Co Hoc Luong Tu

TRNG AI HOC A LAT
GIAO TRNH
C HOC LNG T

ThS. NGUYEN DUY HNG

1998
C hoc lng t - 1 -
MUC LUC
MUC LUC............................................................................................................ - 1 -
LI NOI AU...................................................................................................... - 4 -
BAI M AU...................................................................................................... - 5 -
1 LC O TONG QUAT CUA VAT LY HOC........................................... - 5 -
2 BC TRANH THE GII CUA VAT LY HOC CO IEN......................... - 5 -
I/ Hai y tng c ban cua vat ly hoc co ien :............................................... - 5 -
II/ Hai bo phan chu yeu cua vat ly hoc co ien : .......................................... - 6 -
III/ Hai dang vat chat c ban cua vat ly hoc co ien :................................... - 7 -
IV/ Nhng quan niem c s cua vat ly hoc co ien : .................................... - 7 -
3 NHNG BE TAC CUA VAT LY HOC CO IEN VA NHNG Y TNG
NA LNG T ............................................................................................. - 8 -
CHNG I. C S CUA C HOC LNG T ............................................. - 10 -
1 C S VAT LY CUA C HOC LNG T ........................................... - 10 -
I/ The gii vi mo: ........................................................................................ - 10 -
2 HAI Y TNG C BAN CUA C HOC LNG T ............................ - 12 -
1/ Y tng lng t hoa. ............................................................................. - 12 -
2/ Y tng lng song hat. .......................................................................... - 13 -
3 C S TOAN HOC CUA C HOC LNG T .................................... - 16 -
I/.Toan t tuyen tnh : ................................................................................. - 16 -
II/ Giao hoan t va phan giao hoan t : ...................................................... - 17 -
III/. Bai toan tr rieng cua toan t tuyen tnh : ............................................ - 18 -
IV/. Mot so toan t at biet :....................................................................... - 19 -
V/.Toan t lien hp va toan t t lien hp (hecmitic) :............................... - 24 -
4 TH NGHIEM QUAN TRONG TNH THONG KE CUA C HOC LNG
T ................................................................................................................... - 28 -
I/ Th nghiem hai lo : .................................................................................. - 28 -
II/ Tnh thong ke cua CHLT: ...................................................................... - 29 -
5 CAC BIEN ONG LC TRONG C HOC LNG T ....................... - 30 -
1/.Cac toan t toa o : ................................................................................. - 30 -
2/.Cac toan t xung lng : ......................................................................... - 30 -
3/. Cac toan t Moment xung lng L va toan t moment xung lng bnh
phng L2 . ................................................................................................. - 31 -
4/.Toan t Hamilton H: ............................................................................... - 32 -
6 CAC HE THC BAT NH..................................................................... - 34 -
I/ Y Tng Lng Song Hat Va cac He Thc Bat nh: ........................... - 34 -
II/ Y ngha cua cac he thc bat nh: .......................................................... - 35 -
III/ Mot so ket qua thu c t he thc bat nh : ....................................... - 37 -
IV . Xay dng he thc bat nh Heisenberg: .............................................. - 39 -
7 HAM SONG . NGUYEN LY CHONG CHAP TRANG THAI. ................ - 44 -
I/. Ham Song:.............................................................................................. - 44 -
II/. Nguyen ly chong chap trang thai: ......................................................... - 45 -
8 PHNG TRNH SCHRODINGER................................................... - 46 -
I/. Cach Thiet lap phng trnh: .............................................................. - 46 -
ThS. Nguyen Duy Hng Khoa Vat ly
C hoc lng t - 2 -
9 CAC PHNG TRNH CHUYEN ONG LNG T .......................... - 49 -
I/ Nhan xet chung : ..................................................................................... - 49 -
II/ Cac moc Poisson lng t : .................................................................... - 50 -
III/ ao ham theo thi gian cua cac toan t :.............................................. - 52 -
IV/ Cac phng trnh chuyen ong lng t . nh ly Ehrenfest . .............. - 54 -
10 S LIEN HE GIA C HOC LNG T VI C HOC CO IEN VA
QUANG HOC................................................................................................. - 56 -
I/ S chuyen t phng trnh Schrodinger hien ai ve phng trnh Hamilton
Jacobi co ien : ........................................................................................... - 56 -
II/ C hoc lng t va quang hoc : .............................................................. - 60 -
11 CAC CACH PHAT BIEU C HOC LNG T ................................... - 61 -
I/ C hoc lng t cua Schrodinger: ........................................................... - 61 -
II/ C hoc ma tran Heisenberg: .................................................................. - 62 -
III/ C hoc lng t cua P.Dirac : ............................................................... - 62 -
IV/ C hoc lng t cua R. Feynman :........................................................ - 64 -
12 CAC CACH MO TA S PHU THUOC THI GIAN CUA HE VI MO . - 65 -
1/ Bc tranh Schrodinger : .......................................................................... - 66 -
2/ Bc tranh Heisenberg: ............................................................................ - 67 -
3/ Bc tranh tng tac : ............................................................................... - 67 -
4/ So sanh hai bc tranh c ban: (bc tranh Schrodinger va bc tranh
Heisenberg ) . ............................................................................................. - 67 -
13 CAC BIEU DIEN TRONG C HOC LNG T ............................. - 68 -
I/ C hoc lng t trong
F
bieu dien : ....................................................... - 68 -

II/ Vai bieu dien cu the:.............................................................................. - 71 -
CHNG II. MOT SO BAI TOAN C BAN CUA PHNG TRNH
SCHRODINGER................................................................................................ - 73 -
1 CHUYEN ONG T DO......................................................................... - 73 -
2 BAI TOAN MOT CHIEU.......................................................................... - 75 -
I/ Hat trong ho the ( gieng the ) sau vo han : .............................................. - 75 -
II/ The bac thang: ....................................................................................... - 76 -
III/ S truyen qua hang rao the co be rong hu han: .................................. - 78 -
IV/ Ho the nang co cac thanh cao hu han ................................................. - 79 -
3 DAO ONG T IEU HOA .................................................................... - 82 -
4 CHUYEN ONG TRONG TRNG XUYEN TAM. NGUYEN T
HYDRO.......................................................................................................... - 84 -
I/ Momen goc : (Momen ong lng )........................................................ - 84 -
II/ Hat trong trng oi xng cau (chuyen ong xuyen tam)...................... - 87 -
III/ Nguyen t Hydrogen : .......................................................................... - 89 -
CHNG III. LY THUYET SPIN CUA PAULI ............................................... - 92 -
1 SPIN CUA ELECTRON............................................................................ - 93 -
1/ Cac toan t spin : .................................................................................... - 93 -
2. Cac tnh chat cua cac toan t Pauli ......................................................... - 96 -
3. Vecto Spin .............................................................................................. - 96 -
2 PHNG TRNH PAULI........................................................................ - 100 -
C hoc lng t - 3 -
CHNG IV. PHNG PHAP NHIEU LOAN.............................................. - 102 -
1 LY THUYET NHIEU LOAN DNG KHONG SUY BIEN . ................. - 102 -
2 HIEU NG ZEEMANN.......................................................................... - 105 -
3 LY THUYET NHIEU LOAN DNG CO SUY BIEN HIEU NG STARK ... -
108 -
I/ Ly thuyet nhieu loan dng co suy bien : ............................................... - 108 -
II/ Hieu ng Stark trong nguyen t Hydrogen : ........................................ - 109 -
CHNG V. HE CAC HAT ONG NHAT.................................................... - 115 -
1 TOAN T HOAN V. NGUYEN LY PAULI.......................................... - 115 -
1/ Toan t hoan v ..................................................................................... - 115 -
2/ Cac hat Bose va cac hat Fermi (cac boson va cac Fermion) ................ - 116 -
3/ Ham song cua he ong nhat khong tng tac. Nguyen ly Pauli. .......... - 116 -
2 NANG LUNG TRAO OI VA NGUYEN T HELI............................ - 118 -
I/. nh ngha nang lng trao oi : .......................................................... - 118 -
II/.Nguyen t Heli :................................................................................... - 118 -
BAI KET .......................................................................................................... - 122 -
I/. Cac nguyen ly va bai toan c ban cua c hoc lng t : .......................... - 122 -
1/. Ha m Song Va Nguyen Ly Chong Chat Trang Thai. ...................... - 122 -
2/ Gia Tr Trung Bnh: .............................................................................. - 123 -
3/ Bai toan tr rieng va cac gia tr o c cua cac ai lng vat ly trong thc
nghiem...................................................................................................... - 123 -
4/ Phng trnh c ban: ............................................................................. - 123 -
5/ Nguyen ly khong phan biet cac hat ong nhat:..................................... - 124 -
II/ Nhng chan tri mi hay la s phat trien tiep tuc cua C hoc lng t:- 125 -
Tai lieu tham khao: .......................................................................................... - 127 -

C hoc lng t - 4 -
LI NOI AU

Cac ban sinh vien Vat Ly than men !

Cuon giao trnh c hoc lng t nay c soan danh cho cac ban. ay la s
chat loc t hau het cac giao trnh c hoc lng t a c soan bi nhng nha vat ly
noi tieng tren the gii cung nh Viet Nam. Bi le c hoc lng t la thanh tu v
ai cua tr tue nhan loai the ky th 20,a va van ang la c s cua cac mui nhon
cua vat ly hoc tham ch ngay ca trong the ky 21 sap ti.
Tuy nhien do: C hoc lng t la mon rat kho, rat phc tap tham ch ky
quac, nen viec soan mot giao trnh cho de hieu sang sua trong khuon kho 100
trang giay la ieu vo cung kho khan tham ch la ieu khong the thc hien t nhat
la oi vi toi. Khong nhng the khuon kho cua giao trnh nay la tng ng vi 60
tiet hoc trong chng trnh hoc cua khoa vat ly hien nay. V vay mac du toi a het
sc co gang va bo nhieu cong sc cuon sach nay khong the c xem la mot giao
trnh hoan chnh va no cang khong the thay the cho viec nghe giang cua cac ban.
Toi xin lu y cac ban oi ieu ve ac iem cua giao trnh nay .Pham vi ng
dung cua C hoc lng t la vo cung rong rai , v du nh : Hoa hoc lng t , Ly
thuyet trng Lng t , Ly thuyet hat nhan va Cau truc hat nhan nguyen t, Ly
thuyet chat ran , ien t hoc lng t va con nhieu nganh khac na .Chnh v the
e hieu that s ay u ve C hoc lng t phai trnh bay trong nhng tai lieu kha
o so . Tuy nhien do nhieu ly do xuat phat t thc tien hoc tap va giang day cua
chung ta hien nay , giao trnh nay ch chu yeu tra li cho cau hoi :C hoc lng t
ra i t au ?hay C s cua C hoc lng t la g ?(chng I) . Cong cu toan
hoc cua C hoc lng t ch c gii thieu nhng net c s (toan t tuyen tnh t
lien hp )va nhng tnh toan cho nhng van e cu the c xem la th yeu va oi
khi ch trnh bay di dang gii thieu noi dung phng phap ch khong ap dung vao
nhng bai toan cu the (Phng phap nhieu loan )
Toi that xuc ong khi nhng dong cuoi cu ng cua giao trnh nay c viet vao
ngay 20-11-1998- ngay ma t nhieu nam nay cac ban thng danh cho toi nhng
li chuc mng tot ep, V the toi muon cac ban xem giao trnh nay nh la li cam
n cua toi en vi cac ban .Hn the na toi cung hy vong rang ay cung la bieu
hien cua long biet n chan thanh va sau sac cua toi oi vi biet bao thay co giao ,
nhng ngi a thap len ngon la khat vong tm hieu the gii t nhien trong tam
hon toi ma trong so o co khong t ngi ma vnh vien khong bao gi toi co the gap
lai c na .
Chuc cac ban gat hai nhieu thanh cong trong hoc tap.

Ngay 20-11-1998.

Nguyen Duy Hng

C hoc lng t - 5 -

BAI M AU

1 LC O TONG QUAT CUA VAT LY HOC

Vat ly hoc cho ti ngay nay da tren hai hoc thuyet vat ly ln o la :Thuyet
tng oi cua Einstein va ly thuyet lng t.
1/ Ly thuyet tng oi cua Einstein c ac trng bi hang so c la van toc
anh sang trong chan khong . Ve mat o ln c = 300000 km/s. Trong ly thuyet tng
oi c la van toc truyen song ien t va cho ti nay no c xem la van toc gii han
cua moi chuyen ong .
2/ Ly thuyet lng t (M.plank,N.Bohr) c ac tng bi
hang so Plank . Hang so nay dung lam o o s phan lap cac gia tr kha d cac ai
lng vat ly va la cau noi hai mat so ng hat cua chuyen ong cua vat chat .
[h] = [nang lng] [thi gian] = [tac dung]
Plank a goi h la lng t tac dung .
H = 6,62517.10-37 Js
Da vao hai hang so nay ta co the thiet lap lc o tong quat cua vat ly hoc
nh sau .
v<<c
C hoc co ien
h=0
vc
C hoc tng oi tnh
h=0
v<<c h_hu han .
C hoc lng t khong tng oi
tnh
v c , h_hu han.
C hoc lng t tng oi tnh
Ly thuyet trng lng t.
Tai lieu nay ch e cap en mien v<<c, h_hu han,tc la phan c hoc lng t
khong tng oi tnh .

2 BC TRANH THE GII CUA VAT LY HOC CO IEN

I/ Hai y tng c ban cua vat ly hoc co ien :
Vat ly hoc cho ti cuoi the ky 19 au the ky 20 - ma ngay nay thng goi la
vat ly hoc co ien - a xay dng mot bc tranh hai hoa ve the gii vat chat. No bao
gom hai lnh vc chu yeu o la : C hoc cua Newton va ly thuyet ien t cua
Maxwell. Tat ca nhng kien thc o a cho phep nhan loai giai thch c mot so
lng khong lo cac hien tng ,cac s kien quan sat c t the gii vat chat .
C s cua vat ly hoc co ien la hai y tng sau :
C hoc lng t - 6 -
- Y tng th nhat la y tng nguyen t .Theo y tng nay th vat chat c
cau tao t nhng hat rat nho khong the phan chia c va c goi la nguyen t
(Atomos).
- Y tng th hai la y tng ve s ton tai cua mot moi trng an hoi ac biet
cha ay khap ni trong khong gian va nh o ma cac nguyen t tng tac c vi
nhau .
- Y tng nguyen t c e xuat t rat sm (the ky th IV trc cong nguyen
- Democrite)va cho ti the ky 20 a co nhng bang chng tuyet oi khong phu
nhan c ve s ton tai thc s cua nguyen t va phan t . Con ngi a co nhng
dung cu dung e ghi lai c nhng ion rieng re - cac ong em - va nhng dung cu
quan sat c quy ao cua cac hat (buong Wilson) Tham ch quan sat c bang
mat va chup anh c nhng phan t ln rieng re cua mot vai hp chat hu c .
II/ Hai bo phan chu yeu cua vat ly hoc co ien :
1/ C hoc Newton :
C hoc Newton - da tren ba nh luat cua Newton - la mot bo phan rat quan
trong cua vat ly hoc co ien . Trong ba nh luat o nh luat th hai co vai tro ac
biet . o la phng trnh :
a m F
r
r
=

hay la : Lc = khoi lng gia toc.
Phng trnh nay co vai tro ac biet v ve trai la lc la nguyen nhan gay ra s
bien oi van ong , ve phai co khoi lng tc la thuoc tnh cua vat chat va gia toc
tc la he thc gia khong gian va thi gian .ieu nay co ngha la phng trnh nay
thiet lap moi quan he gia vat chat,van ong, Khong gian,thi gian va nguyen nhan
gay ra van ong.
Cung vi nh luat hap dan, ba nh luat tren a cho phep con ngi giai thch
c mot cach thoa ang chuyen ong cua nhng he v mo trung hoa ien
2/Ly thuyet ien t
Mot bo phan chu yeu khac cua vat ly hoc co ien nghien cu cac hien tng
ien va t . Cac hien tng nay c cho bang cac ai lng ien t
.Cac ai lng nay c he thong nh he phng trnh Maxwell :
H B D E
r r r r
, , ,
E J H B E D
B
D
t
D
J H
t
B
E
r r r r r r
r
r
r
r r
r
r

= = =
=
=

+ =

=
, ,
*
*
0

T he phng trnh nay co the giai quyet thoa ang tat ca cac bai toan ien t
a biet .
C hoc lng t - 7 -
Hai bo phan cua vat ly hoc c lien he vi nhau nh nh luat Lorentz noi
rang : Mot ien tch e chuyen ong vi van toc v trong ien t trng chu tac dung
cua mot lc :
+ = )
*
( B v E e F
r
r
r r

III/ Hai dang vat chat c ban cua vat ly hoc co ien :

a/ Dang hat : Hat c ac trng bang tnh nh x trong khong gian va s ton
tai quy ao khi chuyen ong . Hat con co nhng ac trng khac nh khoi lng ,
xung lng , moment .v.v.
b/ Dang song : Song la qua trnh lan truyen nhieu loan trong khong gian va
chuyen ong song la chuyen ong cua trang thai vat chat ch khong phai la chuyen
ong cua chnh vat chat . Chuyen ong song tuan hoan trong khong gian va thi
gian . ac trng quan trong cua chuyen ong song la song co kha nang giao thoa va
nhieu xa .
Vat ly hoc co ien a nghien cu hai loai song :
- Song c : la s lan truyen dao ong cua cac hat vat chat trong moi trng
truyen song ,loai song nay ch co the lan truyen trong moi trng vat chat .
- Song ien t la s lan truyen nhng dao ong ien t ,Song ien t co the
lan truyen ca trong chan khong .

IV/ Nhng quan niem c s cua vat ly hoc co ien :

Vat ly hoc co ien da tren ba quan niem c s sau :
1/ S bien oi lien tuc cua cac ai lng vat ly , hay rong hn la tnh lien tuc
cua the gii vat chat .
Ve mat toan hoc ieu nay co ngha la cac ham mo ta cac ai lng vat ly la
cac ham so lien tuc .Chnh quan niem nay la c s cua khai niem quy ao cua
chuyen ong . Mot thuoc tnh co hu cua chuyen ong trong vat ly hoc co ien .
2/ Quyet nh luan co ien (Quyet nh luan Laplace).Quan niem nay cho
rang neu biet c trang thai cua vat mo t thi iem nao o , biet c tat ca cac
lc tac dung vao vat th co the tien oan mot cach chnh xac tuyet oi trang thai
cua vat thi iem tiep theo . quan niem nay la hnh thc c ban cua nguyen ly
nhan qua trong vat ly hoc co ien .
3/ Phng phap phan tch :
Phng phap cua vat ly hoc co ien e xem xet, nghien cu cac hien tng va
s vat la phng phap phan tch .ieu nay co ngha la :
Th nhat : vat co the c tach ra khoi moi trng xung quanh va c xem
xet nh la mot vat hoan toan oc lap.
Th hai : trong nhng trng can thiet vat co the chia nho ra tng phan e
nghien cu va viet chia nho o khong can tr viec ta hieu biet ban chat cua s vat .
Noi rieng trong moi trng hp dung cu o va oi tng c quan sat la hoan
toan oc lap vi nhau .
C hoc lng t - 8 -

3 NHNG BE TAC CUA VAT LY HOC CO IEN VA NHNG
Y TNG NA LNG T

Mat du giai quyet c mot so lng rat ln cac hien tng cua the gii vat
chat , song cho ti cuoi the ky 19 vat ly hoc co ien a vap phai mot so hien tng
ma trong khuon kho cac nh luat a co vat ly hoc co ien khong the giai quyet
c . o la cac hien tng sau :
1/ Bc xa cua vat en tuyet oi .
2/ Hien tng quang ien .
3/ Hieu ng Compton.
4/ Cau tao nguyen t va ly thuyet na lng t cua Bohr.
e giai quyet nhng van e tren vat ly hoc phai a ra nhng quan niem mi
vt xa khuon kho cua nhng quan niem trc ay . Tng ng vi nhng hien
tng tren,o la nhng quan niem sau ay :
1/ Cac nguyen t cua vat chat khong hap thu va bc xa nang lng mot cach
lien tuc ma ngc lai hap thu va bc xa mot cach gian oan cac lng t nang
lng .

h = = h

h la hang so pho bien -lng t tac dung-hangso Plank
2/ Anh sang la mot chum hat- lng t anh sang- hay photon. Cac photon co
nang lng xac nh va xung lng xac nh.

h =
,
k P
r
h
r
=

He thc nay c goi la he thc Planck Einstein. Nh vay he thc nay a
lien he cac thong so cua hat vi cac thong so cua song (
va
P
r
vi
va
k
r
).
3/ T ket qua thu c cua hieu ng Compton:

2
2
2
sin
c
=

Trong o:
c
la bc song Compton cua electron.

Cong thc tren co ngha la: S thay oi cua bc song ch phu thuoc vao goc
tan xa ma khong phu thuoc vao tan so ban au (cua tia ti). Ket qua nay c giai
thch de dang t s va cham cua mot photon vi mat electron ma khong the giai
thch theo quan iem song.
4/ Cac ien t trong nguyen t khong chuyen ong tren nhng qu ao bat
kyma ch co the nhng qu ao xac nh goi la qu ao lng t. Cac qu ao nay
c nhan sao cho moment xung lng M cua ien t thoa man he thc:

h n M =
(n=1,2 . . .)
Tren cac qu ao lng t cac electron co nang lng xac nh. Khi electron
chuyen t qu ao nay sang qu ao khac gan hat nhan hn nguyen t se phat ra
C hoc lng t - 9 -
mot photon va electron thc hien mot bc nhay lng t. Tan so cua photon phat
ra c tnh theo cong thc:

nm m n
E E h =

5/ Nam 1927, C.Davison va L.Germer phat hien hien tng nhieu xa cua
electron. Hien tng nay a c DeBroglie tien oan t 1924. Hien tng nay ch
co the giai thch c bang nhng gia thiet hoan toan mi so vi nhng quan niem
cu cua vat ly co ien o la viec tha nhan gia thiet cua De Broglie: hat electron va
vi hat noi chung la co tnh chat lng nguyen:hay lng tnh song hat. Cu the la:
Moi hat t do co nang lng E va xung lng
P
r
xac nh c bieu dien bi
mot song phang n sac co tan so vong
va vector song
k
r
lien he vi E va
P
r
bi
he thc giong nh he thc Planck- Eistein oi vi photon :

h = E
,
k P
r
h
r
=

Song phang nay co dang :

( )
[ ]

= =
t r k i Et r p
i
Ae e A t r

r
r
r r
h
r
. ,

va c goi la song De Broglie .

C hoc lng t - 10 -
CHNG I. C S CUA C HOC LNG T

1 C S VAT LY CUA C HOC LNG T

I/ The gii vi mo:
1/ Hat vi mo:
Cac phan t, nguyen t, hat nhan nguyen t va cac hat c ban c goi la cac
hat vi mo. Danh sach cua cac hat c ban cho en nay a tr nen mot danh sach kha
o so nhng co the phan thanh ba loai la: cac lng t cua trng ien t - cac
photon, cac hardron va cac lepton. Cac hardron la cac hat tham gia tng tac manh
(tng tac hat nhan) va ngc lai cac lepton bao gom: cac electron, cac muon va
cac neutrion. Nhom cac hardron ong ao hn ca: chung bao gom cac nucleon
(proton va neutron), cac meson (cac hat nay nhe hn proton) va cac hyperon (cac
hat nang hn proton). Ngoai tr trng hp ac biet la photon va mot vai meton
trung hoa cac hat con lai eu co phan hat.
Thuoc tnh rat quen thuoc cua hau het vi hat la co khoi lng ngh. V du khoi
lng ngh m cua electron la bang:
g
28
10 1 9

. ,
, khoi lng cua photon la 1836m,
cua neutron la: 1839m, cua muon la 207m . Khoi lng ngh cua photon va cua tat
ca cac neutrino eu bang khong.
Khoi lng cua phan t, nguyen t va hat nhan nguyen t bang tong khoi
lng cua cac hat tao thanh tr i o hut khoi. o hut khoi bang nang lng dung
e pha v vi hat thanh nhng hat cau thanh (thng c goi la nang lng lien
ket) chia cho bnh phng van toc anh sang. Cac nucleon trong hat nhan co nang
lng lien ket ln nhat- o hut khoi cua moi nucleon ln hn 10m .
ien tch cua hat vi mo bang boi nguyen lan ien tch cua electron, tc la
bang boi lan .Ngoai nhng hat vi mo tch ien co nhieu hat vi mo
trung hoa ve ien. ien tch cua hat vi mo phc tap bang tong ai so cac ien tch
cua cac hat thanh phan.
C
19
10 6 1

. ,
2/ Spin cua vi hat.
Spin la mot trong nhng thuoc tnh quan trong cua hat vi mo. Spin co the c
xem nh la moment c rieng cua hat. Bnh phng cua Spin bang: trong
o s co the la so nguyen hay ban nguyen (s thng c goi la Spin), la hang so
pho bien, ong vai tro ac biet quan trong trong c hoc lng t, gia tr cua
bang: . Spin cua photon bang 1, Spin cua electron bang 1 / 2 .
( 1
2
+ s s h )
h
h
s J. . ,
34
10 05 1

Spin la mot thuoc tnh ac biet cua vi hat. Va do o no khong the co mo hnh
tng t co ien. Viec giai thch Spin nh la moment c rieng cua vi hat tuy thuan
tien cho viec hnh dung nhng la khong ung vi thc te v khai niemvi hat quay
quanh no la khong chap nhan c.
C hoc lng t - 11 -
Momemt goc cua vi hat co thuoc tnh khac thng. Cu the hnh chieu tren
phng bat ky cua no ch nhan cac gia tr gian oan:
s h
,
( ) 1 s h
,,
s h
,tc la
(2s + 1) gia tr. ieu nay co the noi la vi hat co (2s + 1) trang thai Spin. Nh vay s
ton tai Spin oi vi vi hat a ti s xuat hien bac t do trong e mo ta no.
3/ Boson va Fermion:
Tren c s Spin ngi ta chia vi hat thanh hai nhom. Nhom mot la cac vi hat
co Spin nguyen hoac bang khong. Nhom hai la cac vi hat co Spin ban nguyen.
Nhom th nhat co ac iem la chung co the co vo so hat cung ton tai trong
mot trang thai lng t, tuan theo thonh ke Bose - Einstein va do o nhom nay
thng c goi tat la cac Boson. Nh vay cac meson va photon la cac Boson.
Nhom th hai co ac iem la chung ch ton tai nhieu nhat mot hat trong moi
trang thai lng t, tuan theo thong ke Fermi - Dirac va do o cac vi hat thuoc
nhom nay c goi tat la cac Fermion. Cac lepton - noi rieng la cac electron - cac
nucleon va cac hyperon la cac Fermion.
4/ Tnh khong ben cua vi hat:
Tat ca cac hat c ban - tc photon, electron, proton va neutrino eu khong
ben. ieu nay co ngha la cac hat o t phat phan ra thanh nhng hat vi mo khac
khong can mot tac ong nao t ben ngoai. V du mot neutron t phan ra thanh mot
proton, mot electron va mot neutrino:
e
e p n +
+

Chung ta khong the tien oan c vao thi iem nao s phan ra se xay ra
nhng t thc nghiem ngi ta a tm c quy luat phan ra.
( ) ( ) t N t N = exp
0

trong o
la hang so ac trng cua neutron- c goi la thi gian song cua

neutron va bang
s
3
10
. Lng
( ) t exp
xac nh xac xuat cua neutron khong
phan ra tai thi iem t .
Cac hat vi mo khong ben c ac trng bang thi gian song cua no. Thi
gian song cua mot hat cang nho th xac xuat phan huy cua hat cang ln. V du: Thi
gian song cua muon la , thi gian song cua
s
6
10 2 2

. ,

- meson dng la
, thi gian song cua
s
8
10 6 2

. ,

- meson trung hoa la
s
16
10
va cua hyperon la
s
10
10
. Mot nhom hat khac co thi gain song cc ky ngan vao khoang
s
22
10

en
s
23
10
. Cac hat nay c goi la cac hat cong hng.

Mot ieu lu y la: cac meson va cac hyperon co the phan ra theo nhieu cach
khac nhau. V du cac
- meson dng co the phan ra theo kieu nh sau:

e
e
e
e

+ +
+
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
0

Vi mot meson
bat ky khong the tien oan c vao luc nao cung nh kieu
phan ra nao se xay ra. Tnh khong ben khong phai ch co oi vi cac hat c ban ma
con ung oi vi cac vi hat khac. Hien tng phong xa cho thay rang hat nhan
C hoc lng t - 12 -
nguyen t la khong ben vng. Cac nguyen tcung nh cac phan t khi trang thai
kch thch cung khong he, chung se t phat tr ve trang thai ban au cua chung hay
chuyen sang trang thai kch thch thap hn.
Nhng can lu y rang tnh khong ben vng khong phai la ban chat chung cua
cac vi hat bi v ngoai cac hat khong ben co mot so hat vi mo khac la ben. V du
nh: photon, electron, proton, neutrion, cac hat nhan nguyen t ben cung nh cac
nguyen t va phan t trang thai c ban.
Ngoai tnh chat a neu tren hat c ban con co mot ac tnh ky quac the hien
trong s bien oi qua lai cua chung. Tuy nhien ban oc co the tm hieu them van e
o qua cac giao trnh khac chi tiet hn ve vat ly hat c ban.

