre. "For the
defeat of Essling the Emperor had himself to blame. He had certainly been careless in his
preparations for the crossing [of the Danube River], once more a result of his unbounded pride and
his contempt for his enemy. He had been amply warned of the dangers of a sudden rise of the
Danube, the fate of the Austrian bridge at Mauthausen should have warned him of the dangers to a
bridge of boats from barges and other masses floated down the rapid stream. Yet he trusted his
army to a single bridge of boats without any protection by stockades, or by boats cruising about to
arrest such floating masses above the bridge. His information regarding Charles' position seems to
have been bad and to have led him not to expect serious resistance immediately after the passage.
Even on the morning of Essling, his cavalry had failed to detect the advance of the whole Austrian
army. Essling was the first great success of an Austrian army against Napoleon in person. ... There is
no clearer proof that Napoleon realised his own rashness in the first crossing than the infinite care
which he bestowed on his preparations for the second, and the perfection with which they were
carried out." (Petre - "Napoleon at War" pp 261-2, publ. 1984)
[2]
"In the autumn of 1813, the Allies adopted a strategy of not letting any one of their three armies face
Napoleon alone. Should the master place himself at the head of his troops, then the Allied army
facing him was to withdraw, while the other advanced. While Napoleon was chasing air, the
opportunity was taken to bring certain of his marshals to battle and defeat them individually." (-
Peter Hofschroer)
It worked wonders. In August Marshal Oudinot's corps was trashed at Gross Beeren, Marshal
MacDonald was defeated at Katzbach, and General Vandamme at Kulm. In September Marshal Ney
was routed at Dennewitz.
"By attacking in the flank, an army of 30,000 men
might defeat an army of 100,000 men."
- Frederick the Great
On the strategic level Napoleon was succesful until 1812.
The invasion of Russia broke his backbone ("sealed his fate").
1800 Marengo Campaign - Napoleon won
1805 Austerlitz Campaign - Napoleon won
1806 Jena Campaign - napoleon won
1807 Friedland Campaign - Napoleon won
1809 Wagram Campaign - Napoleon won
1812 Invasion of Russia - it cost him around half a million of his men (!)
It also badly tarnished Napoleon's reputation.
(The Emperor barely escaped with his life.)
1813 Saxon Campaign - Napoleon's defeat
1814 Campaign of France - Napoleon's defeat
1815 Waterloo Campaign - Napoleon's defeat
Napoleon's flight from Russia in 1812, by W Kossak
The invasion of Russia was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars .
wrote,
~
Jomini and Clausewitz on Napoleon.
"To Jomini Napoleon was the compeer of
Caesar, of Hannibal, and of Alexander."
To Clausewitz he was 'the very god of war."
- Wilkinson and Spenser
Although serious military thinkers today are more likely to refer to Clausewitz, in the
Napoleonic age itself, Antoine de Jomini was more likely to have that distinction. "It is probably
fair to say that in general Clausewitz addressed the political and strategic levels of war and
Jomini addressed the operational level. The two were born only a year apart. They held similar
staff-officer positions in the Napoleonic wars, albeit in different armies.
Jomini was by far the more celebrated thinker in his own lifetime. ...
It is important to remember what Jomini is and what Jomini is not. Almost all of his work
answers one question: how does one deploy units successfully in the main battle? For officers
who must answer this question, Jominis ideas, the Principles of War, are extremely useful and
extremely important. For officers trying to answer any other questions, Jomini is not so useful.
... There is almost no treatment of politics, no strategy, no technological change, no strategic
resource base, no psychology, no peoples war, no adversary, and indeed no unexpected
adversity in Jominis work." (- U.S. ARMY Command and General Staff College C600-8)
Antoine-Henri, baron Jomini (1779-1869)
Jomini was born in Switzerland. He became a general in the French
and afterwards in the Russian service . He became one of the most
celebrated military writers.
