The Principles of Scientific Management

Frederick Winslow Taylor, M.E., Sc. D.

111
Scanned !y Eric Eldred "eldred#tiac.net$
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President 'oose+elt, in his address to the ,o+ernors at the White -o.se, prophetically remarked
that /The
conser+ation of o.r national reso.rces is only preliminary to the larger 0.estion of national
efficiency./

The whole co.ntry at once recogni1ed the importance of conser+ing o.r material reso.rces and a
large
mo+ement has !een started which will !e effecti+e in accomplishing this o!2ect. 3s yet, howe+er, we
ha+e
!.t +ag.ely appreciated the importance of /the larger 0.estion of increasing o.r national efficiency./

We can see o.r forests +anishing, o.r water4powers going to waste, o.r soil !eing carried !y floods
into
the sea5 and the end of o.r coal and o.r iron is in sight. 6.t o.r larger wastes of h.man effort, which
go
on e+ery day thro.gh s.ch of o.r acts as are !l.ndering, ill4directed, or inefficient, and which Mr
'oose+elt refers to as a lack of /national efficiency,/ are less +isi!le, less tangi!le, and are !.t
+ag.ely
appreciated.

We can see and feel the waste of material things. 3wkward, inefficient, or ill4directed mo+ements of
men,
howe+er, lea+e nothing +isi!le or tangi!le !ehind them. Their appreciation calls for an act of
memory, an
effort of the imagination. 3nd for this reason, e+en tho.gh o.r daily loss from this so.rce is greater
thanfrom o.r waste of material things, the one has stirred .s deeply, while the other has mo+ed .s
!.t
little.

3s yet there has !een no p.!lic agitation for /greater national efficiency,/ nomeetings ha+e !een
called to
consider how this is to !e !ro.ght a!o.t. 3nd still there are signs that the need for greater efficiency
is
widely felt.

The search for !etter, for more competent men, from the presidents of o.r greatcompanies down to
o.r
ho.sehold ser+ants, was ne+er more +igoro.s than it is now. 3nd more than e+er !efore is the
demand for
competent men in e7cess of the s.pply.

What we are all looking for, howe+er, is the ready4made, competent man5 the manwhom some one
else
has trained. %t is only when we f.lly reali1e that o.r d.ty,as well as o.r opport.nity, lies in
systematically
cooperating to train and to make this competent man, instead of in h.nting for a man whom some
one else
has trained, that we shall !e on the road to national efficiency.

%n the past the pre+ailing idea has !een well e7pressed in the saying that /*aptains of ind.stry are
!orn,
not made/ and the theory has !een that if one co.ld get the right man, methods co.ld !e safely left
to him.
%n the f.t.re it will !eappreciated that o.r leaders m.st !e trained right as well as !orn right, and that
no
great man can "with the old system of personal management$ hope to compete with a n.m!er of
ordinary
men who ha+e !een properly organi1ed so as efficiently to cooperate.

%n the past the man has !een first5 in the f.t.re the system m.st !e first. This in no sense, howe+er,
implies that great men are not needed. (n the contrary, the first o!2ect of any good system m.st !e
that of
de+eloping first4class men5 and .nder systematic management the !est man rises to the top more
certainly
andmore rapidly than e+er !efore.

This paper has !een written8

First. To point o.t, thro.gh a series of simple ill.strations, the great loss which the whole co.ntry is
s.ffering thro.gh inefficiency in almost all of o.r daily acts.

Second. To try to con+ince the reader that the remedy for this inefficiency lies in systematic
management,
rather than in searching for some .n.s.al or e7traordinary man.

Third. To pro+e that the !est management is a tr.e science, resting .pon clearly defined laws, r.les,
and
principles, as a fo.ndation. 3nd f.rther to show thatthe f.ndamental principles of scientific
management
are applica!le to all kindsof h.man acti+ities, from o.r simplest indi+id.al acts to the work of o.r
greatcorporations, which call for the most ela!orate cooperation. 3nd, !riefly, thro.gh a series of
ill.strations, to con+ince the reader that whene+er these principles are correctly applied, res.lts
m.st
follow which are tr.ly asto.nding.

This paper was originally prepared for presentation to The 3merican Society of Mechanical
Engineers.
The ill.strations chosen are s.ch as, it is !elie+ed, willespecially appeal to engineers and to
managers of
ind.strial and man.fact.ring esta!lishments, and also 0.ite as m.ch to all of the men who are
working in
these esta!lishments. %t is hoped, howe+er, that it will !e clear to other readers that the same
principles
can !e applied with e0.al force to all social acti+ities8 to the management of o.r homes5 the
management
of o.r farms5 the management ofthe !.siness of o.r tradesmen, large and small5 of o.r ch.rches,
o.r
philanthropic instit.tions, o.r .ni+ersities, and o.r go+ernmental departments.


*-3PTE' %8

F)&D3ME&T39S (F S*%E&T%F%* M3&3,EME&T

T-E principal o!2ect of management sho.ld !e to sec.re the ma7im.m prosperity for the employer,
co.pled with the ma7im.m prosperity for each employ:.

The words /ma7im.m prosperity/ are .sed, in their !road sense, to mean not onlylarge di+idends for
the
company or owner, !.t the de+elopment of e+ery !ranch of the !.siness to its highest state of
e7cellence,
so that the prosperity may !epermanent.

%n the same way ma7im.m prosperity for each employ: means not only higher wagesthan are
.s.ally
recei+ed !y men of his class, !.t, of more importance still, it also means the de+elopment of each
man to
his state of ma7im.m efficiency, so that he may !e a!le to do, generally speaking, the highest grade
of
work for which his nat.ral a!ilities fit him, and it f.rther means gi+ing him, when possi!le, this class
of
work to do.

%t wo.ld seem to !e so self4e+ident that ma7im.m prosperity for the employer, co.pled with
ma7im.m
prosperity for the employ:, o.ght to !e the two leading o!2ects of management, that e+en to state
this fact
sho.ld !e .nnecessary. 3nd yet there is no 0.estion that, thro.gho.t the ind.strial world, a large
part of
the organi1ation of employers, as well as employ:s, is for war rather than for peace,and that
perhaps the
ma2ority on either side do not !elie+e that it is possi!leso to arrange their m.t.al relations that their
interests !ecome identical.

The ma2ority of these men !elie+e that the f.ndamental interests of employ:s and employers are
necessarily antagonistic Scientific management, on the contrary,has for its +ery fo.ndation the firm
con+iction that the tr.e interests of the two are one and the same5 that prosperity for the employer
cannot
e7ist thro.gh a long term of years .nless it is accompanied !y prosperity for the employe:, and +ice
+ersa5
and that it is possi!le to gi+e the workman what he most wants high wages and the employer what
he
wants a low la!or cost 44 for his man.fact.res.

%t is hoped that some at least of those who do not sympathi1e with each of these o!2ects may !e led
to
modify their +iews5 that some employers, whose attit.de toward their workmen has !een that of
trying to
get the largest amo.nt of work o.t of them for the smallest possi!le wages, may !e led to see that a
more
li!eral policy toward their men will pay them !etter5 and that some of those workmen who !egr.dge
a fair
and e+en a large profit to their employers, and who feel thatall of the fr.its of their la!or sho.ld
!elong to
them, and that those for whomthey work and the capital in+ested in the !.siness are entitled to little
or
nothing, may !e led to modify these +iews.

&o one can !e fo.nd who will deny that in the case of any single indi+id.al thegreatest prosperity
can
e7ist only when that indi+id.al has reached his higheststate of efficiency5 that is, when he is t.rning
o.t
his largest daily o.tp.t.

The tr.th of this fact is also perfectly clear in the case of two men working together. To ill.strate8 if
yo.
and yo.r workman ha+e !ecome so skilf.l that yo. and he together are making two pairs of shoes
in a
day, while yo.r competitor and his work4nian are making only one pair, it is clear that after selling
yo.r
two pairs of shoes yo. can pay yo.r workman m.ch higher wages than yo.r competitorwho
prod.ces only
one pair of shoes is a!le to pay his man, and that there willstill !e eno.gh money left o+er for yo. to
ha+e
a larger profit than yo.r competitor.

%n the case of a more complicated man.fact.ring esta!lishment, it sho.ld also !e perfectly clear that
the
greatest permanent prosperity for the workman, co.pled with the greatest prosperity for the
employer, can
!e !ro.ght a!o.t only when the work of the esta!lishment is done with the smallest com!ined
e7pendit.re
of h.man effort, pl.s nat.re;s reso.rces, pl.s the cost for the .se of capital in the shape of
machines,
!.ildings, etc. (r, to state the same thing in a differentway8 that the greatest prosperity can e7ist
only as
the res.lt of the greatest possi!le prod.cti+ity of the men and machines of the esta!lishment that is,
wheneach man and each machine are t.rning o.t the largest possi!le o.tp.t5 !eca.se .nless yo.r
men and
yo.r machines are daily t.rning o.t more work than others aro.nd yo., it is clear that competition
will
pre+ent yo.r paying higher wages to yo.r workmen than are paid to those of yo.r competitor. 3nd
what is
tr.e as to the possi!ility of paying high wages in the case of two companies competing close!eside
one
another is also tr.e as to whole districts of the co.ntry and e+en as to nations which are in
competition. %n
a word, that ma7im.m prosperity can e7ist only as the res.lt of ma7im.m prod.cti+ity. 9ater in this
paper
ill.strations will !e gi+en of se+eral companies which are earning large di+idends and at the same
time
paying from <= per cent to 1== per cent higher wages to their men than are paid to similar men
immediately aro.nd them, and with whose employers they are in competition. These ill.strations will
co+er different types of work, from the most elementary to the most complicated.

%f the a!o+e reasoning is correct, it follows that the most important o!2ect of!oth the workmen and
the
management sho.ld !e the training and de+elopment of each indi+id.al in the esta!lishment, so
that he
can do "at his fastest pace and with the ma7im.m of efficiency$ the highest class of work for which
his
nat.ral a!ilities fit him.

These principles appear to !e so self4e+ident that many men may think it almostchildish to state
them. 9et
.s, howe+er, t.rn to the facts, as they act.ally e7ist in this co.ntry and in England. The English and
3merican peoples are the greatest sportsmen in the world. Whene+er an 3merican workman plays
!ase!all, or anEnglish workman plays cricket, it is safe to say that he strains e+ery ner+e tosec.re
+ictory
for his side. -e does his +ery !est to make the largest possi!len.m!er of r.ns. The .ni+ersal
sentiment is
so strong that any man who fails to gi+e o.t all there is in him in sport is !randed as a /0.itter,/ and
treated with contempt !y those who are aro.nd him.

When the same workman ret.rns to work on the following day, instead of .sing e+ery effort to t.rn
o.t
the largest possi!le amo.nt of work, in a ma2ority of thecases this man deli!erately plans to do as
little as
he safely can 44 to t.rn o.t far less work than he is well a!le to do 44 in many instances to do not
more
than one4third to one4half of a proper day;s work. 3nd in fact if he were to do his !est to t.rn o.t his
largest possi!le day;s work, he wo.ld !e a!.sed !y his fellow4workers for so doing, e+en more than
if he
had pro+ed himself a /0.itter/in sport. )nderworking, that is, deli!erately working slowly so as to
a+oid
doing a f.ll day;s work, /soldiering,/ as it is called in this co.ntry, /hanging ito.t,/ as it is called in
England, /ca canae,/ as it is called in Scotland, is almost .ni+ersal in ind.strial esta!lishments, and
pre+ails also to a large e7tent in the !.ilding trades5 and the writer asserts witho.t fear of
contradiction
that this constit.tes t!e greatest e+il with which the working4people of !oth England and 3merica
are now
afflicted.

%t will !e shown later in this paper that doing away with slow working and /soldiering/ in all its forms
and so arranging the relations !etween employer and employ: that each workman will work to his
+ery
!est ad+antage and at his !est speed, accompanied !y the intimate cooperation with the
management and
the help "which the workman sho.ld recei+e$ from the management, wo.ld res.lt on the a+eragein
nearly
do.!ling the o.tp.t of each man and each machine. What other reforms,among those which are
!eing
disc.ssed !y these two nations, co.ld do as m.ch toward promoting prosperity, toward the
dimin.tion of
po+erty, and the alle+iationof s.ffering> 3merica and England ha+e !een recently agitated o+er
s.ch
s.!2ects as the tariff, the control of the large corporations on the one hand, and of hereditary power
on the
other hand, and o+er +ario.s more or less socialistic proposals for ta7ation, etc. (n these s.!2ects
!oth
peoples ha+e !een profo.ndly stirred, and yet hardly a +oice has !een raised to call attention to this
+astly
greater and more important s.!2ect of /soldiering,/ which directly and powerf.llyaffects the wages,
the
prosperity, and the life of almost e+ery working4man, and also 0.ite as m.ch the prosperity of e+ery
ind.strial esta!lishment in the nation.

The elimination of /soldiering/ and of the se+eral ca.ses of slow working wo.ldso lower the cost of
prod.ction that !oth o.r home and foreign markets wo.ld !egreatly enlarged, and we co.ld
compete on
more than e en terms with o.r ri+als.%t wo.ld remo+e one of the f.ndamental ca.ses for d.ll times,
for
lack of employment, and for po+erty, and therefore wo.ld ha+e a more permanent and far4reaching
effect
.pon these misfort.nes than any of the c.rati+e remedies that are now !eing .sed to soften their
conse0.ences. %t wo.ld ins.re higher wages and make shorter working ho.rs and !etter working
and
home conditions possi!le.

Why is it, then, in the face of the self4e+ident fact that ma7im.m prosperity can e7ist only as the
res.lt of
the determined effort of each workman to t.rn o.teach day his largest possi!le day;s work, that the
great
ma2ority of o.r men are deli!erately doing 2.st the opposite, and that e+en when the men ha+e the
!estof
intentions their work is in most cases far from efficient>

There are three ca.ses for this condition, which may !e !riefly s.mmari1ed as8

First. The fallacy, which has from time immemorial !een almost .ni+ersal among workmen, that a
material increase in the o.tp.t of each man or each machine in the trade wo.ld res.lt in the end in
throwing a large n.m!er of men o.t of work.

Second. The defecti+e systems of management which are in common .se, and which make it
necessary for
each workman to soldier, or work slowly, in order that he may protect his own !est interests.

Third. The inefficient r.le4of4th.m! methods, which are still almost .ni+ersal in all trades, and in
practising which o.r workmen waste a large part of their effort.

This paper will attempt to show the enormo.s gains which wo.ld res.lt from the s.!stit.tion !y o.r
workmen of scientific for r.le4of4th.m! methods.

To e7plain a little more f.lly these three ca.ses8

First. The great ma2ority of workmen still !elie+e that if they were to work attheir !est speed they
wo.ld
!e doing a great in2.stice to the whole trade !y throwing a lot of men o.t of work, and yet the history
of
the de+elopment of each trade shows that each impro+ement, whether it !e the in+ention of a new
machine or the introd.ction of a !etter method, which res.lts in increasing the prod.cti+e capacity of
the
men in the trade and cheapening the costs, instead of throwing men o.t of work make in the end
work for
more men.

The cheapening of any article in common .se almost immediately res.lts in a largely increased
demand
for that article. Take the case of shoes, for instance. The introd.ction of machinery for doing e+ery
element of the work which was formerly done !y hand has res.lted in making shoes at a fraction of
their
former la!orcost, and in selling them so cheap that now almost e+ery man, woman, and child in the
working4classes !.ys one or two pairs of shoes per year, and wears shoes all the time, whereas
formerly
each workman !o.ght perhaps one pair of shoes e+ery fi+e years, and went !arefoot most of the
time,
wearing shoes only as a l.7.ry or as a matter of the sternest necessity. %n spite of the enormo.sly
increasedo.tp.t of shoes per workman, which has come with shoe machinery, the demand forshoes
has so
increased that there are relati+ely more men working in the shoe ind.stry now than e+er !efore.

The workmen in almost e+ery trade ha+e !efore them an o!2ect lesson of this kind, and yet,
!eca.se they
are ignorant of the history of their own trade e+en, they still firmly !elie+e, as their fathers did !efore
them, that it is against their !est interests for each man to t.rn o.t each day as m.ch work as
possi!le.

)nder this fallacio.s idea a large proportion of the workmen of !oth co.ntries each day deli!erately
work
slowly so as to c.rtail the o.tp.t. 3lmost e+ery la!or .nion has made, or is contemplating making,
r.les
which ha+e for their o!2ect.c.rtailing the o.tp.t of their mem!ers, and those men who ha+e the
greatest
infl.ence with the working4people, the la!or leaders as well as many people with philanthropic
feelings
who are helping them, are daily spreading this fallacy and at the same time telling them that they are
o+erworked.

3 great deal has !een and is !eing constantly said a!o.t /sweat4shop/ work and conditions. The
writer has
great sympathy with those who are o+erworked, !.t on the whole a greater sympathy for those who
are
.nder paid. For e+ery indi+id.al,howe+er, who is o+erworked, there are a h.ndred who intentionally
.nderwork 44 greatly .nderwork 44 e+ery day of their li+es, and who for this reason deli!erately aid in
esta!lishing those conditions which in the end ine+ita!ly res.lt in low wages. 3nd yet hardly a single
+oice is !eing raised in an endea+or to correct this e+il.

3s engineers and managers, we are more intimately ac0.ainted with these facts than any other
class in the
comm.nity, and are therefore !est fitted to lead in amo+ement to com!at this fallacio.s idea !y
ed.cating
not only the workmen !.t the whole of the co.ntry as to the tr.e facts. 3nd yet we are practically
doing
nothing in this direction, and are lea+ing this field entirely in the hands of the la!or agitators "many
of
whom are misinformed and mis4g.ided$, and of sentimentalists who are ignorant as to act.al
working
conditions.

Second. 3s to the second ca.se for soldiering 44 the relations which e7ist !etween employers and
employ:s
.nder almost all of the systems of management which are in common .se 44 it is impossi!le in a few
words to make it clear to one not familiar with this pro!lem why it is that the ignorance of employers
as to
the proper time in which work of +ario.s kinds sho.ld !e done makes it for the interest of the
workman to
/soldier./

The writer therefore 0.otes herewith from a paper read !efore The 3merican Society of Mechanical
Engineers. in ?.ne, 1=<, entitled /Shop Management,/ which itis hoped will e7plain f.lly this ca.se
for
soldiering8

/This loafing or soldiering proceeds from two ca.ses. First, from the nat.ral instinct and tendency of
men
to take it easy, which may !e called nat.ral soldiering. Second, from more intricate second tho.ght
and
reasoning ca.sed !y their relations with other men, which may !e called systematic soldiering.

/There is no 0.estion that the tendency of the a+erage man "in all walks of life$ is toward working at
a
slow, easy gait, and that it is only after a good dealof tho.ght and o!ser+ation on his part or as a
res.lt of
e7ample, conscience, or e7ternal press.re that he takes a more rapid pace.

/There are, of co.rse, men of .n.s.al energy, +itality, and am!ition who nat.rally choose the fastest
gait,
who set .p their own standards, and who work hard, e+en tho.gh it may !e against their !est
interests.
6.t these few .ncommon men only ser+e !y forming a contrast to emphasi1e the tendency of the
a+erage.

/This common tendency to ;take it easy; is greatly increased !y !ringing a n.m!er of men together
on
similar work and at a .niform standard rate of pay !y the day.

/)nder this plan the !etter men grad.ally !.t s.rely slow down their gait to that of the poorest and
least
efficient. When a nat.rally energetic man works for a few days !eside a la1y one, the logic of the
sit.ation
is .nanswera!le. ;Why sho.ld % work hard when that la1y fellow gets the same pay that % do and
does only
half as m.ch work>;

/3 caref.l time st.dy of men working .nder these conditions will disclose factswhich are l.dicro.s
as well
as pitia!le.

/To ill.strate8 The writer has timed a nat.rally energetic workman who, while going and coming from
work, wo.ld walk at a speed of from three to fo.r miles perho.r, and not infre0.ently trot home after
a
day;s work. (n arri+ing at his work he wo.ld immediately slow down to a speed of a!o.t one mile an
ho.r. When, fore7ample, wheeling a loaded wheel!arrow, he wo.ld go at a good fast pace e+en
.phill in
order to !e as short a time as possi!le .nder load, and immediately on the ret.rn walk slow down to
a mile
an ho.r, impro+ing e+ery opport.nity for delay short of act.ally sitting down. %n order to !e s.re not
to do
more than his la1y neigh!or, he wo.ld act.ally tire himself in his effort to go slow.

/These men were working .nder a foreman of good rep.tation and highly tho.ght of !y his
employer,
who, when his attention was called to this state of things, answered8 ;Well, % can keep them from
sitting
down, !.t the de+il can;t make themget a mo+e on while they are at work.;

/The nat.ral la1iness of men is serio.s, !.t !y far the greatest e+il from which !oth workmen and
employers are s.ffering is the systematic soldiering which isalmost .ni+ersal .nder all of the
ordinary
schemes of management and which res.lts from a caref.l st.dy on the part of the workmen of what
will
promote their !est interests.

/The writer was m.ch interested recently in hearing one small !.t e7perienced golf caddy !oy of
twel+e
e7plaining to a green caddy, who had shown special energy and interest, the necessity of going
slow and
lagging !ehind his man when he came .p to the !all, showing him that since they were paid !y the
ho.r,
the faster they went the less money they got, and finally telling him that if he went toofast the other
!oys
wo.ld gi+e him a licking.

/This represents a type of systematic soldiering which is not, howe+er, +ery serio.s, since it is done
with
the knowledge of the employer, who can 0.ite easily!reak it .p if he wishes.

/The greater part of the systematic soldiering, howe+er, is done !y the men with the deli!erate
o!2ect of
keeping their employers ignorant of how fast work can!e done.

/So .ni+ersal is soldiering for this p.rpose that hardly a competent workman can !e fo.nd in a large
esta!lishment, whether he works !y the day or on piece work, contract work, or .nder any of the
ordinary
systems, who does not de+ote a considera!le part of his time to st.dying 2.st how slow he can work
and
still con+inc@ his employer that he is going at a good pace.

/The ca.ses for this are, !riefly, that practically all employers determine .pon a ma7im.m s.m
which
they feel it is right for each of their classes of employees to earn per day, whether their men work !y
the
day or piece.

/Each workman soon finds o.t a!o.t what this fig.re is for his partic.lar case,and he also reali1es
that
when his employer is con+inced that a man is capa!le of doing more work than he has done, he will
find
sooner or later some way of compelling him to do it with little or no increase of pay.

/Employers deri+e their knowledge of how m.ch of a gi+en class of work can !e done in a day from
either
their own e7perience, which has fre0.ently grown ha1y with age, from cas.al and .nsystematic
o!ser+ation of their men, or at !est from records which are kept, showing the 0.ickest time in which
each
2o! has !een done. %n many cases the employer will feel almost certain that a gi+en 2o! can !e done
faster
than it has !een, !.t he rarely cares to take the drastic meas.res necessary to force men to do it in
the
0.ickest time, .nless he has an act.al record pro+ing concl.si+ely how fast the work can !e done.

/%t e+idently !ecomes for each man;s interest, then, to see that no 2o! is donefaster than it has !een
in the
past. The yo.nger and less e7perienced men are ta.ght this !y their elders, and all possi!le
pers.asion and
social press.re is !ro.ght to !ear .pon the greedy and selfish men to keep them from making new
records
which res.lt in temporarily increasing their wages, while all those who comeafter them are made to
work
harder for the same old pay.

/)nder the !est day work of the ordinary type, when acc.rate records are kept of the amo.nt of
work done
!y each man and of his efficiency, and when each man;swages are raised as he impro+es, and
those who
fail to rise to a certain standard are discharged and a fresh s.pply of caref.lly selected men are
gi+en work
intheir places, !oth the nat.ral loafing and systematic soldiering can !e largely!roken .p. This can
only
!e done, howe+er, when the men are thoro.ghly con+inced that there is no intention of esta!lishing
piece
work e+en in the remote f.t.re, and it is ne7t to impossi!le to make men !elie+e this when the work
is of
s.ch a nat.re that they !elie+e piece work to !e practica!le. %n most cases their fear of making a
record
which will !e .sed as a !asis for piece work will ca.se them to soldier as m.ch as they dare.