2 HAI Y TNG C BAN CUA C HOC LNG T

1/ Y tng lng t hoa.
Ban chat cua y tng lng t hoa la: mot so ai lng vat ly mo ta cac oi
tng vi mo trong nhng ieu kien thch hp ch co the nhan nhng gia tr ri rac
xac nh. Khi o ta noi rang cac ai lng ay b lng t hoa .
Y tng nay do M.Planck a ra nam 1900 khi nghien cu bc xa cua vat en
tuyet oi. Planck a gia thuyet rang nang lng cua bc xa ien t do vat phat ra
khong phai la lien tuc ma la gian oan - theo tng lng t nang lng, nang lng
cua moi lng t nay bang :
h =
. Gia thuyet nay a bao am cho s phu hp
cua ly thuyet va thc nghiem, ac biet la loai bo c kho khan khi chuyen ly
thuyet en vung tan so ln ma ngi ta go i la tai bien t ngoai .
Tiep theo Planck, Bohr a ap dung y tng lng t hoa vao mau hanh tinh
nguyen t cua Rutherford e xay dng mau nguyen t mi cua ong, mau nguyen t
Bohr - hay mau nguyen t na lng t. Mac du ly thuyet Bohr ve nguyen t van
co nhng mau thuan noi tai song no c coi la bc au tien e xay dng ly thuyet
hoan chnh ve cau truc nguyen t.
e hieu noi dung cua y tng nay ta xet v du cac electron trong nguyen t.
trong nguyen t nang lng cua electron nhan nhng gia tr ri rac nhng gia tr
nay tap hp thanh pho nang lng, nh hnh:
Gia s ta ch quan tam en
hai mc
1
E
va
2
E
. Khi o electron E E1

ch co the co nang lng la
1
E

hoac
2
E
ch khong the co nang E1
lng E thoa man:
1
E
<E <
2
E
.
ay la iem c ban cua c hoc
C hoc lng t - 13 -
lng t sau nay. Electron co the chuyen t mc nang lng
1
E
sang mc
2
E
hoac ngc lai, trong hai qua trnh o electron nhan va phat ra mot photon
tng ng. Qua trnh o c goi la phep chuyen di lng t.
Nhng lu y rang: Nang lng electron khong phai khi nao cung b lng t
hoa. Ch cac electron trong trang thai lien ket (v du electron trong nguyen t) th
nang lng cua no mi b lng t hoa. Cac electron trang thai t do th nang
lng cua no khong b lng t hoa.
S lng t hoa khong phai ch xay ra vi nang lng ma la vi nhieu ai
lng khac. Cu the moment xung lng cua vi hat cung b lng t hoa. Khac vi
nang lng la ai lng ch b lng t hoa trong trang thai lien ket, moment xung
lng luon b lng t hoa. Cac gia tr quan sat c cua bnh phng moment
xung lngcua hat vi mo c cho bi cong thc:

( ) 1
2 2
+ = l l h M
trong o
l
la so nguyen,
... 2 , 1 , 0 = l
.Neu ta xet moment goc cua mot
electron trong nguyen t trang thai dng thn th so
l
nhan gia tr t 0 en (n-1).
Ngi ta thng goi Moment xung lng (hay moment goc) mot cach n
gian la moment. Thc nghiem chng to rang: hnh chieu cua momentcua vi hat len
mot phng nhat nh nao o (ta thng goi o la hnh chieu tren truc oz cho tien)
nhan cac gia tr:
m M
z
h =

trong o
l l l l , 1 ,..., 1 , + = m
. Nh vay vi moi gia tr cua
l
, so m
nhan
( ) 1 2 + l
gia tr gian oan
phan tren ta a noi ve Spin cua vi hat va co the coi Spin nh la moment
noi tai cua vi hat. Ng i ta goi no la moment Spin e phan biet moment thng la
moment quy ao. Neu s la Spin cua vi hat th hnh chieu cua moment Spin se nhan
cac gia tr
h
trong o
s s s s , ,..., , 1 1 + =
.
Nh vay hnh chieu cua Spin cua mot electron se nhan hai gia tr:
2
h
va
2
h
+
.
Cac so
, , , m n l
xac nh cac gia tr gian oan khac nhau cua cac bien
ong lc lng t hoa va c goi la cac so lng t.
n la so lng t chnh.
la so lng t quy ao.
l
m la so lng t t.
la so lng t Spin.
2/ Y tng lng song hat.
Trong vat ly hoc co ien ngi ta coi cac khai niem song va hat la loai tr
nhau. Hat c ac trng bang khoi lng, co tnh nh x trong khong gian va co
C hoc lng t - 14 -
the va cham vi nhau. Ngc lai song khong co tnh nh x nhng co kha nang
gioa thoa, nhieu xa
Song nhng quan niem quen thuoc nay khong the chuyen qua c hoc lng t
mot cach trc tiep c. mc o cac hien tng vi mo s phan nh ro rang hai
dang chuyen ong nay b phai m i mot cach can ban. Cu the la:
Chuyen ong cua vi hat ong thi c ac trng bang ca tnh song lan tnh
hat. Co the noi rang cac vi hat mc o nao o giong nh hat va mc o nao o
giong vi song. Cac mc o o phu thuoc vao ieu kien ma o ta xet hat vi mo.
Neu trong vat ly co ien hat va song la hai mat oi lap loai tr nhau- hoac la
hat hoac la song th oi vi cac oi tng vi mo cac mat oi lap nay ket hp vi
nhau mot cach bien chng trong khuon kho mot oi tng vi mo thong nhat la tnh
lng song hat.
Y tng lng song hat c Einstein ap dung cho bc xa ien t e giai thch
hien tng quang ien. en 1924 De Broglie a m rong y tng lng song hat
khong ch cho bc xa ien t ma cho moi hat vi mo noi chung. Cu the moi hat vi
mo ong thi co nhng ac trng hat (nang lng va xung lng) va ca nhng ac
trng song(tan so va bc song). Moi lien he gia nhng ac trng o c cho
bang he thc Planck - Einstein:

h = E
,
k P
r
h
r
=
(2.1)
Nh vay la mot hat chuyen ong c lien he vi mot song ma bc song
c xac nh theo cong thc:

p
h
=

Y tng nay a cho cac gia thiet cua Bohr mot c s vng chac. Chuyen ong
cua electron trong nguyen t Hydro luc o se ben vng khi doc theo cac quy ao
c quy nh la bang mot so nguyen lan bc song. Cac song doc theo quy ao
c quy nh la cac song dng.
ieu nay tng ng vi quy tac lng t cua Bohr:

2
h
n E =

trong o
la tan so quay cua electron quanh hat nhan,tc la so vong quay

cua electron quanh hat nhan. That vay, theo De Broglie o dai cua quy ao bang so
nguyen lan bc song:

r n 2 =
,
mv
h
p
h
= =

T o suy ra :

nh rmv = 2

hay nhan ca hai ve vi
va chia cho 2 ta co:

2
2
2
1
r mv
h n
.
=

Nhng e y rang :

v r = 2

C hoc lng t - 15 -
nen ta co :
h n E
mv
2
1
2
2
= =

ay chnh la quy tac lng t cua Bohr.
Van e at ra la vi cac hat vi mo nh hat bui chang han tai sao ta khong
nhan thay tnh lng song hat cua no? Ly do n gian la t cong thc De Broglie ta
tnh c bc song cua no nho hn kch thc rat nhieu lan. Do o trong ieu
kien o ta khong the phat hien thay tnh song cua hat bui. Con khi hat co khoi
lng cang nho th bc song De Broglie cua hat cang ln khi o hat cang khac vi
hat co ien va cung v the hat vi mo ca ng giong vi mot song hn. Chu y la song
De Broglie khac vi nhng song co thc ma ta noi tren. Nh vay ta hnh dung
quan he song hat nh the nao ? . Co hai cach hnh dung sai ve moi quan he nay.
Cach th nhat : la hat ta tren song. Cach nay la do chnh De Broglie e xuat
trong thi ky au. Theo ong th hat ta nh ngoi tren song va song cuon no ti au
th hat ti o- hay noi n gian la song chuyen ch hat. Nhng thc te la song co
the ton tai cung hat ngay ca trong chan khonghoan toan nh vay song co the la san
pham cua chnh hat. Nh vay hat tao ra song nh the nao? Song chia se so phan
cung vi hat nh the nao khi hat tng tac vi cac hat khac va vi moi trng? o
la nhng cau hoi ma quan niem song chuyen ch hat khong tra li c.
Cach th hai : o la quan niem cho rang hat la san pham c tao nen t cac
song, la mot c cau ran ac do cac song ket lai hay noi cach khac hat nh la bo
song la ni chong chat cac song co bc song rat ngan. Tuy nhien thc te cho thay
cac song tham gia hien tng tan sac nh vay neu hat la bo song th hat phai b tan
ra khi nhng ieu kien cua s tan sac xuat hien. Nhng trong thc te hat khong he
b tan trong nhng ieu kien o.
Nh vay ca hai cach hnh dung tren la hai cach hnh dung may moc theo kieu
co ien eu khong chap nhan c.
Can lu y rang tnh lng song hat khong phai ch co khi xet mot tap hp cac
hat ma ngay ca khi co mot hat duy nhat tnh lng song hat cua hat vi mo van bieu
lo ro ret.
Co nhieu cach giai thch y ngha cua song De Broglie nhng cha co cach nao
hoan chnh. Cach giai thch cua Born coi o la song xac xuat co ve nh c
nhieu ngi chap nhan hn ca. Nhng song xac xuat van khong mang mot y ngha
vat ly cu the nh song c hoc (song am, song tren mat nc )Co cach giai thch
rang hat vi mo luc th mang tnh song, luc th mang tnh hat. Cung co cach giai thch
rang hat vi mo ong thi va la song va la hat.
ang chu y hn ca la quan niem rang : hat vi mo khong phai la song cung
khong phai la hat. Tnh lng song hat cua vi hat c hieu nh kha nang tiem tang
cua the gii vi mo the hien nhng tnh chat khac biet cua no phu thuoc vao ieu
kien ben ngoai cu the la ieu kien quan sat no.

C hoc lng t - 16 -
3 C S TOAN HOC CU A C HOC LNG T

Bat c ly thuyet vat ly nao cung la s ket hp gia cac y tng vat ly a ra
tren c s thc nghiem va mot cong cu toan hoc nhat nh .
Trong giai oan xay dng ly thuyet vat ly cong cu toan hoc co the la cha co -
nh khi Newton xay dng ly thuyet cua ong , nhng khi xay dng c hoc lng t
th cong cu toan hoc tng ng a c xay dng t trc . Cong cu o la ly thuyet
cac toan t tuyen tnh .
I/.Toan t tuyen tnh :
a/ Toan t va v du :
Toan t la s tng ng gia cac phan t cua tap X vi cac phan t cua tap Y
nao .Cac thuat ng ong ngha vi toan t la :anh xa ,hay ham .Neu hai tap X va Y
la hai tap hp so th ngi ta dung khai niem ham so . Vai trng hp at biet cua
toan t la :
- Mot toan t t mot khong gian X vao chnh no goi la mot phep bien oi .
- Mot toan t t mot khong gian ham so vo han chieu vao mot tap hp so c
goi la mot phiem ham .
Vi mot toan t bat ky tac dung trong khong gian X va Y ta thng viet :
(toan t la ch in co dau mu):
L
Y x X x x x L = ) ( , ) ( ), ( ) (

va noi rang : toan t tac dung len ham (hay vect ) (x).
L
Cac v du ve toan t nh :Phep tch phan ,vi phan , phep lay can phep nang
len luy tha
b/ Toan t tuyen tnh :
Trng hp at biet quan trong cua cac toan t o la cac toan t tuyen tnh .
o la cac toan t thoa man hai ieu kien :
+/
2 1 2 1
L L L

) (
+ = +
+/
L L

) (
=
(oi hoi tnh tuyen tnh cua toan t co the xem nh bieu hien cua nguyen ly
chong chap trong c hoc lng t ).
Co the de dang thay rang : Cac toan t ao ham , vi phan , tch phan la cac
toan t tuyen tnh , con cac toan t nang len tha ,toan t khai can va toan t
Logarit khong phai la toan t tuyen tnh .
Vi cac toan t tuyen tnh ta co mot so phep toan sau ay:
+ Toan t n v : c goi la toan t n v neu no thoa man ieu kien:
L
L = = 1..
+ Phep cong cac toan t : Tong cua hai (hay nhieu) toan t va la mot toan t
ma ket qua tac dung cua no bang tong cac ket qua tac dung cua cac toan t thanh
phan , ngha la :
C hoc lng t - 17 -
B A C

+ =
neu .
B B C

+ =
+ Phep nhan cac toan t : c goi la tch cua hai toan
C
va t va viet
la :
B
B A C

.

=
neu co : .
)
(

B A C =
lu y vi phep nhan cac toan t th t cua chung trong phep nhan la quan
trong .
+ Toan t nghch ao : goi la nghch ao cua toan t
1
L L
neu :
) ( ) (
x x L =
th
) ( ) (
1
x x L =
.
+ Toan t lien hp phc : Toan t c goi la toan t lien hp phc cua
neu nh :
*
L L
) ( ) (
x x L =
th :
) ( ) (
* * *
x x L =
+ Phep nang len luy tha :

L L L L
n

....
.

=
(n: la tha so ).
II/ Giao hoan t va phan giao hoan t :
Giao hoan t cua hai toan t
A
va la : Vi cac toan t co hai bai toan

quan trong can xet la giao hoan t va bai toan tr rieng
B
A B B A B A

=
.
Phan giao hoan t cua hai toan t
A
va
B
la :
A B B A B A B A

+ = =

+
.
Lu y la giao hoan t cung nh phan giao hoan t cua hai toan t khong phai
luon bang khong .
V du : cho
A
=x,
dx
d
B =
.
Khi o :
x
dx
d
dx
d
x A B B A B A = =

.
Hay :
[ ] ) ( ,
x
dx
d
dx
d
x x
dx
d
dx
d
x B A = =

.

= =
dx
dx
dx
d
x
dx
d
x

Vay:
=
dx
d
x,
hay
1 , =
dx
d
x
.
C hoc lng t - 18 -

III/. Bai toan tr rieng cua toan t tuyen tnh :
Gia s ta xet toan t , Neu co :
L
) ( ) (
x x L =
(=const, (x) 0).
Th (x) c goi la ham rieng va c goi la cac tr rieng tng ng cua
toan t . Moi toan t co the co nhieu ham rieng va tr rieng tng ng ; khi o ta
viet :
L
) ( ) (
x x L
n n n
=
(n=0,1,2).
Tap hp cac gia tr
{ }
n
c goi la cac pho cac tr rieng cua toan t tuyen

tnh .
L
Nh vay cac ham rieng cua toan t tuyen tnh la cac ham co tnh chat at
biet la no gi khong oi dang di tac dung cua toan t ngoai phep nhan vi mot tr
so (tr rieng ).
L
V du : gia s
x
i L
=
. ieu kien la ham (x) tuan hoan trong khoang
[0,L]. Phng trnh tr rieng co dang :
) (
) (
x
x
x
i
.
Hay chnh xac hn :
) (
) (
x
x
x
i
n n
n

.
T phng trnh ta co ngay :
x i
n
n
Ae x

= ) (

T ieu kien tuan hoan ta co :
) ( ) ( L X x
n n
+ =
.
Mat khac lu y rang :
n i L i
e e
n
2
1= =
Vay :

...) 2 , 1 , 0 ( ,
2
= = n
L
n
n
.
Nh vay n lap thanh mot tap hp gian oan . khi L cac n cang sat lai
gan nhau hn hay chnh xac hn khoang cach gia cac n0. khi o cac ham rieng
tr thanh :
x i
Ae x

= ) (
.
Vi la mot bien lien tuc co the lay bat c gia tr nao . t ay ta cung nen lu
y mot ieu la :cac tr rieng phu thuoc vao ieu kien bien cua nghiem cua phng
trnh tr rieng , ngha la chung ch xac nh khi cho cac ieu kien bien .
C hoc lng t - 19 -
e xac nh tha so A ta xet ieu kien chuan hoa :

1
2
0
*
= =
L A dx
L

T o ta suy ra :
L
A
1
=

Vay cuoi cung ta co :
L
n
e
L
x
n
x i
n
n

2
,
1
) ( = =
.

Lu y rang pho cac tr rieng cua mot toan t tuyen tnh co the lien tuc , co the
gian oan hay va lien tuc va gian oan .
Mot ieu can lu y la :Vi mot tr rieng co the co S ham rieng tng ng .Khi
o ta noi rang cac ham rieng o suy bien bac S

IV/. Mot so toan t at biet :
Cac ham at biet co vai tro quan trong trong vat ly co ien .Trong c hoc
lng t cac ham at biet xuat hien trong kha nhieu bai toan quan trong .

1/ Toan t LH : Trong ly thuyet cac ham at biet ta thng xet cac a thc -
c goi la a thc Hermite (phng trnh cho nghiem la a thc Hermite c goi
la phng trnh Hermite hay phng trnh Hermite-Tsebusep)-co dang :

..
! 2
) 2 )( 3 )( 2 )( 1 (
! 1
) 2 )( 1 (
) 2 ( ) (
... 8 12 ) (
4 2 ) ( , 2 ) ( , 1 ) (
) 1 ( ) (
4 2
3
3
2
2 1 0
2 2
+

=
+ + =
+ = = =
=
n n
n
n
x
n
n
x n
n
x n n n n x n n
x x H
x x x H
x x H x x H x H
e
dx
d
e x H

Cac a thc Hermite co cac tnh chat :

( ) ) (
2
1
) (
1 1
x H x nH x xH
n n
n
+
+ =

. ! 2 ) ( ) (
2
mn
n
n
m
x
n dx x H x H e =

Nh vay neu xet toan t :
C hoc lng t - 20 -

dx
d
x
dx
d
L
H
2
2
2
=

Th bang cach lay ao ham trc tiep ta co ket qua :

) ( 2 ) ( x nH x H L
n n
H
=
(n=0,1,2)

2/Toan t LP:
Ta a biet cac a thc Legendre.
2
1
2
3
1
1 1 1
2
1
2
2 1 0
2
= = =
=
x x P x x P x P
x x
dx
d
P
) ( , ) ( , ) (
), (
l
l
l
l
l

1 1 1 1
8
15
8
35
8
63
8
3
4
15
8
35
2
3
2
5
3 5
5
2 4
4
3
3
= =
+ =
+ = =
) ( , ) ( ) (
. ) (
) ( , ) (
l
l
l
P P
x x x x P
x x x P x x x P

Cac a thc Legendre co tnh chat :

( ) . 0 ) ( ) ( ) 1 2 ( ) ( 1 /
. ) (
2 1
1
/
1 2
2
) ( ) ( /
1 1
2
1
1
= + + +
=
+
+
=
+
x P x xP x P c
r x P
r rx
b
dx x P x P a
o
m
m
l l l
l
l
l
l l
l l l
l

Neu a vao toan t :
. 2 ) 1 (
2
2
2
dx
d
x
dx
d
x L
P

Th ta thay cac a thc Legendre lien he vi Lp nh sau:

) ( ) 1 ( ) ( x P x P L
P l l
l l + =

3/ Toan t Laplace :
Trong ly thuyet cac ham ac biet cac ham cau co vai tro ac biet quan trong .
o la cac ham :
C hoc lng t - 21 -
) (cos
) cos (
sin
)! ( 2
)! )( 1 2 (
) 1 (
2
1
) , (

l l
l
l l
P m
m
m
e Y
m
m
m im m

+
+
=
Vi m 0.
Vi m 0, ham
( )
*
) 1 ( ) , (
m m m
Y Y

=
l l

(dau * ch lien hp phc ).
Vi moi gia tr cua l=0,1,2,3 ta co 2l+1 gia tr cua m .
m = -l,- l+1,- l+2,, l-2, l-1, l.
Mot so bieu thc cua
) , (
m
Y
l
vi l va m cu the :

i
e Y
Y Y
=
= =
sin
cos ,
8
3
4
3
4
1
1
0 0
0
l
l

=
2
1
2
2
3
4
5
0
2

cos Y

i
e Y

= cos sin
8
15
1
2

i
e Y

=
2 2
2
2
15
4
1
sin

Cac ham cau co tnh chat :

1
1
1
1
1 1
0
' '
2
0
'
'
sin /
/
sin ) , ( ) . ( /
+
+
+
+
+ =
+ =
m m m i
m m m
mm
m m
dY CY Y e c
bY aY Y Cos b
d d Y Y a
l l l
l l l
ll l
l

Trong o a , b , c, d la nhng hang so ch phu thuoc l , m. Neu a vao toan t
:

2
2
2
sin
1
) (sin
sin
1

=

Th cac ham cau lien he vi toan t nay nh sau :

) , ( ) 1 ( ) , ( m Y Y
m m

l l
l l + =

4/. Toan t LL:
Cac a thc Lagendre co dang:
C hoc lng t - 22 -
) ( , ) ( ) ( k j x L
dx
d
x L
k j
j
j
k
=

Vi :

( )
x k
k
k
x
k
e x
dx
d
e L

=

Ta co mot so a thc cu the :

.. .. , 9 18 6 ) (
4 2 ) (
1 ) ( , 1 ) (
3 2
3
2
2
1 0
v v x x x x L
x x x L
x x L x L
+ =
+ =
= =

Cac a thc Laguerre co tnh chat :

'
3
0
'
)! (
) ! (
) ( ) (
kk
x j j
k
j
k
j k
k
dx e x x L x L

Neu a vao toan t :
dx
d
x j
dx
d
x L
L
) 1 (
2
2
+ +

Th ta co lien he cua LL vi cac a thc Laguerre nh sau

) ( ; ) ( ) ( ) ( k j x L j k x L L
j
k
j
k L
=

5/.Toan t LF :
Cac ham sieu boi suy bien la cac ham co dang :

...
! 3 ) 2 )( 1 (
) 2 )( 1 (
) 1 (
) 1 (
! 1 .
1 ) , , (
3 2
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
+
+ + = z
b b b
a a a
z
b b
a a
z
b
a
z b a F

Ta thay neu a la mot so nguyen am tc la a = -n (n la so nguyen dng )th
ham sieu boi F(-n,b,z)se la mot a thc cua z . Co the chng minh c rang :

z b a
e cz z b a F

) , , (
khi Rez , c = const.
a
z d z b a F

) ( ) , , (
khi Rez , d = const.
Hn na da vao bieu thc nh ngha cua ham sieu boi , a thc Hermite va
a thc Legendre ta co cac he thc sau :

C hoc lng t - 23 -
) , 1 , (
)! 1 (
)! 1 (
) (
) ,
2
3
, (
!
)! 1 2 ( 2
. ) 1 ( ) (
) ,
2
1
, (
!
)! 2 (
) 1 ( ) (
2
1 2
2
2
x j k F
j
k J
x L
x n F
n
n
x H
x n F
n
n
x H
j
k
n
n
n
n
+
+
+ +
=
+
=
=
+

(k nguyen ,khong am)
Ngoai ra neu cac ham Bessel viet dang :

+ +
=

=
+
1
2
2 )! 1 ( !
) 1 (
) (
k
k p k
P
x
p k k
x J

th ta co he thc :(n la so nguyen):

) 2 , 2 1 ,
2
1
(
2 )! 1 (
1
) ( ix n n F e
x
n
x J
ix
n
n
+ +
+
=

Nh vay neu a vao toan t :

dz
d
z b
dz
d
z L
F
) (
2
2
+

th ta thay cac ham sieu boi suy bien lien he vi toan t LF nh sau :

) , , ( ) , , ( z b a aF z b a F L
F
=
(5)

Neu b khong phai la mot so nguyen th nghiem th hai cua phng trnh (5)
co dang:
) , 2 , 1 ( ) , , (
1
z b b a F z z b a G
b
=

6/.Toan t Laplace toan phan :
Trong giao trnh phng trnh toan ly ta a gap nhieu lan toan t : (Trong he
toa oDescartes )
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z y x

(6)
Trong cac he toa o suy rong q1, q2, q3:

C hoc lng t - 24 -
( )
( )
( )
3 2 1 3
3 2 1 2
3 2 1 1
, ,
, ,
, ,
q q q z
q q q y
q q q x
=
=
=

Trong o 1, 2, 3 la nhng ham lien tuc va n tr . Neu at :

) 3 , 2 , 1 ( ;
2
3
2
2
2
1 2
=
i
q q q
H
i i i
i

va goi la cac he so Lame ,th ta co :

=
3 3
2 1
3 2 2
1 3
2 1 1
3 2
1 3 2 1
1
q H
H H
q q H
H H
q q H
H H
q H H H

Cu the vi he toa o cau q1 = r, q2 = , q3 = ta co: H1 = 1, H2 = r, H3 =
rsin. Do o :

2
2
2 2 2
2
sin
1
sin
sin
1
2
1

r r
r
r
r
r

Vi he toa o truc : q1 = r ,q2 = ,q3 = z.
Ta co :
H1 = 1, H2 = r, H3 = 1.
Nh vay trong he tru ta co :
z
r
r
r
r
r

2
2
2
2
2
2
1 1

Nh lai bieu thc (3) ta co :
2
2
2
2
r
r r
r
=

V/.Toan t lien hp va toan t t lien hp (hecmitic) :
1/ Tch vo hng cua hai ham :
Gia s co hai ham (x) va (x) nao o ,khi o tch vo hng cua hai ham nay
c nh ngha bi:
=
+

dx x x ) ( ) ( ) , (
*

trong o dau * ch lien hp phc .(Noi them : hai ham (x) va (x) phai bang
khong tai vo cung ).
Bieu thc :
C hoc lng t - 25 -
( )

=
+

dx
2
,

c goi la chuan cua ham (x)
Neu viet (x) dang cot :
=
) (
.....
) (
) (
) (
2
1
x
x
x
x
n

va (x) dang ma tran hang :
( ) ) ( ).... ( ), ( ) (
* *
2
*
1
*
x x x x
n
=

th :
( )

=
+

n
n n
dx x x ) ( ) ( ,
*

.
Neu 1(x), 2(x) n(x) la cac hang so C1, C2 Cn.con
) ( ).... ( ), (
* *
2
*
1
x x x
n

la cac hang so th tch vo hng (,) c
cho bang tch :
* *
2
*
1
... ,
n
b b b
( )

=
I
i i
C b
*
,

Trng hp : = (x,y,z); = (x,y,z) th :

( )

= dz dy dx z y x z y x ) , , ( ) , , ( ,
*

Co the chng minh tch vo hng nh ngha nh tren co cac tnh chat nh sau
:
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

, , /
; , , /
, , , /
, , , /
, , /
*
2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1
*
= +
= = +
+ = + +
+ = + +
= +
const

(Cac chng minh nay khong kho khan lam ,ban oc co the xem nh mot bai
tap )

2/ Toan t tuyen tnh lien hp (Hecmitic)va toan t Unita :
Gia s
A
va la hai toan t c goi la lien hp cua nhau (hay lien hp vi

nhau ),va k hieu la:
B
+
= B A

va
+
= A B

, dau + la dau lien hp .
V du 1 : Ta xet vi toan t C la mot so hay tm C+, theo nh ngha ta co :

C hoc lng t - 26 -
( )

= , ) ( ) ( ,
*
dx x C x C

( )

=
+ +
dx x x C C ) ( ) ( ,
* *

Hn the na :

=
+
dx x C x dx x x C ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
* * *

Nh vay : C+*=C hay C+= C*.
Ngha la toan t lien hp cua mot hang so la lien hp phc cua no .

V du 2 :Ta xet toan t nhan vi U(x) . Hay tm toan t U+(x).
Lap luan tng t nh tren e thay rang :
U+(x)= U*(x)
Hay tong quat hn : Neu L la mot toan t nhan th :
L+= L*.
V du 3 : Hay tm
+
dx
d
.
Ta co :
dx x
dx
d
x dx x x
dx
d
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
*
*

+

+

+

Tch phan tng phan ve phai ta c :

+

+

+

dx x
dx
x d
x x dx x
dx
d
x ) (
) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
*
* *

V *(x) va(x) triet tieu tai nen ta co :
dx
d
dx
d
=
+

Nh vay ta co :
=

, ,
dx
d
dx
d

(Luon phai lu y rang cac ham (x) va(x) triet tieu tai ).Hay tong quat
hn ta co :
=

, ) 1 ( ,
n
n
n
n
n
dx
d
dx
d

3/. Toan t t lien hp (Hecmitic)va toan t unita .
a/ Toan t t lien hp : Neu thoa man ieu kien :
L
L = L+.
ngha la :
dx L dx L
* *
) (

th L la toan t t lien hp (Hay Hecmitic )
C hoc lng t - 27 -
Toan t Unita : Neu L thoa man :
L L+ = L+L=1.
Th L goi la toan t unita . Toan t unita thng c k hieu la U .
Co the chng minh rang :
dx
d
i L =
la t lien hp .
b/. Cac tnh chat cua toan t t lien hp (Hecmitic) :
Tnh chat 1 : Mot toan t co cac tr rie ng thc khi va ch khi no la toan t
Hecmitic .
Chng minh :
T bai toan tr rieng :
L(x)= (x)
Ta co :
dx x x dx x L
dx x x dx x L
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
* * * *
* *

Tr cho nhau :
dx dx L dx L
* * * * *
) (

do o :
dx dx L L
* * * *
) ( ) (

Nh vay ro rang =* khi va ch khi L la t lien hp L= L+.

Tnh chat 2 : Cac ham rieng cua mot toan t Hecmitic ng vi cac tr rieng
khac nhau la trc giao .
Chng minh :
Cung xuat phat t bai toan :
L(x)= (x)
ta co
Ln= nn

L*m*=m m*.
Hay viet cach khac :

= dx dx L
n m n n m

* *

Va :

= dx dx L
m n m m n
* * * *

T o ta co :
=
+
dx dx L L
n m
m
n n m

* * *
) ( ) (

Neu L la Hecmitic th L= L+.(va do o
*
m n
=
) khi o :
0 ) (
* *
=
dx
n m m n

C hoc lng t - 28 -
V
*
m n

(chung ta gia thiet cac tr rieng khac nhau )nen :
0
*
=
dx
n m

.
Ngha la cac n va m la trc giao vi nhau .