"To Jomini Napoleon was the compeer of Caesar, of Hannibal, and of Alexander. To Clausewitz
he was 'the very god of war.' Each of them prepared himself for his theory by writing the
history of campaigns both of Napoleon and of his predecessors. But their ways of regarding
their subject were different. Jomini's object was to find out by comparison between Napoleon's
campaigns and those of Frederick the principles of action which were common to them both
and might therefore be of universal validity. He analysed their operations and classified them
according to their geometrical form. The base of operations, the direction of an army's advance
and that of its front can each be represented as a line. ... Jomini's analysis and classification of
operations in spite of its artificial terminology, was correct and useful. It was the first scientific
exposition of strategy as a system of principles, and it has been used by all the subsequent
strategical thinkers. Willisen in Germany and Hamley in England are Jomini's disciples ...
If Jomini sought for the common element in the generalship of Napoleon and his predecessors,
Clausewitz dwelt on the difference between them. Jomini sought for principles as precepts for
guidance in action. Clausewitz thought general principles in the shape of precepts or rules of
little avail in the presence of the infinite variety of the situations of war.
The question which Clausewitz put to himself was how it came about that Napoleon's wars
were so fundamentally different from most of those which had proceeded them. His answer
was that the energy with which a war is carried on is a product of two factors, the strength of
the motive which actuates the belligerents and the degree to which that motive appeals to the
population of the States concerned. The French Revolution had called a nation to arms. France
therefore acted with the utmost energy. On the other hand, the cause for which the
Governments of the Coalition were fighting was by no means vital to them and scarcely
interested their people.
The success of France was therefore predetermined. When the French forces came under the
control of Napoleon the overthrow of the old monarchies was inevitable. But the pressure of
the French Empire upon the populations then aroused such bitter resentment that the nations
one after another rushed to arms, and thus the overthrow of Napoleon was as much
predetermined as had been his unprecedented conquests.
This portion of the theory of Clausewitz is, however, not derived from the generalship of
Napoleon. Its root idea comes from an essay in which Scharnhorst in 1797 reviewed the
revolutionary war of 1792-5, in which Napoleon had not yet had a command. Scharnhorst
attributed the success of the French to the energy of unity of the French nation, and the failure
of the Allies to their discord and their inadequate efforts.
The subsequent exertions of Prussia in and after 1813 confirmed Clasewitz in his view of the
importance of the distinction between national and dynastic war." (Wilkinson, Spenser - "The
French army before Napoleon; lectures delivered before the University of Oxford ..." pp 14-16)
Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clausewitz (1780- 1831).
Prussian officer , military historian , and very influential theorist .
He is most famous for his military treatise "Vom Kriege" (On War)
translated into many languages.
Recommended reading (external links):
"Clausewitz is widely acknowledged as
the most important of the strategic theorists" >
"On War" - by Karl von Clausewitz >
Jomini on "Strategic Lines and Points,
Decisive Points of the Theater of War" >
Sources and Links
Karl von Clausewitz - "On War".
David Chandler - "The Campaigns of Napoleon"
Loraine Petre - "Napoleon at War"
Martin Boycott-Brown - "The Road to Rivoli"
William Cairnes - "The Military Maxims of Napoleon"
John I. Alger - "The Quest for Victory: The History of the Principles of War."
Ferdinand Foch - "The Principles of War" translated by Hilaire Belloc.
Riley - "Napoleon as a general"
Influence of Napoleon on Civil War Tactics and Strategy >
Applying Napoleonic Tactics to Trench Warfare in World War I >
Coalition Tactics on the Napoleonic Battlefield and Their Influence on Unity of Effort. >
Infantry Tactics Combat: Infanterie taktiken : tactiques d'infanterie
http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/infantry_tactics_4.htm[2012-05-21 12:46:50]
Infantry Organization, Tactics and Combat
during the Napoleonic Wars (1)
Conspicious on his white charger, Napoleon had ridden through Austrian fire to be present
when Macdonald's one massive column of 23 battalions [!] moved out towards Sussenbrunn,
flags flying, drums beating the charge, and the men wildly cheering. (- Battle of Wagram 1809)
The French and German heavy "cavalry spread out as a sea
while our [Russian infantry] squares floated like islands
that were washed by the copper and steel waves of
enemy cuirassiers ..."
- Fedor Glinka (Battle of Borodino)
.
Introduction.
Lines.
Three or two ranks ? >
"The Thin Red Line" >
The French and two ranks >
The French and one rank >
Columns.
Advantages of columns >
Disadvantages of columns >
Multi-battalion columns >
Ordre-Mixte
Squares vs cavalry.
