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Updated: Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much
Updated: Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much
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Helping
Patients Who
Drink Too Much
ACLINICIANSGUIDE
Updated 2005 Edition
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January 2007
16
CLINICIAN SUPPORT MATERIALS
Supporting Patients Who Take Medications for
Alcohol Dependence
Pharmacotherapy for alcohol dependence is most effective when combined
with some behavioral support, but this doesnt need to be specialized, intensive
alcohol counseling. Nurses and physicians in general medical and mental health
settings, as well as counselors, can offer brief but effective behavioral support
that promotes recovery. Applying this medication management approach in
such settings would greatly expand access to effective treatment, given that
many patients with alcohol dependence either dont have access to specialty
treatment or refuse a referral.
How can general medical and mental health clinicians support patients
who take medication for alcohol dependence?
Managing the care of patients who take medication for alcohol dependence is
similar to other disease management strategies such as initiating insulin therapy
in patients with diabetes mellitus. In the recent Combining Medications and
Behavioral Interventions (COMBINE) clinical trial, physicians, nurses, and
other health care professionals in outpatient settings delivered a series of brief
behavioral support sessions for patients taking medications for alcohol depend-
ence.
22
The sessions promoted recovery by increasing adherence to medication
and supporting abstinence through education and referral to support groups.
22
This Guide offers a set of how-to templates outlining this program (see pages
1922). It was designed for easy implementation in nonspecialty settings, in
keeping with the national trend toward integrating the treatment of substance
use disorders into medical practice.
What are the components of medication management support?
Medication management support consists of brief, structured outpatient
sessions conducted by a health care professional. The initial session starts by
reviewing the medical evaluation results with the patient as well as the negative
consequences from drinking. This information frames a discussion about the
diagnosis of alcohol dependence, the recommendation for abstinence, and the
rationale for medication. The clinician then provides information on the
medication itself and adherence strategies, and encourages participation in a
mutual support group such as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA).
In subsequent visits, the clinician assesses the patients drinking, overall
functioning, medication adherence, and any side effects from the medication.
Session structure varies according to the patients drinking status and treatment
compliance, as outlined on page 22. When a patient doesnt adhere to the
medication regimen, its important to evaluate the reasons and help the patient
devise plans to address them. A helpful summary of strategies for handling
nonadherence is provided in the Medical Management Treatment Manual
from Project COMBINE, available online at www.niaaa.nih.gov/guide.
17
CLINICIAN SUPPORT MATERIALS
As conducted in the COMBINE trial, the program consisted of an initial
session of about 45 minutes followed by eight 20-minute sessions during
weeks 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 16. General medical or mental health practices
may not follow this particular schedule, but its offered along with the
templates as a starting point for developing a program that works for your
practice and your patients.
Can medication management support be used with patients who dont
endorse a goal of abstinence?
This medication management program has been tested only in patients for
whom abstinence was recommended, as is true with most pharmacotherapy
studies. Its not known whether it would also work if the patients goal is to cut
back instead of abstain. Even when patients do endorse abstinence as a
goal, they often cut back without quitting. Youre encouraged to continue
working with those patients who are working toward recovery but havent yet
met the optimal goals of abstinence or reduced drinking with full remission
of dependence symptoms. You may also find many of the techniques used in
medication management supportsuch as linking symptoms and laboratory
results with heavy alcohol useto be helpful for managing alcohol-dependent
patients in general.
18
CLINICIAN SUPPORT MATERIALS
Initial Session Template
page 1 of 2
Medication Management Support for Alcohol Dependence
This template outlines the first in a series of appointments designed to support patients diagnosed with alcohol
dependence who are starting a course of medication to help them maintain abstinence.
Date: Time spent:
Patient name:
Pertinent history:
Observations:
Before counseling:
Record from the patients chart:
Alcohol-dependence medication prescribed:
naltrexone PO XR-naltrexone injectable acamprosate disulfiram other:
dose and schedule:
Lab results and other patient information (fill in the left column of the chart below, to the degree possible)
Gather:
Patient information on the medication (available, for example, from www.medlineplus.gov)
Wallet emergency card for naltrexone or disulfiram (see www.niaaa.nih.gov/guide)
Listing of local mutual help groups. For AA, see www.aa.org; for other groups, see the National
Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information Web site at www.ncadi.samhsa.gov under Resources.
Patient information
from the chart or patient report,
this forms the basis for counseling
Counseling
delivered in a nonjudgmental way, this enhances patient
motivation and provides the rationale for medication
1
Review lab results and medical adverse
consequences of heavy drinking:
Liver function test results:
AST (SGOT):
ALT (SGPT):
GGT (GGTP):
Total Bilirubin:
Albumin:
Blood pressure: / Pulse:
Other medical conditions affected by drinking
and relevant lab results:
diabetes heart disease GI:
insomnia depression anxiety pain
other:
other relevant lab results (e.g., MCV):
Tie results and symptoms to heavy alcohol use:
Describe normal liver function and adverse effects of
heavy drinking, then discuss results of liver function
tests:
If normal range: This is a positive sign that your liver has avoided
harm so far, and that now you have the opportunity to keep it
that way by changing your drinking habits. Having a healthy liver
will also help you make a quicker, more complete recovery.