4 TH NGHIEM QUAN TRONG TNH THONG KE CUA C
HOC LNG T

I/ Th nghiem hai lo :
th nghiem ma ngi ta ngh ra e bao gom c moi b an cua CHLTva dan
dat ta en tat ca nhng nghch ly ,nhng b mat , nhng ieu ky la cua t nhien mot
cach ay u .Chnh trong th nghiem nay cha ng nhng ieu b an can ban
.Nhan xet ve th nghiem nay Feynman a tng noi nh the .
1/ nguon la nhng vien an :

1 N1.

2 N2
N12

S o th nghiem c bo th nh hnh ve .Nguon A la nguon phong an (v
dusung tieu lien ) .Trong o N1 la so an ti bia khi bt kn lo 2 , N2 la so an ti
bia khi bt kn lo 1 va N12 la so an trung bnh cua ca 1 va 2 eu m (trong mot
n v thi gian).
Ket qua : N12= N1 + N2
2/ Nguon la hai song (v du song nc ):

1
I1.
A

2 I2
I12

A
Nguon
I12 Cng o song tren bia khi ca hai lo eu m
I1 Cng o song tren bia khi lo 2 ong .
I2 Cng o song tren bia khi lo 1 ong.
Ket qua : I12 I1 + I2 ( Co giao thoa song )
C hoc lng t - 29 -
3/ Nguon la chum electron :

1 N1.

2 N1

N12
Ket qua : N12 N1 + N2 (co giao thoa)
Vi : I12 , I1 , I2 la cac xac xuat tm thay electron bia khi ong lo 2 ,
ong lo 1, m ca hai lo tng ng .
Tom tat ba trng hp
an Song Electron
Gian oan .
Xac xuat ti c o:
N12 = N1 + N2
Khong co giao thoa
Khong gian oan
Cng o song c
o: I12 I1 + I2
Co giao thoa
Gian oan
Xac xuat ti c o :
N12 N1 + N2
Co giao thoa
Vi trng hp chum electron :cac electron i ti bia (hay may thu) theo
tng lng nho gian oan giong nh o la nhng hat nhng xac xuat e nhng hat
o ti bia lai c xac nh theo cung nhng quy luat nh quy luat xac nh
cng o cua song nc .V vay co the noi rang cac electron va giong nh chum
hat va giong nh song . No ong thi la hai vat hoan toan khac nhau .
II/ Tnh thong ke cua CHLT:
Trong cac ieu kien ben ngoai cho trc ket qua cua s tng tac gia oi
tng vi mo va dung cu o noi chung khong the tien oan mot cach chnh xac , ma
ch co the d kien vi mot xac xuat nao o .Tap hp cac ket qua nh vay a en
thong ke tng ng vi phan bo nhat nh cua xac xuat. Nh vay ta phai a yeu to
xac xuat vao cach mo ta oi tng vi mo va trang thai cua no .
Khai niem xac xuat cung c dung trong VLC nhng vi mot y ngha khac
.Trong VLC xac xuat c a vao ch khi ieu kien cua bai toan khong c
biet mot cach ay u va phai lay trung bnh theo cac tham so cha biet . Song o
a gia thiet rang ve nguyen tac th s trung bnh hoa la khong bat buoc va luon
luon co the chnh xac hoa cac ieu kien e khang nh la mot trong so cac ket qua
kha d c xay ra hoan toan con cac ket qua khac se khong xay ra . Nh vay ,
trong VLC xac xuat a phan anh s phat bieu khong ay u bai toan . S khong
ay u ay la khong the tranh c nhng ve nguyen tat la co the loai tr c .
Trong vat ly co ien nguyen ly quyet nh luan Laplace a loai bo yeu to ngau
nhien khi mo ta dang ieu cua tng oi tng rieng biet do o cac nh luat cua c
hoc co ien la cac nh luat ong lc ch khong phai la cac nh luat thong ke .
Tnh thong ke ch xuat hien khi nghien cu mot tap hp ln cac hat va la mot
phng phap co tnh thu thuat .
C hoc lng t - 30 -
Ngc lai trong C hoc lng t yeu to ngau nhien co mat trong dang ieu
cua tng vi hat rieng biet . Yeu to ngau nhien la he qua cua s hu han cua hang so
Planck va nguyen ly bat nh Heisenberg . Do o c hoc lng t la mot ly thuyet
thong ke ve mat nguyen tat . Va tnh xac xuat la mot trong nhng ac iem cua no .

5 CAC BIEN ONG LC TRONG C HOC LNG T

Trong vat ly hoc co ien trang thai va bien ong lc la hai khai niem c ban.
Cac bien ong lc nh toa o, xung lng ,moment xung lng va nang lng trong
vat ly hoc co ien la nhng ham so (thong thng ).
Nhng trong c hoc lng t van e khac mot cach c ban . Cu the la :
- Trong c hoc lng t moi bien ong lc cua c hoc co ien c oi ng
vi mot toan t Hecmitic .
- Co the chuyen cac he thc ong lc t c hoc co ien sang c hoc lng t
vi dang nh cu nhng trong o phai thay cac ai lng vat ly bang cac toan t
Hecmitic tng ng .
Noi cach khac : Cong cu cua c hoc lng t c xay dng hoan toan tng
t nh cong cu c hoc co ien neu ta thay cac bien ong lc cua c hoc co ien (la
cac ham ) bang cac toan t Hecmitic .
1/.Cac toan t toa o :
) , , ( ) , , (
3 2 1
x x x z y x r =
r

o la cac toan t nhan ham f tren o cac toan t tac dung vi cac lng
xi(i=1,2,3). Phep nhan hieu theo ngha thong thng , cac ham f=f(x,y,z).
Ta co the de dang tm c cac giao hoan t cua cac toan t toa o la :
[xi,xj]=0. (5.1)
e y rang v cac lng xi la thc nen cac toan t nay eu la Hecmitic.
2/.Cac toan t xung lng :
) , , ( ) , , (
3 2 1 z y x
P P P P P P P = =
r

Cac toan t xung lng co dang :
) 3 , 2 , 1 ( ; , =
= = i
x
i P i P
i
i
h h
r
(5.2)
Cac giao hoan t co dang :
[ ] ) 3 , 2 , 1 , ( ; 0 , = = j i P P
j i
(5.3)
Ta cung co the tm c cac giao hoan t cua cac toan t nay vi cac toan t
toa o la :
[ ] ) 3 , 2 , 1 , ( ; , = = j i i P x
ij j i
h
(5.4)
Cac toan t xung lng cung la cac toan t Hecmitic .

C hoc lng t - 31 -
3/. Cac toan t Moment xung lng L va toan t moment xung lng
bnh phng L2 .
nh ngha :Toan t L c nh ngha nh sau :
L=[r*p].
Nh vay ta co :
= =
= =
= =
1
2
2
1 1 2 2 1 3
3
1
1
3 3 1 1 3 2
2
3
3
2 2 3 3 2 1
x
x
x
x i p x p x L
x
x
x
x i p x p x L
x
x
x
x i p x p x L
h
h
h

Cac giao hoan t :
Trc het ta co the tm giao hoan t cua L vi cac toan t x ; cu the ta co :

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
3
2 2 3 2 2
3
3 2 2 2 3 2
2 2 3
2
3 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 1
x i
p x x x p x p x x x p x
x p x x p x x p x p x x L
h =
+ =
= =
, , , ,
, , , ,

Hn na co the chng minh trng hp tong quat :
[ ]

=
k
k ijk j i
x i x L h
(5.5)
Vi :
1 , 1
132 213 321 312 231 123
= = = = = =

Cac thanh phan khac eu bang khong .
Giao hoan t cua
L
r
vi bang cach tnh trc tiep ta co :
p
r

[ ]

=
k
k ijk j i
p i x L h ,
(5.6)

Gia cac thanh phan cua L ta co :

[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
3 2 1 1 2
3 1 1
3
1 1 1 1 3 1 3 1
1 3 1 3 1 1
3 1 1 3 1 2 1
L i p x i p x i
p L x p x L p L x p x L
p x L p x L
p x p x L L L
h h h = +
+ =
+ =
=
, ,
, ,

Vay:
[ ]
3 2 1
, iL L L =
.
Tong quat hn ta co :
[ ]

=
k
k ijk j i
L i x L h ,
(5.7)
C hoc lng t - 32 -
T cac toan t L1,L2,L3 ta a vao toan t :

2
3
2
2
2
1
2
L L L L + + =

Goi la toan t moment bnh phng . Ta co the tm giao hoan t :

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] 0 , , , , 0
, , , , ,
3 1 3 1 3 3 2 1 2 1 2 2
1
2
3 1
2
2 1
2
1 1
2
1
2
2
2
1 1
2
= + + + + =
+ + = + + =
L L L L L L L L L L L L
L L L L L L L L L L L L

Tong quat ta co :
) 3 , 2 , 1 ( ; 0 ,
2
= =
i L L
i
(5.8)
Do cac toan t xi va pi la Hecmitic ta de dang thay rang cac toan t Li va L2
eu Hecmitic .

4/.Toan t Hamilton H:
Tng ng vi bieu thc ham Hamilton trong c hoc co ien :
) , , , (
2
2
t z y x U
M
p
H + =
r

Ta a vao toan t Hamilton :
) , , , (
2
2
t z y x U
m
H + =
h
(5.9)
Trong he toa o cau (r,,) toan t hamilton co dang :
U
r
r r
r
m
H +
2 2
2
2
2
2
h
(5.10)
Cac giao hoan t : Ta co the tnh trc tiep e tm cac giao hoan t cua H va xi
va pi nh sau :
[ ]
[ ] 0 ,
0 ,
i
i
p H
x H
(i=1,2,3)
Ch khi U = 0 th ta mi co :
[ ] 0 , =
i
p H
.
Cac giao hoan t cua H vi cac toan t moment xung lng Va moment xung
lng bnh phng se c xet trong trng hp at biet khi U=U(r,t).Tc la tng
ng vi bai toan chuyen ong trong trng xuyen tam .
Trc het ta tm bieu thc cua Li va L2 trong he toa o cau .T moi lien he
gia hai toa o :

cos
sin sin
cos sin
r z
r y
r x
=
=
=

C hoc lng t - 33 -
Ta co :
x
y
y
x
y
y
x
x

Ngha la ta co :

= h i L
3
(5.12)
e tm cac bieu thc cua L1 va L2 ta e y rang :
x
y
tg
r
z y x r =
= + + = ; cos ;
2 2 2
.
T o ta c :

sin
cos
; 0
sin cos
;
sin
sin sin , cos
r
y z
r
y
r
z
y
r
r
z
z
r
=
= =

T bieu thc nh ngha :
( )
( ) ( )

+
+
=
=

cos cot sin cos sin sin
sin sin cos cos sin sin
cos
sin sin
g
r
r r i
z z r z
r
r
z z r z
r
r i
y
z
z
y i L
2 2
1
h
h
h

Nh vay ta co :
cos cot sin

1
g i L h
(5.13)
Tng t ta tnh c :

cos cot cos

2
g i L h
(5.14)
T cac ket qua tren ta co :
= =
2
2
2
2 2 2
sin
1
sin
sin
1
h h L
(5.15)
Ta xet trng hp ac biet khi U=U(r,t) .Khi o ta k hieu :
C hoc lng t - 34 -

) , (
2
2
0
t r U
m
H + =
h
.
T bieu thc nay va cac ket qua tren ta co :
Va
[ ]
[ ] 0 ,
0 ,
2
0
3 0
=
=
L H
L H

(5.16)
Cac toan t ong lc co vai tro ac biet quan trong trong c hoc lng t bi
le no lien quan en cac gia tr o c trong thc nghiem . Phep chuyen t cac toan
t ti cac ai lng o c (hay quan sat c ) trong thc nghiem c thc hien
nh bai toan tr rieng :
) ( ) ( x x L
n n n
=
.
Moi lien he o la :Neu he trang thai c mo ta bi he ham rieng n(x) cua
toan t oi xng vi bien ong lc nao o th khi o ai lng nay trang thai
n(x) ta se nhan c gia tr n nao o nam trong pho {n }.

6 CA C HE TH C BAT NH

I/ Y Tng Lng Song Hat Va cac He Thc Bat nh:
Ta xet tap hp cac song phang (co ien) lan truyen tren truc x. Ta gia s rang
cac tan so song rai rac
mot khoang nao o

,
con cac gia tr cua vector
song trong khoang .
x
k
Neu chap tat ca cac song
phang nay vi nhau th chung x
ta se nhan c bo song nh hnh ve. Vi bo song o ngi ta a tm c cac
he thc:

1
1

x k
t
x
.
.

Nhng he thc nay rat quen thuoc trong vat ly co ien. Nhng ngi a biet
ve ky thuat radio eu biet rang: e tao ra tn hieu nh x hn th can phai lay
nhieu song phang vi cac tan so khac nhau hn. Hay noi cach khac: e giam
x

va
t
th phai tang
x
k
va

.
Mot cach hnh thc ta gia thiet rang cac he thc tren khong ch ung vi cac
song co ien ma con ung cho ca nhng ac trng song cua cac vi hat (Nhng lu y
C hoc lng t - 35 -
rang ieu nay khong co ngha la chung ta mo hnh hoa vi hat di dang bo song
nao o).
S dung cac he thc Planck Einstein:

h = E
,
k P
r
h
r
=

va chuyen sang bieu thc tng t cho cac ac tnh cua vi hat (cho nang lng
va xung lng cua hat) ta co:

h t E.
(6.2)
h x P
x
.
(6.3)
Cac he thc nay c Heisenberg a ra lan au tien vao nam 1927 va c
ong goi la he thc bat nh (ngay nay ta thng goi chung la he thc bat nh
Heisenberg).
Ngoai ra ta co the bo sung them he thc di ay:

h
x x
M .
(6.4)
trong o
x

la o bat nh cua toa o goc cua oi tng vi hat (xet phep
quay quanh truc x), con
x
M
la o bat nh cua hnh chieu moment tren truc x.
Cac he thc tren cung co the m rong cho cac trng hp tng t khac. Cu
the la ta co the viet:

h
h

z
y
P z
P y
.
.

h
h

z z
y y
M
M
.
.

II/ Y ngha cua cac he thc bat nh:
Ta xet he thc:
h x p
x
.

trong o
x
la o bat nh cua toa o x,
x
p
la o bat nh cua hnh chieu
tren truc x cua xung lng cua vi hat. Nh vay neu vi hat c nh x tai mot iem
xac nh x nao o th hnh chieu cua xung lng cua vi hat tren truc x co o bat
nh tuy y. Ngha la vi hat phai tan ra tren toan truc x.
ieu nay co ngha la trong c hoc lng t vi hat khong the co ong thi toa
o xac nh va gia tr hnh chieu xung lng xac nh tren truc o. ieu nay cho
thay trong c hoc lng t hoan toan khong co khai niem quy ao. ay la mot he
qua quan trong cua nguyen ly bat nh.
Bay gi ta xet he thc:

h t E.

Vi he thc nay co nhieu cach giai thch khac nhau v
t
khong phai la o
bat nh theo thi gian (v thi gian la mot tham so ch khong phai mot bien ong
lc). Cu the la :
C hoc lng t - 36 -
- Neu he trang thai kch thch trong khoang thi gian
t
th khi o he
khong the co nang lng xac nh va o bat nh cua nang lng la:

t
E

h

Tuy nhien nang lng co o bat nh khong co ngha la nang lng khong
c bao toan. Bi v neu he trang thai dng th nang lng cua he khong oi
theo thi gian va khi o ta co the o nang lng trong khoang thi gian
t
lau tuy
y. Ngha la neu
= t
th
0 = E
la khong co s sai lech nao ve tr so cua nang
lng.
Nh he thc

h t E.

ta co the suy ra thi gian song cua hat vi mo, cothe tng tng ra nhng qua
trnh ao e lam cong cu giai thch nhng hien tng ma khong vi pham nh luat
bao toan nang lng .
Nhng ieu can lu y:
- Th nhat: he thc bat nh nhan manh mot ieu la: s bat nh trong the gii
vi mo khong phai la nhng sai so ngau nhien cua phep o hay s khong hoan thien
cua cac thiet b ky thuat ma xuat phat t ban chat lng song hat cua hat vi mo hay
noi cach khac viec khong the xac nh ong thi toa o va xung lng la co tnh
nguyen tac.
- Th hai : Cac ai lng ac trng cho song (
va
) khong phai la cac ai

lng nh x c. Do o xuat phat t he thc De Broglie ta co the rut ra he thc
bat nh. Mat khac chuyen ong cua hat co khoi lng m va van toc v lien oi vi
mot song co bc song tnh theo cong thc:

mv
h
=

trong o
la bc song. ac trng cua song la s lan truyen vo han trong

khong gian cho nen bc song la mot ham so cua dang song ch khong phai la ham
so cua mot iem cua khong gian. Cung do he thc De Broglie th van toc cua hat
cung khong phai la ham so cua toa o cua hat. Noi tom lai van toc va toa o cua
hat khong the ong thi co gia tr xac nh. He thc bat nh la mot he thc c ban
nhat cua c hoc lng t, mot trong nhng he qua quan trong nhat cua gia thiet De
- Broglie ve tnh lng song hat cua vi hat.
- Th ba: Nhn cac he thc bat nh ta thay cau truc cua chung phai nh the
nao e trong moi he thc gom hai ai lng lien hp chnh tac vi nhau theo y
ngha co ien. Do o ta co the suy ra rang oi vi cac cap ai lng chnh tac th
cac he thc tng t van ung. Ve phng dien ly thuyet tng oi cac he thc bat
nh Heisenberg co tnh chat oi xng: cu the la ba thanh phan cua xung lng va
nang lng
( ) E
z
p
y
p
x
p , , ,
tao thanh mot vector 4 chieu, con ba toa o va thi
gian (x,y,z,t) tao thanh mot vector khac

C hoc lng t - 37 -
III/ Mot so ket qua thu c t he thc bat nh :
a/ c lng xac nh nang lng cua trang thai c ban cua nguyen t hiro.
Trong vat ly hoc co ien bie thc nang lng cua hat tch ien trong mot
trng coulomb la :
r
e
m
P
E
2 2
2
=
(6.5)
trong o m va e la khoi lng va ien tch cua electron .e s dung cong thc
tren trong c hoc lng t ta phai xem Pva r trong bieu thc o nh la x bat nh
cua xung lng va toa o cua electron . Theo he thc bat nh gia xung lng va
toa o :
h x P*

ta i ti he thc tng ng :
h r p.

hay n gian hn la :
h = r p.
(6.6)
Thay r tnh c t (6.6) vao (6.5) ta co :

h
p e
m
p
p E
2 2
2
= ) (

(6.7)
T ket qua nay ta de dang thay rang E(p) co mot cc tieu tai p=p1.Ta ky
hieu nang lng cc tieu o la E1 .Lng E1chnh la nang lng cua trang thai c
ban cua nguyen t Hyro con
1
1
p
r
h
=
la kch thc c lng cua nguyen t
(trong ly thuyet cua Bohr kch thc c lng cua nguyen t la ban knh cua quy
ao th nhat trong nguyen t) . Co the de dang xac nh c
h
2
1
me
p =
. Cuoi
cung ta co:

2
4
1
2
2
1
2h
h me
E
me
r = = ,

(6.8)
Nhng ket qua nay hoan toan phu hp vi nhng ly thuyet chnh xac ,chac
che co ien .
b/ c lng nang lng cua dao ong tai iem khong cua mot dao ong t .
Nang lng cua mot dao ong t ieu hoa mot chieu co ien c cho bang
bieu thc :

2 2
2 2 2
mx
m
P
E
x
+ =
(6.9)
Xem Px va x nh la s bat nh cua xung lng va toa o cua vi hat dao ong
va s dung phng trnh :
h = x P
x
.

nh la mot trng hp cua he thc bat nh , ta co :
C hoc lng t - 38 -
2
2 2 2
2
2
x
x
x
P
m
m
P
P E
h
+ = ) (

Bang cach giai phng trnh :
0 = ) (
x
x
P E
dP
d

Ta tm c :
h m P
o
=
la gia tr tai o E(Px)cc tieu .De dang t o
suy ra :
h = = ) (
o o
P E E
(6.9)
ay la mot ket qua rat a ng e y . Bi le no chng to rang : Trong c hoc
lng t nang lng cua mot dao ong t khong the triet tieu va co gia tr la
h
.Nang lng nay c goi la nang lng cua dao ong khong cua dao ong t .
Lu y rang c lng (6.9) khac vi bieu thc chnh xac cua nang lng cua dao
ong khong cua dao ong t mot tha so
2
1
(gia tr chnh xac la :
h
2
1
).
S dung ket qua nay vao cac tnh toan nang lng cua chuyen ong ieu hoa
cua nguyen t trong mot tinh the ngi ta i en mot ket qua thu v bat ng la :
Nang lng o khong triet tieu ngay ca o khong tuyet oi.
Dao ong khong cua mot dao ong co nang lng khac khong chng to mot s
kien c ban la : Khong the tm thay mot vi hat ay cua mot ho the hay noi cach
khac hat vi mo khong the ri xuong ay cua mot ho the, du cho ho the co dang nh
the nao. S d nh vay la do s ri xuong ay ho the cua vi hat la khong cho
phep do tnh triet tieu cua xung lng , cung nh tnh bat nh cua toa o cua vi hat
.
c/ Giai thch tai sao electron khong ri vao hat nhan .
Khi a ra gia thuyet ve trang thai dng trong ly thuyet nguyen t , Bohr
khong giai thch v sao cac electron chuyen ong co gia toc xung quanh hat nhan
lai khong bc xa va ri vao hat nhan . Nhng he thc (6.3) lai cho phep ta giai thch
ieu nay kha de dang . Electron ri vao hat nhan ong ngha vi viet thay oi ang
ke toa o cua no . Gia s trc khi ri vao hat nhan electron cach hat nhan vao c
cm
me
r
8
2
2
1
10
=
h
.Khi ri vao nhan electron se nam trong vung co kch
thc c 10-12cm . Theo he thc bat nh (6.3) tnh nh x cang cao th x nhoe
cua xung lng cang ln. Do o trc khi ri vao hat nhan xung lng cua electron
phai tang len ieu nay co ngha la electron phai tieu ton mot nang lng .Thanh th
s co gang gicho electron khong ri vao hat nhan la s nh x cho electron
vung rat gan hat nhan.
Trong khi xet dao ong khong tren ta thay rang vi hat trong mot ho the luon
co mot nang lng cc tieu khac khong Eo . o ln cua Eo noi chung phu thuoc
vao o rong cua gieng .S dung cac ket qua o ta de dang co the suy ra la :
2
2
ma
E
o
h
=
. Nh vay neu a giam th Eo se tang len .Nh vay vi a u nho , nang
C hoc lng t - 39 -
lng Eo co the tr nen ln hn o sau cua ho the. Ro rang mot gieng nh the se
khong the gi noi mot hat nao trong no .
S ri vao hat nhan cua electron se tng ng vi s giam be rong cua ho
the t 10-8cm xuong 10-12cm .Tham ch thap hn . Theo cong thc :
2
2
ma
E
o
h

,khi o cc tieu nang lng Eo se tang t 10 ev en109ev va tham ch hn na . ket
qua la nang lng toi thieu cua electron vao c ln hn nang lng lien ket cua
cac nucleon trong hat nhan nguyen t (nang lng lien ket nay vao c109 ev). Lap
luan ay khong nhng tra li cho cau hoi v sao electron khong ri vao hat nhan
ma con tra li cho mot cau hoi rat quan trong la : V sao trong hat nhan nguyen t
khong co electron .

IV . Xay dng he thc bat nh Heisenberg:
1. Gia tr trung bnh:
a/ Ky vong toan hoc trong ly thuyet xac xuat : Gia s ta co mot ai lng
ngau nhien l co nhan cac gia tr 1 , 2 , k cung vi xac xuat tng ng ; 1 ,
2 , k va
1 + 2 + .. + .. = 1
Ky vong toan hoc hay trung bnh thong ke cua ai lung ngau nhien l la
tong cac tch cua tng gia tr nay nhan v xac xuat xuat hien cua no :

=
K K
l

oi vi cac ai lng lien tuc ngha la lng
l
bien oi lien tuc mot khoang
nao o , Xac xuat e cho l nam trong khoang va ( + d) se phu thuoc vao va
ty le vi d . Khi o ky vong toan hoc cua ai lng l se co dang :

( )
= d l

Trong o :
( )
la mat o xac xuat
b/ ky vong toan hoc trong C hoc lng t :
Trong C hoc lng t trang thai cua vi hat c mo ta bi ham song .
Neu la ham rieng cua toan t L th khi o ai lng bat ky neu nhan c gia tr
rieng , ta co the bieu dien bang cong thc:

=

= L
dV
dV L
*
*
.
Ky hieu
L
ch rang cua ai lng L trong trang thai .
Nh vay vi bien ong lc toa o ta co :

C hoc lng t - 40 -

=
dV
dV x
*
*
x

Neu ta gia s co he thc :

= 1
*
dV

th khi o :

= dV x x
*
(6.12)

Tng t ta co :

dX
dx
d
i
dX X P x P
x
X
x

=

=
) (
*
*
) (
) (
h
(6.13)
Tong quat hoa cho toan t bat ky :
F
= dV F F

*
(6.14)

Vi ieu kien ham song chuan hoa ve n v .
Gia tr trung bnh co mot so tnh chat nh sau :
+/ gia tr trung bnh cua cac ai lung chnh xac bang chnh gia tr cua ai
lng chnh xac o .
Neu trong trang thai gia tr cua toan t L bang th ta co :
= L
= dV L
*
l

+ Neu trong cung mot trang thai gia tr trung bnh cua la
F
F
, cua
G
la
G
th gia tr trung bnh cua tong thoa man :
+ = + dV G F G F )

(
*

=

+ dV G dV F

* *
=
G F +

2/ ieu kien e hai toan t F va G giao hoan vi nhau :
mot van e quan trong cua C hoc lng t la kha nang o ong thi cac gia
tr cua cac ai lng vat ly gan lien vi c he lng t . vi van e nay ta co nh ly
sau:
nh ly : Muon cho hai ai lng F va G co cung gia tr xac nh trong mot
trang thai nao o mo ta bi ham song
) ( X
n
th ham song nay phai ong thi la

ham rieng cua toan t F va G .
C hoc lng t - 41 -
Chng minh :
) ( ) ( X X F
n n
=

tac dung tiep len o toan t G th ta co :
) ( ) ( X X GF
n n
=
(a)
Vi toan t G :
) ( ) ( X X G
n n
=

Tac dung tiep toan t F len o ta c :

) ( ) (
X X G F
n n
=
(b)
Lay (a) tr i (b) ta co :

[ ] 0 ) ( , ) ( ) ( = = X F G X FG GF
n n

ieu nay co nhga la : Neu hai ai lng co the ong thi co cac gia tr xac
nh th hai toan t tng ng vi chung phai giao hoan vi nhau .
nh ly ao : Neu hai toan t F va G gia ohoan vi nhau th chung co chung
mot he ham rieng . Ngha la neu :
[ F , G] = 0
th he ham 1 (X) thoa man :
F1 (X) = 1 (X)
Va he ham 2 (X) thoa man :
G2 (X) = 2 (X)
Se hoan toan trung nhau . Ngha la : 1 (X) 2 (X) (X).
Chnh minh nh ly nay khong kho lam cac ban co the xem nh bai tap ;
hoac xem trong cac tai lieu tham khao.
3/ khai niem tap hp u cac ai lung vat ly :
Ta can lam ro hn thuat ng cho trc trang thai cua he Trong C hoc
lung t .
Trang thai cua he a cho neu cho biet ham song mo ta he . Song ta khong
the o trc tiep uc ham song trong bat ky ieu kien nao, ch co bnh phng
modun ham song co y ngha vat ly nh la mat o xac xuat tm thay hat mot v tr
xac ng trong khong gian . V vay trong C hoc lng t ngi ta quan niem rang :
Khi ta noi rang cho trc trang thai cua he lng t th ieu o co ngha la
cho trc gia tr cua tap hp xac nh cua cac ai lung C hoc lng t . Tap hc
cac ai lung nay c goi la he u cac ai lung vat ly .

V du:
Tap hp u cac ai lung vat ly xac nh trang thai cua electron co Spin
chang han co the la mot trong ba tap hp sau :
x ,y ,z ,
Px , Py , Pz ,
E , , m ,
l
C hoc lng t - 42 -
Trong o : , m , la so lng t qu ao , so lung t t va so lung t Spin
. Cac toa o va cac thanh cua xung lung ri vao hai tap hp khac nhau v cac ai
lung nay khong the o c ong thi . Do o cac he thc trong vat ly co ien :
l
) (
2
2
r u
m
P
E
r
+ =

= P r L X
r
r
r

Khong co y ngha khi chuyen sang C hoc lung t v cha ca xung lung va
toa o .
4/ Xay dng he thc bat nh :
Trong phan tren ta a tm c ieu kien ma trong o co the o ong thi hai
ai lung vat ly . Bay gi gia thiet ta co hai ai lung vat ly G va F khong co ong
thi cac gia tr xac nh khi o cac toan t nay khong gia hoan vi nhau .
Gia thiet chung thoa man he thc :
FG GF = iB
Trong o B la mot toan t Hecmitic nao o . Neu chon G = PX , F = x , th B
= v :
h
x PX - PX x = i .
h
Nh vay van e at ra la : Khi ong thi o hai ai lung nay th s khong
chnh xac ( hay sai so ) se la bao nhieu ?.
e giai quyet van e nay ta phai xet them hai khai niem la thang gian trung
bnh va thang gian toan phng .
Thang gian la mc o sai lech gia gia tr trung bnh va gia tr thc .
Mc sai lech gia gia tr chnh xac a va gia tr trung bnh
a
la :
a
a
= a -
a

trong o :
=
i
i i
a a

Thang giang trung bnh la :
a
. Lu y rang thang giang trung bnh luon
bang khong . That vay :
( ) ( ) =
= = da a a a a a a ) (

0 ) ( ) ( = =
= a a da a a da a a

Mat du vay ca lu y la co the
a
khac rat xa vi gia tr chnh xac a .
V le o phai a vao mot ai lng khac e anh gia mc o thang giang o
la khai niem thang giang toan phng .
Thang giang toan phng c nh ngha nh sau :
( )
2 2
2
) (a a a TGTP a = =

Bay gi ta tm cac suy ra he thc bat nh mot cach chat che .
Xuat phat t bat ang thc hien nhien :
C hoc lng t - 43 -
0
2
) (

+ dx
dx
x d
x

trong o la so thc . Bieu dien di dau tch phan co the bien oi nh sau :

= + + = +

dx
d
x
dx
d
x
dx
d
x

* 2

= + + =

dx
d
x
dx
d
x

*
*

dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
x x

+ + =
2 2
2 2
.