/%t is, howe+er, .nder piece work that the art of systematic soldiering is thoro.ghly de+eloped5 after a
workman has had the price per piece of the work he is doing lowered two or three times as a res.lt
of his
ha+ing worked harder and increased his o.tp.t, he is likely entirely to lose sight of his employer;s
side
ofthe case and !ecome im!.ed with a grim determination to ha+e no more c.ts if soldiering can
pre+ent it.
)nfort.nately for the character of the workman, soldiering in+ol+es a deli!erate attempt to mislead
and
decei+e his employer, and th.s .pright and straightforward workmen are compelled to !ecome
more or
less hypocritical. The employer is soon looked .pon as an antagonist, if not an enemy, and the
m.t.al
confidence which sho.ld e7ist !etween a leader and his men, the enth.siasm, the feeling that they
are all
working for the same end and will share in the res.lts is entirely lacking.

/The feeling of antagonism .nder the ordinary piece4work system !ecomes in manycases so
marked on the
part of the men that any proposition made !y their employers, howe+er reasona!le, is looked .pon
with
s.spicion, and soldiering !ecomes s.ch a fi7ed ha!it that men will fre0.ently take pains to restrict
the
prod.ct of machines which they are r.nning when e+en a large increase in o.tp.t wo.ld in+ol+e no
more
work on their part./

Third. 3s to the third ca.se for slow work, considera!le space will later in this paper !e de+oted to
ill.strating the great gain, !oth to employers and employ:s, which res.lts from the s.!stit.tion of
scientific for r.le4of4th.m! methods in e+en the smallest details of the work of e+ery trade. The
enormo.s
sa+ing of time and therefore increase in the o.tp.t which it is possi!le to effect thro.gheliminating
.nnecessary motions and s.!stit.ting fast for slow and inefficient motions for the men working in
any of
o.r trades can !e f.lly reali1ed only after one has personally seen the impro+ement which res.lts
from a
thoro.gh motion and time st.dy, made !y a competent man.

To e7plain !riefly8 owing to the fact that the workmen in all of o.r trades ha+e !een ta.ght the
details of
their work !y o!ser+ation of those immediately aro.nd them, there are many different ways in
common
.se for doing the same thing, perhaps forty, fifty, or a h.ndred ways of doing each act in each trade,
and
for the same reason there is a great +ariety in the implements .sed for each class of work. &ow,
among the
+ario.s methods and implements .sed in each element of each trade there is always one method
and one
implement which is 0.icker and !etter than any of the rest. 3nd this one !est method and !est
implement
can only !e disco+ered or de+eloped thro.gh a scientific st.dy and analysis of all of the methods
and
implements in .se, together with acc.rate, min.te, motion and time st.dy. This in+ol+es the grad.al
s.!stit.tion of science for r.le of th.m! thro.gho.t the mechanic arts.

This paper will show that the .nderlying philosophy of all of the old systems of management in
common
.se makes it imperati+e that each workman shall !e left with the final responsi!ility for doing his 2o!
practically as he thinks !est, with comparati+ely little help and ad+ice from the management. 3nd it
will
also show that !eca.se of this isolation of workmen, it is in most cases impossi!le forthe men
working
.nder these systems to do their work in accordance with the r.les and laws of a science or art, e+en
where
one e7ists.

The writer asserts as a general principle "and he proposes to gi+e ill.strations tending to pro+e the
fact
later in this paper$ that in almost all of the mechanic arts the science which .nderlies each act of
each
workman is so great and amo.nts to so m.ch that the workman who is !est s.ited to act.ally doing
the
work is incapa!le of f.lly .nderstanding this science, witho.t the g.idance and help of those who
are
working with him or o+er him, either thro.gh lack of ed.cation or thro.gh ins.fficient mental
capacity. %n
order that the work may !e done in accordance with scientific laws, it is necessary that there shall
!e a far
more e0.al di+ision of the responsi!ility !etween the management and the workmen than e7ists
.nder any
of the ordinary types of management. Those in the management whose d.ty it is to de+elop this
science
sho.ld also g.ide and help the workman inworking .nder it, and sho.ld ass.me a m.ch larger
share of
the responsi!ility for res.lts than .nder .s.al conditions is ass.med !y the management.

The !ody of this paper will make it clear that, to work according to scientificlaws, the management
m.st
take o+er and perform m.ch of the work which is now left to the men5 almost e+ery act of the
workman
sho.ld !e preceded !y one or more preparatory acts of the management which ena!le him to do his
work
!etter and 0.icker than he otherwise co.ld. 3nd each man sho.ld daily !e ta.ght !y and recei+e the
most
friendly help from those who are o+er him, instead of !eing, at theone e7treme, dri+en or coerced !y
his
!osses, and at the other left to his own .naided de+ices.

This close, intimate, personal cooperation !etween the management and the men is of the essence
of
modern scientific or task management.

%t will !e shown !y a series of practical ill.strations that, thro.gh this friendly cooperation, namely,
thro.gh sharing e0.ally in e+ery day;s !.rden, all of the great o!stacles "a!o+e descri!ed$ to
o!taining the
ma7im.m o.tp.t for each man and each machine in the esta!lishment are swept away. The <= per
cent to
1== per cent increase in wages which the workmen are a!le to earn !eyond what they recei+e
.nder the
old type of management, co.pled with the daily intimate sho.lder to sho.lder contact with the
management, entirely remo+es all ca.se for soldiering. 3nd in a few years, .nder this system, the
workmen ha+e !efore them the o!2ect lesson of seeing that a great increase in the o.tp.t per man
res.lts
in gi+ing employment to more men, instead of throwing men o.t of work, th.s completelyeradicating
the
fallacy that a larger o.tp.t for each man will throw other men o.t of work.

%t is the writer;s 2.dgment, then, that while m.ch can !e done and sho.ld !e done !y writing and
talking
toward ed.cating not only workmen, !.t all classes in the comm.nity, as to the importance of
o!taining
the ma7im.m o.tp.t of each man and each machine, it is only thro.gh the adoption of modern
scientific
management that this great pro!lem can !e finally sol+ed. Pro!a!ly most of the readers ofthis paper
will
say that all of this is mere theory. (n the contrary, the theory, or philosophy, of scientific
management is
2.st !eginning to !e .nderstood, whereas the management itself has !een a grad.al e+ol.tion,
e7tending
o+er a period of nearly thirty years. 3nd d.ring this time the employ:s of one company after another,
incl.ding a large range and di+ersity of ind.stries, ha+e grad.ally changed from the ordinary to the
scientific type of management. 3t least A=,=== workmen in the )nited States are now employed
.nder this
system5 and they are recei+ing from <= per cent to 1== per cent higher wages daily than are paid to
men of
similar cali!er with whom they are s.rro.nded, while the companies employing them are more
prospero.s
than e+er !efore. %n these companies the o.tp.t, per man and per machine, has on an a+erage
!een
do.!led. D.ring all these years there has ne+er !een a single strike among the men working .nder
this
system. %n placeof the s.spicio.s watchf.lness and the more or less open warfare which
characteri1es the
ordinary types of management, there is .ni+ersally friendly cooperation !etween the management
and the
men.

Se+eral papers ha+e !een written, descri!ing the e7pedients which ha+e !een adopted and the
details
which ha+e !een de+eloped .nder scientific management and the steps to !e taken in changing
from the
ordinary to the scientific type. 6.t .nfort.nately most of the readers of these papers ha+e mistaken
the
mechanism forthe tr.e essence. Scientific management f.ndamentally consists of certain
!roadgeneral
principles, a certain philosophy, which can !e applied in many ways, and a description of what any
one
man or men may !elie+e to !e the !est mechanism for applying these general principles sho.ld in
no way
!e conf.sed with the principles themsel+es.

%t is not here claimed that any single panacea e7ists for all of the tro.!les of the working4people or
of
employers. 3s long as some people are !orn la1y or inefficient, and others are !orn greedy and
!r.tal, as
long as +ice and crime are with .s, 2.st so long will a certain amo.nt of po+erty, misery, and
.nhappiness
!e with .s also. &o system of management, no single e7pedient within the controlof any man or any
set of
men can ins.re contin.o.s prosperity to either workmenor employers. Prosperity depends .pon so
many
factors entirely !eyond the control of any one set of men, any state, or e+en any one co.ntry, that
certain
periods will ine+ita!ly come when !oth sides m.st s.ffer, more or less. %t is claimed, howe+er, that
.nder
scientific management the intermediate periods will !e farmore prospero.s, far happier, and more
free
from discord and dissension. 3nd also, that the periods will !e fewer, shorter and the s.ffering less.
3nd
this will !e partic.larly tr.e in any one town, any one section of the co.ntry, or any one state which
first
s.!stit.tes the principles of scientific management for ther.le of th.m!.

That these principles are certain to come into general .se practically thro.gho.t the ci+ili1ed world,
sooner or later, the writer is profo.ndly con+inced, andthe sooner they come the !etter for all the
people.


*-3PTE' %%8

T-E P'%&*%P9ES (F S*%E&T%F%* M3&3,EME&T

T-E writer has fo.nd that there are three 0.estions .ppermost in the minds of men when they
!ecome
interested in scientific management.

First. Wherein do the principles of scientific management differ essentially from those of ordinary
management>

Second. Why are !etter res.lts attained .nder scientific management than .nder the other types>

Third. %s not the most important pro!lem that of getting the right man at the head of the company>
3nd if
yo. ha+e the right man cannot the choice of the type of management !e safely left to him>

(ne of the principal o!2ects of the following pages will !e to gi+e a satisfactory answer to these
0.estions.

T-E F%&EST TBPE (F ('D%&3'B M3&3,EME&T

6efore starting to ill.strate the principles of scientific management, or /taskmanagement/ as it is
!riefly
called, it seems desira!le to o.tline what the writer !elie+es will !e recogni1ed as the !est type of
management which is in common .se. This is done so that the great difference !etween the !est of
the
ordinary management and scientific management may !e f.lly appreciated.

%n an ind.strial esta!lishment which employs say from A== to 1=== workmen, there will !e fo.nd in
many
cases at least twenty to thirty different trades. The workmen in each of these trades ha+e had their
knowledge handed down to them !y word of mo.th, thro.gh the many years in which their trade has
!een
de+eloped fromthe primiti+e condition, in which o.r far4distant ancestors each one practised the
r.diments of many different trades, to the present state of great and growing s.!di+ision of la!or, in
which each man speciali1es .pon some comparati+ely small class of work.

The ingen.ity of each generation has de+eloped 0.icker and !etter methods for doing e+ery
element of the
work in e+ery trade. Th.s the methods which are now in.se may in a !road sense !e said to !e an
e+ol.tion representing the s.r+i+al of the fittest and !est of the ideas which ha+e !een de+eloped
since the
startingof each trade. -owe+er, while this is tr.e in a !road sense, only those who areintimately
ac0.ainted with each of these trades are f.lly aware of the fact that in hardly any element of any
trade is
there .niformity in the methods which are .sed. %nstead of ha+ing only one way which is generally
accepted as a standard, there are in daily .se, say, fifty or a h.ndred different ways of doing each
element
of the work. 3nd a little tho.ght will make it clear that this m.st ine+ita!ly !e the case, since o.r
methods
ha+e !een handed down from man to man !y word of mo.th, or ha+e, in most cases, !een almost
.nconscio.sly learned thro.gh personal o!ser+ation. Practically in no instances ha+e they !een
codified or
systematically analy1ed or descri!ed. The ingen.ity and e7perience of each generation of each
decade,
e+en, ha+e witho.t do.!t handed o+er !etter methods to the ne7t. This mass of r.le4of4th.m! or
traditional knowledge may !e said to !e the principal asset or possession of e+ery tradesman. &ow,
in the
!est of the ordinary types of management, the managers recogni1e frankly the fact that the A== or
1===
workmen, incl.ded in the twenty to thirty trades, who are .nder them, possess this mass of
traditional
knowledge, a large part of which is not in the possession of the management. The management, of
co.rse,
incl.des foremen and s.perintendents, who themsel+es ha+e !een in most cases first4class workers
at their
trades. 3nd yet these foremen and s.perintendents know, !etter than any one else, that their own
knowledge and personal skill falls far short of the com!ined knowledge and de7terity of all the
workmen
.nder them. The most e7perienced managers therefore frankly place !efore their workmen the
pro!lem of
doing the work in the !est and most economical way. They recogni1e the task !efore them as that of
ind.cing each workman to .se his !est endea+ors, his hardest work, all his traditional knowledge,
his
skill, his ingen.ity, and his good4will in a word, his /initiati+e,/ so as to yield the largest possi!le
ret.rn
to his employer. The pro!lem !efore the management, then, may !e !riefly said to !e that of
o!taining the
!est initiati+e of e+ery workman. 3nd the writer .ses the word /initiati+e/ in its !roadest sense, to
co+er
all of the good 0.alities so.ght for from the men.

(n the other hand, no intelligent manager wo.ld hope to o!tain in any f.ll meas.re the initiati+e of
his
workmen .nless he felt that he was gi+ing them something more than they .s.ally recei+e from their
employers. (nly those among the readers of this paper who ha+e !een managers or who ha+e
worked
themsel+es at a trade reali1e how far the a+erage workman falls short of gi+ing his employer his f.ll
initiati+e. %t is well within the mark to state that in nineteen o.t of twenty ind.strial esta!lishments the
workmen !elie+e it to !e directly against their interests to gi+e their employers their !est initiati+e,
and
that instead of working hard to do the largest possi!le amo.nt of work and the !est 0.ality of
workfor
their employers, they deli!erately work as slowly as they dare while they at the same time try to
make
those o+er them !elie+e that they are working fast."1C$

The writer repeats, therefore, that in order to ha+e any hope of o!taining the initiati+e of his
workmen the
manager m.st gi+e some special incenti+e to his men !eyond that which is gi+en to the a+erage of
the
trade. This incenti+e can !e gi+en in se+eral different ways, as, for e7ample, the hope of rapid
promotion
orad+ancement5 higher wages, either in the form of genero.s piecework prices or of a premi.m or
!on.s
of some kind for good and rapid work5 shorter ho.rs of la!or5 !etter s.rro.ndings and working
conditions
than are ordinarily gi+en, etc., and, a!o+e all, this special incenti+e sho.ld !e accompanied !y that
personal consideration for, and friendly contact with, his workmen which comes only from a gen.ine
and
kindly interest in the welfare of those .nder him. %t is only !y gi+ing a special ind.cement or
/incenti+e/
of this kind that the employer can hope e+en appro7imately to get the /initiati+e/ of his workmen.
)nder
the ordinary type of management the necessity for offering the workman a special ind.cement has
come to
!e so generally recogni1ed that a large proportion of those most interested in the s.!2ect look .pon
the
adoption of some one of the modern schemes for paying men "s.ch as piece work, the premi.m
plan, or
the !on.s plan, for instance$ as practically the whole system of management. )nder scientific
management, howe+er, the partic.lar pay system which is adopted is merely one of the s.!ordinate
elements.

6roadly speaking, then, the !est type of management in ordinary .se may !e defined as
management in
which the workmen gi+e their !est initiati+e and in ret.rn recei+e some special incenti+e from their
employers. This type of management will !e referred to as the management of /initiati+e and
incenti+e/ in
contradistinction to scientific management, or task management, with which it is to !e compared.

The writer hopes that the management of /initiati+e and incenti+e/ will !e recogni1ed as
representing the
!est type in ordinary .se, and in fact he !elie+es that it will !e hard to pers.ade the a+erage
manager that
anything !etter e7ists in the whole field than this type. The task which the writer has !efore him,
then, is
the diffic.lt one of trying to pro+e in a thoro.ghly con+incing way that there is another type of
management which is not only !etter !.t o+erwhelmingly !etter than the management of /initiati+e
and
incenti+e./

The .ni+ersal pre2.dice in fa+or of the management of /initiati+e and incenti+e/ is so strong that no
mere
theoretical ad+antages which can !e pointed o.t will!e likely to con+ince the a+erage manager that
any
other system is !etter. %t will !e .pon a series of practical ill.strations of the act.al working of the
twosystems that the writer will depend in his efforts to pro+e that scientific management is so greatly
s.perior to other types. *ertain elementary principles, a certain philosophy, will howe+er !e
recogni1ed as
the essence of that which is !eing ill.strated in all of the practical e7amples which will !e gi+en. 3nd
the
!road principles in which the scientific system differs from the ordinary or /r.le4of4th.m!/ system are
so
simple in their nat.re that it seems desira!le to descri!e them !efore starting with the ill.strations.

)nder the old type of management s.ccess depends almost entirely .pon getting the /initiati+e/ of
the
workmen, and it is indeed a rare case in which this initiati+e is really attained. )nder scientific
management the /initiati+e/ of the workmen "that is, their hard work, their good4will, and their
ingen.ity$
is o!tained with a!sol.te .niformity and to a greater e7tent than is possi!le .nder the old system5
and in
addition to this impro+ement on the part of the men, the managers ass.me new !.rdens, new
d.ties, and
responsi!ilities ne+er dreamed of in thepast. The managers ass.me, for instance, the !.rden of
gathering
together all of the traditional knowledge which in the past has !een possessed !y the workmen and
then of
classifying, ta!.lating, and red.cing this knowledge to r.les, laws,and form.lD which are
immensely
helpf.l to the workmen in doing their daily work. %n addition to de+eloping a science in this way, the
management take on threeother types of d.ties which in+ol+e new and hea+y !.rdens for
themsel+es.

These new d.ties are gro.ped .nder fo.r heads8

First. They de+elop a science for each element of a man;s work, which replaces the old r.le4of4
th.m!
method.

Second. They scientifically select and then train, teach, and de+elop the workman, whereas in the
past he
chose his own work and trained himself as !est he co.ld.

Third. They heartily cooperate with the men so as to ins.re all of the work !eing done in accordance
with
the principles of the science which has !een de+eloped.

Fo.rth. There is an almost e0.al di+ision of the work and the responsi!ility !etween the
management and
the workmen. The management take o+er all work for which they are !etter fitted than the workmen,
while in the past almost all of the work and the greater part of the responsi!ility were thrown .pon
the
men.

%t is this com!ination of the initiati+e of the workmen, co.pled with the new types of work done !y
the
management, that makes scientific management so m.ch more efficient than the old plan.

Three of these elements e7ist in many cases, .nder the management of /initiati+e and incenti+e,/ in
a
small and r.dimentary way, !.t they are, .nder this management, of minor importance, whereas
.nder
scientific management they form the +ery essence of the whole system.

The fo.rth of these elements, /an almost e0.al di+ision of the responsi!ility !etween the
management and
the workmen,/ re0.ires f.rther e7planation. The philosophy of the management of /initiati+e and
incenti+e/ makes it necessary for eachworkman to !ear almost the entire responsi!ility for the
general
plan as well as for each detail of his work, and in many cases for his implements as well. %n addition
to
this he m.st do all of the act.al physical la!or. The de+elopment ofa science, on the other hand,
in+ol+es
the esta!lishment of many r.les, laws, and form.lD which replace the 2.dgment of the indi+id.al
workman and which can !eeffecti+ely .sed only after ha+ing !een systematically recorded, inde7ed,
etc.
The practical .se of scientific data also calls for a room in which to keep the !ooks, records,"EC$ etc.,
and
a desk for the planner to work at. Th.s all of theplanning which .nder the old system was done !y
the
workman, as a res.lt of hispersonal e7perience, m.st of necessity .nder the new system !e done
!y the
management in accordance with the laws of the science5 !eca.se e+en if the workman was well
s.ited to
the de+elopment and .se of scientific data, it wo.ld !e physically impossi!le for him to work at his
machine and at a desk at the same time. %t is also clear that in most cases one type of man is
needed to
plan ahead and an entirely different type to e7ec.te the work.

The man in the planning room, whose specialty .nder scientific management is planning ahead,
in+aria!ly finds that the work can !e done !etter and more economically !y a s.!di+ision of the
la!or5
each act of each mechanic, for e7ample, sho.ld !e preceded !y +ario.s preparatory acts done !y
other
men. 3nd all of this in+ol+es, as we ha+e said, /an almost e0.al di+ision of the responsi!ility and the
work !etween the management and the workman./

To s.mmari1e8 )nder the management of /initiati+e and incenti+e/ practically the whole pro!lem is
/.p
to the workman,/ while .nder scientific management f.lly one4half of the pro!lem is /.p to the
management./

Perhaps the most prominent single element in modern scientific management is the task idea. The
work of
e+ery workman is f.lly planned o.t !y the management atleast one day in ad+ance, and each man
recei+es
in most cases complete wnt ten instr.ctions, descri!ing in detail the task which he is to accomplish,
as
well as the means to !e .sed in doing the work. 3nd the work planned in ad+ance in this way
constit.tes a
task which is to !e sol+ed, as e7plained a!o+e, not !y the workman alone, !.t in almost all cases !y
the
2oint effort of the workman and themanagement. This task specifies not only what is to !e done !.t
how it
is to !edone and the e7act time allowed for doing it. 3nd whene+er the workman s.cceedsin doing
his
task right, and within the time limit specified, he recei+es an addition of from <= per cent to 1== per
cent
to his ordinary wages. These tasks are caref.lly planned, so that !oth good and caref.l work are
called for
in their performance, !.t it sho.ld !e distinctly .nderstood that in no case is the workman called
.pon to
work at a pace which wo.ld !e in2.rio.s to his health. The task is always so reg.lated that the man
who is
well s.ited to his 2o! will thri+e while working at this rate d.ring a long term of years and grow
happier
and moreprospero.s, instead of !eing o+erworked. Scientific management consists +ery largely in
preparing for and carrying o.t these tasks.

The writer is f.lly aware that to perhaps most of the readers of this paper thefo.r elements which
differentiate the new management from the old will at firstappear to !e merely high4so.nding
phrases5
and he wo.ld again repeat that he has no idea of con+incing the reader of their +al.e merely
thro.gh
anno.ncing their e7istence. -is hope of carrying con+iction rests .pon demonstrating the
tremendo.s
force and effect of these fo.r elements thro.gh a series of practical ill.strations. %t will !e shown,
first,
that they can !e applied a!sol.tely to all classes of work, from the most elementary to the most
intricate5
and second, that when they are applied, the res.lts m.st of necessity !e o+erwhelmingly greater
than those
which it is possi!le to attain .nder the management of initiati+e and incenti+e.

The first ill.stration is that of handling pig iron, and this work is chosen !eca.se it is typical of
perhaps
the cr.dest and most elementary form of la!or which is performed !y man. This work is done !y
men with
no other implements than their hands. The pig4iron handler stoops down, picks .p a pig weighing
a!o.t
E po.nds, walks for a few feet or yards and then drops it on to the gro.nd or .pon a pile. This work
is so
cr.de and elementary in its nat.re that the writer firmly !elie+es that it wo.ld !e possi!le to train an
intelligent gorilla so as to !ecome a more efficient pig4iron handler than any man can !e. Bet it will
!e
shownthat the science of handling pig iron is so great and amo.nts to so m.ch that it is impossi!le
for the
man who is !est s.ited to this type of work to .nderstand the principles of this science, or e+en to
work in
accordance with these principles witho.t the aid of a man !etter ed.cated than he is. 3nd the f.rther
ill.strations to !e gi+en will make it clear that in almost all of the mechanic arts the science which
.nderlies each workman;s act is so great and amo.nts to so m.ch that the workman who is !est
s.ited
act.ally to do the work is incapa!le "either thro.gh lack of ed.cation or thro.gh ins.fficient mental
capacity$ of .nderstanding this science. This is anno.nced as a general principle, the tr.th of which
will
!ecome apparent as one ill.stration after another is gi+en. 3fter showingthese fo.r elements in the
handling of pig iron, se+eral ill.strations will !e gi+en of their application to different kinds of work in
the field of the mechanic arts, at inter+als in a rising scale, !eginning with the simplest and ending
with
the more intricate forms of la!or.