If abnormal: The test results are most likely a sign of unhealthy
changes in your liver from heavy alcohol use. The longer you
continue to drink, the harder it is to reverse the damage. But if
you stop drinking, you may be able to get your liver function
back to normal.
If blood pressure is elevated, describe relationship
between high blood pressure and heavy drinking.
Describe relationship between condition(s) and heavy
drinking, including relevant lab results.
19
CLINICIAN SUPPORT MATERIALS
Initialpage 2 of 2
Review amount of drinking and nonmedical
adverse consequences of heavy drinking:
Amount of drinking: When was last drink?
In the past 30 days,
how many drinking days (any alcohol): days
how many heavy drinking days (5+ drinks/day for men,
4+ drinks/day for women): days
Nonmedical adverse consequences:
interpersonal employment/school legal
specify:
2
Focus more on the consequences of drinking than
on the quantity:
I see that when you drink, you drink heavily, and that youve
reported some problems related to that, such as (x). We see these
as (additional) signs that drinking is harmful for you.
Confirm diagnosis of alcohol dependence.
3
Recommend abstinence and provide rationale for
medications:
You have a diagnosis of alcohol dependence. (Provide patient
materials if available.) We strongly recommend that you stop
drinking altogether. For someone with alcohol dependence, this
is the safest choice. Its also best for your health. Quitting is
hard, which is why a medication has been prescribed that may
help you abstain.
Review the patients decision on abstinence:
Is the patient willing to abstain? yes no
Comment:
4
If the patient is unwilling or unable to commit to
abstinence, offer a trial period:
If youre thinking that lifelong abstinence is too difficult a goal to
commit to right now, you could try a brief period of, say, a month
to find out what its like to live without alcohol. Would you be
willing to try this out?
If a trial of abstinence isnt accepted, reconsider whether
medication is still appropriate with a modified goal.
Provide medication counseling, focusing on
5
6
7
Mechanism of action and time course of effects. Describe how Adherence strategies. Discuss the patients history of pill-taking
the medication works and how long it may take to be effective. practices, then strategies to promote adherence, such as taking pills
Potential side effects. Discuss the likelihood of side effects
at the same time each day, using weekly pill containers, and
(see the package insert) and ways to cope with adverse events
enlisting others support.
such as nausea or diarrhea. Advise the patient to contact you if Emergency cards. For naltrexone, educate the patient about
concerned about side effects. potential complications with opioid use and analgesics. For disulfi-
Dosing and adherence. Review the dosing regimen, remind the
ram, educate the patient about the alcohol-disulfiram reaction and
patient to take the medication consistently for effectiveness, and
avoiding alcohol in food and medicines. Give the patient wallet
explain what to do if a dose is skipped.
emergency cards: (initials and date)
Encourage participation in a mutual support group:
Provide list of local options and describe the benefits of
If the patient has attended a meeting before and wasnt
attendance. Note that attending AA or another mutual support
comfortable: Not all groups are alike. Its likely that youll
group is a way to acquire a network of friends who have found
need to try several before finding one that feels right.
ways to live without alcohol. Tell the patient that medication is If the patient is concerned about members disapproving of his
time limited and that the importance of mutual support groups or her medication: The medication is a tool youll use in an
increases when medications are stopped. effort not to drink. It has been shown to help others stop
Address barriers to attendance:
drinking. Also, its not addicting. And the official policy of AA
If the patient is reluctant to attend: Would you be willing to
supports people taking nonaddicting medicines prescribed by
try just one meeting before our next session?
a doctor.
Wrap up:
Summarize the diagnosis and Ask about remaining questions Other followup:
recommendation for abstinence or concerns
Summarize dosage regimen Schedule the next visit
20
8
Next appointment date:
CLINICIAN SUPPORT MATERIALS
Followup Session Template
page 1 of 2
Medication Management Support for Alcohol Dependence
Date: Time spent:
Patient name:
Vital signs (if taken): BP: / P: Weight:
Laboratory data (if available): GGT: AST: ALT: Other:
General progress and patient concerns since the last visit:
Observations of patient cognition: Mood:
Physical signs: Other:
Drinking status
How long since the last drink? days/weeks/months
In the past 30 days (or since the last visit if less than 30 days):
how many drinking days (any alcohol): days in the past days
how many heavy drinking days (5+ drinks/day for men, 4+ drinks/day for women):
days in the past days
Other:
Alcohol pharmacotherapy
Medications prescribed: none naltrexone PO XR-naltrexone injectable acamprosate
disulfiram other:
In the past 30 days (or since the last visit if less than 30 days), how many days has the patient taken
medication? days in the past days
Side effects: none nausea vomiting diarrhea headache injection site reaction
other:
Patients perception of the medications effectiveness: helpful not helpful not sure
specify:
Other treatment received
Since your last visit, have you:
Yes No
Started any new medications? (specify)
Attended mutual support groups? If yes, how often?