Neu at :
=
dx
dx
d
dx
d
C
dx
dx
d
x B
dx x A

.
,
*
2
2
2

th bieu thc tren co dang :

2 2
2
4 0 4
0
B AC ac B
C B A
=
+

Mat khac e y rang :

= = dx x dx x x A
2 *
2
2 2

( )
( ) 1
* *
*
2
=
+ =

=

dx x
dx
dx
d
x dx
dx
d
x B

2
2
2
*
*
*
2
1
X
P
dx
dx
d
dx
d
dx
dx
d
dx
d
C
h
=
=
+

Vay ta co :
1 .
4
2 2
2

X
P x
h

C hoc lng t - 44 -
hay :
4
.
2
2 2
h
X
P x

Neu ta chon goc toa o tai iem vi toa o
x
th
0 = x
. Va gia s rang he
chuyen ong vi van toc
m P
X
th
0 =
X
P
. Nh vay :

2 2 2
2
2 2 2
2
) (
) (
X X
P P P P
x x x x
= =
= =

do o ta co :
4
2
2
2 h

X
P x

hay :
2
h

X
P x
.
Thong thng he thc nay viet gon la :
2
.
h

X
P x

ay la bieu thc chnh xac cua he thc bat nh ma y ngha cua no ta a thao
luan phan tren .

7 HAM SONG . NGUYEN LY CHONG CHAP TRANG THAI.

I/. Ham Song:
Thc chat cua viec mo ta mot c he nao o gom hai noi dung sau:
- Mot la: Mo ta trang thai cua he c mot thi iem co nh a cho
- Hai la: Mo ta s bien oi cua trang thai theo thi gian, hay noi cach khac la
mo ta chuyen ong cua c he.
Nh vay c hoc co ien thc chat chu yeu ch nghien cu mat th hai cua c
he, tc la nghien cu chuyen ong cua no, con kha canh th nhat c thc hien
bang viec xac nh toa o (suy rong) va van toc (suy rong) cua no. Tuy bai toan cu
the ma van toc hay toa o c xem xet mot cach oc lap.
Khac biet vi c hoc co ien, c hoc lng t cho phep xem xet van e th
nhat mot cach ky lng hn.(cung can lu y rang toa o va van toc trong c hoc co
ien la cac ham do o chung giao hoan vi nhau). Trong c hoc lng t xac nh
ong thi toa o va xung lng la khong the c do o e mo ta trang thai cua c
hoc lng t ngi ta dung mot khai niem mi o la ham song
( ) t r,
r
. Khi o ||2
C hoc lng t - 45 -
ty le vi mat o xac xuat tm thay hat cho xac nh nao o trong khong gian. Xac
xuat tm thay hat tai the tch dV nao o cha iem (x,y.z)
d (x,y,z)= (x,y,z) 2dxdydz
Ham song phai thoa man bon ieu kien sau:
- Lien tuc
- Hu han
- n tr
- chuan hoa bang n v; ngha la:
=
+
0
2
1 dV

ieu nay co ngha la viec tm thay hat trong toan khong gian la chac chan.
II/. Nguyen ly chong chap trang thai:
Nguyen ly chong chap trang thai la mot trong so cac nguyen ly c s cua vat
ly hoc. Trong vat ly co ien- cu the trong ly thuyet song nhat la trong song ien t-
nguyen ly nay co vai tro ac biet quan trong.
Trong c hoc lng t nguyen ly nay con chiem mot vai tro quan trong hn
lien quan en kha nang mo ta c he lng t, kha nang giai thch y ngha vat ly cua
cong cu cua c hoc lng t ly thuyet cac toan t Hecmitic va tnh oc lap cua c
he lng t vi dung cu o. Noi dung cua nguyen ly chong chap la:
Neu ton tai cac trang thai mo ta bang cac ham song
( ) t r
n
,
r
th cung ton
tai trang thai:
( ) ( ) t r a t r
n
n
n
, ,
r r

=

=1

S la chon tap hp cac ham
( ) t r
n
,
r
gan lien vi s la chon cac ai lng

ac trng xac nh cua he lng t. Cac he so xac nh phan bo xac xuat cua
cac ai lng tng ng.
n
a
Ve phng dien toan hoc so vi vat ly co ien nguyen ly chong chap trang
thai lng t hoan toan tng t, ngha la phng trnh chuyen ong xac nh cac
trang thai lng t cung la phng trnh tuyen tnh.
Mac du vay, ve noi dung nguyen ly chong chap lng t co nhng khac biet
quan trong,khac han vi nguyen ly chong chap trong vat ly co ien. e thay ro
ieu nay ta xet mot v du. Gia s ham 1(x), 2(x) mo ta trang thai ma o chung
ta o ai lng A va nhan c gia tr xac nh A1 va A2 tng ng. Chong chap
hai trang thai nay ta c trang thai mi:
( ) ( ) ( ) x a x a x
2 2 1 1 12
+ =

Trong vat ly co ien khi o ai lng A trang thai 12 (x) th ta nhan c
gia tr (A1+A2 )/2 nao o ngha la gia tr nhan c la trung bnh cong cua cac
trang thai thanh phan.
Trong c hoc lng t tnh trang hoan toan khac: khi ta o ai lng A trang
thai 12 (x) th ta nhan c gia tr hoac A1 hoac A2. Khong nhng the ta con
khong the tien oan chnh xac gia tr A1 hay A2 se xuat hien trong phep o cu the
C hoc lng t - 46 -
ma ta ch co the nhan c xac xuat nhan c A1 hay A2 tng ng la
2
1
a
va
2
2
a

Nh vay co ngha la: S phan lap cac gia tr cua cac ai lng vat ly va s bat
nh trong ket qua o la ac trng c ban cua nguyen ly chong chap lng t.
Giai thch ac iem trang thai cua vi hat Bohr a phat bieu nh sau: Trang
thai cua vi hat khong the xet mot cach tach biet vi phng tien quan sat, ma phai
ke en ieu ay, cac trang thai cua oi tng vi mo c nghien cu nhat thiet nh
cac thiet b v mo ma chnh cac thiet b ay tuan theo cac nh luat cua vat ly co
ien.
Cung noi ve nguyen ly chong chap trang thai P. Dirac a viet: Khi t bo
quyet nh luan cua vat ly co ien chung ta a phc tap hoa s mo ta thien nhien,
song s phc tap hoa nh vay c en bu mot cach xng ang bi s n gian hoa
do nguyen ly chong chap trang thai mang lai .

8 PHNG TRNH SCHRODINGER

Phng trnh Schrodinger la phng trnh c ban cua c hoc lng t vai tro
cua no trong c hoc lng giong nh vai tro cua phng trnh Newton trong c hoc
co ien. Phng trnh Schrodinger la phng trnh co dang:
H
t
i

=
h
.
trong o:
H
la toan t Hamilton hay Hamiltonien. Phng trnh Schrodinger

thiet lap moi quan he gia trang thai va bien ong lc-hai khai niem c ban cua c
hoc lng t.
I/. Cach Thiet lap phng trnh:
1/. Phng trnh Schrodinger cho hat t do:
T dang song mo ta chuyen ong cua hat t do:
( )
[ ] Et r p
i
Ae t r

=
r r
h
r
,
. (1)
Ta co:
t
i E E
i
t
= =
h
h

( )

2 2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
z y x
P P P
z y x
+ + =
h

t he thc nang lng:
m
P
E
2
2
=
ta suy ra

C hoc lng t - 47 -
=
m t
i
2
2
h
h

(2)

Phng trnh Schrodinger co nhng tnh chat sau:
+/ Phng trnh ao ham rieng tuyen tnh (lien quan en nguyen ly chong
chap trang thai).
+/ Phng trnh ch cha ao ham bac nhat theo thi gian v no gan lien vi s
bieu hien cua nguyen ly nhan qua. (T
( ) 0 , r
r
suy ra
( ) t r,
r
mot cach n tr).

Nhng lu y rang do y ngha cua ham song chung ta ch co the hieu nguyen ly nhan
qua theo ngha thong ke.
Nghiem cua phng trnh (2) co dang:
( ) ( )
Et
i
e r t r
h
r

= . ,
(3)
thay (3) vao (2) ta co phng trnh cho ham ch phu thuoc vao toa o la:
( ) ( ) 0
2
= + r
mE
r
h
(4)
Phng trnh (4) xac nh ham (r) cho hat t do.
2/. Phng trnh Schrodinger cho hat chuyen ong trong trng lc:
Thay E bang (E-U) trong o U la the nang cua hat khi o phng trnh (4) tr
thanh:
( ) [ ] ( ) 0 ) (
2
= + r r U E
m
r
h
(5)
Phng trnh (5)la phng trnh Schrodinger cho hat chuyen ong trong
trng the tuy y khong phu thuoc thi gian.
Tong quat hn ta thay:
t
i E
= h

vao phng trnh (5) va nh vay ta co phng trnh:
( ) t r r U
m t
i , ) (
2
2
r
h
h
+ =
(6)
Neu at :
U
m
H + =
2
2
h
th phng trnh co dang gon hn la:
H
t
i

=
h
(7)
Phng trnh lien hp phc cua (7) la:
*
*
H
t
i =
h

3/ Gia thiet ve y ngha xac xuat cua ham song cua M.Born:
e n gian ta xet bai toan mot chieu:

C hoc lng t - 48 -
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) t x x U
x
m
t
t x
i
t x x U
x
m
t
t x
i
,
2
,
,
2
,
*
2
2 2
*
2
2 2
h
h
h
h

Nhan phng trnh au vi *(x,t) va phng trnh sau vi (x,t) roi tr i
nhau ta co:
( )
t t
x m t
i
t x
x x
m
t t
i
*
*
2
2
2
* 2
2
2
*
2
*
*
2
,
2
h
h
h
h

hay:
0
2
*
*
2
=
x x x mi
t

h

Tong quat hoa, trong trng hp ba chieu:

( ) 0
2
* *
2
= +

mi t
h
(8)
Nh vay neu at:2= *= la mat o xac xuat
Va:
( )
* *
2
=
mi
j
h
r
la mat o dong xac xuat th (8) co
dang het nh phng trnh lien tuc:
0 = +
j
t
r

trong ien ong lc hoc.(gia thiet Born).
Neu ta chuan hoa: 2dr=1 th xac xuat cua hat nam trong dv la:
d = *(x,y,z,t) (x,y,z.t)dv
Mot ieu can lu y la trong trang thai dng mat o xac xuat khong phu thuoc
vao thi gian. Cung t cac ket qua nay ta suy ra rang: C hoc lng t ch nghien
cu cac qua trnh trong o so hat la bao toan.
4/ Phng trnh Schrodinger dng:
Ta xet trng hp the nang U khong phu thuoc thi gian khi o phng trnh:
+ =
) (
2
2
r U
m t
i
h
h
(9)
co the c giai bang phng phap phan ly bien so. That vay at:
( ) ) ( ) ( , r t A t r =
r

C hoc lng t - 49 -
roi thay vao phng trnh ta co the tach (9) thanh hai phng trnh:
( ) ( )
) (
) (
t EA
dt
t dA
i
r E r H
=
=
h

trong o E la hang so tach (-tr rieng). Phng trnh theo thi gian co nghiem
la:

Et
i
Ce t A
h
= ) (

Phng trnh th nhat cho cac nghiem (ham rieng) la:1,2 ,3 n va
cac tr rieng tng ng: E1,E2 .. En
Nh vay nghiem cua (9) la:
( )
t E
i
n n
n
e r t r
h
r r

= ) ( ,
.
hay tong quat hn la ham:
( )

=

n
n
t E
i
n
n
z y x e C t r
n
) , , ( ,
h
r

Xac xuat tm thay hat tai iem nao o cua khong gian se khong phu thuoc thi
gian v ta co:
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 , , ,
2
r t r t r
n n n
= =
r
v
1 =
t E
i
n
e
h

9 CAC PHNG TRNH CHUYEN ONG LNG T
I/ Nhan xet chung :
Ta biet rang vi C hoc co hai khai niem c ban o la trang thai va cac bien
ong lc . Hai khai nien nay gan lien vi nhau mot cach chat che cu the la neu ta
biet c cac ai lng ong lc th co the biet c trang thai cua he va ngc lai
. Khi mo ta s tien trien cua he theo thi gian ta co the dung cac phng trnh
chuyen ong v vay cac phng trnh chuyen ong co vai tro quan trong .
Trong C hoc co ien cac phng trnh chuyen ong c viet qua cac bien
ong la cac phng trnh Newton , phng trnh Hamilton Jacobi , phng trnh
chnh tac Hamilton va qua ham trang thai la phng trnh Lagrange. Giai cac
phng trnh nay chung ta se tm c cac ai lng ong lc la nghiem cua cac
phng trnh o la cac ham so cua thi gian :
) (t r r
r r
=
,
) (t p p
r r
=
, E = E(t) ,
) (t M M
r r
=
.
C hoc lng t - 50 -
Tuy nhien e y rang trong cac bien ong lc o th
r
r
va
p
r
co vai tro c ban
hn so vi E va
M
r
v hai ai lng sau co the bieu dien qua hai ai lng
r
r
va
p
r
,
v vay tap hp
( ) p r
r r
,
c goi la trang thai cua c he :
Trong hnh thc luan Hamilton , ma c s cua no la phng trnh chnh tat
Hamilton :
i
i
i
i
q
H
dt
dp
p
H
dt
dq
= ;
(9.1)
(Neu a vao moc Poisson th ta co the viet cac phng trnh nay di dang
oi xng cho ca cac toa o va cac xung lng lien hp )
Bay gi ta xet en C hoc lng t .
Trong C hoc lng t trang thai c mo ta bang ham song
( ) t r,
r
. Biet
c ham song chung ta se thu c gia tr trung bnh cua bat c ai lng nao tc
la biet c ay u ve he . Phng trnh chuyen ong c viet qua ham song
chnh la phng trnh Schrodinger . Nh ta a biet :
H
t
i =
h

Nh vay xuat hien mot van e la : trong C hoc lng t co the viet c cac
phng trnh hoan toan tng t nh cac phng trnh chuyen ong cua c hoc co
ien cho cac bien ong lc hay khong ? Cau tra li la co the c . Tuy nhien e
lam c nh vay trc het ta phai xay dng vai nh ngha mi o la cac moc
Poisson lng t va khai niem ao ham theo thi gian cua cac toan t .

II/ Cac moc Poisson lng t :
1/ Cac moc Poisson trong c hoc co ien :
ao ham toan phan theo thi gian cua mot ham F(q,p,t) nao o (phu
thuoc toa o q , xung lng p va thi gian t ) trong vat ly hoc co ien co dang :
K
K
K
K
K
t
p
p
F
t
q
q
F
t
F
dt
dF
. .
(9.2)
Neu dung cac phng trnh chnh tat Hamilton trong o H = H(q.p) la ham
Hamilton nang lng toan phan trong vat ly hoc co ien bieu dien qua xung
lng va toa o , th khi o ta co the viet :
=
K
K
K K K
p
F
q
H
q
H
p
H
t
F
dt
dF
. .

hay
) , ( F H
dt
dF
dt
dF
+ =
.
Trong o (H,F) la ky hieu cua tong ben ve phai c goi la moc Poisson co
ien .
C hoc lng t - 51 -
Tong quat hn moc Poisson khong phai ch co the nh ngha cho H va F ma
co the nh ngha cho hai ham bat ky F(p , q) va G(p . q) tc la cho cac ham phu
thuoc vao xung lng va toa o nh sau :
K
K K K K
p
F
q
G
p
G
q
F
G F ) , (
(9.3)
Neu bien ong lc F khong phu thuoc tng minh vao thi gian th :

) 0 : ( ) , ( = =
dt
dF
F H
dt
dF
do
(9.4)

Bang ky hieu moc Poisson ta co the viet lai phng trnh Hamilton co dang :

) , ( ) , (
K K
p H
dt
K
dp
q H
dt
K
dq
= =
(9.5)

e y rang so vi (7.1) cac phng trnh (6.5) hoan toan oi xng oi vi toa
o va xung lng .
Ta con co vai moc Poisson ac biet khac na la :
(qi , qj) = 0 ; (pi , qj) = ij ; (pi , pj) = 0 (9.6)
T nh ngha moc Poisson ta suy ra cac he qua sau ay :
a/ Tnh phai xng :
(F,G) = -(F,G)
T o suy ra : (F,F) = 0
b/ Neu G = const th :
(F,G) = (F,C) = 0
c/ Tuyen tnh theo cac phan t :
(F1+F2 , G) = (F1,G)F2 + F1(F2,G)
d/ Tnh phan bo oi vi phep nhan :(tng t quy tac lay vi phan mot tch ) .
(F1F2 , G) = (F1,G)F2 + F1(F2,G)
e/ Thoa man ong nhat thc Jacobi :
(F,(G,H)) + (G,(H,F)) +(H,(F,G)) = 0
2/ Moc Poisson lng t :
Ta vhuyen sang bai toan C hoc lng t . Ta nh ngha moc Poisson lng
t cua hai toan t F va G nh sau :
[ ] ) ( , GF FG
i
G F
q
=
h
(9.7)
ieu nay co ngha la chung ta chon giao hoan t vi o chnh xac ti tha so
h
i
lam moc Poisson lng t , n v ao i la e am bao tnh Hecmetic cua cac
toan t . nh ngha nay c suy ra t nhng lap luan c s la :
- Cac moc Poisson lng t thoa man tat ca cac ong nhat thc cua cac moc
Poisson co ien .
C hoc lng t - 52 -
- Ta chon cac moc Poisson lng t sao cho gia tr bang so cua chung trung
vi trng hp co ien ; t nhat la khi chung cha cac bien chnh tac tng ng nhau
. (Cac bien ong lc tng ng ) .
V du : Khi xet : q = x , p = px .
Vi cac moc Poisson co ien ta co :
(x,x) = 0 ; (Px, Px) = 0 ; (Px,x) = 1 .
Vi cac moc Poisson lng t ta co :

[ ] 0 , =
q
x x

(9.8a)
[ ] 0 , =
q x x
P P
(9.8b)
[ ] [ ] 1 , = =
x x x
xP x P
i
x P
h
(9.8c)
Nh vay cac gia tr cua moc Poisson lng t trung vi gia tr cua cac moc
Poisson co ien .
Cac moc Poisson e cho to hp cac toan t tc la trng hp phc tap hn
trng hp xet tren co the nhan c mot cach tng t . Nh vay t ay ta
thay rat nhieu luan iem c ban cua C hoc lng t co the nhan c t cac luan
iem cua c hoc co ien bang cach s dung cac moc Poisson .
Co the noi them ve cac he thc (7.8) . Cac he thc nay rat quan trong cho C
hoc lng t va co the coi chung nh cac ieu kien lng t hoa thay cho cac ieu
kien lng t hoa cua ly thuyet Bohr Zommerfeld . Vi he thc :
i
xP x P
x x
h
=

ta e y rang no thoa man nguyen ly tng ng , cu the la khi th ben
phai bang khong va khi o chung ta nhan c ieu kien giao hoan ac trng cho
cac ai lng cua c hoc co ien .
0 h
III/ ao ham theo thi gian cua cac toan t :
e thiet lap cac phng trnh chuyen ong lng t th bc au tien ta phai
tm c ao ham theo thi gian cua cac ai lng ong lc . De dang thay rang
nh ngha ao ham theo thi gian nh la gii han theo ty so cua s bien oi cua
chnh bien ong lc vi khoang thi gian tng ng trong c hoc lng t la khong
the c v trong C hoc lng t cac ai lng ong lc noi chung khong co gia tr
xac nh ma ch co cac gia tr trung bnh cua cac ai lng ong lc la co gia tr xac
nh .
nh ngha ao ham theo thi gian cua bien ong lc : ao ham theo thi
gian cua mot bien ong lc F la mot ai lng ma gia tr trung bnh cua no bang
ao ham theo thi gian cua gia tr trung bnh cua no .
ieu nay co ngha la :
F F
&
&
=
(9.9)
(dau . ch ao ham theo thi gian , dau pha tren ch gia tr trung bnh ) .
Vi ai lng F bieu thc cho gia tr trung bnh cua no c cho bi :
C hoc lng t - 53 -
= dV F F
*

e y rang :

H
t
i =
h

*
*
H
t
i =
h

ta co the viet c bieu thc cho ao ham cua
F
la
F
&
di dang :
=
= =
dV
t
F
t
F F
t dt
F d
F
* *
*
&

= dV
t
F
FH
i
HF
i

h h
*

=
= = ) ( ) , ( : FH HF
i
F H
h
rang Nh

F dV
t
F
q
F H
&
+ =
) , (
*

Mat khac :
= = dV
dt
dF
dt
dF
F
*
&
.
Nh vay t s so sanh :
F F
&
&
=

ta co :
[ ] [ ] F H
i
t
F
F H
t
F
dt
dF
q
, ,
h
+
= +
=
(9.10)
Day chnh la bieu thc ao ham theo thi gian cua toan t F bat ky . T
(9.10) de thay rang neu toan t khong phu thuoc tng minh vao thi gian th:
[ ]
q
F H
dt
dF
, =
(9.11)
Nh lai rang trong c hoc co ien ao ham theo thi gian cua mot ai lng
c hoc co the bieu dien qua cac moc Poisson co ien hoan toan tng t nh cac
cong thc (9.10) va (9.11) :
) , ( , ) , ( F H
dt
dF
F H
t
F
dt
dF
= +
=

Nh vay ay ta a thiet lap c s lien he gia cac moc Poisson lng t
va cac moc Poisson co ien . ieu nay co ngha la cau truc moc Poisson chng to
moi quan he mat thiet cua c hoc co ien va c hoc lng t.
Moi trng hp ac biet can lu y la : Co mot so toan t khong phu thuoc
tng minh vao thi gian va giao hoan vi Hamiltonien do o : (neu ky hieu no la F
) :
C hoc lng t - 54 -
0 =
dt
dF

Nhng ai lng ong lc tng ng vi cac toan t nay khi o c goi la
cac ai lng bao toan hay cac tch phan chuyen ong . Khi o t :
0 = = F F
&
&

ta suy ra : F = const
va co ngha la gia tr trung bnh cua ai lng nay khong oi theo thi gian .

IV/ Cac phng trnh chuyen ong lng t . nh ly Ehrenfest .

Bay gi ta co the viet cac phng trnh chuyen ong lng t dang ma trong
o cac ao ham theo thi gian cua chnh cac bien ong lc . V trong C hoc lng
t cac bien ong lc c oi ng vi cac toan t xac nh do o phng trnh can
tm trong dang tong quat se c viet cho cac toan t nay cu the la p va q . Mat
khac do cac toan t nay khong phu thuoc tng minh vao thi gian nen ta co :
[ ]
q
q H
dt
dq
, =
(9.12)
[ ]
q
p H
dt
dp
, =
(9.13)
Chung co dang giong het vi dang cua c hoc co ien . e tm hieu y ngha
cac phng trnh tren ta ap dung vao mot trng hp cu the , o la dang Hamilton
co dang :
( ) ( ) z y x U P P P
m
H
z y
X
, ,
2
1
2 2 2
+ + + =

Nh rang cac toan t toa o va xung lng co dang :
x x q = =
,
x i x
i p p
X
= =
h
h

Ta xet phng trnh (9.12) :
[ ]
q
x H
dt
dx
, =

V x va U giao hoan nen :
[ ] ( )
2 2
2
,
X X a
xP x P
m
i
x H =
h

Nhng e y rang :
X
X X
P i
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
xP x P
h h
h
h
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2
=
=
=
=
=

C hoc lng t - 55 -
Vay nen ta co :
[ ] ( )
m
P
P i
m
i
x H
X
X
q
= = h
h
2
2
,

Ngha la ta co :
[ ]
X
q
P
m
x H
dt
dx 1
, = =
(9.14)
Nh vay ta thay rang : toan t van toc lien he vi toan t xung lng bang he
thc giong het nh cac he thc trong c hoc co ien .
Ta xet en phng trnh (9.13) :
[ ]
q X
X
P H
dt
dP
, =
.
Nhng do co :
[ ]
x
U
U P U
i
P H
X
X
P
q
X
= =

h
,

Nen ta co ket qua la :
x
U
dt
dP
X
=
(9.15)
Nh vay ta nhan c phng trnh chuen ong cua toan t di dang giong
nh phng trnh Newton . Mat khac lu y la y ngha cua viet oi ng cac toan t
vi cac bien ong lc la cho biet cac toan t va ham song chung ta co the tnh cac
gia tr trung bnh cua cac ai lng c hoc tng ng :

X
P
m dt
x d 1
=
,
=
x
U
dt
P d
X
(9.16)

Cac he thc (9.16) c goi la cac phng trnh chuyen ong Ehrenfest.
Bieu dien PX qua x ta suy ra :

=
x
U
dt
x d
m
2
2
(9.17)

Phng trnh nay giong het phng trnh Newton (nh luat Newton th hai ) .
Tom lai la : Trong C hoc lng t cac he thc va cac nh luat phat bieu cho
cac gia tr trung bnh giong het vi dang cua cac phng trnh va nh luat tng
ng trong c hoc co ien .
Do o nh cac phng trnh (9.16) va (9.17) ngi ta giai thch c s lien
he gia c hoc co ien va C hoc lng t .