(ne of the first pieces of work .ndertaken !y .s, when the writer started to introd.ce scientific
management into the 6ethlehem Steel *ompany, was to handle pig iron on task work. The opening
of the
Spanish War fo.nd some F=,=== tons of pig iron placed in small piles in an open field ad2oining the
works. Prices for pig iron had !een so low that it co.ld not !e sold at a profit, and it therefore had
!een
stored. With the opening of the Spanish War the price of pig iron rose, and this large acc.m.lation
of iron
was sold. This ga+e .s a good opport.nity toshow the workmen, as well as the owners and
managers of
the works, on a fairly large scale the ad+antages of task work o+er the old4fashioned day work and
piece
work, in doing a +ery elementary class of work.

The 6ethlehem Steel *ompany had fi+e !last f.rnaces, the prod.ct of which had !een handled !y a
pig4
iron gang for many years. This gang, at this time, consisted of a!o.t GA men. They were good,
a+erage
pig4iron handlers, were .nder an e7cellent foreman who himself had !een a pig4iron handler, and
the
work was done, onthe whole, a!o.t as fast and as cheaply as it was anywhere else at that time.

3 railroad switch was r.n o.t into the field, right along the edge of the pilesof pig iron. 3n inclined
plank
was placed against the side of a car, and each man picked .p from his pile a pig of iron weighing
a!o.t E
po.nds, walked .p theinclined plank and dropped it on the end of the car.

We fo.nd that this gang were loading on the a+erage a!o.t 1E 1HE long tons per man per day. We
were
s.rprised to find, after st.dying the matter, that a first4class pig4iron handler o.ght to handle
!etween
IG"<C$ and IF long tons per day, instead of 1E 1HE tons. This task seemed to .s so +ery large that
we were
o!liged to go o+er o.r work se+eral times !efore we were a!sol.tely s.re that we were right. (nce
we were
s.re, howe+er, that IG tons was a proper day;s work for a first4class pig4iron handler, the task which
faced
.s as managers .nder the modernscientific plan was clearly !efore .s. %t was o.r d.ty to see that
the
F=,=== tons of pig iron was loaded on to the cars at the rate of IG tons per man per day, in place of
1E 1HE
tons, at which rate the work was then !eing done. 3nd it was f.rther o.r d.ty to see that this work
was
done witho.t !ringing on a strike among the men, witho.t any 0.arrel with the men, and to see that
the
men were happier and !etter contented when loading at the new rate of IG tons than they werewhen
loading at the old rate of 1E 1HE tons.

(.r first step was the scientific selection of the workman. %n dealing with workmen .nder this type of
management, it is an infle7i!le r.le to talk to and dealwith only one man at a time, since each
workman
has his own special a!ilities and limitations, and since we are not dealing with men in masses, !.t
are
trying to de+elop each indi+id.al man to his highest state of efficiency and prosperity. (.r first step
was
to find the proper workman to !egin with. We therefore caref.lly watched and st.died these GA men
for
three or fo.r days, at the end of which time we had picked o.t fo.r men who appeared to !e
physically
a!le to handle pig iron at the rate of IG tons per day. 3 caref.l st.dy was then made of each of
these men.
We looked .p their history as far !ack as practica!le and thoro.gh in0.iries were made as to the
character, ha!its, and the am!ition of each of them. Finally we selected one from among the fo.r as
the
most likely man to start with. -e was a little Pennsyl+ania D.tchman who had !een o!ser+ed to trot
!ack
home for a mile or so after his work in the e+ening a!o.t as fresh as he was when he came trotting
down
to work in the morning. We fo.nd that .pon wages of J1.1A a day he had s.cceeded in !.ying a
small plot
of gro.nd, and that he was engagedin p.tting .p the walls of a little ho.se for himself in the morning
!efore starting to work and at night after lea+ing. -e also had the rep.tation of !eing e7ceedingly
/close,/
that is, of placing a +ery high +al.e on a dollar. 3s one manwhom we talked to a!o.t him said, /3
penny
looks a!o.t the si1e of a cart4wheelto him./ This man we will call Schmidt.

The task !efore .s, then, narrowed itself down to getting Schmidt to handle IG tons of pig iron per
day
and making him glad to do it. This was done as follows.Schmidt was called o.t from among the
gang of
pig4iron handlers and talked to somewhat in this way8

/Schmidt, are yo. a high4priced man>/

/Kell, % don;t know +at yo. mean./

/(h yes, yo. do. What % want to know is whether yo. are a high4priced man or not./

/Kell, % don;t know +at yo. mean./

/(h, come now, yo. answer my 0.estions. what % want to find o.t is whether yo. are a high4priced
man
or one of these cheap fellows here. What % want to find o.t is whether yo. want to earn J1.FA a day
or
whether yo. are satisfied with J1.1A, 2.st the same as all those cheap fellows are getting./

/Did % +ant J1.FA a day> Kas dot a high4priced man> Kell, yes, % +as a high4priced man./

/(h, yo.;re aggra+ating me. (f co.rse yo. want J1.FA a day e+ery one wants itL Bo. know perfectly
well
that that has +ery little to do with yo.r !eing a high4priced man. For goodness; sake answer my
0.estions,
and don;t waste any more of my time. &ow come o+er here. Bo. see that pile of pig iron>/

/Bes./

/Bo. see that car>/

/Bes./

/Well, if yo. are a high4priced man, yo. will load that pig iron on that car to4morrow for J1.FA. &ow
do
wake .p and answer my 0.estion. Tell me whether yo. are a high4priced man or not./

/Kell 44 did % got J1.FA for loading dot pig iron on dot car to4morrow>/

/Bes, of co.rse yo. do, and yo. get J1.FA for loading a pile like that e+ery day right thro.gh the
year.
That is what a high4priced man does, and yo. know it 2.st as well as % do./

/Kell, dot;s all right. % co.ld load dot pig iron on the car to4morrow for J1.FA, and % get it e+ery day,
don;t
%>/

/*ertainly yo. do 44 certainly yo. do./

/Kell, den, % +as a high4priced man./

/&ow, hold on, hold on. Bo. know 2.st as well as % do that a high4priced man has to do e7actly as
he;s
told from morning till night. Bo. ha+e seen this man here !efore, ha+en;t yo.>/

/&o, % ne+er saw him./

/Well, if yo. are a high4priced man, yo. will do e7actly as this man tells yo. to4morrow, from
morning
till night. When he tells yo. to pick .p a pig and walk,yo. pick it .p and yo. walk, and when he tells
yo.
to sit down and rest, yo. sit down. Bo. do that right straight thro.gh the day. 3nd what;s more, no
!ack
talk. &ow a high4priced man does 2.st what he;s told to do, and no !ack talk. Do yo. .nderstand
that>
When this man tells yo. to walk, yo. walk5 when he tells yo. to sit down, yo. sit down, and yo.
don;t talk
!ack at him. &ow yo. come on to work here to4morrow morning and %;ll know !efore night whether
yo.
are really a high4priced man or not./

This seems to !e rather ro.gh talk. 3nd indeed it wo.ld !e if applied to an ed.cated mechanic, or
e+en an
intelligent la!orer. With a man of the mentally sl.ggish type of Schmidt it is appropriate and not
.nkind,
since it is effecti+e in fi7ing his attention on the high wages which he wants and away from what, if it
were called to his attention, he pro!a!ly wo.ld consider impossi!ly hard work.

What wo.ld Schmidt;s answer !e if he were talked to in a manner which is .s.al .nder the
management
of /initiati+e and incenti+e/> say, as follows8

/&ow, Schmidt, yo. are a first4class pig4iron handler and know yo.r !.siness well. Bo. ha+e !een
handling at the rate of 1E 1HE tons per day. % ha+e gi+en considera!le st.dy to handling pig iron, and
feel
s.re that yo. co.ld do a m.ch larger day;s work than yo. ha+e !een doing. &ow don;t yo. think that
if yo.
really tried yo. co.ld handle IG tons of pig iron per day, instead of 1E 1HE tons>/

What do yo. think Schmidt;s answer wo.ld !e to this>

Schmidt started to work, and all day long, and at reg.lar inter+als, was told !y the man who stood
o+er
him with a watch, /&ow pick .p a pig and walk. &ow sit down and rest. &ow walk 44 now rest,/ etc.
-e
worked when he was told to work, and rested when he was told to rest, and at half4past fi+e in the
afternoon had his IG 1HE tons loaded on the car. 3nd he practically ne+er failed to work at this pace
and
do the task that was set him d.ring the three years that the writer was at 6ethlehem. 3nd thro.gho.t
this
time he a+eraged a little more than J1.FA per day, whereas !efore he had ne+er recei+ed o+er J1.1A
per
day, which was the r.ling rate of wages at that time in 6ethlehem. That is, he recei+ed @= per cent
higher
wages than were paid to other men who were not working on task work. (ne man after another was
picked o.t and trained to handle pig iron at the rate of IG 1HE tons per day .ntil all of the pig iron was
handled at this rate, and the men were recei+ing @= per cent more wages than other workmen
aro.nd
them.

The writer has gi+en a!o+e a !rief description of three of the fo.r elements which constit.te the
essence of
scientific management8 first, the caref.l selection of the workman, and, second and third, the
method of
first ind.cing and then training and helping the workman to work according to the scientific method.
&othing has as yet !een said a!o.t the science of handling pig iron. The writer tr.sts, howe+er, that
!efore
lea+ing this ill.stration the reader will !e thoro.ghlycon+inced that there is a science of handling pig
iron,
and f.rther that this science amo.nts to so m.ch that the man who is s.ited to handle pig iron
cannot
possi!ly .nderstand it, nor e+en work in accordance with the laws of this science, witho.t the help of
those who are o+er him.

The writer came into the machine4shop of the Mid+ale Steel *ompany in 1FGF, after ha+ing ser+ed
an
apprenticeship as a pattern4maker and as a machinist. This was close to the end of the long period
of
depression following the panic of 1FG<, and !.siness was so poor that it was impossi!le for many
mechanics to get workat their trades. For this reason he was o!liged to start as a day la!orer
instead of
working as a mechanic. Fort.nately for him, soon after he came into the shop the clerk of the shop
was
fo.nd stealing. There was no one else a+aila!le, and so, ha+ing more ed.cation than the other
la!orers
"since he had !een prepared for college$ he was gi+en the position of clerk. Shortly after this he was
gi+enwork as a machinist in r.nning one of the lathes, and, as he t.rned o.t rather more work than
other
machinists were doing on similar lathes, after se+eral months was made gang!oss o+er the lathes.

3lmost all of the work of this shop had !een done on piece work for se+eral years. 3s was .s.al
then, and
in fact as is still .s.al in most of the shops in this co.ntry, the shop was really r.n !y the workmen,
and
not !y the !osses. The workmen together had caref.lly planned 2.st how fast each 2o! sho.ld !e
done, and
they had set a pace for each machine thro.gho.t the shop, which was limited to a!o.t one4third of a
good
day;s work. E+ery new workman who came into the shop was told at once !y the other men e7actly
how
m.ch of each kind of work he was to do, and .nless he o!eyed these instr.ctions he was s.re
!efore long
to !e dri+eno.t of the place !y the men.

3s soon as the writer was made gang4!oss, one after another of the men came to him and talked
somewhat
as follows8

/&ow, Fred, we;re +ery glad to see that yo.;+e !een made gang4!oss. Bo. know the game all right,
and
we;re s.re that yo.;re not likely to !e a piecework hog. Bo. come along with .s, and e+erything will
!e all
right, !.t if yo. try !reakingany of these rates yo. can !e mighty s.re that we;ll throw yo. o+er the
fence./

The writer told them plainly that he was now working on the side of the management, and that he
proposed to do whate+er he co.ld to get a fair day;s work o.t of the lathes. This immediately started
a war5
in most cases a friendly war, !eca.se the men who were .nder him were his personal friends, !.t
none the
less a war, which as time went on grew more and more !itter. The writer .sed e+ery e7pedient to
make
them do a fair day;s work, s.ch as discharging or lowering the wagesof the more st.!!orn men who
ref.sed to make any impro+ement, and s.ch as lowering the piece4work price, hiring green men,
and
personally teaching them how to do the work, with the promise from them that when they had
learned
how, they wo.ld then do a fair day;s work. While the men constantly !ro.ght s.ch press.re to !ear
"!oth
inside and o.tside the works$ .pon all those who started to increase their o.tp.t that they were
finally
compelled to do a!o.t as the rest did, or else 0.it. &o one who has not had this e7perience can
ha+e an
idea of the !itterness which is grad.ally de+eloped in s.ch a str.ggle. %n a war of this kind the
workmen
ha+e one e7pedient which is .s.ally effecti+e. They .se their ingen.ity tocontri+e +ario.s ways in
which
the machines which they are r.nning are !roken or damaged 44 apparently !y accident, or in the
reg.lar
co.rse of work 44 and this they always lay at the door of the foreman, who has forced them to dri+e
the
machine so hard that it is o+erstrained and is !eing r.ined. 3nd there are few foremen indeed who
are
a!le to stand .p against the com!ined press.re of all of the men in the shop. %n this case the
pro!lem was
complicated !y the fact that theshop ran !oth day and night.

The writer had two ad+antages, howe+er, which are not possessed !y the ordinaryforeman, and
these
came, c.rio.sly eno.gh, from the fact that he was not the son of a working man.

First, owing to the fact that he happened not to !e of working parents, the owners of the company
!elie+ed
that he had the interest of the works more at heart than the other workmen, and they therefore had
more
confidence in his word than they did in that of the machinists who were .nder him. So that, when the
machinists reported to the S.perintendent that the machines were !eing smashed .p !eca.se an
incompetent foreman was o+erstraining them, the S.perintendent accepted the word of the writer
when he
said that these men were deli!erately !reaking their machines as a part of the piece4work war which
was
going on, and he also allowed the writer to make the only effecti+e answer to this Kandalism on the
part
ofthe men, namely8 /There will !e no more accidents to the machines in this shop.%f any part of a
machine
is !roken the man in charge of it m.st pay at least a part of the cost of its repair, and the fines
collected in
this way will all !e handed o+er to the m.t.al !eneficial association to help care for sick
workmen./This
soon stopped the wilf.l !reaking of machines.

Second. %f the writer had !een one of the workmen, and had li+ed where they li+ed, they wo.ld ha+e
!ro.ght s.ch social press.re to !ear .pon him that it wo.ld ha+e !een impossi!le to ha+e stood o.t
against them. -e wo.ld ha+e !een called /sca!/ and other fo.l names e+ery time he appeared on
the
street, his wife wo.ld ha+e !een a!.sed, and his children wo.ld ha+e !een stoned. (nce or twice
he was
!egged !y some of his friends among the workmen not to walk home, a!o.t two and a half miles
along the
lonely path !y the side of the railway. -e was told that if he contin.ed to do this it wo.ld !e at the
risk of
his life. %n all s.ch cases, howe+er, a display of timidity is apt to increase rather than diminish the
risk, so
the writer told these men to say to the other men in the shop that he proposed to walk home e+ery
night
right .p that railway track5 that he ne+er had carried and ne+er wo.ld carry any weapon of any kind,
and
that they co.ld shoot and !e d 44 44 4.

3fter a!o.t three years of this kind of str.ggling, the o.tp.t of the machines had !een materially
increased, in many cases do.!led, and as a res.lt the writerhad !een promoted from one gang4
!oss4ship to
another .ntil he !ecame foreman ofthe shop. For any right4minded man, howe+er, this s.ccess is in
no
sense a recompense for the !itter relations which he is forced to maintain with all of thosearo.nd
him.
9ife which is one contin.o.s str.ggle with other men is hardly worth li+ing. -is workman friends
came to
him contin.ally and asked him, in a personal, friendly way, whether he wo.ld ad+ise them, for their
own
!est interest, to t.rn o.t more work. 3nd, as a tr.thf.l man, he had to tell them that if he were in their
place he wo.ld fight against t.rning o.t any more work, 2.st as they were doing, !eca.se .nder the
piecework system they wo.ld !e allowed to earn no more wages than they had !een earning, and
yet they
wo.ld !e made to work harder.

Soon after !eing made foreman, therefore, he decided to make a determined effort to in some way
change
the system of management, so that the interests of the workmen and the management sho.ld
!ecome the
same, instead of antagonistic. This res.lted, some three years later, in the starting of the type of
management which is descri!ed in papers presented to the 3merican Society of Mechanical
Engineers
entitled /3 Piece4'ate System/ and /Shop Management./

%n preparation for this system the writer reali1ed that the greatest o!stacle to harmonio.s
cooperation
!etween the workmen and the management lay in the ignorance of the management as to what
really
constit.tes a proper day;s work for a workman. -e f.lly reali1ed that, altho.gh he was foreman of
the
shop, the com!ined knowledge and skill of the workmen who were .nder him was certainly ten
times as
great as his own. -e therefore o!tained the permission of Mr William Sellers,who was at that time
the
President of the Mid+ale Steel *ompany, to spend some money in a caref.l, scientific st.dy of the
time
re0.ired to do +ario.s kinds ofwork.

Mr Sellers allowed this more as a reward for ha+ing, to a certain e7tent, /madegood/ as foreman of
the
shop in getting more work o.t of the men, than for any other reason. -e stated, howe+er, that he did
not
!elie+e that any scientific st.dy of this sort wo.ld gi+e res.lts of m.ch +al.e.

3mong se+eral in+estigations which were .ndertaken at this time, one was an attempt to find some
r.le,
or law, which wo.ld ena!le a foreman to know in ad+ance how m.ch of any kind of hea+y la!oring
work
a man who was well s.ited to his 2o!o.ght to do in a day5 that is, to st.dy the tiring effect of hea+y
la!or
.pon afirst4class man. (.r first step was to employ a yo.ng college grad.ate to look .p all that had
!een
written on the s.!2ect in English, ,erman, and French. Two classes of e7periments had !een made8
one
!y physiologists who were st.dying theend.rance of the h.man animal, and the other !y engineers
who
wished to determine what fraction of a horse4power a man4power was. These e7periments had !een
made
largely .pon men who were lifting loads !y means of t.rning the crank of a winch from which
weights
were s.spended, and others who were engaged in walking, r.nning, and lifting weights in +ario.s
ways.
-owe+er, the records of these in+estigations were so meager that no law of any +al.e co.ld !e
ded.ced
from them. Wetherefore started a series of e7periments of o.r own.

Two first4class la!orers were selected, men who had pro+ed themsel+es to !e physically powerf.l
and who
were also good steady workers. These men were paid do.!le wages d.ring the e7periments, and
were told
that they m.st work to the !est of their a!ility at all times, and that we sho.ld make certain tests with
them from time to time to find whether they were /soldiering/ or not, and that the moment either one
of
them started to try to decei+e .s he wo.ld !e discharged. They worked to the !est of their a!ility
thro.gho.t the time that they were !eing o!ser+ed.

&ow it m.st !e clearly .nderstood that in these e7periments we were not trying to find the ma7im.m
work that a man co.ld do on a short sp.rt or for a few days,!.t that o.r endea+or was to learn what
really
constit.ted a f.ll day;s work for a first4class man5 the !est day;s work that a man co.ld properly do,
year in
and year o.t, and still thri+e .nder. These men were gi+en all kinds of tasks, which were carried o.t
each
day .nder the close o!ser+ation of the yo.ng college man who was cond.cting the e7periments,
and who
at the same time noted with a stop4watch the proper time for all of the motions that were made !y
the
men. E+ery element in any way connected with the work which we !elie+ed co.ld ha+e a !earing on
the
res.lt was caref.lly st.died and recorded. What we hoped .ltimately to determine was what fraction
of a
horse4power a man was a!le to e7ert, that is, how many foot4po.nds of work a man co.ld do in a
day.

3fter completing this series of e7periments, therefore, each man;s work for each day was translated
into
foot4po.nds of energy, and to o.r s.rprise we fo.nd that there was no constant or .niform relation
!etween the foot4po.nds of energy which the man e7erted d.ring a day and the tiring effect of his
work.
(n some kinds of work the man wo.ld !e tired o.t when doing perhaps not more than one4eighth of
a
horse4power, while in others he wo.ld !e tired to no greater e7tent !y doing half a horse4power of
work.
We failed, therefore, to find any law which was an acc.rate g.ide to the ma7im.m day;s work for a
first4
class workman.

3 large amo.nt of +ery +al.a!le data had !een o!tained, which ena!led .s to know, for many kinds
of
la!or, what was a proper day;s work. %t did not seem wise, howe+er, at this time to spend any more
money
in trying to find the e7act law which we were after. Some years later, when more money was
a+aila!le for
this p.rpose, a second series of e7periments was made, similar to the first, !.t somewhatmore
thoro.gh.
This, howe+er, res.lted as the first e7periments, in o!taining +al.a!le information !.t not in the
de+elopment of a law. 3gain, some years later, a third series of e7periments was made, and this
time no
tro.!le was spared ino.r endea+or to make the work thoro.gh. E+ery min.te element which co.ld in
anyway affect the pro!lem was caref.lly noted and st.died, and two college men de+oted a!o.t
three
months to the e7periments. 3fter this data was again translatedinto foot4po.nds of energy e7erted
for each
man each day, it !ecame perfectly clear that there is no direct relation !etween the horse4power
which a
man e7erts"that is, his foot4po.nds of energy per day$ and the tiring effect of the work on the man.
The
writer, howe+er, was 0.ite as firmly con+inced as e+er that somedefinite, clear4c.t law e7isted as to
what
constit.tes a f.ll day;s work for a first4class la!orer, and o.r data had !een so caref.lly collected
and
recorded that he felt s.re that the necessary information was incl.ded somewhere in the records.
The
pro!lem of de+eloping this law from the acc.m.lated facts was therefore handed o+er to Mr *arl ,.
6arth, who is a !etter mathematician than any of the rest of .s, and we decided to in+estigate the
pro!lem
in a new way, !y graphically representing each element of the work thro.gh plotting c.r+es, which
sho.ldgi+e .s, as it were, a !ird;s4eye +iew of e+ery element. %n a comparati+ely short time Mr 6arth
had
disco+ered the law go+erning the tiring effect of hea+y la!or on a first4class man. 3nd it is so simple
in its
nat.re that it is tr.ly remarka!le that it sho.ld not ha+e !een disco+ered and clearly .nderstood
years
!efore. The law which was de+eloped is as follows8

The law is confined to that class of work in which the limit of a man;s capacity is reached !eca.se
he is
tired o.t. %t is the law of hea+y la!oring, corresponding to the work of the cart horse, rather than that
of
the trotter. Practicallyall s.ch work consists of a hea+y p.ll or a p.sh on the man;s arms, that is, the
man;s
strength is e7erted !y either lifting or p.shing something which he grasps in his hands. 3nd the law
is
that for each gi+en p.ll or p.sh on the man;s arms it is possi!le for the workman to !e .nder load for
only
a definite percentage of the day. For e7ample, when pig iron is !eing handled "each pig weighing E
po.nds$, a first4class workman can only !e .nder load I< per cent of the day. -em.st !e entirely
free from
load d.ring AG per cent of the day. 3nd as the load !ecomes lighter, the percentage of the day
.nder
which the man can remain .nder load increases. So that, if the workman is handling a half4pig,
weighing
I@ po.nds, he can then !e .nder load AF per cent of the day, and only has to rest d.ring IE per
cent. 3s
the weight grows lighter the man can remain .nder load d.ring a larger and larger percentage of the
day,
.ntil finally a load is reached whichhe can carry in his hands all day long witho.t !eing tired o.t.
When
that pointhas !een arri+ed at this law ceases to !e .sef.l as a g.ide to a la!orer;s end.rance, and
some
other law m.st !e fo.nd which indicates the man;s capacity for work.

When a la!orer is carrying a piece of pig iron weighing E po.nds in his hands,it tires him a!o.t as
m.ch
to stand still .nder the load as it does to walk with it, since his arm m.scles are .nder the same
se+ere
tension whether he is mo+ing or not. 3 man, howe+er, who stands still .nder a load is e7erting no
horse4
power whate+er, and this acco.nts for the fact that no constant relation co.ld !e traced in +ario.s
kinds of
hea+y la!oring work !etween the foot4po.nds of energye7erted and the tiring effect of the work on
the
man. %t will also !e clear that in all work of this kind it is necessary for the arms of the workman to !e
completely free from load "that is, for the workman to rest$ at fre0.ent inter+als.Thro.gho.t the time
that
the man is .nder a hea+y load the tiss.es of his arm m.scles are in process of degeneration, and
fre0.ent
periods of rest are re0.iredin order that the !lood may ha+e a chance to restore these tiss.es to
their
normal condition.