Received alcohol or addiction counseling? (specify)
Received other counseling? (specify)
Entered a treatment program?
residential intensive outpatient other (specify)
Been hospitalized for alcohol or drug use? (specify)
Been treated for withdrawal (shakes)? (specify)
21
CLINICIAN SUPPORT MATERIALS
Counseling provided (check the dialogue used)
Is the patient drinking?
NO
Is the patient adherent
to medications?
NO
Congratulate the
patient for not
drinking
Review the benefits
of pharmacotherapy
Ask why the
medications are not
taken regularly
Explore possible
remedies to correct
nonadherence
Set the next
appointment
YES
Reinforce the
patients ability to
follow advice and
stick to the plan
Ask what the patient
has done to achieve
this outcome
Encourage the
patient to stick with
the planKeep up
the good work!
Review the benefits
of abstinence
Set the next
appointment
YES
Is the patient adherent
to medications?
NO
Review the initial
reasons for seeking
treatment (i.e.,
negative consequences
of drinking)
Review the benefits
of abstinence and
pharmacotherapy
Review the reasons
for medication
nonadherence
Create a new adherence
plan, addressing
barriers to treatment
and providing sugges-
tions on minimizing
drinking cues
Encourage the patient
to give treatment a
chance
Set the next
appointment
YES
Praise any small steps
toward abstinence
(e.g., fewer heavy
drinking days)
Review the benefits
of abstinence
Review the benefits
of mutual support
group meetings
Remind the patient
that medications take
time to work
Set the next
appointment
Followuppage 2 of 2
Other recommendations (e.g., side effects management, new adherence plan):
Followup: Continue the current treatment plan
Change the treatment plan as follows:
(for nurses): Refer to physician for medical evaluation
Next appointment date:
22
CLINICIAN SUPPORT MATERIALS
Referral Resources
When making referrals, involve your patient in the decisions and schedule a
referral appointment while he or she is in your office.
Finding evaluation and treatment options
For patients with insurance, contact a behavioral health case manager at the
insurance company for a referral.
For patients who are uninsured or underinsured, contact your local health
department about addiction services.
For patients who are employed, ask whether they have access to an
Employee Assistance Program with addiction counseling.
To locate treatment options in your area:
Call local hospitals to see which ones offer addiction services.
Call the National Drug and Alcohol Treatment Referral Routing Service
(1-800-662-HELP) or visit the Substance Abuse Facility Treatment
Locator Web site at http://findtreatment.samhsa.gov.
Finding support groups
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) offers free, widely available groups of
volunteers in recovery from alcohol dependence. Volunteers are often
willing to work with professionals who refer patients. For contact
information for your region, visit www.aa.org.
Other mutual help organizations that offer secular approaches, groups for
women only, or support for family members can be found on the National
Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information Web site
(www.ncadi.samhsa.gov) under Resources.
Local resources
Use the space below for contact information for resources in your area
(treatment centers, mutual support groups such as AA, local government servic-
es, the closest Veterans Affairs medical center, shelters, churches).
23
PATIENT EDUCATION MATERIALS
Whats a Standard Drink?
A standard drink in the United States is any drink that contains about 14 grams of pure alcohol (about
0.6 fluid ounces or 1.2 tablespoons). Below are U.S. standard drink equivalents. These are approximate,
since different brands and types of beverages vary in their actual alcohol content.
12 oz. of
beer or
cooler
5 oz. of
table wine
34 oz. of
fortified wine
(such as
sherry or port)
3.5 oz. shown
23 oz. of
cordial,
liqueur, or
aperitif
2.5 oz. shown
1.5 oz. of
brandy
(a single jigger)
1.5 oz. of
spirits
(a single jigger
of 80-proof
gin, vodka,
whiskey, etc.)
Shown straight and
in a highball glass
with ice to show
the level before
adding a mixer*
89 oz. of
malt liquor
8.5 oz. shown in
a 12-oz. glass that,
if full, would hold
about 1.5 standard
drinks of malt liquor
~5% alcohol ~7% alcohol ~12% alcohol ~17% alcohol ~24% alcohol ~40% alcohol ~40% alcohol
12 oz. 8.5 oz. 5 oz. 3.5 oz. 2.5 oz. 1.5 oz. 1.5 oz.
Many people dont know what counts as a standard drink and so they dont realize how many standard
drinks are in the containers in which these drinks are often sold. Some examples:
For beer, the approximate number of standard drinks in
12 oz. = 1 22 oz. = 2
16 oz. = 1.3 40 oz. = 3.3
For malt liquor, the approximate number of standard drinks in
12 oz. = 1.5 22 oz. = 2.5
16 oz. = 2 40 oz. = 4.5
For table wine, the approximate number of standard drinks in
a standard 750-mL (25-oz.) bottle = 5
For 80-proof spirits, or hard liquor, the approximate number of standard drinks in
a mixed drink = 1 or more* a fifth (25 oz.) = 17
a pint (16 oz.) = 11 1.75 L (59 oz.) = 39
*Note: It can be difficult to estimate the number of standard drinks in a single mixed drink made with hard
liquor. Depending on factors such as the type of spirits and the recipe, a mixed drink can contain from one to
three or more standard drinks.