C hoc lng t - 56 -
10 S LIEN HE GIA C HOC LNG T VI C HOC CO
IEN VA QUANG HOC

I/ S chuyen t phng trnh Schrodinger hien ai ve phng trnh
Hamilton Jacobi co ien :
Trong phan cuoi cua bai trc ta a thiet lap c moi quan he gia nhng
phng trnh chuyen ong lng t va phng trnh Newton . Va chnh nh o , ta
a thiet lap moi quan he gia C hoc lng t va C hoc co ien . Ta co the tm
thay moi quan he nay bang mot phng phap khac cu the la ta co the chng minh
rang phng trnh Hamilton Jacobi co ien la trng hp gii han cua phng
trnh Schrodiger hien ai .
Muon chng minh ieu o trc het ta hay nhac lai mot so van e cua phng
trnh Hamilton jacobi . Hn na e cho bai toan c n gian ta gii han ch xet
bai toan chuyen ong cua hat co khoi lng m trong trng lc the U(x,y,z,t) . Ta
viet phng trnh Hamilton Jacobi nh ham tac dung S0(x,y,z,t) , ham so nay co
cac tnh chat la :
x
S
P
X
=
0
,
y
S
P
Y
=
0
,
z
S
P
Z
=
0
. (10.1)

Trong o PX, Py, Pz la cac hnh chieu cua xung lng len cac truc toa o .
Phng trnh hamilton Jacobi trong trng hp nay co dang :

) , , , ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
2 0 2 0 2 0 0
t z y x U
z
S
y
S
x
S
m t
S
+
(10.2)

V ham so Hamilton H(PX, Py, Pz , x , y , z , t ) co dang :

( ) ( ) ) , , , (
2
1
, , , , , ,
2 2
t z y x U P P P
m
t z y x P P P H
Z Y Z Y X
+ + + =
2
X
(10.3)

Nen t (10.1) va (10.2) ta suy ra rang phng trnh Hamilton Jacobi co the
viet dang khac la :

t z y x
z
S
y
S
x
S
H
t
S
, , , , , ,
0 0 0 0
(10.4)

Neu ham Hamilton khong phu thuoc tng minh vao thi gian th no bang
nang lng E cua hat . Khi o t (10.4) ta suy ra :
C hoc lng t - 57 -

) , , ( :
0 0
0
z y x S Et S E
t
S
= =
ra suy
(10.5)

Cac ang thc (10.1) chng to rang cac quy ao la nhng ng trc giao vi
cac mat S0 = const . Neu H khong phu thuoc tng minh vao thi gian th dang cua
nhng hat nay khong thay oi theo thi gian . Cac mat o va cac quy ao kha d
cua hat c minh hoa nh hnh ve sau :

b
a

Gia s ta xet mot hat bat ky tai thi iem t = 0 nam tai iem a , sau o hat se
chuyen ong theo quy ao gia s la ab . Ta hay tng tng mot am hat co nhng
toa o ban au x0, y0, z0 khac nhau gia s trong mot the tch nguyen to V ta co
so hat la : N = V , trong o la mat o hat . en thi iem t tat ca nhng hat
nay ri vao mot mien khac nao o cua khong gian nhng tat nhien so hat se khong
thay oi . Do o neu theo doi chuyen ong cua the tch nguyen to V cha nhng
hat nay th so hat trong the tch o cung se khong oi . Ky hieu ao ham nh x la
Dt
D
, ta co :
0 =
+ =
Dt
V D
Dt
D
V
Dt
N D

Nhng e rang :
( ) V v div
Dt
V D
v
t Dt
D
=
= . ,
r r

trong o
v
la van toc chuyen ong cua hat . Nh vay thay cac ket qua nay
vao bieu thc tren ta co ket qua :
r
( ) 0 . = +
v div
t
r
(10.6)
Mat khac t (10.1) ta co :
S
m m
p
v = =
1
(10.7)
Do o ta co the viet (10.6) di dang :

C hoc lng t - 58 -
( ) 0
1
0
=
S div
m t

hay
( )
0
2
0
1
S S
m t
+ =
(10.8)
ieu nay co ngha la am hat chuyen ong nh mot khoi chat long , the tch
ma ta xet khong b tan ra ma ch b bien dang thoi .
Ta co the giai thch phng trnh (10.8) mot cach khac . Neu ta chia so hat N
trong the tch V cho tong so hat N th ta co the coi

N
N
nh la xac xuat e tm
thay hat trong the tch V con mat o co the coi nh mat o xac xuat .
Bay gi ta hay xet phng trnh Schrodinger trong C hoc lng t , cu the
hn ta chng minh rang phng trnh nay co the quay ve phng trnh Hamilton
Jacobi khi tnh gan ung .
Muon the ta viet ham song vi dang :
S
e
i
h
=
(10.9)
trong o S la mot ham so nao o cha xac nh . T (7.9) ta co :

x
S i
x
h
,

2
2
2
2 2
2
1
x
S i
x
S
x
h
h

Thay hai ket qua nay vao phng trnh schrodinger :

) , , , (
2
2
t z y x U
m
H H
t
i +
= =
h
h Vi

ta co phng trnh cho ham so S :

S
m
i
t z y X U
z
S
y
S
x
S
m t
S
+ +
2
) , , , (
1
1
2 2 2
h
(10.10)

Ta phan tch S theo nhng luy tha cua :
h i
( ) ( ) ...
2
2
1 0
+ + + = S i S i S S h h
(10.11)
Thay (10.11) vao (10.10) va so sanh cac luy tha cung bac cua ta co cac
phng trnh :
h
C hoc lng t - 59 -
) , , , (
2
1
2
0
2
0
2
0 0
t z y x U
z
S
y
S
x
S
m t
S
+
(10.12a)

0
2 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
2 2 2
2
1
S
z
S
z
S
y
S
y
S
x
S
x
S
m t
S

( )
0 1 0
2
2
1
S S S
m
+ =

(10.12b)
Phng trnh au cua (10.12a) trung vi phng trnh Hamilton Jacobi , con
phng trnh th hai (10.12b) bang mot vai phep bien oi khong phc tap co the
a ve phng trnh lien tuc .
Lu y la trong cac bien oi tren ta a bo qua lng
S
m
i
2
2

h
. Ta co the lam
nh the neu :

( ) S
m
i
S
m
2
2
0
2 2
1
>>
h
(10.13)
hay s dung (10.1) th (10.13) tr thanh :

p div
m m
p
r
h
2 2
2
>>
(10.14)

He thc nay co ngha la ong nang phai ln con bien oi cua xung lng phai
nho . Trong trng hp mot chiieu ta co :

dx
dp
p h >>
2
(10.14)
Nhng neu a vao bc song De Broglie :

p
h
2
=

ta thu c :
2 <<
dx
d
(10.15)

Ket qua quan trong nay co ngha la : bc song phai la mot ham so thay oi
cham theo toa o .
C hoc lng t - 60 -
II/ C hoc lng t va quang hoc :
Ve mat lch s , s song song gia quang hnh hoc va c hoc do Hamilton xay
dng nen la mot trong nhng nguon goc cua C hoc lng t De Broglie la ngi
au tien a a nhng ieu tng t b bo quen nay vao vat ly hoc hien ai va nh
nhng ieu tng t nay ma C hoc lng t hay chnh xac hn la c hoc song a
tien c nhng bc tien au tien . Ngi ta thng noi rang Schrodinger a xay
dng mot mon c hoc lng t tng t vi quang hoc song .
Nhng ta can lu y rang ay ch la s tng t , phng trnh cua Schrodinger
khong he trung vi phng trnh nao trong so nhng phng trnh truyen song ma
t trc ti nay ta a biet . Nhng phng trnh truyen song luon la nhng phng
trnh ao ham rieng cap hai theo thi gian trong khi o th phng trnh
Schrodinger lai la phng trnh cap mot theo thi gian va ngoai ra con nhieu s
khac nhau na gia hai phng trnh o .
Tuy nhien , so sanh phng trnh Schrodinger vi cac phng trnh song van
la viec ang lu y . Gia s rang ta xet mot moi trng ong nhat nao o , trong o
van toc truyen cua mot song co o dch chuyen f nao o la v . Phng trnh
truyen cua o dch chuyen f se la :
0
1
2
2
2
=

t
f
v
f
(10.16)
oi vi nhng song co tan so goc la , ta at :
t i
e U f

=
(10.17)
Khi o t (10.16) ta co :
2
2
2 2
, 0
v
k U k U

= = +
(10.18)
(

2
= k
la so song , con la bc song ).Ta a vao lng c goi la chiet
suat :
( )
0 0
, ,
= =
k
k
z y x n
(10.19)
trong o 0 la bc song trong chan khong . Khi o phng trnh (10.18) di
dang mi :
0
2 2
0
= + U n k U
(10.20)
Phng trnh (10.20) la phng trnh song , ngha la cac phng trnh dang
nay eu mo ta qua trnh truyen song va ngc lai moi song c mo ta bang
phng trnh co dang nh the .
Bay gi ta xet phng trnh schrodinger :

) , , (
2
2
z y x U
m t
i + =
h
h
(10.21)
Neu ta at :
C hoc lng t - 61 -
t
E
i
e u
h
=
(10.22)
th phng trnh (10.21) se co dang :

( ) 0
2
2
= + u U E
m
u
h
(10.23)

Bay gi ta gia s U = C = Const trong mien nao o , va ky hieu so song khi o
la k0 . Ta se co :
( ) C E
m
k =
2
2
0
2
h

ky hieu chiet suat cua cac song oi vi mien nay la :
2
0
2
2
k
k
C E
U E
n =
=
(10.24)
khi o phng trnh (10.23) co dang :
0
2 2
0
= + u n k U
(10.25)
Phng trnh nay hoan toan trung vi phng trnh (10.20) .

11 CAC CACH PHAT BIE U C HO C LNG T

I/ C hoc lng t cua Schrodinger:
C hoc lng t c manh nha t thi ky 1923 - 1924. Nam 1926
Schrodinger a phat trien va tong quat hoa khai niem song vat chat cua De Broglie
va a tm c phng trnh truyen song cho hat t do:
m t
i
2
2
h
h
(11.1)
va cho hat trong trng the:
( ) ( ) t r r U
m
t
i ,
2
2
r h
h
+ =
(11.2)
C hoc lng t cua Schrodinger c goi la c hoc song-Nghiem cua phng
trnh song mo ta mot song nen c goi la ham song.
C hoc lng t cua Schrodinger tuy c s xay dng khong chat che nhng u
iem noi bat cua no la trc quan va cong cu toan hoc n gian. V vay cho ti nay
trong cac giao trnh c hoc lng t c hoc song van chiem v tr chu yeu.

C hoc lng t - 62 -
II/ C hoc ma tran Heisenberg:
Ngc vi c hoc song, khi xay dng c hoc cua mnh Heisenberg ch s dung
cac ai lng o c t thc nghiem. Can lu y la vao thi ky o cac ai lng
quan sat c ac trng cho chuyen ong ben trong cua nguyen t ch la tan so va
cng o bc xa ma nguyen t phat ra. Khi phan tch cac ai lng o Heisenberg
nhan thay chung co tnh gian oan. V du tan so bc xa cua nguyen t c xac
nh phu thuoc hai ch so:12 , 21 , 22 mn . Nh vay tan so khong phai xep
thanh hang ma thanh cac bang ma sau nay ta goi la cac ma tran.
Theo Heisenberg tat ca cac ai lng ac trng cho chuyen ong ben trong
nguyen t eu co the bieu dien di da ng nhng ma tran nh ma tran toa o, ma
tran xung lng.v.v.
Da tren ly thuyet cua mnh Heisenberg a tm lai c cac ket qua nh
phng trnh Schrodinger tm ra va a tm c he thc bat nh.
C hoc ma tran co s chnh xac cao ve mat toan hoc nhng tnh tru tng
qua mc cua no la kho khan khong nho cho ngi hoc. Chnh v vay no t c trnh
bay trong cac giao trnh.

III/ C hoc lng t cua P.Dirac :
C hoc lng t cua P.Dirac la s thong nhat ca hai hnh thc tren thanh mot
he thong duy nhat, ma noi dung toan hoc la bai toan tr rieng cua cac toan t
Hecmitic trong khong gian Hilbert.
Khong gian Hilbert la khong gian tuyen tnh phc vo han chieu.
Dirac a vao mot so ky hieu mi:
Ket-vector :
= vector cot,
+
=

Bra vector :

= vector hang,
+
=

Tch vo hng hai vector :
( ) = =
+
,

Chuan vector :
=

He c s trc chuan cua L va L+ (khong gian lien hp cua L ) la :

+
L n
L n
,... 2 , 1
,... 2 , 1

Khai trien vector theo c s:
j j
j
n
j
j
=
=
=
;
1

hay:
C hoc lng t - 63 -
j j
n
j
=
=1
(11.3)
* *
1
~
;
~
j
j
n
j
j
j j j = = =
=
=

=
=
n
j
j j
1

Ma tran n v : (ng vi toan t n v):
=
=
n
j
j j I
1
(11.4)
He thc nay la ieu kien u cua c s trc chuan.
S dung ieu kien u ta co the viet:
= = =
= =
=
n
j
j
n
j
j j
n
j
j j I
1
2
1
*
1
2

Cac phan t ma tran cua toan t
F
trong ky hieu Dirac:

'
= F
(11.5)
Nhan hai ve vi
j
va s dung ieu kien u ta co:
= = = I F j F j j

'

k
k F j k k F j
n
k
n
k

=
=
= = 1 1

Vay:
k
n
k
j
k F j j

= =
= 1
'
'

Ngha la:

(11.6)
k F j a
ik

= .

Vi cac ky hieu mi, c hoc lng t cua Dirac c phat bieu di dang tien
e. He tien e nh sau:
Tien e 1: Cac trang thai cua c hoc lng t c mo ta bang cac vector

cua khong gian Hilbert tru tng.
Tien e 2: Trong c hoc lng t cac bien ong lc c oi ng vi cac toan
t Hecmitic
F
tac dung trong khong gian Hilbert cac vector trang thai.
Nh vay trong he c s xac nh toan t oi ng vi ma tran:
C hoc lng t - 64 -
jk
jk
f k F j F = =

.
Tien e 3: Cac ket qua kha d duy nhat cua viec o ai lng ong lc nao o
trang thai cho trc la cac gia tr rieng cua toan t oi ng
F
.
Nh vay muon biet cac gia tr nao la kha d nhan c khi o ai lng vat ly
nao o th ta phai giai bai toan tr rieng
f f f F =
.
Tien e 4: Xac xuat nhan gia tr f khi o bien ong lc
F
trang thai

c cho bang cong thc:

( )
2
2
f
f f W
= =
(11.7)
Tien e 5: Cac toa o Xj va xung lng Pj (j la ky hieu bac t do) cua c he
lng t tng ng vi cac toan t Xj va Pj thoa man he thc giao hoan:

jK j K K j
i X P P X h =
(11.8)
Tien e 6 (Tien e ong lc hoc) : oi vi bat ky he vat ly nao s bien oi gia
tr trung bnh cua bien ong lc
F
trang thai
c xac nh bang phng

trnh :
[ ]
P
HF
t
F
dt
F d
+
(11.9)
trong o:
[ ] ( ) FH HF
i
F H
P
=
h
,
.

IV/ C hoc lng t cua R. Feynman :
Mot cach trnh bay khac rat hien ai C hoc lng t la cach trnh bay c hoc
lng t bang hnh thc tch phan quy ao cua R.Meynman hay con goi la tch phan
lo trnh .(Thuat ng tch phan lo trnh c dung e tranh c t quy ao co the
gay hieu lam ve quy ao cua vi hat ma nguyen ly bat nh Heisenberg a loai bo )
Noi dung cua cach trnh bay nay nay cua Feynman co the xay dng t lap luan kha
n gian nh sau :
Ta xet he chuyen ong mot chieu vi chuyen ong mot chieu vi phng
trnh chuyen ong x(t) . Gia s he chuyen ong t a en b , va gia s :
x(ta) xa.
x(tb) xb.
Van e at ra la tm xac xuat chuyen t a en b cua hat P(a b ) :
( ) ( )
2
, b a K b a P =

trong o K(a,b) la bien o xac xuat .
Trong C hoc co ien ch co mot quy ao cua he la quy ao thoa man nguyen
ly tac dung toi thieu . (can lu y la a,b tong quat la trang thai va quy ao cung
C hoc lng t - 65 -
phai hieu theo ngha tong quat ) . Trong C hoc lng t hat co the i theo vo so
ng khac nhau e thc hien phep di chuyen t a en b .
t
b

x
x(t)

a
x
Ta co the hnh dung lai th nghiem ban ien t qua man chan vi viec cho cac
v tr khac nhau cua lo tren man . Thc te chng to rang du cho lo bat ky v tr nao
ta van thu c ien t pha ben kia cua man chan . o la mot ac trng lng t
cua hat vi mo .
Nh vay bien o xac xuat toan phan co the viet :

( ) [ ]
=
b a t ao quy moi
) ( , t x b a K

trong o : [x(t)] la phiem ham . Feynman tha nhan dang [x(t)] nh la mot
tien e :
( ) [ ]
[ ] a b
i
S
e t x
,
h
=

vi :

[ ] ( )
=
b
t
a
t
dt t x x L a b S , , , &

la ham tac dung co ien .(Neu
x x =
th dS = 0)
T viec tha nhan tien e nay ta co the tm lai nhieu ket qua cua C hoc
lng co c bang cac cach trnh bay trc ay .
Mac du co nhc iem khong nho la viec tnh toan kha phc tap (ac biet la
gap phai cac tch phan Gauss ) nhng trong giai oan nhng nam cuoi the ky 20
phng phap tch phan quy ao cua Feynman phat trien rat manh va tham ch tr
thanh cong cu chu yeu cua Vat ly ly thuye t hien ai . Va at nhieu ket qua rc r
trong viec nguyen cu ly thuyet cac trng lng t .

12 CAC CACH MO TA S PHU THUOC THI GIAN CUA HE
VI MO

C hoc lng t - 66 -
1/ Bc tranh Schrodinger :
Cach mo ta nay xem trang thai cua vi he phu thuoc thi gian vi quy luat bien
oi c xac nh bang phng trnh Schrodinger.

H
t
i =
h
.
Cach mo ta nay thng c goi la bc tranh Schrodinger.
Neu toan t H khong phu thuoc tng minh vao thi gian ta co the thay
phng trnh Schrodinger bang phng trnh:

( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
, t t t U t =
. (12.1)
trong o:
( ) ( )
=
0 0
exp , t t H
i
t t U
h

(12.2)
That vay t (7.1) lay ao ham hai ve theo thi gian ta co:

( )
( )
= =
0
0
0
0
exp
) , (
t t t H
i
H
i
t
dt
t t dU
t
t

h h

( ) (
0 0
, t t t HU
i
h
= )

Ma t (12.1) ta co :
( )
( )
( )
0
0
,
t
t
t t U
=
Nen thay vao ta co:

( )

H
i
t
t
h
=
hay :
H
t
i =
h
.
Ngha la ta lai quay ve phng trnh Schrodinger.
Vi toan t U(t,t0) ta co the chng to no la toan t Unita.
That vay do H la Hermitic nen ta co:

( ) ( ) (
0 0 0
, exp , t t U t t H
i
t t U
+
= =

h
)

nh vay ta co:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) I t t U t t U t t U t t U = =
+ +
0 0 0 0
, , , ,
.
ngha la toan t U(t,t0) la toan t Unita. ieu nay la can thiet do yeu cau bao
toan chuan trong phep bien oi(12.1).
Vi toan t U(t,t0), no thoa man phng trnh:

HU
t
U
i =
h
.
Trong bc tranh Schrodinger, cac toan t ong lc khong phu thuoc tng
minh vao thi gian la cac ai lng co nh, he ham rieng cua cac toan t nay cung
la cac he ham co nh trong khong gian Hilbert.
C hoc lng t - 67 -
2/ Bc tranh Heisenberg:
Mot cach khac mo ta s phu thuoc thi gian cua vi he-c goi la bc tranh
Heisenberg- la xem trang thai co dang:

( ) ( ) t t t U
S H

0
,
+
. (12.3)

(ch H va S cac ham song va toan t ch rang ham song va toan t c cho
trong bc tranh Heisenberg hay Schrodinger ).
T (12.3) do tnh Unita cua U va do (12.1) ta co :
vi ham song

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
0 0
, , t t t t U t t U
S S H
= =
+

va vi cac toan t :

( ) ( )
0 0
, , t t U L t t U L L
S H
S
+

(12.4)
(Ma tran cua Ls ong dang vi ma tran LH ).
Nh vay trong bc tranh Heisenberg, cac trang thai la cac vector co nh
trong khong gian Hilbert con cac toan t ong lc se la cac lng bien oi theo thi
gian.
3/ Bc tranh tng tac :
Cach th ba-c goi la bc tranh tng tac-la cach trung gian gia hai bc
tranh tren ma trong o ca vector trang thai lan cac toan t ong lc eu phu thuoc
thi gian. Bc tranh tng tac thng gan lien vi phng phap nhieu loan trong o
co s phan chia Hamiltonien :
H = H0 + H1
trong o: H la Hamiltonien toan phan, H0 la Hamiltonien khong tng tac, H1
la Hamiltonien nhieu loan.
4/ So sanh hai bc tranh c ban: (bc tranh Schrodinger va bc
tranh Heisenberg ) .
a/ Hai bc tranh tren la tng ng nhau do viec chuyen t bc tranh nay
sang bc tranh kia c thc hien nh phep bien oi Unita, do o phep bien oi
nay hoan toan khong thay oi cac tr rieng cua cac toan t ong lc. Do o, cac gia
tr trung bnh cua cac ai lng ong lc la bat bien.
b/ Ve phng dien tnh toan bc tranh Schrodinger thuan tien hn do trong
trng hp nay ta ch can xac nh mot vector la vector trang thai-mot ma tran cot-
neu dung mot c s xac nh cua khong gian Hilbert cac trang thai. Con trong bc
tranh Heisenberg ta phai tnh toan tren nhng ma tran bieu dien cua cac toan t
ong lc e tm cac quy luat bien oi cua chung theo thi gian. Cac tnh toan nay la
kha phc tap.
Tuy nhien bc tranh Heisenberg cho ta thay ve mat hnh thc co mot s tng
ong gia c hoc lng t va c hoc kinh ien. (cu the la c hoc kinh ien trong he
C hoc lng t - 68 -
hnh thc Hamilton). Noi ro hn la cau truc toan hoc cua chung eu la cau truc ai
so Lie, do cac giao hoan t va cac moc Poisson eu la cac phan t cua ai so Lie.

13 CAC BIEU DIEN TRONG C HOC LNG T

Trong c hoc lng t trang thai cua vi hat c mo ta bang vector trang thai
la vector trong khong gian Hilbert. Nhng ta biet rang trong khong gian Hilbert
cac trang thai nay chung ta co the dung cac c s khac nhau e xet bai toan. Thong
thng ngi ta chon cac c s nay la cac ham rieng trc chuan cua cac toan t
ong lc. (cac toan t Hecmitie).
Neu ta xem ham song la ham
( ) t r,
r
=
th cac toan t ong lc co dang:
[ ] r i L i P r r
r
h h ;
;
.
cach mo ta nay c goi la bieu dien toa o(cua ham song va cac toan t
ong lc).
Neu he c s trc chuan la he
( ) ,
m
Y
l
- cac ham rieng cua toan t momen
xung lng- th cach mo ta nay cua ham song va cac toan t ong lc c goi la
bieu dien momen xung lng.
Tng t nh the neu dung c s la he trc chuan cua toan t xung lng hay
cua toan t nang lng ta se co bieu dien xung lng hay bieu dien nang lng
tng ng.
Tat nhien, do cac c s la bnh ang, nen tat ca cac bieu dien eu tng
ng nhau. V vay viec chon bieu dien nay hay bieu dien khac ch xuat phat t bai
toan cu the cho thuan tien viec tnh toan.
Hn na ve mat toan hoc khi chuyen c s trc chuan sang mot c s trc
chuan khac bang mot phep bien oi Unita nao o th ma tran cac toan t se bien
thanh ma tran ong dang, cac phep bien oi khi o c goi la cac phep bien oi
chnh tac. Mat khac ta cung biet rang neu c s la mot he ham rieng tieu chuan cua
toan t
F
nao o th ma tran bieu dien cua

F
trong c s o se co dang cheo.

I/ C hoc lng t trong
F
-bieu dien :
Ta chon mot bien ong lc xac nh nao o va xet toan t
F
Hermitic tng
ng vi no. Bai toan tr rieng tng ng cho
F
la:
f f f F =
(13.1)
Ta chon he c s trc chuan la cac vector rieng cua toan t thoa man ieu
kien (trc chuan va u):
F

C hoc lng t - 69 -

I f f
f f
f
f f
=
=
' ' '
' ' '

(13.2)
(13.3)
1/ Trang Thai
trong
F
- Bieu dien :
Vector bat ky
khi trien theo he c s

f
nh sau:

=
f
f
f

(13.4)
trong o:
f
f
=
(13.5)
la mot tap hp cac so (do
f
la mot tch vo hng). Xac nh n v
vector
va c goi la ham song cua trang thai
trong bieu dien.

F
2/ Toan T trong
Q
-Bieu dien:
Ta xet toan t
Q
nao o chuyen vector

thanh vector

. Ngha la :
= Q
(13.6)
Khi o ta nhan trai hai ve vi
'
f
se c:
= =
f
f Q f Q f f
' ' '

hay :
=
f
f
f f f
Q
' '

Ngha la toan t trong
Q
- bieu dien c oi ng vi ma tran :

f f
Q
'

> < = f Q f Q
f f
'
'
.
(13.7)
3/ Bai toan tr rieng cua toan t
Q
trong
-bieu dien:
Xet bai toan:
q q q Q =
(13.8)
Nhan trai vi
f
ta co:
q f q q Q f =

Nhng e y rang, vi ve trai ta co:
C hoc lng t - 70 -
=
'
' '
'
' '
f
f ff
f
q Q q f f Q f q Q f

vi ve phai:
=
'
' '
'
'
'
' ' '
f
f ff
f
ff
f
q q q f q q f f f q q f q

Vay ta co:
0
'
' '
'
' '
=
f
f ff
f
f ff
q q q Q

hay:
0 =

'
' ' '
) (
f
f ff ff
q q Q
(13.9)
Vay ta nhan c he vo tan cac phng trnh e xac nh pho cua toan t
Q
.
4/ Chuyen t
F
-bieu dien sang G-bieu dien:

Gia s ta co hai bieu dien:
F
-bieu dien va G-bieu dien

Ngha la ta co:
a/ Trong
F
-bieu dien :
f f f F =
=
f
f
f
vi
f
f
=

Vi toan t
Q
nao o :
' ' '

'
f Q f Q
ff
=

Trong -bieu dien:
G

g g g G =
=
g
g
g
vi
g
g
=

Vi toan t
Q
:
> =<
' ' '
' ' '

g Q g Q
g g

b/ van e la bieu dien
g
va qua he ham rieng cua toan t

' ' '
g g
Q
F
.
Ta co:
= =
f
f f
f
g
g f f g g
*
(13.10)
C hoc lng t - 71 -
=
=
= =
' '
,
'
' ' '
' '
' '
'*
'
' '
,
'
' '
' ' ' ' '
'*
'
' '
,
'
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
' ' '

f f
f f f f
f f
f f f f
f f
g g
Q g g g Q g
g f f Q f f g g Q g Q
(13.11)
Nh vay e thc hien c phep chuyen t
F
sang
G
-bieu dien phai biet
c ham song
*
f g g f g
f
= =

trong
F
-bieu dien tc la ham song mo ta trang thai tng ng vi vector

rieng cua toan t .
G
II/ Vai bieu dien cu the:

1/ Bieu dien toa o:
-V tr (hay toa o) cua hat c cho la cac tr rieng x cua bai
toan:
x x x X =

- ieu kien:
( )
I dx x x
x x x x
=
= ;
' ' ' ' ' '

- Ham trang thai:
=
x
x
x

Vi :
x
x
=
la ham song. (13.12)
-Toan t
Q
bat ky tng ng vi ma tran:
' ' '

' ' '
x Q x Q
x x
=
(13.13)
-Toan t
X
co ma tran dang cheo:

( ) ( )
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

' ' '
x x x x x x x X x X
x x
= = =
(13.14)

-Toan t xung lng tng ng vi ma tran:

( )
' ' ' ' ' ' '

' ' '
x x i x P x P
x x
= = h
(13.15)
va no a en quy luat tac dng len ham song la phep lay ao ham:

x
i P
= h

(13.16)
- Ham rieng cua Toan t toa o:
C hoc lng t - 72 -
Xuat phat t bai toan tr rieng:
( ) ( ) x x x X
o o
x o x
=

hay:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
o o
o
o
x x x x x x x
x
= = 0

Do o :
( ) ( )
o
o
x x x
x
=
(13.17)
-Tng t t bai toan tr rieng:
( )
( ) x p
dx
x
i
p
p
h

ta co the tm c ham rieng cua toan t xung lng tng ng vi tr rieng p
trong x-bieu dien:
( )
px
p
e x
h
h
1
2
1
=
(13.18)
2/ Bieu dien xung lng:
Mot bieu dien hay dung la bieu dien xung lng.Trong o he c s la he ham
rieng
p
cua toan t xung lng .
P
Bai toan tr rieng:

p p p P =
(13.19)
ieu kien cho ham rieng:

( ) I dp P P P P P P =
= ;
' ' ' ' ' '

(13.20)
Trang thai c mo ta bang ham song:
+
= =
P P
P

Bnh phng moun cua ham nay xac nh mat o xac xuat hat co xung lng
nhan gia tr p.
-Toan t xung lng
P
co tr rieng tng ng la p.
-Toan t toa o:
p
i X
P
= h

Hoan toan tng t nh hai bieu dien tren, co the xet bai toan trong bieu dien
Moment xung lng, bieu dien nang lng, tuy bai toan cu the.

C hoc lng t - 73 -
CHNG II. MOT SO BAI TOAN C BAN CUA PHNG
TRNH SCHRODINGER

1 CHUYEN ONG T DO

Chuyen ong t do la bai toan ma ham Hamilton cua hat ch co phan ong
nang e n gian trc het ta gia s hat chuyen ong t do theo truc
OX
. Mac
du n gian nhng bai toan nay co y ngha het sc quan trong ve mat ly thuyet v
no la th thach au tien cua nhng y tng mi trong c hoc lng t .
Khi Hamilton co dang:

m
P
H
2
2
=
ma
dx
d
i P h =

nen co phng trnh :

) (
) (
x E
dx
x d
m

=
2
2
2
2
h

Cac nghiem la :
x
mE
Ae x
2
2
2 1
h
= ) (
,
=
px
i
Ae
h

Cac nghiem nay thoa man ieu kien hu han va lien tuc trong toan khong
gian vi bat ky cac gia tr nao cua E > 0 hay E < 0 . Nh vay pho cac ga tr rieng
cua nang lng la lien tuc (t 0 ).
) ( ) ( x E x H
1 1
=

) ( ) ( x E x H
2 2
=

Vi moi ga tr bat cua nang lng ta co hai ham song , vay E suy bien hai lan
.
Mat khac
) (x
1
va
) (x
2
cung la ham rieng cua toan t xung lung ma:

p mv mE = = 2

Nen ta cung co hai phng trnh tng ng:
) ( ) (
) (
x p x mE
x
e
dx
d
i
x
x
i
mE
i
1 1
2
1
2
= = =
h
h h

) ( ) (
) (
x p x mE
x
e
dx
d
i
x
x
i
mE
i
2 2
2
2
2
= = =

h
h h

C hoc lng t - 74 -
Nh vay vi moi E tng ng vi cap (p , -p) ngha la xung lng cua hat la
rat nh hng ,hay noi cach khac : chuyen ong t do la chuyen ong bat nh
hng trong khong gian .
Ta tm ieu kien chuan hoa cac ham song.
Neu c theo cach thong thng th :
=
+

+

+

dx A dx e A dx
x p p
i
2 2
) (
*
h

ay la ieu vo ngha. V vay ta phai tm cach khac . Gia thiet chuyen ong
cua hat xay ra mien V hu han nhng rat ln nh vay hat phai thoa man ieu
kien tuan hoan do no b giam trong ho the :
) ( ) ( L x x + =

Khi o :
= + = pL
i
px
i
A L x p
i
A px
i
A
h h h h
exp exp ) ( exp exp

suy ra:
exp
pL
i
h
= 1 = cos

h
pL
+ isin

h
pL

ngha la:
=
=
1 cos
0 sin
h
h
L
p
L
p

Suy ra :

L
n
P n
pL
n
h
h
2
2 = =

Nh vay vi gia thiet thu hep bai toan, tr rieng p a tr thanh pn ngha la a
b lng t hoa do o nang lng cung b lng t hoa :
2
2
2 2
2
2
n
mL
m
p
E
n
n
h
= =

2
2 2
0 1
2
mL
E E E
h
= =

Chuyen qua gii han L
khi o :
p
va
0 E
, ngha la pho nang
lng tr thanh lien tuc . Khi o ta chuan hoa nh sau :
1 ) ( 2
' "
2
)
' ' '
(
2
*
= =

=
+

+

p p A dx e A
x p p
i
dx h
h

do o :

h 2
1
= A

Vay :
C hoc lng t - 75 -
px
i
e x
h
h
2
1
) ( =

Trong trng hp ba chieu , chuyen ong t do ng vi ham song :
= pr
i
r
h
h
r
exp
) 2 (
1
) (
3
.
Vay nghiem tong quat :
( )
) ( exp
2
1
) , (
2
3
Et pr
i
t r =
h
h
r
.
Hay s dung he thc :
h
r
h
r
= = E k p ,

ta co :
( )

= t r k i t r
r
r
h
r
exp
2
1
) , (
2
3
.
ay la bieu thc cua song ma De Broglie a gia thiet trc ay . Nh vat t
phng trnh Schrodinger ta a tm lai c song phang De Broglie . ieu nay
chng to tnh ung an trong cac lap luan cua c hoc lng t .