To ret.rn now to o.r pig4iron handlers at the 6ethlehem Steel *ompany. %f Schmidt had !een
allowed to
attack the pile of IG tons of pig iron witho.t the g.idance or direction of a man who .nderstood the
art, or
science, of handling pig iron, in his desire to earn his high wages he wo.ld pro!a!ly ha+e tired
himself
o.t!y 11 or 1E o;clock in the day. -e wo.ld ha+e kept so steadily at work that hism.scles wo.ld not
ha+e
had the proper periods of rest a!sol.tely needed for rec.peration, and he wo.ld ha+e !een
completely
e7ha.sted early in the day. 6y ha+ing a man, howe+er, who .nderstood this law, stand o+er him and
direct his work, day after day, .ntil he ac0.ired the ha!it of resting at proper inter+als, he was a!le to
work at an e+en gait all day long witho.t .nd.ly tiring himself.

&ow one of the +ery first re0.irements for a man who is fit to handle pig iron as a reg.lar occ.pation
is
that he shall !e so st.pid and so phlegmatic that he more nearly resem!les in his mental make4.p
the o7
than any other type. The man who is mentally alert and intelligent is for this +ery reason entirely
.ns.ited
to what wo.ld, for him, !e the grinding monotony of work of this character. Therefore the workman
who
is !est s.ited to handling pig iron is .na!le to .nderstand the real science of doing this class of
work. -e
is so st.pid that the word /percentage/ has no meaning to him, and he m.st conse0.ently !e
trained !y a
man more intelligent than himself into the ha!it of working in accordance with the laws of this
science
!efore he can !e s.ccessf.l.

The writer tr.sts that it is now clear that e+en in the case of the most elementary form of la!or that is
known, there is a science, and that when the man !ests.ited to this class of work has !een caref.lly
selected, when the science of doing the work has !een de+eloped, and when the caref.lly selected
man has
!een trained to work in accordance with this science, the res.lts o!tained m.st of necessity !e
o+erwhelmingly greater than those which are possi!le .nder the plan of/initiati+e and incenti+e./

9et .s, howe+er, again t.rn to the case of these pig4iron handlers, and see whether, .nder the
ordinary
type of management, it wo.ld not ha+e !een possi!le to o!tain practically the same res.lts.

The writer has p.t the pro!lem !efore many good managers, and asked them whether, .nder
premi.m
work, piece work, or any of the ordinary plans of management, they wo.ld !e likely e+en to
appro7imate
IG tons"IC$ per man per day, and not a man has s.ggested that an o.tp.t of o+er 1F to EA tons
co.ld !e
attained !y any of the ordinary e7pedients. %t will !e remem!ered that the 6ethlehem men were
loading
only 1E 1HE tons per man.

To go into the matter in more detail, howe+er8 3s to the scientific selection of the men, it is a fact
that in
this gang of GA pig4iron handlers only a!o.t oneman in eight was physically capa!le of handling IG
1HE
tons per day. With the +ery !est of intentions, the other se+en o.t of eight men were physically
.na!le to
work at this pace. &ow the one man in eight who was a!le to do this work was in no sense s.perior
to the
other men who were working on the gang. -e merely happened to !e a man of the type of the o7,
no rare
specimen of h.manity, diffic.lt to find and therefore +ery highly pri1ed. (n the contrary, he was a
man so
st.pid that he was .nfitted to do most kinds of la!oring work, e+en. The selection of the man, then,
does
not in+ol+e finding some e7traordinary indi+id.al, !.t merely picking o.t from among +ery ordinary
men
the few who are especially s.ited to this type of work. 3ltho.gh in this partic.lar gang only one man
in
eight wass.ited to doing the work, we had not the slightest diffic.lty in getting all the men who were
needed 44 some of them from inside of the works and others from the neigh!oring co.ntry 44 who
were
e7actly s.ited to the 2o!.

)nder the management of /initiati+e and incenti+e/ the attit.de of the management is that of /p.tting
the
work .p to the workmen./ What likelihood wo.ld there !e, then, .nder the old type of management,
of
these men properly selecting themsel+es for pig4iron handling> Wo.ld they !e likely to get rid of
se+en
men o.t of eight from their own gang and retain only the eighth man> &oL 3nd no e7pedientco.ld !e
de+ised which wo.ld make these men properly select themsel+es. E+en ifthey f.lly reali1ed the
necessity
of doing so in order to o!tain high wages "and they are not s.fficiently intelligent properly to grasp
this
necessity$, the fact that their friends or their !rothers who were working right alongside of them
wo.ld
temporarily !e thrown o.t of a 2o! !eca.se they were not s.ited to this kind of work wo.ld entirely
pre+ent
them from properly selecting themsel+es, that is, from remo+ing the se+en o.t of eight men on the
gang
who were .ns.ited to pig4iron handling.

3s to the possi!ility, .nder the old type of management, of ind.cing these pig4iron handlers "after
they
had !een properly selected$ to work in accordance withthe science of doing hea+y la!oring, namely,
ha+ing proper scientifically determined periods of rest in close se0.ence to periods of work. 3s has
!een
indicated !efore, the essential idea of the ordinary types of management is that each workman has
!ecome
more skilled in his own trade than it is possi!le for any one in the management to !e, and that,
therefore,
the details of how the work shall !est !e done m.st !e left to him. The idea, then, of taking one man
after
anotherand training him .nder a competent teacher into new working ha!its .ntil he contin.ally and
ha!it.ally works in accordance with scientific laws, which ha+e !een de+eloped !y some one else,
is
directly antagonistic to the old idea that eachworkman can !est reg.late his own way of doing the
work.
3nd !esides this, the man s.ited to handling pig iron is too st.pid properly to train himself. Th.s
itwill !e
seen that with the ordinary types of management the de+elopment of scientific knowledge to replace
r.le
of th.m!, the scientific selection of the men, and ind.cing the men to work in accordance with these
scientific principles are entirely o.t of the 0.estion. 3nd this !eca.se the philosophy of the old
management p.ts the entire responsi!ility .pon the workmen, while the philosophy of thenew
places a
great part of it .pon the management.

With most readers great sympathy will !e aro.sed !eca.se se+en o.t of eight of these pig4iron
handlers
were thrown o.t of a 2o!. This sympathy is entirely wasted, !eca.se almost all of them were
immediately
gi+en other 2o!s with the 6ethlehem Steel *ompany. 3nd indeed it sho.ld !e .nderstood that the
remo+al
of these men from pig4iron handling, for which they were .nfit, was really a kindness to themsel+es,
!eca.se it was the first step toward finding them work for which they were pec.liarly fitted, and at
which,
after recei+ing proper training, they co.ld permanently and legitimately earn higher wages.

3ltho.gh the reader may !e con+inced that there is a certain science !ack of the handling of pig
iron, still
it is more than likely that he is still skeptical as to the e7istence of a science for doing other kinds of
la!oring. (ne of the important o!2ects of this paper is to con+ince its readers that e+ery single act of
e+ery
workman can !e red.ced to a science. With the hope of f.lly con+incing the reader of this fact,
therefore,
the writer proposes to gi+e se+eral more simple ill.strations from among the tho.sands which are at
hand.

For e7ample, the a+erage man wo.ld 0.estion whether there is m.ch of any science in the work of
sho+eling. Bet there is !.t little do.!t, if any intelligent reader of this paper were deli!erately to set
o.t to
find what may !e called the fo.ndation of the science of sho+eling, that with perhaps 1A to E= ho.rs
of
tho.ght and analysis he wo.ld !e almost s.re to ha+e arri+ed at the essence of this science. (n the
other
hand, so completely are the r.le4of4th.m! ideas still dominant that the writer has ne+er met a single
sho+el contractor to whom it had e+ere+en occ.rred that there was s.ch a thing as the science of
sho+eling. This science is so elementary as to !e almost self4e+ident.

For a first4class sho+eler there is a gi+en sho+el load at which he will do his!iggest day;s work. What
is
this sho+el load> Will a first4class man do more work per day with a sho+el load of A po.nds, 1=
po.nds,
1A po.nds, E=, EA, <=, or I= po.nds> &ow this is a 0.estion which can !e answered only thro.gh
caref.lly
made e7periments. 6y first selecting two or three first4class sho+elers, and paying them e7tra wages
for
doing tr.stworthy work, and then grad.ally +arying the sho+el load and ha+ing all the conditions
accompanying the work caref.lly o!ser+ed for se+eral weeks !y men who were .sed to
e7perimenting, it
was fo.nd that a first4class man wo.ld do his !iggest day;s work with a sho+el load of a!o.t E1
po.nds.
For instance, that this man wo.ld sho+el a larger tonnage per day with a E14po.nd load than with a
EI4
po.nd load or than with an 1F4po.nd load on his sho+el. %t is, of co.rse, e+ident that no sho+eler
can
always take a load of e7actlyE1 po.nds on his sho+el, !.t ne+ertheless, altho.gh his load may +ary
< or I
po.nds one way or the other, either !elow or a!o+e the E1 po.nds1 he will do his !iggest day;s
work when
his a+erage for the day is a!o.t E1 po.nds. The writer does not wish it to !e .nderstood that this is
the
whole of the art or science of sho+eling. There are many other elements, which together go to make
.p
this science. 6.t he wishes to indicate the important effect which this one piece of scientific
knowledge
has .pon the work of sho+eling.

3t the works of the 6ethlehem Steel *ompany, for e7ample, as a res.lt of this law, instead of
allowing
each sho+eler to select and own his own sho+el, it !ecame necessary to pro+ide some F to 1=
different
kinds of sho+els, etc., each one appropriate to handling a gi+en type of material5 not only so as to
ena!le
the men to handle an a+erage load of E1 po.nds, !.t also to adapt the sho+el to se+eral other
re0.irements
which !ecome perfectly e+ident when this work is st.died asa science. 3 large sho+el tool room was
!.ilt,
in which were stored not only sho+els !.t caref.lly designed and standardi1ed la!or implements of
all
kinds, s.ch as picks, crow!ars, etc. This made it possi!le to iss.e to each workman a sho+el which
wo.ld
hold a load of E1 po.nds of whate+er class of material they were to handle8 a small sho+el for ore,
say, or
a large one for ashes. %ron ore is one of the hea+y materials which are handled in a works of this
kind, and
rice coal, owing to the fact that it is so slippery on the sho+el, is one of the lightest materials. 3nd it
was
fo.nd on st.dying the r.le4of4th.m! plan at the 6ethlehem Steel *ompany, where each sho+eler
owned
his own sho+el, that he wo.ld fre0.ently go from sho+eling ore, with a load of a!o.t <= po.nds per
sho+el, to handling rice coal, with a load on the same sho+el of less than I po.nds. %n the one case,
he was
so o+erloaded that it was impossi!le for him to do a f.ll day;s work,and in the other case he was so
ridic.lo.sly .nderloaded that it was manifestlyimpossi!le to e+en appro7imate a day;s work.

6riefly to ill.strate some of the other elements which go to make .p the science of sho+eling,
tho.sands of
stop4watch o!ser+ations were made to st.dy 2.st how0.ickly a la!orer, pro+ided in each case with
the
proper type of sho+el, can p.sh his sho+el into the pile of materials and then draw it o.t properly
loaded.
These o!ser+ations were made first when p.shing the sho+el into the !ody of the pile. &e7t when
sho+eling on a dirt !ottom, that is, at the o.tside edge of the pile, and ne7t with a wooden !ottom,
and
finally with an iron !ottom. 3gain a similar acc.rate time st.dy was made of the time re0.ired to
swing
the sho+el !ackward and then throw the load for a gi+en hori1ontal distance, accompanied !y a
gi+en
height. This time st.dy was made for +ario.s com!inations of distance and height. With data of this
sort
!efore him, co.pled with the law of end.rance descri!ed in the case of the pig4iron handlers, it is
e+ident
that the man who is directing sho+elers can first teach them the e7act methods which sho.ld !e
employedto .se their strength to the +ery !est ad+antage, and can then assign them daily tasks
which are
so 2.st that the workman can each day !e s.re of earning the large !on.s which is paid whene+er
he
s.ccessf.lly performs this task.

There were a!o.t @== sho+elers and la!orers of this general class in the yard of the 6ethlehem
Steel
*ompany at this time. These men were scattered in their work o+er a yard which was, ro.ghly,
a!o.t two
miles long and half a mile wide. %norder that each workman sho.ld !e gi+en his proper implement
and his
proper instr.ctions for doing each new 2o!, it was necessary to esta!lish a detailed system for
directing
men in their work, in place of the old plan of handling them in large gro.ps, or gangs, .nder a few
yard
foremen. 3s each workman came into the works in the morning, he took o.t of his own special
pigeonhole, with his n.m!eron the o.tside, two pieces of paper, one of which stated 2.st what
implements
he was to get from the tool room and where he was to start to work, and the second of which ga+e
the
history of his pre+io.s day;s work5 that is, a statement of the work which he had done, how m.ch he
had
earned the day !efore, etc. Many of these men were foreigners and .na!le to read and write, !.t
they all
knew at a glance the essence of this report, !eca.se yellow paper showed the man that he had
failed to do
his f.ll task the day !efore, and informed him that he had not earned as m.ch as J1.FA a day, and
that
none !.t high4priced men wo.ld !e allowed to stay permanently with this gang. The hope was
f.rther
e7pressed that he wo.ldearn his f.ll wages on the following day. So that whene+er the men
recei+ed white
slips they knew that e+erything was all right, and whene+er they recei+ed yellow slips they reali1ed
that
they m.st do !etter or they wo.ld !e shifted to some other class of work.

Dealing with e+ery workman as a separate indi+id.al in this way in+ol+ed the !.ilding of a la!or
office
for the s.perintendent and clerks who were in charge ofthis section of the work. %n this office e+ery
la!orer;s work was planned o.t well in ad+ance, and the workmen were all mo+ed from place to
place !y
the clerkswith ela!orate diagrams or maps of the yard !efore them, +ery m.ch as chessmen are
mo+ed on
a chess4!oard, a telephone and messenger system ha+ing !een installed for this p.rpose. %n this
way a
large amo.nt of the time lost thro.gh ha+ing too many men in one place and too few in another, and
thro.gh waiting !etween 2o!s, was entirely eliminated. )nder the old system the workmen were kept
day
after day in comparati+ely large gangs, each .nder a single foreman, and the gang was apt to
remain of
pretty nearly the same si1e whether there was m.ch or little of the partic.lar kind of work on hand
which
this foreman had .nder his charge, since each gang had to !e kept large eno.gh to handle
whate+er work
in its special line was likely to come along.

When one ceases to deal with men in large gangs or gro.ps, and proceeds to st.dy each workman
as an
indi+id.al, if the workman fails to do his task, some competent teacher sho.ld !e sent to show him
e7actly
how his work can !est !e done, to g.ide, help, and enco.rage him, and, at the same time, to st.dy
his
possi!ilities as a workman. So that, .nder the plan which indi+id.ali1es each workman, instead of
!r.tally
discharging the man or lowering his wages for failing to make good at once, he is gi+en the time and
the
help re0.ired to make him proficient at his present 2o!, or he is shifted to another class of work for
which
he is either mentally or physically !etter s.ited.

3ll of this re0.ires the kindly cooperation of the management, and in+ol+es a m.ch more ela!orate
organi1ation and system than the old4fashioned herding of menin large gangs. This organi1ation
consisted, in this case, of one set of men, who were engaged in the de+elopment of the science of
la!oring
thro.gh time st.dy, s.ch as has !een descri!ed a!o+e5 another set of men, mostly skilled la!orers
themsel+es, who were teachers, and who helped and g.ided the men in their work5 another set of
tool4
room men who pro+ided them with the proper implements and kept them in perfect order, and
another set
of clerks who planned the work well inad+ance, mo+ed the men with the least loss of time from one
place
to another, and properly recorded each man;s earnings, etc. 3nd this f.rnishes an elementary
ill.stration
of what has !een referred to as cooperation !etween the management and the workmen.

The 0.estion which nat.rally presents itself is whether an ela!orate organi1ation of this sort can !e
made
to pay for itself5 whether s.ch an organi1ation is not top4hea+y. This 0.estion will !est !e answered
!y a
statement of the res.lts of the third year of working .nder this plan.

(ld Plan &ew Plan Task Work

The n.m!er of yard la!orers was red.ced from !etween I== M @== down to a!o.t
1I=
3+erage n.m!er of tons per man per day........ 1@ A 3+erage earnings per
man
per day...... J1.1A J1.FF 3+erage cost of handling a ton of EEI=
l!s.....
J=.=GE J=.=<<

3nd in comp.ting the low cost of J=.=<< per ton, the office and tool4room e7penses, and the wages
of all
la!or s.perintendents, foremen, clerks, time4st.dy men, etc., are incl.ded.

D.ring this year the total sa+ing of the new plan o+er the old amo.nted to J<@,I1G.@, and d.ring
the si7
months following, when all of the work of the yard was on task work, the sa+ing was at the rate of
!etween JGA,=== and JF=,=== per year.

Perhaps the most important of all the res.lts attained was the effect on the workmen themsel+es. 3
caref.l
in0.iry into the condition of these men de+eloped the fact that o.t of the 1I= workmen only two were
said
to !e drinking men. This does not, of co.rse, imply that many of them did not take an occasional
drink.
The fact is that a steady drinker wo.ld find it almost impossi!le to keep .p with the pace which was
set,
so that they were practically all so!er. Many, if not most of them, were sa+ing money, and they all
li+ed
!etter than they had !efore. These men constit.ted the finest !ody of picked la!orers that the writer
has
e+erseen together, and they looked .pon the men who were o+er them, their !osses and their
teachers, as
their +ery !est friends5 not as nigger dri+ers, forcing them to work e7tra hard for ordinary wages, !.t
as
friends who were teaching them and helping them to earn m.ch higher wages than they had e+er
earned
!efore. %t wo.ld ha+e !een a!sol.tely impossi!le for any one to ha+e stirred .p strife !etween these
men
and their employers. 3nd this presents a +ery simple tho.gh effecti+e ill.stration of what is meant !y
the
words /prosperity for the employ:, co.pled with prosperity for the employer,/ the two principal
o!2ects of
management. %t is e+ident also that this res.lt has !een !ro.ght a!o.t !y the application of the fo.r
f.ndamental principles of scientific management.

3s another ill.stration of the +al.e of a scientific st.dy of the moti+es whichinfl.ence workmen in
their
daily work, the loss of am!ition and initiati+e will!e cited, which takes place in workmen when they
are
herded into gangs instead of !eing treated as separate indi+id.als. 3 caref.l analysis had
demonstrated the
fact that when workmen are herded together in gangs, each man in the gang !ecomes far less
efficient
than when his personal am!ition is stim.lated5 that when men work in gangs, their indi+id.al
efficiency
falls almost in+aria!ly down to or !elow the le+el of the worst man in the gang5 and that they are all
p.lled down instead of !eing ele+ated !y !eing herded together. For this reason a general order had
!een
iss.ed in the 6ethlehem Steel Works that not more than fo.r men were to !e allowed to work in a
la!or
gang witho.t a special permit, signed !y the ,eneral S.perintendent of the works, this special
permit to
e7tend for one week only. it was arranged that as far as possi!le each la!orer sho.ld !e gi+en a
separate
indi+id.al task. 3s there were a!o.t A=== men at work in the esta!lishment, the ,eneral
S.perintendent
had so m.ch to do that there was !.t little time left for signing these special permits.

3fter gang work had !een !y this means !roken .p, an .n.s.ally fine set of ore sho+elers had !een
de+eloped, thro.gh caref.l selection and indi+id.al, scientific training. Each of these men was gi+en
a
separate ear to .nload each day, and his wages depended .pon his own personal work. The man
who
.nloaded the largest amo.nt of ore was paid the highest wages, and an .n.s.al opport.nity came
for
demonstrating the importance of indi+id.ali1ing each workman. M.ch of this ore came from the
9ake
S.perior region, and the same ore was deli+ered !oth in Pitts!.rg and in 6ethlehem in e7actly
similar
cars. There was a shortage of ore handlersin Pitts!.rg, and hearing of the fine gang of la!orers that
had
!een de+eloped at 6ethlehem, one of the Pitts!.rg steel works sent an agent to hire the 6ethlehem
men.
The Pitts!.rg men offered I H1= cents a ton for .nloading e7actly the same ore, with the same
sho+els,
from the same cars, that were .nloaded in 6ethlehem for < EH1= cents a ton. 3fter caref.lly
considering
this sit.ation, it was decided that it wo.ld !e .nwise to pay more than < EH1= cents per ton for
.nloading
the 6ethlehem cars, !eca.se, at this rate, the 6ethlehem la!orers were earning a little o+er J1.FA
per man
per day, and this price was @= per cent more than the r.ling rate of wages aro.nd 6ethlehem.

3 long series of e7periments, co.pled with close o!ser+ation, had demonstrated the fact that when
workmen of this cali!er are gi+en a caref.lly meas.red task, which calls for a !ig day;s work on their
part,
and that when in ret.rn for thise7tra effort they are paid wages .p to @= per cent !eyond the wages
.s.ally
paid, that this increase in wages tends to make them not only more thrifty !.t !etter men in e+ery
way5
that they li+e rather !etter, !egin to sa+e money, !ecome more so!er, and work more steadily.
When, on
the other hand, they recei+e m.ch more than a @= per cent increase in wages, many of them will
work
irreg.larly and tend to !ecome more or less shiftless, e7tra+agant, and dissipated. (.r e7periments
showed, in other words, that it does not do for most men to get rich too fast.

3fter deciding, for this reason, not to raise the wages of o.r ore handlers, these men were !ro.ght
into the
office one at a time, and talked to somewhat as follows8

/&ow, Patrick, yo. ha+e pro+ed to .s that yo. are a high4priced man. Bo. ha+e !een earning e+ery
day a
little more than J1.FA, and yo. are 2.st the sort of manthat we want to ha+e in o.r ore4sho+eling
gang. 3
man has come here from Pitts!.rg, who is offering I H1= cents per ton for handling ore while we
can pay
only< EH1= cents per ton. % think, therefore, that yo. had !etter apply to this manfor a 2o!. (f co.rse,
yo.
know we are +ery sorry to ha+e yo. lea+e .s, !.t yo. ha+e pro+ed yo.rself a high4priced man, and
we are
+ery glad to see yo. get thischance of earning more money. ?.st remem!er, howe+er, that at any
time in
the f.t.re, when yo. get o.t of a 2o!, yo. can always come right !ack to .s. There will always !e a
2o! for
a high4priced man like yo. in o.r gang here./

3lmost all of the ore handlers took this ad+ice, and went to Pitts!.rg, !.t in a!o.t si7 weeks most of
them
were again !ack in 6ethlehem .nloading ore at the old rate of < EH1= cents a ton. The writer had the
following talk with one of these men after he had ret.rned8

/Patrick, what are yo. doing !ack here> % tho.ght we had gotten rid of yo../

/Well, sir, %;ll tell yo. how it was. When we got o.t there ?immy and % were p.t on to a car with eight
other men. We started to sho+el the ore o.t 2.st the same as we do here. 3fter a!o.t half an ho.r %
saw a
little de+il alongside of me doing pretty near nothing, so % said to him, ;Why don;t yo. go to work>
)nless
we get the ore o.t of this car we won;t get any money on pay4day.; -e t.rned to me and said, ;Who
in 44 4
4 44 are yo.>; ;Well,; % said, ;that;s none of yo.r !.siness;5 and the little de+il stood .p to me and
said,
;Bo.;ll !e minding yo.rown !.siness, or %;ll throw yo. off this carL; ;Well, % co.ld ha+e spit on him and
drowned him, !.t the rest of the men p.t down their sho+els and looked as ifthey were going to !ack
him
.p5 so % went ro.nd to ?immy and said "so that the whole gang co.ld hear it$, ;&ow, ?immy, yo. and
% will
throw a sho+elf.l whene+er this little de+il throws one, and not another sho+elf.l.; So we watched
him,
and only sho+eled when he sho+eled. 44 When pay4day came aro.nd, tho.gh, we had less money
than we
got here at 6ethlehem. 3fter that ?immy and % went in to the !oss, and asked him for a car to
o.rsel+es,
the same as we got at 6ethlehem, !.the told .s to mind o.r own !.siness. 3nd when another pay4
day
came aro.nd we had less money than we got here at 6ethlehem, so ?immy and % got the gang
togetherand
!ro.ght them all !ack here to work again./

When working each man for himself, these men were a!le to earn higher wages at < EH1= cents a
ton than
they co.ld earn when they were paid I H1= cents a ton on gang work5 and this again shows the
great gain
which res.lts from working according to e+en the most elementary of scientific principles. 6.t it also
shows that in the application of the most elementary principles it is necessary for the management
to do
their share of the work in cooperating with the workmen. The Pitts!.rg managers knew 2.st how the
res.lts had !een attained at 6ethlehem, !.t they were .nwilling to go to the small tro.!le and
e7pense
re0.ired to plan aheadand assign a separate car to each sho+eler, and then keep an indi+id.al
record of
each man;s work, and pay him 2.st what he had earned.