24
PATIENT EDUCATION MATERIALS
U.S. Adult Drinking Patterns
Nearly 3 in 10 U.S. adults engage in at-risk drinking patterns
3
and thus would benefit from advice to cut down
or a referral for further evaluation. During a brief intervention, you can use this chart to show that (1) most people
abstain or drink within the recommended limits and (2) the prevalence of alcohol use disorders rises with heavier
drinking. Though a wise first step, cutting to within the limits is not risk free, since motor vehicle crashes and other
problems can occur at lower drinking levels.
WHATS
YOUR
DRINKING
PATTERN?
HOW
COMMON
IS THIS
PATTERN?
HOW COMMON ARE
ALCOHOL DISORDERS
IN DRINKERS WITH
THIS PATTERN?
Based on the following limitsnumber of drinks:
On any DAYNever more than 4 (men) or 3 (women)
and
In a typical WEEKNo more than 14 (men) or 7 (women)
Percentage of
U.S. adults
aged 18
or older*
Combined
prevalence
of alcohol abuse
and dependence**
Never exceed the daily or weekly limits
(2 out of 3 people in this group abstain or
drink fewer than 12 drinks a year)
72%
fewer than
1 in 100
Exceed only the daily limit
(More than 8 out of 10 in this group exceed
the daily limit less than once a week)
16%
1 in 5
Exceed both daily and weekly limits
(8 out of 10 in this group exceed
the daily limit once a week or more)
10%
almost
1 in 2
* Not included in the chart, for simplicity, are the 2 percent of U.S. adults who exceed only the weekly limits. The combined prevalence of alcohol use
disorders in this group is 8 percent.
** See page 5 for the diagnostic criteria for alcohol disorders.
25
PATIENT EDUCATION MATERIALS
Strategies for Cutting Down
Small changes can make a big difference in reducing your chances of having alcohol-related problems. Here are some
strategies to try. Check off some to try the first week, and add some others the next.
Keeping track
Keep track of how much you drink. Find a way that works for you, such as a 3x5" card in your wallet, check marks on
a kitchen calendar, or a personal digital assistant. If you make note of each drink before you drink it, this will help you
slow down when needed.
Counting and measuring
Know the standard drink sizes so you can count your drinks accurately. One standard drink is 12 ounces of regular
beer, 8 to 9 ounces of malt liquor, 5 ounces of table wine, or 1.5 ounces of 80-proof spirits. Measure drinks at home.
Away from home, it can be hard to know the number of standard drinks in mixed drinks. To keep track, you may
need to ask the server or bartender about the recipe.
Setting goals
Decide how many days a week you want to drink and how many drinks
youll have on those days. You can reduce your risk of alcohol dependence
and related problems by drinking within the limits in the box to the right.
Its a good idea to have some days when you dont drink.
Pacing and spacing
When you do drink, pace yourself. Sip slowly. Have no more than one
drink with alcohol per hour. Alternate drink spacersnonalcoholic
drinks such as water, soda, or juicewith drinks containing alcohol.
Including food
Dont drink on an empty stomach. Have some food so the alcohol will
be absorbed more slowly into your system.
Avoiding triggers
What triggers your urge to drink? If certain people or places make you
drink even when you dont want to, try to avoid them. If certain activities,
times of day, or feelings trigger the urge, plan what youll do instead of
drinking. If drinking at home is a problem, keep little or no alcohol there.
MAXIMUM DRINKING LIMITS
FOR HEALTHY ADULTS*
For healthy men up to age 65
no more than 4 drinks in a day
AND
no more than 14 drinks in a week
For healthy women (and healthy
men over age 65)
no more than 3 drinks in a day
AND
no more than 7 drinks in a week
* Dependingonyourhealthstatus,yourdoctor
mayadviseyoutodrinklessorabstain.
Planning to handle urges
When an urge hits, consider these options: Remind yourself of your reasons for changing. Or talk it through with
someone you trust. Or get involved with a healthy, distracting activity. Or urge surf instead of fighting the feeling,
accept it and ride it out, knowing that it will soon crest like a wave and pass.
Knowing your no
Youre likely to be offered a drink at times when you dont want one. Have a polite, convincing no, thanks ready.
The faster you can say no to these offers, the less likely you are to give in. If you hesitate, it allows you time to think
of excuses to go along.
Additional tips for quitting
If you want to quit drinking altogether, the last three strategies can help. In addition, you may wish to ask for support
from people who might be willing to help, such as a significant other or nondrinking friends. Joining Alcoholics
Anonymous or another mutual support group is a way to acquire a network of friends who have found ways to live with-
out alcohol. If youre dependent on alcohol and decide to stop drinking completely, dont go it alone. Sudden withdrawal
from heavy drinking can cause dangerous side effects such as seizures. See a doctor to plan a safe recovery.