How fast does it take to form a square ? >
Solid squares > - and - "Egyptian squares" >
Multi-battalion squares >
Methods of attacking the square >
Methods of defending the square >
"a cavalry ... against ... square would
be thrown back 99 times out of 100" >
Squares broken by cavalry ->
Cavalry vs infantry not formed in square >
Cavalry AND artillery vs square >
Infantry attack cavalry ! >
Miscallenous >.
Skirmishers, skirmishing.
French skirmishers >
Russian skirmishers >
British skirmishers >
Prussian & Austrian
skirmishers >
Rifles and riflemen >
.
.
Battle of Borodino, 1812: Russians vs French, Poles, Germans and Italians
Borodino was the bloodiest battle of the Napoleonic Wars.
Introduction.
The infantrymen were either
formed at open or closed files.
The basic building block of napoleonic army organization was the individual soldier. A small group of
soldiers organized to maneuver and fire were section and platoon. As elements of the armys organizational
structure become larger units, they contain more and more elements. A company was the smallest element to
be given a designation and affiliation with higher headquarters at battalion, regimental, brigade, and division
level.
Prior to the Revolution, the French Army was composed of three-battalion regiments. In 1792 before the Battle
of Valmy, it was decided to form demi-brigades instead of regiments. Each demi-brigade was made up of one
regular battalion from a pre-revolutionary regiment combined with two battalions of volunteers. The demi-
brigades were adopted by the entire French army two years later. In 1803 Napoleon was re-instated the term
"regiment", the "demi-brigade" being applied henceforth only to provisional troops. Each line and light
regiment had: staff, 2-6 "war" battalions and 1 "depot" battalion. In 1811 Napoleon ordered that majors-in-
second be named for all regiments with 4-6 war battalions.
The company was an administrative unit, the tactical unit was the platoon (peloton).
In 1808-1815 each company consisted of 140 men: 1 captain,
2 leutenants,
1 sergeant-major,
4 sergeants
1 furrier,
8 corporals,
2-3 drummers
and 121 privates
The French company when formed in closed files stood elbow-to-elbow, 3-ranks deep. (See picture below).
The files touch lightly without crowding. The intervals between 1st, 2nd and 3rd rank were 0,325 m.
These intervales varied from army to army:
French infantry - 0.325 m
Russian infantry - 0.35 m
British infantry - 0.63 m
Prussian infantry - 0.66 m
Austrian infantry - 1.25 m
The interval between 3rd rank and NCOs/officers behind was 1,3 m or 2 paces.
It was when the battalion was formed either in line (see below) or in column
with full or half-intervals. Only when the battalion column was formed
"closed in mass" the interval was 1 pace.
Infantry fought by battalion, the battalion being its basic tactical unit and the unit by which generals of that
period reckoned the strength of their infantry. Too small battalion multiply the number of commanders and
weakens the line by increasing the number of intervals. Too large battalion is too clumsy in the advance and
evolutions. Usually if the battalion had fewer companies they were stronger.
Strength of battalion during campaign was below the theoretical strength. For example the French battalion of
1808 had on paper 840 men. However, there were sick men left in hospital, others were still trained in depot,
some were wounded and killed in battle, others were missing, etc. Therefore the battalion in the field was
often 400-600 men strong. Generally, the Guard battalions in France, Britain, and Russia, were stronger than
the non-guard battalions.
French battalion before 1808 had 9 companies
French battalion in 1808-1815 had 6 companies
Austrian battalion had 6 companies or 24 Zg
Russian battalion had 4 companies or 8 Vsvod
British battalion had 10 companies
Polish battalion in 1808-1814 had 6 companies
Prussian battalion had 4 companies or 8 Zg
French battalion in 1808-1815 had 6 companies.
Two of the 6 companies were flank companies, called elite companies.
The one on the right flank was called "grenadier company" (in light infantry "carabinier company") and
consisted of robust men with some war experience. They often spearheaded the bayonet charges and were
asigned to defending a strongpoint. The company on the left was called the "voltigeur company" and was
made of short and agile men. They were good marksmen and runners and often served as skirmishers. The
four remaining companies were the centre companies called in line infantry "fusiliers" (in light infantry
"chasseurs"). After one or more campaigns the fusilers became veterans and the bravest and strongest of them
were selected to the grenadiers, while the bravest but short ones joined the voltigeurs.