6ricklaying is one of the oldest of o.r trades. For h.ndreds of years there has!een little or no
impro+ement made in the implements and materials .sed in thistrade, nor in fact in the method of
laying
!ricks. %n spite of the millions of men who ha+e practised this trade, no great impro+ement has !een
e+ol+ed for many generations. -ere, then, at least, one wo.ld e7pect to find !.t little gain possi!le
thro.gh scientific analysis and st.dy. Mr Frank 6. ,il!reth, a mem!er of o.r Society, who had
himself
st.died !ricklaying in his yo.th, !ecame interestedin the principles of scientific management, and
decided
to apply them to the art of !ricklaying. -e made an intensely interesting analysis and st.dy of each
mo+ement of the !ricklayer, and one after another eliminated all .nnecessary mo+ements and
s.!stit.ted
fast for slow motions. -e e7perimented with e+ery min.te element which in any way affects the
speed and
the tiring of the !ricklayer.

-e de+eloped the e7act position which each of the feet of the !ricklayer sho.ldocc.py with relation
to the
wall, the mortar !o7, and the pile of !ricks, and so made it .nnecessary for him to take a step or two
toward the pile of !ricks and !ack again each time a !rick is laid.

-e st.died the !est height for the mortar !o7 and !rick pile, and then designeda scaffold, with a
ta!le on
it, .pon which all of the materials are placed, so as to keep the !ricks, the mortar, the man, and the
wall in
their proper relati+e positions. These scaffolds are ad2.sted, as the wall grows in height, for all of the
!ricklayers !y a la!orer especially detailed for this p.rpose, and !y this means the !ricklayer is
sa+ed the
e7ertion of stooping down to the le+el of his feet for each !rick and each trowelf.l of mortar and then
straightening .p again. Think of the waste of effort that has gone on thro.gh all these years, with
each
!ricklayer lowering his !ody, weighing, say, 1A= po.nds, down two feet and raising it .p again e+ery
time
a !rick "weighing a!o.t A po.nds$ is laid in the wallL 3nd this each !ricklayer did a!o.t one
tho.sand
times a day.

3s a res.lt of f.rther st.dy, after the !ricks are .nloaded from the cars, and !efore !ringing them to
the
!ricklayer, they are caref.lly sorted !y a la!orer, and placed with their !est edge .p on a simple
wooden
frame, constr.cted so as to ena!le him to take hold of each !rick in the 0.ickest time and in the
most
ad+antageo.s position. %n this way the !ricklayer a+oids either ha+ing to t.rn the !rick o+er or end
for end
to e7amine it !efore laying it, and he sa+es, also, the time taken in deciding which is the !est edge
and
end to place on the o.tside of the wall. %n most eases, also, he sa+es the time taken in disentangling
the
!rick from a disorderly pile on the scaffold. This /pack/ of !ricks "as Mr ,il!reth calls his loaded
wooden
frames$ is placed !y the helper in its proper position on the ad2.sta!le scaffold close to the mortar
!o7.

We ha+e all !een .sed to seeing !ricklayers tap each !rick after it is placed on its !ed of mortar
se+eral
times with the end of the handle of the trowel so asto sec.re the right thickness for the 2oint. Mr
,il!reth
fo.nd that !y tempering the mortar 2.st right, the !ricks co.ld !e readily !edded to the proper depth
!y a
downward press.re of the hand with which they are laid. -e insisted that his mortar mi7ers sho.ld
gi+e
special attention to tempering the mortar, and so sa+e the time cons.med in tapping the !rick.

Thro.gh all of this min.te st.dy of the motions to !e made !y the !ricklayer inlaying !ricks .nder
standard conditions, Mr ,il!reth has red.ced his mo+ements from eighteen motions per !rick to
fi+e, and
e+en in one case to as low as two motions per !rick. -e has gi+en all of the details of this analysis
to the
profession in the chapter headed /Motion St.dy,/ of his !ook entitled /6ricklaying System,/
p.!lished !y
Myron *. *lerk P.!lishing *ompany, &ew Bork and *hicago5 E. F. &. Spon, of 9ondon.

3n analysis of the e7pedients .sed !y Mr ,il!reth in red.cing the motions of his !ricklayers from
eighteen to fi+e shows that this impro+ement has !een made inthree different ways8

First. -e has entirely dispensed with certain mo+ements which the !ricklayers in the past !elie+ed
were
necessary5 !.t which a caref.l st.dy and trial on his part ha+e shown to !e .seless.

Second. -e has introd.ced simple apparat.s, s.ch as his ad2.sta!le scaffold andhis packets for
holding the
!ricks, !y means of which, with a +ery small amo.ntof cooperation from a cheap la!orer, he entirely
eliminates a lot of tiresome and time4cons.ming motions which are necessary for the !ricklayer who
lacks
the scaffold and the packet.

Third. -e teaches his !ricklayers to make simple motions with !oth hands at thesame time, where
!efore
they completed a motion with the right hand and followed it later with one from the left hand.

For e7ample, Mr ,il!reth teaches his !ricklayer to pick .p a !rick in the left hand at the same instant
that
he takes a trowelf.l of mortar with the right hand. This work with two hands at the same time is, of
co.rse, made possi!le !y s.!stit.ting a deep mortar !o7 for the old mortar !oard "on which the
mortar
spread o.t so thin that a step or two had to !e taken to reach it$ and then placing themortar !o7 and
the
!rick pile close together, and at the proper height on his new scaffold.

These three kinds of impro+ements are typical of the ways in which needless motions can !e
entirely
eliminated and 0.icker types of mo+ements s.!stit.ted for slow mo+ements when scientific motion
st.dy,
as Mr ,il!reth calls his analysis, time st.dy, as the writer has called similar work, are applied in any
trade.

Most practical men wo.ld "knowing the opposition of almost all tradesmen to making any change in
their
methods and ha!its$, howe+er, !e skeptical as to the possi!ility of act.ally achie+ing any large
res.lts
from a st.dy of this sort. Mr ,il!reth reports that a few months ago, in a large !rick !.ilding which
he
erected, he demonstrated on a commercial scale the great gain which is possi!le from practically
applying
his scientific st.dy. With .nion !ricklayers, in laying a factory wall, twel+e inches thick, with two
kinds of
!rick, faced and r.led 2ointson !oth sides of the wall, he a+eraged, after his selected workmen had
!ecome
skilf.l in his new methods, <A= !ricks per man per ho.r5 whereas the a+erage speed of doing this
work
with the old methods was, in that section of the co.ntry, 1E= !ricks per man per ho.r. -is
!ricklayers
were ta.ght his new method of !ricklaying !y their foreman. These who failed to profit !y their
teaching
were dropped, and each man, as he !ecame proficient .nder the new method, recei+ed a
s.!stantial "not a
small$ increase in his wages. With a +iew to indi+id.ali1ing his workmen and stim.lating each man
to do
his !est, Mr ,il!reth also de+eloped an ingenio.s method for meas.ring and recording the n.m!er
of
!ricks laid !y each man,and for telling each workman at fre0.ent inter+als how many !ricks he had
s.cceeded in laying.

%t is only when this work is compared with the conditions which pre+ail .nder the tyranny of some of
o.r
misg.ided !ricklayers; .nions that the great waste of h.man effort which is going on will !e reali1ed.
%n
one foreign city the !ricklayers .nion ha+e restricted their men to EGA !ricks per day on work of this
character when working for the city, and <GA per day when working for pri+ate owners.The mem!ers
of
this .nion are pro!a!ly sincere in their !elief that this restriction of o.tp.t is a !enefit to their trade. %t
sho.ld !e plain to all men, howe+er, that this deli!erate loafing is almost criminal, in that it ine+ita!ly
res.lts in making e+ery workman;s family pay higher rent for their ho.sing, and alsoin the end dri+es
work and trade away from their city, instead of !ringing it to it.

Why is it, in a trade which has !een contin.ally practised since !efore the *hristian era, and with
implements practically the same as they now are, that this simplification of the !ricklayer;s
mo+ements,
this great gain, has not !een made!efore>

%t is highly likely that many times d.ring all of these years indi+id.al !ricklayers ha+e recogni1ed the
possi!ility of eliminating each of these .nnecessary motions. 6.t e+en if, in the past, he did in+ent
each
one of Mr ,il!reth;s impro+ements, no !ricklayer co.ld alone increase his speed thro.gh their
adoption
!eca.se it will !e remem!ered that in all cases se+eral !ricklayers work together ina row and that
the
walls all aro.nd a !.ilding m.st grow at the same rate of speed. &o one !ricklayer, then, can work
m.ch
faster than the one ne7t to him. &orhas any one workman the a.thority to make other men
cooperate with
him to do faster work. %t is only thro.gh enforced standardi1ation of methods, enforced adoption of
the
!est implements and working conditions, and enforced cooperation that this faster work can !e
ass.red.
3nd the d.ty of enforcing the adoption of standards and of enforcing this cooperation rests with the
management alone. The management m.st s.pply contin.ally one or more teachers to show each
new
man the new and simpler motions, and the slower men m.st !e constantly watched and helped.ntil
they
ha+e risen to their proper speed. 3ll of those who, after proper teaching, either will not or cannot
work in
accordance with the new methods and at the higher speed m.st !e discharged !y the management.
The
management m.st also recogni1e the !road fact that workmen will not s.!mit to this more rigid
standardi1ation and will not work e7tra hard, .nless they recei+e e7tra pay for doing it.

3ll of this in+ol+es an indi+id.al st.dy of and treatment for each man, while in the past they ha+e
!een
handled in large gro.ps.

The management m.st also see that those who prepare the !ricks and the mortar and ad2.st the
scaffold,
etc., for the !ricklayers, cooperate with them !y doing their work 2.st right and always on time5 and
they
m.st also inform each !ricklayer at fre0.ent inter+als as to the progress he is making, so that he
may not
.nintentionally fall off in his pace. Th.s it will !e seen that it is the ass.mption !y the management
of
new d.ties and new kinds of work ne+er done !y employersin the past that makes this great
impro+ement
possi!le, and that, witho.t this new help from the management, the workman e+en with f.ll
knowledge of
the new methods and with the !est of intentions co.ld not attain these startling res.lts.

Mr ,il!reth;s method of !ricklaying f.rnishes a simple ill.stration of tr.e andeffecti+e cooperation.
&ot
the type of cooperation in which a mass of workmen on one side together cooperate with the
management5
!.t that in which se+eral menin the management "each one in his own partic.lar way$ help each
workman
indi+id.ally, on the one hand, !y st.dying his needs and his shortcomings and teachinghim !etter
and
0.icker methods, and, on the other hand, !y seeing that all other workmen with whom he comes in
contact help and cooperate with him !y doing their part of the work right and fast.

The writer has gone th.s f.lly into Mr ,il!reth;s method in order that it may !e perfectly clear that
this
increase in o.tp.t and that this harmony co.ld not ha+e !een attained .nder the management of
/initiati+e
and incenti+e/ "that is, !y p.tting the pro!lem .p to the workman and lea+ing him to sol+e it alone$
whichhas !een the philosophy of the past. 3nd that his s.ccess has !een d.e to the .se of the fo.r
elements which constit.te the essence of scientific management.

First. The de+elopment "!y the management, not the workman$ of the science of !ricklaying, with
rigid
r.les for each motion of e+ery man, and the perfection and standardi1ation of all implements and
working
conditions.

Second. The caref.l selection and s.!se0.ent training of the !ricklayers into first4class men, and
the
elimination of all men who ref.se to or are .na!le to adopt the !est methods.

Third. 6ringing the first4class !ricklayer and the science of !ricklaying together, thro.gh the constant
help and watchf.lness of the management, and thro.gh paying each man a large daily !on.s for
working
fast and doing what he is told todo.

Fo.rth. 3n almost e0.al di+ision of the work and responsi!ility !etween the workman and the
management. 3ll day long the management work almost side !y side with the men, helping,
enco.raging,
and smoothing the way for them, while in the past they stood one side, ga+e the men !.t little help,
and
threw on to them almost the entire responsi!ility as to methods, implements, speed, and
harmonio.s
cooperation.

(f these fo.r elements, the first "the de+elopment of the science of !ricklaying$ is the most
interesting and
spectac.lar. Each of the three others is, howe+er, 0.ite as necessary for s.ccess.

%t m.st not !e forgotten that !ack of all this, and directing it, there m.st !ethe optimistic, determined,
and
hard4working leader who can wait patiently as well as work.

%n most cases "partic.larly when the work to !e done is intricate in its nat.re$ the /de+elopment of
the
science/ is the most important of the fo.r great elements of the new management. There are
instances,
howe+er, in which the /scientific selection of the workman/ co.nts for more than anything else.

3 case of this type is well ill.strated in the +ery simple tho.gh .n.s.al work of inspecting !icyc%e
!alls.

When the !icycle cra1e was at its height some years ago se+eral million small !alls made of
hardened
steel were .sed ann.ally in !icycle !earings. 3nd among the twenty or more operations .sed in
making
steel !alls, perhaps the most important was that of inspecting them after final polishing so as to
remo+e all
fire4cracked or otherwise imperfect !alls !efore !o7ing.

The writer was gi+en the task of systemati1ing the largest !icycle !all factoryin this co.ntry. This
company had !een r.nning for from eight to ten years on ordinary day work !efore he .ndertook its
reorgani1ation, so that the one h.ndredand twenty or more girls who were inspecting the !alls were
/old
hands/ and skilled at their 2o!s. %t is impossi!le e+en in the most elementary work to change rapidly
from
the old independence of indi+id.al day work to scientific cooperation.

%n most cases, howe+er, there e7ist certain imperfections in working conditionswhich can at once !e
impro+ed with !enefit to all concerned.

%n this instance it was fo.nd that the inspectors "girls$ were working ten and one4half ho.rs per day
"with
a Sat.rday half holiday.$

Their work consisted !riefly in placing a row of small polished steel !alls on the !ack of the left
hand, in
the crease !etween two of the fingers pressed together, and while they were rolled o+er and o+er,
they
were min.tely e7amined in astrong light, and with the aid of a magnet held in the right hand, the
defecti+e !alls were picked o.t and thrown into especial !o7es. Fo.r kinds of defects were looked
for 44
dented, soft, scratched, and fire4cracked 44 and they were mostly so min.te as to !e in+isi!le to an
eye not
especially trained to this work. %t re0.ired the closest attention and concentration, so that the
ner+o.s
tension of the inspectors was considera!le, in spite of the fact that they were comforta!ly seated
and were
not physically tired.

3 most cas.al st.dy made it e+ident that a +ery considera!le part of the ten and one4half ho.rs
d.ring
which the girls were s.pposed to work was really spent in idleness !eca.se the working period was
too
long.

%t is a matter of ordinary common sense to plan working ho.rs so that the workers can really /work
while
they work/ and /play while they play,/ and not mi7 thetwo. 6efore the arri+al of Mr Sanford E.
Thompson, who .ndertook a scientific st.dy of the whole process, we decided, therefore, to shorten
the
working ho.rs.

The old foreman who had !een o+er the inspecting room for years was instr.cted to inter+iew one
after
another of the !etter inspectors and the more infl.entialgirls and pers.ade them that they co.ld do
2.st as
m.ch work in ten ho.rs each day as they had !een doing in ten and one4half ho.rs. Each girl was
told that
the proposition was to shorten the day;s work to ten ho.rs and pay them the same day;s pay they
were
recei+ing for the ten and one4half ho.rs.

%n a!o.t two weeks the foreman reported that all of the girls he had talked to agreed that they co.ld
do
their present work 2.st as well in ten ho.rs as in tenand one4half and that they appro+ed of the
change.

The writer had not !een especially noted for his tact so he decided that it wo.ld !e wise for him to
display
a little more of this 0.ality !y ha+ing the girls +ote on the new proposition. This decision was hardly
2.stified, howe+er, for when the +ote was taken the girls were .nanimo.s that l= 1HE ho.rs was good
eno.ghfor them and they wanted no inno+ation of any kind.

This settled the matter for the time !eing. 3 few months later tact was thrown to the winds and the
working ho.rs were ar!itrarily shortened in s.ccessi+e steps to 1= ho.rs, 1HE, , and F 1HE "the
pay per
day remaining the same$5 and with each shortening of the working day the o.tp.t increased instead
of
diminishing.

The change from the old to the scientific method in this department was made .nder the direction of
Mr
Sanford E. Thompson, perhaps the most e7perienced man inmotion and time st.dy in this co.ntry,
.nder
the general s.perintendence of Mr -. 9. ,a.tt.

%n the Physiological departments of o.r .ni+ersities e7periments are reg.larly cond.cted to
determine
what is known as the /personal coefficient/ of the man tested. This is done !y s.ddenly !ringing
some
o!2ect, the letter 3 or 6 for instance, within the range of +ision of the s.!2ect, who, the instant he
recogni1es the letter has to do some definite thing, s.ch as to press a partic.lar electric !.tton. The
time
which elapses from the instant the letter comes in +iew .ntil the s.!2ect presses the !.tton is
acc.rately
recorded !y a delicate scientific instr.ment.

This test shows concl.si+ely that there is a great difference in the /personal coefficient/ of different
men.
Some indi+id.als are !orn with .n.s.ally 0.ick powers of perception accompanied !y 0.ick
responsi+e
action. With some the messageis almost instantly transmitted from the eye to the !rain, and the
!rain
e0.ally 0.ickly responds !y sending the proper message to the hand.

Men of this type are said to ha+e a low /personal coefficient,/ while those of slow perception and
slow
action ha+e a high /personal coefficient./

Mr Thompson soon recogni1ed that the 0.ality most needed for !icycle !all inspectors was a low
/personal coefficient./ (f co.rse the ordinary 0.alities of end.rance and ind.stry were also called
for.

For the .ltimate good of the girls as well as the company, howe+er, it !ecame necessary to e7cl.de
all
girls who lacked a low /personal coefficient./ 3nd .nfort.nately this in+ol+ed laying off many of the
most
intelligent, hardest working,and most tr.stworthy girls merely !eca.se they did not possess the
0.ality of
0.ick perception followed !y 0.ick action.

While the grad.al selection of girls was going on other changes were also !eingmade.

(ne of the dangers to !e g.arded against, when the pay of the man or woman is made in any way
to
depend on the 0.antity of the work done, is that in the effortto increase the 0.antity the 0.ality is apt
to
deteriorate.

%t is necessary in almost all cases, therefore, to take definite steps to ins.re against any falling off in
0.ality !efore mo+ing in any way towards an increase in 0.antity. %n the work of these partic.lar girls
0.ality was the +ery essence. They were engaged in picking o.t all defecti+e !alls.

The first step, therefore, was to make it impossi!le for them to slight their work witho.t !eing fo.nd
o.t.
This was accomplished thro.gh what is known as o+er4inspection Each one of fo.r of the most
tr.stworthy girls was gi+en each day a lot of !alls to inspect which had !een e7amined the day
!efore !y
one of the reg.lar inspectors5 the n.m!er identifying the lot to !e o+er4inspected ha+ing
!eenchanged !y
the foreman so that none of the o+er4inspectors knew whose work theywere e7amining. %n addition
to this
one of the lots inspected !y the fo.r o+er4inspectors was e7amined on the following day !y the chief
inspector, selected onacco.nt of her especial acc.racy and integrity.

3n effecti+e e7pedient was adopted for checking the honesty and acc.racy of theo+er4inspection.
E+ery
two or three days a lot of !alls was especially prepared!y the foreman, who co.nted o.t a definite
n.m!er
of perfect !alls, and added arecorded n.m!er of defecti+e !alls of each kind. &either the inspectors
nor
theo+er4inspectors had any means of disting.ishing this prepared lot from the reg.lar commercial
lots.
3nd in this way all temptation to slight their work or makefalse ret.rns was remo+ed.

3fter ins.ring in this way against deterioration in 0.ality, effecti+e means were at once adopted to
increase the o.tp.t. %mpro+ed day work was s.!stit.ted forthe old slipshod method. 3n acc.rate
daily
record was kept !oth as to the 0.antity and 0.ality of the work done in order to g.ard against any
personal
pre2.dice on the part of the foreman and to ins.re a!sol.te impartiality and 2.stice foreach inspector.
%n a
comparati+ely short time this record ena!led the foreman to stir the am!ition of all the inspectors !y
increasing the wages of those who t.rned o.t a large 0.antity and good 0.ality, while at the same
time
lowering thepay of those who did indifferent work and discharging others who pro+ed to !e
incorrigi!ly
slow or careless. 3 caref.l e7amination was then made of the way in which each girl spent her time
and
an acc.rate time st.dy was .ndertaken, thro.gh the .se of a stop4watch and record !lanks, to
determine
how fast each kind of inspection sho.ld !e done, and to esta!lish the e7act conditions .nder which
each
girl co.ld do her 0.ickest and !est work, while at the same time g.arding against gi+ing her a task
so
se+ere that there was danger from o+er fatig.e or e7ha.stion. This in+estigation showed that the
girls
spent a considera!le part of their time either in partial idleness, talking and half working, or in
act.ally
doing nothing.

E+en when the ho.rs of la!or had !een shortened from 1= 1HE to F 1HE ho.rs, a close o!ser+ation of
the
girls showed that after a!o.t an ho.r and one4half of consec.ti+e work they !egan to get ner+o.s.
They
e+idently needed a rest. %t is wise to stop short of the point at which o+erstrain !egins, so we
arranged for
them to ha+e a ten min.tes period for recreation at the end of each ho.r and one 0.arter. D.ring
these
recess periods "two of ten min.tes each in the morning and two in the afternoon$ they were o!liged
to stop
work and were enco.raged to lea+etheir seats and get a complete change of occ.pation !y walking
aro.nd
and talking, etc.

%n one respect no do.!t some people will say that these girls were !r.tally treated. They were
seated so far
apart that they co.ld not con+eniently talk while at work.

Shortening their ho.rs of la!or, howe+er, and pro+iding so far as we knew the most fa+ora!le
working
conditions made it possi!le for them to really work steadily instead of pretending to do so.

3nd it is only after this stage in the reorgani1ation is reached, when the girls ha+e !een properly
selected
and on the one hand s.ch preca.tions ha+e !een taken as to g.ard against the possi!ility of o+er4
dri+ing
them, while, on the otherhand, the temptation to slight their work has !een remo+ed and the most
fa+ora!le working conditions ha+e !een esta!lished, that the final step sho.ld !e takenwhich
ins.res them
what they most want, namely, high wages, and the employers what they most want, namely, the
ma7im.m
o.tp.t and !est 0.ality of work, 44 which means a low la!or cost.

This step is to gi+e each girl each day a caref.lly meas.red task which demandsa f.ll day;s work
from a
competent operati+e, and also to gi+e her a large premi.m or !on.s whene+er she accomplishes
this task.

This was done in this case thro.gh esta!lishing what is known as differential rate piece work."AC$
)nder
this system the pay of each girl was increased in proportion to the 0.antity of her o.tp.t and also
still
more in proportion to the acc.racy of her work.

3s will !e shown later, the differential rate "the lots inspected !y the o+er4inspectors forming the
!asis for
the differential$ res.lted in a large gain in the 0.antity of work done and at the same time in a
marked
impro+ement in the 0.ality.