26
ONLINE MATERIALS FOR CLINICIANS AND PATIENTS
Online Materials for Clinicians and Patients
Visit the NIAAA Web site at www.niaaa.nih.gov/guide for these and other materials to support you in alcohol
screening, brief interventions, and followup patient care. NIAAA continually develops and updates materials
for practitioners and patients; please check the Web site for new offerings. You may also order materials by
writing to the NIAAA Publications Distribution Center, P.O. Box 10686, Rockville, MD 20849-0686 or
calling 3014433860.
Clinician support and training
Forms for downloading
Screening instrument: The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test
(AUDIT) in English and Spanish
Assessment support: Sample questions for assessment of alcohol use disorders
Preformatted progress notes and templates
o Baseline and followup progress notes
o Medication management support templates
Medication wallet card form
Animated slide show
This 80-slide PowerPoint show helps instructors present the content of the
Guide to students and professionals in the general medicine and mental health
fields.
Online training
Coming in spring 2007: Online training in screening and brief intervention
for Continuing Medical Education credit.
Publications for professionals
Alcohol Alerts: These 4-page bulletins provide timely information on alcohol
research and treatment.
Alcohol Research & Health: Each issue of this quarterly peer-reviewed journal
contains review articles on a central topic related to alcohol research.
A Pocket Guide for Alcohol Screening and Brief Intervention: This is a
condensed, portable version of this publication.
Spanish edition of the Guide: Ayudando a Pacientes Que Beben en Exceso
Guia Para Profesionales de la Salud.
Patient education
Handouts for downloading
In English and Spanish: Strategies for Cutting Down; U.S. Adult Drinking
Patterns; Whats a Standard Drink?
Publications for the public
In English and Spanish: Alcohol: A Womens Health Issue; Frequently Asked
Questions about Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse; A Family History of Alcoholism:
Are You at Risk? and more
27
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
Frequently Asked Questions
About alcohol screening and brief
interventions
How effective is screening for heavy drinking?
Studies have demonstrated that screening is
sensitive and that patients are willing to give honest
information about their drinking to health care
practitioners when appropriate methods are used.
6,15
Several methods have been shown to work,
including quantity-frequency interview questions
and questionnaires such as the CAGE, the AUDIT,
the shorter AUDIT-C, the TWEAK (for pregnant
women), and others.
28,29
In this Guide, the single
screening question about heavy drinking days was
chosen for its simplicity and because almost all
people with alcohol use disorders report drinking
5 or more drinks in a day (for men) or 4 or more
(for women) at least occasionally. This Guide also
recommends the AUDIT (provided on page 11)
as a self-administered screening tool because of
its high levels of validity and reliability.
15
With the single interview question, screening is
positive with just one heavy drinking day in the
past year. Isnt that casting a very broad net?
A common reaction to the screening question
is, Everybodys going to meet this, at least
occasionally. A large national survey by NIAAA,
however, showed that nearly three-fourths of U.S.
adults never exceed the limits in the screening
question.
3
Even if patients report that they only
drink heavily on rare occasions, screening provides
an opportunity to educate them about safe
drinking limits so that heavy drinking doesnt
become more frequent. The risk for alcohol-related
problems rises with the number of heavy drinking
days,
1
and some problems, such as driving while
intoxicated or trauma, can occur with a single
occasion.
How effective are brief interventions?
Randomized, controlled clinical trials in a variety
of populations and settings have shown that brief
interventions can decrease alcohol use significantly
among people who drink above the recommended
limits but arent dependent. In several intervention
trials with multiple brief contacts, for example,
heavy drinkers cut an average of three to nine
drinks per week, for a 13 to 34 percent net
reduction in consumption.
30
Even relatively modest
reductions in drinking can have important health
benefits when spread across a large number of
people. Brief intervention trials have also reported
significant decreases in blood pressure readings,
levels of gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT),
psychosocial problems, hospital days, and hospital
readmissions for alcohol-related trauma.
8
Followup
periods typically range from 6 to 24 months,
although one recent study reported sustained
reductions in alcohol use over 48 months.
8
A cost-
benefit analysis in this study showed that each
dollar invested in brief physician intervention could
reap more than fourfold savings in future health
care costs. Other research shows that for alcohol-
dependent patients with an alcohol-related medical
illness, repeated brief interventions at approximate-
ly monthly intervals for 1 to 2 years can lead to
significant reductions in or cessation of drinking.
9,10
What can I do to encourage my patients to give
honest and accurate answers to the screening
questions?