2 BAI TOAN MOT CHIEU

Nhan xet m au:
Cac bai toan mot chieu la nhng mo hnh n gian cho phep tm c mot vai
ac iem quan trong se gap sau nay trong cac bai toan phc tap , nghien cu c
cac nghiem mot cach ky lng .
Nhieu bai toan phc tap sau nhng phep bien oi tng ng se dan en viec
giai cac phng trnh tng t nh phng trnh Schrodinger trong bai toan mot
chieu .
I/ Hat trong ho the ( gieng the ) sau vo han :
The nang co dang:
vi x<0
u(x)= 0 vi 0 x a I II III
vi x>0
o a
Phng trnh Schrodinger co dang :

0 ) (
) ( 2
2 2
2
=
+ x
u E m
dx
d
h

C hoc lng t - 76 -
Cac ieu kien :
+/ Trong mien I va III th
0 ) ( = x

+/ ieu kien bien :
0 ) ( ) ( = = a o

Trong mien : 0 < x< a phng trnh co dang :

0 ) (
2
2
2
= + x k
dx
d
vi
2
2
2
h
mE
k =

Phng trnh nay co nghiem :
kx B kx A x cos sin ) ( + =

ieu kien :
0 ) ( = o
nen :
0 = B

vay :
kx A x sin ) ( =

ieu kien :
0 ) ( = a

nen ta co :
n ka ka A a sin sin 0 sin ) ( = = =

Vay :
n ka =

...) 2 , 1 ( = n

Nh vay :
n
E n
ma
m
k
E = = =
2
2
2 2 2 2
2
2
h h

Ngha la nang lng a b lng t hoa. Cac ham song co dang :
a
x n
A x
n
sin ) ( =

Hang so
A
xac nh t ieu kien chuan hoa .
1 1 ) (
0
2
sin
2 2
= =

dx
a
x n
A dx x
a a
n
0

Suy ra :
.
2
a
A=

Cuoi cung ta co :
a
x n
a
x
n
sin
2
) ( =
;
2
2
2 2
2
n
ma
E
n
h
=

II/ The bac thang:
Ta xet the nang co dang : E
0 neu x < 0
u = const neu x> 0 I u II

U(x)=

x
C hoc lng t - 77 -
Ta tm nghiem tai hai mien :
Mien I :
0
1
2
1
2
1
2
= + ) (
) (
x k
dx
x d
,
2
2
1
2
h
mE
k =

Nghiem :

x k
Be
x k
Ae x
i i
1 1
1
+ = ) (

(Ham song = song ti + song phan xa).
Mien II :

0 ) (
) (
2
2
2
2
2
2
= + x k
dx
x d
,

2
2
2
) ( 2
h
u E m
k

=

Nghiem :

x k
De
x k
Ce
i i
x
2 2
2
+ = ) (

Ham song = song truyen qua ( khong co song t phai qua trai)
Nh vay
0 = D
va :
x k
Ce x
i
2
2
= ) (

T ieu kien lien tuc cua
) (x
va tai
) (
'
x
0 = x
cho ta cac quan he :
C B A = +
(do
) (x
lien tuc )
C k B A k
2 1
) ( =
(do lien tuc )
) (
'
x
T ay ta co :
A
k k
k k
B
2 1
2 1
+
=
;
A
k k
k
C
2 1
1
2
+
=

Do o :
+ =
x ik x ik
e
k k
k k
e A x
1 1
2 1
2 1
1
) (

x ik
e
k k
k
A x
2
2 1
1
2
2
) (
+
=

Ta tnh vec t mat o dong ( trong mien I):
) (
2
* * 1 1 *
1
*
1
1
B B A A
m
k
dx
d
dx
d
m
i
j = =

h
h

r o
j j B B
m
k
A A
m
k
j + = =
* 1 * 1
h h

C hoc lng t - 78 -
Hay : Mat o dong = mat o dong ti + mat o dong phan xa. Vect mat o
dong truyen qua(trong mien II)
* 2 2 *
2
*
2
2
2
CC
m
k
dx
d
dx
d
m
i
j
d
h
h
= =

Ta xet trng hp E > U:
T ket qua tren ta tnh c:
+

=
+
= =

2
2
2 1
2 1
/ ) ( 1
/ ) ( 1
E u E
E u E
k k
k k
j
j
R
o
r
He so phan xa
2
2 1
2 1
) (
4
k k
k k
j
j
D
o
d
+
= =

Ta tnh tong:
( )
1
4
2
2 1
2 1
2
2 1
2 1
=
+
+
+
= +
k k
k k
k k
k k
D R

ieu nay co ngha la :Cng o dong phan xa va truyen qua bang cng o
dong ti .
Ta xet khi E < U . Khi o
1
2
2 1
2 1
=
+
=
k k
k k
R

Hn na ta nhan thay : D la ao nhng
ik k =
2
cung la ao .
Nh vay :
2
1
1
2
*
2 2
2
) (
kx
Ae
ik k
k
x

+
= =
=
=
) (
) ( ) ( exp
E U m
x
e o E U m
x
k k
k
=
+

2
2
2
2 1
2
1
2
2
4
h
h

ieu nay cho thay xac xuat khac khong nhng giam theo qui luat ham mu,
giam cang nhanh neu (U E) va khoi lng hat cang ln .

III/ S truyen qua hang rao the co be rong hu han:
Gia s U(x) co dang nh hnh ve : E
Khi o neu viet phng trnh cho
cac mien I , II va III ta co the tm
c nghiem di dang song phang. I II III
T ieu kien ve tnh lien tuc ta tm
c cac he thuc gia cac he so. 0 a
x

C hoc lng t - 79 -
a/ Neu E > U ta se thay co s phan xa (do ham song co hai phan ). Lu y rang
trong vat ly co ien hat i qua mot cach t do .
b/ Neu E < U , xac xuat i qua hang rao la khac khong.
Xac xuat ty oi:
( )
) (
) (
exp
,
o
a
E U m
a
W
o a
2
2
2
2
= =
h

ay la bieu thc gan ung cho ta xac xuat e hat co nang lng toan phan E
xuyen qua hang rao co o cao U va o rong a.
He so trong suot cua hang rao (con goi la o xuyen qua cua hang rao the )
c cho bang lng :

) ( exp ) ( exp E U m
a
D E U m
a
k k
k
j
j
D
o
o
d
=
+
=
= 2
2
2
2
4
2 2 2
1
2
1
h
h
(
1
o
D
)
Neu hang rao co dang tuy y ( tren la hang rao dang ch nhat) th o trong
suot cua hang rao la :

[ ]

2
1
2
2 x
x
o
dx E x U m D D ) ( exp
h

S chuyen t mien I qua mien III xay ra qua mien II la mien ma tai o nang
lng toan phan nho hn the nang ieu nay co the xem nh hat chui qua ng
ngam , hieu ng nay thng c goi la hieu ng ng ngam .
C hoc lng t giai thch nh sau:
- Khi giai phng trnh Schrodinger , ta thay xac xuat ton tai hat ben ngoai
bc tng tuy nho nh van khac khong,nh vay hat ton tai pha sau tng la hp ly .
- He thc bat nh : neu
a x >
th co kha nang hat trong va ngoai bc
tng. Vi
x
u ln en mc
v
u ln sao cho co the lam cho
hat vt tng.
2
v) ( = m E
- Khi song anh sang en mat phan cach gia hai moi trng th co hien tng
phan xa va khuc xa . Nh vay vi song De Broglie cung tng t . S tng ng
nay cang chng to ban chat song cua hat vi mo .

IV/ Ho the nang co cac thanh cao hu han

Xet dang ho the nh hnh ve E

U1 khi x < 0 U1
C hoc lng t - 80 -
U(x) = 0 khi 0
a x
I II
III U2
U2 . khi x>a
Ta xet bai toan trong ba mien :
Mien I : 0 a a/
1

3 b/

Phng trnh :
2
1 2
1 1
2
1
2
1
2
) ( 2
, 0
h
E u m
k k
dx
d
= =

Nghiem :
) exp( ) exp(
1 1 1 1 1
x k B x k A + =

Mien II :
Phng trnh :
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2 2
2
, 0
h
mE
k k
dx
d
= =

Nghiem :
) exp( ) exp(
2
2
2 2 2
x ik B x ik A + =

Mien III :
Phng trnh :
2
2 2
3 3
2
3
2
3
2
) ( 2
, 0
h
E u m
k k
dx
d
= =

Nghiem :
) exp( ) exp(
3 3 2
3
3
x k B x k A + =

Cac ieu kien bien dan ti ket qua :
0
3 1
= = A B
.
Vay cuoi cung ta co :
) exp( ) (
1 1 1
x k A x =

) exp( ) exp( ) (
2
2
2 2 2
x ik B x ik A x + =

) exp( ) (
3 3 3
x k B x =

Dang nh lng cua 1(x) ,
{ } ) ( Re x
2
va cho tren o th b/ cua hnh ve.

Nh vay ta thay ben ngoai o rong cua gieng the nang xac xuat tm thay hat van
khac khong va xac xuat nay giam nhanh khi i sau vao thanh gieng .
e xac nh cac he so
3
2
2 1
B B A A , , ,
ta s dung ieu kien lien tuc cua ba
ham va ao ham cua chung tai cac iem bien. Khi o ta co :
C hoc lng t - 81 -

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) a a
a a
' '
' '
3 2
2 1
3 2
2 1
0 0
0 0

=
=
=
=

hay

) exp( ) exp( ) exp(
) (
) exp( ) exp( ) exp(
a k B k a ik B ik a ik A ik
B A ik A k
a k B a ik B a ik A
B A A
3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 1 1
3 3 2 2 2 2
2 2 1
=
=
= +
+ =

e he phng trnh co nghiem nh thc cua he phai bang khong . Tuy nhien
phng trnh o kha phc tap . e n gian ta viet lai 2 (x) di dang gon hn
tng ng :
( ) ( ) b x k C x + =
2 2
sin

Khi o he phng trnh tren tr thanh :
) exp( ) cos(
cos
) exp( ) sin(
sin
a k B k b a k C k
b C k A k
a k B b a k C
b C A
3 3 3
2
2
2 1 1
3 3
2
1
= +
=
= +
=

Chia phng trnh th ba cho phng trnh au va phng trnh th t cho
phng trnh th hai ta c :

). ( cot
. cot
b a k g k k
gb k k
+ =
=
2 2 3
2 1

T phng trnh au cua he nay ta co :

2
1
k
k
gb = cot
hay
( )
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
mU
k
b g b
h
= + =

cot sin

Tng t ta co :
( )
2
2
2
2mU
k
b a k
h
= + sin

T hai ket qua o ta tm c phng trnh xac nh cac gia tr cua k (va
tng ng la cac mc nang lng) di dang an :

2
2
1
2
2
2 2 mU
k
mU
k
n a k
h h
arcsin arcsin =

Trong o n la cac so nguyen n = 1,2,3 Giai phng trnh nay bang phng
phap o th ta co cac nghiem la cac gia tr nang lng . Cu the ta at :
a k
1
2
C hoc lng t - 82 -
Vay :
2
2 2
1
2ma
h

Ket qua nay trung vi ket qua khi ap dung he thc bat nh

3 DAO ONG T IEU HOA

Nhan xet m au :
+/ Trong vat ly co ien :
. x k F
r
r
=

2 2
2 2
kx
m
+
=

Vat se dao ong theo quy luat ieu hoa :
+/ trong ly thuyet Bohr (ban lng t)
Cac mc nang lng c suy ra t quy tac lng t :

= h n dx P
x
2

Ket qua: Nang lng la gian oan :
h = n
n
va bc xa ch co the xay ra
khi dao ong t chuyen mc nang lng .
Trong c hoc lng t bai toan dao ong t ieu hoa la bai toan vi the
nang :

( )
2
2 2
x m
x U

=

Thay vao bieu thc cua
( ) x U
m
x
+
=
2
2

ta co :
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
x m
dx
d
m
H

+ =
h

Phng trnh Sch co dang :

( )
( ) 0
2
2
2 2
2 2
2
= +

x
x m m
dx
x d

h

a vao bien mi :

h
m
x =
,
=
2

Phng trnh tr thanh :
C hoc lng t - 83 -

( ) ( ) ( ) 0
2
= +

Phng trnh nay co cung dang vi phng trnh cho a thc Hecmit-gauss :

( ) 0 1 2
2
= + + y x n y
' '

Trong o
2,... , 1 , 0 n =
va cac nghiem cua no la cac a thc
Hecmit-Gauss :
( ) ( ) x h x y
n n

vi :
( )
2
2
2
1
2
x
n
n
n
e x H n x h

= ) ( ! ) (

Va ieu kien trc chuan tng ng cho
( ) x h
n
la :

2 1 2 1
n n n n
dx x h x h =
+

) ( ) (
Nh vay co ngha la ta co :
, 1 2 + = n
do o :

+ =
2
1
n h

. 2,. , 1 , 0 n =

va nghiem
( )
co dang :
( ) ) (
n
h A =

Tha so A c xac nh t ieu kien chuan hoa :
( ) 1
2
=
+

dx x
n

hay la:

( ) ( )

= =
+

+

d
d
dx
x dx x
n n
2 2
1

( ) ( )
=
+

+

2 2 2
n n
h A
m
d
m
h h

s dung ieu kien trc chuan cua cac a thc
( )
n
h

ta co ket qua :

1
2
=
m
h
do o :
4
h
m
=

Nh vay cuoi cung ta co nghiem :

C hoc lng t - 84 -
( )
( )
n
n
n n
H e
n
m
h
m
2
2
2
1
4
4
=
=
!
.
h
h

Tr ve bien ta co mot vai nghiem au tien :
x
( )
2
0
2
0
0
2
1
x x
x
x = exp ) (

( )
0
2
0
2
0
1
2
2 exp
2
1
) (
x
x
x x
x
x =

( )

= 2
4
. 2 exp
8
1
) (
2
0
2
2
0
2
0
2
x
x
x x
x
X

trong cac cong thc nay :
.
0
m
x
h
=

4 CHUYEN ONG TRONG TRNG XUYEN TAM. NGUYEN
T HYDRO

I/ Momen goc : (Momen ong lng ).
1/ Momen goc.Cac he thc giao hoan .
T he thc : ta co cac thanh phan :
[ ] p r M
=
x
y
y
x i M
z
x
x
z i M
y
z
z
y i M
z
y
x
h
h
h

(4.1)
Toan t bnh phng c nh ngha bang he thc :

2 2 2 2
z y x
M M M M

+ + =
(4.2)
C hoc lng t - 85 -

Cac he thc tren (trong he toa o Descartes) co the co dang thuan tien hn
trong he toa o cau cho cac tnh toan cho cac bai toan xuyen tam .hai he toa o nay
co lien he:

cos
sin sin
cos sin
r z
r y
r x
=
=
=
(4.3)
Nh vay :

x
y
y
x
r
y
r
x
z
z
y
y
x
x
cos sin sin sin

Theo (4.1) ta co :

= h i M
z

Tnh tng t ta co :

sin cot cos
cos cot sin
g i M
g i M
y
x
h
h

Thay cac ket qua nay vao (4.2) ta co :

sin
sin
1
sin
1
2
2
2
2 2
h M
(4.4)

Vi cac thanh phan Momen ta co the chng minh:

(4.5)
k
k
ijk j i
k
k
ijk j i
k
k
ijk j i
M e i M M
P e i P M
r e i r M

,
h
h
h

C hoc lng t - 86 -
trong o la tenx n v hoan toan phan xng hang 3.
ijk
e
e123 = e231= e312 =1, e132 = e321 = e213 = -1 con lai 21 thanh phan bang
khong .
2/ Ham rieng va tr rieng cua
z
M
va
2
M

T phng trnh :

z
M i

=
h
(4.6)

Nghiem co dang :
( )

=
h

2
iM
Aexp

(4.7)
Ham
( )
la tuan hoan :
( ) ( ) 2 + =
nen:

,
m h =
2
,... , , 2 1 0 = m
(4.8)

Nh vay hnh chieu momen b lng t hoa.
Hang so A c xac nh t ieu kien :

1
2
0
=
d
m m
*
do o :
2
1
= A

Nh vay :

( )

im
m
e
2
1
=
(4.9)
Ta tm ham rieng va tr rieng cua
2
. T ket qua :

sin
sin
sin
1 1
2
2
2
2 2
h M

ta co phng trnh tr rieng :

2 2
=
tr thanh :

2
2
2
2
2
1 1
=
sin
sin
sin
h

(4.10)

Phng trnh nay c goi la phng trnh cho cac ham cau . No ch co
nghiem khi :

( ) 1
2 2
+ = l l h
l =0,1,2, (4.11)
va khi o nghiem co dang :
C hoc lng t - 87 -

( ) ( )

im m
m
e
m
m
cos
)! (
) ( )! (
,
l l
l
l l
+
+
=
4
1 2
(4.12)
trong o

l = ,... , , 2 1 0 m
.
Co the chng minh rang :

0
2
=
i
M M

,
ieu nay co ngha la hai toan t

2
va co chung mot he ham rieng la

cac ham cau (4.10).
i
Trong toan hoc phan cac ham at biet ngi ta chng minh rang cac a
thc Legendre lien ket co dang :

( ) ( ) ( ) x
dx
d
x x
m
m
m
l l
=
2
1
2
1

trong o
( ) x
l
la cac a thc Legendre co dang :

( )
=
l
l
l
l
l
l
1
2
2
1
x
dx
d
x P
!

Vi cac ham cau ,co the chng minh la chung thoa man he thc trc giao :
( ) ( )
' ' ' '
*
sin , ,
mm m
m
d d

ll l
l
=

2
0 0
(4.13)

II/ Hat trong trng oi xng cau (chuyen ong xuyen tam)
Ta xet bai toan trong he toa o cau .Trong he o toan t
co dang :

,
+
2
2
2
1 1
r
r
r
r
r
(4.14)
trong o:

sin
sin
sin
,
1 1
2
2
2
(4.15)
Nh vay phng trnh Sch co dang :

( ) [ ]
0
2
1 1
2
2
2
2
=

+ +

h
r U m
r
r
r
r
r
,

(4.16)

Dung phng phap tach bien .at :
C hoc lng t - 88 -

( ) ( ) ( ) , , , r R r =

(4.17)
Thay vao (4.15) ta co :

( ) [ ]
( )
( ) ( )

=
=

+
,
,
r R
r R
r U m
r
dr
dR
r
dr
d
2
2 2
2
h

(4.18)
Vay ta co :

( ) ( )

, ,
,
=

So sanh vi phng trnh (4.10) va (4.11) ta co :

( ) 1 + = l l

,... , , 2 1 0 = l

( ) ( )

im m
e
m
m
cos
)! (
)! ( ) (
,
l
l
l l
+
=
4
1 2
(4.19)

( ) ,
m
Y
l
.
l = ,... , 1 0 m

Cac ham
( ) ,
m
Y
l
c goi la cac ham ieu hoa cau .Ta co mot so ham
cap thap la:

cos
4
3
4
1
=
=
oo
oo
Y
Y

i
e Y

= sin
,
8
3
1 1

=
2
1
3
2
4
5
2
2

cos
,o
Y

i
e Y
2 2
1 2
8
15

= sin
,

i
e Y
2 2
2 2
32
15

= sin
,

Can nhan manh la phan goc cua ham song khong phu thuoc vao dang cu the
cua the nang
( ) r U
.ay la he qua trc tiep va quan trong cua the oi xng cau.
Bay gi ta xet tiep phan xuyen tam cua ham song ,tc la ham
( ) r R
.T
(4.18) va chu y :
( ) 1 + = l l

ta co:
C hoc lng t - 89 -

( ) ( ) 0
2
1
2
2
2
= +

r R r U
m
dr
dR
r
dr
d
r
l
h
(4.20)

trong o :
( ) ( )
( )
2
2
2
1
mr
r U r U
+
+ =
l l h
l

(4.21)
Phngtrnh (4.20) co the a ve phng trnh Sch mot chieu vi ieu kien
bien at biet tai r =0 .
cu the la ta at :

( ) ( ) r rR r =

vi ieu kien :
( ) 0 = o
(do tnh hu han cua
( ) r R
)
Thay ham (r) trong (4.22) vao (4.20) ta co phng trnh Sch mot chieu :

( ) [ ]
( ) 0
2
2 2
2
=
+ r
r u E m
dr
d
h
l

(4.23)
ieu kien bien
( ) 0 = o
tng ng vi gieng the co bc tng trai
cao vo tan (tai r = 0).
S nghien cu sau hn phng trnh (4.23) oi hoi dang cu the cua ham
( ) r U
.
III/ Nguyen t Hydrogen :
Bai toan nguyen t Hydrogen la bai toan ien hnh cua lp bai toan quan
trong chuyen ong cua electron trong trng Coulomb oi xng cau. Trong nguyen
t Hydrogen, Hamiltonian co dang :

r
e
m
2 2
2
=
h

(4.24)
Dung phng phap tach bien nh trng hp trng xuyen tam ta co the tm
c cac tr rieng cua toan t Hamilton co dang :

2 2
4
2 n
me
n
h
=

,.... ,2 1 = n
(4.25)
Cac ham rieng co dang :

( ) ,
m n m n
Y R
l l l
=
. (4.26)

( )
l
l
=
=
... , 2 , 1 , 0
, 1 ... , 2 , 1 , 0
m
n

C hoc lng t - 90 -
Trong o :
( ) ,
m
Y
l
la cac ham cau ,dang cua ham cau nay khong
thuoc vao dang cu the cua the oi xng cau.Con cac ham xuyen tam
( ) r R
nl
c
xac nh bi phng trnh :

( ) [ ]
( ) 0
2
2 2
2
=
+ r
r u E m
dr
d
h
l

vi the
( )
r
e
r U
2
=
la the Coulomb cua hat nhan nguyen t Hydrogen.
Dang cua
( ) r R
nl
c cho bi :

( )
[ ]

+
+
+

=
n
r
L
n
r
e
n
n
n
r R
n
n
r
n
2 2
1
1 2
1 2
1
3 2
l
l
l
l
)! (
)! (

(4.27)

trong o : la a thc Laguere tong quat.
( ) x L
n
1 2
1
+
+
l
Nhng ham laguere nay thoa man ieu kien chuan hoa :

( )
0
2 2
1 dr r r R
nl
Ta co the viet mot so ham xuyen tam au tien :

=

1
2
3
1 10
exp 2
r
r
r R

( )

=

1 1
2
1
3
1 20
2
1
2
exp 2
r
r
r
r
r R
(4.28)

1 1
1
3
1 21
2
exp 6 2
r
r
r
r
r R
=

Nh vay ta de dang viet c mot so ham rieng cua toan t Hamilton (4.24)
la :

C hoc lng t - 91 -

( )
( )
=
=
=
=
1 1
1
3
1 210
1 1
1
3
1 211
1 1
2
1
3
1 200
1
2
1
3
1 100
cos
2
exp 2 4
sin
2
exp 8
2
1
2
exp 8
exp
r
r
r
r
r
r
r i
e
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r

(4.29)
S phan lap (hay suy bien )cua cac mc nang lng:
e y rang cac mc nang lng cua mot electron trong nguyen t Hydrogen
ch phu thuoc vao n :

2 2
4
2 n
me
n
h
=

,.... ,2 1 = n

trong khi o cac ham song tc la cac trang thai lai c xac nh bi ba so
lng t : n, l va m .Ngoai ra khi xac nh cac trang thai cua electron la con phai
ke en mot so lng t khac na la
khong co mat trong cac bieu thc ay.V

ng vi moi n so lng t l nhan cac gia tr t 0 en (n-1) , va vi moi l so lng t
m nhan (2l+1) gia tr nen so trang thai ng vi moi mc Nang lng la :
n

( )
2
1
0
2 1 2 2 n g
n
l
n
=
+ =

=
l

(4.30)

(tha so 2 la hai trang thai cua Spin ).
ieu nay co ngha la cac tr rieng
n
suy bien bac

2n2.S phan lap (hay suy bien) cua cac mc nang lng la mot quy luat lien quan
en tnh oi xng trong he nguyen t.V du :oi xng cau cua cac trng trong
nguyen t gay ra s suy bien cua hai so lng t m va
- nang lng khong phu

thuoc vao s nh hng cua momen quy ao va momen spin cua electron.
S suy bien cua so lng t l lien quan en ban chat ac trng cua trng
Coulomb .Trong cac trng khac (khong Coulomb) nang lng cua electron phu
thuoc ca vao n va l .

C hoc lng t - 92 -

CHNG III. LY THUYET SPIN CUA PAULI

Spin la momen c (momen xung lng ) rieng cua hat va la mot tnh chat c
ban cua hat giong nh khoi lng cua no . Quan niem rang Spin la momen c do s
quay cua hat quanh truc rieng cua no tuy rat thuan li nhng la mot mo hnh sai .
Song mau nh vay cho phep lien tng en hau het cac tnh chatcua con quay c
hoc lng t va ac biet la e hieu tai sao (mac du mc o ai khai ) cac hat
tch ien vi Spin cung co momen t noi tai . S nghien cu c hoc lng t tnh
chat Spin cua hat c ban cho cac ket luan sau ay (Spin la mot ai lng vector
(gia vector )) .
- o ln cua momen c Spin cua hat la so lng t Spin S , ma no co the nhan
cac gia tr dng nguyen hay ban nguyen va ac trng trang thai hat a cho mot
cach n tr . Bnh phng vecter Spin
2
S
.
2 2
) 1 ( h + + = S S S
oi vi
e
:
2 2 2
4
3
) 1
2
1
(
2
1
h h = + = S

- S nh hng cua momen c Spin b lng t hoa (b gii han bi nhng
goc xac nh) giong het nh tat ca cac momen c khac . S nh hng nay c
C hoc lng t - 93 -
xac nh bi gia tr cua so lng t Spin t mS ; o ln mS cho ta gia tr cua hnh
chieu Spin tren mot truc tuy y trong khong gian (thng truc nay c chon theo
truc Z ) .
oi vi :
e
h
2
1
=
Z
S

- Spin la bac t do noi tai cua hat va luon luon bang const oi vi moi hat .
Da vao Spin ngi ta chia cac hatc ban thanh hai loai : cac hat co Spin nguyen
goi la cac bozon , cac hat co Spin ban nguyen goi la cac fermion

1 SPIN CUA ELECTRON

Momen Spin cua electron =
2
h

1/ Cac toan t spin :
a/ Ham song cua hat cung vi Spin khong ch phu thuoc vao ba thanh phan
khong gian cua no , ma con phu thov vao toa o th t ac trng cho trang thai noi
tai cua hat . Toa o th t ngi ta thng chon o ln cua hnh chieu Spin tren truc
Z . Luc o ham song co the viet :
( ) t S r
Z
, ,
r
=

Khac vi cac toa o khong gian
r
r
toa o spin SZ ch nhan cac gia tr ri
rac . oi vi electron
2
h
=
Z
S
. Do o ta co the viet ham song cua electron .
=
2
1
) ,
2
, (
) ,
2
, (
t r
t r
h
r
h
r
(1)
ay
dV
i
2
giai thch nh xac xuat e tai thi iem t electron trong

yeu to the tch dV va co hnh chieu Spin tren truc Z bang
2
h
neu i = 1 va bang
2
h
neu i = 2 . Ham song

) , , ( t s r
Z
r
c chuan hoa .

=
=

2 /
2
2 /
, , (
h
h
r
Z
s
dV t
Z
s r

1 ) ,
2
, ( ) ,
2
, (
2 2
=
= dV t r dV t r
h
r
h
r
(2)
C hoc lng t - 94 -
Neu bay gi ta bo qua s tng tac momen Spin t cua electron vi t trng
cua cac dong do chuyen ong khoi tam cua electron tao nen th ( bo qua s tng
tac giua Spin va chuyen ong quy ao ) ham song .