6efore they finally worked to the !est ad+antage it was fo.nd to !e necessary to meas.re the o.tp.t
of
each girl as often as once e+ery ho.r, and to send a teacher to each indi+id.al who was fo.nd to !e
falling
!ehind to find what was wrong, to straighten her o.t, and to enco.rage and help her to catch .p.

There is a general principle !ack of this which sho.ld !e appreciated !y all ofthose who are
especially
interested in the management of men.

3 reward, if it is to !e effecti+e in stim.lating men to do their !est work, m.st come soon after the
work
has !een done. 6.t few men are a!le to look forward for more than a week or perhaps at most a
month,
and work hard for a reward which they are to recei+e at the end of this time.

The a+erage workman m.st !e a!le to meas.re what he has accomplished and clearly see his
reward at the
end of each day if he is to do his !est. 3nd more elementary characters, s.ch as the yo.ng girls
inspecting
!icycle !alls, or children, for instance, sho.ld ha+e proper enco.ragement either in the shape of
personal
attention from those o+er them or an act.al reward in sight as often as once an ho.r.

This is one of the principal reasons why cooperation or /profit4sharing/ eitherthro.gh selling stock to
the
employ:s or thro.gh di+idends on wages recei+ed atthe end of the year, etc., ha+e !een at the !est
only
mildly effecti+e in stim.lating men to work hard. The nice time which they are s.re to ha+e to4day if
they
take things easily and go slowly pro+es more attracti+e than steady hard work with a possi!le
reward to !e
shared with others si7 months later. 3 second reason for the inefficiency of profit4sharing schemes
had
!een that no form of cooperation has yet !een de+ised in which each indi+id.al is allowed free
scope for
his personal am!ition. Personal am!ition always has !een and will remain a more powerf.l
incenti+e to
e7ertion than a desire for the general welfare. The few misplaced drones, who do the loafing and
share
e0.ally in the profits, with the rest, .nder cooperation are s.re to drag the !etter men down toward
their
le+el. (ther and formida!le diffic.lties in the path of cooperati+e schemes are, the e0.ita!le di+ision
of
the profits, and the fact that, while workmen are always ready to share the profits, they are neither
a!le
nor willing to share the losses. F.rther than this, in many cases, it is neither right nor 2.st that they
sho.ld
share either the profits or the losses, since these may !e d.e in great part to ca.ses entirely !eyond
their
infl.ence or control, and to which they do not contri!.te.

To come !ack to the girls inspecting !icycle !alls, howe+er, the final o.tcome of all the changes was
that
thirty4fi+e girls did the work formerly done !y one h.ndred and twenty. 3nd that the acc.racy of the
work
at the higher speed was two4thirds greater than at the former slow speed.

The good that came to the girls was,

First. That they a+eraged from F= to 1== per cent higher wages than they formerly recei+ed.

Second. Their ho.rs of la!or were shortened from 1= 1HE to F 1HE per day, with a Sat.rday half
holiday.
3nd they were gi+en fo.r recreation periods properly distri!.ted thro.gh the day, which made
o+erworkmg impossi!le for a healthy girl.

Third. Each girl was made to feel that she was the o!2ect of especial care and interest on the part of
the
management, and that if anything went wrong with hershe co.ld always ha+e a helper and teacher
in the
management to lean .pon.

Fo.rth. 3ll yo.ng women sho.ld !e gi+en two consec.ti+e days of rest "with pay$each month, to !e
taken
whene+er they may choose. %t is my impression that these girls were gi+en this pri+ilege, altho.gh %
am
not 0.ite certain on this point.

The !enefits which came to the company from these changes were8

First. 3 s.!stantial impro+ement in the 0.ality of the prod.ct.

Second. 3 material red.ction in the cost of inspection, in spite of the e7tra e7pense in+ol+ed in clerk
work, teachers, time st.dy, o+er4inspectors, and in paying higher wages.

Third. That the most friendly relations e7isted !etween the management and the employ:s, which
rendered la!or tro.!les of any kind or a strike impossi!le.

These good res.lts were !ro.ght a!o.t !y many changes which s.!stit.ted fa+ora!le for
.nfa+ora!le
working conditions. %t sho.ld !e appreciated, howe+er, that the one element which did more than all
of
the others was, the caref.l selection of girls with 0.ick perception to replace those whose
perceptions were
slow 44 "the s.!stit.tion of girls with a low personal coefficient for those whose personal coefficient
was
high$ 44 the scientific selection of the workers.

The ill.strations ha+e th.s far !een p.rposely confined to the more elementary types of work, so
that a
+ery strong do.!t m.st still remain as to whether this kind of cooperation is desira!le in the case of
more
intelligent mechanics, thatis, in the case of men who are more capa!le of generali1ation, and who
wo.ld
therefore !e more likely, of their own +olition, to choose the more scientific and!etter methods. The
following ill.strations will !e gi+en for the p.rpose of demonstrating the fact that in the higher
classes of
work the scientific laws which are de+eloped are so intricate that the high4priced mechanic needs
"e+en
more than the cheap la!orer$ the cooperation of men !etter ed.cated than himself in finding the
laws, and
then in selecting, de+eloping, and training him to work in accordance with these laws. These
ill.strations
sho.ld make perfectly clear o.r original proposition that in practically all of the mechanic arts the
science
which .nderlies each workman;s act is so great and amo.nts to so m.ch that the workman who is
!est
s.ited to act.ally doing the work is incapa!le, either thro.gh lack of ed.cation or thro.gh ins.fficient
mental capacity, of .nderstanding thisscience.

3 do.!t, for instance, will remain in the minds perhaps of most readers "in thecase of an
esta!lishment
which man.fact.res the same machine, year in and year o.t, in large 0.antities, and in which,
therefore,
each mechanic repeats the same limited series of operations o+er and o+er again$, whether the
ingen.ity
of each workman and the help which he from time to time recei+es from his foreman will not de+elop
s.ch s.perior methods and s.ch a personal de7terity that no scientific st.dy which co.ld !e made
wo.ld
res.lt in a material increase in efficiency.

3 n.m!er of years ago a company employing a!o.t three h.ndred men, which had !een
man.fact.ring
the same machine for ten to fifteen years, sent for .s to report as to whether any gain co.ld !e
made
thro.gh the introd.ction of scientific management. Their shops had !een r.n for many years .nder
a good
s.perintendent and with e7cellent foremen and workmen, on piece work. The whole esta!lishment
was,
witho.t do.!t, in !etter physical condition than the a+erage machine4shop in this co.ntry. The
s.perintendent was distinctly displeased when told that thro.ghthe adoption of task management
the
o.tp.t, with the same n.m!er of men and machines, co.ld !e more than do.!led. -e said that he
!elie+ed
that any s.ch statement was mere !oasting, a!sol.tely false, and instead of inspiring him with
confidence,
he was disg.sted that any one sho.ld make s.ch an imp.dent claim. -e, howe+er, readily assented
to the
proposition that he sho.ld select any one of the machines whose o.tp.t he considered as
representing the
a+erage of the shop, and that we sho.ld then demonstrate on this machine that thro.gh scientific
methods
its o.tp.t co.ld !e more than do.!led.

The machine selected !y him fairly represented the work of the shop. %t had !een r.n for ten or
twel+e
years past !y a first4class mechanic who was more than e0.al in his a!ility to the a+erage workmen
in the
esta!lishment. %n a shop of this sort, in which similar machines are made o+er and o+er again, the
work is
necessarily greatly s.!di+ided, so that no one man works .pon more than a comparati+ely small
n.m!er
of parts d.ring the year. 3 caref.l record was therefore made,in the presence of !oth parties, of the
time
act.ally taken in finishing each of the parts which this man worked .pon. The total time re0.ired !y
him
to finisheach piece, as well as the e7act speeds and feeds which he took, were noted, and a record
was kept
of the time which he took in setting the work in the machineand remo+ing it. 3fter o!taining in this
way a
statement of what represented a fair a+erage of the work done in the shop, we applied to this one
machine
the principles of scientific management.

6y means of fo.r 0.ite ela!orate slide4r.les, which ha+e !een especially made for the p.rpose of
determining the all4ro.nd capacity of metal4c.tting machines, a caref.l analysis was made of e+ery
element of this machine in its relation to the work in hand. %ts p.lling power at its +ario.s speeds, its
feeding capacity,and its proper speeds were determined !y means of the slide4r.les, and changes
were
then made in the co.ntershaft and dri+ing p.lleys so as to r.n it at its proper speed. Tools, made of
high4
speed steel, and of the proper shapes, were properly dressed, treated, and gro.nd. "%t sho.ld !e
.nderstood,
howe+er, that in this case the high4speed steel which had heretofore !een in general .se in the
shop was
also .sed in o.r demonstration.$ 3 large special slide4r.le was then made,!y means of which the
e7act
speeds and feeds were indicated at which each kind of work co.ld !e done hi the shortest possi!le
time in
this partic.lar lathe. 3fter preparing in this way so that the workman sho.ld work according to the
new
method, one after another, pieces of work were finished in the lathe, corresponding to the work
which had
!een done in o.r preliminary trials, and the gain hi time made thro.gh r.nning the machine
according to
scientific principles ranged from two and one4half times the speed in the slowest instance to nine
times
the speed in the highest.

The change from r.le4of4th.m! management to scientific management in+ol+es, howe+er, not only
a
st.dy of what is the proper speed for doing the work and a remodeling of the tools and the
implements in
the shop, !.t also a complete change in the mental attit.de of all the men in the shop toward their
work
and toward their employers. The physical impro+ements in the machines necessary to ins.re large
gains,
and the motion st.dy followed !y min.te st.dy with a stop4watch of thetime in which each workman
sho.ld do his work, can !e made comparati+ely 0.ickly. 6.t the change in the mental attit.de and in
the
ha!its of the three h.ndred or more workmen can !e !ro.ght a!o.t only slowly and thro.gh a long
series
of o!2ect4lessons, which finally demonstrates to each man the great ad+antage which he will gain !y
heartily cooperating in his e+ery4day work with the men in the management. Within three years,
howe+er,
in this shop, the o.tp.t had !een more than do.!led per man and per machine. The men had !een
caref.lly selected and in almost all cases promoted from a lower to a higher order of work, and so
instr.cted !y their teachers "the f.nctional foremen$ that they were a!le to earn higherwages than
e+er
!efore. The a+erage increase in the daily earnings of each man was a!o.t <A per cent, while, at the
same
time, the s.m total of the wages paid for doing a gi+en amo.nt of work was lower than !efore. This
increase in the speed of doing the work, of co.rse, in+ol+ed a s.!stit.tion of the 0.ickest hand
methods
for the old independent r.le4of4th.m! methods, and an ela!orate analysis of the hand work done !y
each
man. "6y hand work is meant s.ch work as depends .pon the man.al de7terity and speed of a
workman,
and which is independent of the work done !y the machine.$ The time sa+ed !y scientific hand work
was
in many cases greater e+en than that sa+ed in machine4work.

%t seems important to f.lly e7plain the reason why, with the aid of a slide4r.le, and after ha+ing
st.died
the art of c.tting metals, it was possi!le for the scientifically e0.ipped man, who had ne+er !efore
seen
these partic.lar 2o!s, andwho had ne+er worked on this machine, to do work from two and one4half
to
nine times as fast as it had !een done !efore !y a good mechanic who had spent his whole time for
some
ten to twel+e years in doing this +ery work .pon this partic.lar machine. %n a word, this was possi!le
!eca.se the art of c.tting metals in+ol+es a tr.e science of no small magnit.de, a science, in fact,
so
intricate that it is impossi!le for any machinist who is s.ited to r.nning a lathe year in and year o.t
either
to .nderstand it or to work according to its laws witho.t the help of men who ha+e made this their
specialty. Men who are .nfamiliar with machine4shop work are prone to look .pon the man.fact.re
of
each piece as a special pro!lem, independent of any other kind of machine4work. They are apt to
think,
forinstance, that the pro!lems connected with making the parts of an engine re0.ire the especial
st.dy,
one may say almost the life st.dy, of a set of engine4making mechanics, and that these pro!lems
are
entirely different from those which wo.ld !e met with in machining lathe or planer parts. %n fact,
howe+er, a st.dy ofthose elements which are pec.liar either to engine parts or to lathe parts is
trifling,
compared with the great st.dy of the art, or science, of c.tting metals, .pon a knowledge of which
rests
the a!ility to do really fast machine4work of all kinds.

The real pro!lem is how to remo+e chips fast from a casting or a forging, and how to make the piece
smooth and tr.e in the shortest time, and it matters !.t little whether the piece !eing worked .pon is
part,
say, of a marine engine, a printing4press, or an a.tomo!ile. For this reason, the man with the slide4
r.le,
familiar with the science of c.tting metals, who had ne+er !efore seen this partic.lar work, was a!le
completely to distance the skilled mechanic who had made the parts of this machine his specialty
for
years. %t is tr.e that whene+er intelligent and ed.cated men find that the responsi!ility for making
progress in any of the mechanic arts rests with them, instead of .pon the workmen who are act.ally
la!oring at the trade, tlmt they almost in+aria!ly start on the road which leadsto the de+elopment of
a
science where, in the past, has e7isted mere traditional or r.le4of4th.m! knowledge. When men,
whose
ed.cation has gi+en them the ha!itof generali1ing and e+erywhere looking for laws, find themsel+es
confronted with a m.ltit.de of pro!lems, s.ch as e7ist in e+ery trade and which ha+e a
generalsimilarity
one to another, it is ine+ita!le that they sho.ld try to gather these pro!lems into certain logical
gro.ps,
and then search for some general laws orr.les to g.ide them in their sol.tion. 3s has !een pointed
o.t,
howe+er, the .nderlying principles of the management of /initiati+e and incenti+e,/ that is, the
.nderlying
philosophy of this management, necessarily lea+es the sol.tion of all of these pro!lems in the hands
of
each indi+id.al workman, while the philosophy of scientific management places their sol.tion in the
hands of the management. The workman;s whole time is each day taken in act.ally doing the work
with
hishands, so that, e+en if he had the necessary ed.cation and ha!its of generali1ing in his tho.ght,
he
lacks the time and the opport.nity for de+eloping these laws, !eca.se the st.dy of e+en a simple
law
in+ol+ing say time st.dy re0.ires thecooperation of two men, the one doing the work while the other
times
him with astop4watch. 3nd e+en if the workman were to de+elop laws where !efore e7isted only
r.le4of4
th.m! knowledge, his personal interest wo.ld lead him almost ine+ita!ly to keep his disco+eries
secret, so
that he co.ld, !y means of this special knowledge, personally do more work than other men and so
o!tain
higher wages.

)nder scientific management, on the other hand, it !ecomes the d.ty and also the pleas.re of those
who
are engaged in the management not only to de+elop laws to replace r.le of th.m!, !.t also to teach
impartially all of the workmen who are .nder them the 0.ickest ways of working. The .sef.l res.lts
o!tained from these laws are always so great that any company can well afford to pay for the time
and the
e7periments needed to de+elop them. Th.s .nder scientific management e7act scientific knowledge
and
methods are e+erywhere, sooner or later, s.re to replace r.le of th.m!, whereas .nder the old type
of
management working in accordance with scientific laws is an impossi!ility.

The de+elopment of the art or science of c.tting metals is an apt ill.stration of this fact. %n the fall of
1FF=, a!o.t the time that the writer started to make the e7periments a!o+e referred to, to determine
what
constit.tes a proper day;s work for a la!orer, he also o!tained the permission of Mr William Sellers,
thePresident of the Mid+ale Steel *ompany, to make a series of e7periments to determine what
angles and
shapes of tools were the !est for c.tting steel, and also to try to determine the proper c.tting speed
for
steel. 3t the time that these e7periments were started it was his !elief that they wo.ld not last longer
than
si7 months, and, in fact, if it had !een known that a longer period than this wo.ld !e re0.ired, the
permission to spend a considera!le s.m of money in making them wo.ld not ha+e !een
forthcoming.

3 @@4inch diameter +ertical !oring4mill was the first machine .sed in making these e7periments, and
large locomoti+e tires, made o.t of hard steel of .niform 0.ality, were day after day c.t .p into chips
in
grad.ally learning how to make, shape, and .se the c.tting tools so that they wo.ld do faster work.
3t the
end of si7 months s.fficient practical information had !een o!tained to far more thanrepay the cost
of
materials and wages which had !een e7pended in e7perimenting.3nd yet the comparati+ely small
n.m!er
of e7periments which had !een made ser+ed principally to make it clear that the act.al knowledge
attained was !.t a small fraction of that which still remained to !e de+eloped, and which was !adly
needed !y .s, in o.r daily attempt to direct and help the machinists in their tasks.

E7periments in this field were carried on, with occasional interr.ption, thro.gh a period of a!o.t E@
years, in the co.rse of which ten different e7perimental machines were especially fitted .p to do this
work.
6etween <=,=== and A=,=== e7periments were caref.lly recorded, and many other e7periments
were
made, of which no record was kept. %n st.dying these laws more than F==,=== po.nds of steel and
iron
was c.t .p into chips with the e7perimental tools, and it is estimated that from J1A=,=== to JE==,===
was
spent in the in+estigation.

Work of this character is intensely interesting to any one who has any lo+e forscientific research. For
the
p.rpose of this paper, howe+er, it sho.ld !e f.llyappreciated that the moti+e power which kept these
e7periments going thro.gh many years, and which s.pplied the money and the opport.nity for their
accomplishment, was not an a!stract search after scientific knowledge, !.t was the +ery practical
fact that
we lacked the e7act information which was needed e+ery day, in order to help o.r machinists to do
their
work in the !est way and in the 0.ickest time.

3ll of these e7periments were made to ena!le .s to answer correctly the two 0.estions which face
e+ery
machinist each time that he does a piece of work in a metal4c.tting machine, s.ch as a lathe,
planer, drill
press, or milling machine. These two 0.estions are8

%n order to do the work in the 0.ickest time,

3t what c.tting speed shall % r.n my machine> 3nd

What feed shall % .se>

They so.nd so simple that they wo.ld appear to call for merely the trained 2.dgment of any good
mechanic. %n fact, howe+er, after working E@ years, it has !eenfo.nd that the answer in e+ery case
in+ol+es the sol.tion of an intricate mathematical pro!lem, in which the effect of twel+e independent
+aria!les m.st !e determined.

Each of the twel+e following +aria!les has an important effect .pon the answer.The fig.res which
are
gi+en with each of the +aria!les represent the effect of this element .pon the c.tting speed. For
e7ample,
after the first +aria!le "3$ we 0.ote, /The proportion is as 1 in the case of semi4hardened steel or
chilled
iron to 1== in the case of a +ery soft, low4car!on steel./ The meaning of this 0.otation is that soft
steel can
!e c.t 1== times as fast as the hard steel or chilled iron. The ratios which are gi+en, then, after each
of
these elements, indicate the wide range of 2.dgment which practically e+ery machinist has !een
called.pon to e7ercise in the past in determining the !est speed at which to r.n the machine and
the !est
feed to .se.

"3$ The 0.ality of the metal which is to !e c.t5 i.e., its hardness or other 0.alities which affect the
c.tting
speed. The proportion is as 1 in the case of semi4hardened steel or chilled iron to 1== in the case of
+ery
soft, low4car!on steel.

"6$ The chemical composition of the steel from which the tool is made, and the heat treatment of the
tool.
The proportion is as 1 in tools made from tempered car!on steel to G in the !est high4speed tools.

"*$ The thickness of the sha+ing, or, the thickness of the spiral strip or !andof metal which is to !e
remo+ed !y the tool. The proportion is as 1 with thickness of sha+ing <H1@ of an inch to < 1HE with
thickness of sha+ing 1H@I of an inch.

"D$ The shape or conto.r of the c.tting edge of the tool. The proportion is as 1 in a thread tool to @
in a
!road4nosed c.tting tool.

"E$ Whether a copio.s stream of water or other cooling medi.m is .sed on the tool. The proportion
is as 1
for tool r.nning dry to 1.I1 for tool cooled !y a copio.s stream of water.

"F$ The depth of the c.t. The proportion is as 1 with 1HE4inch depth of c.t to 1.<@ with 1HF4inch depth
of
c.t.

",$ The d.ration of the c.t, i.e., the time which a tool m.st last .nder press.re of the sha+ing
witho.t
!eing regro.nd. The proportion is as 1 when tool is to!e gro.nd e+ery 1 1HE ho.rs to 1.E= when tool
is to
!e gro.nd e+ery E= min.tes.

"-$ The lip and clearance angles of the tool. The proportion is as 1 with lip angle of @F degrees to
1.=E<
with lip angle of @1 degrees.

"?$ The elasticity of the work and of the tool on acco.nt of prod.cing chatter.The proportion is as 1
with
tool chattering to 1.1A with tool r.nning smoothly.

"N$ The diameter of the casting or forging which is !eing c.t.

"9$ The press.re of the chip or sha+ing .pon the c.tting s.rface of the tool.

"M$ The p.lling power and the speed and feed changes of the machine.

%t may seem prepostero.s to many people that it sho.ld ha+e re0.ired a period of E@ years to
in+estigate
the effect of these twel+e +aria!les .pon the c.tting speed of metals. To those, howe+er, who ha+e
had
personal e7perience as e7perimenters, it will !e appreciated that the great diffic.lty of the pro!lem
lies in
the fact that it contains so many +aria!le elements. 3nd in fact the great lengthof time cons.med in
making each single e7periment was ca.sed !y the diffic.lty of holding ele+en +aria!les constant
and
.niform thro.gho.t the e7periment, while the effect of the twelfth +aria!le was !eing in+estigated.
-olding the ele+en +aria!les constant was far more diffic.lt than the in+estigation of the twelfth
element.

3s, one after another, the effect .pon the c.tting speed of each of these +aria!les was in+estigated,
in
order that practical .se co.ld !e made of this knowledge, it was necessary to find a mathematical
form.la
which e7pressed in concise form the laws which had !een o!tained. 3s e7amples of the twel+e
form.lD
which were de+eloped, the three following are gi+en8

P O IA,===D1IH1AF<HI

K O = PPPP T1HF

K O 11. PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP F=.@@A""IF H <$ C D $=.E<G< Q "E.I H "1F Q EID$$


3fter these laws had !een in+estigated and the +ario.s form.lD which mathematically e7pressed
them had
!een determined, there still remained the diffic.lt taskof how to sol+e one of these complicated
mathematical pro!lems 0.ickly eno.gh to make this knowledge a+aila!le for e+ery4day .se. %f a
good
mathematician who had these form.lD !efore him were to attempt to get the proper answer "i.e., to
get the
correct c.tting speed and feed !y working in the ordinary way$ it wo.ld take him from two to si7
ho.rs,
say, to sol+e a single pro!lem5 far longer to sol+e the mathematical pro!lem than wo.ld !e taken in
most
cases !y the workmen in doing the whole 2o! in his machine. Th.s a task of considera!le
magnit.de
which faced .s was that of finding a 0.ick sol.tion of this pro!lem, and as we made progress in its
sol.tion, the whole pro!lem was from time to time presented !y thewriter to one after another of the
noted
mathematicians in this co.ntry. They were offered any reasona!le fee for a rapid, practical method
to !e
.sed in its sol.tion. Some of these men merely glanced at it5 others, for the sake of !eing co.rteo.s,
kept it
!efore them for some two or three weeks. They all ga+e .s practically the same answer8 that in
many cases
it was possi!le to sol+e mathematical pro!lems which contained fo.r +aria!les, and in some cases
pro!lems with fi+e or si7 +aria!les, !.t that it was manifestly impossi!le to sol+e a pro!lem
containing
twel+e +aria!les in any other way than !y the slow process of /trial and error./

3 0.ick sol.tion was, howe+er, so m.ch of a necessity in o.r e+ery4day work of r.nning machine4
shops,
that in spite of the small enco.ragement recei+ed from the mathematicians, we contin.ed at
irreg.lar
periods, thro.gh a term of fifteen years, to gi+e a large amo.nt of time searching for a simple
sol.tion.
Fo.r or fi+e men at +ario.s periods ga+e practically their whole time to this work, and finally, while
we
were at the 6ethlehem Steel *ompany, the slide4r.le was de+eloped which is ill.strated on Folder
&o.11
of the paper /(n the 3rt of *.tting Metals,/ and is descri!ed in detail in the paper presented !y Mr
*arl
,. 6arth to the3merican Society of Mechanical Engineers, entitled /Slide4r.les for the Machine4
shop, as
a part of the Taylor System of Management/ "Kol. RRK of The Transactions of the 3merican Society
of
Mechanical Engineers$. 6y means of this slide4r.le, one of these intricate pro!lems can !e sol+ed in
less
than a half min.te !y any good mechanic, whether he .nderstands anything a!o.t mathematics or
not,
th.s making a+aila!le for e+ery4day, practical .se the years of e7perimenting on the art of c.tting
metals.