Its often best to ask about alcohol consumption
at the same time as other health behaviors such
as smoking, diet, and exercise. Using an empathic,
nonconfrontational approach can help put patients
at ease. Some clinicians have found that prefacing
the alcohol questions with a nonthreatening opener
such as Do you enjoy a drink now and then? can
encourage reserved patients to talk. Patients may
feel that a written or computerized self-report
version of the AUDIT is less confrontational as
well. To improve the accuracy of estimated
drinking quantities, you could ask patients to look
at the Whats a Standard Drink? chart on page
24. Many people are surprised to learn what counts
as a single standard drink, especially for beverages
with a higher alcohol content such as malt liquors,
fortified wines, and spirits. The chart also lists the
number of standard drinks in commonly purchased
beverage containers. In some situations, you may
consider adding the questions How often do you
buy alcohol? and How much do you buy? to
help build an accurate estimate.
28
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
How can a clinic- or office-based screening
system be implemented?
The best studied method, which is both easy and
efficient, is to ask patients to fill out the 10-item
AUDIT before seeing the doctor. This form
(provided on page 11) can be added to others that
patients fill out. The full AUDIT or the 3-item
AUDIT-C can also be incorporated into a larger
health history form. The AUDIT-C consists of
the first three consumption-related items of the
AUDIT; a score of 6 or more for men and 4 or
more for women
31
indicates a positive screen.
Alternatively, the single-item screen in Step 1 of
this Guide could be incorporated into a health
history form. Screening can also be done in person
by a nurse during patient check-in. (See also
Set Up Your Practice to Simplify the Process
on page 3.)
Are there any specific considerations for imple-
menting screening in mental health settings?
Studies have demonstrated a strong relationship
between alcohol use disorders and other mental
disorders.
32
Heavy drinking can cause psychiatric
symptoms such as depression, anxiety, insomnia,
cognitive dysfunction, and interpersonal conflict.
For patients who have an independent psychiatric
disorder, heavy drinking may compromise the
treatment response. Thus, it is important that all
mental health clinicians conduct routine screening
for heavy drinking.
Less is known about the performance of screening
methods or brief interventions in mental health
settings than in primary care settings. Still, the
single-question screener in this Guide is likely to
work reasonably well, since almost everyone with
an alcohol use disorder reports drinking above the
recommended daily limits at least occasionally.
Mental health clinicians may need to conduct a
more thorough assessment to determine whether an
alcohol use disorder is present and how it might be
interacting with other mental or substance use
disorders. The recommended limits for drinking
may need to be lowered depending on coexisting
problems and prescribed medications.
Similarly, a more extended behavioral intervention
may be needed to address coexisting alcohol use
disorders, either delivered as part of mental health
treatment or through referral to an addiction
specialist.
About drinking levels and advice
When should I recommend abstaining versus
cutting down?
Certain conditions warrant advice to abstain as
opposed to cutting down. These include when
drinkers:
are or may become pregnant
are taking a contraindicated medication
(see box below)
have a medical or psychiatric disorder caused by
or exacerbated by drinking
have an alcohol use disorder
If patients with alcohol use disorders are unwilling
to commit to abstinence, they may be willing to
cut down on their drinking. This should be
encouraged while noting that abstinence, the safest
strategy, has a greater chance of long-term success.
For heavy drinkers who dont have an alcohol use
disorder, use professional judgment to determine
whether cutting down or abstaining is more
appropriate, based on factors such as these:
Interactions Between Alcohol and Medications
Alcohol can interact negatively with medications either by interfering with the metabolism of the
medication (generally in the liver) or by enhancing the effects of the medication (particularly in the
central nervous system). Many classes of prescription medicines can interact with alcohol, including
antibiotics, antidepressants, antihistamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, histamine H2 receptor agonists,
muscle relaxants, nonopioid pain medications and anti-inflammatory agents, opioids, and warfarin. In
addition, many over-the-counter medications and herbal preparations can cause negative side effects when
taken with alcohol.
29
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
a family history of alcohol problems
advanced age
injuries related to drinking
symptoms such as sleep disorders or sexual
dysfunction
It may be useful to discuss different options,
such as cutting down to recommended limits or
abstaining completely for perhaps a month or two,
then reconsidering future drinking. If cutting down
is the initial strategy but the patient is unable to
stay within limits, recommend abstinence.
How do I factor the potential benefits of
moderate drinking into my advice to patients
who drink rarely or not at all?
Moderate consumption of alcohol (defined by U.S.
Dietary Guidelines as up to two drinks a day for
men and one for women) has been associated with
a reduced risk of coronary heart disease.
33
Achieving
a balance between the risks and benefits of alcohol
consumption remains difficult, however, because
each person has a different susceptibility to diseases
potentially caused or prevented by alcohol. The
advice you would give to a young person with a
family history of alcoholism, for example, would
differ from the advice you would give to a middle-
aged patient with a family history of premature
heart disease. Most experts dont recommend
advising nondrinking patients to begin drinking
to reduce their cardiovascular risk. However, if a
patient is considering this, discuss safe drinking
limits and ways to avoid alcohol-induced harm.
Why are the recommended drinking limits lower
for some patients?