Any officer and general had to master the tactical maneuvers and formations. They had to have a grasp of the
terrain and be able to quickly estimate distance in order to execute a given formation. Constant and repetitive
practice was essential.
The infantrymen were trained to form at open or closed files:
a - closed files:
primary and fundamental order in which the troops are drawn up.
Battalion could be formed in line (see below), column (see below),
or square against cavalry. The men standing elbow-to-elbow, and
2- or 3-ranks deep.
b - open files:
used in some combat situations, in skirmish,
and in some cases of inspections
When the Chef gives order "Forward !": the left and right battalion guide ("guide generaux")
and the first rank of fanion's (or flag's) guard place themselves 6 paces ahead of the line
of battalion. They set up the alignement of the battalion. Then the Chef gives second order:
"March !" and the entire battalion starts marching.
Two or three battalions (sometimes more) formed infantry regiment. Two regiments formed brigade,
and two brigades formed division. Thus an infantry division could have between 8 and 16 battalions. In
combat the battalions were deployed in two (sometimes three) lines, with artillery in front of it. See
picture below. The distance between the first and the second line of battalions were between 100 and
400 paces. They depended on particular situation on the battlefield and on terrain:
In 1806 at Jena, Napoleon ordered his battalions to deploy in two lines
with no more than 250 paces between the lines.
In 1813 at Dennewitz, Prussian General Krafft deployed his brigade in two lines,
with 300-400 paces between the lines. Very often the Prussian brigades were
formed in three lines.
In 1814 at Craonne, the Russians deployed their infantry in three lines.
In the first line stood 14 battalions, 500 yards behind them were 7 battalions,
and in third line, 1000 yards behind the first, stood 9 battalions.
Usually the interval between battalion-columns was such that they had space to deploy from columns
into lines. According to the regulations the minimum distance between battalions formed in lines was
15.6 m or just the distance of company (platoon). The small intervals were essential if the troops
planned to move even a short distance without causing disorder.
Theoretically if any of the battalions of first line was broken the battalions from the second line would
counterattack the enemy from the flanks. Quite often however the broken battalion of first line run
toward the second line and disordered it. Also the sight of own troops fleeing in panic was enough for
the nerves of troops in the second line.
In 1809 at Wagram, Austrian 47th Vogelsang Regiment broke and fled
toward the second line. They disordered the second line and together
run to the rear before the artillery halted the pursuing French.
In 1813 at Dennewitz, two battalions of Prussian 2nd Kurmark Landwehr
expended their ammunition in a firefight and fell back disordering
the troops in second line.
In 1809 at Wagram, the French 24th Light broke Austrians and pursued them.
The victors had scattered "in small platoons" and groups and then were
counter-attacked by Austrian infantry of second line. The Austrians infantry
[Argenteau Regiment] captured regimental Eagle and crushed the groups of
French soldiers.
Austrian (Hungarian) infantry in battle.
Russian infantry under Prince Bagration (probably as brave as Marshal Ney)
versus Napoleonic French infantry. The Austerlitz Campaign of 1805.
(From the movie "War and Peace" by S Bondarchuk, Russia.)
Lines.
"The French, particularly, have never been able
to march steadily in deployed lines."
- General Jomini
The line had been standard during the XVIII Century but lost popularity after the French triumphs
with columns during the Revolutionary Wars. The difficulty with advancing lines was their sensitivity
to terrain and order. The irregularities of the terrain caused the ranks to become ragged, the battalion
bowed in the middle and sometimes broke completely in half.
A line of two battalions on a battlefield would be halting to dress more frequently than one battalion.
The long line made the troop more difficult to manoeuvre and to turn. For these reasons, commanders
used lines only for short distances and over open terrain with no serious obstacles.
Battle of Leipzig in 1813
It was easier to attack with several battalion columns than with several battalion lines. General Antoine
Henri Jomini wrote, "I have also seen attempts made to march deployed battalions in checkerwise
order. They succeeded well; whilst marches of the same battalions in continous lines did not. The
French, particularly, have never been able to march steadily in deployed lines... It maybe employed in
the first stages of the movement forward, to make it more easy, and the rear battalions would then
come into line with the leading ones before reaching the enemy ... for we must not forget that in the
checkered order there are not two lines, but a single one, which is broken, to avoid the wavering and
disorder observed in the marches of continous lines...