This is a good ill.stration of the fact that some way can always !e fo.nd of making practical,
e+eryday .se
of complicated scientific data, which appears to !e!eyond the e7perience and the range of the
technical
training of ordinary practical men. These slide4r.les ha+e !een for years in constant daily .se !y
machinists ha+ing no knowledge of mathematics.

3 glance at the intricate mathematical form.lD "see page 1=$ which represent the laws of c.tting
metals
sho.ld clearly show the reason why it is impossi!le for any machinist, witho.t the aid of these laws,
and
who depends .pon his personal e7perience, correctly to g.ess at the answer to the two 0.estions,

What speed shall % .se>

What feed shall % .se>

e+en tho.gh he may repeat the same piece of work many times.

To ret.rn to the case of the machinist who had !een working for ten to twel+e years in machining
the
same pieces o+er and o+er again, there was !.t a remote chance in any of the +ario.s kinds of work
which
this man did that he sho.ld hit .pon the one !est method of doing each piece of work o.t of the
h.ndreds
of possi!le methods which lay !efore him. %n considering this typical case, it m.st also!e
remem!ered that
the metal4c.tting machines thro.gho.t o.r machine4shops ha+epractically all !een speeded !y their
makers !y g.esswork, and witho.t the knowledge o!tained thro.gh a st.dy of the art of c.tting
metals. %n
the machine4shops systemati1ed !y .s we ha+e fo.nd that there is not one machine in a h.ndred
which is
speeded !y its makers at anywhere near the correct c.tting speed. So that, in order to compete with
the
science of c.tting metals, the machinist, !efore he co.ld .se proper speeds, wo.ld first ha+e to p.t
new
p.lleys on the co.ntershaft of his machine, and also make in most cases changes in the shapes
and
treatment of his tools, etc. Many of these changes are matters entirely !eyond his control, e+en if he
knows
what o.ght to !e done.

%f the reason is clear to the reader why the r.le4of4th.m! knowledge o!tained !y the machinist who
is
engaged on repeat work cannot possi!ly compete with the tr.e science of c.tting metals, it sho.ld
!e e+en
more apparent why the high4class mechanic, who is called .pon to do a great +ariety of work from
day to
day, ise+en less a!le to compete with this science. The high4class mechanic who does adifferent
kind of
work each day, in order to do each 2o! in the 0.ickest time, wo.ld need, in addition to a thoro.gh
knowledge of the art of c.tting metals, a +ast knowledge and e7perience in the 0.ickest way of
doing each
kind of hand work. 3nd the reader, !y calling to mind the gain which was made !y Mr ,il!reth
thro.gh
his motion and time st.dy in laying !ricks, will appreciate the great possi!ilities for 0.icker methods
of
doing all kinds of hand work which lie !efore e+ery tradesman after he has the help which comes
from a
scientific motion and time st.dy of his work.

For nearly thirty years past, time4st.dy men connected with the management of machine4shops
ha+e !een
de+oting their whole time to a scientific motion st.dy, followed !y acc.rate time st.dy, with a stop4
watch,
of all of the elements connected with the machinist;s work. When, therefore, the teachers, who form
one
section of the management, and who are cooperating with the working men, are in possession !oth
of the
science of c.tting metals and of the e0.ally ela!orate motion4st.dy and time4st.dy science
connected with
this work, it is not diffic.lt to appreciate why e+en the highest class mechanic is .na!le to do his
!est
work witho.t constant daily assistance from his teachers. 3nd if this fact has !een made clear to the
reader, one of the important o!2ects in writing this paper will ha+e!een reali1ed.

%t is hoped that the ill.strations which ha+e !een gi+en make it apparent why scientific management
m.st
ine+ita!ly in all cases prod.ce o+erwhelmingly greaterres.lts, !oth for the company and its
employ:s,
than can !e o!tained with the management of /initiati+e and incenti+e./ 3nd it sho.ld also !e clear
that
these res.lts ha+e !een attained, not thro.gh a marked s.periority in the mechanism ofone type of
management o+er the mechanism of another, !.t rather thro.gh the s.!stit.tion of one set of
.nderlying
principles for a totally different set of principles, !y the s.!stit.tion of one philosophy for another
philosophy in ind.strial management.

To repeat then thro.gho.t all of these ill.strations, it will !e seen that the .sef.l res.lts ha+e hinged
mainly .pon "1$ the s.!stit.tion of a science for theindi+id.al 2.dgment of the workman5 "E$ the
scientific
selection and de+elopment of the workman, after each man has !een st.died, ta.ght, and trained,
and one
may say e7perimented with, instead of allowing the workmen to select themsel+es and de+elop in a
hapha1ard way5 and "<$ the intimate cooperation of the management with the workmen, so that they
together do the work in accordance with the scientific laws which ha+e !een de+eloped, instead of
lea+ing
the sol.tion of eachpro!lem in the hands of the indi+id.al workman. %n applying these new
principles, in
place of the old indi+id.al effort of each workman, !oth sides share almost e0.ally in the daily
performance of each task, the management doing that part of the work for which they are !est fitted,
and
the workmen the !alance.

%t is for the ill.stration of this philosophy that this paper has !een written,!.t some of the elements
in+ol+ed in its general principles sho.ld !e f.rther disc.ssed.

The de+elopment of a science so.nds like a formida!le .ndertaking, and in fact anything like a
thoro.gh
st.dy of a science s.ch as that of c.tting metals necessarily in+ol+es many years of work. The
science of
c.tting metals, howe+er, represents in its complication, and in the time re0.ired to de+elop it, almost
an
e7treme case in the mechanic arts. Bet e+en in this +ery intricate science, withina few months after
starting, eno.gh knowledge had !een o!tained to m.ch more than pay for the work of
e7perimenting.
This holds tr.e in the case of practicallyall scientific de+elopment in the mechanic arts. The first laws
de+eloped for c.tting metals were cr.de, and contained only a partial knowledge of the tr.th, yet this
imperfect knowledge was +astly !etter than the .tter lack of e7act information or the +ery imperfect
r.le of
th.m! which e7isted !efore, and it ena!led the workmen, with the help of the management, to do far
0.icker and !etter work.

For e7ample, a +ery short time was needed to disco+er one or two types of toolswhich, tho.gh
imperfect as
compared with the shapes de+eloped years afterward, were s.perior to all other shapes and kinds
in
common .se. These tools were adopted as standard and made possi!le an immediate increase in
the speed
of e+ery machinist who .sed them. These types were s.perseded in a comparati+ely short time!y
still other
tools which remained standard .ntil they in their t.rn made way for later impro+ements."@C$

The science which e7ists in most of the mechanic arts is, howe+er, far simpler than the science of
c.tting
metals. %n almost all cases, in fact, the laws or r.les which are de+eloped are so simple that the
a+erage
man wo.ld hardly dignify them with the name of a science. %n most trades, the science is de+eloped
thro.gh a comparati+ely simple analysis and time st.dy of the mo+ements re0.ired !y the workmen
to do
some small part of his work, and this st.dy is .s.ally made !y aman e0.ipped merely with a stop4
watch
and a properly r.led note!ook. -.ndreds of these /time4st.dy men/ are now engaged in de+eloping
elementary scientific knowledge where !efore e7isted only r.le of th.m!. E+en the motion st.dy of
Mr
,il!reth in !ricklaying "descri!ed on pages GG to FI$ in+ol+es a m.ch more ela!oratein+estigation
than
that which occ.rs in most cases. The general steps to !e taken in de+eloping a simple law of this
class are
as follows8

First. Find, say, 1= or 1A different men "prefera!ly in as many separate esta!lishments and different
parts
of the co.ntry$ who are especially skilf.l in doingthe partic.lar work to !e analy1ed.

Second. St.dy the e7act series of elementary operations or motions which each of these men .ses
in doing
the work which is !eing in+estigated, as well as the implements each man .ses.

Third. St.dy with a stop4watch the time re0.ired to make each of these elementary mo+ements and
then
select the 0.ickest way of doing each element of the work.

Fo.rth. Eliminate all false mo+ements, slow mo+ements, and .seless mo+ements.

Fifth. 3fter doing away with all .nnecessary mo+ements, collect into one seriesthe 0.ickest and !est
mo+ements as well as the !est implements.

This one new method, in+ol+ing that series of motions which can !e made 0.ickest and !est, is then
s.!stit.ted in place of the ten or fifteen inferior series which were formerly in .se. This !est method
!ecomes standard, and remains standard, to !e ta.ght first to the teachers "or f.nctional foremen$
and !y
them to e+ery workman in the esta!lishment .ntil it is s.perseded !y a 0.icker and !etter series of
mo+ements. %n this simple way one element after another of the scienceis de+eloped.

%n the same way each type of implement .sed in a trade is st.died. )nder the philosophy of the
management of /initiati+e and incenti+e/ each workman is called .pon to .se his own !est
2.dgment, so
as to do the work in the 0.ickest time, and from this res.lts in all cases a large +ariety in the shapes
and
types of implements which are .sed for any specific p.rpose. Scientific management re0.ires, first,
a
caref.l in+estigation of each of the many modifications of the same implement, de+eloped .nder
r.le of
th.m!5 and second, after a time st.dy has !een made of the speed attaina!le with each of these
implements, that the good points of se+eral of them shall !e .nited in a single standard implement,
which
will ena!le the workman to work faster and with greater ease than he co.ld !efore. Thisone
implement,
then, is adopted as standard in place of the many different kinds !efore in .se, and it remains
standard for
all workmen to .se .ntil s.perseded!y an implement which has !een shown, thro.gh motion and
time
st.dy, to !e still !etter.

With this e7planation it will !e seen that the de+elopment of a science to replace r.le of th.m! is in
most
cases !y no means a formida!le .ndertaking, and that it can !e accomplished !y ordinary, e+ery4
day men
witho.t any ela!orate scientific training5 !.t that, on the other hand, the s.ccessf.l .se of e+en the
simplest impro+ement of this kind calls for records, system, and cooperation where inthe past
e7isted only
indi+id.al effort.

There is another type of scientific in+estigation which has !een referred to se+eral times in this
paper, and
which sho.ld recei+e special attention, namely, the acc.rate st.dy of the moti+es which infl.ence
men. 3t
first it may appear that this is a matter for indi+id.al o!ser+ation and 2.dgment, and is not a proper
s.!2ect for e7act scientific e7periments. %t is tr.e that the laws which res.lt from e7periments of this
class,
owing to the fact that the +ery comple7 organism4the h.man !eing is !eing e7perimented with, are
s.!2ect
to a larger n.m!er of e7ceptions than is the case with laws relating to material things. 3nd yet laws
of this
kind, which apply to a large ma2ority of men, .n0.estiona!ly e7ist, and when clearly defined are of
great
+al.e as a g.ide in dealing with men. %n de+eloping these laws, acc.rate, caref.lly planned and
e7ec.ted
e7periments, e7tendingthro.gh a term of years, ha+e !een made, similar in a general way to the
e7periments .pon +ario.s other elements which ha+e !een referred to in this paper.

Perhaps the most important law !elonging to this class, in its relation to scientific management, is
the
effect which the task idea has .pon the efficiency of the workman. This, in fact, has !ecome s.ch an
important element of the mechanism of scientific management, that !y a great n.m!er of people
scientific
management has come to !e known as /task management./

There is a!sol.tely nothing new in the task idea. Each one of .s will remem!er that in his own case
this
idea was applied with good res.lts in his school!oy days. &o efficient teacher wo.ld think of gi+ing a
class of st.dents an indefinitelesson to learn. Each day a definite, clear4c.t task is set !y the
teacher !efore
each scholar, stating that he m.st learn 2.st so m.ch of the s.!2ect5 and it is only !y this means that
proper, systematic progress can !e made !y the st.dents. The a+erage !oy wo.ld go +ery slowly if,
instead
of !eing gi+en a task, he were told to do as m.ch as he co.ld. 3ll of .s are grown4.p children, and it
is
e0.ally tr.e that the a+erage workman will work with the greatest satisfaction, !oth to himself and to
his
employer, when he is gi+en each day a definite task which he is to perform in a gi+en time, and
which
constit.tes a proper day;s work for a good workman. This f.rnishes the workman with a clear4c.t
standard, !y which he can thro.gho.t the day meas.re his own progress, and the accomplishment
ofwhich
affords him the greatest satisfaction.

The writer has descri!ed in other papers a series of e7periments made .pon workmen, which ha+e
res.lted in demonstrating the fact that it is impossi!le, thro.gh any long period of time, to get
workmen to
work m.ch harder than the a+erage men aro.nd them, .nless they are ass.red a large and a
permanent
increase in their pay. This series of e7periments, howe+er, also pro+ed that plenty of workmen can
!e
fo.nd who are willing to work at their !est speed, pro+ided they are gi+enthis li!eral increase in
wages.
The workman m.st, howe+er, !e f.lly ass.red that this increase !eyond the a+erage is to !e
permanent.
(.r e7periments ha+e shown that the e7act percentage of increase re0.ired to make a workman
work at
his highest speed depends .pon the kind of work which the man is doing.

%t is a!sol.tely necessary, then, when workmen are daily gi+en a task which calls for a high rate of
speed
on their part, that they sho.ld also !e ins.red the necessary high rate of pay whene+er they are
s.ccessf.l.
This in+ol+es not only fi7ing for each man his daily task, !.t also paying him a large !on.s, or
premi.m,
each time that he s.cceeds in doing his task in the gi+en time. %t is diffic.lt to appreciate in f.ll
meas.re
the help which the proper .se of these two elements is to the workman in ele+ating him to the
highest
standard of efficiency and speed in his trade, and then keeping him there, .nless one has seen first
the old
plan and afterward the new tried .pon the same man. 3nd in fact .ntil one has seen similar
acc.rate
e7periments made .pon +ario.s grades of workmen engaged in doing widely different types of
work. The
remarka!le and almost .niformly good res.lts from the correct application of the task and the !on.s
m.st
!e seen to!e appreciated.

These two elements, the task and the !on.s "which, as has !een pointed o.t in pre+io.s papers,
can !e
applied in se+eral ways$, constit.te two of the most important elements of the mechanism of
scientific
management. They are especially important from the fact that they are, as it were, a clima7,
demanding
!efore theycan !e .sed almost all of the other elements of the mechanism5 s.ch as a planning
department,
acc.rate time st.dy, standardi1ation of methods and implements, aro.ting system, the training of
f.nctional foremen or teachers, and in many cases instr.ction cards, slide4r.les, etc. "'eferred to
later in
rather more detailon page 1E.$

The necessity for systematically teaching workmen how to work to the !est ad+antage has !een
se+eral
times referred to. %t seems desira!le, therefore, to e7plain in rather more detail how this teaching is
done.
%n the case of a machine4shop which is managed .nder the modern system, detailed written
instr.ctions as
to the !est way of doing each piece of work are prepared in ad+ance, !y men in the planning
department.
These instr.ctions represent the com!ined work of se+eral men in the planning room, each of whom
has
his own specialty, or f.nction. (ne ofthem, for instance, is a specialist on the proper speeds and
c.tting
tools to !e .sed. -e .ses the slide4r.les which ha+e !een a!o+e descri!ed as an aid, to g.ide him
in
o!taining proper speeds, etc. 3nother man analy1es the !est and 0.ickest motions to !e made !y
the
workman in setting the work .p in the machine and remo+ing it, etc. Still a third, thro.gh the time4
st.dy
records which ha+e !een acc.m.lated, makes o.t a timeta!le gi+ing the proper speed for doing
each
element of the work. The directions of all of these men, howe+er, are written on a single instr.ction
card,
or sheet.

These men of necessity spend most of their time in the planning department, !eca.se they m.st !e
close to
the records and data which they contin.ally .se in their work, and !eca.se this work re0.ires the
.se of a
desk and freedom from interr.ption. -.man nat.re is s.ch, howe+er, that many of the workmen, if
left to
themsel+es, wo.ld pay !.t little attention to their written instr.ctions. %t is necessary, therefore, to
pro+ide
teachers "called f.nctional foremen$ to see that the workmen !oth .nderstand and carry o.t these
written
instr.ctions.

)nder f.nctional management, the old4fashioned single foreman is s.perseded !y eight different
men,
each one of whom has his own special d.ties, and these men,acting as the agents for the planning
department "see paragraph E<I to EIA of the paper entitled /Shop Management/$, are the e7pert
teachers,
who are at all times in the shop, helping and directing the workmen. 6eing each one chosen for his
knowledge and personal skill in his specialty, they are a!le not only to tell the workman what he
sho.ld
do, !.t in case of necessity they do the work themsel+es in the presence of the workman, so as to
show
him not only the !est !.t alsothe 0.ickest methods.

(ne of these teachers "called the inspector$ sees to it that he .nderstands thedrawings and
instr.ctions for
doing the work. -e teaches him how to do work of the right 0.ality5 how to make it fine and e7act
where
it sho.ld !e fine, and ro.gh and 0.ick where acc.racy is not re0.ired, the one !eing 2.st as
important for
s.ccess as the other. The second teacher "the gang !oss$ shows him how to set .p the 2o! in his
machine,
and teaches him to make all of his personal motions in the 0.ickest and !est way. The third "the
speed
!oss$ sees that the machine isr.n at the !est speed and that the proper tool is .sed in the partic.lar
way
which will ena!le the machine to finish its prod.ct in the shortest possi!le time.%n addition to the
assistance gi+en !y these teachers, the workman recei+es orders and help from fo.r other men5
from the
/repair !oss/ as to the ad2.stment, cleanliness, and general care of his machine, !elting, etc.5 from
the
/time clerk,/ as to e+erything relating to his pay and to proper written reports and ret.rns5 from the
/ro.te
clerk,/ as to the order in which he does his work and as to the mo+ement of the work from one part
of the
shop to another5 and, in case a workman gets into any tro.!le with any of his +ario.s !osses, the
/disciplinarian/ inter+iews him.

%t m.st !e .nderstood, of co.rse, that all workmen engaged on the same kind of work do not re0.ire
the
same amo.nt of indi+id.al teaching and attention from the f.nctional foremen. The men who are
new at a
gi+en operation nat.rally re0.irefar more teaching and watching than those who ha+e !een a long
time at
the samekind of 2o!s.

&ow, when thro.gh all of this teaching and this min.te instr.ction the work is apparently made so
smooth
and easy for the workman, the first impression is thatthis all tends to make him a mere a.tomaton, a
wooden man. 3s the workmen fre0.ently say when they first come .nder this system, /Why, % am
not
allowed to think or mo+e witho.t some one interfering or doing it for meL/ The same criticism and
o!2ection, howe+er, can !e raised against all other modem s.!di+ision of la!or. %t does not follow,
for
e7ample, that the modern s.rgeon is any more narrow or wooden a man than the early settler of this
co.ntry. The frontiersman, howe+er, had to !e not only a s.rgeon, !.t also an architect,
ho.se!.ilder,
l.m!erman, farmer, soldier, and doctor, and he had to settle his law cases with a g.n. Bo. wo.ld
hardly
say that the life of the modern s.rgeon is any more narrowing, or that he is more of a wooden man
than
the frontiersman. The many pro!lems to !e met and sol+ed !y the s.rgeon are 2.st as intricate and
diffic.lt and as de+eloping and !roadening in their way as were those of the frontiersman.

3nd it sho.ld !e remem!ered that the training of the s.rgeon has !een almost identical in type with
the
teaching and training which is gi+en to the workman .nder scientific management. The s.rgeon, all
thro.gh his early years, is .nder theclosest s.per+ision of more e7perienced men, who show him in
the
min.test way how each element of his work is !est done. They pro+ide him with the finest
implements,
each one of which has !een the s.!2ect of special st.dy and de+elopment, and then insist .pon his
.sing
each of these implements in the +ery !est way. 3ll of this teaching, howe+er, in no way narrows him.
(n
the contrar+ he is 0.ickly gi+en the +ery !est knowledge of his predecessors5 and, pro+ided "as he
is, right
from the start$ with standard implements and methods which represent the !est knowledge of the
world .p
to date, he is a!le to .se his own originality and ingen.ity to make real additions to the world;s
knowledge, instead of rein+entingthings which are old. %n a similar way the workman who is
cooperating
with his many teachers .nder scientific management has an opport.nity to de+elop which isat least
as
good as and generally !etter than that which he had when the whole pro!lem was /.p to him/ and
he did
his work entirely .naided.

%f it were tr.e that the workman wo.ld de+elop into a larger and finer man witho.t all of this teaching,
and witho.t the help of the laws which ha+e !een form.lated for doing his partic.lar 2o!, then it
wo.ld
follow that the yo.ng man who now comes to college to ha+e the help of a teacher in mathematics,
physics, chemistry, 9atin, ,reek, etc., wo.ld do !etter to st.dy these things .naided and !y himself.
The
only difference in the two cases is that st.dents come to their teachers, while from the nat.re of the
work
done !y the mechanic .nder scientific management, the teachers m.st go to him. What really
happens is
that, with the aid of the science which is in+aria!ly de+eloped, and thro.gh the instr.ctions from his
teachers, each workman of a gi+en intellect.al capacity is ena!led to do am.ch higher, more
interesting,
and finally more de+eloping and more profita!le kind of work than he was !efore a!le to do. The
la!orer
who !efore was .na!le todo anything !eyond, perhaps, sho+eling and wheeling dirt from place to
place, or
carrying the work from one part of the shop to another, is in many cases ta.ght to do the more
elementary
machinist;s work, accompanied !y the agreea!le s.rro.ndings and the interesting +ariety and higher
wages which go with the machinist;s trade. The cheap machinist or helper, who !efore was a!le to
r.n
perhaps merely a drill press, is ta.ght to do the more intricate and higher priced lathe andplaner
work,
while the highly skilled and more intelligent machinists !ecome f.nctional foremen and teachers.
3nd so
on, right .p the line.

%t may seem that with scientific management there is not the same incenti+e forthe workman to .se
his
ingen.ity in de+ising new and !etter methods of doing the work, as well as in impro+ing his
implements,
that there is with the old type of management. %t is tr.e that with scientific management the workman
is
not allowed to .se whate+er implements and methods he sees fit in the daily practise ofhis work.
E+ery
enco.ragement, howe+er, sho.ld !e gi+en him to s.ggest impro+ements, !oth in methods and in
implements. 3nd whene+er a workman proposes an impro+ement, it sho.ld !e the policy of the
management to make a caref.l analysis ofthe new method, and if necessary cond.ct a series of
e7periments to determine acc.rately the relati+e merit of the new s.ggestion and of the old
standard, 3nd
whene+er the new method is fo.nd to !e markedly s.perior to the old, it sho.ld !e adopted as the
standard
for the whole esta!lishment. The workman sho.ld !e gi+en the f.ll credit for the impro+ement, and
sho.ld !e paid a cash premi.m as a reward for his ingen.ity. %n this way the tr.e initiati+e of the
workmen is !etter attained .nder scientific management than .nder the old indi+id.al plan.

The history of the de+elopment of scientific management .p to date, howe+er, calls for a word of
warning.
The mechanism of management m.st not !e mistaken for its essence, or .nderlying philosophy.
Precisely
the same mechanism will in one case prod.ce disastro.s res.lts and in another the most
!eneficent. The
same mechanism which will prod.ce the finest res.lts when made to ser+e the .nderlying principles
of
scientific management, will lead to fail.re and disaster if accompanied !y the wrong spirit in those
who
are .sing it. -.ndreds of people ha+e already mistaken the mechanism of this system for its
essence.
Messrs ,antt, 6arth, and the writer ha+e presented papers to the 3merican Society of Mechanical
Engineers on the s.!2ect of scientific management. %n these papers the mechanism which is .sed
has !een
descri!ed at some length. 3s elements of this mechanism may !e cited8

Time st.dy, with the implements and methods for properly making it.