The limits are lower for women because they have
proportionally less body water than men do and
thus achieve higher blood alcohol concentrations
after drinking the same amount of alcohol. Older
adults also have less lean body mass and greater
sensitivity to alcohols effects. In addition, there are
many clinical situations where abstinence or lower
limits are indicated, because of a greater risk of
harm associated with drinking. Examples include
women who are or may become pregnant, patients
taking medications that may interact with alcohol,
young people with a family history of alcohol
dependence, and patients with physical or
psychiatric conditions that are caused by or
exacerbated by alcohol.
Some of my patients who drink heavily believe
that this is normal. What percentage of people
drink at, above, or below moderate levels?
About 7 in 10 adults abstain, drink rarely, or drink
within the daily and weekly limits noted in Step 1.
3
The rest exceed the daily limits, the weekly limits,
or both. The U.S. Adult Drinking Patterns chart
on page 25 shows the percentage of drinkers in
each category, as well as the prevalence of alcohol
use disorders in each group. Because heavy drinkers
often believe that most people drink as much and
as often as they do, providing normative data about
U.S. drinking patterns and related risks can provide
a helpful reality check. In particular, those who
believe that its fine to drink moderately during
the week and heavily on the weekends need to
know that they have a higher chance not only of
immediate alcohol-related injuries, but also of
developing alcohol use disorders and other alcohol-
related medical and psychiatric disorders.
Some of my patients who are pregnant dont see
any harm in having an occasional drink. Whats
the latest advice?
Some pregnant women may not be aware of the
risks involved with drinking, while others may
drink before they realize theyre pregnant. A recent
survey estimates that 1 in 10 pregnant women in
the United States drinks alcohol.
34
In addition,
among sexually active women who arent using
birth control, more than half drink and 12.4
percent report binge drinking, placing them at
particularly high risk for an alcohol-exposed
pregnancy.
34
Each year, an estimated 2,000 to 8,000 infants are
born with fetal alcohol syndrome in the United
States, and many thousands more are born with
some degree of alcohol-related effects.
35
These
problems range from mild learning and behavioral
problems to growth deficiencies to severe mental
and physical impairment. Together, these adverse
effects comprise fetal alcohol spectrum disorders.
Because it isnt known whether any amount of
alcohol is safe during pregnancy, the Surgeon
General recently reissued an advisory that urges
women who are or may become pregnant to
abstain from drinking alcohol.
2
The advisory also
recommends that pregnant women who have
already consumed alcohol stop to minimize further
30
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
risks and that health care professionals inquire
routinely about alcohol consumption by women of
childbearing age.
About diagnosing and helping
patients with alcohol use disorders
What if a patient reports some symptoms of an
alcohol use disorder but not enough to qualify
for a diagnosis?
Alcohol use disorders are similar to other medical
disorders such as hypertension, diabetes, or
depression in having gray zones of diagnosis. For
example, a patient might report a single arrest for
driving while intoxicated and no other symptoms.
Since a diagnosis of alcohol abuse requires
repetitive problems, that diagnosis couldnt be
made. Similarly, a patient might report one or two
symptoms of alcohol dependence, but three are
needed to qualify for a diagnosis.
Any symptom of abuse or dependence is a cause for
concern and should be addressed, since an alcohol
use disorder may be present or developing. These
patients may be more successful with abstaining as
opposed to cutting down to recommended limits.
Closer followup is indicated, as well as
reconsidering the diagnosis as more information
becomes available.
Should I recommend any particular behavioral
therapy for patients with alcohol use disorders?
Several types of behavioral therapy are used to
treat alcohol use disorders. Cognitive-behavioral
therapy, motivational enhancement, and 12-step
facilitation (e.g., the Minnesota Model) have all
been shown to be effective.
36
A combination of
approaches has been shown to be effective as well
(see the next question). Getting help in itself
appears to be more important than the particular
approach used, provided it avoids heavy con-
frontation and incorporates the basic elements of
empathy, motivational support, and an explicit
focus on changing drinking behavior. For patients
receiving medications for alcohol dependence, brief
medical counseling sessions delivered by a nurse or
physician have been shown to be effective without
additional behavioral treatment by a specialist
22
(see page 17).
In addition to more formal treatment approaches,
mutual help groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous
(AA) appear to be very beneficial for people who
stick with them. AA is widely available, free, and
requires no commitment other than a desire to
stop drinking. If youve never attended a meeting,
consider doing so as an observer and supporter.
To learn more, visit www.aa.org. Other self-help
organizations that offer secular approaches, groups
for women only, or support for family members
can be found on the National Clearinghouse for
Alcohol and Drug Information Web site
(www.ncadi.samhsa.gov) under Resources.
As a mental health clinician, how can I learn
more about specialized alcohol counseling?