Suppose the attempt made to bring up 20 or 30 battalions in line, while firing either by file or by
company, to the assault of a well defended position; it is not very probable they would ever reach the
desired point, or if they did, it would be in about as good order as a flock of sheep."
Chlapowski writes, "He [General Dabrowski] took some battalions [of Polish infantry] out into the
countryside and ordered them to perform certain manoeuvers. The movements in column went well,
but battalions moving at the double in line with bayonets fixed were still very uneven and fell into bad
disorder. The soldiers were not experienced enough yet to follow their marker with their eyes only, but
instead turned their heads to the side as well. Once a few had turned their heads, their bodies could no
longer walk in a straight line, steps became undeven and the whole line broke up as files either collided
or diverged." (Chlapowski/Simmons - p 15)
The Prussian infantry of 1813-15 had similar problems. As we (Prussians) neared the French batteries,
Bulow attempted to protect our first wave, which was advancing in battalion masses, against the
impacxt of the cannonballs by forming an ordinary line. This failed and the fast reorganization into
battalion masses was the only means of preventing disorder. In addition, it proved that in the present
employment of artillery and by the utilization of any terrain, an advance in combat with long, thin lines
is impossible and should be stricken from the regulations. (- General Boyen, after the battle of Gross-
Beeren 1813)
Passage of lines.
... bataillon qui, aprs avoir travers la seconde ligne...
...bataillon de seconde ligne doublant les sections de pied
ferme pour donner passage la premire ligne.
Fig. 1: - Line forming column on the right flank.
Fig. 2: - Line forming column on the left flank.
Fig. 3: - Line forming column on the centre.
Deployment of Russian battalion of 8 platoons (or 4 companies/divisions)
from closed column of division into line. (Diagram based on Zhmodikov-
"Tactics of the Russian Army in the Napoleonic Wars", II)
To deploy a column of platoons in line, Khatov recommended forming
a column of divisions first and only then deploying it into line.
Rear divisions (a division consisted of 2 platoons) were to march
by files to the right or left and then forward into alignment with
the front division.
He admonished readers against deploying under heavy enemy fire.
Closed column of divisions formed on the right could be deployed
into line either on the 2nd division, as shown in Fig. 19; either
on the 3rd division; either to the left; either to the right.
Three or two ranks ?
In most European armies when casualties were heavy
the men were drawn from the 3rd rank and placed
into the 1st and 2nd rank to maintain the proper
frontage of the company.
Long before Napoleonic wars the line of infantry was 4 and 5 ranks deep formation. Improving quality
of firearms made possible to 'lighten' the line. In 1703 the British went from 4-rank deep lines to only 3-
rank deep. The rest of Europe followed them. The Prussians were the next in 1740, the French in 1754
and the Austrians in 1757. By the end of XVIII century all armies formed their infantry on 3-ranks.
In most European armies of the Napoleonic Wars, when casualties were heavy the men were drawn
from the 3rd rank and placed into the 1st and 2nd rank to maintain the proper frontage of the
company. Sometimes the 3rd rank would disappear completely. According the French Regulations of
1791, Ecole de Peloton p. 101, once company was reduced below 12 files it was to be formed on 2 ranks.
The 2-rank system was first introduced by the Prussians during the Seven Years War. The intention
was to bring more muskets to bear but soon was discovered that cavalry could easily rout such thin
formation. Fortescue's summary of infantry tactics of the Seven Years War: "The number of ranks was
left unfixed, being increased or reduced according to the frontage required, but probably seldom
exceeded 3 and was occasionally reduced to two."
In 1794 Austrian General Mack's Instructionspunkte recommended that the 3rd rank be used to extend
the infantry line and was dictated by circumstances and terrain.
During the Napoleonic Wars some German armies had their infantry formed on 2 ranks only. For
example until 1809 the Wirtembergian light troops were formed on 2 ranks. In Prussia and Austria the
3rd rankers were extensivelly used as skirmishers and often were detached from their companies. Until
1807 in Russia all jager regiments were formed on 2 ranks.
The Thin Red Line.