F.nctional or di+ided foremanship and its s.periority to the old4fashioned single foreman.

The standardi1ation of all tools and implements .sed in the trades, and also ofthe acts or
mo+ements of
workmen for each class of work.

The desira!ility of a planning room or department.

The /e7ception principle/ in management.

The .se of slide4r.les and similar time4sa+ing implements.

%nstr.ction cards for the workman.

The task idea in management, accompanied !y a large !on.s for the s.ccessf.l performance of the
task.

The /differential rate./

Mnemonic systems for classifying man.fact.red prod.cts as well as implements .sed in
man.fact.ring.

3 ro.ting system.

Modern cost system, etc., etc.

These are, howe+er, merely the elements or details of the mechanism of management. Scientific
management, in its essence, consists of a certain philosophy, which res.lts, as !efore stated, in a
com!ination of the fo.r great .nderlying principles of management8"GC$

When, howe+er, the elements of this mechanism, s.ch as time st.dy, f.nctional foremanship, etc.,
are
.sed witho.t !eing accompanied !y the tr.e philosophy of management, the res.lts are in many
cases
disastro.s. 3nd, .nfort.nately, e+en when men who are thoro.ghly in sympathy with the principles
of
scientific management .ndertake to change too rapidly from the old type to the new, witho.t
heedingthe
warnings of those who ha+e had years of e7perience in making this change, they fre0.ently meet
with
serio.s tro.!les, and sometimes with strikes, followed !y fail.re.

The writer, in his paper on /Shop Management,/ has called especial attention tothe risks which
managers
r.n in attempting to change rapidly from the old to the new management. %n many cases, howe+er,
this
warning has not !een heeded. The physical changes which are needed, the act.al time st.dy which
has to
!e made, the standardi1ation of all implements connected with the work, the necessity for
indi+id.ally
st.dying each machine and placing it in perfect order, all take time, !.t the faster these elements of
the
work are st.died and impro+ed, the !etter for the .ndertaking. (n the other hand, the really great
pro!lem
in+ol+ed in achange from the management of /initiati+e and incenti+e/ to scientific management
consists
in a complete re+ol.tion in the mental attit.de and the ha!its of all of those engaged in the
management,
as well of the workmen. 3nd this change can !e !ro.ght a!o.t only grad.ally and thro.gh the
presentation of many o!2ect4lessons to the workman, which, together with the teaching which he
recei+es,
thoro.ghly con+ince him of the s.periority of the new o+er the old way of doing the work. This
change in
the mental attit.de of the workman imperati+ely demands time. %t is impossi!le to h.rry it !eyond a
certain speed. The writer has o+er and o+er again warned those who contemplated making this
change
that it was a matter,e+en in a simple esta!lishment, of from two to three years, and that in some
cases it
re0.ires from fo.r to fi+e years.

The first few changes which affect the workmen sho.ld !e made e7ceedingly slowly, and only one
workman at a time sho.ld !e dealt with at the start. )ntil this single man has !een thoro.ghly
con+inced
that a great gain has come to him from the new method, no f.rther change sho.ld !e made. Then
one man
after another sho.ld !e tactf.lly changed o+er. 3fter passing the point at which from one4fo.rth to
one4
third of the men in the employ of the company ha+e !een changed from the old to the new, +ery
rapid
progress can !e made, !eca.se at a!o.t this time there is, generally, a complete re+ol.tion in the
p.!lic
opinion of the whole esta!lishment and practically all of the workmen who are working .nder the old
system !ecome desiro.s to share in the !enefits which they see ha+e !een recei+ed !y those
working .nder
the new plan.

%nasm.ch as the writer has personally retired from the !.siness of introd.cing this system of
management
"that is, from all work done in ret.rn for any money compensation$, he does not hesitate again to
emphasi1e the fact that those companies are indeed fort.nate who can sec.re the ser+ices of
e7perts who
ha+e had thenecessary practical e7perience in introd.cing scientific management, and who ha+e
made a
special st.dy of its principles. %t is not eno.gh that a man sho.ld ha+e !een a manager in an
esta!lishment
which is r.n .nder the new principles. Theman who .ndertakes to direct the steps to !e taken in
changing
from the old to the new "partic.larly in any esta!lishment doing ela!orate work$ m.st ha+e had
personal
e7perience in o+ercoming the especial diffic.lties which are always met with, and which are pec.liar
to
this period of transition. %t is for this reasonthat the writer e7pects to de+ote the rest of his life chiefly
to
trying to help those who wish to take .p this work as their profession, and to ad+ising the managers
and
owners of companies in general as to the steps which they sho.ld take in making this change.

3s a warning to those who contemplate adopting scientific management, the foSlowing instance is
gi+en.
Se+eral men who lacked the e7tended e7perience which is re0.ired to change witho.t danger of
strikes, or
witho.t interference with the s.ccess of the !.siness, from the management of /initiati+e and
incenti+e/ to
scientific management, attempted rapidly to increase the o.tp.t in 0.ite an ela!orate esta!lishment,
employing !etween three tho.sand and fo.r tho.sand men. Those who .ndertook to make this
change
were men of .n.s.al a!ility, and were at the same time enth.siasts and % think had the interests of
the
workmen tr.ly at heart. They were, howe+er, warned !y the writer, !efore starting, that they m.st go
e7ceedingly slowly, and that the work of making the change in this esta!lishment co.ld not !e done
in
less than from three to fi+e years. This warning they entirely disregarded. They e+idently !elie+ed
that !y
.sing m.ch of the mechanism of scientific management, in com!ination with the principles of the
management of /initiati+e and incenti+e,/ instead of with the principles of scientific management,
that
they co.ld do, in a year or two, what had !een pro+ed in the past to re0.ire at least do.!le this time.
The
knowledge o!tained from acc.rate time st.dy, for e7ample, is a powerf.l implement, and can !e
.sed, in
one case to promote harmony !etween the workmen and the management, !y grad.ally ed.cating,
training, and leading the workmen into new and !etter methods of doing the work, or, in the other
case, it
may !e .sed more or less as a cl.! to dri+e the workmen into doing a larger day;s work for
appro7imately
the same pay that they recei+ed in the past. )nfort.nately the men who had charge of this work did
not
take the timeand the tro.!le re0.ired to train f.nctional foremen, or teachers, who were fitted
grad.ally to
lead and ed.cate the workmen. They attempted, thro.gh the old4style foreman, armed with his new
weapon "acc.rate time st.dy$, to dri+e the workmen, against their wishes, and witho.t m.ch
increase in
pay, to work m.ch harder, instead of grad.ally teaching and leading them toward new methods, and
con+incing them thro.gh o!2ect4lessons that task management means for them somewhat harder
work, !.t
also far greater prosperity. The res.lt of all this disregard of f.ndamental principles was a series of
strikes,
followed !y the downfall of the men who attempted to make the change, and !y a ret.rn to
conditions
thro.gho.t the esta!lishment far worse than those which e7isted !efore the effort was made.

This instance is cited as an o!2ect4lesson of the f.tility of .sing the mechanism of the new
management
while lea+ing o.t its essence, and also of trying to shorten a necessarily long operation in entire
disregard
of past e7perience. %t sho.ld !e emphasi1ed that the men who .ndertook this work were !oth a!le
and
earnest, and that fail.re was not d.e to lack of a!ility on their part, !.t to their .ndertaking to do the
impossi!le. These partic.lar men will not again make a similar mistake, and it is hoped that their
e7perience may act as a warning to others.

%n this connection, howe+er, it is proper to again state that d.ring the thirtyyears that we ha+e !een
engaged in introd.cing scientific management there has not !een a single strike from those who
were
working in accordance with its principles, e+en d.ring the critical period when the change was !eing
made from the old to the new. %f proper methods are .sed !y men who ha+e had e7perience in this
work,
there is a!sol.tely no danger from strikes or other tro.!les.

The writer wo.ld again insist that in no case sho.ld the managers of an esta!lishment, the work of
which
is ela!orate, .ndertake to change from the old to the new type .nless the directors of the company
f.lly
.nderstand and !elie+e in thef.ndamental principles of scientific management and .nless they
appreciate
all that is in+ol+ed in making this change, partic.larly the time re0.ired, and .nless they want
scientific
management greatly.

Do.!tless some of those who are especially interested in working men will complain !eca.se .nder
scientific management the workman, when he is shown how to do twice as m.ch work as he
formerly did,
is not paid twice his former wages, whileothers who are more interested in the di+idends than the
workmen will complain that .nder this system the men recei+e m.ch higher wages than they did
!efore.

%t does seem grossly .n2.st when the !are statement is made that the competent pig4iron handler,
for
instance, who has !een so trained that he piles < @H1= times as m.ch iron as the incompetent man
formerly did, sho.ld recei+e an increase of only @= per cent in wages.

%t is not fair, howe+er, to form any final 2.dgment .ntil all of the elements in the case ha+e !een
considered. 3t the first glance we see only two parties to the transaction, the workmen and their
employers. We o+erlook the third great party, the whole people, 44 the cons.mers, who !.y the
prod.ct of
the first two and who .ltimately pay !oth the wages of the workmen and the profits of the employers.

The rights of the people are therefore greater than those of either employer oremploy:. 3nd this
third
great party sho.ld !e gi+en its proper share of any gain. %n fact, a glance at ind.strial history shows
that
in the end the whole people recei+e the greater part of the !enefit coming from ind.strial
impro+ements.
%n the past h.ndred years, for e7ample, the greatest factor tending toward increasing the o.tp.t, and
there!y the prosperity of the ci+ili1ed world, has !een theintrod.ction of machinery to replace hand
la!or.
3nd witho.t do.!t the greatestgain thro.gh this change has come to the whole people 44 the
cons.mer.

Thro.gh short periods, especially in the case of patented apparat.s, the di+idends of those who
ha+e
introd.ced new machinery ha+e !een greatly increased, and in many cases, tho.gh .nfort.nately
not
.ni+ersally, the employ:s ha+e o!tained materially higher wages, shorter ho.rs, and !etter working
conditions. 6.t in the end the ma2or part of the gain has gone to the whole people.

3nd this res.lt will follow the introd.ction of scientific management 2.st as s.rely as it has the
introd.ction of machinery.

To ret.rn to the case of the pig4iron handler. We m.st ass.me, then, that the larger part of the gain
which
has come from his great increase in o.tp.t will in the end go to the people in the form of cheaper
pig4iron.
3nd !efore deciding .pon how the !alance is to !e di+ided !etween the workmen and the employer,
as to
what is 2.st and fair compensation for the man who does the piling and what sho.ld !e left for the
company as profit, we m.st look at the matter from all sides.

First. 3s we ha+e !efore stated, the pig4iron handler is not an e7traordinary man diffic.lt to find, he
is
merely a man more or less of the type of the o7, hea+y !oth mentally and physically.

Second. The work which this man does tires him no more than any healthy normal la!orer is tired !y
a
proper day;s work. "%f this man is o+ertired !y his work, then the task has !een wrongly set and this
is as
far as possi!le from the o!2ect of scientific management.$

Third. %t was not d.e to this man;s initiati+e or originality that he did his !ig day;s work, !.t to the
knowledge of the science of pig4iron handling de+eloped and ta.ght him !y some one else.

Fo.rth. %t is 2.st and fair that men of the same general grade "when their all4ro.nd capacities are
considered$ sho.ld !e paid a!o.t the same wages when they are all working to the !est of their
a!ilities.
"%t wo.ld !e grossly .n2.st to other la!orers, for instance, to pay this man < @H1= as high wages as
other
men ofhis general grade recei+e for an honest f.ll day;s work.$

Fifth. 3s is e7plained "page GI$, the @= per cent increase in pay which he recei+ed was not the
res.lt of an
ar!itrary 2.dgment of a foreman or s.perintendent,it was the res.lt of a long series of caref.l
e7periments
impartially made to determine what compensation is really for the man;s tr.e and !est interest when
all
things are considered.

Th.s we see that the pig4iron handler with his @= per cent increase in wages isnot an o!2ect for pity
!.t
rather a s.!2ect for congrat.lation.

3fter all, howe+er, facts are in many cases more con+incing than opinions or theories, and it is a
significant fact that those workmen who ha+e come .nder thissystem d.ring the past thirty years
ha+e
in+aria!ly !een satisfied with the increase in pay which they ha+e recei+ed, while their employers
ha+e
!een e0.ally pleased with their increase in di+idends.

The writer is one of those who !elie+es that more and more will the third party"the whole people$, as
it
!ecomes ac0.ainted with the tr.e facts, insist that 2.stice shall !e done to all three parties. %t will
demand
the largest efficiencyfrom !oth employers and employ:s. %t will no longer tolerate the type of
employer
who has his eye on di+idends alone, who ref.ses to do his f.ll share of the work and who merely
cracks
his whip o+er the heads of his workmen and attempts todri+e them into harder work for low pay. &o
more
will it tolerate tyranny on the part of la!or which demands one increase after another in pay and
shorter
ho.rs while at the same time it !ecomes less instead of more efficient. 3nd the means which the
writer
firmly !elie+es will !e adopted to !ring a!o.t, first, efficiency !oth in employer and employ: and
then an
e0.ita!le di+ision of the profits of their 2oint efforts will !e scientific management, which has for its
sole
aimthe attainment of 2.stice for all three parties thro.gh impartial scientific in+estigation of all the
elements of the pro!lem. For a time !oth sides will re!elagainst this ad+ance. The workers will
resent any
interference with their old r.le4of4th.m! methods, and the management will resent !eing asked to
take on
new d.ties and !.rdens5 !.t in the end the people thro.gh enlightened p.!lic opinionwill force the
new
order of things .pon !oth employer and employ:.

%t will do.!tless !e claimed that in all that has !een said no new fact has !een !ro.ght to light that
was
not known to some one in the past. Kery likely this is tr.e. Scientific management does not
necessarily
in+ol+e any great in+ention,nor the disco+ery of new or startling facts. %t does, howe+er, in+ol+e a
certain
com!ination of elements which ha+e not e7isted in the past, namely, old knowledge so collected,
analy1ed, gro.ped and classified into laws and r.les that it constit.tes a science5 accompanied !y a
complete change in the mental attit.de ofthe working men as well as of those on the side of the
management, toward each other, and toward their respecti+e d.ties and responsi!ilities. 3lso, a
new
di+ision of the d.ties !etween the two sides and intimate, friendly cooperation to an e7tent that is
impossi!le .nder the philosophy of the old management. 3nd e+enall of this in many cases co.ld
not e7ist
witho.t the help of mechanisms which ha+e !een grad.ally de+eloped.

%t is no single element, !.t rather this whole com!ination, that constit.tes scientific management,
which
may !e s.mmari1ed as8

Science, not r.le of th.m!.

-armony, not discord.

*ooperation, not indi+id.alism.

Ma7im.m o.tp.t, in place of restricted o.tp.t.

The de+elopment of each man to his greatest efficiency and prosperity.

The writer wishes to again state that8 /The time is fast going !y for the greatpersonal or indi+id.al
achie+ement of any one man standing alone and witho.t the help of those aro.nd him. 3nd the time
is
coming when all great things will !edone !y that type of cooperation in which each man performs
the
f.nction for which he is !est s.ited, each man preser+es his own indi+id.ality and is s.preme in his
partic.lar f.nction, and each man at the same time loses none of his originality and proper personal
initiati+e, and yet is controlled !y and m.st work harmonio.sly with many other men./

The e7amples gi+en a!o+e of the increase in o.tp.t reali1ed .nder the new management fairly
represent
the gain which is possi!le. They do not represent e7traordinary or e7ceptional cases, and ha+e !een
selected from among tho.sands of similar ill.strations which might ha+e !een gi+en.

9et .s now e7amine the good which wo.ld follow the general adoption of these principles.

The larger profit wo.ld come to the whole world in general.

The greatest material gain which those of the present generation ha+e o+er pastgenerations has
come from
the fact that the a+erage man in this generation, with a gi+en e7pendit.re of effort, is prod.cing two
times, three times, e+en fo.r times as m.ch of those things that are of .se to man as it was possi!le
for the
a+erage man in the past to prod.ce. This increase in the prod.cti+ity of h.man effort is, of co.rse,
d.e to
many ca.ses, !esides the increase in the personal de7terity of the man. %t is d.e to the disco+ery of
steam
and electricity, to the introd.ction of machinery, to in+entions, great and small, and to the progress
in
science and ed.cation. 6.t from whate+er ca.se this increase in prod.cti+ity has come, it is to the
greater
prod.cti+ity of each indi+id.al that the whole co.ntry owes its greater prosperity.

Those who are afraid that a large increase in the prod.cti+ity of each workman will throw other men
o.t
of work, sho.ld reali1e that the one element more than any other which differentiates ci+ili1ed from
.nci+ili1ed co.ntries 44 prospero.s from po+erty4stricken peoples 44 is that the a+erage man in the
one is
fi+e orsi7 times as prod.cti+e as the other. %t is also a fact that the chief ca.se for the large
percentage of
the .nemployed in England "perhaps the most +irile nation in the world$, is that the workmen of
England,
more than in any other ci+ili1ed co.ntry, are deli!erately restricting their o.tp.t !eca.se they are
possessed !y the fallacy that it is against their !est interest for each man to work as hard as he can.

The general adoption of scientific management wo.ld readily in the f.t.re do.!le the prod.cti+ity of
the
a+erage man engaged in ind.strial work. Think of what this means to the whole co.ntry. Think of
the
increase, !oth in the necessities and l.7.ries of life, which !ecomes a+aila!le for the whole co.ntry,
of the
possi!ility of shortening the ho.rs of la!or when this is desira!le, and of the increased opport.nities
for
ed.cation, c.lt.re, and recreation which this implies. 6.t while the whole world wo.ld profit !y this
increase in prod.ction, the man.fact.rer and the workman will !e far more interested in the especial
local
gain that comes to them and to the people immediately aro.nd them. Scientific management will
mean,
for the employers and the workmen who adopt it 44 and partic.larly for those who adopt it first 44 the
elimination of almost all ca.ses for disp.teand disagreement !etween them. What constit.tes a fair
day;s
work will !e a 0.estion for scientific in+estigation, instead of a s.!2ect to !e !argained and haggled
o+er.
Soldiering will cease !eca.se the o!2ect for soldiering will no longer e7ist. The great increase in
wages
which accompanies this type of management will largely eliminate the wage 0.estion as a so.rce of
disp.te. 6.t more than all other ca.ses, the close, intimate cooperation, the constant personal
contact
!etween the two sides, will tend to diminish friction and discontent. %t is diffic.lt for two people
whose
interests are the same, and who work side !y side in accomplishing the same o!2ect, all day long, to
keep
.p a 0.arrel.

The low cost of prod.ction which accompanies a do.!ling of the o.tp.t will ena!le the companies
who
adopt this management, partic.larly those who adopt it first, to compete far !etter than they were
a!le to
!efore, and this will so enlargetheir markets that their men will ha+e almost constant work e+en in
d.ll
times,and that they will earn larger profits at all times.

This means increase in prosperity and dimin.tion in po+erty, not only for theirmen !.t for the whole
comm.nity immediately aro.nd them.

3s one of the elements incident to this great gain in o.tp.t, each workman has !een systematically
trained
to his highest state of efficiency, and has !een ta.ght to do a higher class of work than he was a!le
to do
.nder the old types of management5 and at the same time he has ac0.ired a friendly mental attit.de
toward his employers and his whole working conditions, whereas !efore a considera!le part of his
time
was spent in criticism, s.spicio.s watchf.lness, and sometimes in open warfare. This direct gain to
all of
those working .nder the system is witho.t do.!t the most important single element in the whole
pro!lem.

%s not the reali1ation of res.lts s.ch as these of far more importance than thesol.tion of most of the
pro!lems which are now agitating !oth the English and 3merican peoples> 3nd is it not the d.ty of
those
who are ac0.ainted with these facts, to e7ert themsel+es to make the whole comm.nity reali1e this
importance>

&(TES8

1. The writer has tried to make the reason for this .nfort.nate state of things clear in a paper entitled
/Shop Management,/ read !efore the 3merican Society of Mechanical Engineers./

E. For e7ample, the records containing the data .sed .nder scientific management in an ordinary
machine4shop fill tho.sands of pages.

<. See foot4note at foot of page @=."i.e. note I$

I. Many people ha+e 0.estioned the acc.racy of the statement that first4class worl.nen can load IG
1HE
tons of pig iron from the gro.nd on to a car in a day. For those who are skeptical, therefore, the
following
data relating to this work are gi+en8
First. That o.r e7periments indicated the e7istence of the following law8 that a first4class la!orer,
s.ited to s.ch work as handling pig iron, co.ld !e .nder load only IE per cent of the day and m.st
!e free
from load AF per cent of the day.
Second. That a man in loading pig iron from piles placed on the gro.nd in an open field on to a
ear
which stood on a track ad2oining these piles, o.glit to handle "and that they did handle reg.larly$ IG
1HE
long tons "EEI= po.nds per ton$ per day.
That the price paid for loading this pig iron was < H1= cents per ton, and that the men working at
it
a+eraged J1.FA per day, whereas, in the past, they !ad !een paid only J1.1A per day.
%n addition to these facts, the following are gi+en8
IG 1HE long tons e0.al 1=@,I== po.nds of pig iron per day.
3t E po.nds per pig, e0.als 11A@ pigs per day.
IE per cent of a day .nder load e0.als @== min.tes5 m.ltiplied !y =.IE e0.als EAE min.tes .nder
load.
EAE min.tes di+ided !y 11A@ pigs e0.als =.EE min.tes per pig .nder load.
3 pig4iron handler walks on the le+el at the rate of one foot in =.==@ min.tes. The a+erage
distance of
the piles of pig iron from the car was <@ feet. %tis a fact, howe+er, that many of the pig4iron handlers
ran
with their pig as soon as they reached the inclined plank. Many of them also wo.ld r.n down the
plank
after loading the car. So that when the act.al loading went on, many of them mo+ed at a faster rate
than is
indicated !y the a!o+e fig.res.
Practically the men were made to take a rest, generally !y sitting down, after loading ten to
twenty
pigs. This rest was in addition to the time which it took them to walk !ack from the car to the pile. %t
is
likely that many of thosewho are skeptical a!o.t the possi!ility of loading this amo.nt of pig iron do
not
reali1e that while these men were walking !ack they were entirely free from load, and that therefore
their
m.scles had, d.ring that time, the opport.nity forrec.peration. %t will !e noted that with an a+erage
distance of <@ feet of the pig iron from the car, these men walked a!o.t eight miles .nder load each
day
and eight miles free from load.
%f any one who is interested in these fig.res will m.ltiply them and di+ide them, one into the
other, in
+ario.s ways, he will find that all of the facts stated check .p e7actly.

A. See paper read !efore the 3merican Society of Mechanical Engineers, !y Fred.W. Taylor, Kol.
RK%, p.
FA@, entitled /Piece 'ate System./

@. Time and again the e7perimenter in the mechanic arts will find himself face to face with the
pro!lem as
to whether he had !etter make immediate practical .se of the knowledge which he has attained, or
wait
.ntil some positi+e finality in his concl.sions has !een reached. -e recogni1es clearly the fact that
he has
already made some definite progress, !.t sees the possi!ility "e+en the pro!a!ility$ of still f.rther
impro+ement. Each partic.lar case m.st of co.rse he independently considered, !.t the general
concl.sion we ha+e reached is that in most instances it is wise to p.t one;s concl.sions as soon as
possi!le
to the rigid test of practical .se. The one indispensa!le condition for s.ch a test, howe+er, isthat the
e7perimenter shall ha+e f.ll opport.nity, co.pled with s.fficient a.thority, to ins.re a thoro.gh and
impartial trial. 3nd this, owing to the almost .ni+ersal pre2.dice in fa+or of the old, and to the
s.spicion
of the new, is diffic.lt to get.

G. First. The de+elopment of a tr.e science. Second. The scientific selection of the workman. Third.
-is
scientific ed.cation and de+elopment. Fo.rth. %ntimatefriendly cooperation !etween the
management and
the men.