=
=
2
1
) (
; ) ( ) , ( ) , , (
c
c
S
S t r t S r
Z
Z Z
r r

(3)
Trong o ham song toa o thong thng ,

la ham song Spin .
2
/ /
i
c
Cho ta xac suat e hnh chieu Spin
Z
S
bang
2
h
neu i = 1 va
bang -
2
h
neu i = 2 . ieu kien chuan hoa ham song suy ra

1 / / / /
2
2
2
1
= + c c

b. Sau khi xac nh khai niem ham song Spin chung ta can nh nhga cac
toan t Spin tac dung len no . Noi chung s tac dung cua toan t len ham Spin
dan en viec thay cac thanh phan thanh cac to hp tuyen tnh cua
no.
=
2
1
c
c
2 1
, c c

(4)
=
2
1
c
c
+
+
=
2 22 1 21
2 12 1 11 '
c a c a
c a c a
tac dung cua toan t Spin

Phu hp vi ieu nay toan t Spin co the bieu dien di dang ma tran tong
quat :
=
22
21
12 11
a a
a a
a
(5)
Ta hay tm dang cua ba toan t
Z Y X

, ,
tng ng vi cac ai lng
vat ly mi , Cac hnh chieu cua Spin len cac truc toa o . Ta hay chuan hoa cac
ham rieng cua cac toan t nay the nao e cac tr rieng cua chung bang 1. T ay
suy ra ieu kien :
= = = =
1 0
0 1
1
2
2 2
Z Y X

(6)

1 ) (
2
= + +
Z Y X

(7)

C hoc lng t - 95 -
Trong o , , la cac cosin ch phng cua vector Spin . T (7) suy ra cac
qui tac phan giao hoan cho cac thanh phan toan t Spin :

{ } 0 , =
Y X

;
{ } 0 , =
Z X

;
{ } 0 , =
Z Y

(8)

Ta hay chon he c s ma trong o ma tran cua toan t
Z
co dang cheo .
=
1 0
0 1
(9)
Dang tong quat cua ma tran toan t
Z
suy ra t ieu kien ecmitic cua no :

=
22 21
12 11
a a
a a
X
;
(10)
=
+
=
22
12
*
12 11

a a
a a
X X

T ieu kien
{ } 0 , = + =
X Z Z X Z X

suy ra .

0
2 0
0 2
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1
22
11
22
*
12
12 11
22
*
12
12 11
=
a
a
a a
a a
a a
a a

T ay ta co :
0
22 11
= = a a

vay .
=
0
0
*
12
12
a
a
X
(11)
Mat khac :
1
2
=
X

1
1 0
0 1
0
0
2
12
2
12
2
12
2
=
= a
a
a
X

Vay ma tran cua toan t
X
can co dang :

C hoc lng t - 96 -
=
0
0
i
i
X
e
e

Ta hay chon pha cua vecto c s the nao e co
0 =
. Luc o :
=
0 1
1 0

Ly luan tng t ta co the tm c
Y
. Vay ta co ba ma tran :

= =
1 0
0 1
;
0
0
;
0 1
1 0
Z Y X
i
i

(12)

Cac ma tran nay thng c goi la cac ma tran Pauli .
2. Cac tnh chat cua cac toan t Pauli
T (12) ta suy ra :
1
2 2 2
= = =
Z Y X

3
2 2 2 2
= + + =
Z Y X

{ } { } { } 0 , , = = =
Z Y Z X Y X

Y X Z X Z Y Z Y X
i i i ; ; = = =

[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
Y X Z
X X Y
Z Y X
i
i
i

2 ,
; 2 ,
; 2 ,
=
=
=

hoac di dang tong quat :

2

r r r
i =

(13)
e thuan tien tat ca cac tnh chat nay co the dien ta di dang mot cong thc
de nh .
ij k
ijk
j i
i + =

Trong o
ijk
la ky hieu Levy Civita

3. Vecto Spin

C hoc lng t - 97 -
Ta hay xet vecto
r
h
r
= S

(15)
T (13) suy ra
S i S S X

r
h
r r
=
(16)
He thc nay giong het cac he thc cho momen xung lng , do o ai lng
vecto
r
h
r
= S

co the xem la momen xung lng rieng cua electron . ro rang la cac tr rieng

h
2
1

= = =
Z Y X
S S S

Ngoai ra

+ = =
= + + =
1
2
1
2
1
4
3
4
2 2
2
2
2 2 2 2
h h
r h
r
Z Y X
S S S S
(17)

Ro rang bieu thc (17) giong bieu thc cua .
2
L
Ket luan : Momen Spin cua electron =
2
h

1 ( = =c h
th Spin =
2
1
)
T hieu ng thc nghiem Zecmann suy ra rang Spin phai tng ng vi
momen t
mc
e
2
,
0 0
h r r
= =
la manhe ton Bohr
Chu y ti cac he thc
Momen t
o
oi vi momen quy ao
Momen xung lng o vi Spin
o
2
h
=
Bo xung : Cac tr rieng cua toan t
Z Y X
S S S

,
eu bang
2
h
. Xet bai toan
tr rieng cua toan t
X
S
:
C hoc lng t - 98 -
= = =
2
1
;
0 1
1 0
2
c
c
S S S
X X X

h

t ay ta co ang thc

2 1
1 2
2
2
c S c
c S c
X
X
=
=
h
h

2
4 4
2
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
h
h h
=
= => =
X
X X
S
S c c S c c

=>
Tr rieng cua toan t hnh chieu Spin nh chung ta ch i la bang
2
h
. Khi
2
h
+ =
X
S
th ta co :
c c c c S c S c
X X
= = => =
= = =
1 2 1 1 2
2 2 2
h h h

T ieu kien chuan hoa
2
1
1 2 1
2
1
2
2
2
1
= = => = + c c c c

Vay :
=
+ =
1
1
2
1
1
2
i
S
e
X
h

Hang so pha
1
tuy y
2
h
+
=
(co the chon
1
= a) .
C hoc lng t - 99 -
Ket luan :

Toan t hnh chieu
Spin
2
h
+

2
h
=
0 1
1 0
2
h
X
S

1
2
1
2
h

X
S
= =
1
1
2
1
2
h

X
S

=
0
0
2
i
i
S
Y
h

= =
i
Y
S
1
2
1
2
h

= =
Y
S
2
1
2
h

=
1 0
0 1
2
h
Z
S

= =
0
1
2
h

Z
S

= =
1
0
2
h

Z
S

Ham song hai thanh phan , ma cac ma tran Pauli tac dung len
chung , c goi la cac Spinor va trong phep quay he toa o chung bien oi theo
bieu dien tuyen tnh lng tr cua nhom quay . Khi quay mot goc nho quanh truc
( trong o la vecto n v ) cac thanh phan cua spinor
=
2
1
c
c
n
r
n
r
2
1
, =
vi

(n v ) se bien oi theo cach di ay :
1 = h
( )
Z Z Y Y X X
n n n n
n i

+ + =
=
r r
r r
.
;
2
) . (
'

'
la cac thanh phan cua Spinor trong he toa o mi .

* Trong trng hp hat vi Spin bang mot vecto Spin co dang :
( )
Z Y X
S S S S

,
=
r

C hoc lng t - 100 -
=
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
2
0 0
0
0 1
2
;
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
2
h
h
h
Z
Y
X
S
i
i i
i
S
S

Trong ly thuyet Pauli s mo ta Spin mang ac tnh hien tng luan . Thc ra
s ton tai Spin cua hat la hieu ng tng oi tnh va giai thch c ch trong C
hoc lng t tng oi tnh .T phng trnh Dirac tng oi tnh suy ra s ton tai
Spin va kem theo momen t . Them vao o trong gii han van toc nho phng trnh
Dirac chuyen thanh phng trnh Pauli cho hat khong tng oi tnh vi Spin .

2 PHNG TRNH PAULI

Phng trnh Pauli la phng trnh C hoc lng t mo ta dang ieu cua hat
vi Spin ( th du electron ) trong trng ien t vi ieu kien van toc cua hat la
nho so vi van toc anh sang . Phng trnh Pauli co dang phng trnh Schrodinger
(mo ta hat vi Spin bang khong ) song ham song
trong phng trnh Pauli

khong phai la mot vo hng ma la Spinor hai thanh phan va c viet di dang :
= =
) ,
2
, (
) ,
2
, (
) , , (
2
1
t r
t r
t S r
Z
h r
h r
r

V hat co Spin nen no co momen t , khi at vao t trng ngoai hat se co
them nang lng phu bang nang lng cua lng cc t trong mot t trng .
r
( )

= = = S
c m
e
bang e cua t momen do
-
r
r
r
r
U

=
r
r h
mc
e
2

Ta biet Hamiltonien cua phng trnh Schrodinger
C hoc lng t - 101 -
) (
2
2
r U
m
P
+ =
r

trong trng ien t ta dung phep the sau ay :
e U U
A
c
e
P P
+

r r r

Ke them Spin th co them nang lng phu
U
:
=
r
r h
mc
e
U
2

Ket qua ta co phng trnh :

) , , (
2
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
) , , (
2
t S r
mc
e
r U r e A
c
e
p
m t
t S r
i
Z
Z r
v
r h
r
r
h
+ + + =

A
r
,
la cac the vo hng va the vecto cua trng ien t . ay la phng
trnh Pauli . Nh phng trnh nay ta co the giai thch c hieu ng Zeemann thc
chat phng trnh Pauli la hai phng trnh cho hai ham
1
va
2
c viet gop
lai di dang ma tran cot .

C hoc lng t - 102 -

CHNG IV. PHNG PHAP NHIEU LOAN

Nghiem chnh xac cua phng trnh Schrodinger ch co tm c trong mot so
bai toan n gian , nh bai toan mot chieu trong ho the , dao ong t ieu hoa ,
nguyen t hydroger . Nhng ngay ca trong nhng trng hp o li giai cung phc
tap .
Trong hau het nhng bai toan khac thc te khong tm c nghiem chnh xac ,
do o phai dung en phng phap gan ung con goi la ly thuyet nhieu loan ma
noi dung c ban la : a cac bai toan nay ve nhng bai toan n gian co the tm
nghiem chnh xac sau o tm nhng hieu chnh tng ng .

1 LY THUYET NHIEU LOAN DNG KHONG SUY BIEN .

Trong bai toan :
) ( ) ( ) (
n n n
E H =
(1.1)
Ta bieu dien
H
di dang :
u H H
o

+ =

C hoc lng t - 103 -
Trong o
u
la so hang be khong phu thuoc tng minh vao thi gian va c
goi la toan t nhieu loan bo sung vao toan t khong nhieu loan . Vi ta
co :
o
H
o
H
) ( ) ( ) (
n
o
n
o
n
o o
E H =
(1.2)
(coi nh a co ) , trong o he
{ }
) (n
o
la trc chuan .e thuan tien hn ta viet

:
u H H
o

+ =

Trong o
la hang so rat be . Ta khai trien ham song va nang lng theo cac
bac cua
= + + +

=
=
0
2
2
1
k
n
k
k n n n
o
n ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
...

(1.3)
= + + + =

=0
2
2
1 0
k
n
k
k n n n n
E E E E E
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
...

Thay (1.3) vao (1.1) ta co :
= + + + + ...) )(
(
) (
2
2 ) (
1
) ( n n n
o o
u H

...) ...)( (
) (
1
) ( ) (
2
2 ) (
1
) (
+ + + + + =
n n
o
n n n
o
E E E

So sanh cac he so cua
co cung bac luy tha ta co he phng trnh:

) ( ) ( ) (
n
o
n
o
n
o o
E H =
(1.4)

) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (

n
o
n
o
n n n
o
n
o o
u E E H =
1 1
(1.5)

) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (

n n n n
o
n n n
o
n
o
E u E E H
1 1 1 2 2 2
+ =
(1.6)

Ta thay phng trnh (1.4)trung vi phng trnh (1.2). Tiep tuc khai trien
) (n
k
theo chuoi cua ham rieng

) (n
o
=
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
n m
m
o
k
nm
n
k
C
, (k=1,2,3) (1.7)

Thay (1.7) vao (1.5) va (1.6) ta co :

=
) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) (
n m
n
o
n
o
n n
o
n
o
m
o nm
u E E E C
1
1
(1.8)

C hoc lng t - 104 -
+ =
) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) (
n m
n n n n
o
n m
o
n
o
m
o nm
E u E E E C
1 1
1 2
2

(1.9)

Ky hieu phan t ma tran cua so hang nhieu loan bo sung bang :
mn
u

>= =< = n u m u u
n
o
m
o mn
) (
) ( ) (

(1.10)

= =
+ ) ( ) ( ) ( * ) (

n
o
m
o
n
o
m
o
u dV u

Ta hay tm bo sung cap mot cua nang lng .Muon vay ta nhan trai
phng trnh (1.8) vi
) (n
E
1
) (n
o
+
va dung tnh trc giao cua he cac ham rieng gan ung
bac khong th co :
( )
nm
n
o
n
o
n
u u E = =
+

) ( ) (
1
(1.11)

ieu nay co ngha la :So hang nhieu loan cap 1 cua cac gia tr rieng cua nang
lng bang gia tr trung bnh cua toan t theo cac trang thai khong nhieu loan .
u
Neu ta nhan trai phng trnh (1.8) vi
) (m
o
+
th ta c bieu thc cua cac he

so khai trien :
) ( ) (
) (
m
o
n
o
mn
nm
E E
u
C
=
1
(1.12)

Nh vay cac ham rieng trong phep gan ung cap mot la :

) (
) (
) ( ) (
m
o
n m
m
o
n
o
mn
E E
u

(1.13)

Lam tng t nh tren , vi phng trnh (1.9)ta co :

( )

=
=
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) (
n m n m
m
o
n
o
nm
m
o
n
o
mn nm n
E E
u
E E
u u
E
2
2
(1.14)

=
) , (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) )( (
m n s
m
o
n
o
nn mn
m
o
n
o
s
o
n
o
sn ms
nm
E E
u u
E E E E
u u
C
2
2
(1.15)

Nh vay trong gan ung bac hai li giai cua phng trnh co dang :
+/ Nang lng :(cho
1 =
)
C hoc lng t - 105 -
+ + = + + =
) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) (
n m
m
o
n
o
nm
nn
n
o
n n n
o
n
E E
u
u E E E E E
2
2
2
1

(1.16)
+/ Ham song tng ng : (
1 =
)

+ = + + =
) (
) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) (
n m
n
o
m
o
n
o
mn n
o
n n n
o
n
E E
u

2
2
1
+

+
) (
) ( ) (
n m
m
o nm
C
2
(1.17)

T ket qua (1.17) ta thay : thanh phan hieu chnh thc s nho khi :

( )
) ( ) ( m
o
n
o nm
E E u <<

ieu nay co ngha la phng phap nay ap dung tot khi cac yeu to ma tran cua
toan t nhieu loan la nho so vi khoang cach gia cac mien nang lng cua he
khong nhieu loan .

2 HIEU NG ZEEMANN

Hieu ng Zeemann la s tach cac mc nang lng cua nguyen t , phan t va
tinh the trong t trng ma bieu hien cua no la s tach cac vach pho . Can phan biet
hai hien tng:
+ Hieu ng Zeemann bnh thng: la hien tng tach cac vach pho t trng
manh. Hien tng nay thng quan sat c oi vi nguyen t khi khong e y en
Spin.
+ Hieu ng Zeemann d thng la hien tng tach cac vach pho t trng
yeu. Hien tng nay thng quan sat c oi vi cac nguyen t co momen Spin
khac khong.
Ten goi nh vay la do lch s ve hieu ng Zeemann bnh thng c phat
hien ra trc.
e xet bai toan ta xuat phat t phng trnh Pauli mo ta trang thai cua hat
cung vi Spin trong ien t trng:

) , ( ) ( ) (
) , (
t r H
c m
e
r u e A
c
e
p
m t
t r
i
e e
r
r
r
h
r
r
r
h
+ + + =
2 2
1
2

(2.1)

Ta xet hieu ng Zecmann bnh thng do o ta bo qua Spin cua hat va so han
mo ta ien trng.
C hoc lng t - 106 -
Nh vay phng trnh (2.1) co dang gon hn:

) , ( ) ( ) (
) , (
t r r u A
c
e
p
m t
t r
i
e
r
r
r
r
h
+ =
2
2
1
(2.2)
e y rang:

2 2 2 2
+ + =
z z y y x x
A
c
e
P A
c
e
P A
c
e
P A
c
e
P
r r

Ma ta co :

( )
2
2
2
2
2
x x x x x x x x
A
c
e
p A A p
c
e
p A
c
e
p + =

x
A i
x
A
i A
x
i A p A p
x
x
x x x x x
= =

h h h ) ( ) (

Vay :
x
A
i p A A P
x
x x x x
= h ) (
;
x x x
p A
x
A i

h V

Ket qua ta co :
) (
r u A
c m
e
A
c m
ie
p A
c m
e
m
p
H
e
e e e
+ + + =
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
r r
h
r
r

T ieu kien Lerentz ta co :
0 = A
r
va nh vay neu bo qua so hang bac hai
:
2
A
r
th
H
co dang :
loan nhieu lng Nang
2
2
+ = + =
o
e e
H p A
c m
e
r u
m
p
H

) (
r
r
r
Ngha
la Nang lng nhieu loan la so hang :
p A
c m
e
e
r
r
.
Nh vay khi khong co t trng phng trnh khong nhieu loan la:

) (
) (
) ( ) (
) (
2
) (
) (
) (
2
o
r
o
nl
o
r
e
o
r o
E r u
m
H
r r r
h
=
+ =

Phng trnh nay co nghiem la :

im m
n m
ne
o
m n
o
r
e p r R Y r R r ) (cos ) ( ) , ( ) ( ) , , (
) ( l l l l
= = =

C hoc lng t - 107 -
Coi so hang nhieu loan la :

r r
h
A
mc
e i
ta co the tm c :
= =

dv A
c m
e i
n A
c m
e i
n E
o
m n
e
o
m n
e
nl
l l
r r
h
l
r r
h
l
) ( * ) (
1

Gia s t trng la eu va khong thay oi , hng doc theo truc z khi o ta
co : ,
0 = =
y x
H H
=
z
H
H
T
A rot H
r r
=
suy ra :
y A
x
2
1
=
H

x A
y
2
1
=
H
0 =
z
A

Do o :
= + + = ) (
z z y y x x
e
p A p A p A
c m
e
A
mc
e i
r r
h

) (
2
1
2
1
y x
e
xp yp
c m
e
+ =
H

z
e
x y
e
M
c m
e
yp xp
c m
e H H
= = ) (
2

Mat khac do :

= h i M
z

nen ta co :
) , , (
) , , (
) (
) (

r im
r
o
m n
o
m n
l
l
=

vay ta co ket qua :

m
c m
e
dv m
c
e
m
e
E
e
o
nlm
nl
2 2
2
) ( ) (
1
H H h
h

= =

Bay gi ta xet cac ham rieng :muon vay ta phai tnh cac phan t ma tran:

= dv
c m
e i
m n A
c m
e i
m n
o
m n
e e
) ( '
'
2
l
l
h
l
r r
h
l
(o) *
m n
H

= = 0
) ( ) ( * '
'
dv m
c
e
o
m n
o
m n
l
l
h

e
2m
H

Nh vay ngha la t trng khong lam thay oi cac ham rieng cua bai toan
khong nhieu loan (
( )
) (o
nlm
=
) va so hieu chnh trong phep gan ung cap mot
bang khong, con cac mc nang lng tach ra phu thuoc vao m qua bieu thc :
C hoc lng t - 108 -
m
c m
e
E E
e
o
n m n
2
h
l l
H
=
) (

Tren s o mc nang lng hien tng nay c minh hoa nh sau:
l = 0 (m = 0)

l = 1 (m = -1,0.1) m = 1
m = 0
m = -1
m = 0

3 LY THUYET NHIEU LOAN DNG CO SUY BIEN HIEU NG
STARK

I/ Ly thuyet nhieu loan dng co suy bien :
e y rang ly thuyet phan tren se vo ngha neu :
0 =
) ( ) ( m
o
n
o
E E

hay xap x mot lng rat be. V vay ta phai ieu chnh ly thuyet sao cho co
the giai quyet c trng hp o .
Trc het ta viet lai he ham rieng. Gia s :
+/
) (
...
) (
,
) ( g
o o o

2 1
la cac ham cung ng vi mot tr rieng .
+/
...
) 2 ( ) 1 (
,
+ + g
o
g
o

lamoi ham ng vi mot tr rieng.
Trong phep gan ung cap 1 nghiem cuabai toan c tm di dang:

+ =
=
+ =
g
s g
o
s
o s
C c
1 1

) ( ) (
(3.1)
trong o :
C
la cac lng be va la cac lng kha ln.
s
c
Hamiltonian viet di dang: con nang lng (tr rieng) tng
ng viet la :
H

+ =
o
H H
+ =
o
E E
trong o
la he so chnh bac nhat cua gia tr rieng tc

la nang lng cua he.
Phng trnh Schrodinger tr thanh:

= +

+
g
g
o o o
s
o s
E H C E H c
1 1
0
) ( ) (
)

(3.2)
Nhng e y rang:

o o o o
E H =

nen trong phep gan ung cap 1 phng trnh (3.2) co the viet la :

C hoc lng t - 109 -

= +

+
g
g
o o o
s
o s
E E C E H C
1 1
0
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( )

(3.3)

Nhan trai phng trnh nay vi
) (l +
o

( ) g ... ,2 1 = l

va s dung tnh trc chuan cua cac ham trong gan ung cap khong ta co:
=
=
g
s
ls
s
E H C
1
0 ) (

hay :
=
=
g
g
ls ls
s
E H C
1
0 ) (
(3.4)
trong o : Phng trnh (3.4) c goi la phng
trnh the ky . Di dang khai trien phng trnh nay viet la :
=
+
dv H H
s
o
l
o
ls
) ( ) (

0
1 12 2 11 1
= + + +
g
g
H C H C E H C ... ) (

0
2 2 1 1
= + + + ) ( ... E H C H C H C
gg g
g g

ieu kien cua he nay la nh thc cua he phai bang khong:

0
) .....(
.....
)... (
... ) (
) (
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
=
=
E H H H
H E H H
H H E H
E Det
gg g g
g
g

(Det(E) =
0 =
es es
E H
)
ay la phng trnh ai so bac g e xac nh nang lng E la
: tng ng vi g trang thai ban au suy bien hoac chuan suy
bien cua he khong nhieu loan . Thay cac gia tr nay cua E vao phng trnh (3.4) ta
tm c cac hieu chnh cua ham song trong phep gan ung cap 1 cua ly thuyet
nhieu loan . Do co nhieu loan nen mc nang lng suy bien ban au noi chung se
khong suy bien na va ta noi rang : nhieu loan a lam mat suy bien . S mat suy
bien co the la hoan toan co the la bo phan.
) ( ) ( ) (
... ,
g
E E E
2 1
II/ Hieu ng Stark trong nguyen t Hydrogen :
Hieu ng Stark la s bien oi cac mc nang lng cua nguyen t,phan t va
tinh the di tac dung cua ien trng ,ma bieu hien cua no la s dch chuyen va s
tach cac vach pho .
Hieu ng Stark co hai trng hp :
Hieu ng Stark tuyen tnh :
La s tach cac mc nang lng ty le tuyen tnh vi E .
C hoc lng t - 110 -
Hieu ng Stark bnh phng la s tach cac mc nang lng ty le vi E2
.Trong giao trnh nay ch han che xet hieu ng stark tuyen tnh .
1/ Hieu ng Stark tuyen tnh trong nguyen t hydrogen :
Vi nguyen hydrogen ta co cong thc :
2 2
4
1
2 n
me
E
o
n
h
=
) (

ieu nay co ngha la nang lng cua he ch phu thuoc vai so lung t chnh
n.Nh vay o bac suy bien cua mc nang lng En la n2 v mc nang lng suy
bien theo l va n :
= +
=
1
0
2
1 2
n
n
l
l ) (

Neu ta at nguyen t Hydrogen vao mot ien trng co cng o E = const th
cac mc nang lung cua nguyen t se tach ra ty le vi E.
e n gian ta gia s ien trng hng theo truc z. Do o Hamiltonien nhieu
loan ( nang lng tng tac cua electron vi trng ngoai ) se bang :
z e U =

Trong o
la cng o cua trng ngoai.

2/ Vi : khi o nang lng co dang:
1 = n
2
4
1
2h
me
E
o
=
) (

ma t qui tac vi cac so lng t :
.. ,. 2 , 1 = n

) 1 ( ,.... 2 , 1 , 0 = l

l = ... , 2 , 1 , 0 m

Ngha la vi ch co mot trang thai
1 = n 100
.Nh vay khi n =1 khong co suy

bien (mot mc nang lng ng vi mot ham song ).
3/ Vi Mc nang lung
2 = n 4
1
2
2
4
1
h
me
E
o
=
) (

Nhng khi o se co 4 ham song la:
+/
o
s 2
:
2 = n
, ,
0 = l 0 = m

+/ :
1
2

p
2 = n
, ,
1 = l 1 = m

+/
o
p 2
:
2 = n
, ,
1 = l 0 = m

+/
1
2p
: , ,
2 = n 1 = l 1 = m

Nh vay nang lng suy bien bac 4 . Nhng lu y la toa o z giao hoan vi
z
L
cho nen vi
z e U =
(U ty le vi z ) ta cung co :
[ ] 0
=
z
L U

C hoc lng t - 111 -
Ngha la nhieu loan ch anh hng en cac trang thai vi cung so lng t t
m , tc la cac trang thai 2So va 2Po (xao tron chung), con hai mc kia 2P1 va 2P-
1van khong b anh hng g . Bon trang thai nay c cho bang ham song nh sau:
+/
) ( ) ( ) (
) (
r f r R Y r R S
o
o o oo
o o
= = = =
2
1 2 2
1
4
1
2

+/
r
z
r F r R Y R P
o o
o o
) ( cos ) (
) (
= = = =

21 1 21 21
2
4
3
2

+/

i
o
e r R Y R P sin ) (
) (
21 11 21 211
3
1
8
3
2 = = =

2
iy x
r F
+
= ) (

+/

i
o
e r R Y R P

= = = sin ) (
4
3
2
21 1 1 21 1 21
) 4 (
1

2
) (
iy x
r F

=

Trong o:
=

a
r
e
a
R
a
r
o
2
1
2
1
2
3
2

=
a
r
e
a
R
a
r
2
6
1
2
3
21

= = Bohr knh ban

2
2
me
a
h

Nh vay trang thai tong quat ng vi n = 2 la :
) (o
C

=
=
4
1

Di tac dung cua nhieu loan mc nang lung se tach ra thanh bon mc con ,
moi mc ng vi mot ham song(kh suy bien hoan toan )hay van co mot vai ham
song ng vi mot mc nang lng (kh suy bien mot phan ).
4/ e xac nh cac mc nang lung va cac ham song khi ton tai ien trng
ngoai
theo ly thuyet nhieu loan ta phai giai phng trnh the ky :

( ) 0
1
=

=
g
s
ls ls
s
E H C

Bieu thc
E H
di dang tong :
( ) ( )
) 1 (

E U E H E H
o
o
+ =

Ta co ket qua la :
( ) 0
) 1 (
4
1
=
=
ls ls
s
s
E U C

Trong o la:
ls
u
C hoc lng t - 112 -
dv z e dv U
o
s
o
l
o
s
o
l ls

=
=
) ( * ) ( ) ( *

Thay cac ham song vao yeu to ma tran ta thay ch co hai tch phan khac
khong la :
ls
u

= = =
= = ) sin ( ) ( ) (
2
2
21 12
drd r dv dv
r
z
r F r f e U U

=
0 0
2
0
2
21 20
sin cos ) ( ) (
4
3

d zr r R r R d dr
e

d d dr r z
a
r
e
a
r
e
a
e
a
r
a
r
sin
2 2
2
0 0
2
0
2
2 2
1
3
12
1
4
3

d drd z
a
r
a
r
e
a
e
a
r
sin
2
2
0 0
2
0
2
3
2
2
1
12
1
4
3

=

Cuoi cung ta co ket qua :
a e U U 3
21 12
= =

Thay vao phng trnh the ky ta co :
0 3
4 3 2 1
1
= + + oc oc c a e c E .
) (

0 3
4 3 2
1
1
= + + oc oc c E ac e
) (

0
4 3
1
2 1
= + + oc c E oc oc
) (

0
3 4
1
2 1
= + + oc c E oc oc
) (

e cho cac khac khong th nh thc :
i
c
0 ) det(
) 1 (
= E

) (1
E

a e 3
0 0
. det (E(1)) =
a e 3

) (1
E
0 0 =
0 0
) (1
E
0
0 0 0
) (1
E

0 ) 3 ( ) (
2
) (
2 2 ) 1 ( ) 1 (
= = a e E E
T ay suy ra :
a e E 3
1
1
=
) (
,
a e E 3
1
2
=
) (
,
) ( ) ( 1
4
1
3
0 E E = =
C hoc lng t - 113 -
Nh vay s suy bien ch mat mot phan va neu nang lung
o
E
2
ch tach ra
thanh ba mc khac nhau .Tren so o mc nang lng ieu nay c mo ta nhbang
sau : (s tach mc nang lng n = 2 ).

Khong co
ien trng ngoai
Co ien trng ngoai.