For a recent major clinical trial, NIAAA grantees
designed state-of-the-art individual outpatient
psychotherapy for alcohol dependence. Called
a combined behavioral intervention (CBI),
it integrates cognitive-behavioral therapy,
motivational enhancement, 12-step approaches,
couples therapy, and community reinforcement
all treatments shown in earlier studies to be
beneficial. Behavioral specialists deliver CBI in up
to 20 sessions of 50 minutes (the median in the
trial was 10 sessions). The treatment has four
phases: building motivation for change, developing
an individual plan for treatment and change,
completing individualized skill-training modules,
and performing maintenance checkups. Findings
from the trial show that this specialized alcohol
counseling or the medication naltrexone was
effective, when coupled with structured medical
management.
22
The CBI strategy and supporting
materials are provided in the 328-page Combined
Behavioral Intervention Manual from Project
COMBINE; to order for a small fee, visit
www.niaaa.nih.gov/guide.
How should alcohol withdrawal be managed?
Alcohol withdrawal results when a person who
is alcohol dependent suddenly stops drinking.
Symptoms usually start within a few hours and
consist of tremors, sweating, elevated pulse and
blood pressure, nausea, insomnia, and anxiety.
Generalized seizures may also occur. A second
syndrome, alcohol withdrawal delirium, sometimes
follows. Beginning after 1 to 3 days and lasting
31
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
2 to 10 days, it consists of an altered sensorium,
disorientation, poor short-term memory, altered
sleep-wake cycle, and hallucinations. Management
typically consists of administering thiamine and
benzodiazepines, sometimes together with
anticonvulsants, beta adrenergic blockers, or
antipsychotics as indicated. Mild withdrawal can
be managed successfully in the outpatient setting,
but more complicated or severe cases require
hospitalization. (Consult references 37 and 38 on
page 34 for additional information.)
Are laboratory tests available to screen for
or monitor alcohol problems?
For screening purposes in primary care settings,
interviews and questionnaires have greater
sensitivity and specificity than blood tests for
biochemical markers, which identify only about
10 to 30 percent of heavy drinkers.
39,40
Nevertheless,
biochemical markers may be useful when heavy
drinking is suspected but the patient denies it. The
most sensitive and widely available test for this
purpose is the serum gamma-glutamyl transferase
(GGT) assay. It isnt very specific, however, so
reasons for GGT elevation other than excessive
alcohol use need to be eliminated. If elevated at
baseline, GGT and other transaminases may also
be helpful in monitoring progress and identifying
relapse, and serial values can provide valuable
feedback to patients after an intervention. Other
blood tests include the mean corpuscular volume
(MCV) of red blood cells, which is often elevated
in people with alcohol dependence, and the
carbohydrate-deficient transferrin (CDT) assay.
The CDT assay is about as sensitive as the GGT
and has the advantage of not being affected by
liver disease.
41
If I refer a patient for alcohol treatment, what
are the chances for recovery?
A review of seven large studies of alcoholism
treatment found that about one-third of patients
either were abstinent or drank moderately without
negative consequences or dependence in the year
following treatment.
42
Although the other two-
thirds had some periods of heavy drinking, on
average they reduced consumption and alcohol-
related problems by more than half. These
reductions appear to last at least 3 years.
36
This
substantial improvement in patients who do not
attain complete abstinence or problem-free reduced
drinking is often overlooked. These patients may
require further treatment, and their chances of
benefiting the next time dont appear to be
influenced significantly by having had prior
treatments.
42
As is true for other medical disorders,
some patients have more severe forms of alcohol
dependence that may require long-term
management.
What can I do to help patients who struggle to
remain abstinent or who relapse?
Changing drinking behavior is a challenge,
especially for those who are alcohol dependent.
The first 12 months of abstinence are especially
difficult, and relapse is most common during this
time. If patients do relapse, recognize that they
have a chronic disorder that requires continuing
care, just like asthma, hypertension, or diabetes.
Recurrence of symptoms is common and similar
across each of these disorders,
43
perhaps because
they require the patient to change health behaviors
to maintain gains. The most important principle is
to stay engaged with the patient and to maintain
optimism about eventual improvement. Most
people with alcohol dependence who continue to
work at recovery eventually achieve partial to full
remission of symptoms, and often do so without
specialized behavioral treatment.
44
For patients who
struggle to abstain or who relapse:
If the patient is not taking medication for
alcohol dependence, consider prescribing one
and following up with medication management
(see pages 1322).
Treat depression or anxiety disorders if they are
present more than 2 to 4 weeks after abstinence
is established.
Assess and address other possible triggers for
struggle or relapse, including stressful events,
interpersonal conflict, insomnia, chronic pain,
craving, or high-temptation situations such as a
wedding or convention.
If the patient is not attending a mutual help
group or is not receiving behavioral therapy,
consider recommending these support measures.
Encourage those who have relapsed by noting
that relapse is common and pointing out the
value of the recovery that was achieved.
Provide followup care and advise patients to
contact you if they are concerned about relapse.
32
NOTES
Notes
1. Dawson DA, Grant BF, Li TK. Quantifying the risks
associated with exceeding recommended drinking limits.
Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 29(5):902-908, 2005.
2. U.S. Surgeon General releases advisory on alcohol
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34
NIH Publication No. 073769
Reprinted May 2007