"The [British] infantry, although on system
formed 3 deep, like the other nations of Europe,
is more frequently drawn up in 2 ranks"
- General Foy
Officially the British infantry was formed in 3 ranks. However during the Napoleonic Wars they had
their infantry formed on 2 ranks only. At Waterloo many battalions - for various reasons - were formed
on 4 ranks. Rory Muir writes, "At Waterloo, much of the British infantry was formed in 4-deep line,
which made the procedure for forming square much quicker and easier.." Lack of space also played a
role, especially for the brigades deployed between Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte. Mark Adkin
writes, "... at Waterloo lines were formed in 4 ranks on the infrequent occasions when they were needed
because of the limited space available." (The Hanoverian battalions used 3 ranks.)
French General Foy wrote, "The [British] infantry, although on system formed 3 deep, like the other
nations of Europe, is more frequently drawn up in 2 ranks; but when making or receiving a charge, it is
frequently formed 4- deep. Sometimes it has made offensive movements, and even charged columns,
when in open order."
The British tactics was much influenced by the American experience.
In that period there was a great deal of bickering about the makeup of the British infantry. "The basic
tactical requirement in North America was for a looser, more flexible system, based on small bodies of
men fighting in rough lines, often of one rank and never more than two; the 3rd rank had never been of
great value as far as fire power was concerned, and in thick country it became a positive menace."
(Warminster - "The British Infantry 1660-1945" publ. in 1983)
Already in 1759, Wolfe was issuing instructions in America on a single and 2-rank line formation for
his infantry. General Abercromby used two ranks at Alexandria in 1801. General Moore at Corunna also
used two ranks.
.
The French and two ranks.
From 1791 on peace footing the French
would frequently drill in 2 ranks.
The French infantry was formed on 3 ranks.
They however experimented with the 2-ranks in 1775-1776 and again in 1788. Already from 1791 on
peace footing they would frequently drill in 2 ranks. During campaign, when casualties were heavy, the
men were drawn from the 3rd rank and placed into the 1st and 2nd rank to maintain the proper
frontage of the company. According the French Regulations of 1791, Ecole de Peloton p. 101, once
company was reduced below 12 files it was to be formed on 2 ranks.
In October 1813, Napoleon wanted to increase the length of the battleline of his depleted infantry by 30
% and on October 13th 1813 was issued order: " ... Emperor orders the entire infantry of the army to
form up in 2 ranks instead of 3, in that his Majesty regarded that the fire and the bayonet of the 3rd
rank useless."
Thus at Leipzig the French infantry was formed on 2 ranks. But Ney's infantry was still formed on 3
ranks, he believed in deep formations. According to George Nafziger however this reoganization of
infantry in the midst of a hard fought campaign "may or may not have occured." ( Nafziger - "Imperial
Bayonets" p 60)
On secondary theaters of war, in Spain and Italy, the French kept their infantry formed on 3 ranks.
Napoleon's orders needed time to arrive from Leipzig in Germany to the remote Spain and not every
general was convinced to the new formation.
Examples of French infantry being formed on 2 ranks in combat:
In 1812 losses during the retreat from Russia were so heavy that
two battalions of 3rd of Grenadiers (Dutch), the Young Guard, and
the Hessians fought at Krasne formed on 2 ranks.
In 1814 many of the French battalions were so weak (II Corps had 52
out of 53 battalions of only 198 men each) that they were forced to
form on 2 ranks.
In 1815 at Waterloo 2 battalions of 85th Line were deployed near the
Grand Battery when Scots Greys attacked them. The two battalions
were quickly combined into one square. Although the square of the 85th
was formed only on 2 ranks, they repulsed the dragoons with easy.
.
The French and one rank.
In certain situations the French infantry also used one rank. At Eylau in 1807 the Imperial Guard stood
under heavy artillery fire from Russian batteries. Armand de Bonneval who was not present but
later became Dorsennes aide, adds that the Imperial Guard grenadiers deployed in a single rank.
Given that his source was probably Dorsenne, this is quite possible. (Arnold - "Crisis in the snows" p.
313)
In 1809 at Wagram, the French Guard infantry while bein

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Napoleon, His Army and Enemies : Napoleonic Battles : Uniforms : Maps : Tactics

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