2
2
4
2
h
me
E
o
=
) (

2
4
1
h
me
E
o
=
) (

a e
o
E E 3
2 2
+ =
) (

=
) ( ) ( o o
2 1
2
1
2

) ( ) ( o
E
o
E E
2 4 3
= =
o
3 3
=

o
4 4
=

a e
o
E E 3
2 1
=
) (

+ =
) ( ) ( o o
2 1
2
1
1

5/ tnh cac ham song tng ng vi cac mc nang lng :
Ta tnh cac ham song trong gan ung cap khong gan lien vi cac mc nang
lng E1, E2 , E3 , E4 . thay
0
) 1 (
4
) 1 (
3
= = E E
vao phng trnh the ky ta co :

0 3
4 3 2 1
= + + + oc oc ac e oc

0 3
4 3 1 2
= + + + oc oc ac e oc

0
4 3 2 1
= + + + oc oc oc oc

0
4 3 2 1
= + + + oc oc oc oc

Phng trnh co ngiem :
0
2 1
= = c c
,
0
3
c
,
0
4
c
Nh vay vi mc nang lng khong b xe dch trang thai tong quat nhat c
mo ta bang ham song :
) ( ) (
) (
o o
c c r
4 4 3
+ =
r

Tng ng vi mc
) (o
E E E
2 4 3
= =
va la tuy y (s suy bien van
con ) . Ta co the chon ham song :
3
c
4
c
) ( ) (
) (
r r
o
211 3 3
= =
m = 1
) ( ) (
,
) (
r r
o
1 21 4 4
= =
m = -1
Hay to hp tuyen tnh cu chunh v he vi m = 1 van con suy bien tham ch
khi co ien trng ngoai .
Thay vao phng trnh the ky ta co :
) (1
1
E
0
4 3
= =c c
,
c c c = =
2 1

do o :
4 3

C hoc lng t - 114 -
) ( ) (
( ) (
o o
c r
2 1 2
=
r

hay
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( o o
r
2 1 2
2
1
=
r

Thay
a e E 3
1
2
=
) (
vao ta co :
0
4 3
= =c c
,
c c c = =
2 1

do o :
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( o o
c r
2
1
1
+ =
r
hay
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( o o
r
2 1 1
2
1
=

C hoc lng t - 115 -
CHNG V. HE CAC HAT ONG NHAT

Cac hat ong nhat trong c hoc lng t cung c hieu ve c ban nh trong
vat ly co ien ngha la: cac hat hoan toan giong nhau, tc la cac hat co cac ac
trng e,m,s hoan toan nh nhau. V du nh electron, cac hat photon ..v.v.la cac
hat ong nhat.
Tuy nhien can lu y la: khai niem hat ong nhat trong qua trnh phat trien cua
vat ly vi mo cung nh c hoc lng t ngay cang c m rong hn-hay ve mat
toan hoc co the noi la oi xng gia cac hat vi mo ngay cang cao hn. Cu the la:
cac hat nh proton va ntron hoan toan hkac nhau nhng trong tng tac manh no
co the c xem nh la cac hat ong nhat.
Trong vat ly hoc co ien van e phan biet cac hat ong nhat la khong co g
kho khan v ta co the da vao quy ao cua cac hat e phan biet chung vi nhau.
Nhng trong c hoc lng t khai niem quy ao b bac bo do nguyen ly bat
nh Heisenberg nen van e khong the giai quyet theo cach nh trong c hoc co
ien c .Trong c hoc lng t cac hat ong nhat hoan toan mat tnh ca the,
chung hoan toan nh nhau, khong the bang bat ky cach nao anh dau c chung.
o la noi dung cua nguyen ly khong phan biet cac hat ong nhat.

1 TOAN T HOAN V. NGUYEN LY PAULI

1/ Toan t hoan v
Bay gi ta tm cach the hien nguyen ly khong phan biet cac hat ong nhat
bang cac tnh chat cua ham song cua he hat ong nhat.
Toan t c goi la toan t hoan v khi no tac dung len ham song
kj
P
( ) ,... ,
2 1
r r
no cho ta mot ham khac trong o toa o cua hat th k va th j oi cho
cho nhau:
=
N j k N j k
kj
r r r r r r r r r P ... ... ... ... ... ,... ,
1 2 1

(1)
oi vi ham rieng ta co the viet:
=
N j k N j k
kj
r r r r r r r r P ... ... ... ... ... ...
1 1

Khi o:

= =
2 2
P
do o:

1 1
2
= =
(2)
C hoc lng t - 116 -
Cac ham khong oi dau khi hoan v c goi la cac ham oi xng hay cac
ham chan.
Cac ham oi dau khi hoan v c goi la cac ham phan oi xng hay cac
ham le.
Tnh chan le la mot tch phan chuyen ong v toan t hoan v giao hoan vi
Hamiltonian. S d nh vay la v tac dung cua len
kj
P
ch a ti viec hoan v
cac phan t ma thoi.
=
N k j N j k
r r r r H r r r r H ... ... ...
... ... ...
1 1

2/ Cac hat Bose va cac hat Fermi (cac boson va cac Fermion)
Thc nghiem chng to rang tnh chat oi xng cua ham song co lien he vi
ban chat cua cac hat. Cac hat co cac ham song oi xng ky hieu la s - c
goi la cac Boson, Cac hat co cac ham song phan oi xng ky hieu la a - c
goi la cac hat Fermi hay cac Fermion.
Cac hat c xep vao loai nao la tuy thuoc vao Spin cua chung. Cac Fermion
co Spin ban nguyen, cac Boson co Spin
nguyen.
3/ Ham song cua he ong nhat khong tng tac. Nguyen ly Pauli.
Phng trng Schrodinger oi vi cac trang thai dng cua cac hat khong tng
tac co dang:

( ) (
N
N
i
N i
r r r E r r r r U
m
... , ... , ) (
2 1
1
2 1
2
2
r r
h
=
+
=

)
(3)

Nghiem cua phng trnh nay la:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
N
N
K K K N
r r r r r r ... . ... ,
2
2
1
1
2 1
=
(4)

Trong o Ki (i=1,2, N) la tap hp cac so lng t cua cac trang thai ma o
hat ton tai. Nh vay moi mot khi Ki la mot tap hp ay u ac trng cho trang thai
cua tng hat rieng le. cac ham
( ) r
i
K
la nghiem cua phng trnh Schrodinger e

cho tng hat rieng le.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
i
i
K
i
K
i
K
i i
i
K i
r E r r U r
m
= +
2
2
h
(5)

Nhng e y rang ham (4) khong thoa oi hoi oi xng, hay noi chnh xac hn
no cha phai la ham oi xng cung nh phan oi xng. Nhng lu y rang phng
C hoc lng t - 117 -
trnh (3) la phng trnh tuyen tnh do o s chong chat cac nghiem dang (4) se la
mot nghiem cua no. Da vao nhan xet nay ta co the xay dng tnh oi xng cho
nghiem cua (3).
e n gian ta xet he hai hat khong tng tac vi nhau. Khi o de thay rang:
cac ham khong oi xng co dang sau:

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 1 2 2 1
2
2
2 1 1 2 1
1
r r r r
r r r r

=
=
,
,
(6)

Trong o cac ch so 1 va 2 trong cac ham song anh dau hai trang thai khac
nhau cua hat . Cac ham song 1(r1,r2), 2(r1,r2) tng ng vi cung mot gia tr
nang lng cua he. T cac ham nay ta co the xay dng hai to hp oi xng tng
ng vi gia tr nang lng o.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
+ =
2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1
2
1
r r r r
S

(7)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
=
2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1
2
1
r r r r
a

!
(8)
(He so
2
1
2
1
=
!
c suy ra t ieu kien chuan hoa ham song). Ta co the
tong quat hoa hai cong thc (7) va (8) cho trng hp tong quat bao gom lng tuy
y cac hat khong tng tac.
oi vi he cac Boson, trang thai c mo ta bang cac ham oi xng:

P
N
N
K K K
S
r r r
N
n n
...
!
!... !
2
2
1
1
2 1
2 1
(9)

trong o tong lay theo moi cach hoan v kha d cua cac ch so khac nhau k1 ,
k2 kN ; ni ky hieu so ch so nhan cung mot gia tr. Ngha la cac so ni cho thay co
bao nhieu hat trang thai i a cho, hn na:
N n
i
=

Tng t cho cac Fermion ta co ham song:

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
N
N
K
N
K
N
K
N K K K
N K K K
a
r r r
r r r
r r r
N

... .
...
... .
... .
!
2 1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
=
(10)
C hoc lng t - 118 -
nh thc trong ve phai c goi la nh thc Slater. Tuy theo loai hat ma ta
chon ham song dang (9) hay (10).
Ta xet he cac hat Fermion. Gia s co hai hat cua he cung mot trang thai
lng t co ngha la K1 =K2 . ieu nay co ngha la hai hat co cung mot tap hp u
cac so lng t. V du trong chuyen ong cua hat trong trng xuyen tam oi
xng la : n,l,m, S2 ; trong chuyen ong t do la: Sx ,Sy ,Sz ,luc o nh thc Slater
(10) bang khong.
Nh vay vi cac Fermion khong the ton tai trang thai cua he ma trong o hai
hat ong nhat (hoac nhieu hn) trong cung mot trang thai.
o la noi dung cua nguyen ly Pauli c thiet lap tren c s phan tch cac so
lieu thc nghiem trc khi xuat hien c hoc lng t.

2 NANG LUNG TRAO OI VA NGUYEN T HELI

Bai toan c hoc lng t cho mot he hat ong nhat la bai toan kho khan nhat
ma tiec thay no lai la bai toan thng gap nhat do y ngha thc tien cung nh ly
thuyet va cho ti nay con rat nhieu van e van cha c giai quyet tron ven .Mac
du vay e lam sang to cho van e nay ta cung co the xet mot bai toan cu the o la
bai toan nguyen t Heli.
C s e xet bai toan nay la mot khai niem hoan toan C hoc lng t xuat
phat t nguyen ly khong phan biet cac hat ong nhat :Khai niem nang lng trao
oi .
I/. nh ngha nang lng trao oi :
Nang lng trao oi hay tng tac trao oi la s tng tac ac biet cua cac
hat ong nhat gan lien vi tnh chat oi xng nhat nh cua ham song cua he hat
oi vi s hoan v toa o cua chung va the hien nh ket qua cua mot tng tac
ac biet nao o .
Tng tac trao oi la mot hieu ng thuan tuy c hoc lng t ngha la no
khong he co mot s tng t nao trong c hoc co ien .
Hieu ng trao oi la c s e giai thch mot hien tng chang han nh s tao
thanh mot lien ket ong tr , s tao thanh vung nang lng trong cac tinh the
II/.Nguyen t Heli :
e lam v du cu the ta xet nguyen t Heli . Trong trng hp nay
Hamiltonien co dang :
( )
12
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2 1
2 2 2
2 2 r
e
r
e
r
e
m m
r r H r r r
h h
r r
+ = ,
(2.1)
Nh the co ngha la a gia thiet hat nhan la ng yen con tng tac t trng
khong xet en Spin cua electron (v trong mien khong tng oi tnh hieu ng Spin
coi nh khong ang ke ).
e tnh toan ta ap dung phng phap nhieu loan .Vi toan t nhieu loan chnh
la nang lng tng tac gia hai electron :
C hoc lng t - 119 -
12
2
r
e
u r =

u H H
o
+ =
r r

. , ; , 2 1
2
2
2 2
2 1
= + = i
r
e
m
H H H H
i
i
i o
h
r r r r
(2.2)
T o ta co phng trnh Schrodinger :

( ) ( ) ( )
i
n
i
n i
i
n i
r E r
r
e
m
r H = =
r
r
h r

1
2 2
2
2
(2.3)
Trc het ta giai bai toan n gian :

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1
r r E r r H H r r H
o
o
o o
o
r r r r r r
, , , = + =
(2.4)

Hien nhien ta co the viet
( )
2 1 1
r r H
o
r r
,
di dang :

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 1 1 21 1 1
r r r r
o
r r r r
= ,

va ham song nay ng vi mc nang lng :
2 1
E E E
o
+ =

D nhien ta cung co the viet ham song di dang :
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 2 1 21 1 2
r r r r
o
r r r r
= ,
.
Ngha la cac hat trao oi trang thai cho nhau : hat th nhat trang thai th hai
con hat th hai nam trong trang thai th nhat .
V Eo suy bien boi hai nen ham rieng cua bai toan nhieu loan se c tm
di dang :
2 2 1 1 o o
C C + =
(2.5)
Thay ham song nay vao phng trnh :

( ) 0 = + E U H
o

Va at :
+ =
o
E E

Ta c phng trnh the ky sau (trong gan ung cap 1 ):
( ) 0
2
1
=

= s
s s
s
U C
l l

(2.6)
trong o :
=
2 1
*

r d r d U U
os
o s
r r
l l

C hoc lng t - 120 -
T ay ta co the tnh c :

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
K U r d r d
r
e
r d r d r r
r
r r e
r
e
U r d r d U U
o
o o
= =
=
= =
22 2 1
12
2
*
2
2 1 2 2 2 1
12
2
*
2 1
*
1
2
12
2
2 1 1
*
1
11
.
1
r r
r r r r r r
r r

(2.7)
ai lng K c nh ngha nh nang lng tng tac Coulomb gia hai ien
tch phan bo vi cac mat o tng ng la :
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2
2
1 1 1
r e r e
r r
= = ;
(2.8)
Tng t ta co cac phan t ma tran con lai (khong cheo) la :

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
A U U U
r d r d r r
r
r r e
r d r d
r
e U
o o
= = = =
=
=
=
*
21
*
12
21
2 1 2 2 2 1
12
2
*
2 1
*
1
2
2 1 2
12
*
1
2
11
.
1
1
r r r r r r
r r

(2.9)
Ket qua viet nh tren chng to cac gia tr cua yeu to ma tran la thc .
Nh vay phng trnh (6) tr thanh :
( )
( )
= +
= +
0
0
2 1
2 1
C K AC
AC C K
(2.10)
e he phng trnh co nghiem khong tam thng th nh thc cua he phai
bang khong ngha la :
A K =

Trng hp :
A K + =
.
Thay gia tr vao phng trnh (10) ta co :
C1= C2=C.
Nh vay mc nang lng
A K
o
E
o
E E + + = + =
ng vi ham song :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1
2
1
r r r r C
o o
r r r r
+ = + =
'
(2.10)
(
2
1
la he so chuan hoa ).
Trng hp
A K =
va tnh toan nh tren ta co : C1= -C2 .Vay mc nang
lng :
A K E E E
o o
+ = + =
tng ng vi ham song :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
1 2 2 1 2 2 1 1
2
1
r r r r
r r r r
=
' '
(2.12)
C hoc lng t - 121 -
Mc nang lng Eo dch chuyen i mot khoang K va tach thanh hai mc con ,
khoang cach gia hai mc nay la 2A
Eo +K+A
Eo +K
Eo +K-A
Eo

ai lng A c goi la nang lng trao oi .

C hoc lng t - 122 -
BAI KET

Khi trnh bay cac nguyen ly c ban cua c hoc lng t nh trong giao trnh
nay va trong a so cac giao trnh c hoc lng t khac khong the trnh bay theo
mot he thong chat che, hp ly va sang sua ve logic c. Bi le neu trnh bay nh
the se vap phai mot nhc iem khong phai la nho la tnh tru tng qua mc cua
khai niem, no che lap cac c s vat ly cua mon hoc (nh giao trnh cua Dirac). V
vay e khac phuc phan nao nhc iem cua cach trnh bay cua chung ta, phan
cuoi nay ta tong ket mot cach ngan gon cac nguyen ly va cac bai toan c ban cung
nh gii han ap dung cua c hoc lng t hay chnh xac hn la c hoc lng t
khong tng oi tnh.
I/. Cac nguyen ly va bai toan c ban cua c hoc lng t :
C hoc lng t nghien cu ca tap hp thong ke cac hat vi mo va giai ba toan
chu yeu:
1. Xac nh cac gia tr kha d cua cac ai lng c hoc (Xac nh pho cua cac
ai lng ).
2. Tnh xac xuat cua mot ai lng nao o trong so cac ai lng cua tap hp
cac hat vi mo.
3. S bien oi cua tap hp theo thi gian (chuyen ong cua hat vi mo).
Cac nguyen ly c ban cua c hoc lng t
1/. Ha m Song Va Nguyen Ly Chong Chat Trang Thai.
Cac hat vi mo cua mot tap hp xac nh trong c hoc lng t c ac trng
bi ham so song .
Ham la ham so cua tap hp xac nh cac ai lng ma ta ky hieu la x (x
ay khong ch la toa o hay cac toa o, rong hn ta co the hieu la mot tap hp bat
ky cac bien so gian oan hay lien tc tao thanh mot tap hp u nao o ). So cac ai
lng cua tap hp u c xac nh bi ban chat cua he va bang so bac t do cua
he. Tuy theo cach chon tap hp cac ai lng la oi so cua ham so song ma ta noi
rang ham song trong bieu dien nay hay bieu dien khac cua trang thai. Cu the hn
neu x la cac toa o ta noi trang thai trong bieu dien toa o, neu x la xung lng ta
noi trang thai trong bieu dien xung lng Ham so song con co ch so n (thng
c bo i khong ghi) khi o viet la n(x) e ch ham so song a c xac nh
tren tap hp nao.
Mot tap hp thong ke c mo ta bi mot ham so song c xac nh goi la
mot tap hp thuan nhat (hay tinh khiet). Tap hp khong co mot ham so song c
xac nh goi la tap hp hon hp. No c ac trng bi ma tran mat o. thay cho
ham so song .
Tnh chat c ban cua cac tap hp lng t tinh khiet c bieu th trong
nguyen ly: Neu hai trang thai kha d c bieu dien bang cac ham so song1 va2
th ton tai mot trang thai th ba c bieu dien bi ham so song:
= C11 + C22 .
trong o C1 va C2 c goi la cac bien o trang thai.
C hoc lng t - 123 -
Tat ca nhng he thc gia cac ai lng vat ly trong c hoc lng t c
bieu dien bang cac toan t tuyen tnh t lien hp sao cho moi mot ai lng vat ly
thc L c oi ng vi mot toan t tuyen tnh t lien hp bieu dien no.
2/ Gia Tr Trung Bnh:
S bieu dien cac ai lng nh cac toan t lien he vi cac ai lng o c
nh cac cong thc xac nh gia tr trung bnh cua ai lng trang thai :
( ) L L , =

Vi ieu kien chuan hoa:
(,)=1
Cach nh ngha gia tr trung bnh nay cho phep ta tm c pho cua lng L,
ngha la tm c cac gia tr kha d cua no. Muon the ta tm cac trang thai ma o
lng L ch co mot gia tr xac nh, ngha la tm nhng trang thai ma:

0
2
= L

3/ Bai toan tr rieng va cac gia tr o c cua cac ai lng vat ly
trong thc nghiem
Phng trnh xac nh cac ham so rieng cua toan t
L
:

( ) ( ) x L x L
L L
=
T o ta tm c pho cua toan t

L
(lien tuc hay gian oan) va cac trang thai

rieng tng ng
( ) x
L
. Ta tha nhan rang: cac gia tr rieng cua toan t

L
la cac
gia tr cua ai lng L quan sat c trong thc nghiem.
V cac ham so rieng lap thanh mot he ham so trc giao nen mot ham so song
bat ky (x) co the khai trien theo cac ham so rieng L(x) cua pho:

( ) ( ) ( )
=
L
L
x L C x

trong o:
C(L)=( L,)
Neu pho la lien tuc th dau tong phai c thay the bang dau tch phan: dL.
Xac xuat tm thay gia tr cua ai lng bang L trong tap hp c ac trng
bi ham so song (x) la bang C(L) 2 (trong trng hp pho bien lien tuc C(L) 2
la mat o xac xuat).
Lu y rang C(L) la ham so song cung nh tap hp nay nhng lay trong L-bieu
dien. Nh vay C(L) va (x) cung bieu dien mot tap hp.
4/ Phng trnh c ban:
S bien oi theo thi gian cua ham so song mieu ta hat c cho bang phng
trnh Schrodinger

H
t
i

=
h

C hoc lng t - 124 -
trong o toan t
H
la Hamiltonien cua he ch phu thuoc vao ban chat cua he

va phu thuoc vao ngoai trng tac dung len he. Toan t
H
se la toan t nang lng

toan phan cua he neu ngoai trng khong phu thuoc thi gian:
Thong thng co the viet:

H
= T+U
T phng trnh Schrodinger va nh ngha gia tr trung bnh ta suy ra rang:
L H
t
L
dt
L

,
,

Do o toan t
dt
dL
bieu dien ao ham toan t
L
theo thi gian co dang:

[ ] L H
t
L
dt
L d
,
=

trong o:
= H L L H
i
L H

,
h
la moc Poisson lng t.
Tch phan chuyen ong c cho bi he thc:

0
=
dt
L d

Khi khong co ngoai lc cac tch lhan chuyen ong quan trong la nang lng,
xung lng toan phan:

=
K
K
K
K
i P P h

va momen xung lng:

[ ]

+
=
K
K
K
K K
S P r M

trong o SK la momen Spin cua hat th K.
5/ Nguyen ly khong phan biet cac hat ong nhat:
Theo nguyen ly nay th s trao oi cua mot cap hat giong nhau khong dan en
mot trang thai mi nao ve mat vat ly. Ve phng dien toan hoc ieu nay c cho
bang mot ieu kien cho ham so song:
PKj =
trong o = 1 la cac tr rieng cua toan t hoan v PKj .
T o ham song c chia thanh hai loai:
-loai mo ta cac trang thai oi xng s .
- loai mo ta cac trang thai phan oi xng
a

T phng trnh Schrodinger suy ra rang tnh oi xng khong thay oi theo
thi gian. Do o hat thuoc ve loai oi xng hay phan oi xng c quy nh t ban
chat cua cac hat. Cac hat c mo ta bang cac ham song oi xng c goi la cac
Boton.
C hoc lng t - 125 -
Cac hat c mo ta bang cac ham song phan oi xng c goi la cac
Fermion-Chung tuan theo nguyen ly Pauli-nh la he qua trc tiep cua nguyen ly
bat nh Heisenberg.
II/ Nhng chan tri mi hay la s phat trien tiep tuc cua C hoc
lng t:
Mac du qua phc tap va rat chat che song phan c hoc lng t trong giao
trnh nay noi chnh xac mi ch la c hoc lng t khong tng oi tnh-mot phan
m au-phan n gian nhat trong mach phat trien cua vat ly ly thuyet hien ai.
Quay tr lai trang au cua giao trnh ta thay ay ch la phan tng ng vi
v << e .
h hu han.
Do o hien nhien la khong ay u neu nh khong xet s m rong cua no sang
cac phan khac. Chnh v vay ngay trong na au cua the ky th 20, cac nha vat ly
a lien tiep m rong c hoc lng t va at c nhng ket qua to ln.
S m rong au tien da tren nhan xet la: phng trnh Schrodinger

( )
( ) ( ) t r t r U
m t
t r
i , ,
,
r
h
r
h
+ =
2
2

ro rang la khong bat bien oi vi phep bien oi lorentz v no la phng trnh
bac nhat theo thi gian va bac hai theo cac toa o khong gian, ngha la cac toa o
khong gian va khong gian la khong oi xng trong phng trnh nay.
M rong phng trnh Schrodinger theo yeu cau o a ti phng trnh mi
tong quat hn- phng trnh Klein-Gordon cho hat co Spin bang khong:
( - H 2) (x)=0
trong o: la toan t Dalembert,
2
2
=
h
mc
H
phng trnh nay la phng
trnh bac hai theo cac toa o thi gian va khong gian. No bat bien vi phep bien oi
Lorentz.
Phng trnh Klein-Gordon a ti nhng thanh cong mi song lai a ti mot
kho khan ln o la s xuat hien mat o xac xuat am mot ieu qua ky quac khong
the chap nhan. e vt qua tnh trang nay Pauli va Weisskopf a xem (x) va mot
so ai lng khac na nh la cac toan t va do o phng trnh Klein-Gordon la co
the chap nhan c.
S phat trien tiep theo la s m rong phng trnh tng oi tnh cho cac hat
co Spin ban nguyen. Vinh quang nay thuoc ve nha vat ly hoc ngi Anh la
PaulDirac vi phng trnh:
C hoc lng t - 126 -
( ) 0 = +
x H
x

vi
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
=
x
x
x
x
x
4
3
2
1

ay la phng trnh bac nhat theo ao ham cac toa o khong gian va thi gian
va bat bien vi phep bien oi Lorentz.
Phng trnh Dirac vi thanh cong xuat sac la khang nh s ton tai cua hat
Positron ma nhieu nam sau thc nghiem mi phat hien c.
Tuy nhien c hoc lng t tng oi tnh vi hai phng trnh c ban la
phng trnh Klein-Gordon va phng trnh Dirac cha phai la tan cung. Bi le
cung vi phng trnh Schrodinger cac phng trnh nay mi ch mo ta he hat vi
so hat bao toan, hay noi cach khac cac phng trnh nay m i ch mo ta he hat vi so
hu han bac t do (3N hay 4N neu ke ca Spin). Nh vay chung khong the mo taay
u the gii cac hat c ban vi mot ac tnh quan trong la s sinh va huy hat-ngha
la so hat khong bao toan khi nang lng cua cac hat u ln.
V the c hoc lng t tng oi tnh lai c phat trien mc cao hn va tr
thanh ly thuyet trng lng t. Ve mat toan hoc ngi ta thng goi s tien bo
nay bang thuat ng lng t hoa lan hai. Ngha la khi o khong ch cac ai lng
ong lc ma ca cac ham song cung la cac toan t tuan theo nhng he thc giao
hoan nhat nh. Ly thuyet trng lng t la ly thuyet vat ly xem cac hat vi mo nh
la cac lng t cua mot trng nao o tng ng. V du photon la lng t cua
trng ien t, electron la lng t cua trng electron - Positron.
Mac du at c nhng ket qua tuyet vi ly thuyet trng lng t cung lam
nay sinh nhng kho khan mi rat khong nho. ac biet o la sphan ky trong cac
ly thuyet nay. Noi cho ro hn : khi tnh toan ly thuyet trng lng t cho thay khoi
lng, nang lng cua vi hat lai khong phai la nhng lng hu han ma lai bang vo
cung-mot ket luan khong the hnh dung noi
Tiec rang trong khuon kho cua giao trnh nay ta khong the nghien cu nhieu
hn ve ly thuyet trng lng t. Vai dong thay li ket luan nay ch hy vong giup
ban oc hieu rang c hoc lng t hay chnh xac hn c hoc lng t khong tng
oi tnh mi ch la mot bc au tien n gian nhat i vao the gii vi mo.
Vat ly la nh the , khoa hoc la nh the va cuoc song nh mot nha th a viet :
Trong oi mat tuoi th cua toi
Chan tri la ni co day nui m tm .
Day nui ay bay gi toi en
Trc mat toi lai mot chan tri.
(Pham Quoc Ca )
cung la nh the .Chan tri noi tiep chan tri ,c m noi tiep c m . Toa
nha vat ly hoc du a vo cung o so va phc tap nhng khong phai a hoan chnh
ma van con rat nhieu cho danh cho cac ban . Hay biet c m , c m va danh het
tam tr , sc lc cua mnh cho c m ay ngay t khi con au xanh tuoi tre .
Mot lan na toi chuc cac ban gat hai nhieu thanh cong trong hoc tap va luon
c m , vn ti nhng chan tri xa xoi trong khoa hoc .
C hoc lng t - 127 -

TAI LIEU THAM KHAO:

Hng dan cac tai lieu tham khao them:

1/ D . DavuDop , C hoc lng t, Ha noi, 1980.
2/ L.V.Tarasop ,Basics consept of Quantum Mechanics , Moscow, 1980.
3/ Blokhinsep , C hoc lng t, Ha noi, 1963.
4/ B.B.Balasop, B.K.Dolinop , Giao trnh C hoc lng t, Moscow, 1982
(Tieng nga).
5/ E.Fermi ,Notes on Quantum Mechanics, Moscow, 1968.
6/ L.A.Borisolepski, Minsc, 1981 (Tieng nga).
7/ V.A.Fock , Cac nguyen ly c ban cua C hoc lng t, Moscow, 1978.
8/ P.Dirac , Cac nguyen ly cua C hoc lng t, Moscow, 1979.
9/ Nguyen Xuan Han , Giao trnh C hoc lng t ,ai hoc Tong hp Ha noi,
1983.
10/ Nguyen Hoang Phng , Nhap mon C hoc lng t, Ha noi, 1998.
11/ D.D.Landau , E.M.Lifshitz, C hoc lng t, Moscow,1965 (Tieng nga).
12/ R. Feymann , Lecture on Physics , Vol III , California , 1976.


Co Hoc Luong Tu

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TRNG AI HOC A LAT

bieu dien : ....................................................... - 68 -

la bc song Compton cua electron.

la hang so ac trng cua neutron- c goi la thi gian song cua

. Cac hat nay c goi la cac hat cong hng.

- meson dng co the phan ra theo kieu nh sau:

la tan so quay cua electron quanh hat nhan,tc la so vong quay

va chia cho 2 ta co:

va la : Vi cac toan t co hai bai toan

c goi la cac pho cac tr rieng cua toan t tuyen

va la hai toan t c goi la lien hp cua nhau (hay lien hp vi

cos cot sin

cos cot cos

) khong phai la cac ai

la bc song. ac trng cua song la s lan truyen vo han trong

th ham song nay phai ong thi la

gan lien vi s la chon cac ai lng

la toan t Hamilton hay Hamiltonien. Phng trnh Schrodinger

mot cach n tr).

trong ky hieu Dirac:

c xac nh bang phng

nao o th ma tran bieu dien cua

trong c s o se co dang cheo.

ThS. Nguyen Duy Hng Khoa Vat ly

khi trien theo he c s

va c goi la ham song cua trang thai

trong bieu dien.

- bieu dien c oi ng vi ma tran :

-bieu dien sang G-bieu dien:

-bieu dien va G-bieu dien

' ' '

va qua he ham rieng cua toan t

-bieu dien tc la ham song mo ta trang thai tng ng vi vector

II/ Vai bieu dien cu the:

' ' '

co ma tran dang cheo:

Bai toan tr rieng:

cung la ham rieng cua toan t xung lung ma:

va cho tren o th b/ cua hnh ve.

sin cot cos

cos cot sin

ieu nay co ngha la hai toan t

va co chung mot he ham rieng la

la cac a thc Legendre co dang :

khong co mat trong cac bieu thc ay.V

suy bien bac

- nang lng khong phu

giai thch nh xac xuat e tai thi iem t electron trong

neu i = 2 . Ham song

tac dung cua toan t Spin

suy ra t ieu kien ecmitic cua no :

la ky hieu Levy Civita

la cac thanh phan cua Spinor trong he toa o mi .

trong phng trnh Pauli

la trc chuan .e thuan tien hn ta viet

co cung bac luy tha ta co he phng trnh:

theo chuoi cua ham rieng

th ta c bieu thc cua cac he

la he so chnh bac nhat cua gia tr rieng tc

la cng o cua trng ngoai.

.Nh vay khi n =1 khong co suy

= = Bohr knh ban

theo ly thuyet nhieu loan ta phai giai phng trnh the ky :